MODELLING RELAYS FOR USE IN POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION STUDIES MS. Sachdev ‘TS. Sidhu University of Saskatchewan, Canada IntRoDuCTION Computer models of relays can play @ major sole in evaluating the performance of protection systems during fystem fale and other disturbances, Utility engineers, Consultants and aeademies have sed relay models for & Jong time (1-4). Unfortunately, the modeling of numerical relays, in many cases, consisted of reproducing the algritim use to calculate phasors and ‘se them in implementing the relay logic (1). Fr other relays, some models consisted of using the relationships between the phisor of voltages and. currents [5] heres other models included more details ofthe relay bardvare and software (23) ‘The purpose for which utility engincers and ‘manufscurers can use relay models is outlined inthis paper. The various components of relays that should be Included inthe models ae then identified. The reasons {or modeling ech component are reviewed, The issue fof modelling wansducors ig discussed as well Procedures for modelling signal conditioning filers and analog to digital converters are outlined. ‘Techniques Tr computing phasor are briefly discussed. Procedures for developing phasor and wansient models and their possible applications for protection studies are ‘eseribed. Before these issues are addressed, the types of models and the circumstances in which they could be sed are reviewed ‘TvPis oF RELAY MoneLs ‘The relay modes used at this me can be divided in two) categories. The models ofthe first category consider the fundamental frequency components of voliages and currents only. High level languages and, fundamental frequency load flow and fault analyse programs are ‘used in conjunction with these models. The models of the second category take in 10 consideration high frequency and decaying de components of voliages and currents in addition to the fundamental frequency components (2 USING RELAY Mopsts Usity engineers and consultants can use models for analyzing the performance of relays when they might Appear to ether operate incomectly or fil to operate on the occurence of fault. Manufactrers can ase models for expediting the process of developing relays Blecri power ules can use computer-based relay ‘models to confirm how the relays would perform during system disturbances and normal operating conditions ‘They could use relay models in conjunction with power tem analysis programs, including the electromagnetic transient analysis types, for relay aplication and investigation studies. Finally the software models could be used as aining tool for young and inexperienced engineers and technicians When a relay is tested physically in a laboratory, the final decision and time to make that decision become available. In case the relay fled to operate, the test ‘usually would not indicate how close the relay came to ‘making a trip decision. Similarly, ifthe relay tripped, the test would not indicate bow far the relay excesded the threshold. On the other hand, if @ computer based model ofthe relay were used, the relay engineer could investigate the performance ofthe relay in much more detail than the details provided by physical tests, ‘Traditionally, manufacturers designed new relays, built protoypes and then tested them to evaluate their performance, Based on the ress, designs would be ‘modified, prototypes altered and tess repeated unt the prototype performed satisfactorily Exhaustive tests can be undertaken without building protrypes if suitable computer-based relay models and Sppropriate test data ae availabe. When this approach is adopted, the building of a protrype and confirming the relay performance could be poriponed until the stugies conducted with the model indicate that the design is satisfactory. This approach is likely to decrease the development costs and the time’ for finalizing the design COMPONENTS TO BE MODELLED ‘A prudent relay model should include appropriate ‘models of atleast the following components. 2. Voltage wansformers (@ Curren ransformers Signal conditioning hardware (or solid-state and ‘numerical relays) @ Analog to digital converters (for numeiial relays) 1 Phasor calculators (for numerical relays) and ‘waveform generators (for solid state relays) Relay dynamics model (for eleewomechanial relays) 1 Logie module ‘Transducers Relays can not use volages and currents ofthe system level, their levels are, therefore, reduced by using teanséucers. In North America, system voltage levels ae reduced 10 120 V (nominal) and system current levels are reduced to $A (sominal) in Europe and in many counris of other continents, the system volage and current levels are reduced to 240 V (nominal vale) Developments in Power System Protection, Conference Publication No.479 © IEE 2001 623snd 1A (nominal yalue) respectively. The level reduction of the primary signals can be modeled by ‘Using the transformation ratios. This approseh is vali for presenting the system vollages and currents from & few Hato several kilo Hz frequency range. Unfortunately, eurent wansformer saturate sometimes: their magnetic behaviour, therefore, must be modeled if the effect ofthe wansients caused by ct stration ae (0 ‘be taken into consideration. Similarly, ouputs of capacitive voltage transformers include transients when the system vollage changes suddenly. Appropriate models ofthe wansformers must be used to take into account the impact they would have ‘on the performance of the relay being modelled. Modelling Signal Conditioning Filters Signal conditioning fers are used in solid-state and ‘numerical relays for removing high frequency components fom voltages and curens. Inthe solid State relays, this approach allows the inpot waveforms to be processed as if they were of the fundamental frequency ony. In numerical relays, these filers ensure that the high frequency components of voltages and ccurents do. aot. alias as fundamental frequency Components. For obtaining proper results from relay models, these filters should be adequately modelled ‘The procedure consists ofthe following steps. 1. Determine the tamfer_ function and. ctotf frogcney ofthe analog ites Tis would be in the form of a equation i the Laplce Transform onain The cutoff froqency of the dist fiter to represemt the analog fier soald be determined wing fore warping effec.” The flowing Equation canbe wed fr this prose. 9, = Ftn'[3"] ® 3. Using he tans funtion of he ansog fer and the cova foquncy £2, determine the constants of te ites. 4. Convert the taser funtion from the Laplace ‘Tansfomn doin to te 2-Trunform éonain One of the methods hat can be sed for this Dupo its blnetrtasformaon tat ons of replcing the Laplace operator wih [=< logan SS . Some ie. sy en ice Etectromechanical and sola relays process the analog waveforms of voltages and currents. The 524 numerical relays covert the analog information to numerical data representing the waveforms. This is done by using Anslog-o-Digital converters (AID). ‘The process canbe divide, fr the purpose of modeling, in {wo distinct stages, sampling nd quantizing. ‘The frst stage creates a sequence sn) by sampling the signal) at regular intervals of ATs, This process is ‘usually considered accurate and is represented by infinite pression, The second stage converts each value of the sequence sin) to 4 number of finite bits and generates the sequence syn). Because finite number of bits are used to represent numbers in sm) a small part ofthe analog signal is not considered. The quantizer characteristic ‘when rounding is used is shown in Figure 1, The difference s(n) ~ s(n), called conversion nose, has & ‘mean valve of zero and ranges between £ 0.5 LSB, ‘To include the impact of noise on the performance of lhe relay, AD converts should be properly modelled ‘The quantization ofa signal of v vols applied to an AD converter, which bandles inputs in the range from -Vay {0 +¥o vols, can be modelled by using the following uations. 2 = Ronl 2] ® Quo = Ron{ 220" o Equation 3 should be used for positive levels of the ‘input and Equation 4 should be used for negative levels of inputs. ‘Coverurinc PHASORS Many system analysis programs provide phasors of voltages and cotents when energy flow, fault analysis for stability studies ae conducted. If’ model uses phasors for determining the relay performance, the Information provided by these programs can be usediretly t verify the performance of the relay However, some programs provide numerical values of voltages and curents at pre-specified instants of tine. Tn some situations it might be necessary to conver this information to phasors. Also, some algorithms of numerical relays convert sampled and quantized values representing voltages and currents to phasors. Several techniques for computing phasors have been Suggested; Discrete Fourier Transform remains the mort ‘commonly used approach at this time. Some of the fother techniques are the Least Squares, Kalman fikering, Wavelet analysis approaches. Details ofthese techniges ae availble in the lteratre (S] and are ‘outside the preview ofthis paper ‘Puasor BASED Monet ‘The coordination of invers-time induction aise over- current relays can be checked by using. phasors of currents because these relays do not make decisions uring the inal transients of faults. Two approaches fan be used for modeling the performance of these relays. One approach is (© model the characteristics of the relays [6]. The second approach is to model the has Ro> hast RNa o Im ye Re [Figure 2 A typical characteristic ofa quad relay ‘Waverora Bast MopeLs Solidstate distance relays make decisions by checking the phase displacement between the operating sigal ‘and the polarizing signal. One technique checks forthe coincidence of two signals as shown in Figure 3. The ‘waveforms correspond tothe phasors used (0 implement rho charciersucs. The performance of such a cchiracersic canbe modelled by performing. the following steps. 1. Take the dats ffom the entp program and filter it using the digital equivalents of the filters used in the relay, 2 Advance the caret waveform by the pase angle ofthe ine ingen. 3. Amplify the wavefom by a factor [Z| and sobnc the values ofthe wotage waveform, 4, Deteine the zero comings of this waveform and the voltage waveform, 5. Check for coincidence,igure 3. Waveform of operating and polarizing ‘signals for a ho relay ‘The relay operates one quater eycle after the stat ofthe coincidence ‘MODELLING DYNAMICS OF RELAYS In many cases, it becomes necessary 10 model the dynamics of relays. An example in which the dynamics of an elecuomeckanial relay unit must be modelled is the induction eup stance relay, Ths i not as simple 2s the modeling ofan inverse-time induction dis relay. Since these relays operate in one to tyes cycles, the ‘wansients can not be ignored, One ofthe methods that ‘ean be used 19 model the dynamics ofthese relays isthe State space approach (8). APrLicaTioNs Relay models hve been used in industry for quite some time, Three cases are briefly reviewed in his section, SaskPower, an clectic energy ality in the Province of Saskatchewan (Canada), used relay models for investigating the application of relays on their ‘wansmission system [9]. The eelays in these cases were polarized distance relays for phase fault and round fault protecion. The details of the models were provided by the manufactarers of the relays, [BC Hyaro, an electric enersy utlty in the Province of ‘Bniish Columbia (Canada), ued relay models in the studies for applying relays to protect thet distribution systems [3], The use of models reduced the work and increated the confidence in the selected relays forthe applications. Deiled relay models were prepared at the Univesity fof Saskatchewan for determining if a relaying function ‘could be implemented ona sclocted DSP chip (10). The ‘mode! incladed deals of commands that the DSP chip would have to perform. Execution of all commands, ineluding fetch and store operations, were simulated and the time required to perform those commands. were etermined. Coxctustons ‘Tw types of relay models have been identified in this paper, ‘The sope and the circumstances in which these model could be used have been reviewed. Escental ‘components of relay models have been identified. The 526 ‘reasons fr detailed modelling of transducers have been ‘outlined. Techniques for modeling signal condoning filters and A/D converters have been reviewed, Issues ‘of computing phasors, use of phasorbased models, ‘modelling flay characeristies, - wavefom:based ‘modelling and relay dynamics have been discuses Firally, tee applicaion of relay models have been escribed REFERENCES (1) MS. Sachdev, J. Singh and RJ. Fleming, “Mathematical” Models Representing Time- (Current Characteristics of Overcurent Relays for ‘Computer Applications", IEEE PES Winter ‘Meeting, New York, JanJFeb. 1978, Pub. No. 78 (CHI 295-5 PWR, Paper No, ATB-131-5, pp. 8. MS. Sachdev, M. Nagpal and T, Ady, "Iterative software for evaluating and teaching digital re laying algorithms, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 5,No. 1, Jan 1989, pp. 34652, J. B. Mooney, D. Hav, F. Plumptre and C. Henle “Computer Models Simplify Relay Application Studies", Wester Protective Relay Conference, Washington State University, 1993. . G. McLaen, £. N. Disks, RP. Jayasinghe,G. ‘W, Swift, Z Zhang, "Using a Real Time Digit Simulator to develop an accurate model of Digital Rely,” ICDS'95, College Station, Texas, USA. Sachdev, MS. (Coordinator), Advancement in Microprocessor-based Protection and Commonication, IEEE Tutorial Course Text, 97TPI20.0, 1997, pp. 127 4, Singh, MS. Sachdev, RJ. Fleming and A. 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