Figure 1: Map of the Taupo Volcanic Zone, showing Most recently, a 3D geological model has been
the location of geothermal fields developed of the Kawerau Geothermal Field for
delineated by geophysics and drilling. Mighty River Power Ltd., using Leapfrog
Geothermal (Alcaraz et al., 2010b).
Whilst most 3D software work with predefined grids,
Earth Research used an approach where stratigraphic The 3D geological model of the Kawerau geothermal
surfaces and geological volumes are modelled using a system incorporated stratigraphic and structural
class of implicit functions called radial basis (logging) data from 48 wells, and represented the best
functions (Carr et al., 2001). The implicit functions interpretation based on available well data, published
are based on stratigraphic data from drillhole logs, logs, and findings from a stratigraphic review of the
with interpolated surfaces used to create volumes that field (Milicich et al., 2010a). The review discussed
represent the geological units. Faults are visualised as uncertainties in correlating some lithologies across
surfaces that subdivide space. the Kawerau Geothermal Field. The 3D visualisation
model provided a new perspective of the geology and
The Earth Research 3D model of Ohaaki was structure of the Kawerau Geothermal Field, and
presented at the World Geothermal Congress in 2010 highlighted issues of uncertainty where inferred
(Milicich et al., 2010b). geological relationships required further attention.
Figure 2: 3D geological model of the Wairakei Geothermal Field, highlighting the complex fault structure, and
unconformity of Tahorakuri Formation (brown) with overlying Wairakei Ignimbrite (green).
Waiora Formation (orange unit in Figure 2) and Huka Numerical reservoir simulation: A complementary
Falls Formation (shown in pale grey). Once the objective of 3D geological visualisation is the use of
stratigraphic order is defined, the software generates Leapfrog Geothermal to improve reservoir numerical
each formation as a volume. Lava bodies such as simulation. Consequently, Leapfrog Geothermal is
rhyolitic domes (e.g. Karapiti Rhyolites) are built as being upgraded, to complement TOUGH2 models
closed surfaces, cross-cutting the stratigraphic layers. developed using grids manually populated with
geology from the 3D models. In fact, Leapfrog
Structural features are incorporated during the Geothermal can directly populate the cell properties
surface generation by specifying planes that of TOUGH2 grids (Figure 5) and load the simulation
subdivide interpolation space into individual output, thus integrating geological modelling and
domains. Structural inferences across the Wairakei reservoir simulation. Heat flows can also be
Geothermal Field were guided by inferred represented, which provides invaluable insights
stratigraphic offsets in the Tahorakuri Formation and concerning the role of fractures and faults in
Wairakei Ignimbrite (Figure 2). focussing fluid flow.
Additional Attributes of Leapfrog Geothermal In the future, it is planned that Leapfrog Geothermal
Well targeting: Wairakei and Ohaaki 3-D geological 3D geological and structural models will incorporate
models have been used by geologists at GNS Science more chemical and reservoir parameter data. It is also
and Contact Energy Ltd. to design wells that intersect intended that flow simulators will be integrated into a
inferred structural and lithological targets. single interface that will allow better understanding
of the complexities of the geothermal system, for
Prior to drilling, the Leapfrog Geothermal model is better resource management and sustainability.
used to predict the geology likely to be encountered
by a new well (Figures 3, 4), taking into account a
range of drill hole scenarios, including (bottom hole)
depth, kick-off depth, well azimuth etc.
Subsequently, new data can be added to the model as
drilling proceeds, which is of immediate value to the
developer, and supports a flexible drilling strategy.
CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Visualisation and 3D modelling software, Leapfrog The authors wish to acknowledge funding to GNS
Geothermal, has been used image the geology of the Science from the New Zealand Foundation for
Wairakei, Ohaaki and Kawerau geothermal systems Research Science and Technology (FRST), PROJ-
(New Zealand). Leapfrog Geothermal has been 12405-IFS, Geothermal: New Zealands Energy
developed specifically for the geothermal industry, Solution. Contact Energy Ltd. is thanked for
and provides a major advance on traditional 2-D permission to use images from the 3-D model of the
representations of field stratigraphy, structure and Wairakei Geothermal Field in this paper.
hydrothermal alteration. Work is advanced to include
a TOUGH2 reservoir simulation capability. REFERENCES
Leapfrog Geothermal provides a user-friendly, Alcaraz, S., Sepulveda, F., Lane, R., Rosenberg, M.,
efficient 3-D-modelling environment to integrate Rae, A. and Bignall, G. (2010a) A 3-D representation
geo ther mal data. Str atigraphic co ntacts and of the Wairakei geothermal system (New Zealand)
hydrothermal alteration are modelled using implicit using Earth Research geothermal visualisation and
functions based on drillhole data, with user-defined modelling software. Transactions, Geothermal
variograms, anisotropy and resolution. Structural Resources Council, 34, 1119-1123.