INDIAN INSTITUTE OF PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

Project on Exploratory Research & Secondary Data

New Delhi

Submitted to PROF. Manvinder Singh

Submitted By:
Ashish Goel
Gaurav Mehta
Durairaj DS
Ashish Kumar Mundra
Devjyoti Mohanty

Batch: SPRING-SUMMER/2010-12/SA2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I acknowledge with gratitude and appreciation, my indebtedness to my

mentor & guide, Prof Manvinder Singh for allowing our team to work
on this project, “Exploratory Research Design & Secondary Data” I
also thank him for the ideas and basic concepts he delivered and shared
with us, as they helped us a lot in accomplishing this project..

It gave me enormous gratification to articulate my thankfulness and heart

full sense of indebtedness to all my team mates Ashish Goel & Team.

I also put forward my heartiest thanks to Mr. Vishnu K.R, Assistant

Vice President, Front Line Focus and Mrs. Priya
Vaidyanathan, Manager- Operations for their great support in
completion of this project.
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Executive summary

Chapter 2 Research Methodology

Chapter 3 Exploratory Research Design

Chapter 4 Difference between Primary & Secondary

Data

Chapter 5 Classification of Secondary Data

Chapter 6 Conclusion to Market Research

 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
 1.1 Executive Summary

This project is an attempt to give knowledge about any company. It aims

to make its reader well versed with each and every aspect of Research.

It throws light on the following:-

1. In 1st Chapter you will find the objective of doing the project on
Introduction.

2. In 2nd Chapter of this report, you will find that the research
methodology of the report is mentioned.

3. In 3rd chapter on Exploratory Research Design.

4. In 4th Chapter you will find on Difference between Primary &

Secondary Data.

5. In 5th Chapter you will find on Classification of Secondary Data.

6. In 6th Chapter you will find on Conclusion to Market Research.

This project is overall an attempt to make you aware or to cover every

possible aspect of Exploratory Market Design & Secondary Data.
 Chapter 2

Research
Methodology
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Meaning of Research

Redman and Moray define research as a “systemized effort to gain new

knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement, a movement
from the known to the unknown.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a
technical sense. According to Clifford Woody, research comprises
defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the

application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find
out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific purpose but the research
objectives can be listed into a number of broad categories, as following:-

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights

into its Studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or
formulative research studies.
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group. Studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive research studies.
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else. Studies with this object in
view are known as diagnostic research studies.
 Research Methodology

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research

problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is
done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally
adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the
research methods or techniques but also the methodology.

Data Source

The data can be collected from two sources, i.e. Primary and Secondary. I
have collected the entire data of this project on Exploratory Research
from SECONDARY SOURCES like websites, books, newspapers and
magazines.

Research Methodology involves research plan that has following

major steps:

1. Defining the Data Source

2. Research Approach

3. Data Analysis

1. Defining the Data Source

The data required for familiarizing with the role of Exploratory

Research & Secondary Data, has been collected from the web sites,
journals & company individuals.
2. Research Approach

The research was carried out under following major steps:

• LEARNING ABOUT THE COMPANY

At the very outset, the information regarding the origin,

developments, the present way of working and the current
strategy of Major Companies was gathered and thoroughly
analyzed which gave the researcher an insight into many
company’s profile and

organizational structure was made with the help of company’s

web sites, company’s manuals , brochures and other relevant
published materials. This helped the researcher to understand
the present working scenario and gain familiarity with the
organization’s strategic moves.

• COLLECTION OF DATA

Under this step the secondary data was collected though

company’s website, company’s manuals, brochures and other
relevant published material.

3. Data Analysis

After the data about the developments and its future goals had been
collected, it was analyzed methodically. The importance and the
purpose of move was identified to assess the benefits and the risks
faced by the company in the industry.
 Chapter 3

Exploratory
Research Design
Exploratory research provides insights into and comprehension of an
issue or situation. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme
caution. Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a
problem has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps
determine the best research design, data collection method and selection
of subjects. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often
concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist.

Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing

available literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal
discussions with consumers, employees, management or competitors, and
more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups,
projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. The Internet allows for
research methods that are more interactive in nature: E.g., RSS feeds
efficiently supply researchers with up-to-date information; major search
engine search results may be sent by email to researchers by services
such as Google Alerts; comprehensive search results are tracked over
lengthy periods of time by services such as Google Trends; and Web sites
may be created to attract worldwide feedback on any subject.

The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-
making by themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a
given situation. Although the results of qualitative research can give some
indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it cannot
tell us "how often" or "how many."

Exploratory research is not typically generalized to the population at

large.

Social Science
In many social science circles, exploratory research "seeks to find out
how people get along in the setting under question, what meanings they
give to their actions, and what issues concern them. The goal is to learn
'what is going on here?' and to investigate social phenomena without
explicit expectations." (Russell K. Schutt, Investigating the Social World,
5th Ed) This methodology can is also at times referred to as a 'grounded
theory' approach to 'qualitative research' or 'interpretive research', and is
an attempt to 'unearth' a theory from the data itself rather than from a pre-
disposed hypothesis.
Earl Babbie identifies three purposes of social science research. The
purposes are exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. Exploratory
research is used when problems are in a preliminary stage. Exploratory
research is used when the topic or issue is new and when data is difficult
to collect. Exploratory research is flexible and can address research
questions of all types (what, why, how). Exploratory research is often
used to generate formal hypotheses. Shields and Tajalli link exploratory
research with the conceptual framework working hypothesis.

Applied Research
Applied research in administration is often exploratory because there is
need for flexibility in approaching the problem. In addition there are often
data limitations and a need to make a decision within a short time period.
Qualitative research methods such as case study or field research are
often used in Exploratory research.

There are three types of objective in a marketing research project.

 Exploratory Research or Formulative Research

 Descriptive research

 Causal research

Exploratory Research or Formulative Research 'The objective of

exploratory research is to gather preliminary information that will help
define problems and suggest hypotheses.

Descriptive Research 'The objective of descriptive research is to describe

things, such as the market potential for a product or the demographics and
attitudes of consumers who buy the product.

Causal Research 'The objective of causal Research is to test hypotheses

about (BLANCO) (STEEN) cause-and-effect relationships.
Example of an Exploratory Research
Exploratory Research

Objective: To verify whether the statement “poorer sales” is valid.

Design: We used secondary data analysis as the tool for Construct

development of the construct “Poorer Sales” and also for better
understanding of the above research objective.

Implementation: We collected sales data from the company’s sales in

charge for Bihar-Jharkhand region and compared it with the sales in the
Eastern and Central UP Region.

Eastern and Central UP

Bihar-Jharkhand Region
Region
2000 - 2001 100% 14%
2001 -2002 100% 14%
2002-2002 Sept (6 months) 100% 13%
Table 1.1 Comparative sales of Drug X in Bihar-Jharkhand Region and

eastern- Central UP. Region*

 Eastern and Central UP
Bihar-Jharkhand Region
Region
Urban Population 1.55 Cr 1.13 Cr
No of towns contributing
to 90% of Urban
206 119
population
(Ease of reach)
Market Potential Index 0.52 0.41
Table 1.2 Market size comparisons between Bihar-Jharkhand Region and

Eastern- Central U.P. Region#

From table 1.2 we can say that sales in Bihar-Jharkhand region should be
in the region of 60-70% of the sales of eastern and central UP region. But
from table 1.1 we can see that the sales are just about 14%. This means
that the sales potential of Bihar-Jharkhand region is not achieved.

Objective: Reasons for poorer sales in Bihar-Jharkhand region compared

to eastern-central UP region.

Design: The tool used was Pilot survey of the consumers and retailers.
Pilot survey was chosen because the product was not a high involvement
one. Also we felt that focus group and depth interviews may not provide
us with insights to justify the cost involved.

Implementation: Pilot survey of 11 retail shops and 28 customers. We

asked them questions, which were different for retailers and consumers.

We asked 5 retailers in Sakchi, 4 in Bistupur, and 2 in Sonari. Customers

were selected from the same regions. Some of them were customers of
the drug retailers and a few we chosen at random from the street. We also
chose about 10 students from XLRI for the survey.
Observations from the Pilot Survey from consumers:
• Preference for taking the drugs prescribed by the doctors

• Preference for drugs, which do not cause sedation

• People do not normally consider cold as a serious issue. Only if it

interferes with their functioning or doesn’t get cured in a week or
so they take medication after consultations with doctor.

• They feel that there is not much difference between drugs for
headache and cold. They take the same drug for all once they find
it effective.

• They make choices of drugs based more on friends or families’

opinion rather than advertisements.

• Preference for other OTC drugs compared to Drug X

• They do not think of Drug X when they have Headache or Cold.

• They do not compare prices of various cold tablets before

purchasing, as the difference is not perceivable enough.

Observations from Pilot Survey of Retail Shops

• Drug X is not asked for by name by consumers

• Customers prefer prescription drugs like cetrizine to OTC drugs.

These prescription drugs are asked for by name even without
prescription.

• The Margins they get for drug X are relatively less compared to
other OTC drugs.

• Some of them don’t keep drug X, as the supply is not regular

Research Questions

From the results of the pilot survey we framed the following research
questions

1. Are lower margins given by distributors a reason for poorer sales

of Drug X in Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-central
UP region?

2. Is the habit of treating common cold as not serious enough to take

medicine immediately a reason for poorer sales of drug X in Bihar-
Jharkhand region compared to eastern-central UP region?

3. Is no top of the mind recall a reason for poorer sales of drug X in

Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-central UP region?

4. Is the preference for prescription drugs a reason for poorer sales of

drug X in Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-central UP
region?

5. Is distribution limitation reasons for poorer sales of drug X in

Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-central UP region?

Hypothesis formulation

The hypotheses corresponding to these questions are

Hypothesis 1:

H0: A smaller margin given by distributors is not a reason for

poorer sales of drug X in Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to
eastern-central UP region.

H1: A smaller margin given by distributors is a reason for poorer

sales of drug X in Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-
central UP region.
Hypothesis 2:

H0: The habit of treating common cold as not serious enough to

take medicine immediately is not a reason for poorer sales of drug
X in Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-central UP
region.

H1: The habit of treating common cold as not serious enough to

take medicine immediately is a reason for poorer sales of drug X in
Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-central UP region.

Hypothesis 3:

H0: Not having top of mind recall is not a reason for poorer sales
of drug X in Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-central
UP region.

H1: Not having top of mind recall is a reason for poorer sales of
drug X in Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-central UP
region.

Hypothesis 4:

H0: Preference for prescription drugs is not a reason for poorer

sales of drug X in Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-
central UP region

H1: The preference for prescription drugs is a reason for poorer

sales of drug X in Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-
central UP region

Hypothesis 5:
H0: Distribution limitation is not a reason for poorer sales of drug
X in Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-central UP
region.

H1: Distribution limitation is a reason for poorer sales of drug X in

Bihar-Jharkhand region compared to eastern-central UP region.
 Chapter – 4

Difference between
Primary &
Secondary Data
Primary vs. Secondary data
• Primary data: new data specifically collected in current research
project - researcher is the primary user.
• Secondary data: data already exist - collected for some other
(primary) purpose - researcher is the secondary user.
• Secondary data analysis: Chapter 12

Uses/roles of secondary data

• Background/preparation
• Complementary – comparison/validation of primary data collected
• Whole basis of project – re-analysis of data
• Context setting (in report)
Use of Secondary Analysis: Economics, Accounting, Political Science,
Geography, History

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data (SLT, 2003,

Section 7.4)
Advantages
• Fewer resource requirements
• Unobtrusive
• Often longitudinal
• Means of comparison with
primary data
• Can provide contextual data
• Can result in unforeseen
discoveries
• Permanence of data – often
stored in archives
Disadvantages
• Collected for an alternate
purpose
• May not match your own
• Difficulty of access
• Expense
• Degree of aggregation
• Data quality
Types of Secondary Data
Data already collected for some other purpose
1. Documentary
Written:
• Organisation documents: personnel records, safety audits
• Reports: company, government bodies, committees
• Public documents: books, journals, newspapers
Non-written:
• Television and radio
• Video and audio tapes
Company/Organization data: INTERNAL
Financial accounts; Sales data; Prices; Product development; Advertising
expenditure; Purchase of supplies; Human resources records; Customer complaint
logs
Company/Organization data: EXTERNAL
Company information is available from a variety of sources, e.g.:
Biz@advantage; www.whowhere.com; www.hoovers.com – 12,000 companies,
USA & others; Australian Stock Exchange (www.asx.com.au); AGSM Annual
reports; Compass, Dun & Bradstreet (www.dnb.com), Fortune 500
Possible documentary data?
Journals and books; Case study materials; Committee minutes; AIRC
documentation; Hansard transcripts; Mailing list discussions; Web-site content;
Advertising banners

2. Multiple Sources (SLT, 2003)

Geographically-based:
• FT and IMF country reports; ABS Basic Community Profiles
Time-series based:
• Industry statistics and reports: Employer associations (ACCI, VECCI, AIG)
• Government publications: Australian Bureau of Statistics; Bureau of Labour
Statistics (U.S.A.)
ABS Subject/Area codes
Subject Geographical areas
1 General 0 Australia
2 Census of population and housing 1 New South Wales
3 Demography 2 Victoria
4 Social statistics 3 Queensland
5 National accounts, international trade & finance 4 South Australia
6 Labour statistics and prices 5 Western Australia
7 Agriculture 6 Tasmania
8 Secondary industry and distribution 7 Northern Territory
9 Transport, tourism 8 Aust. Capital Territory
9 External Territories

3. Censuses and Surveys

Censuses
• Australia: 2001 Census data (http://www.abs.gov.au )
• International:
• New Zealand: http://www.stats.govt.nz/
• U.S.A.: http://www.stats-usa.gov
• IPUMSI: http://www.hist.umn.edu/~rmccaa/IPUMSI/
On-going and recurring surveys
• Australian Bureau of Statistics: http://www.abs.gov.au
• Reserve Bank of Australia: http://www.rba.gov.au/Statistics/
• Statistics New Zealand: http://www.stats.govt.nz/
• The World Bank: http://www.worldbank.org/data/
Ad-hoc surveys
• Social Science Data Archive (ANU): http://ssda.anu.edu.au
• The Data Archive (Uni. of Essex, UK): http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/
• Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research:
http://www.icpsr.umich.edu
• Qualitdata: http://qualidata.essex.ac.uk/
Secondary Data Sets
• Longitudinal Survey of Australian Youth: Australian Centre for Educational
Research, 1989 – Present, Progress from 15 through to post university
• Business Longitudinal Survey: 5100 Australian small-to-medium enterprises, 5
year (1994-98) panel study conducted by ABS
• World Values Survey: 60 countries, every 5 years (approx.), Attitudes towards
various social, economic and political issues
Considerations with Secondary Data
• Suitability: Intended for another purpose; Content versus external validity;
Reliability
• Measurement bias
• Original research methodology
• Cost and time

Example Research Problem

• What distinguishes individuals who join trade unions from those who do not?
• What distinguishes individuals who leave trade unions from those who do not?
• Four possibilities: join, leave, stay, go
• Core research issues: Union instrumentality and ideology; Work and life
context;
• Economic situation; Family history; Related attitudes
Choice of Data
• Australian Workplace Industrial Relations Survey: 19000 employees in 2000
workplaces
• National Social Science Survey: 1200 respondents in both 1990 and 1996;
makes it possible to assess change over time
• Account for differences in: Work, Family, Income, Location, Attitudes

Advantages of secondary data

1. Time and economy
• Generally inexpensive in comparison to collecting one's own data
• High initial cost: AWIRS 1995 budget of $3 mil.
• Savings from re-use and re-cycling
• Often free for academic researchers or can be acquired for tens or hundreds of
dollars
• E.g. post-graduate students are typically precluded from collecting national
samples because of cost.
2. Methodological Advantages
• Large-scale, representative samples: Longitudinal, broad geographical
• Strong on external validity (the degree of confidence with which findings about
a sample can be generalised to a population)
• Often generated by well resourced teams that have access to specialists, for
example, high level sample design expertise
• Does not normally require approval from ethics committees
Goodness of Measures
Reliability
• A matter of whether a particular technique, applied repeatedly to the same
object, yields the same result each time.
• How stable and consistent is the measuring instrument?
Validity
• The extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the real meaning
of the concept under consideration.
• Are we measuring the right thing?

Reliability
• Stability: refers to the ability of a measure to maintain consistency over time,
despite uncontrollable testing conditions or the state of the respondents
themselves
• Internal consistency: indicates how well the items ‘hang together as a set’ and
can independently measure the same concept, so respondents attach the same
overall meaning to each of the items

Forms of validity
• Face validity: That quality of an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable
measure of a variable.
• Criterion related validity: The degree to which a measure relates to some
external criterion. For example, the validity of the VCE tests is shown in their
ability to predict the college success of students.
Construct validity: The degree to which a measure relates to other variables as
expected within a system of theoretical relationships.
• Content validity: Refers to how much a measure covers the range of meanings
included within a concept.

Evaluating potential secondary data sources

1. Assess overall suitability of data to research question(s) and objectives –
measurement validity, coverage
2. Evaluate precise suitability of data for analyses needed to answer research
question(s) and to meet objectives – validity, reliability, measurement bias
3. Judge whether to use data based on an assessment of costs and benefits in
comparison with alternative sources
4. If you consider the data are definitely unsuitable DO NOT proceed beyond this
stage

Conclusions
• Secondary data can save time, money and effort
• However, it needs to be carefully assessed for suitability
• Be sure to check the research methodology used to collect the data

Use of secondary data

Description of the technique

'Secondary' is used to refer to data that the evaluator was not responsible for
directly collecting (as opposed to primary data which is generated by the
evaluation itself). Usually, use of previously collected data to evaluate programmes
is a use other than the original intent of the data.
In the context of data libraries and archives, 'data' usually means computer-
readable data, since data held in this form is more easily made available for
additional research and more easily interrogated. Examples include censuses and
large surveys carried out by governments, and administrative data (see below).
However, in the current context, 'data' is taken to include the whole range of
information, since for evaluation purposes it is generally advisable to use as much
existing information as possible. Information sources could also include reports
and studies of the area under consideration, documents related to the life and
management of the programme, information on similar programmes, and so on
The three main sources of secondary information relating to social and economic
development programmes are:
 Programme management documents;
 Statistical sources;
 Past evaluations and research.
The purpose of the technique

Secondary data is likely to provide a wealth of information for a range of purposes,

depending on the circumstances for the evaluation. For example:
Programme management documents:
 provide the 'raw ingredients' for making evaluative judgments, since they
will contain information on planned and actual spending, activities, and
outputs;
 can be used to inform evaluation indicators;
 Record the details of the beneficiaries. This will be crucial if the evaluators
plan to involve the beneficiaries directly in the evaluation through fieldwork
to collect information to inform the conclusions.
Statistical sources:
 provide information on the context for the programme;
 can be used to assess needs (e.g. the rate of new business creation is far
lower than the European average);
 can be used to reveal apparent impacts (e.g. the number of new businesses
created has doubled);
 Show whether the objectives remain relevant (e.g. the rate of business
creation has now caught up with the European average).
Past evaluations and research:
Can play a major role in all stages of evaluation:
 reference to specialized literature could help to suggest a relevant indicator;
 previous studies can identify strengths and weaknesses of different
methodologies, or specific tools (e.g. a tested observation grid, an
explanatory model of impacts, an extrapolation coefficient, a reference for
comparison);
 can be used to make comparisons, for example the rate of return to work
from a Job Training scheme in terms of occupational sectors, to see whether
there are significant differences, or to better understand the factors of
success.
Usually a number of sources are used in tandem, and often can be presented in a
way as to suggest conclusions and comparisons that can be made. For example, the
comparison of observations from administrative data and statistical sources could
be used to assess the differences between participants and the population as a
whole. It is may also be possible to estimate impacts on the basis of secondary data
and/or the modeling of the implementation of the programme

Circumstances in which it is applied

Given the range and usefulness of secondary sources, some form of secondary data
is used in practically all evaluation work.
It is important to note that the use of Secondary data must take into account the
ethics or code of practice in place for the data. The ethical considerations usually
relate to the rights of the providers of the information (i.e. the original subjects
from which the data were obtained). As a general rule, the use of the information
must be acceptable to the provider, and not in breach of the original conditions of
collection. Sources of information need to be fully acknowledged.
Meta-evaluation might be considered a special case of secondary analysis (see
Meta-evaluation).

The main steps involved

Programme management documents

Usually the programme will have generated information in both synthetic form (i.e.
summary reports and review documents), and elementary form (i.e. systematic data
stored for each project). Section 2.4.11 deals with the use of administrative data in
an elementary form in more detail.
If the terms of reference have been prepared correctly, this document will already
contain a list of immediately available information.
The programme management documents are likely to contain information on
outputs, that is, what has been obtained in exchange for public spending. This
information can be used in a synthetic form, for example from progress reports.
Often, project-by-project information on outputs is not readily accessible.
The evaluators will need assistance from the programme managers/officers and
operators to gain access to management documents, and this could be time-
consuming. Involvement of the relevant people early on in the planning of the
evaluation will help to expedite the process. The commissioning authority is
responsible for ensuring that the necessary doors are opened, for example by
involving in the steering group those who have most of the required information,
or by promising to supply them with a synthesis of the first evaluation conclusions.
To facilitate access to information, it is also important for the evaluation team to
undertake to maintain the confidentiality of all personal data.
Statistical sources
Unlike management and monitoring information (which concentrate on operators
and direct beneficiaries), the statistical sources encompass all the people or
businesses in an area whether or not they have had contact with the programme. As
a result, the comparison of a before-after statistic cannot provide an estimated
impact. At best, it gives information that can be used within the framework of an
impact analysis, to impute observed changes to several causes: the programme and
exogenous factors (or confounding factors). Thus, for example, statistics can show
an increase in unemployment due to a sharp natural rise in the working population,
even though the programme has created many new jobs.
In impact analysis, statistics provide useful indications on the evolution of
exogenous factors, by measuring various characteristics of the territory or group
concerned. They can be used to interpret or qualify observed gross effects or
apparent impacts. They also supply extrapolation coefficients that are often used in
evaluation. For example, if a statistical study can be used to establish that the
average size of businesses created in the past two years is 4.5 jobs; this coefficient
can be used in an estimation of impacts, for measuring support for business
creation.
Most sources within the context of the Structural Funds will concern an entire
region, a State, or even the European Union.
Statistical data are directly accessible from the organizations that produce and
publish them (European, national and regional public statistics institutes, private
institutes, etc.). Often these data have already been gathered by programme
managers or by research organizations (e.g. regional statistical teams).
When directly analyzing statistical sources held as elementary data, it is important
to consult the source codebook. This will contain the information needed to write
syntax to extract the variables and cases you need from the raw data. The
information required will include: the data structure - for example this could be
rectangular, or hierarchical; the variables that you are interested in (and type (alpha
or numeric) and format (number of decimals, treatment of blanks etc);
supplemental variables (e.g. weightings). In some case it is a very time-consuming
task to identify and prepare labels to extract the variables and values on your
output. The applications used should be suited for the types of analyses that you
expect to conduct. Most people use either SPSS or SAS for extracting data because
both have very robust data manipulation capabilities, followed by a conversion to a
statistical package to perform the analysis of the results.
The availability of statistics can become a problem when the eligible area of a
programme is an administrative rather than a statistical zone. The best way of
dealing with this problem is the "best correspondence" approach, which has been
applied for the Scottish system of indicators, as shown in Box 1 Correspondence
between a statistical unit and an eligible area - United Kingdom, Objective 2
Programme 1994-99.
Estimations of context indicators can also be obtained by means of the
interpolation method. For example, a (theoretical) example industrial reconversion
programme aims to enable the region to catch up with others as in terms of
innovation. In order to quantify this objective, a 'situation indicator' would need to
be created, such as the annual number of innovations in the region. The annual
number of innovations for 1,000 jobs, on a European scale, is provided by a
Community survey carried out regularly on 40,000 firms. Based on the results of
this survey, an innovation indicator could be created for the region, using the
interpolation method, in the following way:
 choose an indicator of structural composition (e.g. number of jobs, broken
down into sector of activity) for which the values are known at both a
European and a regional level;
 note the value of the annual innovation rate at the European level, with its
breakdown by sector of activity, and
 Estimate the innovation indicator in the region by multiplying regional jobs,
sector by sector, by European innovation rates.
Box 2 Italy
Box 1: Correspondence between a statistical unit and an eligible area - United Kingdom,
Objective 2 Programme 1994-99

The development programme in the East of Scotland has an eligible area that concerns several statistical
units ("local government region level") but there is a lack of correspondence in the way that they are
partitioned. The data provided by the Central Statistical Office is therefore not suitable for directly
constructing context indicators. An indicator of GDP was nevertheless estimated by aggregating data for
the territories of the "central regions" and for Fife and Tayside, of which over half the inhabitants are in an
area eligible for the Structural Funds. The territory of Lothian, less than half of which is eligible for
Structural Funds, was disqualified.

Box 2: Italy

In order to better assess the impact of socio economic development policy, the Italian Treasury
(Department for Development Policies) has commissioned from the Central Institute of
Statistics an analysis disaggregated to the level of the Local Labour Systems, which are built
on the basis of the commuter fluxes derived from the National Census. Italy has been divided
into 785 LLS of which 365 in the South. The availability of data has enabled a much finer
analysis of local economic performance showing where growth of income, employment and
productivity is concentrated and where the lagging areas are. This database will be used to
understand if the positive outliers are also a consequence of the local development policies put
into operation during the 2000-2006 programming period.
Past evaluations and research
Conclusions from the evaluations of similar programmes in the same region or
other regions can help to rapidly provide answers, at a low cost, to an evaluative
question. However, if an evaluation team relies heavily on this type of secondary
data, it must verify the external validity of the evaluations consulted to assess the
extent to which the conclusions can be generalized to the current context.
It is not advisable to invest too much time in listing and collecting exhaustive
bibliographical data. The most effective way of gaining access to this information
is by consulting experts with in-depth knowledge of the domain and/or the region
concerned by the evaluation.
Key Sources

Responsible
Source Description
body

Portrait of the Euro stat In this three volume set, published in 1993,
Regions and each region is presented one by one in an
Regional Map. identical format, via maps, diagrams,
statistical tables and textual commentaries
on their area, regional strengths and
weaknesses, population patterns and trends,
employment, the economic fabric and the
environment.

DG Region
publications

Local DG Region "Local Sustainability" is the European Good

Sustainability Practice Information Service. This guide to
European Good local environmental good practice in local
Practice sustainability is published and maintained
Information by EURONET Environment, Planning and
Service Development and ICLEI, the International
Council for Local Environmental
Initiatives. . It has been developed with the
financial support of the European
Commission, Directorate General XI
 (Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil
Protection) and with contributions from
cities and towns whose good practice
projects are presented within.

REGIO database Euro stat Regionalized data in the form of about 70

standard tables per domain: demography;
economic accounts; unemployment;
workforce; energy; agriculture; transport;
and R&D. (Usage is fee-based).

ELIZE database Data from national annual surveys of

industrial structures, consisting of: the
number of industrial enterprises;
employment; salaries and wages; turnover;
and investments. The data are broken down
into about thirty economic sectors and into
two categories of size (+/- 20 employees).

QUID data base DG Region Group’s together context indicators adapted

to the Structural Funds. This data base is
partly based on Euro stat information.

Data service European The EEA supports sustainable development

Environment and aims to improve Europe's environment
Agency through the provision of relevant and
targeted information to policy making
agents and the public. The data service
provides access to data sets used in EEA
periodical reports

Urban Audit DGRegion/Euro Compares indicators on the quality of life

stat for a large number of major European cities.

GISCO Euro stat Cartographically presents all the statistical

series existing in REGIO, as well as other
regionalized data. The GISCO system also
 includes the outline of all the areas eligible
for Structural Funds. It can therefore easily
be used to break down or build up statistical
information on different geographical
scales. Potentially a very powerful tool for
estimating context indicators by
interpolation.

Increasing sophistication of computer technology has meant that the option exists
to apply Geographical information systems (GIS) techniques to geographically-
based socio-economic information. GIS provides a way of assembling any data
that can be referred directly or indirectly to a geographical location, and is
commonly used in the field of spatial planning to collect, gather, accumulate,
analyze, exploit, display and update all spatially referenced data and information,
and to present it in a form that makes it easy to read. GIS is able to incorporate
socio-economic data, data from censuses, surveys and inquiries, and monitoring
data. GIS use a basic structure of special data. All the information is linked to a
system of geographical co-ordinates characterized by nodes, lines and areas (and
therefore also of points, arcs, polygons, etc.).Principle of a Geographic
Information System (GIS) shows the key principles of GIS.
The spatial representation may be direct (cartographic co-ordinates, precise postal
address) or indirect (postal code, area of census).
In terms of evaluation, the main added value of a GIS is that it allows the cross-
referencing of data that other techniques do not allow. In particular, the tool can
compare information on which the geographical references differ, e.g. address of
firms assisted and urban areas in difficulty, or areas eligible for assistance and
environmentally sensitive areas. GIS also makes it possible to estimate the value of
an indicator for a given area, when its value is registered on different statistical
scales.
High-performance information systems can now be applied to the management of
public interventions, and because they are able to cope with considerable number
of interdependent factors, they are an important way of describing and analyzing
the complexities using information from the thematic, spatial and temporal
dimensions (see Box 4 Evaluation of the Languedoc-Roussillon IMP in France).

Strengths and limitations of the approach

Secondary data is relatively quickly available and can therefore help to provide the
first answers to some of the questions asked in a relatively short timescale.
Secondary data can be useful in comparing findings from different studies and
examining trends.
The estimation of an impact is always difficult, and using as much existing
information as possible will produce the most robust estimation.
Moreover, this data can also be relatively inexpensive; because the costs associated
with collecting the data from its original source has already been borne. Secondary
data cost are usually known, though there may be additional costs involved due to
data conversion, or the need for re-coding of data. Some organizations make a
charge for the use of secondary data in order to offset the cost of collecting it (e.g.
some Population Census bureaus).
The main drawback of secondary data is due to the fact that the data were not
collected to analyze the question in hand. Every research study is conducted with a
specific purpose in mind, and is designed to take account of the study purpose;
responsibilities for data collection, completeness of the data and classification
systems, timing, sampling criteria and delimitations; known biases; operational
definitions; and methods of data collection. These considerations will limit the
extent to which the data provides an appropriate source of information to address
alternative research questions and hypothesis.
In the case of statistical sources, the processes involved in the collection and
handling of the data also need to be taken into account. Without rigorous document
control systems, there is the potential for errors or mistakes in the data to be
introduced. Some sources collected at State or regional level may contain errors, or
have missing data, which limits its usefulness.
Secondary use of large scale datasets present particular challenges, because it may
take some time to identify the most appropriate source, confirm the quality of the
data, and to devise the process of obtaining the data and analyzing it.
The key challenge with secondary data is to be assured that the data appropriately
addresses the research question (otherwise there is the dilemma of altering the
hypothesis to fit the data). A compromise may be needed between the results
provided by the data and the requirements defined by the evaluation team or
decision makers, and there needs to be a clear process by which any issues will be
resolved and limitations on the use of the data will be dealt with. In some cases, the
limitations that exist in terms of the nature and format of the data may be too
extreme to permit a valid secondary analysis.
The GIS technique offers considerable potential for integrating and synthesizing
information, and its ability to integrate the territorial dimension makes it
particularly relevant for the Structural Funds. A GIS also allows easy visualization
of information relating to the programme. This characteristic can be extremely
useful during the presentation of the results to the various committees and work
groups concerned. Moreover, the potential for synthesis facilitates the illustration
of the coherence of the measures implemented in the framework of the
programmes. Results can be rendered in a user-friendly way, which helps to
enhance the awareness of actors (although technical signs and keys are codes that
vary, depending on the designers, and need to be explained).
However, the creation of a complete geographical database often proves to be
costly in both time and money, the use of a GIS may be complex. Existing data are
often collected on different geographic boundaries, or stored in different systems,
which requires time consuming transformations or sometimes even a new
collection of data. Also, experience tends to show that the tool may generate
conflict between territorial officials due to their biased reading of the maps
produced.
 Chapter – 5

Classification of
Secondary Data
Primary and secondary sources
Although there are several ways to classify sources, one of the most useful is by
their primary or secondary nature, a distinction deriving from the field of
Historiography. Although there is some variability in the use of these terms outside
of Wikipedia, we focus on one particular aspect of the distinction useful for
editors:

Primary sources

A primary source is a source cited for some new idea, creative thought, or data
originating in that source, and not derived from another author or another source.
Primary sources usually have some immediate connection or contact with the
source of the new idea, thought, or data. For example, the primary source of some
experimental data might be written by the scientist who performed the
experiments. The primary source of a quotation might be written by someone who
was present when the thing was said. The primary source of a historical theory is
usually written by the historian who first conceived that theory. The primary
source of information about a fictional universe is usually written by the author of
that fictional universe.

Secondary sources

A secondary source is any source cited for its second-hand information from a
different work. Secondary sources are not the originators of new ideas, creative
thoughts, or data; they merely act as a conduit for such information. For example,
if an author compiles research data from several scientists into a table for
comparison, she is a secondary source with respect to that data. If an author
paraphrases a quotation in another source, she is a secondary source with respect to
that quotation. If an author in a historiography summarizes a historical theory from
the 1800s, she is a secondary source as to that historical theory. An encyclopedia
about a fictional universe is a secondary source as to the works of fiction defining
that fictional universe.

Some secondary sources, such as textbooks and treatises, are further described as
tertiary sources. However, the tertiary source concept is not as significant and
clear-cut as the others, and the category has less relevance to Wikipedia, except for
the fact that Wikipedia is itself a tertiary source.
Primary and secondary are relative terms

heyeither a primary or secondary source, depending on how it is used. For

example, if an author compiles research data from several scientists into a table for
comparison, she is a secondary source with respect to that data. However, she
might also make original conclusions about that data. The source would be
primary with respect to those new conclusions. If an author paraphrases a
quotation in another source, she is a secondary source with respect to that
quotation. However, if she draws novel implications about that quotation, or
synthesizes that quotation with other quotations, the work would be a primary
source with respect to those new conclusions. If an author in a historiography
summarizes a historical theory from the 1800s, she is a secondary source as to that
historical theory. However, if she provides novel insights linking that historical
theory with 1800s culture, the work is a primary source as to those original
conclusions. An encyclopedia about a fictional universe is a secondary source as to
the works of fiction defining that fictional universe. However, if the encyclopedia
"fills in gaps" or makes novel generalizations, the encyclopedia is a primary source
as to the author's unique contribution to the field.

Guidelines for primary and secondary sources

If given in their proper context, primary sources can be the most neutral and
informative way to present information in a Wikipedia article. Often, however, the
import or significance of primary sources is not obvious or is controversial, in
which case they should be supported by secondary sources.

Non-controversial and respected secondary sources can be even more neutral and
informative than primary sources. Sometimes, however, secondary sources act as
filters and add "spin" to primary sources. Therefore, polemical or controversial
secondary sources should be balanced with other secondary sources, and typically
by reference to the unvarnished primary sources, so that the reader can have a basis
to determine which secondary source provides the most credible "spin" on the
primary sources.

When available, well-respected tertiary sources, such as textbooks and legal

treatises, can be the most neutral secondary sources for use in Wikipedia articles.
Frequently, however, the process by which the author collected the information is
unclear and not well documented, and sometimes, the author is unknown. In such
cases, tertiary articles should be supported by primary and other secondary sources.
First-party and third-party sources

Another way to categorize sources is by whether the cited information is written by

the authoritative creator of that information (the "first party"), or by someone else
(a "third party"). A source is considered third-party if the author and/or
sponsoring/publishing organization are not involved in the subject of the source.
Thus, an autobiography is never third-party, as the author is the subject, and an
article published by Microsoft on the reliability of Windows XP is not third-party,
as the company is describing its own product. On the other hand, a technical
review of Windows by someone not involved in operating system development or
marketing is likely to be third-party, as is a military history from someone not
involved in the conflict in question.

Third-party sources are generally preferred as the author has no obvious incentive
to distort the truth or "spin" the facts a certain way. They are thus considered
advantageous in ensuring a neutral point of view. However, it should be
remembered that a source is not necessarily entirely neutral just because it is third-
party, and where a range of views and perspectives exist, they should all be given
reasonable coverage. In such situations, care should be taken to avoid giving undue
weight to a particular point of view.
CONCLUSION TO
MARKET
RESEARCH
However, it is perhaps worth noting that the end products of marketing research
are conclusions and recommendations. With respect to the marketing planning
function, marketing research helps to identify potential threats and opportunities,
generates alternative courses of action, provides information to enable marketing
managers to evaluate those alternatives and advises on the implementation of the
alternatives.

Too often marketing research reports chiefly comprise a lengthy series of tables of
statistics accompanied by a few brief comments which verbally describe what is
already self-evident from the tables. Without interpretation, data remains of
potential, as opposed to actual use. When conclusions are drawn from raw data and
when recommendations are made then data is converted into information. It is
information which management needs to reduce the inherent risks and
uncertainties in management decision making.

Customer oriented marketing researchers will have noted from the outset of the
research which topics and issues are of particular importance to the person(s) who
initiated the research and will weigh the content of their reports accordingly. That
is, the researcher should determine what the marketing manager's priorities are
with respect to the research study. In particular he/she should distinguish between
what the managers:

• must know
• should know
• could know

This means that there will be information that is essential in order for the
marketing manager to make the particular decision with which he/she is faced
(must know), information that would be useful to have if time and resources within
the budget allocation permit (should know) and there will be information that it
would be nice to have but is not at all directly related to the decision at hand (could
know). In writing a research proposal, experienced researchers would be careful to
limit the information which they firmly promise to obtain, in the course of the
study, to that which is considered 'must know' information. Moreover, within their
final report, experienced researchers will ensure that the greater part of the report
focuses upon 'must know' type information.