Notes: 03
(Entry-2016)
A pure substance can exist in more than one phase, but its chemical
composition must be the same in each phase.
When a liquid is heated at any one constant pressure, there is one fixed
temperature at which bubbles of vapor form in the liquid. This
phenomenon is called boiling.
A series of boiling points plotted on a -diagram will appear as a
sloping line (fig-3.1).
Pressure at which the turning point occurs is called the critical pressure
( ), and temperature is called critical temperature ( ). The point itself
is called the critical point ( fig-3.3). Substance at this condition
undergoes change of phase directly from liquid to gas (highly
superheated vapor) and vice versa, i.e. its never a wet vapor.
Substance existing at a state point inside the loop is called a wet vapor. It is a mixture
of liquid and dry vapor.
Saturation state is defined as a state at which a change of phase may occur without
change of pressure or temperature. Saturation refers here to energy saturation.
Saturated vapor is usually called dry saturated to distinguish it from liquid or wet
vapor.
Isothermals are lines of constant temperature (fig-3.4). There is
corresponding saturation temperature for each saturation pressure.
The critical temperature line just touches the top of the saturation
loop at the critical point .
Dry saturated vapor when heated at constant pressure becomes superheated.
Difference between the actual temperature of the superheated vapor and the
saturation temperature at the pressure of the vapor is called the degree of
superheat. The vapor at point (fig-3.4) is superheated at and and the
degree of superheat is .
Note: for a saturated liquid, ; and that for a dry saturated vapor, .
The isothermal at (fig-3.4) is almost a hyperbola, i.e.
Now, the properties of an ideal substance called a perfect gas are related by
, called the equation of state.
All substances tend towards a perfect gas at very high degrees of superheat.
Oxygen ( ), nitrogen ( ), hydrogen ( ), etc.
are highly superheated at normal atmospheric conditions (say, ).
Substances normally existing as vapor must be raised to high temperature
before they begin to act as a perfect gas.
As far in this case, it is the area under the horizontal line on the -diagram,
From equation 2.7
Triple point is the condition at which all the three phases of a substance coexist.
Water at is at the triple point.
In steam tables, the specific internal energy ( ) is taken as zero at the triple point of
water and from, , obtained is negligibly small and therefore may be
taken as zero. At the other end of pressure range, at
, corresponding to critical point of water, (no boiling!).
Properties of Wet Vapor
1. Specific Volume
Statement
(next page)
From equation 3.2, , inserting the values gives:
Statement
For pressures above , there is no entry for internal energy and the
values can be found by using equation 2.7. For example, steam at
has an enthalpy, , of , and a specific
volume, , of , therefore,
Example 3.3
Statement
Statement
It is assumed that the variation between the given values is linear (fig-3.9).
For example, to find saturation temperature corresponding to the
saturation pressure of , it is necessary to interpolate
between the values given in the steam tables, i.e.
Now, interpolate between at 15 , 432, and at 20 , 432 in order to find at 18.5 , 432,
3.5
. . = 3325.1 3325.1 3317.8
5
There is a negative sign, in this case, since at 15 , 432 is larger than at 20 , 432.
No gases in practice obey this law rigidly, but many gases tend towards it. An
imaginary gas which obeys the law is called a perfect gas, and the equation,
, is called the characteristic equation of state for a perfect gas.
The constant is called the specific gas constant. The units of are
. Each perfect gas has a different specific gas constant.
The characteristic equation is usually written as
Another form of the characteristic equation can be derived using the mole as a
unit. The mole was defined by the 1971 General Conference of Weights and
Measures (CGPM) as follows:
Mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as
many elementary entities as there are atoms in of
carbon-12.
Statement
. .
.
Example 3.6
Statement
of a certain perfect gas occupies a volume of at a
pressure of and a temperature of . Calculate the molar mass
of the gas. When the gas is allowed to expand until the pressure is ,
the final volume is . Calculate the final temperature.
Solution
non-flow
For a gas (system) there are an infinite number of ways in which energy may be
added between any two temperatures by means of heat, and hence a gas could have
an infinite number of specific heats.
However, only two specific heats for gases are defined; the specific heat at constant
volume, , and the specific heat at constant pressure, , i.e.
Similarly,
For a perfect gas the values of and are constant for any one gas at all
pressures and temperatures. Integrating equations 3.10 and 3.11, gives
Let 1 kg of a perfect gas is heated at constant volume. Using equation 2.3,
, and noting that in a constant volume process, , gives
and integrating,
For a perfect gas it can be assumed that when , which
gives , i.e.
Using equation (3.h) reduces the above expression for specific enthalpy to
is always greater than unity. Following table shows typical values for
some gases.
Dividing, , by gives
Statement
Find the gas constant and the molar mass of the gas.
Solution
Statement
b) When the gas enters a pipeline at , and flows steadily to the end
of the pipe where the temperature is . Neglect changes in velocity
of the gas in the pipeline.
Solution
where .