10 1109@ieeestd 2011 5744556

IEEE Guide for Identifying and Improving
Voltage Quality in Power Systems
IEEE Power & Energy Society
Sponsored by the
Transmission and Distribution Committee
IEEE
3 Park Avenue IEEE Std 1250-2011
New York, NY 10016-5997 (Revision of
USA IEEE Std 1250-1995
31 March 2011
Authorized licensed use limited to: BOSTON UNIVERSITY. Downloaded on September 15,2014 at 13:50:44 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE Std 1250TM-2011
(Revision of
IEEE Std 1250-1995)

Sponsor
Transmission and Distribution Committee
of the
IEEE Power & Energy Society
Approved 31 March 2011

IEEE-SA Standards Board
Approved 25 July 2012
American National Standards Institute
Abstract: The use of some electrical equipment attached to typical power systems creates
voltage quality concerns. There is an increasing awareness that some equipment is not designed
to withstand the surges, faults, distortion, and reclosing duty present on typical utility distribution
systems. Traditional concerns about steady-state voltage levels and light flicker due to voltage
fluctuation also remain. These concerns are addressed by this guide by documenting typical
levels of these aspects of voltage quality and indicating how to improve them. Other documents
that treat these subjects in more detail are referenced.
Keywords: benchmarking, disturbance analyzers, faults, harmonic distortion, IEEE 1250, light
flicker, momentary voltage disturbances, noise, performance, power conditioners, susceptible
equipment, surge protection, surges, voltage fluctuation, voltage quality
Some of the material used in this standard comes from documents produced by EPRI:
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accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in the Material.
Additionally, EPRI assumes no liability with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting
from, the use of the Material.
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Copyright 2011 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

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Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std 1250-2011, IEEE Guide for Identifying and Improving Voltage
Quality in Power Systems.
This guide was developed out of an increasing awareness of the incompatibility of some modern electronics
equipment with a normal power system environment. Simply put, much new user equipment is not
designed to withstand the surges, faults, distortion, and reclosing duty present on typical electric utility
distribution systems or within the users facility.
Notice to users
Laws and regulations

Users of these documents should consult all applicable laws and regulations. Compliance with the
provisions of this guide does not imply compliance to any applicable regulatory requirements.
Implementers of the guide are responsible for observing or referring to the applicable regulatory
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iv
Copyright 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.
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Patents
Attention is called to the possibility that implementation of thisguide may require use of subject matter
covered by patent rights. By publication of thisguide, no position is taken with respect to the existence or
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v
Participants
At the time this guide was submitted to the IEEE-SA Standards Board for approval, the Voltage Quality
Working Group had the following membership:
Dennis Hansen, Chair

Russ Ehrlich, Vice Chair
Fred Hensley, Secretary
Adeoti Adediran Bill Howe Paulo Ribeiro

Art Arneson John Kennedy Dan Sabin
Richard Bingham Albert Keri Andrew Sagl
Math Bollen Scott Lacy Bob Saint
Reuben Burch Kevin Little Kenneth Sedziol
Gary Chang David Luprek Mark Stephens
Randy Collins Mark McGranaghan Michael Swearingen
Bill Garlatz Bill Moncrief Rao Thallam
Erich Gunther David Mueller Timothy Unruh
Mark Halpin Marty Page James Wikston
Paul Hodges Dean Philips Charles Williams
Randy Horton Brian Wong
The following members of the balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have voted for
approval, disapproval, or abstention.
William J. Ackerman Dennis Hansen Bob Saint

Ali Al Awazi Jeffrey Hauber Bartien Sayogo
G. Bartok Lee Herron Kenneth Sedziol
Richard Bingham Werner Hoelzl Suresh Shrimavle
Oscar Bolado E. Horgan Gil Shultz
Chris Brooks Innocent Kamwa James Smith
Gustavo Brunello Yuri Khersonsky Jerry Smith
William Byrd James Kinney Aaron Snyder
Terry Chapman Joseph L. Koepfinger John Spare
Arvind K. Chaudhary Jim Kulchisky Gary Stoedter
James Cleary Saumen Kundu K. Stump
Michael Coddington Chung-Yiu Lam Michael Swearingen
Terry Conrad Greg Luri John M. Teixeira
Luis Coronado Jerry Murphy John Toth
Alireza Daneshpooy Michael S. Newman Joe Uchiyama
Gary Donner Joe Nims Eric Udren
Randall Dotson Carl Orde Timothy Unruh
Michael Doyle Lorraine Padden Raul Velazquez
Donald Dunn Bansi Patel John Vergis
Gearold O. H. Eidhin M. Pehosh Ilia Voloh
Gary Engmann Percy Pool Carl Wall
Fredric Friend Ulrich Pohl William H. Walter
Waymon Goch Iulian Profir John Wang
Edwin Goodwin Michael Roberts Daniel Ward
Thomas Grebe Charles Rogers Lee Welch
Randall Groves Thomas Rozek Charles Williams
Donald Hall D. Daniel Sabin Larry Young
Daryl Hallmark Xi Zhu
vi
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this standard on 31 March 2011, it had the following
membership:
Richard H. Hulett, Chair

John Kulick, Vice Chair
Robert Grow, Past Chair
Judith Gorman, Secretary
Masayuki Ariyoshi Paul Houz Jon Rosdahl

William Bartley Jim Hughes Sam Sciacca
Ted Burse David Law Mike Seavey
Clint Chaplin Thomas Lee Curtis Siller
Wael Diab Hung Ling Phil Winston
Jean-Philippe Faure Oleg Logvinov Howard Wolfman
Alex Gelman Ted Olsen Don Wright
Gary Robinson
*Member Emeritus
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:
Satish Aggarwal, NRC Representative

Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative
Michael Janezic, NIST Representative
Don Messina
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Document Development
Matthew J. Ceglia
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Technical Program Development
vii
Contents
1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 1
2. The power system ....................................................................................................................................... 1
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1

2.2 Overview of power systems................................................................................................................. 2
3. Identifying voltage quality in power systems ............................................................................................. 5
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 5

3.2 Basic types of voltage quality variations ............................................................................................. 5
3.3 Steady-state (continuous) voltage quality characteristics .................................................................... 6
3.4 Disturbances ...................................................................................................................................... 20
3.5 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 25
4. Electric utilities and voltage quality ......................................................................................................... 25
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 25

4.2 Steady-state voltage quality in utilities .............................................................................................. 25
4.3 Utility system disturbances ................................................................................................................ 28
4.4 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 30
5. Susceptibility of power system loads ....................................................................................................... 31
5.1 Types of susceptible loads ................................................................................................................. 31

5.2 Ride-through capability ..................................................................................................................... 33
6. Power quality improvements for end users .............................................................................................. 34
6.1 End user wiring and grounding.......................................................................................................... 34

6.2 Premium power solutions .................................................................................................................. 35
6.3 End-user power conditioning (within the facility) ............................................................................. 37
6.4 Controlling harmonics ....................................................................................................................... 44
6.5 Surge protective devices (SPDs)........................................................................................................ 46
6.6 Special considerations for variable frequency drives (VFDs) ........................................................... 46
6.7 Special considerations for residential loads ....................................................................................... 47
6.8 Economic analysis of power conditioning alternatives...................................................................... 47
Annex A (informative) Glossary .................................................................................................................. 49
Annex B (informative) Bibliography............................................................................................................ 52
viii
IMPORTANT NOTICE: This standard is not intended to assure safety, security, health, or
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This IEEE document is made available for use subject to important notices and legal disclaimers. These
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They can also be obtained on request from IEEE or viewed at http://standards.ieee.org/IPR/disclaimers.html.
1. Overview
1.1 Scope
The reader of this guide will find discussions of ways to identify and improve voltage quality in power
systems, as well as references to publications in this area. More specifically, this guide includes:
a) Voltage quality levels from benchmarking studies

b) Factors that affect power system performance
c) Mitigation measures that improve power system performance
d) References to current relevant in-depth IEEE standards and other documents
This guide only addresses subjects in depth where no other power quality reference does so. It is a
gateway document for power quality that points the way to other documents in this field.
1.2 Purpose
The primary purpose in writing this guide is to assist power delivery system designers and operators in
delivering power with voltage quality that is compatible with electrical end-use equipment. Another
purpose is to point utility system customers toward power quality solutions that may exist in the power
utilization system and equipment.
2. The power system
2.1 Introduction
This subclause describes typical utility power systems. Understanding the basics of power system design
and operation is helpful in understanding the voltage quality characteristics described in Clause 3. Voltage
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
IEEE Guide for Identifying and Improving Voltage Quality in Power Systems
quality characteristics can be affected at various levels of a power system. Electricity is typically generated
and delivered at either 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
2.2 Overview of power systems
Power systems are usually thought of as having three main divisions: generation, transmission, and
distribution. Figure 1 is an oversimplified diagram of a typical U.S. electric power system. In reality, there
are many exceptions such as the fact that some large industrial customers are actually served by substations
directly from the transmission system and some small generators may feed directly into the distribution
system.
Figure 1The electric power system

Interconnection of the generation, transmission, and distribution systems takes place in an electrical
substation. Substations may include transformers that raise or lower the voltage depending on the need. A
substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the current, whereas a step-
down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for distribution. Electric power may
flow through several substations between generating plants and consumers, and it may be changed in
voltage several times.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
The generation and transmission components are typically connected in an interconnected grid fashion.
Within the grid, the transmission lines transport bulk power for long distances that typically cross
multiple service territories and multiple utilities. Figure 2 shows a simple transmission system, referred to
as a transmission network, illustrating how most of the substation buses have more than one source. In most
circumstances, the loss of a single line or generator should not cause overloads within the remaining
network. This offers a high degree of reliability because power can be maintained to most buses even with
the loss of a line or source.
Figure 2Transmission network showing generators, substations,

and line sections
Distribution lines (commonly called primaries) are usually not interconnected but are designed in a radial
fashion except in some cities that use a mesh distribution scheme. Radial distribution systems consist of a
source originating at a substation in which the system voltage is stepped down (Figure 3). The distribution
bus has breakers that feed lines (feeders) that carry the power to many customers in an area. There are
usually line protective components (reclosers and fuses) downstream of the substation breaker on
distribution lines. These components create situations in which only a portion of the distribution line may
need to be de-energized to clear a fault (short circuit), thereby saving many customers on the line from
experiencing interruptions unnecessarily.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 3Distribution substation and example of recloser and fuses along line
Power system voltages are typically expressed in line-to-line kV. The line-to-line voltage is 1.732 times the
line-to-neutral voltage on wye systems. Practically all generation and transmission is three phase.
Distribution lines typically leave the substation as three phase and may proceed that way for several miles.
But they may also have lateral tap lines that are only providing two phases or even a single phase,
depending on the loads being served. Electrical services to customers may be from the transmission or the
distribution system. Table 1 describes the various components and typical voltage ranges of the utility
system.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Table 1 Common parts of the power system

Converts sources of energy such as fuel, falling water, or nuclear
Generation
material to electricity.
Bulk power transport connecting generating stations to substations
Transmission
serving load areas.
Generally 230 kV to 765 kV.
Long lines with few, if any, taps or customer connections.
May be overhead or underground; underground circuits are short
because of charging current limitations.
Loading limits for lines and loading areas including normal, long-term
emergency, and short-term emergency limits.
Loading may be limited by system stability, voltage control, or
conductor temperature.
Loading follows a cycle with time of day, season, and weather.
Not distinguished in many systems; lower level bulk power
Subtransmission
connecting transmission and distribution substations.
Generally 46 kV to 161 kV.
May serve large loads directly.
Distribution Local connections to supply customers or groups of customers.
4 kV to 35 kV.
Short lines with many taps, laterals, or branches; direct customer
connections; may be reconfigured from time to time.
Loading is especially variable as customers turn devices ON and OFF.
May be overhead or underground, with underground especially in
urban or new residential areas.
A significant goal related to the operation of the utility power system is to provide reliable power with a
minimum number of interruptions. The utility systems are designed to isolate problem areas quickly and to
interrupt as few customers as possible. The system protection schemes must quickly identify a faulted line
section and then trip or open the proper isolating component to cause the fewest number of customers to
experience the loss of power.
3. Identifying voltage quality in power systems
3.1 Introduction
This subclause describes expected voltage quality characteristics at various levels of a power system.
Methods of describing the voltage quality characteristics are presented along with example benchmarking
results. Important characteristics that may impact the voltage quality characteristics are also described.
3.2 Basic types of voltage quality variations
It is useful to divide voltage quality characteristics into two basic categories.
Steady-state (continuous) voltage quality characteristics. This refers to the quality of the normal voltage
supplied to a facility. How much can the voltage magnitude vary from the nominal value? How distorted is
the voltage? What is the imbalance among the three-phase voltages? What is the magnitude, frequency, and
angle of each phase? All of these characteristics can be quantified, and limits for the variations can be
developed.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Disturbances (including reliability). This refers to voltage quality variations that occur at random
intervals and are not associated with the continuous characteristics of the voltage. The variations include
sustained interruptions (reliability), momentary interruptions, voltage sags (and swells), and transients. All
of these disturbances can impact a facility, depending on the equipment susceptibility and investments that
have been made in power conditioning.
Each of these two basic categories has indices associated with it. Indices provide the foundation for
characterizing the supply system voltage quality levels in a consistent manner. Indices can be used to
establish baselines of performance as a function of system characteristics. The following subclauses
describe indices that can be used to describe voltage quality levels in both of these major categories along
with example benchmarking results that can provide the basis for establishing targets and limits.
3.3 Steady-state (continuous) voltage quality characteristics
Steady-state power quality characteristics must meet minimum requirements to assure the proper operation
of equipment. The basic concepts of compatibility levels are established in IEC 61000-2-2:2002 [B4].1 This
concept applies to all steady-state types of power quality. It is not as applicable to disturbances, such as
voltage sags (dips), interruptions, and transients. The normal variations of steady-state power quality
characteristics allow them to be characterized with trends over time and with statistical distributions. The
statistical nature of these characteristics lends them to being represented by specific statistical levels. For
instance, the limits in EN 50160-1999 [B2] for steady-state power quality are evaluated at the 95%
probability level. Recent discussions have indicated that other probability levels may also be appropriate
for fully characterizing performance.
Figure 4 illustrates the concept that applies for steady-state power quality characteristics. The power quality
performance of the supply system is characterized statistically, and this can be compared with the statistical
characteristics of the equipment immunity to determine the likelihood that equipment will be affected by
the voltage quality variations. The objective is to define a voltage quality level that can be achieved with
reasonable investment in the power system and will also have a low probability of causing equipment
problems. This level is called the compatibility level. It is defined with statistics. As indicated previously,
a typical way of defining the compatibility level for performance evaluations is the level that can be
exceeded only 5% of the time (95% probability that the level will not be exceeded).
Figure 4Concept of compatibility levels for the electric supply system and the
immunity characteristics of equipment
1
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex B.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 5 illustrates the concept of the compatibility level compared to a time trend of a steady-state
voltage quality characteristic (for example, harmonic distortion). Other important voltage quality levels are
also shown in both Figure 4 and Figure 5.
Disturbance magnitude
Equipment immunity test levels
Compatibility level
Utility planning levels
Assessed level
time
Figure 5Important concepts for evaluation of the steady-state voltage quality
characteristics of the supply system
Equipment damage levelThis is the level of quality that may pose a threat to equipment health if it is
exceeded. Such conditions are important to identify when they occur and to prevent if possible. Examples
may include harmonic resonance, ferroresonance, high neutral currents, conditions that may cause
overheating, and so on. There should be some margin between the compatibility level for the supply and
the equipment damage level.
Equipment immunity levelThis is the level of quality that may affect equipment performance if it is
exceeded. It is also defined statistically. There should be some margin between the compatibility level for
the supply and the equipment immunity level.
Alarm levelThis is the level of quality at which notification will occur (i.e., the level at which an
investigation or other response may be warranted). The alarm level should be above the planning level but
below equipment immunity, equipment damage, and safety levels.
Planning levelThis is the level of quality that the electric utility establishes as its design objective.
Usually, the planning level is defined at some level below the compatibility level to help assure that the
actual compatibility level will not be exceeded. For instance, the compatibility level for harmonic voltage
distortion might be 8%, but the planning level might be 5% to help make sure that the 8% level is not
exceeded.
Assessed levelThis is the actual level existing on the system, usually based on measurements. For
instance, the evaluation of performance for the European standards requires measurements over a 1 week
period and then the assessed level for comparison with the minimum performance requirements (based on
the compatibility levels) is the level that is exceeded for 5% of the measurements (one measured value
every 10 min).
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
We are interested in defining the steady-state power quality levels that should allow proper operation of
virtually all customer equipment. Thus, if these power quality levels are met at the supply point, the steady-
state quality should be considered acceptable and should not result in customer problems. There is little
value to providing even better power quality if these levels are not likely to cause problems. Extremely
susceptible equipment that requires even better quality justifies special power conditioning and should not
be the basis of the overall system requirements.
Recommendations for these minimum requirements for the steady-state characteristics are developed in the
following subclauses. Important standards and references that are the basis of the recommendations are
cited and described as appropriate. In addition, the typical levels of these steady-state characteristics are
provided from two important sources.
The EPRI Distribution Power Quality (DPQ) project (Sabin et al. [B52] and [B53]; Sabin and
Standler [B54]) describes steady-state power quality characteristics for distribution systems in
the United States. Note that these statistics are based on the evaluation of single-cycle samples
of the three-phase voltages. These samples are then analyzed to determine the root mean square
(rms) voltage magnitudes, the imbalance, and the harmonic distortion levels. Flicker levels were
not characterized in the EPRI DPQ project. This method of evaluating steady-state power
quality characteristics is different than the method recommended in IEC 61000-4-30:2008 [B8]
and related standards. These methods use 10 min rms values as the basis for characterizing the
steady-state power quality. The 10 min calculations can involve smoothing compared with the
single-cycle samples.
In the CIGRE C4.07 Working Group Report [B36], this working group gathered survey
information describing both steady-state power quality and disturbances from systems around
the world. In general, the surveys referenced in this report used IEC methods for characterizing
performance.
The steady-state power quality levels should be evaluated using the measurement procedures outlined in
IEC 61000-4-30:2008 [B8]. This standard provides a convenient reference to make sure that all systems are
being evaluated in the same manner. The IEEE Std 1159 working group has developed a similar set of
recommended characterization procedures (IEEE Std 1159TM-2009 [B15] that are consistent with the
methods in the IEC standard.
3.3.1 Voltage regulation
The ability of equipment to handle steady-state voltage variations varies from equipment to equipment. The
steady-state voltage variation limits for equipment are usually part of equipment specifications. The
Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) specifies equipment withstand recommendations for IT
equipment according to the ITIC Curve [formerly the Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers
Association (CBEMA) curve]. The 1996 ITIC Curve specifies that equipment should be able to withstand
voltage variations within 10% (variations that last longer than 10 s).
3.3.1.1 Example limits
Voltage regulation standards in North America vary from state to state and utility to utility. The most
commonly applied standard in the United States is ANSI C84.1-2006 [B1]. Voltage regulation
requirements are defined in the following two categories.
Range A is for normal conditions, and the required regulation is 5% on a 120 V base at the
service entrance (for services above 600 V, the required regulation is 2.5% to +5%).
Range B is for short durations or unusual conditions. The allowable range for these conditions is
8.3% to +5.8%. A specific definition of these conditions is not provided.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
RANGE A RANGE B
128
(b)
Service Voltage > 600 V

124
Service Voltage 120-600 V
Service Voltage > 600 V

Service Voltage 120-600 V
Voltage (120 V Base) 120
Utilization Voltage
Utilization Voltage
116
112
(a)
108
(a)
104
Figure 6Voltage regulation requirements from ANSI C84.1-2006 [B1]

IEC 61000-2-2:2002 [B4] mentions that the normal operational tolerances are 10% of the declared
voltage. This is the basis of requirements for voltage regulation in EN 50160-1999 [B2] for the European
Community. EN 50160-1999 [B2] requires that voltage regulation [at the low-voltage (LV) point of
common coupling] be within 10% for 95% of the 10 min samples in a 1 week period. All 10 min samples
should be within 15% to +10%, excluding voltage dips.
3.3.1.2 Survey results
Figure 7 illustrates the statistics of voltage regulation levels obtained in the EPRI DPQ project. Voltage
regulation is described in this case as the range of voltage over the period of the day expressed as a percent
of nominal. The voltage regulation was not described in terms plus or minus from nominal because of
difficulties of defining the nominal voltage at different points on the distribution system. However, the
results illustrate that almost all sites achieve a total variation level within 10%. The 95% for the entire
sample of sites is a voltage regulation range of 8.5%.
3.3.1.3 Recommended limit and assessment method
Because the objective is to define minimum acceptable requirements based on an evaluation at the PCC
(realizing that the voltage variations inside a facility may be greater than the voltage variations on the
system or at the supply point), the recommended level is 5% with an evaluation at the 95% probability
level.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Distribution of Daily Range of RMS Voltage

40% 120%
35%
100%
30%
Cumulative Frequency
80%
25%
Frequency
20% 60%
15%
40%
10%
20%
5%
0% 0%
Daily RMS Voltage Range (% of Site Average Voltage)
Figure 7Voltage regulation statistics (total daily voltage variation range) from
EPRI DPQ project (1 June 1993 to 1 June 1995)
3.3.2 Voltage imbalance
Voltage imbalance causes increased heating in motors and can result in unbalanced currents and
noncharacteristic harmonics for electronic equipment like adjustable speed drives. High-efficiency motors
can be more susceptible to problems with unbalanced voltages due to lower negative sequence reactance
values.
Voltage imbalance measured as the negative sequence component of the voltage divided by the positive
sequence component is most important for motor loads and is the basis of most international standards for
imbalance.
ANSI C84.1-2006 [B1] recommends that voltage imbalance be limited to 3%. It is measured as the
maximum deviation divided by the average of the three phases. This value can be influenced by the zero
sequence voltage as well as by the negative sequence voltage. When using this method, line-to-line voltage
measurements should be used to improve the accuracy and more closely match the sequence component
method of voltage imbalance determination.
IEC 61000-2-2:2002 [B4] specifies a compatibility level of 2% for voltage imbalance, recognizing that
systems with large single-phase loads may have voltage imbalance levels as high as 3%.
EN 50160-1999 [B2] requires that utilities maintain voltage imbalance less than 2% for 95% of the 10 min
samples in 1 week. For systems with significant single-phase loads, the imbalance can be as high as 3%.
Negative sequence voltage imbalance statistics from the EPRI DPQ project are given in Figure 8. It shows
that the 95% level for negative sequence imbalance over all the sites in the project was about 1.3%.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 8Voltage imbalance statistics (entire data set for all sites) from EPRI DPQ
project (1 June 1993 to 1 June 1995)
The CIGRE C4.07/CIRED Working Group [B36] gathered survey data from around the world. Only a few
surveys actually compiled information about imbalance, but the results are still informative for developing
a recommended minimum performance level. Figure 9 illustrates the results (95% probability level over
1 week of measurements at each site) for the different system voltage levels. The medium voltage (MV)
results are most interesting. In this case, none of the sites had an imbalance level exceeding 2% at the 95%
probability level.
3.3.2.3 Recommended limit and assessment method
The CIGRE working group recommends that the 95% value for weekly measurements of the 10 min
imbalance values be used for comparison with recommended imbalance limits (voltage characteristics).
The most commonly used value for this characteristic is 2%. It seems to be a value that is very achievable
and also has minimal consequences for customer equipment applied at low voltage. Equipment applied at
medium voltage might have more stringent requirements for voltage balance.
3.3.3 Voltage distortion
Harmonic distortion in the supply voltage results in increased heating in transformers, motors, capacitors,
and conductors. This increased heating is usually the most important effect. However, voltage distortion in
the supply system can excite resonances and overload customer power factor correction equipment.
Sensitivity of customer equipment to voltage distortion may be dependent on both the magnitude of the
distortion levels and the specific harmonic components. For instance, transformer eddy current losses
increase with approximately the square of the frequency.
Very short-term effects of harmonics can include the misoperation of electronic controls or the operation of
uninterruptible power supplies. There may be a need for limits on the short-term harmonics as well as on
the long-term levels that cause heating.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
30%
Percentage of sites per voltage level

25% MV : 99 sites
20% HV : 76 sites
EHV: 25 sites
15%
10%
5%
0%
0-0,1
0,2-0,3
0,4-0,5
0,6-0,7
0,8-0,9
1-1,1
1,2-1,3
1,4-1,5
1,6-1,7
1,8-1,9
2-2,1
Uneg.sh95 weekly values
NOTEThe use of commas is the European convention instead of the U.S. decimal point convention.2
Figure 9Measurement data for voltage unbalance at MV, high voltage (HV),
and extremely high voltage (EHV)all sites
(CIGRE C4.07/CIRED Report [B36])
IEEE Std 519TM-1992 [B12] recommends voltage distortion limits of 5% for the total harmonic distortion
(THD) and 3% for individual harmonic components. Measurement procedures for evaluation of
performance with respect to these limits are not provided, but generally it is considered that these limits
would be applied at the 95% probability level.
IEC 61000-2-2:2002 [B4] specifies harmonic distortion compatibility levels that are dependent on the
harmonic order. The compatibility level for the voltage THD is 8%. The compatibility levels for individual
harmonic voltages in low-voltage networks (rms values as a percent of the rms value of the fundamental
component)from IEC 61000-2-2:2002 [B4] are shown in Table 2.
2
Notes in text, tables, and figures of a standard are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement
this standard.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Table 2 Harmonic compatibility levels
These compatibility levels were used to develop the requirements for EN 50160-1999 [B2]. The
EN 50160-1999 [B2] requirements are applied for 95% of the 10 min samples in a 1 week period with
measurements according to IEC 61000-4-7:2009 [B6]. The EN 50160-1999 [B2] limit for voltage THD is
8%.
Table 3 Individual harmonic voltage limits from EN 50160-1999 [B2]
ODD HARMONICS EVEN HARMONICS

not multiple of 3 multiples of 3
Relative Relative Relative
Order h Voltage Order h Voltage Order h Voltage
5 6.0% 3 5.0% 2 2.0%

7 5.0% 9 1.5% 4 1.0%
11 3.5% 15 0.5% 6-24 0.5%
13 3.0% 21 0.5%
17 2.0%
19 1.5%
23 1.5%
25 1.5%
A comparison of IEEE Std 519-1992 [B12] limits with the limits from EN 50160-1999 [B2] show that the
harmonic distortion limits in Europe are considerably relaxed compared with the IEEE limits. New
revisions to IEEE Std 519-1992 [B12] address this compatibility issue, at least at low voltage interface
points. Even with the less severe limits in Europe, few problems related to harmonics are reported.
Harmonic levels were monitored in the EPRI DPQ project based on single-cycle samples rather than on
10 min values. However, the statistics for large numbers of samples are likely to be similar to the statistics
obtained with 10 min values at the system level because the changes in harmonic levels are gradual. Larger
differences could occur at individual locations with dynamic loads, such as arc furnaces.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Most of the DPQ results are reported as average harmonic levels. For instance, Figure 10 gives the
distribution of average voltage distortion levels for all the sites in the EPRI DPQ project. The average
distortion level across all the sites is 1.57%. No sites had an average voltage distortion level exceeding 5%.
However, this can be misleading because the voltage distortion limits are meant to be compared with the
95% probability level for the harmonic distortion, not the average value. Figure 11 gives the distribution of
95% probability level voltage distortion (CP95) values for all the sites in the EPRI DPQ project. In this
case, about 3% of the sites have distortion levels exceeding 5%. These cases usually involve resonance
conditions associated with power factor correction on the distribution system.
Average Voltage THD at Each Monitoring Site

18% 100%
16%
14%
Mean (SATHD): 1.57% 80%
Frequency of Sites
Standard Deviation: 0.0714%

12% 95% Confidence Interval:
1.43% to 1.71% 60%
10%
8%
40%
6%
4% 20%
2%
0% 0%
0.0
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4
3.0
3.6
4.2
4.8
5.4
6.0
VTHD (%) 6.6
Figure 10Distribution of average voltage distortion levels for all sites in the
EPRI DPQ project
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
CP95 Voltage THD at Each Monitoring Site

14% 100%
90%
12%
80%
Frequency of Sites
Mean: 2.18%
10% CP95 (STHD95): 4.03% 70%
Standard Deviation: 0.101% 60%
8% 95% Confidence Interval:
1.99% to 2.38% 50%
6% 40%
4% 30%
20%
2%
10%
0% 0%
0.0
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4
3.0
3.6
4.2
4.8
5.4
6.0
6.6
VTHD (%)
Figure 11Distribution of CP95 voltage distortion values (level not exceeded 95% of
the time) for all sites in the EPRI DPQ project
Limited survey results were collected from MV systems in the CIGRE C4.07/CIRED effort [B36]. The
results from two surveys (178 sites) are summarized in Table 4. These give the most important individual
harmonic distortion levels and are very consistent with the DPQ survey results. (Note that the use of
commas in Table 4 is the European convention instead of the U.S. decimal point convention.)
Table 4 CIGRE/C4.07 survey results
Measurement results Measurement results

Harmonic order 95%-site for Uh,sh95 max-site for Uh,sh95 Planning levels
Min Max Mean Min Max Mean

3 1,5 2,8 2,15 2 3,7 2,85 4
5 2,56 4,5 3,53 4,2 5 4,6 5
7 1,3 1,5 1,4 1,5 3,4 2,4 4
11 0,5 0,95 0,75 1 3,8 2,4 3
A survey of harmonic levels was conducted at residential locations in eight different countries in Europe
[B58]. Figure 12 gives the consolidated results from all 74 sites combined from this survey. Note that the
results are actually very consistent with the results from the EPRI DPQ project. The 95% probability level
for voltage THD across all the sites in the European survey project was 3.8%. This compares with a voltage
THD level of 4.0% at the aggregate 95% level in the EPRI DPQ project. The overall harmonic distortion
levels are very similar in the United States and Europe.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 12Results of harmonic survey at European residential locations
3.3.3.3 Recommended limits and assessment method
The IEEE Std 519-1992 [B12] recommended limit for harmonic voltage distortion levels at medium
voltage is 5% for the total harmonic distortion. Problems are not expected when voltage distortion levels
are below 6%. At low voltage, IEEE Std 519-1992 [B12] recommends a limit of 8% for total harmonic
distortion.
Individual harmonic limits are also important, especially at higher frequencies. Higher frequency voltage
harmonic components need to be limited to lower levels because of the potential duty on capacitor banks
(both on the utility distribution system and in customer systems). Also, higher voltage harmonic
components can cause the misoperation of customer equipment because of the tendency to introduce
multiple zero crossings into the voltage waveform. Specific limits for higher voltage components are not
proposed herethese will be addressed in future revisions of IEEE Std 519-1992 [B12]. The individual
harmonic limits in IEEE Std 519-1992 [B12] and in IEC standards provide some guidance.
The recommended limit is compared with the 95% probability level of the 10 min voltage distortion values
measured over at least a 1 week period.
3.3.4 Voltage fluctuations
Humans can be very susceptible to light flicker that is caused by voltage fluctuations. Human perception of
light flicker is almost always the limiting criteria for controlling small voltage fluctuations. Figure 13
illustrates the level of perception of light flicker from an incandescent bulb for rectangular variations. The
sensitivity is a function of the frequency of the fluctuations, and it is also dependent on the voltage level of
the lighting.
Perception of flicker depends on the physiology of the eyebrain of the person subjected to the luminance
fluctuation (flicker is a subjective perception).
Flicker was originally related to the behavior of a 230 V, 60 W incandescent light bulb when subjected to
voltage fluctuations. Other types of lighting may provide different fluctuation of the luminance and flicker
perception problems when subjected to the same voltage fluctuations. EPRI testing illustrated the different
characteristics of other types of lighting and developed the concept of a gain factor for the lighting for
comparison of susceptibility with that of a 60 W incandescent bulb. In this context, a lower gain factor
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
means that the fluctuation of light output from a light source is less susceptible to a given voltage
fluctuation. Figure 14 provides an example.
Figure 13Curves illustrating the level of rectangular voltage fluctuations that will
result in a Pst value of 1.0 when measured with the IEC flickermeter
Figure 14Lamp gain versus flicker frequency for fluorescent electronic and
incandescent lamps
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
3.3.4.1 Basic EMC concepts related to voltage fluctuations
The flicker levels in IEC standards and in IEEE Std 1453TM-2004 [B18] are characterized by the following
two parameters:
10 min short-term flicker severityPst: This value is obtained from a statistical analysis of
the instantaneous flicker value in a way that models incandescent lamps and the observation
of light intensity variations.
2 h long-term flicker severityPlt: This is calculated by combining 12 successive Pst
measurements using a cubic relationship.
Both of these parameters are defined along with the equipment to measure them in
IEC 61000-4-15:2010 [B7].
A human observer can tolerate a certain amount of light flicker before becoming annoyed. IEC 61000-2-
2:2002 [B4] defines this level of flicker as the compatibility level. It is important to note that compatibility
levels are defined for LV systems only (IEC 61000-3-7:2008 [B5]) where the following is true:
Short-term flicker level (Pst) is 1.0

Long-term flicker level (Plt) is 0.8
Flicker planning levels are utilized so that the overall flicker level at MV, HV, and EHV buses because of
all global flicker emissions does not result in an LV flicker level that is above the compatibility level,
thereby greatly reducing the probability of having customer complaints. Suggested planning levels for
flicker are provided in IEC 61000-3-7:2008 [B5] and IEEE Std 1453-2004 [B18]. To maintain proper
coordination, it is suggested that flicker planning levels be based on 99th percentile values.
Note that individual step changes in the voltage, such as would be caused by a motor starting or switching a
capacitor bank, are often limited separately from the continuous flicker limits. IEC 61000-2-2:2002 [B4]
specifies a compatibility level of 3% for the individual voltage variations. EN 50160-1999 [B2] specifies a
limit of 5% for these variations but mentions that more significant variations (up to 10%) can occur for
some switching events. Specific recommendations are not provided in IEEE standards, but individual
utilities usually have their own guidelines in the range of 4% to 7%.
Survey results for flicker are very limited. Most measurement campaigns evaluating flicker are performed
when there is a specific problem, and the results are, therefore, not representative of the power system in
general (most sites have very low flicker levels).
Survey results suggest that flicker levels in excess of the compatibility level have been measured at MV,
HV, and EHV without corresponding customer complaints. Research (Horton and Haskew [B40], [B41];
Renner and Sakulin [B51]) has shown that when flicker is transferred from the point of emission (i.e.,
flicker source) to other parts of a network, the flicker level tends to be reduced when going from HV or
EHV toward MV, which explains why EHV and HV flicker levels above 1.0 do not necessarily correspond
to customer complaints. Great care should be exercised whenever flicker planning levels in excess of those
specified in IEC 61000-3-7:2008 [B5] are used. To determine such planning levels, the effects of flicker
transfer coefficients should be carefully taken into account (Renner and Sakulin [B51] as well as Horton
and Haskew [B40]).
3.3.4.3 Recommended limits and assessment method
The recommended limit for flicker is Pst = 1.0 at the 95% probability level. This is consistent with the
compatibility levels in IEC 61000-2-2:2002 [B4] and is based on the actual design of the flicker meter. In
other words, this flicker limit should prevent customer complaints associated with light flicker.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
The limit is lower than the limit specified in EN 50160-1999 [B2]. However, it is an appropriate limit when
considering the philosophy of establishing a limit to prevent customer complaints rather than a limit that is
a legal requirement for the utility to meet.
The Pst level is measured with a flicker meter that complies with IEC 61000-4-15:2010 [B7] requirements.
The Pst values are calculated for 10 min intervals; 95% of these values should be below the limit in a
1 week measurement period.
3.3.5 Voltage frequency
The frequency of the voltage experienced in interconnected power systems in developed nations is tightly
controlled. Because of historic dependency of power system synchronized clocks (such as common alarm
clocks) on frequency, small deviations in this frequency are accumulated, and this accumulation is
periodically balanced back to zero. For example, at all times except during disturbances, the frequency
deviation of the voltage in the Western United States has been found not to exceed 0.015 Hz [B20].
3.3.6 Summary of steady-state voltage quality performance levels
Table 4 summarizes the recommended steady-state power quality characteristics (planning levels). All of
these are based on 10 min samples calculated according to IEC 61000-4-30:2008 [B8]. They are evaluated
based on the 95% probability level. In other words, the system should be designed so that these levels are
expected to be exceeded less than 5% of the time. Ideally, all locations on the power system should meet
these power quality levels. However, there will always be some locations that have power quality
characteristics that may exceed these levels in one or more categories. When a situation such as this is
identified, the utility should work to solve the problem (that may be caused by one or more customers or
may be related to a system condition).
It is important to remember that the voltage quality levels indicated in Table 5 can be considered normal
when measured at the point of common coupling with customer facilities, and minimum requirements may
not be defined for all categories. A customer should not assume that the voltage quality levels will be
significantly better than the levels indicated. For instance, when applying power factor correction, it is
reasonable to assume that the background harmonic distortion levels on the supply system could be as high
as 3% for individual harmonics and 5% for the total distortion. This could influence the design
requirements for power factor correction equipment within a facility.
Table 5 Summary of typical voltage quality performance expectations

(table also applies to distribution voltage)
Power quality category Planning levels
5% of nominal for normal conditions
Voltage regulation
10% of nominal for unusuala conditions
Voltage unbalance 2% negative sequence
5% total harmonic distortion
Voltage distortion
3% individual harmonic components
Pstb less than 1.0
Voltage fluctuation/flicker
Individual step changes less than 4%
Voltage frequency 0.015 Hzc
a
Unusual conditions are conditions of abnormal stress for the electric supplier such as when an essential transmission
line is out of service during a period of exceptionally heavy system loading. Such conditions are typically unplanned,
rare, and brief.
b
Pst is a measure of flicker where a value of 1.0 indicates that 50% of the people are likely to notice a flicker in a 60 W
incandescent lamp. Measurement procedures are defined in IEC 61000-4-15:2010 [B7] and have been adopted by
IEEE Std 1453-2004 [B18].
c
Typical steady-state maximum frequency deviation in an interconnected power system in North America.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
3.4 Disturbances
Disturbances are voltage quality variations that cannot be characterized with the same time trends and
statistical distributions that are used for the steady-state voltage quality characteristics. These variations
occur randomly, and each event could have an effect on customer facilities.
3.4.1 Reliability
The most commonly discussed type of disturbance is the interruption. Most utilities around the world report
on the reliability performance of the power system. A common index used to track reliability for power
systems is the System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI). For power systems in most
developed countries, average SAIFI levels are generally accepted to be in the range of 0.5 to 5.0
interruptions per year (depending on factors such as weather, underground vs. overhead systems,
networked systems vs. radial systems, etc.). This is the number of times that customers experience an actual
power interruption each year (usually defined as an interruption lasting more than 5 min). The average
SAIFI across the United States is about 1.3 interruptions per year. Typically, this index is also adjusted so
that it does not include major events that affect a significant portion of the system (the index is used to
evaluate the performance of the system for events that could possibly be avoided through system
investments, maintenance, etc.).
Although reliability indices are useful for regulators and for establishing company goals, they have limited
use to a specific customer because these are based on the entire system. It would be much more important
to get information about the expected number of interruptions where that specific customer is actually
connected to the system. The utility may be able to provide location-specific historical data about reliability
that would be more useful for evaluating the need for uninterruptible power supply (UPS) or backup
generation to protect critical operations.
Detailed information about calculating reliability indices and characterizing reliability performance are
provided in tIEEE Std 1366TM-2003 [B16].
3.4.2 Voltage sags and momentary interruptions
Facility operations can be affected by more than just long duration interruptions. Momentary voltage sags
lasting less than 100 ms are often sufficient to cause disruptions to susceptible equipment and operations
(see example in Figure 15). Even though the effect of these disturbances can be the same as long duration
interruptions, they can be more important because they occur much more frequently. These disturbances
are caused by faults on distribution circuits and transmission circuits. The interconnected nature of the
system means that faults remote from a facility can still cause a momentary voltage sag that could be
sufficient to affect operations.
Many utilities cannot provide information to customers about the expected number of voltage sags that a
customer is likely to experience. EPRI conducted a benchmarking project that provided an estimate for the
average number of voltage sags that customers experience on distribution systems across the United States.
To present the results of this extensive benchmarking project, a new index to describe voltage sag
performance was developed. It is called the System Average RMS (Variation) Frequency Index (SARFI).
This index represents the average number of voltage sags experienced by a customer each year with a
specified characteristic. For SARFIx, the index would include all of the voltage dips where the minimum
voltage was less than x. For example, SARFI70 represents the expected number of voltage sags where the
minimum voltage is less than 70% of nominal.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 15Example of a short duration voltage sag caused by a remote fault; this
voltage sag caused tripping of a plastics production line
SARFI indices become a very important consideration for many process industry customers because the
indices represent events that impact the reliability of the process. There are typically very few actual
interruptions. Therefore, voltage sags represent the most important power quality variation affecting
industrial and commercial customers. IEEE Std 493TM-1997 [B11] describes how to consider the impact of
voltage sags as part of the economic evaluation of plant reliability, as follows:
Economic evaluation of reliability begins with the establishment of an interruption

definition. Such a definition specifies the magnitude of the voltage sag and the minimum
duration of such a reduced-voltage period that results in a loss of production or other
function of the plant process.
The SARFI index that is appropriate for a facility will depend on the sensitivity of the equipment in the
facility to these voltage variations. This information may not be available without extensive monitoring and
evaluation of equipment response to actual disturbances. Figure 16, from the EPRI benchmarking project,
illustrates how the voltage sag performance is dependent on the minimum voltage level being considered.
For instance, the average for the number of voltage sags per year with a minimum voltage less than 70% is
about 18 events per year in the United States. However, if equipment could be affected by a voltage sag
with a minimum voltage of 90% (very minor voltage sag), then the number of events per year is about 50.
Obviously, the equipment sensitivity is a critical factor in the importance of these disturbances.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 16Average SARFI statistics from nationwide EPRI benchmarking project; these
show the average number of voltage sags that can be expected for a distribution system
customer in the United States as a function of the voltage sag severity
(minimum voltage magnitude)
Another way to use the SARFI index is to count all the voltage sag events that are below a specified
compatibility curve. This is referred to as the SARFI-curve approach. For example, SARFI-CBEMA
considers voltage sags and interruptions that are below the lower CBEMA curve. SARF-ITIC considers
voltage sags and interruptions that are below the lower ITIC curve. SARFI-SEMI considers voltage sags
and interruptions that are below the lower SEMI F47 curve. An example is shown in Figure 17, where each
recorded sag is indicated as one point in the magnitude-duration plot (note that magnitude is used here as
a synonym to retained voltage). The SARFI-90 value is 87 in this case; SARFI-CBEMA is 43, SARFI-ITIC
is 26, and SARFI-SEMI is 12.
Time aggregation is important with voltage sag events (and momentary interruption events). Time
aggregation avoids counting multiple events that are associated with the same physical event (fault). The
procedures for time aggregation and for other approaches for characterizing system voltage sag
performance are described in IEEE P1564TM [B9].
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 17Scatter plot of voltage sag events superimposed with compatibility curves
for calculation of SARFI indices
The average statisticsespecially nationwide statisticsare not very useful for an individual facility trying
to determine whether investment in power conditioning is needed or economically justified. Expected
voltage sag performance at the individual plant location is needed. Some utilities calculate the expected
voltage sag performance throughout its system. UI monitors at all of its substations and maintains
performance statistics for all substations that are updated quarterly. Figure 18 is an example of the voltage
sag performance (SARFI-70) across all of its substations (Infrastructure Reliability [B42]). The chart shows
the 3 year average voltage sag performance compared with the voltage sag performance in the last year.
This helps identify systems with significant changes that could warrant investigation. The voltage sag
performance is also broken down into events caused by distribution faults and events caused by
transmission faults because the transmission faults cannot be prevented by maintenance and improvements
on the distribution system and must be addressed separately. This information can be provided to any
customer to help them understand the power quality that can be expected where they are connected to the
system.
3.4.3 Transients
Voltage transients can also be an important consideration for the quality of supply. Transients can be
caused by lightning during storms or by almost any switching event on the power system. It is good
practice to include surge protection for a facility or at least critical equipment to avoid failures caused by
excessive transient voltages, such as the transients that can be caused by lightning strokes on the supply
system.
Even with transient protection for high-magnitude transients, there can still be transient voltages that may
affect equipment. For instance, adjustable speed drives can sometimes be affected by capacitor switching
transients (Figure 19) because these transients can have enough energy to charge up the direct current (dc)
capacitor in the drives to levels that will cause tripping on the dc overvoltage setting. Capacitor switching
transients can also cause problems with low-voltage power factor correction equipment, electronic ballasts
for fluorescent lighting, and other electronic equipment. Transients like the one in Figure 19 are a normal
part of the supply. Understanding this can help in developing appropriate specifications for adjustable
speed drives and other critical equipment.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 18Example voltage sag statistics (SARFI-70) at utility substations
Capacitor Switching Transient

2
1
Voltage (V pu)
-1
-2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (ms)
Figure 19Example of a typical transient voltage characteristic that could occur

when a substation capacitor bank is energized
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
3.4.4 Frequency deviations
Frequency is normally very tightly controlled in interconnected utilities. However, when major
disturbances occur on the transmission system, the frequency can temporarily deviate from normal steady-
state performance. These deviations are of two types: large generation/load imbalances and major
blackouts.
3.4.4.1 Large generation/load imbalances
When large generators or large loads, sized at several hundred megawatts, suddenly trip offline, the
interconnected power system is left with an imbalance of active power. It compensates for this by adjusting
its frequency. For example, in the interconnected Western United States power system, this frequency
deviation has been measured during such disturbances and found not to exceed 0.10 Hz and to last for no
more than a few seconds. Corrective action is taken by generator governors and usually lasts no more than
a few minutes. Such an event occurs somewhere in a large interconnected power system several times per
month.
3.4.4.2 Major blackouts
When a large portion of an interconnected power system trips offline, the balance of the system may be left
with an enormous active power imbalance. Remedial action schemes are put in place usually to prevent
such a disturbance from blacking out the entire interconnected system. When this happens, the portion of
the power system that remains with power can deviate in frequency by as much as 0.75 Hz. This kind of
disturbance is rare in developed countries.
3.5 Conclusions
There is a wide range of power quality variations that can be important to a facility engineer.
Understanding the power quality that can be expected from the supply system is a critical part of
developing the best design for equipment specifications and for the facility protection. In general,
equipment should be designed to withstand the normal steady-state power quality variations that can be
expected as part of the normal operation of the power system. However, it is unrealistic to expect the
equipment to handle all disturbances that occur. Understanding the expected disturbances and how often
they can occur is necessary to optimize investments in equipment protection.
4. Electric utilities and voltage quality
4.1 Introduction
Electric utilities have several reasons for taking actions to maintain voltage quality. First, limiting
disturbances and distortion that affect power quality minimizes damage and the costs to maintain the
network. Second, there are statutory guidelines, generally put forward by regulatory agencies that provide
limits for frequency, voltage, and sometimes reliability (interruptions). Finally, utilities must strive to meet
their customers needs for reliability and power quality.
4.2 Steady-state voltage quality in utilities
As mentioned in 3.2, voltage quality can be divided into two broad categories that differentiate between
steady-state characteristics and nonsteady-state or disturbance characteristics. This subclause focuses on
how electric utilities affect and attempt to maintain voltage quality in the steady state when the power
system is not experiencing a disturbance.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
4.2.1 Frequency regulation
Frequency is directly related to the rotational speed of the generators in the network. The frequency of the
electrical supply is the one variable that is the same value in steady state at every point within an
interconnected network. In other words, during steady-state conditions, the rotors of all generators have the
same rotational speed. A variation in frequency is determined by the variation of the active power
requirements of the customers on the network. As the active power requirements of the network increase or
decrease, the frequency of the generators would tend to decrease or increase, respectively. However,
generators have automated speed regulators (ASRs) that react to changing load requirements and maintain
the system frequency by continuously adjusting the speed of the rotor. This acts to create a continuous
balance between the generated power output and the active power requirements on the system. Utilities
must maintain a substantial level of spinning reserve to maintain that balance always when power
requirements increase.
4.2.2 Voltage regulation
Unlike frequency, which will be the same at different points along the electric supply network, steady-state
voltage will vary at different points. As load current flows through the lines and transformers, voltage drops
are caused by the impedances. Utilities use various design strategies and equipment to control or regulate
the voltage levels on the network to provide the end users with suitable voltage levels.
Voltage regulation of a system is affected by the electrical equipment from the generators to the end user.
However, voltage regulation is tied most closely with the distribution system. The distribution system will
typically have voltage-regulating transformers that can either increase or decrease the voltage that is
supplied to the high-voltage input of service transformers. These voltage-regulating transformers are
commonly capable of increasing or decreasing the distribution voltage up to 10%, usually in multiple steps
of either 0.625% or 1.25% per step. The wide operating range allows the distribution voltage to correct
automatically for the varying load conditions and voltage variations on the system. The voltage-regulating
feature can either be built into the substation distribution transformer itself or be separate regulating
transformers located downstream of the substation transformer. Substation transformers with regulating
capabilities are called either tap changing under load (TCUL) or load tap changing transformers. They have
multitapped transformer windings designed into the low-voltage winding of the transformer. All three
phases will change steps simultaneously either to raise or lower the voltage by changing the transformation
ratio. Single-phase voltage regulators are also used extensively on distribution systems. Like TCULs, they
can be installed at the substation. However, they are often installed at strategic points along distribution
lines to maintain proper voltage levels.
The current that flows to provide the reactive power requirements of motor loads on the network is a
significant cause of line voltage drop. It is the magnetizing current required by motors. A phase angle
relationship exists between the reactive power of a motor and the reactive power of a capacitor such that
they compensate each other. In other words, a properly sized capacitor located near a motor load will
supply the reactive power requirements of a motor. By using capacitor banks to provide reactive power for
motors, the total current flowing from the substation is reduced, and so the voltage drop along the
distribution line is reduced also. Utilities use capacitor banks located on distribution lines or in substations
to help control voltage by controlling reactive power flow. Utility capacitor banks either will be switched
by automatic controls or will be manually switched seasonally. Automatic capacitor switching controls use
such things as voltage level, temperature, time of day, or reactive power flow to determine whether to close
or open a particular capacitor bank.
4.2.3 Voltage balance
Balanced voltage depends on each phase of a three-phase feeder having a similar magnitude of current with
a similar power factor. As a result, the most common cause of voltage imbalance on utility distribution
lines is single-phase loads being served on the system. The number and type of single-phase customers per
phase must be similar along the length of a distribution line to maintain balanced voltages along the line.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Also, if capacitor banks are installed along a distribution line, it is important that any blown fuses are
replaced promptly.
4.2.4 Voltage distortion
Utility generators produce voltage with almost no harmonic distortion. The voltage harmonic distortion on
the system is mostly because of the nonlinear customer loads that are served. These loads draw harmonic
currents that interact with the system impedance to create voltage distortion. Because of this, voltage
harmonic distortion is usually a local phenomenon related to serving loads with high harmonic current
content. More recently some nonlinear generation, such as photovoltaics with inverters, have been found to
produce distortion as well.
IEEE Std 519-1992 [B12] establishes current harmonic limits for customers and voltage harmonic limits
for electrical utilities. The harmonic current limits are designed to prevent voltage distortion from reaching
excessive levels. The relative size of a customer load compared with the supply network serving the load
determines the amount of harmonic current the user is allowed to inject into the utility system. There is no
guarantee that harmonic voltage distortion limits will not be exceeded even though each customer on a
given line conforms to the current injection limits. Because voltage distortion is created by the voltage
drops that occur due to current distortion and system impedance, one method to reduce voltage distortion is
to reduce system impedance.
An unintended consequence of the use of capacitors, by either the utility or its customers, is their effect on
harmonics. Capacitors cause a change in system impedance, and voltage distortion is directly related to the
system impedance. Their capacitive reactance will create a resonant impedance at some frequency or at
multiple frequencies. If a harmonic current exists having the same frequency as a resonant impedance, there
will be increased voltage distortion. In some cases, this distortion will be in excess of the recommended
limits of IEEE Std 519-1992 [B12]. In those cases, the utility may have to change the size of the capacitor
bank, relocate it, or install a tuned filter.
4.2.5 Voltage fluctuations
Voltage fluctuations are generally considered to be cyclic variations of voltage where the changes in
amplitude do not exceed 10%. The magnitude variation is typically less than the sensitivity threshold of all
but the most sensitive end-use equipment. The main disturbing effect of these voltage fluctuations is
changes in the illumination intensity of light sources. When the illumination intensity fluctuates
periodically, it can produce an unpleasant visual sensation to people that is called flicker. Even though
flicker implies that there is a physiological relationship involved because of its relation to human visual
perception and a periodic time element, many utilities will use the term flicker when referring to
repetitive fluctuations as well as a single-step voltage change.
As load or generation current flows through the wires and transformers of the electrical system, it produces
voltage change proportional to the impedance of the wires and transformers. Typically, voltage fluctuations
on utility systems are caused by sudden large changes in the amount of load current. Common causes of
sudden load or generation current changes include the following:
Large motors starting
Large loads being switched ON or OFF
Switching to isolate sections of the network for maintenance
Variable loads such as metal shredders and wood chippers
Arc furnace operation
Large or multiple welders
Switching of capacitor banks
Wind/photovoltaic (PV) or other intermittent generation sources
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Utilities usually place limits on the amount of starting current allowed for large motors. The limits are
typically established based on the allowable percentage voltage drop at the PCC. If the customer PCC is
located far from the substation, the system impedance will be larger than the impedance of a PCC located
close to the substation. Therefore, the allowable inrush current is lowest for motors located far from a
substation.
When responding to voltage fluctuation concerns, utilities often focus on the impedance of the local
electrical system. Lowering the system impedance by changing wire size or transformer size is a common
solution. Other less commonly used options used by utilities include compensating reactive power flow by
installing shunt connected var compensation on the electrical grid. Typical switched capacitors will not
provide a solution to the voltage fluctuations discussed here. Instead, an advanced var support system
capable of quickly responding to the dynamic var requirements of the system is needed.
These systems are commonly referred to as static var compensators (SVC) or synchronous static
compensators (STATCOM). SVC systems combine electronic switching with capacitors and reactors to
provide leading and lagging var compensation. STATCOM systems combine electronic switching with
electronic voltage source converters to provide dynamic leading or lagging var compensation. Both types of
systems are costly and often include negotiations with the customer that is deemed to be creating the
voltage fluctuations. However, when compared against the much larger cost of building a new transmission
line to solve a light flicker problem, the cost is occasionally justified.
Additional information is available in IEEE Std 1453-2004 [B18].
4.3 Utility system disturbances
Electric utility system disturbances are typically caused either by a fault or by a switching transient. A fault
usually involves a short circuit between an energized phase conductor and ground or between two
energized phase conductors. The time duration of a fault is usually between one cycle and 1 s. An
interruption is what occurs after a protective device senses and isolates a fault.
A switching transient may occur when large inductive loads, capacitor banks, or line sections are switched.
The electrical system reaction to adding or removing components and loads often creates a short duration
change in the voltage waveform. The time duration of a switching event is usually between one half cycle
and three cycles.
4.3.1 Fault disturbances
Power system faults cause interruptions and voltage sags on the electric system. During a fault, very high
current levels flow until protective devices isolate the fault. The many causes of faults include lightning,
animal contacts, tree contact, underground cable dig-ins, and equipment failures. While fault current is
flowing, a voltage sag impacts the involved electrical system. Just what constitutes the involved electrical
system varies depending on where the fault occurs. A fault on a high-voltage transmission line may impact
several substations and affect voltage quality 100 or more miles from the fault. A fault on a medium
voltage distribution line will typically only impact voltage quality of the feeders on a common substation
bus, or perhaps 10 miles or so from the fault. Figure 20 is an example of percent remaining voltage possible
because of a fault on the transmission system.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 20Percent remaining voltage

Industrial facilities are often impacted by the incompatibility of their equipment to voltage sags. The
impacts are most significant where the automated industrial process is difficult and time consuming to
restart. The system strength at the PCC of an industrial plant is a key factor in minimizing the number of
voltage sag disturbances that will be experienced because of faults on the utility. Usually, because of the
system impedance characteristics, the transmission system will not be significantly impacted by faults on
distribution lines. However, distribution lines will be impacted by faults on the transmission system.
Because of the lower incidence of faults on the transmission system, customers sometimes request service
from dedicated substations.
Figure 21 is an example of the types of faults experienced by a typical distribution-fed customer.
Electric utilities typically direct maintenance activities toward minimizing fault rates. Reducing the number
of faults on the system improves the system reliability, reduces voltage sags, and minimizes equipment
failure. Typical fault reduction activities include tree trimming, lightning arrester installation, grounding
improvements, and animal guard installation.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 21Faults experienced by typical distribution customer
Premium power solutions are sometimes offered by an electrical utility at an extra cost. These solutions can
be managed by the end user seeking to reduce production disruptions from voltage quality problems such
as voltage sags. Often, premium power solutions utilize a third-party solution provider for maintenance,
operation, and even capital investment. They typically employ technology (power electronics equipment,
devices, circuit configurations, etc.) at 1 kV through 38 kV to mitigate voltage quality problems upstream
of a facility. Generally, these solutions are more attractive if the economics are considered on a long-term
model. Some examples of premium power solutions are covered in more detail in 6.2.
4.3.2 Transients
Transients can occur from any type of switching activity and from lightning. Capacitor bank switching is a
daily activity for many utilities, and most customer equipment is not affected by the transients. However, as
mentioned in 3.3.3, some adjustable speed drives can trip off because of the voltage transient. Usually, the
logical mitigation in such cases will be the addition of line reactors or isolation transformers for the
affected equipment. Utilities do employ various measures to limit the capacitor switching transient because
of capacitor bank switching at the transmission voltage level. These measures may include the use of
preinsertion resistors or inductors in the switching device or even synchronous closing control schemes.
However, most utilities do not employ any transient limiting measures for distribution line capacitor banks.
Surge arresters installed by utilities are designed to protect high-voltage equipment by limiting the transient
voltage levels on the system. However, the arresters installed at MV and HV are not adequate to protect
customers facilities from transient activity.
4.4 Conclusions
Electrical power is a product that is generated, delivered, and used practically instantaneously. As a result,
there are some unique challenges when it comes to quality control. The use of the product, the sine wave of
voltage, is ultimately affected by both how it is delivered and how it is used. Understanding the normal
variability of the steady-state parameters and the characteristics of disturbances is important when trying to
identify and improve voltage quality issues for particular customers. Electric utilities must design for
electric systems that provide a balance among cost, quality, and reliability of the electricity delivered to the
majority of users. Designing for near-perfect voltage quality is seldom justifiable and rarely necessary. The
clauses and subclauses that follow, concerning susceptible loads and end user power conditioning, explain
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
why some customer loads are more susceptible to voltage disturbances than others and the range of
measures available to help address the needs of the sensitive equipment.
5. Susceptibility of power system loads

Digital electronic devices, particularly those with a memory, are extremely susceptible to very short-
duration power disturbances. These disturbances may result in customer complaints unless adequate ride-
through capability is provided. This clause discusses some common devices that can be included in the
category of susceptible loads.
5.1 Types of susceptible loads
Minicomputers, electronic cash registers, and data terminals are a few examples of susceptible loads that
often fall victim to momentary voltage disturbances. These disturbances can interrupt the operation of
susceptible circuitry and cause memory loss, system malfunction, or component failure.
5.1.1 Computers
It is reasonable to expect that quality computer equipment will generally meet the requirements of the
conceptual voltage tolerance curve shown in Figure 22. The curve is actually an envelope that defines the
transient and steady-state limits within which the input voltage can vary without either affecting the proper
performance of the computer equipment or damaging it.
Note that the curve allows a complete loss of voltage for only 0.5 cycles (8.3 ms) but permits 80% voltage
for 0.5 s. In addition to rms voltage tolerance, such susceptible loads typically require the frequency to be
within 0.5 Hz; the rate of change of frequency, less than 1 Hz/s; voltage THD under 5%; and voltage
imbalance on three-phase systems less than 3% IEEE Std 446TM-1987 [B10]. For specific applications, the
electric service requirements should be obtained from the equipment manufacturer prior to installation;
however, this information may be difficult to obtain.
Computer power supplies generate harmonic distortion and typically are not very susceptible to it unless
the voltage waveform is very distorted. Distortion of the voltage near the zero crossings can cause timing
errors.
5.1.2 Process control
The microprocessor and microcomputer have fostered the emergence of a new family of commercial and
industrial process automation techniques, which are referred to as facility management systems (for
commercial buildings) and flexible manufacturing systems (for industrial applications). Commercial facility
management systems typically include sensors for input data, remote terminal units, the central processor,
and manmachine interface devices. The functions managed can include heating, ventilating, and air-
conditioning; security; access control; and energy management. Industrial flexible manufacturing systems
are assemblies of machine tools, cutting tools, and workpiece-handling devices employed to process a
variety of finished parts.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Source: IEEE Std 446-1987 [B10].
Figure 22Computer voltage tolerance conceptual curve
The previous discussion on computer sensitivity likewise applies to process control. In addition, motor
starters, contactors, relays, and other devices held closed by a coil and magnetic structure are especially
susceptible to short-time interruptions and voltage sags. As a guide, a voltage sag to 60% or 70% of rated
voltage for 0.5 s will de-energize many of these devices. Many control relays, sealed-in by their own
contacts, will drop out if voltage is lost for 0.5 cycles or more (IEEE Std 446-1987 [B10]).
5.1.3 Telecommunications
When considering the susceptibility of telecommunications equipment, a distinction should be made

between common equipment in the public telecommunications network and individual terminal equipment
that connects to the network. Most of the critical common equipment uses batteries to buffer disturbances
and interruptions of the electric utility service, so short-term transients normally have little or no effect on
the power supply, but a transient can couple in through the phone or network connections and cause
significant damage if unprotected. Also, the individual terminals that connect to the public
telecommunication networks often connect directly to the electric utility service and are subjected to
disturbances.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
5.1.4 Electric arc lighting
High-intensity discharge (HID) lighting includes mercury, metal halide, and high-pressure sodium lamps
used for security and street lighting applications. In the event of a power interruption or voltage sag lasting
more than one cycle, HID lamps extinguish and do not restart for several minutes. The exact magnitude of
the voltage drop causing this condition depends on the lamp ballast.
5.1.5 Consumer electronics
An ever-increasing variety and number of digital electronics are found in digital video recorders,
microwave ovens, stereos, televisions, and clocks. Some of these have back-up systems (e.g., batteries) that
prevent disruption to timer/clock functions when power is lost for short periods of time. Others do not.
5.1.6 Adjustable speed drives
Adjustable speed drives (ASDs) are used to control the speed, torque, acceleration, and direction of the
rotation of a motor. Unlike constant speed systems, the ASD permits the selection of an infinite number of
speeds within its operating range. The two basic types of ASDs commonly used today are dc drives and
adjustable alternating current (ac) frequency drives.
DC drives utilize a power converter to convert the fixed ac voltage to an adjustable dc output for
controlling a dc motor. Adjustable-frequency ac drives convert three-phase 60 Hz input power to an
adjustable frequency source for controlling the speed of squirrel-cage induction motors or other ac motors.
Problems have been documented involving nuisance tripping of some manufacturers ac drives because of
switching transients associated with capacitors on the customers or utilitys system.
5.2 Ride-through capability
As was mentioned in Clause 4, the practice of removing temporary faults on utility systems calls for
tripping the circuit breaker (or recloser), reclosing, and repeating these steps a number of times if the initial
trip and reclose operation is not successful in clearing the fault.
If reclosing is successful on the initial attempt, then customer loads on the faulted circuit would have
experienced a complete loss of voltage for a duration ranging from approximately 0.5 s to several seconds,
depending on the characteristics of the protective device as well as on the reclosing cycle used by the
particular utility. For adjacent circuits connected to the same substation bus, a voltage sag is experienced
for the duration of the fault; although this sag may last for only a few cycles, the voltage can be low enough
to cause susceptible equipment to reset or ASDs to trip.
Subsequent reclosing attempts commonly involve durations of 15 s or more during which the circuit
voltage supply is interrupted. Figure 22 shows that most computer equipment can tolerate a complete loss
of voltage for 0.5 cycles (60 Hz basis) or less. Thus, a single reclosing operation would cause this
equipment to malfunction.
Momentary power interruptions can result in a wide variety of user equipment problems, ranging in
severity from blinking clocks to the shutdown of a factory process. Most of the momentary interruptions
result from circuit breakers (or reclosers) tripping and reclosing to clear temporary faults and thus to avoid
long-term interruptions.
Power supplies found in susceptible equipment have some inherent ride-through capability. Typical ride-
through capabilities of power supplies range from 10 ms to 25 ms. This time is too short to be of much help
in averting problems associated with utility momentary interruptions; it may, however, be sufficient to
allow the operation of static switches or other high-speed source transfer devices used to assure the supply
of power to susceptible equipment.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
A study of electronically controlled consumer electronic equipment (Anderson and Bowes [B31]) indicates
that without battery backup, loss of memory occurs for relatively short interruptions of supply power.
Digital clocks, microwave ovens, and videocassette recorders (VCRs) were tested for susceptibility to
voltage abnormalities. Although there were significant differences between the models studied, the average
data indicates that 40% of all clocks malfunctioned for a 120-cycle (2 s) interruption, and all malfunctioned
at 1000 cycles. All microwave ovens malfunctioned at 120 cycles; 62% of the VCRs malfunctioned at
120 cycles, and all malfunctioned at 1000 cycles, except two VCRs that had battery backup (these
withstood all momentary interruptions). An extension of this study to personal computers and printers
(Bowes [B32]) showed that all these devices malfunctioned with a six-cycle interruption, with four
computers malfunctioning for interruption durations of one cycle or less.
Based on a survey of 95 companies, 90% of all first recloser operations used by electric utilities occur
within 10 s (IEEE Power and Engineering Society [B38]).
6. Power quality improvements for end users
Given the rapid growth in the utilization of computers, adjustable speed drives, programmable logic
controllers, and other susceptible loads that are vulnerable to misoperation from voltage disturbances, it is
useful to consider the range of measures that is available to help address the special electrical needs of this
type of equipment. Optimizing power quality is a process of weighing the costs of mitigating actions
against the benefits of improved productivity.
As an alternative to modifying their electrical systems, customers may attempt to specify and purchase less
susceptible or more tolerant load equipment. IEEE Std 1346TM-1998 [B16] is an important reference on
equipment sensitivity issues. It is also important to assure that equipment ratings match the voltage that is
being supplied to the equipment. For example, 220 V equipment is not well served by 208 V.
6.1 End user wiring and grounding
On the end user side, building wiring problems, such as poor connections, open neutrals, overloads, faults,
or locally generated switching transients, need to be considered before the addition of power conditioning.
Also, grounding techniques may affect the performance of equipment and, most importantly, may amplify
load equipment sensitivity and the adverse effects of voltage disturbances.
6.1.1 Grounding, noise elimination, and circuit design
Before considering power conditioning equipment, it is important that the installation be thoroughly
checked to determine whether there are other problems that might adversely affect susceptible equipment.
Often it is found that very simple actions, such as the tightening of a loose connection, can correct a
problem that is perceived as bad power quality. Obviously, such problems should be addressed before more
costly measures are considered. Overloads or bad electrical connections often appear as localized hot spots
in energized electrical equipment. Infrared heat scans for location of such hot spots are widely accepted in
todays industry for monitoring the health of electrical equipment. These scans save millions of dollars
each year in reduced unscheduled downtime and lower capital costs relating to repair of failed equipment
(Holliday and Kay [B39]).
Where appropriate, the susceptible equipment should be fed with a separate dedicated circuit, which
connects as close as possible to the utility source to minimize effects of other customer loads that could
otherwise cause voltage disturbances. This may require the use of extra transformers, circuits, conduit, and
equipment. Exposure to overvoltage transients may be limited by appropriate application of low-voltage
surge-protection equipment.
Noise problems in susceptible-equipment installations most often result from improper grounding practices.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Proper grounding techniques are outside the scope of this guide. Refer to IEEE Std 1100TM-1992 for
extensive information on this subject.
6.2 Premium power solutions
Premium power solutions employ technology (devices, circuit configurations, power electronics equipment,
etc.) at 1 kV through 38 kV for the purpose of mitigating power quality problems. These solutions can be
managed by the end user seeking to reduce production disruptions, sometimes utilizing a third party
solution provider for maintenance, operation, and even capital investment. Premium power solutions are
sometimes offered by an electrical utility at an extra cost. Generally, these solutions are more attractive if
the economics are considered on a long-term model.
6.2.1 Static transfer switch (with dual feed)
If a facility has access to two independent utility power feeds, a static line transfer switch can be
considered. The capability to switch power rapidly to an alternate supply can address a high percentage of
power problems, depending on how separate the two sources are. Static switches, of course, are not
effective in the event of a common disturbance, as might be the case for a fault on the utility transmission
system.
Figure 23Static transfer switch

A typical static switch power circuit consists of two pairs of thyristors per phase connected as shown in the
upper portion of Figure 23. When the preferred source is of proper voltage, control logic turns on its
thyristors. Power can then flow from the preferred source to the load. The control logic is typically
equipped with three preferred source voltage sensors, which monitor overvoltage, undervoltage, and loss
of voltage, as shown in the lower portion of Figure 23.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
The static switch can automatically transfer susceptible loads when power is suddenly lost on either one of
the two synchronized incoming utility lines without disturbance. Total sensing and transfer time is within a
quarter of a cycle (<5 ms) and should not affect most susceptible-equipment operations.
Figure 24 illustrates the trip and reclose sequence of a typical substation circuit breaker that would
coordinate with the automatic transfer of a typical switch. Deviations outside the preset limits (set points)
shown in Figure 23 cause the static switch to transfer to the alternate source. Transfer is prevented,
however, if the alternate source voltage is not present.
Upon restoration of preferred voltage above the return to preferred level and below the overvoltage level
for a timed period, the control logic checks for synchronism of the phase and voltage balance between the
preferred and alternate sources and then initiates retransfer to preferred.
If, during normal operation, a malfunction of the static switch occurs that would otherwise cause a
disturbance to the load, automatic transfer and latch to the alternate source takes place to maintain load
power continuity.
Properly made static switches are dependable and inherently maintenance free with no periodic exercising
requirements to maintain high-speed operation and no contacts to clean.
Figure 24Typical substation breaker trip and reclose sequence
6.2.2 Dynamic voltage restorer
Another option for protecting plant intake from voltage sags is the dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) that can
be applied at the medium voltage level. The DVR is a custom power technology for power quality
improvement on distribution circuits.
The DVR works on the principle of supplying the missing voltage as shown in Figure 24. The unit does this
utilizing a series connected transformer to the load, through which the power electronics can boost the
voltage. The voltage boost obtained is the ratio of the device size to the load. Generally, DVRs have been
applied most commonly at 30% to 40% boost.
The basic DVR configuration is illustrated in Figure 25. The system injects a compensation voltage in
series with the line by connection of fast switching inverter on the secondary of a transformer in the line.
The inverter can create compensation voltages to correct for some transients, as well as voltage sags.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Vinjected Iload
LINE
Insertion Transformer
Iload AC Terminal
DC-AC
Inverter
Vdc DC Terminal
Idc + -
Energy
Storage
Figure 25One line diagram illustrating DVR operation
6.3 End-user power conditioning (within the facility)
On the customer side, equipment operation, circuit design, and power-conditioning measures can be used to
mitigate or protect against voltage disturbances. The source of these voltage disturbances may be from the
customer as well as from the utility side of the meter.
6.3.1 Overview of power conditioners
Many types of conditioners are available, ranging from the very inexpensive, which protect against only the
least significant types of voltage disturbances, to the expensive, which protect against almost all
eventualities. Table 6 is a summary and comparison of power conditioners.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Table 6 Power conditioner comparison

Outage
Power Relative Sag Undervolta Overvoltag Harmonic Conducted
Surge ride-
conditioner cost or swell ge e distortion noise
protection through
type (%)a protection (sustained) (sustained) protection protection
capability
Surge
<1 X nil
suppressors
Filters <1 SP X nil
Low-voltage
<1 X nil
line reactors
Constant
voltage 35 X X X A X 1 cycle
transformers
Motor
45 X X X P X A 0.3 s a
generators
High-speed
75 X X X X X A 60 s
flywheel
Dual feeders b
Static transfer 25 A X X continuous
UPS 60
Standby A X A X A A 15 min
On-line X X X X X X 15 min
UPS and
engine 100 X X X X X X continuous
generator
NOTE: X = protection provided; SP = special distortion-correction filters are available; A = available or provided; P = very short periods
only.
a
1 s with flywheel.
b
Requires two or more independent sources.
6.3.2 High-reliability power backup systems
In most susceptible-equipment sites, operation of the susceptible equipment without cooling can extend to
about 15 min. Beyond that time, even with susceptible-equipment power available, the system should be
shut down if both the susceptible equipment and its cooling system are not on backup power. To provide
for indefinite interruptions of both, a combination of UPS and engine generator is added.
Figure 26 illustrates such a system. The UPS operates normally, conditioning the power to the susceptible
equipment with the engine generator at rest. Upon loss of power, the battery continues to supply the
susceptible equipment, while the cooling and lighting loads go out.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 26Combination UPS and engine generator

After a preset period intended to prevent nuisance starts (typically 15 to 30 s), the engine generator
automatically starts and restores power to the cooling and lighting systems and to the UPS. Normal UPS
operation resumes when the UPS battery is no longer in service. The presence of the generator permits the
use of smaller batteries that may have about 5 min of storage. While operating in this mode, the engine
generator may be subjected to sudden load changes, such as the starting of a compressor motor in the air
conditioning system. This situation can cause a momentary frequency excursion, because of engine-speed
change, until corrected by the governor. The frequency (and/or its rate of change) can exceed the tolerance
of the susceptible equipment causing malfunctions. However, with the interposing UPS, the frequency can
be maintained within tolerance, eliminating possible problems.
Engine generators increase the cost and maintenance of an installation and should be added only if long
interruptions are anticipated and if these losses create a significant problem.
6.3.3 Uninterruptible power supply
UPS systems are an important solution to provide the continuous operation of computer or other susceptible
systems when line voltage interruptions last approximately 0.5 s or longer (a common event for utility fault
clearing). A UPS can provide continuous regulated power under all normal and abnormal utility power
conditions, including interruptions.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
UPS systems are typically solid state, although some are currently made using rotating machinery in
combination with solid-state conversion. UPS systems have three general configurations, as illustrated in
simplified form in Figure 27. Most systems contain a storage battery, though some systems use high-speed
flywheels or other technologies for energy storage.
6.3.3.1 Standby UPS systems
A standby UPS system includes a rectifier/battery charger, a static inverter, and a static automatic-transfer
switch. The normal flow of power is directly from the line to the load through the transfer switch. In some
versions, however, a regulator is included on the line side or on the load side of the transfer switch to
provide output regulation to susceptible loads. In the event of incoming power loss, the transfer switch is
actuated to pick up the inverter output, which delivers phase-synchronized power to susceptible loads,
usually resulting in less than a 0.25-cycle interruption.
Figure 27UPS configurations

During ac line failure, a standby UPS supplies susceptible-equipment power from the battery through the
inverter.
6.3.3.2 Online UPS systems
An online UPS system, which includes a larger rectifier/battery charger than the other systems, provides
power to the load through the rectifier and inverter. During a line failure, the inverter operates from the
battery to provide phase-synchronized power to the susceptible load. In the event of inverter output failure
or overload, phase synchronized transfer to the bypass line results in an interruption of less than
0.25 cycles.
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IEEE Std 1250-2011
6.3.3.3 Rotary UPS systems
Rotary UPSs are gaining in popularity for very large size applications. These units are available, up to
10 000 kVA. Figure 28 is a block diagram of a rotary UPS. It is similar in concept to a conventional M-G
set, where the main difference is that a rotary UPS system utilizes a battery bank for energy storage. This
enables a rotary UPS to provide a ride though time of several minutes, depending on the battery bank
sizing. During normal operation, the motor turns the generator, while the battery bank is charged by a
separate dc generator. During a power failure, the dc motor turns the ac generator, using battery power. The
transition to and from battery power is accomplished by motor controls without the use of contactors or
switches so that the ac generator output is totally uninterrupted. This type of design completely eliminates
the rectifier/charger, inverter, and static bypass switch of conventional UPS systems.
Utility Supply Output to Load
DC
AC AC
Motor
Generator Motor Generator
Battery
Bank
Figure 28Rotary UPS
6.3.4 Power distribution units (PDUs)
Many grounding problems for large data processing rooms can be avoided, and safer installations can be
provided by the use of properly designed PDUs, usually arranged for installation on a computer room floor
close to the loads that they serve (Figure 29).
These units generally contain input isolating (and usually step-down) transformers with electrostatic
shielding to minimize the effects of potential line-to-ground noise. They include a main circuit breaker that
provides isolation and emergency power-off by push button. The transformers feed panel boards that are
equipped with multiple circuit breakers (and sometimes fuses). Each circuit breaker is connected to a
properly wired and properly grounded flexible under-floor cable with plug-compatible receptacle for the
susceptible equipment it serves (Figure 29 illustrates a typical PDU circuit, several of which might be used
in a large installation). PDUs can also be equipped with power monitoring and alarm functions, as well as
some of the simple forms of power conditioning discussed in 4.2.3. Note that typical utility distribution
transformers are not shielded and, hence, cannot be relied on to provide such shielding in situations where
no power distribution unit exists.
41
IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 29Power distribution unit
6.3.5 Voltage sag correctors
As voltage sags are much more common than complete interruptions, voltage sag correctors provide for an
important need, particularly in industrial applications. Generally, these devices do not provide backup
power to the load; rather, they simply seek to restore the missing voltage. In this way, voltage sag
correctors can be smaller and much less expensive than UPS systems.
6.3.5.1 Constant voltage transformers
Ferroresonant regulators consist of a linear and a nonlinear inductor as well as a capacitor in a parallel
resonant circuit with the nonlinear inductor (Figure 30).
These elements are generally incorporated into an isolation transformer configuration together with
additional filtering to eliminate self-induced harmonics. This filtering can handle a reasonable level of
harmonic distortion at the output induced by nonlinear computer load, but excess harmonics can produce
overheating of the regulator. The circuit is tuned to the rated output voltage and frequency.
42
IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 30Ferroresonant regulator

Ferroresonant regulators maintain a constant output voltage for a wide range of input voltage, particularly
at a light load. Their inherent current-limiting characteristic, which limits maximum current at full voltage,
can be a limitation when starting motors or computer central processing units. Because of this
characteristic, they are generally operated at a considerably underrated condition. Some short-term
overvoltages occur at the output ferroresonant regulator upon recovery from an interruption.
The tuned circuit has a small amount of stored energy and will ride through interruptions of about one
cycle, provided the interruption is not a fault close to the input, which would drain the stored energy. It will
not ride through a 0.5 s interruption typical of the automatic reclosure on a utility circuit; however, many
will ride through up to 50% voltage sag for 0.5 s, which would probably be sufficient to handle fault
clearing on a nearby circuit. Ferroresonant regulators are large and heavy because of the magnetics
involved, but they are simple and reliable.
6.3.5.2 Motor-generator sets
Motor-generator sets consist of electric motors driving ac generators. The load is supplied by the generator
and is electrically isolated from the utility supply. Motor-generators can isolate the load from impulses and
from voltage sags and swells. For power-line voltage changes of 20% or more, voltage to the load is
maintained at nominal.
A useful feature of the motor-generator is its ability to bridge severe short-term sags or interruptions. The
inertia of the rotating elements permits the motor-generator to span interruptions of up to about 0.3 s. This
is mainly limited by the drop in frequency (speed) as energy is removed. This period can be extended by
adding inertia via a flywheel as shown in Figure 31. This amount of time provides protection for the
common case of fault clearing and reclosing on a utility distribution system. Some systems use variable-
speed constant frequency or quick-starting engine generator techniques to get more advantage from the
flywheel inertia. The cost is considerably higher than conventional motor-generators. The motor-generator
set with flywheel is sometimes classified as UPS equipment.
43
IEEE Std 1250-2011
Figure 31Motor-generator set with flywheel

The problems with motor-generators are mostly on the output or load side. High generator output
impedance can cause substantial voltage sags in response to sudden load changes, such as resulting from
large motor-starting current, and response to load changes can be sluggish. Also, unless it is oversized, the
drive motor may overheat under long-term, low-line voltage conditions.
Motor-generator efficiency is typically relatively low, so that electrical energy costs over its lifetime may
be substantial. Heat dissipation, equipment weight and bulk, and the potential for audible noise are factors
that should be considered in motor-generator installations. Essentially silent machines are available at extra
cost. Bearings should be inspected and periodically replaced and/or lubricated in many cases, particularly
when flywheels are used. Reliability potential, however, is very high.
6.3.5.3 Active voltage conditioner
Active voltage conditioners are low-voltage, inverter-based power conditioners. These devices are designed
to provide voltage sag ride through capability to industrial, three-phase equipment. They are often applied
to machining centers and extrusion process, to prevent costly shut downs and equipment failures. Smaller
units (10 kVA to 200 kVA units) generally depend on electronics, whereas larger units (200 kVA to
10 000 kVA) may employ an injection transformer in a similar manner to the dynamic voltage restorer.
The key specifications for an active voltage conditioner are the efficiency, power rating, allowable voltage
sag depth (provided voltage correction), and the duration of the correction. Often these units are sized to
provide correction for the most common voltage sags (30% of depth). This sizing realizes that it would take
a much more expensive unit to correct for deeper voltage sag events that are not as common. An economic
model is usually developed, in conjunction with the annual voltage sag profile of the facility, to determine
the optimal sizing and expenditure required.
6.4 Controlling harmonics
In general, electrical and electronic equipment, such as rectifier power supplies, are not greatly affected by
small amounts of harmonic distortion. Problems may occur where there is enough harmonic current
distortion to affect the supply voltage adversely. High levels of reactive harmonic current injection may
overload building wiring and service transformers and may cause abnormal rms voltage or very distorted
waveshape.
6.4.1 Harmonics at point of use
IEEE Std 519-1992 [B12] recommends total demand distortion limits at the point of common coupling to
other users, including the effect of customer load-induced harmonics. In actual practice, the utility system
distortion is usually less than the proposed limits, but the customer load-induced harmonics often cause
44
IEEE Std 1250-2011
voltage THD to exceed 5% at the point of use. Also, current distortion in three-phase, four-wire systems
feeding multiple nonlinear single-phase loads, such as computer power supplies, often creates excessive
neutral current. The result may be wiring overloads and fire hazards or damage to the delta-wye supply
transformer typically provided (Figure 9).
It is recommended that the harmonic current limits be followed to protect the facility power system, which
is probably more vulnerable to adverse harmonic effects than the facility loads.
The following actions help reduce the effects of load-induced waveform distortion (Griffith [B25] provides
more detail):
Reduce the impedance of the power source. A larger source transformer (or generator) of the
same type will have a lower impedance and will reduce voltage distortion proportionally. This
may also be necessary to accommodate the extra heating because of third harmonics (and odd
multiples of third) circulating in the delta winding (CBEMA [B34]). This is typically an
expensive solution.
Move the symptomatic load to a lower impedance circuit. The best results occur when a
dedicated circuit is run from the main service transformer to the load or to a step down
transformer adjacent to the load.
Move the harmonic-producing loads to other circuits. The best results occur when the harmonic-
producing loads are moved to a circuit that is on a separate power source, thereby providing
some degree of electrical isolation.
For the special case of third harmonics and their odd multiples, a properly sized delta-connected
transformer will provide a circulating path for these harmonics, reducing their effect upstream
from the transformer (toward the power source and other loads common to it). Single-phase
rectified input switching power supplies are rich in third harmonic current but contain
significant higher-order harmonics.
Provide harmonic filters in lieu of capacitors to control harmonic current flow.
In three-phase systems, harmonics can also be mitigated by special transformer circuitry. One
example is the use of a zigzag transformer or a Scott- or T-connected transformer.
In three-phase systems supplying separate single-phase loads with non-sinusoidal current input,
the shared neutral circuit should be increased in current rating to about twice the phase rating
(CBEMA [B34]). The capability of the supply transformer should be checked for the
nonsinusoidal load by consulting IEEE Std C57.110TM-1986 [B19].
6.4.2 Harmonic filters
Harmonic filters are designed to control the level of voltage and current distortion generated by all the
elements of the equipment to which they are connected, including susceptible equipment, which often
generates distortion by itself. Filters consist of active or passive circuit elements. Most such filters in use
today are passive and provide a short-circuit path for the harmonics generated by the load using one or
more series-tuned traps.
Problems in application include excessive voltage or current resulting from resonance with other elements
in the power system and excessive power frequency current drawn by the filter. In addition, because of
their low impedance to specific harmonics, they attract currents of the same harmonic if they exist
elsewhere on the power system, potentially overloading the filter. For these reasons, such filters are
generally applied on an engineered or special basis. However, some filters come with isolating and/or
power-factor-correcting circuitry as a standard feature that can mitigate these problems.
45
IEEE Std 1250-2011
6.5 Surge protective devices (SPDs)
SPDs protect susceptible electronic equipment from surges. These devices usually contain component(s)
that provide a voltage-dependent diversion of surge current. Some units also contain passive filter
components, such as series inductors and parallel capacitors.
Two of the most common voltage-dependent components that are used in these devices are metal oxide
varistors and large junction avalanche diodes that are specifically designed for surge diversion.
Components exhibiting surge-protection characteristics are often integrated into the PDUs, UPSs, power
supplies, and power-conditioning equipment. However, these provide a level of surge protection that may
not be adequate for all conditions. Additional surge protection may be needed, depending on the severity of
the environment.
The proper application of an SPD requires a coordinated approach based on the expected energy deposition
into the candidate device at the applied location. Typically, a building service entrance or main panel
device would be expected to divert a greater part of the surge current than a device installed at a secondary
panel, a receptacle, or within equipment. If two SPDs are installed in cascade, coordination of the
operationthat is, energy deposition commensurate with the respective ratings of the two devices
depends on the relative clamping voltages of the devices, on the distance separating them, and on the
waveform (postulated in the absence of known specifics about the installation) of the impinging surge (Lai
and Martzloff [B45]).
The selection of the appropriate voltage rating is based on the nominal service voltage, including normal
and abnormal upward deviations (ANSI C84.1-2006 [B1]) and the maximum continuous operating voltage
(MCOV) of the SPD. The MCOV rating of the SPD should be selected to be at least 120% of the nominal
rms service voltage (Standler [B56] and CIGRE C4.7 [B36]). Specifying the MCOV to be between 150%
and 200% of the nominal rms service voltage provides additional protection against degradation of the SPD
by swells or relatively low-level transient overvoltages (Martzloff and Leedy [B49]).
6.6 Special considerations for variable frequency drives (VFDs)
6.6.1 Input line reactors
Low-voltage line reactors (inductors) provide an alternative to isolation transformers for attenuating
voltage disturbances on susceptible circuits. They have been successfully applied to three-phase ac ASDs to
prevent nuisance overvoltage tripping during capacitor switching. The additional series inductance of the
reactor reduces the current surge into the ASD, thereby limiting the dc overvoltage.
6.6.2 Effect of VFD inverter switching pulses on motors
VFDs most commonly utilize insulated gate bipolar transistors to invert the dc bus voltage to the variable
voltage and frequency required to control the speed of the ac motor. However, the pulse width modulated
output of the drive unit also generates a voltage rise (dv/dt) on the output waveform. It is not uncommon for
the voltage rise to approach 10 kV/s.
When the motor is separated from the VFD by more than a critical length of cable, these pulses reflect back
upon themselves at the motor, and can be damaging to the motor insulation. The critical length is
determined by the pulse rise time (to 50% value) and the travel time of the cable. The velocity of a
traveling wave in a cable can be estimated at 1 108 m/s. With most VFDs, the critical length will be
longer than 7.62 m (25 ft).
46
IEEE Std 1250-2011
Inverter duty motors can be employed to address this concern, which is highlighted in
IEEE Std 841TM-2009 [B13] and NEMA MG.1 standards. Also, line terminators can be installed at the
motors, or line reactors can be installed on the output of the VFD to address this concern.
6.7 Special considerations for residential loads
The home office needs for quality power may require better service reliability than that normally supplied
by the area electric power supplier (area EPS), because the area EPS service is subjected to the extensive
environmental exposures (lightning, wind, tree contact, etc.) as well as harmonics generated by other
customers. Depending upon the criticality of the home office business consideration should be given the
addition of power conditioning equipment, a UPS for short-term momentary disturbances and/or on-site
emergency generation to address long time loss of electric service.
6.8 Economic analysis of power conditioning alternatives
Figure 32Approach to the application of power conditioning equipment
Figure 32 illustrates a general approach to power conditioning. The usual approach is to place the power
conditioner in front of the susceptible load. Figure 33 shows that this location can be interpreted in several
different physical locations: anywhere from inside the plant to out on the utility system. It also shows that
the cost of this protection increases as the location moves toward the utility system.
The cost of protecting equipment from disturbances increases dramatically as one progresses out from the
critical load locations. For example, a power conditioner that can be used to protect process controls, as
opposed to the entire process, is smaller and much more economical. Therefore, it is very important first to
understand the process completely before any power conditioning equipment is applied. Protection of an
entire plant, for instance, is often very costly and generally not required. A site survey should always be
done which characterizes susceptible and critical loads. Many plant loads may not be critical and, therefore,
may not need power conditioning equipment.
47
IEEE Std 1250-2011
INCREASING COST
INCREASING COMPLEXITY
Utility Solutions Customer Solutions Equipment Specifications
3 - Overall 2 - Control
Protection Protection
Inside Plant
Feeder or
1
Group of
Machines
Utility Source
2 Controls
3
Motors
4
Other Loads
Sensitive Process Machine
Figure 33Four locations for power conditioning equipment, showing the relative
economic cost and complexity
6.8.1 Cost/benefit considerations
Another key factor in the application of power conditioning equipment is cost/benefit. This refers to the
economic justification and payback of applying power conditioning equipment. Some customers may have
processes very critical in nature, losing a tremendous amount of money every time a power quality event
occurs. This can be attributed to production downtime and/or lost product. Some industries are much more
vulnerable to power quality variations and, therefore, tend to have a quicker payback when applying power
conditioning equipment. This type of cost/benefit analysis should be done as part of any power
conditioning application project. Table 7 provides an example of cost/benefit analysis of power quality
solutions.
Table 7 Example results from cost/benefit analysis
48
IEEE Std 1250-2011
Annex A
(informative)
Glossary
NOTENumbers in parentheses align with definition numbers in The IEEE Standards Dictionary: Glossary of Terms
3
& Definitions.
current transformer (CT): (2) (metering) An instrument transformer designed for use in the measurement
or control of current.
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC): (1) (supervisory control, data acquisition, and automatic control)
(station control and data acquisition) A measure of equipment tolerance to external electromagnetic fields.
(2) (control of system electromagnetic compatibility) The ability of a device, equipment, or system to
function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable electromagnetic
disturbances to anything in that environment.
electromagnetic disturbance: (1) An electromagnetic phenomenon that may be superimposed on a wanted
signal. (2) (overhead power lines) Any electromagnetic phenomenon that may degrade the performance of
a device, a piece of equipment, or a system.
equipment grounding conductor: (2) The conductor used to connect the noncurrent-carrying parts of
conduits, raceways, and equipment enclosures to the grounding electrode at the service equipment (main
panel) or secondary of a separately derived system.
frequency deviation: (5) An increase or decrease in the power frequency from nominal. The duration of a
frequency deviation can be from several cycles to several hours.
ground: (3) (A) A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, by which an electric circuit or
equipment is connected to the earth, or to some conducting body of relatively large extent that serves in
place of the earth. (B) High frequency reference.
NOTEGrounds are used for establishing and maintaining the potential of the earth (or of the conducting body) or
approximately that potential, on conductors connected to it, and for conducting ground currents to and from earth (or
the conducting body).
ground loop: (2) A potentially detrimental loop formed when two or more points in an electrical system
that are nominally at ground potential are connected by a conducting path such that either or both points are
not at the same ground potential.
harmonic: A sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having a frequency that is an integral
multiple of the fundamental frequency.
NOTEFor example, a component, the frequency of which is twice the fundamental frequency, is called a second
harmonic.
harmonic components: The components of the harmonic content expressed in terms of the order and rms
(root-mean-square) values of the Fourier series terms describing the periodic function.
3
The IEEE Standards Dictionary: Glossary of Terms & Definitions is available at http://shop.ieee.org/.
49
IEEE Std 1250-2011
harmonic content: (1) The function obtained by subtracting the dc (direct current) and fundamental
components from a nonsinusoidal periodic function. (2) The deviation from the sinusoidal form, expressed
in terms of the order and magnitude of the Fourier series terms describing the wave. (3) Distortion of a
sinusoidal waveform characterized by indication of the magnitude and order of the Fourier series terms
describing the wave.
immunity (to a disturbance): The ability of a device, equipment, or system to perform without
degradation in the presence of an electromagnetic disturbance.
isolated equipment ground: An isolated equipment grounding conductor run in the same conduit or
raceway as the supply conductors. This conductor may be insulated from the metallic raceway and all
ground points throughout its length. It originates at an isolated ground-type receptacle or equipment input
terminal block and terminates at the point where neutral and ground are bonded at the power source.
isolation: (3) Separation of one section of a system from undesired influences of other sections.
maximum demand: (1) (power operations) The largest of a particular type of demand occurring within a
specified period.
momentary: When used as a modifier to quantify the duration of a short duration variation, refers to a time
range at the power frequency from 30 cycles to 3 s.
momentary interruption: A type of short duration variation. The complete loss of voltage (<0.1 pu) on
one or more phase conductors for a time period between 0.5 cycles and 3 s.
noise: (11) Electrical noise is unwanted electrical signals that produce undesirable effects in the circuits of
the control systems in which they occur.
nominal voltage: (3) A nominal value assigned to a circuit or system for the purpose of conveniently
designating its voltage class (as 208/120, 480/277, 600).
nonlinear load: A load that draws a non-sinusoidal current wave when supplied by a sinusoidal voltage
source.
notch: (2) A switching (or other) disturbance of the normal power voltage waveform, lasting less than a
half cycle, which is initially of opposite polarity than the waveform and is thus subtracted from the normal
waveform in terms of the peak value of the disturbance voltage. This includes complete loss of voltage for
up to a half cycle.
oscillatory transient: A sudden, nonpower frequency change in the steady-state condition of voltage or
current that includes both positive or negative polarity value.
overvoltage: (9) When used to describe a specific type of long duration variation, refers to a measured
voltage having a value greater than the nominal voltage for a period of time greater than 1 min. Typical
values are 1.1 pu to 1.2 pu.
potential transformer (PT); also, voltage transformer: (1) (voltage transformer). An instrument
transformer that is intended to have its primary winding connected in shunt with a power-supply circuit, the
voltage of which is to be measured or controlled.
power disturbance: Any deviation from the nominal value (or from some selected thresholds based on
load tolerance) of the input ac power characteristics.
power quality: The concept of powering and grounding electronic equipment in a manner that is suitable
to the operation of that equipment and compatible with the premise wiring system and other connected
equipment.
pulse: (4) A wave that departs from a initial level for a limited duration of time and ultimately returns to
the original level.
sag: (2) A decrease in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for durations of 0.5 cycles to 1 min.
Typical values are 0.1 pu to 0.9 pu.
50
IEEE Std 1250-2011
shield: (7) (instrumentation cables) (cable systems) A metallic sheath, usually copper or aluminum, applied
over the insulation of a conductor or conductors for the purpose of providing means for reducing
electrostatic coupling between the conductors so shielded and others which may be susceptible to or which
may be generating unwanted (noise) electrostatic fields.
shielding: (3) The process of applying a conducting barrier between a potentially disturbing noise source
and electronic circuitry. Shields are used to protect cables (data and power) and electronic circuits.
Shielding may be accomplished by the use of metal barriers, enclosures, or wrappings around source
circuits and receiving circuits.
sustained: When used to quantify the duration of a voltage interruption, refers to the time frame associated
with a long duration variation (i.e., greater than 1 min).
sustained interruption: A type of long duration variation. The complete loss of voltage (<0.1 pu) on one
of more phase conductors for a time greater than 1 min.
swell: (3) An increase in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycles to
1 min. Typical values are 1.1 pu to 1.8 pu.
temporary interruption: A type of short duration variation. The complete loss of voltage (<0.1 pu) on one
or more phase conductors for a time period between 3 s and 1 min.
total demand distortion (TDD): (1) The total root-sum-square harmonic current distortion, in percent of
the maximum demand load current (15 min or 30 min demand).
point of common coupling (PCC): (3) The point at which the electric utility and the customer interface
occurs. Typically, this point is the customer side of the utility revenue meter.
total harmonic distortion (THD), also distortion factor (harmonic factor):The ratio of the root-mean-
square of the harmonic content to the root-mean-square value of the fundamental quantity, expressed as a
percent of the fundamental.
transient: (7) Pertaining to or designating a phenomenon or a quantity that varies between two consecutive
steady states during a time interval that is short compared to the time scale of interest. A transient can be a
unidirectional impulse of either polarity or a damped oscillatory wave with the first peak occurring in either
polarity.
undervoltage: (1) When used to describe a specific type of long duration variation, refers to a measured
voltage having a value less than the nominal voltage for a period of time greater than 1 min. Typical values
are 0.8 pu to 0.9 pu.
voltage distortion: Any deviation from the nominal sine waveform of the ac line voltage.
voltage imbalance, polyphase systems: The ratio of the negative or zero sequence component to the
positive sequence component, usually expressed as a percentage. In the United States, it is also commonly
measured as the ratio of the maximum deviation to the average of the three phases
(ANSI C84.1-2006 [B1]).
voltage regulation: (6) The degree of control or stability of the rms voltage at the load. Often specified in
relation to other parameters, such as input-voltage changes, load changes, or temperature changes.
51
IEEE Std 1250-2011
Annex B
(informative)
Bibliography
B.1 Standards and reports
[B1] ANSI C84.1-2006, American National Standard for Electric Power Systems and Equipment
Voltage Ratings (60 Hertz).4
[B2] EN 50160-1999, Voltage characteristic of electricity supplied by public distribution systems.5
[B3] EPRI TR-106294-V2:1996, An Assessment of Distribution System Power Quality.6
[B4] IEC 61000-2-2:2002, Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)Part 2-2: Environment

Compatibility Levels for Low-Frequency Conducted Disturbances and Signalling in Public Low-Voltage
Power Supply Systems.7
[B5] IEC 61000-3-7:2008, Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)Part 3-7: LimitsAssessment of

Emission Limits for the Connection of Fluctuating Installations to MV, HV and EHV Power Systems.
[B6] IEC 61000-4-7:2009, Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)Part 4-7: Testing and Measurement
TechniquesGeneral Guide on Harmonics and Interharmonics Measurements and Instrumentation, for
Power Supply Systems and Equipment Connected Thereto.
[B7] IEC 61000-4-15:2010, Electromagnetic CompatibilityPart 4-15: Testing and Measurement

TechniquesFlickermeterFunctional and Design Specifications.
[B8] IEC 61000-4-30:2008, Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)Part 4-30: Testing and Measurement
TechniquesPower Quality Measurement Methods.
[B9] IEEE Std P1564TM/D12 (July 2010), IEEE Guide for Voltage Sag Indices.8
[B10] IEEE Std 446TM-1987 (Orange Book), IEEE Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby
Power Systems for Industrial and Commercial Applications.9,10
4
ANSI publications are available from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor,
New York, NY 10036, USA (http://www.ansi.org/).
5
EN publications are available from the European Committee for Standardization (CEN), 36, rue de Stassart, B-1050 Brussels,
Belgium (http://www.cenorm.be).
6
EPRI publications are available from the Electric Power Research Institute, 3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304
(http://www.epri.com).
7
IEC publications are available from the Sales Department of the International Electrotechnical Commission, Case Postale 131, 3 rue
de Varemb, CH-1211, Genve 20, Switzerland/Suisse (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United States
from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA.
8
This IEEE standards project was not approved by the IEEE-SA Standards Board at the time this publication went to press. For
information about obtaining a draft, contact the IEEE.
9
The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Incorporated.
10
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
52
IEEE Std 1250-2011
[B11] IEEE Std 493TM-1997 (Gold Book), IEEE Recommended Practice for the Design of Reliable
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems.
[B12] IEEE Std 519TM-1992, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electrical Power Systems.
[B13] IEEE Std 841TM-2009, IEEE Standard for Petroleum and Chemical Industry-Premium-Efficiency,
Severe-Duty, Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled (TEFC) Squirrel Cage Induction MotorsUp to and Including
370 kW (500 hp).
[B14] IEEE Std 1100TM-1992 (IEEE Emerald Book), IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and
Grounding Sensitive Electronic Equipment.
[B15] IEEE Std 1159TM-2009, IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality.
[B16] IEEE Std 1346TM-1998, IEEE Recommended Practice for Evaluating Electric Power System
Compatibility With Electronic Process Equipment (withdrawn).11
[B17] IEEE Std 1366TM-2003, IEEE Guide for Electric Power Distribution Reliability Indices.
[B18] IEEE Std 1453TM-2004, IEEE Recommended Practice for Measurement and Limits of Voltage
Fluctuations and Associated Light Flicker on AC Power Systems.
[B19] IEEE Std C57.110TM-1986, IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing Transformer Capability
When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents.
[B20] PacifiCorp, Engineering Handbook, Section 1C.8.1Voltage Frequency. Portland, OR: PacifiCorp,
Dec. 6, 1996, p. 1.
[B21] SEMI F47-0706:2006, Specification for Semiconductor Processing Equipment Voltage Sag
Immunity.12
B.2 Texts
[B22] Bollen, M. H. J., Understanding Power Quality Problems. New York: IEEE Press, 2000.
[B23] Dugan, R. C., Electrical Power Systems Quality. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2002.
[B24] The Dranetz Field Handbook for Power Quality Analysis. Edison, NJ: Dranetz Technologies, Inc.,
1991.
[B25] Griffith, D. C., Uninterruptible Power Supplies and Other Power Conditioners for Critical
Equipment. Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1989.
[B26] McEachern, A., Handbook of Power Signatures. Foster City, CA: Basic Measuring Instruments,
1988.
[B27] Mohan, N., Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 2003.
11
IEEE Std 1346-1998 has been withdrawn; however, copies can be obtained from Global Engineering, 15 Inverness Way East,
Englewood, CO 80112-5704, USA, tel. (303) 792-2181 (http://global.ihs.com/).
12
SEMI publications are available from SEMI Global Headquarters, 3081 Zanker Road, San Jose, CA 95134 (http://www.semi.org/).
53
IEEE Std 1250-2011
[B28] Morrison, R. and Lewis, W. H., Grounding and Shielding in Facilities. New York: Wiley
Interscience, 1990.
[B29] Soares Book on Grounding and Bonding, 10th ed. International Association of Electrical Inspectors,
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IEEE Guide for Identifying and Improving

Voltage Quality in Power Systems

IEEE Power & Energy Society

IEEE Guide for Identifying and Improving

Transmission and Distribution Committee

IEEE Power & Energy Society

Approved 31 March 2011

Approved 25 July 2012

American National Standards Institute

EPRl makes no warranty or representations, expressed or implied, with respect to the

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright 2011 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 978-0-7381-6585-1 STD97084

Secretary, IEEE-SA Standards Board

Laws and regulations

Updating of IEEE documents

Dennis Hansen, Chair

Adeoti Adediran Bill Howe Paulo Ribeiro

William J. Ackerman Dennis Hansen Bob Saint

Richard H. Hulett, Chair

Masayuki Ariyoshi Paul Houz Jon Rosdahl

Satish Aggarwal, NRC Representative

1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1

2. The power system ....................................................................................................................................... 1

2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1

3. Identifying voltage quality in power systems ............................................................................................. 5

3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 5

4. Electric utilities and voltage quality ......................................................................................................... 25

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 25

5. Susceptibility of power system loads ....................................................................................................... 31

5.1 Types of susceptible loads ................................................................................................................. 31

6. Power quality improvements for end users .............................................................................................. 34

6.1 End user wiring and grounding.......................................................................................................... 34

Annex A (informative) Glossary .................................................................................................................. 49

Annex B (informative) Bibliography............................................................................................................ 52

a) Voltage quality levels from benchmarking studies

2. The power system

2.2 Overview of power systems

Figure 1The electric power system

Figure 2Transmission network showing generators, substations,

Table 1 Common parts of the power system

3. Identifying voltage quality in power systems

3.2 Basic types of voltage quality variations

It is useful to divide voltage quality characteristics into two basic categories.

3.3 Steady-state (continuous) voltage quality characteristics

3.3.1 Voltage regulation

3.3.1.1 Example limits

Service Voltage > 600 V

Service Voltage 120-600 V

Service Voltage > 600 V

Figure 6Voltage regulation requirements from ANSI C84.1-2006 [B1]

3.3.1.2 Survey results

3.3.1.3 Recommended limit and assessment method

Distribution of Daily Range of RMS Voltage

Daily RMS Voltage Range (% of Site Average Voltage)

3.3.2 Voltage imbalance

3.3.2.1 Example limits

3.3.2.2 Survey results

3.3.2.3 Recommended limit and assessment method

3.3.3 Voltage distortion

Percentage of sites per voltage level

3.3.3.1 Example limits

Table 2 Harmonic compatibility levels