PROBLEM 2.

5
KNOWN: End-face temperatures and temperature dependence of k for a truncated cone.
FIND: Variation with axial distance along the cone of q x , q x , k, and dT / dx.
SCHEMATIC:
r

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in x (negligible temperature gradients in the r

direction), (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) Adiabatic sides, (4) No internal heat generation.
ANALYSIS: For the prescribed conditions, it follows from conservation of energy, Eq. 1.11c, that for
a differential control volume, E in E out or q x q x+dx . Hence

qx is independent of x.

Since A(x) increases with increasing x, it follows that q x q x / A x decreases with increasing x.
Since T decreases with increasing x, k increases with increasing x. Hence, from Fouriers law, Eq.
2.2,

dT
qx k ,
dx

it follows that | dT/dx | decreases with increasing x.

COMMENT: How is the analysis changed if a has a negative value?

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 PROBLEM 2.8
KNOWN: One-dimensional system with prescribed thermal conductivity and thickness.
FIND: Unknowns for various temperature conditions and sketch distribution.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) No internal heat
generation, (4) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: The rate equation and temperature gradient for this system are
dT dT T2 T1
qx k and . (1,2)
dx dx L
Using Eqs. (1) and (2), the unknown quantities for each case can be determined.

(a)
dT 20 50 K
280 K/m <
dx 0.25m
W K
qx 50 280 14.0 kW/m 2 . <
m K m

dT 10 30 K
(b) 80 K/m
dx 0.25m
W K
qx 50
m K
80
m
4.0 kW/m 2 . <

W K
(c) qx 50 160 8.0 kW/m 2
m K m
dT K
T2 L
dx
T1 0.25m 160
m
70 C. <
T2 110 C.

W K
(d) qx 50 80 4.0 kW/m 2
m K m
dT K
T1 T2 L 40 C 0.25m 80
dx m <
T1 60 C.

W K
(e) qx 50 200 10.0 kW/m 2
m K m

T1 T2 L
dT
30 C 0.25m 200
K
20 C. <
dx m

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 PROBLEM 2.9
KNOWN: Plane wall with prescribed thermal conductivity, thickness, and surface temperatures.
FIND: Heat flux, q x , and temperature gradient, dT/dx, for the three different coordinate systems
shown.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional heat flow, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) No internal
generation, (4) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: The rate equation for conduction heat transfer is
dT
qx k , (1)
dx
where the temperature gradient is constant throughout the wall and of the form

dT T L T 0
. (2)
dx L
Substituting numerical values, find the temperature gradients,
dT T2 T1 600 400 K
(a) 2000 K/m <
dx L 0.100m
dT T1 T2 400 600 K
(b) 2000 K/m <
dx L 0.100m
dT T2 T1 600 400 K
(c) 2000 K/m. <
dx L 0.100m
The heat rates, using Eq. (1) with k = 100 W/m K, are
W
(a) qx 100 2000 K/m=-200 kW/m 2 <
m K
W
(b) qx 100 ( 2000 K/m)=+200 kW/m 2 <
m K
W
(c) qx 100 2000 K / m = -200 kW / m2 <
m K

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 PROBLEM 2.10
KNOWN: Temperature distribution in solid cylinder and convection coefficient at cylinder surface.
FIND: Expressions for heat rate at cylinder surface and fluid temperature.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional, radial conduction, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) Constant
properties.
ANALYSIS: The heat rate from Fouriers law for the radial (cylindrical) system has the form
dT
qr kA r .
dr
2
Substituting for the temperature distribution, T(r) = a + br ,

qr k 2 rL 2br = -4 kbLr 2 .

At the outer surface ( r = ro), the conduction heat rate is

q r=ro 4 kbLro2 . <

From a surface energy balance at r = ro,

q r=ro q conv h 2 ro L T ro T ,

Substituting for q r=ro and solving for T ,

2kbro
T = T ro
h
2 kbro
T = a + bro2
h
2k
T = a+bro ro . <
h

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 PROBLEM 2.13
KNOWN: A rod of constant thermal conductivity k and variable cross-sectional area Ax(x) = Aoeax
where Ao and a are constants.
FIND: (a) Expression for the conduction heat rate, qx(x); use this expression to determine the
temperature distribution, T(x); and sketch of the temperature distribution, (b) Considering the presence
of volumetric heat generation rate, q q o exp ax , obtain an expression for qx(x) when the left
face, x = 0, is well insulated.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the rod, (2) Constant properties, (3) Steady-
state conditions.
ANALYSIS: Perform an energy balance on the control volume, A(x) dx,
Ein E out Eg 0

q x q x dx q A x dx 0
The conduction heat rate terms can be expressed as a Taylor series and substituting expressions for q
and A(x),
d
qx q o exp ax A o exp ax 0 (1)
dx
dT
qx k A x (2)
dx
(a) With no internal generation, q o = 0, and from Eq. (1) find
d
dx
qx 0 <
indicating that the heat rate is constant with x. By combining Eqs. (1) and (2)
d dT dT
dx
k A x
dx
0 or A x
dx
C1 (3) <
Continued...

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 PROBLEM 2.13 (Cont.)

That is, the product of the cross-sectional area and the temperature gradient is a constant, independent
of x. Hence, with T(0) > T(L), the temperature distribution is exponential, and as shown in the sketch
above. Separating variables and integrating Eq. (3), the general form for the temperature distribution
can be determined,
dT
A o exp ax C1
dx

dT C1Ao 1 exp ax dx

T x C1A oa exp ax C2 <

We could use the two temperature boundary conditions, To = T(0) and TL = T(L), to evaluate C1 and
C2 and, hence, obtain the temperature distribution in terms of To and TL.
(b) With the internal generation, from Eq. (1),
d
dx
qx qo Ao 0 or qx qo Ao x <
That is, the heat rate increases linearly with x.
COMMENTS: In part (b), you could determine the temperature distribution using Fouriers law and
knowledge of the heat rate dependence upon the x-coordinate. Give it a try!

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 PROBLEM 2.21
KNOWN: Diameter D, thickness L and initial temperature Ti of pan. Heat rate from stove to bottom
of pan. Convection coefficient h and variation of water temperature T (t) during Stage 1.
Temperature TL of pan surface in contact with water during Stage 2.
FIND: Form of heat equation and boundary conditions associated with the two stages.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in pan bottom, (2) Heat transfer from stove is
uniformly distributed over surface of pan in contact with the stove, (3) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS:
Stage 1
2T 1 T
Heat Equation:
x2 t

T qo
Boundary Conditions: k qo
xx 0 D2 / 4

T
k h T L, t T t
xx L

Initial Condition: T x, 0 Ti
Stage 2
d 2T
Heat Equation: 0
dx 2
dT
Boundary Conditions: k qo
dx x 0

T L TL

COMMENTS: Stage 1 is a transient process for which T (t) must be determined separately. As a
first approximation, it could be estimated by neglecting changes in thermal energy storage by the pan
bottom and assuming that all of the heat transferred from the stove acted to increase thermal energy
storage within the water. Hence, with q Mcp dT /dt, where M and cp are the mass and specific heat
of the water in the pan, T (t) (q/Mcp) t.

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 PROBLEM 2.22
KNOWN: Steady-state temperature distribution in a cylindrical rod having uniform heat generation
of q1 5 107 W / m3.
FIND: (a) Steady-state centerline and surface heat transfer rates per unit length, q r . (b) Initial time
rate of change of the centerline and surface temperatures in response to a change in the generation rate
from q1 to q 2 = 108 W/m3 .

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the r direction, (2) Uniform generation, and (3)
Steady-state for q1 = 5 107 W / m3.
ANALYSIS: (a) From the rate equations for cylindrical coordinates,
T T
qr k q = -kA r .
r r
Hence,
T
qr k 2 rL
r
or
T
qr 2 kr (1)
r
where T/ r may be evaluated from the prescribed temperature distribution, T(r).
At r = 0, the gradient is ( T/ r) = 0. Hence, from Equation (1) the heat rate is

qr 0 0. <
At r = ro, the temperature gradient is

T K
2 4.167 105 ro 2 4.167 105 0.025m
r r=r
o m2
T
0.208 105 K/m.
r r=r
o

Continued ..

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 PROBLEM 2.22 (Cont.)
Hence, the heat rate at the outer surface (r = ro) per unit length is

q r ro 2 30 W/m K 0.025m 0.208 105 K/m

q r ro 0.980 105 W/m. <

(b) Transient (time-dependent) conditions will exist when the generation is changed, and for the
prescribed assumptions, the temperature is determined by the following form of the heat equation,
Equation 2.24
1 T T
kr q2 cp
r r r t
Hence
T 1 1 T
kr q2 .
t cp r r r
However, initially (at t = 0), the temperature distribution is given by the prescribed form, T(r) = 800 -
52
4.167 10 r , and

1 T k
kr r -8.334 105 r
r r r r r
k
16.668 105 r
r

30 W/m K -16.668 105 K/m2

5 107 W/m3 the original q=q1 .

Hence, everywhere in the wall,
T 1
5 107 108 W/m3
t 1100 kg/m3 800 J/kg K
or
T
56.82 K / s. <
t
COMMENTS: (1) The value of ( T/ t) will decrease with increasing time, until a new steady-state
condition is reached and once again ( T/ t) = 0.
(2) By applying the energy conservation requirement, Equation 1.11c, to a unit length of the rod for
the steady-state condition, E in E out E gen 0. Hence q r 0 q r ro q1 ro2 .

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 PROBLEM 2.23
KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a one-dimensional wall with prescribed thickness and thermal
conductivity.
FIND: (a) The heat generation rate, q, in the wall, (b) Heat fluxes at the wall faces and relation to q.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional heat flow, (3) Constant
properties.
ANALYSIS: (a) The appropriate form of the heat equation for steady-state, one-dimensional
conditions with constant properties is Eq. 2.19 re-written as
d dT
q=-k
dx dx
Substituting the prescribed temperature distribution,
d d d
q=-k a+bx 2 k 2bx 2bk
dx dx dx

q=-2 -2000 C/m 2 50 W/m K=2.0 105 W/m3. <

(b) The heat fluxes at the wall faces can be evaluated from Fouriers law,
dT
qx x k .
dx x
Using the temperature distribution T(x) to evaluate the gradient, find
d
qx x k a+bx 2 2kbx.
dx
The fluxes at x = 0 and x = L are then

qx 0 0 <
qx L 2kbL=-2 50W/m K -2000 C/m 2 0.050m

qx L 10, 000 W/m 2 . <

COMMENTS: From an overall energy balance on the wall, it follows that, for a unit area,
Ein E out Eg 0 qx 0 qx L qL=0
q L qx 0 10, 000 W/m 2 0
q= x 2.0 105 W/m3.
L 0.050m

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 PROBLEM 2.24
KNOWN: Wall thickness, thermal conductivity, temperature distribution, and fluid temperature.
FIND: (a) Surface heat rates and rate of change of wall energy storage per unit area, and (b)
Convection coefficient.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in x, (2) Constant k.

ANALYSIS: (a) From Fouriers law,
T
qx k 200 60x k
x

C W
q in q x=0 200 1 200 W / m2 <
m m K

q out q x=L 200 60 0.3 C/m 1 W/m K=182 W/m 2 . <

Applying an energy balance to a control volume about the wall, Eq. 1.11c,
E in E out E st

E st q in q out 18 W / m2 . <
(b) Applying a surface energy balance at x = L,
q out h T L T

q out 182 W/m 2

h=
T L T 142.7-100 C

h = 4.3 W / m2 K. <
COMMENTS: (1) From the heat equation,
2 2
( T/ t) = (k/ cp) T/ x = 60(k/ cp),
it follows that the temperature is increasing with time at every point in the wall.
(2) The value of h is small and is typical of free convection in a gas.

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 PROBLEM 2.25
KNOWN: Analytical expression for the steady-state temperature distribution of a plane wall
experiencing uniform volumetric heat generation q while convection occurs at both of its surfaces.
FIND: (a) Sketch the temperature distribution, T(x), and identify significant physical features, (b)
Determine q , (c) Determine the surface heat fluxes, q x L and q x L ; how are these fluxes
related to the generation rate; (d) Calculate the convection coefficients at the surfaces x = L and x =
+L, (e) Obtain an expression for the heat flux distribution, q x x ; explain significant features of the
distribution; (f) If the source of heat generation is suddenly deactivated ( q = 0), what is the rate of
change of energy stored at this instant; (g) Determine the temperature that the wall will reach
eventually with q 0; determine the energy that must be removed by the fluid per unit area of the wall
to reach this state.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Uniform volumetric heat generation, (3) Constant
properties.
ANALYSIS: (a) Using the analytical expression in the Workspace of IHT, the temperature
distribution appears as shown below. The significant features include (1) parabolic shape, (2)
maximum does not occur at the mid-plane, T(-5.25 mm) = 83.3 C, (3) the gradient at the x = +L
surface is greater than at x = -L. Find also that T(-L) = 78.2 C and T(+L) = 69.8 C for use in part (d).
Temperature distribution

90

85

80

75

70
-20 -10 0 10 20

x-coordinate, x (m m)

(b) Substituting the temperature distribution expression into the appropriate form of the heat diffusion
equation, Eq. 2.19, the rate of volumetric heat generation can be determined.
d dT q
0 where T x a bx cx 2
dx dx k
d q q
0 b 2cx 0 2c 0
dx k k
Continued ..

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 PROBLEM 2.25 (Cont.)

q 2ck 2 2 104 C / m 2 5 W / m K 2 105 W / m3 <

(c) The heat fluxes at the two boundaries can be determined using Fouriers law and the temperature
distribution expression.
dT
qx x k where T x a bx cx 2
dx
qx L k 0 b 2cx x L
b 2cL k

qx L 210 C / m 2 2 104 C / m 2 0.020m 5W /m K 2950 W / m 2 <

qx L b 2cL k 5050 W / m 2 <
From an overall energy balance on the wall as shown in the sketch below, E in E out E gen 0,

?
qx L qx L 2qL 0 or 2950 W / m 2 5050 W / m 2 8000 W / m 2 0
5 3 2
where 2qL 2 2 10 W / m 0.020 m 8000 W / m , so the equality is satisfied

qconv,l qconv,r

(d) The convection coefficients, hl and hr, for the left- and right-hand boundaries (x = -L and x= +L,
respectively), can be determined from the convection heat fluxes that are equal to the conduction
fluxes at the boundaries. See the surface energy balances in the sketch above. See also part (a) result
for T(-L) and T(+L).
q conv, qx L

hl T T L h l 20 78.2 K 2950 W / m 2 hl 51W / m 2 K <

q conv,r qx L

hr T L T h r 69.8 20 K 5050 W / m 2 hr 101W / m2 K <

(e) The expression for the heat flux distribution can be obtained from Fouriers law with the
temperature distribution
dT
qx x k k 0 b 2cx
dx

qx x 5W / m K 210 C / m 2 2 104 C / m 2 x 1050 2 105 x <

Continued ..

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 PROBLEM 2.25 (Cont.)
The distribution is linear with the x-coordinate. The maximum temperature will occur at the location
where q x x max 0,

1050 W / m 2
x max 5.25 10 3 m 5.25 mm <
2 105 W / m3
(f) If the source of the heat generation is suddenly deactivated so that q = 0, the appropriate form of
the heat diffusion equation for the ensuing transient conduction is
T T
k cp
x x t
2
At the instant this occurs, the temperature distribution is still T(x) = a + bx + cx . The right-hand term
represents the rate of energy storage per unit volume,

E st k 0 b 2cx k 0 2c 5W / m K 2 2 10 4 C / m 2 2 105 W / m3 <

x
(g) With no heat generation, the wall will eventually (t ) come to equilibrium with the fluid,
T(x, ) = T = 20 C. To determine the energy that must be removed from the wall to reach this state,
apply the conservation of energy requirement over an interval basis, Eq. 1.11b. The initial state is
that corresponding to the steady-state temperature distribution, Ti, and the final state has Tf = 20 C.
Weve used T as the reference condition for the energy terms.
Ein E out Est Ef Ei with Ein 0.
L
E out cp T T dx
L i

L L
Eout cp a bx cx 2 T dx cp ax bx 2 / 2 cx 3 / 3 T x
L L

E out c p 2aL 0 2cL3 / 3 2T L

Eout 2600kg / m3 800J / kg K 2 82 C 0.020m 2 2 104 C / m2

3
0.020m / 3 2 20 C 0.020m

Eout 4.94 106 J / m 2 <

COMMENTS: (1) In part (a), note that the temperature gradient is larger at x = + L than at x
= - L. This is consistent with the results of part (c) in which the conduction heat fluxes are
evaluated.

Continued ..

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 PROBLEM 2.25 (Cont.)
(2) In evaluating the conduction heat fluxes, q x x , it is important to recognize that this flux
is in the positive x-direction. See how this convention is used in formulating the energy
balance in part (c).
(3) It is good practice to represent energy balances with a schematic, clearly defining the
system or surface, showing the CV or CS with dashed lines, and labeling the processes.
Review again the features in the schematics for the energy balances of parts (c & d).
(4) Re-writing the heat diffusion equation introduced in part (b) as
d dT
k q 0
dx dx
recognize that the term in parenthesis is the heat flux. From the differential equation, note
that if the differential of this term is a constant q / k , then the term must be a linear function
of the x-coordinate. This agrees with the analysis of part (e).
(5) In part (f), we evaluated Est , the rate of energy change stored in the wall at the instant the
volumetric heat generation was deactivated. Did you notice that Est 2 105 W / m3 is the
same value of the deactivated q ? How do you explain this?

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 PROBLEM 2.26
KNOWN: Steady-state conduction with uniform internal energy generation in a plane wall;
temperature distribution has quadratic form. Surface at x=0 is prescribed and boundary at x = L is
insulated.
FIND: (a) Calculate the internal energy generation rate, q , by applying an overall energy balance to
the wall, (b) Determine the coefficients a, b, and c, by applying the boundary conditions to the
prescribed form of the temperature distribution; plot the temperature distribution and label as Case 1,
(c) Determine new values for a, b, and c for conditions when the convection coefficient is halved, and
the generation rate remains unchanged; plot the temperature distribution and label as Case 2; (d)
Determine new values for a, b, and c for conditions when the generation rate is doubled, and the
2
convection coefficient remains unchanged (h = 500 W/m K); plot the temperature distribution and
label as Case 3.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction with constant

properties and uniform internal generation, and (3) Boundary at x = L is adiabatic.
ANALYSIS: (a) The internal energy generation rate can be calculated from an overall energy balance
on the wall as shown in the schematic below.
Ein E out Egen 0 where Ein qconv

h T To qL 0 (1)

q h T To / L 500 W / m 2 K 20 120 C / 0.050 m 1.0 106 W / m3 <

2
(b) The coefficients of the temperature distribution, T(x) = a + bx + cx , can be evaluated by applying
the boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = L. See Table 2.2 for representation of the boundary
conditions, and the schematic above for the relevant surface energy balances.
Boundary condition at x = 0, convection surface condition
dT
Ein E out qconv q x 0 0 where qx 0 k
dx x 0

h T To k 0 b 2cx x 0 0
Continued ..

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 PROBLEM 2.26 (Cont.)

b h T To / k 500 W / m 2 K 20 120 C / 5 W / m K 1.0 104 K / m (2) <

Boundary condition at x = L, adiabatic or insulated surface
dT
E in E out qx L 0 where qx L k
dx x L

k 0 b 2cx x L
0 (3)

c b / 2L 1.0 104 K / m / 2 0.050m 1.0 105 K / m 2 <

Since the surface temperature at x = 0 is known, T(0) = To = 120 C, find

T 0 120 C a b 0 c 0 or a 120 C (4) <

Using the foregoing coefficients with the expression for T(x) in the Workspace of IHT, the
temperature distribution can be determined and is plotted as Case 1 in the graph below.
2
(c) Consider Case 2 when the convection coefficient is halved, h2 = h/2 = 250 W/m K, q 1 106
3
W/m and other parameters remain unchanged except that To 120 C. We can determine a, b, and c
for the temperature distribution expression by repeating the analyses of parts (a) and (b).
Overall energy balance on the wall, see Eqs. (1,4)

a To qL/h T 1 106 W / m3 0.050m / 250 W / m 2 K 20 C 220 C <

Surface energy balance at x = 0, see Eq. (2)

b h T To / k 250 W / m2 K 20 220 C / 5 W / m K 1.0 104 K / m <

Surface energy balance at x = L, see Eq. (3)

c b / 2L 1.0 104 K / m / 2 0.050m 1.0 105 K / m 2 <

The new temperature distribution, T2 (x), is plotted as Case 2 below.
(d) Consider Case 3 when the internal energy volumetric generation rate is doubled,
6 3 2
q3 2q 2 10 W / m , h = 500 W/m K, and other parameters remain unchanged except that
To 120 C. Following the same analysis as part (c), the coefficients for the new temperature
distribution, T (x), are

a 220 C b 2 104 K / m c 2 105 K / m2 <

and the distribution is plotted as Case 3 below.

Continued ..

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 PROBLEM 2.26 (Cont.)

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Wall position, x (mm)

1. h = 500 W/m^2.K, qdot = 1e6 W/m ^3

2. h = 250 W/m^2.K, qdot = 1e6 W/m ^3
3. h = 500 W/m^2.K, qdot = 2e6 W/m ^3

COMMENTS: Note the following features in the family of temperature distributions plotted above.
The temperature gradients at x = L are zero since the boundary is insulated (adiabatic) for all cases.
The shapes of the distributions are all quadratic, with the maximum temperatures at the insulated
boundary.

By halving the convection coefficient for Case 2, we expect the surface temperature To to increase
relative to the Case 1 value, since the same heat flux is removed from the wall qL but the
convection resistance has increased.

By doubling the generation rate for Case 3, we expect the surface temperature To to increase relative
to the Case 1 value, since double the amount of heat flux is removed from the wall 2qL .

Can you explain why To is the same for Cases 2 and 3, yet the insulated boundary temperatures are
quite different? Can you explain the relative magnitudes of T(L) for the three cases?

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 PROBLEM 2.27
KNOWN: Temperature distribution and distribution of heat generation in central layer of a solar
pond.
FIND: (a) Heat fluxes at lower and upper surfaces of the central layer, (b) Whether conditions are
steady or transient, (c) Rate of thermal energy generation for the entire central layer.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Central layer is stagnant, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) Constant
properties
ANALYSIS: (a) The desired fluxes correspond to conduction fluxes in the central layer at the lower
and upper surfaces. A general form for the conduction flux is
T A -ax
q cond k k e B .
x ka
Hence,
A -aL A
ql q cond x=L k e B qu q cond x=0 k B . <
ka ka
(b) Conditions are steady if T/ t = 0. Applying the heat equation,
2T q 1 T A -ax A -ax 1 T
- e e
x2 k t k k t
Hence conditions are steady since

T/ t = 0 (for all 0 L). <

(c) For the central layer, the energy generation is

Eg z
0
L
q dx = A
L
z
L -ax
0
e dx

A -ax A -aL A
Eg e e 1 1 e-aL . <
a 0 a a

Alternatively, from an overall energy balance,

q 2 q1 E g 0 Eg q1 q 2 q cond x=0 q cond x=L

A A -aL A
Eg k B k e B 1 e-aL .
ka ka a
COMMENTS: Conduction is in the negative x-direction, necessitating use of minus signs in the
above energy balance.

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 PROBLEM 2.31
KNOWN: Coal pile of prescribed depth experiencing uniform volumetric generation with
convection, absorbed irradiation and emission on its upper surface.
FIND: (a) The appropriate form of the heat diffusion equation (HDE) and whether the prescribed
temperature distribution satisfies this HDE; conditions at the bottom of the pile, x = 0; sketch of the
temperature distribution with labeling of key features; (b) Expression for the conduction heat rate at
the location x = L; expression for the surface temperature Ts based upon a surface energy balance at x
= L; evaluate Ts and T(0) for the prescribed conditions; (c) Based upon typical daily averages for GS
and h, compute and plot Ts and T(0) for (1) h = 5 W/m2 K with 50 GS 500 W/m2, (2) GS = 400
W/m2 with 5 h 50 W/m2 K.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Uniform volumetric heat generation, (3)
Constant properties, (4) Negligible irradiation from the surroundings, and (5) Steady-state conditions.
PROPERTIES: Table A.3, Coal (300K): k = 0.26 W/m.K
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional, steady-state conduction with uniform volumetric heat
generation and constant properties the heat diffusion equation (HDE) follows from Eq. 2.20,
d dT q
dx dx k
0 (1) <
Substituting the temperature distribution into the HDE, Eq. (1),
qL2 x2 d qL2 2x q
T x Ts 1 0 0 ? ?0 (2,3)
2
2k L dx 2k L2 k

we find that it does indeed satisfy the HDE for all values of x. <
From Eq. (2), note that the temperature distribution must be quadratic, with maximum value at x = 0.
At x = 0, the heat flux is

dT qL2 2x
qx 0 k k 0 0 0
dx x 0 2k L2 x 0

so that the gradient at x = 0 is zero. Hence, the

bottom is insulated.

(b) From an overall energy balance on the pile, the conduction heat flux at the surface must be

qx L Eg qL <
Continued...

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 PROBLEM 2.31 (Cont.)
From a surface energy balance per unit area shown in the Schematic above,
Ein Eout Eg 0 qx L qconv GS,abs E 0

qL h Ts T 0.95GS Ts4 0 (4)

3 2 2 8 2 4 4
20 W m 1m 5 W m K Ts 298 K 0.95 400 W m 0.95 5.67 10 W m K Ts 0

Ts = 295.7 K =22.7 C <

From Eq. (2) with x = 0, find
2
qL2 20 W m3 1m
T 0 Ts
2k
22.7 C
2 0.26 W m K
61.1 C (5) <
where the thermal conductivity for coal was obtained from Table A.3.
(c) Two plots are generated using Eq. (4) and (5) for Ts and T(0), respectively; (1) with h = 5 W/m2 K
for 50 GS 500 W/m2 and (2) with GS = 400 W/m2 for 5 h 50 W/m2 K.

Solar irradiation, GS = 400 W/m^2

Convection coefficient, h = 5 W/m^2.K 80

80
Temperature, Ts or T(0) (C)

60
Temperature, Ts or T(0) (C)

60

40
40

20

20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50

Convection coefficient, h (W/m^2.K)

-20
0 100 200 300 400 500 T0_C
Ts_C
Solar irradiation, GS (W/m^2)

T0_C
Ts_C

From the T vs. h plot with GS = 400 W/m2, note that the convection coefficient does not have a major
influence on the surface or bottom coal pile temperatures. From the T vs. GS plot with h = 5 W/m2 K,
note that the solar irradiation has a very significant effect on the temperatures. The fact that Ts is less
than the ambient air temperature, T , and, in the case of very low values of GS, below freezing, is a
consequence of the large magnitude of the emissive power E.
COMMENTS: In our analysis we ignored irradiation from the sky, an environmental radiation effect
youll consider in Chapter 12. Treated as large isothermal surroundings, Gsky = Tsky 4 where T = -
sky

30 C for very clear conditions and nearly air temperature for cloudy conditions. For low GS
conditions we should consider Gsky, the effect of which will be to predict higher values for T s and
T(0).

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 PROBLEM 2.43
KNOWN: Spherical container with an exothermic reaction enclosed by an insulating material whose
outer surface experiences convection with adjoining air and radiation exchange with large
surroundings.

FIND: (a) Verify that the prescribed temperature distribution for the insulation satisfies the
appropriate form of the heat diffusion equation; sketch the temperature distribution and label key
features; (b) Applying Fourier's law, verify the conduction heat rate expression for the insulation layer,
qr, in terms of Ts,1 and Ts,2; apply a surface energy balance to the container and obtain an alternative
expression for qr in terms of q and r1; (c) Apply a surface energy balance around the outer surface of
the insulation to obtain an expression to evaluate Ts,2; (d) Determine Ts,2 for the specified geometry
and operating conditions; (e) Compute and plot the variation of Ts,2 as a function of the outer radius
for the range 201 r2 210 mm; explore approaches for reducing Ts,2 45 C to eliminate potential
risk for burn injuries to personnel.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional, radial spherical conduction, (2) Isothermal reaction in

container so that To = Ts,1, (2) Negligible thermal contact resistance between the container and
insulation, (3) Constant properties in the insulation, (4) Surroundings large compared to the insulated
vessel, and (5) Steady-state conditions.

ANALYSIS: The appropriate form of the heat diffusion equation (HDE) for the insulation follows
from Eq. 2.27,
1 d
r2
dT
0 (1) <
r 2 dr dr

The temperature distribution is given as

1 r1 r
T r Ts,1 Ts,1 Ts,2 (2)
1 r1 r2
Substitute T(r) into the HDE to see if it is satisfied:

1 d 0 r1 r 2
2
r 0 Ts,1 Ts,2 0
r 2 dr 1 r1 r2

1 d
Ts,1 Ts,2
r1
0 <
r 2 dr 1 r1 r2

and since the expression in parenthesis is independent of r, T(r) does indeed satisfy the HDE. The
temperature distribution in the insulation and its key features are as follows:
Continued...

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 PROBLEM 2.43 (Cont.)

(1) Ts,1 > Ts,2

(2) Decreasing gradient with increasing radius,

r, since the heat rate is constant through
the insulation.

(b) Using Fouriers law for the radial-spherical coordinate, the heat rate through the insulation is

qr kA r
dT
dr
k 4 r2
dT
dr
<
and substituting for the temperature distribution, Eq. (2),

0 r1 r 2
2
qr 4k r 0 Ts,1 Ts,2
1 r1 r2

4 k Ts,1 Ts,2
qr
1 r1 1 r2
(3) <
Applying an energy balance to a control surface about the container at r = r1,

E in E out 0

q qr 0

where q represents the generated heat in the container,

qr 4 3 r13q (4) <

(c) Applying an energy balance to a control surface placed around the outer surface of the insulation,

qconv
E in E out 0

qr q conv q rad 0

qr hAs Ts,2 T As 4
Ts,2 4
Tsur 0 (5) <
Continued...

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 PROBLEM 2.43 (Cont.)

where
As 4 r22 (6)

These relations can be used to determine Ts,2 in terms of the variables q , r1, r2, h, T , and Tsur.
(d) Consider the reactor system operating under the following conditions:

r1 = 200 mm h = 5 W/m2 K = 0.9

r2 = 208 mm T = 25 C Tsur = 35 C
k = 0.05 W/m K

The heat generated by the exothermic reaction provides for a volumetric heat generation rate,

q q o exp A To qo 5000 W m3 A 75 K (7)

where the temperature of the reaction is that of the inner surface of the insulation, To = Ts,1. The
following system of equations will determine the operating conditions for the reactor.
Conduction rate equation, insulation, Eq. (3),
4 0.05 W m K Ts,1 Ts,2
qr (8)
1 0.200 m 1 0.208 m

Heat generated in the reactor, Eqs. (4) and (7),

3
qr 43 0.200 m q (9)

q 5000 W m3 exp 75 K Ts,1 (10)

Surface energy balance, insulation, Eqs. (5) and (6),

4
qr 5 W m 2 K As Ts,2 298 K 0.9As 5.67 10 8 W m 2 K 4 Ts,2
4
308 K 0 (11)

2
As 4 0.208 m (12)

Solving these equations simultaneously, find that

Ts,1 94.3 C Ts,2 52.5 C <

That is, the reactor will be operating at To = Ts,1 = 94.3 C, very close to the desired 95 C operating
condition.
(e) Using the above system of equations, Eqs. (8)-(12), we have explored the effects of changes in the
convection coefficient, h, and the insulation thermal conductivity, k, as a function of insulation
thickness, t = r2 - r1.

Continued...

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 PROBLEM 2.43 (Cont.)

55 120
Outer surface temperature, Ts2 (C)

Reaction temperature, To (C)

100
50

80
45
60

40
40

35 20
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

Insulation thickness, (r2 - r1) (mm) Insulation thickness, (r2-r1) (mm)

k = 0.05 W/m.K, h = 5 W/m^2.K k = 0.05 W/m.K, h = 5 W/m^2.K

k = 0.01 W/m.K, h = 5 W/m^2.K k = 0.01 W/m.K, h = 5 W/m^2.K
k = 0.05 W/m.K, h = 15 W/m^2.K k = 0.05 W/m.K, h = 15 W/m^2.K

In the Ts,2 vs. (r2 - r1) plot, note that decreasing the thermal conductivity from 0.05 to 0.01 W/m K
slightly increases Ts,2 while increasing the convection coefficient from 5 to 15 W/m2 K markedly
decreases Ts,2. Insulation thickness only has a minor effect on Ts,2 for either option. In the To vs. (r2 -
r1) plot, note that, for all the options, the effect of increased insulation is to increase the reaction
temperature. With k = 0.01 W/m K, the reaction temperature increases beyond 95 C with less than 2
mm insulation. For the case with h = 15 W/m2 K, the reaction temperature begins to approach 95 C
with insulation thickness around 10 mm. We conclude that by selecting the proper insulation
thickness and controlling the convection coefficient, the reaction could be operated around 95 C such
that the outer surface temperature would not exceed 45 C.

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 PROBLEM 2.45
KNOWN: Plate of thickness 2L, initially at a uniform temperature of Ti = 200 C, is suddenly
2
quenched in a liquid bath of T = 20 C with a convection coefficient of 100 W/m K.
FIND: (a) On T-x coordinates, sketch the temperature distributions for the initial condition (t 0), the
steady-state condition (t ), and two intermediate times; (b) On q x t coordinates, sketch the
variation with time of the heat flux at x = L, (c) Determine the heat flux at x = L and for t = 0; what is
the temperature gradient for this condition; (d) By performing an energy balance on the plate,
2
determine the amount of energy per unit surface area of the plate (J/m ) that is transferred to the bath
over the time required to reach steady-state conditions; and (e) Determine the energy transferred to the
bath during the quenching process using the exponential-decay relation for the surface heat flux.
SCHEMATIC:

<

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 PROBLEM 2.45 (Cont.)

Ein Eout 0
T
q x L, 0 q conv t 0 0 with q x L, 0 k
x x L
T
q conv t 0 /k 18 103 W / m 2 / 50 W / m K 360 K / m <
x L,0

(d) The energy transferred from the plate to the bath over the time required to reach steady-state
conditions can be determined from an energy balance on a time interval basis, Eq. 1.11b. For the
initial state, the plate has a uniform temperature Ti; for the final state, the plate is at the temperature of
the bath, T .
Ein E out Est Ef Ei with Ein 0,

E out c p 2L T Ti

E out 2770 kg / m3 875 J / kg K 2 0.010 m 20 200 K 8.73 106 J / m 2 <

(e) The energy transfer from the plate to the bath during the quenching process can be evaluated from
knowledge of the surface heat flux as a function of time. The area under the curve in the q x L, t vs.
time plot (see schematic above) represents the energy transferred during the quench process.

Eout 2 q L, t dt 2 Ae Bt dt
t 0 x t 0

1 Bt 1
E out 2A e 2A 0 1 2A / B
B 0 B

E out 2 1.80 104 W / m 2 / 4.126 10 3 s 1 8.73 106 J / m 2 <

COMMENTS: (1) Can you identify and explain the important features in the temperature
distributions of part (a)?
(2) The maximum heat flux from the plate occurs at the instant the quench process begins and is equal
to the convection heat flux. At this instant, the gradient in the plate at the surface is a maximum. If
the gradient is too large, excessive thermal stresses could be induced and cracking could occur.
(3) In this thermodynamic analysis, we were able to determine the energy transferred during the
quenching process. We cannot determine the rate at which cooling of the plate occurs without solving
the heat diffusion equation.

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 PROBLEM 2.46
KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform temperature, is suddenly exposed to convective heating.
FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find the
temperature distribution, T(x,t); (b) Sketch T(x,t) for these conditions: initial (t 0), steady-state, t
, and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of time for surface locations; (d)
3
Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume (J/m ).
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal heat
generation.
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional conduction with constant properties, the heat equation has the
form,

2
T 1 T
2 t
x

Initial, t 0 : T x,0 Ti uniform

Boundaries: x=0 T/ x)0 0 adiabatic
and the
conditions are: x=L k T/ x) L = h T L,t T convection

(b) The temperature distributions are shown on the sketch.

Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is adiabatic. Note also that the
gradient at x = L decreases with time.

(c) The heat flux, q x x,t , as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces x = 0 and x
= L.

Continued ..

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 PROBLEM 2.46 (Cont.)

For the surface at x 0, q x 0, t 0 since it is adiabatic. At x = L and t = 0, q x L,0 is a

maximum (in magnitude)

q x L,0 h T L,0 T

where T(L,0) = Ti. The temperature difference, and hence the flux, decreases with time.

(d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as

Ein q conv As dt
0
Ein hAs T T L,t dt
0

Dividing both sides by AsL, the energy transferred per unit volume is

Ein h
T T L,t dt J/m3
V L 0
COMMENTS: Note that the heat flux at x = L is into the wall and is hence in the negative x
direction.

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 PROBLEM 2.48
KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform temperature To, has one surface (x = L) suddenly
exposed to a convection process (T To,h), while the other surface (x = 0) is maintained at To. Also,
wall experiences uniform volumetric heating q such that the maximum steady-state temperature will
exceed T .
FIND: (a) Sketch temperature distribution (T vs. x) for following conditions: initial (t 0), steady-
state (t ), and two intermediate times; also show distribution when there is no heat flow at the x =
L boundary, (b) Sketch the heat flux q x vs. t at the boundaries x = 0 and L.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) Uniform volumetric
generation, (4) To T and q large enough that T(x, ) > T for some x.
ANALYSIS: (a) The initial and boundary conditions for the wall can be written as

Initial (t 0): T(x,0) = To Uniform temperature

Boundary: x = 0 T(0,t) = To Constant temperature
T
x L k h T L,t T Convection process.
x x=L
The temperature distributions are shown on the T-x coordinates below. Note the special condition
when the heat flux at (x = L) is zero.
(b) The heat flux as a function of time at the boundaries, q x 0, t and q x L,t , can be inferred
from the temperature distributions using Fouriers law.

q x (L, 0)
h(T0 T )

COMMENTS: Since T x, T for some x and T To , heat transfer at both boundaries must be
out of the wall at steady state. From an overall energy balance at steady state,
q x L, q x 0, qL.

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 PROBLEM 2.51
KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a plane wall of thickness L experiencing uniform volumetric
heating q having one surface (x = 0) insulated and the other exposed to a convection process
characterized by T and h. Suddenly the volumetric heat generation is deactivated while convection
continues to occur.
FIND: (a) Determine the magnitude of the volumetric energy generation rate associated with the
initial condition, (b) On T-x coordinates, sketch the temperature distributions for the initial condition
(T 0), the steady-state condition (t ), and two intermediate times; (c) On q x - t coordinates,
sketch the variation with time of the heat flux at the boundary exposed to the convection process,
q x L, t ; calculate the corresponding value of the heat flux at t = 0; and (d) Determine the amount of
2
energy removed from the wall per unit area (J/m ) by the fluid stream as the wall cools from its initial
to steady-state condition.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, and (3) Uniform internal
volumetric heat generation for t < 0.
ANALYSIS: (a) The volumetric heating rate can be determined by substituting the temperature
distribution for the initial condition into the appropriate form of the heat diffusion equation.
d dT q
0 where T x, 0 a bx 2
dx dx k
d q q
0 2bx 0 2b 0
dx k k

q 2kb 2 90 W / m K 1.0 104 C / m 2 1.8 106 W / m3 <

(b) The temperature distributions are shown in the sketch below.

Continued ..

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 PROBLEM 2.51 (Cont.)

(c) The heat flux at the exposed surface x = L, q x L, 0 , is initially a maximum value and decreases
with increasing time as shown in the sketch above. The heat flux at t = 0 is equal to the convection
heat flux with the surface temperature T(L,0). See the surface energy balance represented in the
schematic.

q x L, 0 q conv t 0 h T L, 0 T 1000 W / m 2 K 200 20 C 1.80 105 W / m 2 <

2
where T L, 0 a bL2 300 C 1.0 104 C / m 2 0.1m 200 C.

(d) The energy removed from the wall to the fluid as it cools from its initial to steady-state condition
can be determined from an energy balance on a time interval basis, Eq. 1.11b. For the initial state, the
2
wall has the temperature distribution T(x,0) = a + bx ; for the final state, the wall is at the temperature
of the fluid, Tf = T . We have used T as the reference condition for the energy terms.
Ein E out Est Ef Ei with Ein 0
x L
E out cp T x, 0 T dx
x 0

x L L
E out cp a bx 2 T dx c p ax bx 3 / 3 T x
x 0 0
3
E out 7000 kg / m3 450 J / kg K 300 0.1 1.0 104 0.1 / 3 20 0.1 K m

E out 7.77 107 J / m 2 <

COMMENTS: (1) In the temperature distributions of part (a), note these features: initial condition
has quadratic form with zero gradient at the adiabatic boundary; for the steady-state condition, the wall
has reached the temperature of the fluid; for all distributions, the gradient at the adiabatic boundary is
zero; and, the gradient at the exposed boundary decreases with increasing time.
(2) In this thermodynamic analysis, we were able to determine the energy transferred during the
cooling process. However, we cannot determine the rate at which cooling of the wall occurs without
solving the heat diffusion equation.

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 PROBLEM 2.54
KNOWN: Radius and length of coiled wire in hair dryer. Electric power dissipation in the wire, and
temperature and convection coefficient associated with air flow over the wire.
FIND: (a) Form of heat equation and conditions governing transient, thermal behavior of wire during
start-up, (b) Volumetric rate of thermal energy generation in the wire, (c) Sketch of temperature
distribution at selected times during start-up, (d) Variation with time of heat flux at r = 0 and r = ro.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional, radial conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) Uniform
volumetric heating, (4) Negligible radiation from surface of wire.
ANALYSIS: (a) The general form of the heat equation for cylindrical coordinates is given by Eq.
2.24. For one-dimensional, radial conduction and constant properties, the equation reduces to
1 T q cp T 1 T
r <
r r r k k t t

The initial condition is T r, 0 Ti <

The boundary conditions are: T/ r r 0 0 <
T
k h T ro , t T <
r r r
o
(b) The volumetric rate of thermal energy generation is
Eg Pelec 500 W
q
2 2
8
3.18 10 W / m
3
<
ro L 0.001m 0.5m
Under steady-state conditions, all of the thermal energy generated within the wire is transferred to the
air by convection. Performing an energy balance for a control surface about the wire, E out E g 0,
it follows that 2 ro L q ro , t Pelec 0. Hence,
Pelec 500 W
q ro , t
5
1.59 10 W / m
2
<
2 ro L 2 0.001m 0.5m

COMMENTS: The symmetry condition at r = 0 imposes the requirement that T / r r 0 0, and

hence q 0, t 0 throughout the process. The temperature at ro, and hence the convection heat flux,
increases steadily during the start-up, and since conduction to the surface must be balanced by
convection from the surface at all times, T / r r r also increases during the start-up.
o

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