[A high-speed ear has released a parachute to reduce its speed quickly. The direations of the cars velocity and acceleration are shown by the green (¥) and gold (a) arrows Motion is desrihed using the concepts of velocity that the acceleration # can sometimes he in the opposite direction from the velocity ¥. ‘We will also examine in detail, ‘motion with constant acceler- ation, including the vertical ‘motion of abjeets falling under gravity CHAPTER Describing Motion: Kinematics in One Dimension tnt Nooneis nv abson pr of eeyeay isms not a the Shconth and seventsenh emis tnt or moder unending of sston was extashed. Many nda contd to this ander. particularly Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Isaac Newton (1642-1727). “he sty ofthe maton of obs and te ete sors ff and noi or the fd salt neh Mecham ensomany ied in two pars: Linens ich ts the despon of how checs ove and | dynamics, which deals with force and why objects move as they do, This Chapter Pg Shh nxt et wth Kinemate For now me only dco abject tht move without rosin Fg 2-1 such maton led tana! motlon, Tn ths Chapt we wil he concerned wih describing sn bjed tat owes long signe path Sheri one-dimensional tanatonl moon. Chaplets we wil deene | translational motion in two (or three) dimensions along paths that are not Sth (We dc ation, sin Fp 2 Thon Capt) oe We wl ltn ae the sonept, oF mode of an eared pate which considred to ex mht patti to ha no pil extent fo si) ‘panicle cn undergo onl rasdattonal ion The parle mots ol Shuang rel stations whose we te ints ony im anaaonal mn ‘dhe bers se 8 ot so San For ssample we mht cone ROME?) Te esns Gilad tlc or een a spacecateelng Coward the Moon ea rrtie for arthceer a esol a muny purposes salnsenlane T hhe motion of objects—baseballs, automobiles, joggers, and even the Sun FIGURE 2-1 ‘The pinecone in (0) 9El Reference Frames and Displacement ‘Any measurement of position, distance, or speed must be made with respect 10 Albnesinonensare a eference frame, oF frame of reference. For example, while you are on a train ‘va os gayelng at SD km/t, suppose a person walks past you toward the front of the ‘frame of Serene gain ata speed of 53,5 km/h (Fig. 2~2) Ths $kin/h isthe person's speed with respect to the train as frame of reference. With respeet to the ground, that person is moving at a speed of 8Okm/h + Skm/h = 85km/h. I is always important to specify the frame of reference when stating a speed. In everyday life, we usually mean “with rospect to the Earth" without even thinking about it, bu the reference frame must be specified whenever there might be contusion. FIGURE 2-2 A person walks toward the front of a wain at Skan/h. The ta is moving SO km/h with respect to the ground, so the walking person's spe relative to the ground. 685 km/h =a When specifying the motion of an object, it is important to specify not only the speed but also the direction of motion. Often we ean specify a direction by using north, east, south, and west, and by “up” and “down.” In physics, we often draw a set of coordinate axes, as shown in Fig. 2-3, to represent a frame of reference, We can always place the origin 0, and the directions of the x and y x + axes, as we like for convenience. The x and ) axes are always perpendicular to teach other. Objects positioned to the right of the origin of coordinates (0) on the x axis have an x coordinate which we usually choase to be pesitive: objects to the left of D then have a negative x coordinate, The position along the y axis is usually considered positive when above 0, and negative when below 0, although the reverse convention an be used if convenient. Any point on the plane can be specified by giving its x and y coordinates In three dimensions, a z axis perpendicular to the x and y axes is added For one-dimensional motion, we often choose the x axis as the line slong. Which the motion takes place. Then the position of an object at any moment is given by its x coordinate. If the motion is vertical, as for a dropped object, we usually use the y axis We need to make a distinction between the distance an object has traveled. Doplacenent and its displacement, which is defined as the change in position of the object. That is, displacement is how far the object is from its starting point. To see the distinction between total distance and displacement, imagine a person walking, @ caution Tm to the east and then turning around and walking back (west) a distance of Ticdoplcencunayroregaal 30m (see Fig. 2-4). The total distance traveled is 100 m, but the displacement is thesoiol disunce waveled only 40m singe the person is now only 40 m from the starting point FIGURE 2-2 Standard set of xy coordinate axes FIGURE 2-4 A person walks 70m east then 30m west. The total distance traveled is 100m (path is shown dashed in black): ‘hut the digplnesment, shown as a Blue arrow, is 40s fo the east Displacement is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Such quantities are called vectors, and are represented by arrows in diagrams. For example, in Fig. 2-4, the blue arrow represents the displacement whose magni- tude is 40m and whose direetion is to the right (east) 20 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One DimensionWe will deal with vectors more fully in Chapter 3. For now, we deal only with motion in one dimension, along a line. In this ease, vectors which point in one direction will have a positive sign, whereas vectors that point in the opposite direction will have a negative sign, along with their ‘magnitude. ‘Consider the motion of an object over a particular time interval, Suppose that at some initial time, call it ¢,, the object is on the x axis at the position in the coordinate system shown in Fig, 2-5. At some later time, f,, suppose the object has moved to position x». The displacement of our object is x) ~ xj ,and is repre sented by the arrow pointing to the right in Fig, 2-5. It is convenient to write Area where the symbol A (Greek letter delta) means “change in.” Then Ax means “the ehange in x,” or “change in position,” which is the displacement. Note that the “change in” any quantity means the Final value of that quantity, minus the initial value. Suppose x; = 10.0m and x, = 300m. Then Aran 0.0 m, x = 300m ~ 100m so the displacement is 20,0 m in the positive direetion, as in Fig, 2-5. Now consider an object moving to the left as shown in Fig. 2-6, Here the object, say, a person, staris atx; = 30.0m and walks to the left to the point xy = 10.0m, In this ease v= 30.0m = ~20.0m. x = 100m and the blue arrow representing the vector displacement points to the left. The displacement is 20.0 m in the negative direction, This example illustrates that for ‘one-dimensional motion along the x axis, a veetor pointing to the right has a Positive sign, whereas a vector pointing to the left has a negative sign EJaverage Velocity Consider a racing sprinter, a galloping horse, speeding Ferrari or a rocket shot off into space. The most abvious aspect of their motion is how fast they are ‘moving, which brings us to the idea of speed and velocity ‘The term “speed” refers to how far an object travels in a given time interval, regardless of diection. If a car travels 240 kilometers (km) in 3 hours (h), We say is average speed Was SOkm/h. In general, the average speed of an object is defined as the foal distance raveled along its path divided by she time it rakes to sravel this distance: distance traveled average speed = en ‘The terms “velocity” and “speed” are often used interchangeably in ordi nary language. But in physies we make a distinetion between the two, Speed is simply 2 positive number, with units Velocity, on the other hand, is used to signify both the magnitude (numerical value) of how fast an object is moving and also the direction in which it is moving. (Velocity is therefore a vector.) ‘There is a second difference between speed and velocity: namely, the average velocity is defined in terms of displacement, rather than total distance traveled: displacement — final position — initial pesition Time elapsed time elapsed average velocity = 1 20 30 40 Distance (at FIGURE 2-5 ‘The arrow represents the displacement a1 ~ 1. Distances A means final vate ‘minus nial vate FIGURE 2-6 For the displacement Av= x; — x) = 100m ~ 300m, the displacentent vector points t the left 20 30 40 Distanee (mn) Average speed Velocity Average velocity SECTION 2-2 Average Velocity 21@ caution ‘Atorage spe sno ecaar it the magne of the Average velocity we PROBLEM SOLVING or ~ sign ean signify the direction “for incar motion 10 20 30 4 50 Distance my FIGURE 2-7 Example 2-1 on runs from x, = $00m The displacement ‘Average speed and a1 velocity have the some magnitude when the ‘motion is all in one ditection. In other cases, they may dilfer: recall the walk we described earlier, in Fig.2~4, where a person walked 70m east and then 30m west. ‘The total distance traveled was 70m + 30m = 100m, but the displacement was 401m. Suppose this walk took 70's to complete, Then the average speed was: distance _ 100m _listanes — 100m ns Time elapsed 70s The magnitude of the average velocity, on the other hand, was: displacement - BP _osrmys Time elapsed 70s ‘This dtferonce between the speed and the magnitude of the velocity ean occur when we calculate average values ‘To discuss one-dimensional motion of an object in general, suppose that at some moment in time, call ij, the object is on the x axis at position xy in a coordinate system, and at some later time, 4, suppose itis at position elapsed time is 5 ~ 1,3 duting this time interval the displacement of ou object is Av = x, — x). Thon the average velocity, defined asthe displacement divided by the elapsed time, can be written ae nok a where v stands for velocity and the bar (~) over the v meaning “average.” The elapsed time, or time interval, ~~ 4, i the time that has passed uring our chosen period of observation. For the usual case of the +x axis to the right, note that if xy is less than xy, the object is moving to the left, and then Aw x is less than zero. The sign of the displacement, and thus of the average velocity, indicates the direc- tion: the average velocity is positive for an object moving to the right along the “ty axis and negative when the object moves to the leit. The direction of the 1 velocity is always the samo as the direction of the displacement er a standard symbol [SUISSE Runner's average velocity. The position of a runner as a function of time is plotted as moving along the x axis of a coordinate system. During a 3.00-s time interval, the runncr’s position changes from x, = 50,0m to x)= 30.5m, as showwn in Fig, 2-7, What was the runner's average velocity? APPROACH We want to find the average velocity, which is the displacement divided by the elapsed time, SOLUTION The displacement is Ax ‘Tho elapsed time, oF tim Ay -195m ar 3.008 “The displacement and average velocity are negative, which tells us that the runner is moving to the left nlong the x axis.as indicated by the arrow in Fig, 2-7. ‘Thus we ean say that the runner's average velocity is 6.50'm/s to the lel 195m velocity is = 6.50 m/s Distance a cyclist travels, How far cam «cyclist travel in 25h along a straight road if her average velocity is I8km/? [APPROACH We are given the average velocity andthe time interval (= 25h) We want to find the ditance traveled, so We solve Eq. 2-2 fot Ax. SOLUTION We rewrite Bq.2-2 a5 Ax = Far, and find Ax = Dar = (18 km/h)(2.5h) = 45 km, 22 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One DimensionEl Instantaneous Velocity Ifyou drive a car 150 km along a straight road in one direction for 20h, the magni: tude of your average velocity is 75km/h. It is unlikely, though, that you were ‘moving at precisely 7Skm/h at every instant. To deal with this situation we need the concept of instamaneaus velocity, which is the velocity at any instant of time, (lis magnitude is the number, with units, indicated by a speedometer; Fig. 2-8.) More precisely, the instantaneous velocity at any moment is defined as the average nelocity during an infiitesimally short time interval. That is starting with Eq. 2-2, Ay ar FIGURE 2-8 Car speedometer showing mi in white, and km/h in orange: wwe define instantaneous velocity as the average velocity as we let At become extremely small, approaching zero, We can write the definition of instantaneous velocity, », for one-dimensional motion as x v= jim 3) Instantaneous velocity ling 2 oer " ‘The notation lim, ,y means the ratio 4x/Ar is to be evaluated in the limit of At FIGURE 2-8. Velocity of a car os a approaching zero. function of time: (a) at constant For instantaneous velocity we use the symbol v, whereas for average velocity: (b) with varying velocity velocity we use 7, with a bar, In the rest of this book, when we use the term “velocity.” it will refer to instantaneous velocity. When we want to speak of the average velocity, we will make this clear by including the word “average. Note that the insiantaneous speed always equals the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity. Why? Because the distanes and the magnitude of the displacement become the same when they become infinitesimally small. oa a ae If an object moves at a uniform (that is, constant) velocity during a partie- Time tty ular time interval, then its instantaneous velocity at any instant is the same as its average velocity (see Fig. 2-91), But in many situations this is not the case, For example, a car may start {rom rest, speed up to 50 km/l, remain at that velocity for a time, then slow down to 20 km/h in a traffic jam, and finally stop at its destination after traveling a total of 1Skm in 30min, This tip is plotted on the graph of Fig. 2-9b, Also shown on the graph is the average velocity (dashed line), which is T= Ax/At = 15 km/0.S0h = 30 km/h. Ey Acceleration An object whose velocity is changing is said to be accelerating, For inst car whose velocity increases in magnitude from zero to 80 km/h is accelerating, Acceleration specifies how rapidly the velocity of am object is changing, Average acceleration is defined as the change in velocity divided by the time taken to make this change: 2 ov. E Eo. 0 01 02 03 04 05 (>) Timeity change of velocity average acceleration = 8 “ time elapsed In symbols, the average acceleration, @, during a time interval At =f ~ f, over which the velocity changes by An =n, — 0), is defined as Ae nh Me QW) Average acceleration Acceleration is also a veetor, but for one-dimensional motion, we need only use 4 plus or minus sign (o indicate direction relative to a chosen coordinate system, SECTION 2-4 Acceleration 23The instantaneous acceleration, 2, can be defined in analogy to instamta- neous velocity for any specific instant av dna as Inseancaneous aceleration Here Avis he very small change in velocity during the very short time interval Ay lerates along a straight oad from rest to 7Skm/h in 50s, Fig. 2-10. What i the magnitude of its average acceleration? APPROAGH Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by elapsed 1508 The car starts from rest,so 0; = 0. The final velocity is = 75 km/h SOLUTION From Eq. 2-4, the average acceleration is ty _1Skm/h—Okm/h | ksh hah 50s aBYs This is read as “fifteen kilometers per hour per second” and means that, on average, the velocity changed by 1Skm/h during each second. That is assuming the acceleration was constant, during the first sccond the ear’s velocity increased from vero to 15 km/h. During the next second its velocity increased hy another 15km/h, reaching a velocity of 30km/h at ¢ = 2.0, and so on, See Fig, 2-10. NOTE Our result contains two different time units: hours and seconds We usually prefer to use only seconds, To do so we ean change km/h to m/s (see Atvest means = 0 Section 1-6, and Example 1-5): < [o< emf 1000m \/ 1a skmjh = (75$)(MOB | LE) — a1 mys Then 2Am/s—O.0m/s m/s _ ym sa We almost always write the units for aeccleration as m/st (meters per second squared), as we just did, instead of m/s/s. This is possible because: According to the calculation in Example 2-3, the velocity changed on the average by 42m/s during each second, for a total change of 21m/s over the 5.08 FIGURE 2-10 Example 2-3. The shown at the stat wi 0 = 0) at f, = 0. The caris shown Uhree more timex at f= 1s, 20s, and atthe end of our time interval, = S08. We assume the acceleration i constant and equals 1$ km/h/s. The groon arrows represent the velocity vectors the length of each arzow oprosonts the magnitude of the velocity at that moment. The accel: ‘eration vector isthe orange arrow. Distanees are not to seals. a= tp = 508 v= ty= TSkmMh —==—_ 24 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One DimensionNote that acceleration els us how quickly the velocity changes, whereas velocity db) CAUTION tell us hom quickly the position changes Disnguah elociy rom accion [CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 2-2] Velocity and acceleration. (a) If tie veloc- ity of an object is zero, does it mean that the acceleration is zero? (h) If the AUTION acceleration is zero, does it mean that the velocity is zero? Think of some examples. [yore sea slinome sane RESPONSE A zero velocity does not necessarily mean that the accelera- tion is zero, nor does a zero acceleration mean that the velocity is zero, (a) For example, when you put your foot on the gas pedal af your car which is at rest, the velocity starts from zero but the aveeleration is not zero since the velocity of the car changes. (How else could your car start forward if its velocity weren't changing—that is, accelerating?) (b) As you cruise along a straight highway at a constant velocity of 100 km/h, your acceleration is zero: a = 0,0 # 0. EXERCISE A.A car is advertised 10 go ftom zero to 60 mi/h in 6.0, What does this say bout the car (a) it is fast (high speed): or (b) it accelerates well? Car slowing down, An automobile is moving tothe right along a straight highway, which we choose to be the positive x axis (Fig. 211), ‘Then the arver pats an the brakes Ifthe inital velocity (whon the driver hits the brakes) is ny = 15.0m/s, and i takes 5.08 0 slow down to bs = 50m/s wat was the car's average acceleration? APPROACH We are given the initial and final velocities and the elapsed time, 50 we can calculate a using Fa. 2-4 SOLUTION We use Eq. 2-4 and call the initial ime f = 0; then f= 500s (Note that our choice of 1, =-0 docsn' affect the calculation of @ because FIGURE 2-11. Exam only At =f ~ 4; appears in Eq, 2-4.) Then showing the positon of the car at SOm/s— 150 m/s times fy and f, as well as the ea's = -20mys" velocity represented by the green 50s arrows. The acceleration voctor ‘The negative sign appears because the final velocity is less than the initial (orange) points tothe left as the velocity. In this ease the direction of the acceleration is to the left (in the car slows down while moving negative x direction)—even though the velocity is always pointing to the right, the right ‘We say that the acceleration is 2.0.m/s? to the left, and it is shown in Fig. 2-11 aan orange arrow. Deceleration When an object is slowing down, we sometimes say itis decelerating. But be AUTION careful: deceleration docs not mean that the acceleration is necessarily negative, elon news Te mama For an object moving to the right along the positive x axis and slowing dawn tle rion decreasing foes nor (as in Fig. 2-11), the acceleration is negative. But the same ear moving to the "="! em esr weswtive left (@eereasing 2), and slowing down, has positive acceleration that points to the right, as shown in Tig. 2-12, We have deceleration whenever the ‘magnitude of the velocity is decreasing, and then the velocity and acceleration point in opposite directions, SOm/s ny =-180m/s FIGURE 2-12 The car of Example 2-S, now moving to the left and decelerating eee lets mem _ 80m/s = (=150m/s) __-S0m/s + 180 m/s _ a Sis Se +20m/s of the car's neceletation if EXERCISE BA car moves along the ¥ axis What is the si it is moving in the positive x direction with (a) incveasing speed or (b) decreasing speed? What is the sign of the acceleration if the car moves in the negative dieection With (€) increasing speed (a) decreasing speed” SECTION 2-4 Acceleration 25Ea Motion at Constant Acceleration Many practical situations occur in which the acceleration is constant or nearly ‘Los w= conven’ constant, We now examine this situation when the magnitude of the accelera- tion is constant and the motion is in a straight line. In this case, the instantaneous and average accelerations are equal ‘We now use our definitions of velocity and acceleration to derive a set of extremely useful equations that relate x, v, and s when a is constant, allowing us to determine any one of these variables if we know the others To simplily our notation, Tet us take the initial time in any diseussion (0 be zero,and we eal it f, = f= 0. (This is effectively starting a stopwatch ati.) s(ate We can then let t= 1 be the elapsed time. The initial position (x) and the 5:/=0) = 4) initial elocity (x, of an object will now be represented by x) and n), since they > clopselime represent x and.» at ¢= 0. At time ¢ the position and velocity will be called x and» (rather than 1; and #).'The average velocity during the time interval = fe will be (Eq. 2-2) =H ‘The acceleration, assumed constant in time, is (Eq, 2-4) bom 7 since we chose fy ‘A common problem is to determine the velocity of an object after any elapsed time ¢, when we are given the object’s constant acceleration. We can solve such problems by solving for ein the last equation to obtain: relied wo @ and (a = consan,¢ = elapsed time) pm ty tat [constant acceleration] (2-6) For example, it may be known that the acceleration of a particular motor- cycle is 4.0m/s!, and we wish to determine how fast i will he going after an elapsed time # = 605 when it starts from rest (ty = Oat = 0). AL 1 = 6.05, the velocity will be v = at = (4.0m/s\(6.0s) = 24s Next, let us sce how to calculate the position of an object after a time ¢ When itis undergoing constant acceleration. The definition of average velocity (Bq.2-2) is B= (x= m)/t, which we ean rewrite ns ye xy th en Because the velocity increases at a uniform rate, the average Velocity, B, wil be midway between the initial and final velocit @ caution ae Average wou, bat on p= 3 [constant acceleration] (2-8) (Careful: Eq. 2-8 is not necessarily valid if the acceleration is not constant.) We combine the last two Equations with Eq. 2-6 and find saat ate sgt (AE), + (ett), xrdlated toaand ka xy tae Sar [constant acceleration] (2-9) (a “equations 2-6,2-8,and 2-9 are thrce ofthe four most useful equations for ‘motion at constant acceleration, We now derive the fourth equation, which is Useful in situations where the time ris nat known. We begin with Bq. 2-7 and substitute in Eg. 2-8; 26 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One DimensionNoxt we solve Eq. 2-6 for f, obtaining, ‘and substituting this into the previous equation we have s=aye (S2\(2 We solve this for v® and obtain vi = nh + 2alx - xo) which is the useful equation we sought We now have four equations relating position, velocity, acceleration, and time, when the acceleration a is constant. We colleet these kinematic equations here in one place for future reference (the tan background screen emphasizes their usefulness) nea [a = constant] @-11a) xy + yet Sar [a = constant] 2-11b) 0 + a(x = 4) [a = constant] (2-1e) ete “2 v B [a = constant) 11d) ‘These useful equations are not valid unless a isa constant. In many cases we ean set x) = 0, and this simplifies the above equations a bit. Note that x represents post tion, not distance, that — 4 is the displacement, and that ¢is the elapsed time. Runway design. You are designing an airport for small planes. One kind of airplane that might use this airfield must reach a speed before takvoff of at least 27.8m/s (190 km/h), and can accelerate at 2.00 m/s! (a) If the runway is 150:m long, ean this airplane reach the required speed for take off? (b) If not, what minimum length must the runway have? APPROACH ‘Th plane's acceleration is given as constant (« = 2,00m/s?), so wwe ean use the kinematic equations for constant acceleration, In (a), we are given that the plane can travel a distance of 150m. The plane starts from rest, sen) = 0 and we take 4p = 0. We want to find its velocity, to determine if it will be at least 27.8m/s, We want to find » when we are given: Known Wanted xe=0 ° mo x= 130m a= 200m/e SOLUTION (a) OF the above four equations, Eg.2-L1e will give us v when we Iknow ny, a,x, and x v= 0 + 2a — ay) 0 + 22.0 m/s*)(150 m) = 600m*/s? y= 600m" 7s = 24.5 m/s. ‘This runway length & nor sufficient (b) Now we want 1 find the minimum length of runway, x— x, given b= 278m/s and a= 2(Mm/s’. So we again use Eq.2-Ile, bul rewritten as 27.8 m/s)" ~ 0 2a 3(20m/s*) ‘A.200-m runway is more appropriate for this plane. = 193m, ‘prelated w a and.x (a= constant) Kinematic equations or constant acceleration (ve se the a to) @onvsies « "Airport design Equations PLieD OBLEM SOLVING TI are valid onty when the acceleration is constant, which we ‘aut in this Example SECTION 2-5 Motion at Constant Acceleration aEX2J solving Problems Before doing more worked-out Examples let us look at how to approach problem solving, First, it is important to note that physics is not a collection of equations to be memorized. (In fhet, rather than memorizing the very useful Eqs. 2=I1, it is btter {o understand how to derive them from the definitions of velocity and accel eration as we did above.) Simply searching for an equation that might work ean lead you to a wrong result and will surely net help you understand physics. A better Approach is 10 use the following (rough) procedure, which we put in a special “Tox.” (Other such Problem Solving Boxes, as an aid, will be found throughout the book.) ieee arcs 1. Read and reread the whole problem carefully before trying to solve it 2 Decide what object (or objects) you are going to study, and for what time interval. You can often choose the inital ime to be # = 0. 3. Draw a dingram or picture of the situation, with coordinate axes wherever applicable, [You can place the origin of coordinates and the axes wher- ver you like to make your calculations easier. You also choose which direction is positive and which is negative. Ustally we choose the x axis to the right a positive 4. Write down what quantities are “known” or “given,” and then what you icant to know. Consider «quantities both atthe beginning and atthe end of the chosen time interval. You may need to “trans- late” stated language into physical terms, sich 98 “starts from rest” means. 5. Think about which principles of physics apply in this problem, Use common sense and your own experiences. Then plan an approach. 6, Consider which equations (and/or definitions) relate the quantities involved. Before using them, be sure their range of validity includes your probiem (for example, Eqs 2-11" are valid only when the acceleration is constant). Ifyou find an applicable equation that involves only known quantities and fone desired unknown, solve the equation alge- bbruically for the unknown, In many instances several sequential calculations, or a combination of equations, may be needed. Tt is often preferable to solve algebraically for the desired unknown before putting in numerical values 7. Carry out the ealenlation if it is a numerical problem, Keep one or two extra digits during the calculations, but round olf the final answer(s) to the correct number of significant figures (Section 1~4), 8 Think carefully about the result you obtain: Is it reasonable? Does it make sense dccording to your ‘own intuition and experience? A good check is to do a rough estimate using only powers of ten, as discussed in Section 1-7, Often itis preferable to do a rough estimate at the start of a numerical problem because it can help you focus your atten- tion on finding a path toward a solution. 9. A very important aspect of doing problems is keeping ‘rack of units. An equals sign implies the units on «each side must be the same, just as the mumbers must. If the units do not balance, a mistake has no doubt ‘been made. This ean serve a8 a check on your solution {out it only tells you if you're wrong, not if you're right). And: always use a consistent set of units EM SOLVING Starting rom vest" means Oat P20 [een Acceleration of a car. How long docs it take a car to cross ‘2 S0.0em-wide interseetion after the light turns green, if the car accelerates ‘|| from rest at a constant 2.00 m/s"? APPROACH We follow the Problem Solving Box, step by step. FIGURE 2-18 Example 2-7, SOLUTION 1, Reread the problem. Be sure you understand what it asks for (here, a time period). 2. The objet under study the car. We need to choose the time interval during which we look at the car’s motion: we choose ¢ = 0, the initial time, to be the moment the car starts to accelerate from rest (vy ~ O)sthe time Fis, the instant the car has traveled the full 30.0-m width of the intersection, 3. Draw a diagram: the situation is shown in Fig. 2-13, where the eat is shown, moving along the positive x axis, We choose x) = 0 at the front bumper oF the car before it starts to move. 28 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One Dimension4. The “knowns” and the “wanted wwe choose ay = 0. Note that mao : that is, ny = 0. «om 5. The physics the motion takes place at constant acccleration, so we can use = 200m the kinematic equations, Eqs. 2-11 er 6. Equations: we want to find the time, given the distance and acceleration: Eq. 2-Ilb is perfect since the only unknown quantity is, Seti 0 and x)= 0 in Eg, 2-110 (x ), we can solve for are shown in the Table Sa the margin, and Knows Wanted ing from rest” means v= 0 ab ¢= 0; ;——— Na 7. The culelaton: pa 2(30.0m) _ _ = B= A = sass Va > \ 200m" ‘This is our answer, Note that the units come out correctly 8, We can check the reasonableness of the answer by calculating the ina velocity" PROBLEM SOLVING v= at = (2.00m/s!)(5488) = 10.96m/s, and then finding x= xy-+ T= Cie our ance 10,96 m/s + 0)(548s) = 3.0m, which i our given distance. 9. We checked the units, and they came out perfeetly (seconds) NOTE In steps 6 and 7, when we took the square root, we should have written = +./2s/a = + 548s. Mathematically there are two solutions But the second Solutio 5.485, is time before our chosen time interval and makes no sense physically. We say itis “unphysical” and ignore it t= ‘We explicitly followed the steps of the Problem Solving Box in Example 2-7. In upcoming Examples, we will use our usual “approach” and “solution” to avoid being wordy, [EEQUIIGEZEILESTIMATE] Air bags. Suppose you want wo design an airs Glenysics apriieo Wg system that can protect the drivet in a head-on collision at a speed of Corsaion—ar hoes 100 kr (60 mph). Estimate how fast the air bag must inflate (Fig. 2—I4) to effectively proteet the driver. How does the use ofa seatbelt help the driver? APPROACH We assume the acceleration is roughly constant, 30 we ean use Eqs 2-11. Both Eqs 2-1la and 2-11b contain four desired unknown, They both contain aso we must fist find a, which we can do using Eg. 2-L1e if we know the distance + over which the ear crumples. A rough estimate might be about I meter. We choose the time interval to start atthe instant of impact with the car moving at 1 = 1W0km/b, and to end when the car comes to rest (= 0) after traveling Lm, SOLUTION We convert the given initial speed to SI units: 100km/h = 100 x 10° m/3600s = 28m/s. We then find the acceleration from Eq, 2-1e: (28m/s} 2 — GOAT = -s00 m/s. FIGURE 2-14 An air bag deploying om impetPeample 2-8 sion tes place ina time given by (Eg. 2-119} = 28m/s Po SESE 007s @ =390m/s To be effective, the air bag would need to inflate faster than this, ‘What does the air hag do? Tt spreads the force over a large area of the chest (‘o avoid puncture of the chest by the steering wheel). The seat belt keeps the person in a stable position against the expanding air bag SECTION 2-8 Solving Problems 29FIGURE 2-15 Example 2-9: stop ping distance for a braking ear S appLieo Braking distances Deny Part 1 Reaction time Known 00s * tims lms ° o=0 Pat? Broking _ Known Wantea Xo= 70m * te = Him/s v=o a= -60m/s FIGURE 2-16 Example 2-9, Graph of rvs 6 4 emis) Q 0. 5 6 i © os 10 15 20 25 ems devteases from Ms w zer0 = 60 mse Eas Braking distances. Estimate the minimum stopping distance for a car, which is important for traific safety and traffic design. The problem is best dealt with in two parts two separate time intervals (1) The first time interval begins when the driver decides to hit the brakes, and ends when the foot touches the brake pedal, This is the “reaetion time” during which the speed is eonstant, soa = 0. (2) The second time interval is the actual braking period when the vehicle slows down (a # 0) and comes to a stop. The stopping distance depends on the reaction time of the driver, the initial speed of the car (the final speed is zero), and the acceleration of the ear. For a dry road and good tires, good brakes can decelerate a car at a rate of 2 to 8m/s'. Calculate the total stopping distance for an initial km/h (14m/s * 31 mi/h) and assume the acceleration of the car is ~6.0 m/s" (the minus sign appears because the velocity is taken to be in the positive x direction and its magnitude is decreasing). Reaction time for 3s from perhaps 0.38 to about 1.05; take it to he 0508 ~ part (1), the ear moves at constant speed of 14m/s,so a = 0. Once the brakes are applied, part (2), the acceler- ation is @ = ~6.0m/s* and is constant oxer this time interval. For both parts ais constant, so we can use Eqs. 2-11 SOLUTION Part (1). We take x) = 0 for the first part of the problem, in Which the car wavels ata constant speed of 14.m/s during the time interval when the driver is reaeting (0.50). See Fig. 2-15 and the Table in the margin. To find x, the position of the ear at ¢ = 0.50 (whem the brakes are applied), we cannot use Eq, Ile because x is multiplied by a, which is zero, But Eq, 2~1b works: L4m/s)(0.50s) = 7.0m. ‘Thus the car travels 7.0m during the driver's reaction time, until the moment the brakes are applied. We will use ths result as input to part (2). Part (2). Now we consider the second time interval, during which the brakes are applied and the ear is brought to rest, We have an initial position xg= 7.0m (result of part (1)),and other variables are shown in the Table in the margin, Equation 2-11a doesn't contain x; Eq, 2-11b contains x but also the unknown Equation 2-L1e, «° ~ xj = 2a — a), is what we want; ater setting x) = 7.0m, we solve for x, the final position of the ear (when it stops): 2a x= neta 196 m"/s! _ 0 = (14m/s)* =70m+ ane 7-60m/") = 20m + 16m = 23m, ‘The car traveled 7.0m while the driver was reaeting and another 16m during the braking period before coming o a stop. The toal distance traveled wos then 25m. Figure 2-16 shows a graph of v vs 4: v is constant from 1=0 to 1= 050s, and decreases linearly to zero afler # = 050s, NOTE From the equation above fr, we see that the stopping distance aller you ithe brakes (=x ~ ay) increases with the square of the inital sped, not us lineary with peed. If you are traveling twice as fast takes four times the distance to stop 10m + 30 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One Dimension‘The analysis of motion we have been discussing in this Chapter is basically braic. It is sometimes helpful to use a graphical interpretation as well, the optional Section 2-8. El Falling Objects One of the most common examples of uniformly accelerated motion is that of an objet allowed to fall freely near the Ears surface. That a fling object i crlerating may not be obvious at frst, And beware of thinking as was widely Delicved unt the time of Galileo (Fig 2-17), that heavier objects fal Taster than lighter objects and thatthe speed of fli proportional to how heavy the objet Galileo's analysis of fling objects made use of his new and erative tech nique of imagining what would happen in idealized (simplified) cases. Fort fall, he postulated that all objects Would fall with the same constant acceleration Qe CAUTION. in the absence of sir or other resistance. We shoved that this postulate predicts espe of a fallng objects NOT that foram objec falling from rest, he lstance waveled will be propomtional to Pr°partonlw as man a7 weight the square of the time (Fig. 2-18); that is, d oc 12 We can see this from Eq, 2ilb, but Galileo was the first to derive this mathematical relation [Among Galileo's great contributions to science was to establish such mathe maliel elationg and (o insist on specific experimental consequences that could 2GURE 2-18 Mactan be quantitatively cheeked, such a8 dcx] Bhotogaph of fling spe a "To support his claim that falling objects increate in speed as they fal, Galileo Stal tne intervie The made tae ofa clever argument: a heavy stone dropped trom a height of 2m wil area, unk comes stake info the ground much further than will the same stone dropped from sect {of only 02m. Clean the stone must be moving faster inthe former case As we saw, Galileo also claimed that all objects, ight or heavy, fall wit the same acceleration, atleast in the absence of ar If you hold a pice of paper horizontally in one hand and a heavier object—say, a baseball—in the other and release them atthe same time asin ig. 2~19a, the heavier object will reach the ground frst. But if you repeat the experiment, this time crumpling the paper into a small wad (see Fig, 219), you will find thatthe two objects reach { floor at nearly the same Gime Galileo was sure that air acts asa resistance to very light objects that have a lang surface area. But in many creumstances this ar resistance is negligible. In 9 chamber from which the airs been removed, even light objet ike a feather or ® horitonally held pies of paper wl fall with the same acceleration as ay other, abject (see Fig. 2-20). Such a demonstration in vacuum was not possible In Galileo's tn ai al the greater. Galileo often called the “father of moder science,” no! only forthe content of his science {astronomical discoveries, inertia, fee fal, but also for his ste oF approach to science Gdesization and simplification, mathematization of theory. theories that have testable consequences experiments to teat theoretical predictions). FIGURE 2-17 Galileo Galilei (1564=1642). FIGURE 2-18 Mulillash , whieh makes Galileo's achiew FIGURE 2-19 (a) A ball ad a light pieee of paper are dropped at the same time —> (b) Repeated, with the paper { wadded up. FIGURE 2-20 rock ind a feather are dropped, simultaneously (a) in at. (b) in a vacuum, © 0) al Ainfilled ube Evacuated @ SECTION 2-7 Falling Objects 31Galileo's specific contribution to our understanding of the motion of falling objects can be summarized as follows: Gulleosiypotions fee jll’sa a a given Tocation om the Earth and in the absence of air resistance, all Sooo sje Fall with the same constant acceleration. We call this acceleration the acceleration due to geavity on the Earth, and we sive it the symbol g Its magnitude is approximately ‘Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.80m/s’ [oc surface of Barth} In British units g is about 32 1/8. Actually, g varies slightly according to latitude and elevation, but these variations are so small that we will ignore them for most purposes The effects of air resistance are often small, and we will neglect them for the most part, However, air resistance will be noticeable even on a reasonably heavy object if the velocity becomes large.’ Acceleration due to gravity is @ vector, as is any acceleration, and its direction is toward the eenter of the Earth, ‘When dealing with freely falling objects we can make use of Eqs 2-11, Where for « we use the value of g given above. Aso, since the motion is vertical We will substitute y in place of and yp in place of xy. We take jj, — 0 unless Se PROBLEM SOLVING otherwise specified. 11 is arbitrary whether we choose y t0 be positive in the Youchiow vibe posiive upward direction or inthe downteard direetion; but we must he consistent about eer up orsioe" it throughout a problem's solution. Falling from a tower. Suppose that a ball is dropped (%) = 0) from a tower 70.0. high. How far will the ball have fallen after a time = 1.005, = 2.008, and 4, = 3.0082 APPROACH Let us take y as postive downward. We neglect any air resistance Thus the acceleration is a= g = +980m/s!, which is positive because we have chosen downward as positive. We set n= 0 andy) = 0. We want to find the position y ofthe ball after dee different time intervals. Equation 2-I1b, with « replaced by ys relates the piven quantities (ta, and x) 10 the unknown y SOLUTION We set 1 =f, = 100s in Eq. 2-11: “Drop” means » FIGURE 2-21 Example 2-10 (@) An object dropped from a tower {alls with progressively greater speed and covers greater distance with each successive second, (See also Fig. 2-18.) (b) Graph of y v8.6 Acceleration » duet - $(9.80m/s")(1.005)* = 4.90 m, Tyma5om | The ball has fallen a distance of 490m during the time interval ¢=0 10 (ner 1.005) | «= 1,00, Similarly, after 200s (= 1. the bal’s position is, y= 196m Sar} = $(9.80 m/s")(2.00s)* = 19.6m. (fier 2005) ally after 3.00 (= 4), the ball's position is (see Fig. 2-21) ys = far} = $(0.80.m/s?)(3.005)? = 4.1m. NOTE Whenever we say “dropped.” we mean %) = 0. yam ‘ter 3.009) Thrown down from a tower. Suppose the ballin Example 2-10 is thrown downward with an initial velocity of 3.00m/s, instead of being dropped, (a) What then would be its position after 1.00 and 2.008? (®) What would its speed he after 1,00 s and 2.008? Compare with the speeds of a dropped ball © APPROACH We can approach this in the same way as in Example 2-10, “Again wo use Eq. 2-116, but now 18 not 2er0, iti) = 3.00m/s SOLUTION (a) At 1 ~ 1.005, the position ofthe ball as given by Eq. 2-110 i aye + bar? = (3.00 m/s}(1.008) + $(9.80m/s?](1.005)! = 790m. roo At 1 = 200s, (time interval = 0 t0 1 = 2.005), the position is y= vf + $ar® = (3,00m/5)(2.00) + ¥(9.80.m/s")(2.005)? = 256m, As expected the ball falls farther each second than if it were dropped with ey = Tho spe an obec fling in sr (or other) doesnot inerease ndesntely. the object fas fur enough, wil ee a masinam velo eae ths terminal elt uf ae rest 32 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One Dimension(8) The velocity is obtained from Eq. 2-1 3.00:m/s + (9.80m/s*)(1.005) = 128m/s fat = 1.005} = 3.00m/s + (280:m/S2)(2008) = 2605/8. fat = 2.005) In Example 2-10, when the ball was dropped (1, = 0), the first term (2) in these equations was zero, so v= 0+ at = (9.80 m/s?)(1.008) = 9.80m/s [avy = 1.005] = (9.80m/s)(2.00s) = 19.6 m/s. fats, = 2.005} NOTE For both Examples 2-10 and 2-11, the speed inereases linearly in time by 9.80 m/s during each second, But the speed of the downwardly thrown ball at any moment i always 3.00m/ (its inital speed) higher than that of a dropped ball Ball thrown upward, |. A person throws a ball upinard into the at with an inital velocity of 15.0, Caleulate (a) how high it goes, and (6) how long the ll iin the ai before it comes hack to his hand, APPROACH Wie are not concerned hore with the throvsing action, ut only with the motion of the ball after it leaves the thrower's hand (Fig. 2-22) and until it comes back to his hand again, Let us choose » 0 be positive inthe upward direc- tion and negative in the downward direction. (This sa different convention from that used in Examples 2-10 and 2-11, and so illustrates our options) The accel cration due to gravity will have a negative sign, a = —g = ~9.80m/s'. As the ball rises, its speed decreases until it reaches the highest point (B in Fig. 2-22) where its speed is zea for an instant; then it descends with increasing speed. SOLUTION (a) We consider the time interval from when the ball leaves the thrower's hand until the ball reaches the highest point, To determine the ‘maximum height, we caleulate the position of the hall when its velocity equals zero (1 = 0a the highest point). AC r= 0, (point A in Fig. 2-22) we have jy = 0, a, = 15:0m/s, and a= -980m/s'. At time ¢ (maximum height) v= 0,a~ ~9.80m/s*, and we wish to find ». We use Eq. 2-Ic, replacing x With yin? = 2} + 2ay. We salve this equation for y = 0} _ 0 (Sms 2a -2{-9.80m/#) ‘The ball reaches a height of 11.5 m above the hand, (0) Now we need to choose « different time interval to caleulate how long the ball is inthe air before it returns to his hand, We could do this calculation in two parts by fist determining the time required for the ball to reach is highest point, and then dotermining the time it takes to fall back down, However, iis simpler to consider the time interval for the entire motion from A 10 B to C (Fig, 2-22) in one step and use Eq. 2-11b, We ean do this because y (or x) represents positon or displacement, and not the total distance traveled. Thus, at both points A and C, y= 0, We use Eq.2-1b with a= ~9.80 m/s? and find y= gt + dae 0 = (15.0 m/s + 3(—9.80 m/s" ‘This equation is readily factored (we factor out one 0) (180 m/s ~ 4.99 m/s?) = 0. ‘There ate two solutions » LSm, 150m/s 490m/e ‘The first solution (¢ = 0) corresponds to the initial point (A) in Fig.2~22, when the ball was first thrown from y= 0. The second solution, 1 = 3.06, corresponds to point C when the ball has returned to y = 0. ‘Thus the bal is in the air 3.06 1=0 and 3.065. FIGURE 2-22 An object thrown into the air leaves the throwers hand at A, reaches ils maximum height at Band retums to the original postion at C Examples 2-12, 2-13, 2-14, and 2-15, SECTION 2-7 Falling Objects 38@ caution Quadratic equations have ro Solutions Sometimes only one onespond w reaiy, ‘emai bot @ caution (1) Velociy and acceleration are not sais i the same direction: the acceleration (of gravity) alas ‘points doxen (2) a # Dever atthe highest point ofa trajectory FIGURE 2-22. (Repeated for Examples 2-13,2-14, and 2-15.) Note de symnmeirythe speed at any height is the same when going up as when coming down (but the direction isonpasite) We did not consider the throwing action inthis Example. Why? Beeause during the thoy the throwers hand is touching the ball and accelerating the ball at a rate unknown to us—the acceleration is ot g. We consider only the time when the bali inthe air and the aceleration Is equal to Every quadratic equation (whore the variable (s squared) mathematically produces two solutions Tn physics sometimes only one solution corresponds 10 the real situation as in Example 2-7, n which cae we ignore the “unphysical” solution, But in Example 2-12, both solutions to our equation in hs [CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 213] Two possible misconceptions. Give examples o show the ertor in these (wo common misconceptions: (1) that aecel- eration and velocity are always in the same direction, and (2) that an object, thrown upward has zero acceleration atthe highest point (B in Fig, 2-22) RESPONSE Both are wrong. (1) Velocity and acesleration are nor necessarily in the same direction. When the ball in Example 2-12 is moving upward, its velocity ’s positive (upward), whereas the acceleration is negative (downward). (2) At the highest point (B in Fig, 2-22), the ball has zero velocity for an instant. Ts the acceleration also zero at this point? No, The velocity near the top of the are points upward, then becomes zero (for zero time) at the highest point, and then points downward, Gravity does not stop acting, so a = —g = ~9.80m/s* even there, Thinking that a= 0 at point B would lead to the conclusion that upon reaching point B, he ball would stay there: if the acceleration (= rate of change of velocity) were zero, the velocity Would stay zero at the highest point, and the ball, would stay up there without falling. Tn sum, the acceleration of gravity always. points down Coward the Earth, even when the object is moving up. ally meaningiuk: ¢= 0 and + = 306s, Ball thrown upward, ll. Let us consider again the ball {thrown upward of Example 2-12, and make more ealculations Caleulate (a) how ‘uch time i takes forthe ball o reach the maximum height (point B in Fig 2-22), and (b) the velocity of the ball when it returns to the thrower’s hand (point C). APPROACH Again we assume the acceleration is constant, so Eqs. 2-11 are valid ‘We ave the height of 11.5 m from Example 2-12. Again we take yas positive upward SOLUTION (a) We consider the time interval between the throw (c= 0, 2 = 1SOm/s) and the top of the path (y = +11Sm), v= 0, and we want to find & ‘The acceleration is constant at a ~ ~g = ~9.80 m/s’. Both Eqs. 2-114 and 2-11b contain the time ¢ with other quantities known. Let us use Eg.2-Ila with a= ~980m/s!, a) = 150m/s, and v = 0: vam tan setting e = 0 and solving for £ gives _ 15.0 m/s. ; Toomer 83% ‘This is just half the time it takes the ball (go up and fall back to its original positioa [3.065 calculated in part () of Example 2-12]. Thus it takes the same ime to reach the maximum height as to fall back to the starting point. (0) Now we eonsider the time interval from the throw (1 = 0.) = 15.0m/s) until the ball’s return to the hand, which occurs at ¢ = 3.06s (as calculated in Example 2-12), nd we want to find » when 1 = 3.065: = ty + at = 15.0m/s ~ (9.80 m/s*)(3.068) = — NOTE The ball has the same magnitude of velocity when it returns to the starting point as it did initially, but in the opposite direction (this is the meaning of the negative sign). Thus, as we gathered from part (a), the motion is symmetrical about the maximum height m/s. 34 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One DimensionEXERCISE € Two bulls are thrown from a lif, One is throwin directly up, the other directly dawn. Hoth halls have the same inital speed, and both hit the ground low the cift Which ball hits the ground at the greater speed: (a) the ball thrown upward, (@) the hall thrown downward, or (e) both the same? Ignore air resistance. [Hine See the result of Example 2-1, part (b).] ‘The acceleration of objects such as rockets and fast airplanes is often aiven as a multiple of y= 980 m/s". For example, a plane pulling out of a dive and amdergoing 3.00 g's would have an acceleration of (3.00)(9.80 m/s") 2A mis. | EXERCISE D If 9 cari said to accolerate at 0 50g, what is its aceaeration in m/s"? Additional Example—Using the Quadratic Formula Ball thrown upward, Ill. For the hall in Example 2-14, calculate at what time £ the ball passes a point 8.00 m above the person’s hand, APPROACH We choose the time interval {rom the throw (# = 0, 1 = 15.0m/s) until the time ¢ (to be determined) when the ball is at position y = 8.00 m, using Eq. 2-1, SOLUTION We want 1, given y= 800m, 5 a= ~980m/s", We use Eg. 2-I1b: 0, = 180m/s, and gt art dar 8.0m = 0 + (1S:0m/s)¢ + ${—9.80. m/s?) To solve any quadratic equation of the form ar? + br + ¢ = 0, where a,b and c ore constants (ais nor acceleration here), we use the quadatie formula (see Appendix A-4): “ba Ome ‘We rewrite our y equation just above in standard form, av + br +6 (490m/s*) ~ (15.0m/s}¢ + (8.00m) = So the eoetticient a is 4.90 m/s, b is ~15.0 m/s, and eis 8,00m, Putting these into the quadratic formula, we obtain mm/s & VCS m/sy = 4.90 ms VEOVm) 74.90 m/s") which gives us = 0.698 and = 237s. Are both solutions valid? Yes, because the ball passes y = 8.00m when it goes up (¢ = 0.69) and again when it comes down (¢ = 2.375) For some people, graphs can be a help in understanding, Figure 2-23 shows ‘graphs of y vs. rand 0'¥s. for the ball thrown upward in Fig. 2-22, incorporating the resulls of Examples 2-12, 2-14, and 2-15, We shall discuss some useful properties of graphs in the next Section. We will use the word “vertical” a Tot in this book. What does it mean? (Try to respond before reading on.) Vertical is defined as the line along which an ‘object falls. Or, if you put a small sphere on the end of a string and let it hang, the string ropresents a vertical line (sometimes ealled a plumb line). | EXERCISE E Whar docs hovizamta! mean? Acceleration expressed in g's oBLeM SOLVING Using the quadrane Formula vim 005 1 «@) 2 15 10] s| ° 10) =15 4m) 20 OOS bis Das a a5 ) rs) FIGURE 2-23 Graphs of (a) y v8, (b) evs for a ball thrown upward, Examples 2-12,2-14,and 2-18. SECTION 2-7 Falling Objects 35é oo 20 Tims.) to a os FIGURE 2-24 Graph af position v.time for an object moving at a uniform velocity of 11 m/s Velocity = stope of x wt graph Stope of curve FIGURE 2-25 30) @ Graphical Analysis of Linear Motion Figure 2-9 showed the graph of the velocity of a car versus time for two eases of linear motion: (a) constant velocity, and (b) a particular case in which the magnitude of the velocity varied. Iti also usefUl to graph, oF “plo” the posi- tion x (or y) as a function of time, as we did in Fig. 2-230. The time + is considered the independent variable and is measured along the horizontal axis The postion, x, the dependent variable, is measured along the vertical axis, Let us make a graph of x vst and make the choice that at z= 0, the position is. x) = 0. First we consider a car moving at a constant velocity of 40 km/h, which is equivalent to {Lm/s. Equation 2-11b tells us a = et, and we see that x increases by I1 m every second. Thus, the position inereaseslineaty in time, sa the graph of « vs risa straight line, as shown in Fig. 2-24. Each point tom this sraight Fine (ells us the car's position at a particular time. For example, at 1= 308, the position is 33m, and at r= 40s, x = 44m, as indicated by the dashed lines. The small (shaded) triangle on the graph indicates the slope of the straight line, which is defined as the change in the dependent variable (Ax) divided by the corresponding change in the independent variable (At) Ax slope = We see, using the definition of average velocity (Eq. 2-2), that the slope of the x 1s. graph is equal fo the velocity. And,as.ean be seen from the small triangle on. the graph, Ax/Al = (11 m)/(1,08) = 11 m/s, which is the given velocity ‘The slope of the x vs. ¢ graph is everywhere the same if the velocity is constant, as in Fi But ifthe velocity changes, as in Fig. 2-25a, the slope of the x vs f graph also varies. Consider, for example, a car that (1) accelerates uniformly from rest to [Sm/s in 15s, after which (2) it remains at a constant velocity of 15 m/s for the next 5.08; (3) during the following 5.05, the car slows down uniformly to 5.0 m/s, and then (4) remains at this constant velocity. This velocity as a function of time is shown in the graph of Fig, 2-25a, To construct the x vs 7 graph, we cam use Eq. 2—11b (x = xy + aye + dar’) with constant acceleration for the interval 1= 0 to = 15s and for 1 208 to 1 = 25s, for the constant velocity period f= 15s to = 208, and after 1 = 25s, we seta = 0, The result is the x vs ¢ graph of Fig. 2-28b. From the origin to point A, the « vs ¢ graph (Fig, 2-25b) is nota straight line, but is curved. The slope of a curve at any point is defined as the slope of the fangent to the curve at that point, (The tangent is a straight line drawn so it Louches the curve only at that one point but does not pass aeross or through the curve.) For example, the tangent to the x vs.¢ curve at the time 1 = 10.08 is drawn on the graph of Fig. 2-25b. A triangle is drawn with Af chosen to be 4.05; Some Sections of this book. sh a this one, may’ be eonsiered optional at te dsretion of the insirustoe See the Preface for mre details (.) Velocity vs ime and (b) displacement vs time for an object with vasiable velocity. (See text.) Ta 300) 200) 100) Position, xan) Le ee) Time, 113) ) Time, 115) 36 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One DimensionAr can be measured off the graph for this chosen Ar and is found to be 40m. ‘Thus, the slope of the curve at ¢= 100s, which equals the instantaneous velocity at that instant, is v= Ax/At = 40.m/4.0s = 10m/s, Tm the region between A and B (Fig. 2-25b) the x vs f graph isa straight ine because the slope (equal to the velocity) is constant, The slope ean be measured using the triangle shown for the time interval between ¢ = 17s and ¢ = 20s, here the increase inx is 45m: As/At = 45m/3.0s = 15 m/s. The slope of an x vs. graph at any point is Ax/Ar and thus equals the velocity of the object being described at that moment. Similarly, the slope at any point of a v vs. ¢ graph is Av/Ar and so (by Eq. 2-4) equals the acceleration at that moment. Suppose we were given the x v8. ¢ graph of Fig. 2-25b, We could measure the slopes at s number of points and plot these slopes as a function of time. Since the slope equals the velocity, we could thus reconstruct the © vs. ¢ graph! In other words, given the graph of x vs (, We can determine the velocity as a funetion of time using graphical methods, instead of using equations. This tech- nique is particularly useful when the acceleration is not constant, for then Eqs. 2-11 cannot be used, instead, we are given the » vs r graph, asin Fig. 2~2Sa, we ean determine the position, x,a a funetion of time using a graphieal provedure, which we illusirate by applying it to the » vs ¢ graph of Fig. 2-25a, We divide the total time interval into subintervals, as shown in Fig, 2-26a, witere only six are shown (by dashed vertical lines), In ench interval, a horizontal dashed line is deawn to indicate the average velocity during, that time interval. For example, in the first interval, the velocity increases at a constant rate from zero to 5.0m/s, so 0 = 25 m/s, and in the fourth interval the velocity is a constant 15m/s, so T= 1Sm/s (no horizontal dashed line is shown in Fig. 2-26a since it coincides with the curve itself). The displacement (change in position) during any subinterval is Ar = pt. ‘Thus the displacement during each subinterval equals the product of and AY, which is just the area of the rectangle (height % base = B X A1), shown shaded in rose, for that interval. The total displacement after 25s, say, wil he the sum of the areas of the first ive rectangles If the velocity varies a great deal, it may be difficult (o estimate @ from the raph. To reduce this difficulty, we can choose to divide the time interval into ‘many more—but narrower—subintervals of time, making each Ar smaller as shown in Fig. 2-26b. More intervals give a better approximation. Ideally, we could let Af approach zero; this leads to the techniques of integral calcul which we don't discuss here, The result, in any easo, is that she roxal displacement between any ewo times is equal to the area under the v vs. ¢ graph between these 00 tienes, Dissacement wing wv. Egg. A sac probe scl Saesuniora fom sdmaa'reOwiOm/ea r= We How aaa move between ='208"and 1 60s! APPROACH Aap ote ven be ayn as sos in ig. 2-27. We sed the avenge of he gh Gun feet ines ie wh ih 08) SOLUTION The seman 's 1 (150m /sS0m/5/105 10m Use Eglin fez ota 205 y= m/s ania l= 8s.0 Tidms Ts teaca (©, wih equa a (Pe) (4.08) = 360m, In cases where the acceleration is not constant, the arca can be obtained by counting squares on graph paper. 6 5 @ 15 2 35 & 0 5 wb 1s % a5 Tie, 18) %) FIGURE 2-26 Determining sdisplacement from the graph of ‘pys.ris dane by cafeulating aroas, Displacement ~ area under 00s graph FIGURE 2-27, Example 2-16. The shaded area represents the displace mnt daring the time interval 1= 20s © 1= 608, 130 100 so 1 405) o 0 20 40 60 80 19) SECTION 2-8 Graphical Analysis of Linear Motion 37 30 0summary [The Summary that appears at the end of each Chapter inthis book gives a brief overview of the main ideas of the Chapter. The Summary cannot serve to give an understanding of the material, which can be accomplished only by a detiled roading ofthe Chapter] Kinematics deals with the description of how objects move, The descripiion of the movion of any object must altsays be given relatvo to some particular referenee frame Te displacement of an object is the change in postion of the object. ‘Average speed is the distance traveled divided by the lapsed ime or time interval, Af, the time period over which | wwe choose to make our observations. An objec ’s average velocity over a particular time interval Aris its displacement Av during that time interval, divided by Af a ar The instantaneous velocity, whose magnitude isthe same as the dnstanuaneous speed. is defined as the average velocity taken over an infinitesimally short time interval ‘Acceleration isthe change of velocity per unit time. Am ‘object's average acceleration over a time interval Aes on = a4 [Questions where Avis the change of velocity during the time interval At Instantaneous acceleration is the average accoloration taken ‘ver an infinitesimally short time interval Ian object has positon x and velocity % at time 1 = 0 and movos in a straight fine with constant aceoleraton, the velocity » and position x at a later time 1 are related to the acceleration athe initial position x, and the iaital velocity 1 by Eqs. 2-11: wattle mag 7 Objects that move vertically near the surface of the arth, either falling or having been projected vortically up oF owen, move with the constant downvsard acceleration due 10 gravity, whese magnitude is g = 98m/s? if air resistance can be ignored. We can apply Eqs. 2-11 for eunstant avcelera tion to objects that move up oF down freely near the Earths surlace [The slope of a curve at any point on a graph is the slope of the tangent to the curve at that point. I the graph sr 6 the slope is s/f and equals the velocity a that point. ‘The aren under a vs. ¢ graph equals the displacement between any to chosen times] Does a ear speedometer measuce speed, velocits,or both? Can an object have a varying speed if fis velocity is constant? If yes, give examples. 3. When an object moves with constant velocity, does its average velocity during any time interval differ from its instantancous velocity at any instant? 4, In drag racing, is it possible for the ear with the greatest speed crossing the finish line to Jose the race? Explain, If one object has a wreater speed than a second object, does the first necessarily havo a greater acceleration? Explain, using examples {6 Compare the aceoleration of a motorcycle that accelerates fscm Sl km/h to Okm/h with the acceleration of bicycle that accelerates from rest to 10m /h in the same time 7. Can an objet have a northward velocity and a southwasd acceleration? Explain & Can the velocity of an object be negative when its acceleration is positive? What about vice versa? Give an example where hath the velocity and accolera 10, Two cars emerge side by side from @ tunnel. Car A is traveling With a speed of 60)km/h and has an accelera- tion of 40km/h/min, Car B has a speed of 40 km/h and has an acceleration of 60km/h/min. Which cor is pssing the other as they come out of he tunnel? Explain your reasoning 11, Can an object be increasing in speed as its acceleration decreases? Iso, give an example If not, expla 12, A baseball player its a fou ball straight up into the alr tt leaves the bat with speed of 120m. In the absence of air resistance, how fast wil the ball be traveling when the fateher catches 10? %. 13. As a freely falling object speeds up, what is happening to ins aoeeleration due to gravity—does it increase, decrease, for stay the same? 14, How would you estimate the maximum height you could ‘theow a hall vertically upward? How would yon estimate the maximum speed you could give it? 18. You travel from point A to point B in a ear moxing at 8 constant speed of 70km/h. Then you travel the same sistance from point B to another point C, moving at a constant speed of 90km/h. Is your average speed for the entire tip from A to C 80 km/h? Explain why or why not 16, In a lecture demonstration, a 3.0-m-long vertical string ‘vith ten bolls ted toi at equal intervals is dropped from the ceiling of the lecture hall, The string falls on a tin plate, and the class hears the clink of each bolt as it hits the plate, The sounds will not occur at equal time interval. Why? Will the time between clinks increase oF sdeeroaso nar tho ond af tho fall? How could the bolts be tied so thatthe clink oceur at equal intervals? 17, Which one ofthese motions s mo at canstantneceleration: 1 rack falling from a cliff elevator mowing fem the second floor ‘othe fifth floor making stops along the way, dish resting on a table? 18, An object that is dhtown vertically upward will eur to its ‘original position with the sume spood as it had inital if air resistance is negligible. far resistance is appreciate wil this result be altered, and ise, how? [ine The acceleration due w air resistance is always ina drction opposite tothe motion | 19. Can an object have zero velocity and nonzero accelera- tion at the same dime? Give examples, 20. Can an object have 7210 acceleration and nonzero velocity atthe same time? Give examples, 38 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One Dimension#21, Deseribo in words the motion plotted in Fig. 2-28 in terms of 2, a, ete [Mint Firs try to duplicate the motion plotted by walking or moving your hand] ma or 2 cm) Ww a 16) FIGURE 2-28 Question 21, Problems 50, S1, and 55 [Problems 22, Deseribe in words the motion of the object ms) “ » 71 SI WOT HT oo FHGURE2-28 Ovo 2 Pens and 4 [The Problems at the end of each Chapter ate ranked I, or according (estimated difficulty, with (I) Problems being easiest. Level IM are meant as challenges for the best students. The Problems are arranged by Section, meaning that the reader should have read up to and ineluding that Section, Dut not only that Section—Problems often depend on eurier ‘material, Finally there is a set of unranked "General Prob- Jems” not arranged by Section number | 2-102-3 Spoed and Velocity 1. (1) What must be your ears average speed in order to ‘wavel 235 km in 3.25h? 2. (IDA bird can fly 25km/h, How long does it take to fly 1Skm? 3. (If you are deiving 110km/h along a straight road and you look tothe side for 20s, how far do you travel during this inattentive period? 4 (1) Convert 35 mi to (a) km/h, (6) m/s. amd (e) R/S 5. () A rolling ball moves from = 3.4em to x =—42em uring the time from 4, = 308 1 6) = 6.18. What is its 20s is at xy = 34em and at 1) = SSem, What isis average velocity? Can you caleulae its average speed from these data? 17. (II) You ate driving home from school steadily at 95 km/h for 130 km. [then begins to rain and you slow tv 65 km/h. You arrive home after driving Shours and 20-mimutes (4) How far your hometown from school? () What was your average speed? (ID) According to a rule-of-thumb, every five seconds betseen a lightning flash and the following thunder gives the distance to the flash in miles. Assuming thatthe flash of light arrives in essentially no time at all, estimate the speed of sound in m/s from this rule CII) person jogs eight complete laps around a quarter mile track in-a total time of 12Smin. Caleulato (a) the average speed and (B) the average veloc (IA horse canters away from ils trainer in a straight line, moving 116m away in 140s. It then turns abruptly nd gallops halfway back in 48s Calculate (a) its average speod and (b) its average velocity for the etive tip, using ‘way from the trainer” as the pesitive direction, 0. |. (M) TWo locomotives approach each other on parallel Tracks, Each has « speed of S5km/lb with respeet (© the around, I they ate initially 85 km apaat, how long will i ‘he before they reach each other? (See Fig, 2-30) —85km—~ Dskmin 9S kh FIGURE 2-30, Problem 11 (HI) A ear traveling 88kmn/h is 110m behind a tuck trav ling 7Skm/h. How long will it ke the car to reach the truck? | (HI) An airplane travels 3100 km at a speed of T901km/b, dnd then encounters tailwind that boosts its speed to 590 km/h for the nest 2800km. What us the (otal time for the trip? What as the average speed of the plane for this trip? [Hint Think carefully before using Fq.2-11d) | (Il) Calculate the average speed and average velocity of a complete round-cip in which the outgoing 250m is covered at 95 km/h, followed by a | (-hour lunch break, land the return 250 km is covered at SS keh 15, (HID A bowling ball vaveling with constant speed hits the pins atthe end of a howling lane 16.5m long. The howler heats the sound of the Fal hitting the pins 2-5 nfter the ball is released from his hands. What is the speed of the hall? The speed of sound is 340m/8 2-8 Aeceleration 16, (DA sports ear accelerates from rest to 9Skm/h in 6.28 ‘What is its avorage accoloation in m/s"? 17. (0) A sprinter accelerates from rest to 10{0m/s in 1355 ‘What is her seveleration (a) in m/s", and (b) in km/h"? Problems 3915 (1) Achighsay speeds panoular automobile is eapable ofan acceleration of shot L632 At his ate, how Tong doce i take to accelerate from SO km/h to 110 km/h? 19. (1) A spouts ear moving at constant speed icaels 110m in $08 Tit then brakes and comes to. stop in 405 what is ity acceleration in m/s"? Express the answer in terms of “gst where 1.00 ¢ ~ 9801/6) 20, (AID The position ofa racing ee, which start from rst at f= 0) and moves in a straight line, i given as a fonction Of time inthe following Table. Estimate (a) its veloiy tnd (ht aeration asa faneton of time: Display each ima Table and on graph 16) 0 025 050 07 100 150 200 250 x(n) 0 O11 046 1.06 194 462 855 1379 32, (I) A person driving her car at 45km/h approaches an intersection just as the traffic Hight surms yellow. She ‘knows that the yellow light lasts only 2.0s before turning rod, and she is 28m aveay from the noar side of the inter 2-31), Should she try to stop. oF shold she speed up to cross the intersection before the light wuras red? The intersection is Sm wide, Her car's maximum deceleration is ~58 m/s", whereas i¢ can accelerate from 45km/h tw 65km/h in 60s Ignore the length of her car ‘and her reaction time OOoO000 | OoOuU oO Ts) 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 x () 2036 2831 37.65 4837 60.30 7326 87.16 2-5 and 2-6 Motion at Constant Acceleration 21. (0) A car aozelerates from 13 m/s to 25 m/s in 6.0 What twas its acceleration? How far did it travol in this time? Assume constant acceleration 2. (1) Acar slows dows from 23 m/s t rest in a distance off 85m, What Was its acceleration, assumed constant? 25, (1) A light plane must reach @ speed of 33 m/s for takeotl How long a runway is nceded i the (constant) accelera- tion is 3.0 m/s"? 24, (U1) A world elas sprinter can burst out of dhe bloeks to essentially top speed (of about 11.5m/) inthe fist 150m of the race. What is the average acceleration of this sprinter. and how long does it ake her to reach that speed? 25. (IIA car slows down uniformly from a speed of 21.0m/s forrest in 6.4008 How far cid it travel in thot time? 26. (II) In coming to a stop, a ear leaves skid marks 92-m long, on the highway. Assuming a deceleration of 7.001/s". estimate the speed of the car just hefore braking. 177, (II) A car traveling 8Skm/h strikes a tree. The front end Of the car compresses and the driver comes to rest after leaveling OU) m, What was the average acceleration ofthe driver during the collision? Fxpress the answer in terms of 87 where 0g = 980 m/s 28. (Ul) Determine the stopping distances for a ear with an inital speed oi 9Skm/h ond human reaction time of 106 for an ecleration (a) a = ~40m/s% (bya = -80m/s* 29, (IID) Show that the equation for the stopping distance of a car is ds = vot ~ vi/(2a). where ay is the inital spood of the ea, fis the driver's reaction time, and a is the constant sceeleration (and is negative) 20 (IID) A car is behind a truck going 25 m/s on the highway ‘The ear’ driver looks for an opportunity to pass guessing that his ear can accelerate at LOm/s%. le gauges that he has to cover the 204m length of the truck, plus 10m clear room atthe rear of the ruck and 10m more atthe front of it In the oncoming ln, he sec8 a ear approaching, prob ably also traveling at 25m/s. He estimates that the car is bout 404m aes Should he atemp the pass? Give detail, ATT) A runnor hopes to complete the 10:000-m ran in less than 00min. After exaety 27.0min, there are still 110m tw go The cunner must then accelerate at (.20m/s? for how many seconds in order to achieve the desized dime? FIGURE 2-31 Problem 32, 2-7 Falling Objects neglect air resistance] 23, (1) A stone is dropped from the top of a cliff It hits the aground below aller 3.28s, How high isthe elif? 34 (1) Ifa car coll gently (1 = 0) off a vertical elif, how Tong does it ke it 10 reach 8S km/h? 35. (1) Estimate (a) how long it took King Kong to fall straight dawn from the top of tho Empire State Building (380m high), and (b) his velocity just before “landing”? 86, (TT) A baseball is hit nearly straight pinto the air with a speed of 22 m/s. (a) How high does it go? (b) How long is iin the aie? 39. (Hl) A ballplayer catches a ball 30s after throwing it vertically upward. With what speed did he throw it, and what height did it reach? 38, (11) An object starts from rest and falls under the infu fence of gravity. Draw graphs of (a) its speed and (6) the istance it has fallen, a8 a funetion of time from ¢ = D to 1= 300s. Tpnore ait resistance, 39, (I) A helicopter is ascending vertically with a speed of 5.20m/S Ata height of 125m above the Earth, a package ‘dropped from a window. How much time does i take for the package to reach the ground? [dine The package's initial speed equals the helicopter's) 40, (Ul) For an object falling freely from rest, show that the sistance traveled during each suceossive second incroases in the ratio of successive odd integers (1, 3,5, ete). This ‘was first shown by Galileo. See Figs. 2-18 and 2-21. I. (Il) I air resistance is neglected, show (algebraically) that ball thrown vertically upward witha speed 1 ill have the same speed. vj. when it comes back down co the starting point 42, (11) A stone is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 180m/s. (a) How fast is it moving when i¢ reaches a height of 11.0m? (B) How long is required to reach this height? (e) Why are there two answers to (6)? 48, (IID) Estimate the time hetwoen each photoflash of the pple in Fi. 2-18 (or number of photoflashes por sean). Assume the apple is about Wem in diameter [Hin Use tse apple postions but not the unclear anes atthe top) 40 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One Dimensionling stone takes 0.285 to travel past a window Fig. 2-22). From what height above the top of the window did the stone fal? Totmel hie ddstnce took 028s FIGURE 2-32 Problem 44 4S. (IMD A rock is dropped from a sea ell, and the sound of| it striking the ocean is heard 3.28 later. If the speed of sound is 40m/s, how high i the elif? 46, (IH) Suppose you adjust your garden hose norze fr a had stream of water. You point the nozzle vertically upsad at ‘8 hoight of Sm above the aground (Fig. 2-38), When you uickly move the nozzle sway ‘rom tho vertical, you hear the ‘water striking the ground next to you for another 20s What is the water speed as it leaves the nozzle? FIGURE 2-33 Problem 46, 49. (IM) A stone is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 120m/s from the edge of a cliff 70.0m high (Fig. 2-3). (@) How much later does it reach the bottom of the cliff? (b) What is its speed just before hitting? (c) What total distance did it travel? FIGURE 2-24 x Problem 47 4a, ost (HID A baseball is soen to pass upward by a window 28m above the stret ith a vertical speed of m/s If the hall ‘was thrown from the street, (a) what as ils inital speed, (6) shat altitude does it reach, (e) when was it thrown, nd (if) when does it reach the street again? Graphical Analysis (1) Figure 2-29 shows the velocity ofa ualn asa funetion ‘of time. (a) At what time was its velocity greatest? (6) During what periods if ans, was the velocity constant? (c) During what peviods, if any, was the acceleration constant? (d) When was the magnitude of the accoler tion greatest? (11) The position of @ rabbit along a straight tunnel as a function of time is plotted in Fiz. 2-28, What is its insta taneous veloety (a) at ¢= 1005 and (b) at What ib its average velocity (c) between ¢ 1 = Sis, (@) between = 25.8 and = 30.06, (e) between = 4008 and ¢ = 5008? (Ul) ln Fig. 2-28, (@) during what time periods, if any. is the velocity eonsiani? (3) AL what time i the velociyy areatest? (e) At what time, if any, is the velocity zero? (a) Does the object move in one direction or in both rections during the time shown? | (II) A certain type of automobile can accelerate appro imately a shown in the velocity-time graph of Fig. 2-35. (The short flat spots in the eurvo represent shifting ofthe sears) (a) Estimate the average acceleration of the car in second gear and in fourth gear, (b) Estimate how far the car traveled while in fourth gor. 50 Sth ge al enverd 2 And gear = ao + en 10) Is pea a a FIGURE 2-35. Problems 52 and 53. The velocity of an auto ‘mobile asa function of time starting from a dead stop. The jumps in the curve represent gear silts. +33. +54. #55, (Hl) Estimate the average acceleration of the ear in the previous Problem (Fig, 2-35) when it is in (a) first, (6) third, and (e) fifth gear. (cf) What is its average ac eration through the fist four gears? (U1) In Fig. 2-29, estimate the distance the object traveled siuring (a) the frst minute, and (6) the second minute (1) Construct the v v6 ¢ graph for the object whose clisplacement as a funetion of time is given by Fig. 2-28, Problems 4t© 56, (II) Figure 2-36 is a position versus time graph for the motion of an objest along the + axi< Consider the time interval from A to B.(a) Is the object moving inthe posi- live or negative direction? (h) Is the object speeding up wing dawn? (c) Is the acceleration of the abject positive oF negative?” Now consider the time interval from 1D to E. (@) Is the objoct moving in the postive or noga tive direction? (e) Is the object speeding up or slowing down? (/) Is the acceleration of the object positive or negative? (g) Finally, answer these same three questions for the time interval from C to D. FIGURE 2-36 Problem 5 109) 2s General Problems [57 A person jumps from a fourth-story window 150m above a firefighter’ safety net The survivor stretches the net 0m before coming to rest, Fig. 2-37, (a) What was the average deceleration experieneed by the survivor when she was Slowed to rest by the net?” () What would you do {to make ic “safer” (hat i to generate a smaller deceleration): would you stiffen oF loosen the net? Explain 150m FIGURE 2-37 ny 101m Problem 57 'S8. The acceleration dc to gravity on the Moon is about me- sixth witat it is on Earth If an object is dhrown vertically upward on the Moon, how many times higher will it £0 than it would on Earth, assuming the same intial velocity? 5%. A person who is properly constrained by an overthe- shoulder seat belt has a good chance of surviving a ea collision ifthe deceleration does not exceed about 30°75" (Lag = 98m/s!). Assuming uniform deceleration of this value, ealculate the distance over which the front end of the ear must he designed to collapse if a crash brings the car to rest from 100 km/h 160. Agent Bond is standing on a bridge, 12m above the road below. and his pusuers are geting t00 close for comfort. He spots a flatbed truck approaching at 25m/s, which he measures by knowing that the telephone poles the tack is passing are 25m apart in this country. The bed of dhe ruck is 1.3m above the road, and Bond quickly caleulates how ‘many poles say the truck shonld he when he jumps dom from the bridge onto the (ruck fo make his getaway. How many poles isi 6. Suppose oar manure ets ear for ronan colons by hing then up on 0 cane td droping them om a certain beh (0) Show tha the spend ja thio near his the pound afer tiling rom et ‘enc tans 1 pen by \ 2477 What Ble core Sponds toa cls at ()oOkm Ht () 10Dkms? 62, very year the Earth tals about 10" ast its the Sun Wha Ears terage seat in Kh 68. A 9S.ong tain bein unlorm seeeruon fr re ‘The ron ofthe tin has 4 speed of 25m/5 when poser a atay wotker ho standing 180m fom hove ihe tnt ot the ua staned What wl be the Speed of tho lst car av it pss the, worker? (See Fig. 2-38.) ‘ osm “4 FIGURE 2-38 Problem 63, 64 A person jumps off a diving board 4.0m above the ‘water's surface into a deep pool. The person's downward motion stops 21m below the surface of the water. Esti mate the average deceleration of the person while under tho water. a Inthe design of a rapid transit systom, it is necessary to halance the average speed of a train against the distance hetween stops. The more stops there ate, the slower the irain's average speed, To get an idea of this problem. calculate the time it takes a train to make a 9 O-km trip in two situations: (a) the stations at which the trains must Stop are 1.8km apart (a total of 6 stations, including those atthe ends): and (b) the stations are km apart (4 sations total). Assume that at each station the train accelerates at rato of 1 m/s! until it reaches 90 km/h, then stays at this speed until is brakes are applied for arrival at the next sation, at which time it decelerates at ~20m/s*, Assume {tops a each intermediate station for 20s, 42 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One Dimension66. Pelicans tuck their wings and free fall straight down when diving for fish, Suppose a peliean starts its dive from a height of 160m and cannot change its path once committed. If it takes a fish 0.2018 10 porform evasive faction, at what minimum height must it spot the pelican tw escape? Assume the fish is at the surface ofthe water. In putting, the force with which 1 golfer strikes a bal i planned so that the ball will stop within some small distance of the cup, say, 1.0m long or short, in ease the ptt is missed, Accomplishing this fom an uphill He (that {s, putting downhill, see Fig, 2~39) is more difficult than from # downhill le. To see why, asume that on a partic ular grecn the ball docelerates constantly at 20m/s going downhill, and constantly at 3.0 m/s? poing uphill Suppose we have an uphill Iie 7.0m from the cup. Calew- late the allowable range of initial velocities we may Jmjpart tothe ball so that it tops in the range 1.0m shost to 10m long of the cup. Do the same for a downhill ie “10m from the cup. What in your results suggests thatthe downhill putt is moe difficult? FIGURE 2-39 Problem 67. Golf on Wednesday morning, 68 A fugitive tres to hop on a freight cain traveling at a constant speed of 610 m/s Just as an empty box car passes him, the fugitive starts from rest and sceclerates. at 4 = 40m/s* to his maximum speed of 80m/s. (a) How Tong docs it take him to eatch up to the empty box car? (B) What isthe distance traveled to reach the box eat? 9 A stane is dropped from the roof of a high building. A second stone is dropped 1.50 slater. How far apart are the stones when the second one has reached a speed of omys? 70. A race car driver must average 2000km/h over the course ofa time tril lasting ten laps. If the frst nine laps were done at 198.0km/h, what average speod must he ‘aintained forthe last lap? “7. A Bioylist inthe Tor de France crests 8 movintain pase ashe moves at 18km/h AL the bottom, 40kas farther his spool iy 7Skm/h. What was his average accleraton (in) while riding down the mountain? 72 Two children are playing on two trampolines. The fst child ean bounce up one-andeacalf ines higher than the Second ehitd The intial speed up of the second childs m/s (a) Find the maximum height the second child reaches (b) What it the ial speed of the fist child? (How long was che ist child in the air? "7, An automobile traveling 9S km/h overtakes a |.10-km-long, ‘rain traveling in the same direction on a track patallel to the road: Ifthe train's speed i 75kin/h, how ong does it take the car to pass it, and how far will the ear have traveled in this time? See Fig. 240, What ave the reslls i the car and train ave traveling in opposite directions? 1.108 — FIGURE 2-40 Problem 73 ” A baseball pitcher throws a baseball with a speed of ‘m/s In throwing the baseball the pitcher accelerates the ball through a displacement of about 3.5m. from behind the body to the point where it is released (Fig. 2-41). Estimate the average acceleration of the ball during the threwsing motion. sam + ‘ FIGURE 2-41 Problem 74, A rocket rises vertically from rest, with an aceeleration of 3.21m/s* until {trans out of fuel at an altitude of 1200.m, Alter this point, its acceleration is that of gravity, down ‘ward. (a) What isthe velocity of the roeket when it runs ‘out of fuel? (6) How long does it take to reach this point? (¢) What maximum altitude does. the rocket reach? {d) How much time (total) does it take to reach maximum alinude? (e) With what velocity does the rocket strike the Earth? () How lang (total sin the air? "76. Consider the street pattern shown in Fig. 2-42. Each ‘intersection has a trafic signal, and the speed limit is km/h. Suppose you are driving from the west at the speed limit. When you are 10m from the fist intersection, all the lights turn green. The lights are green for 13 seach (a) Cateulate the time needed to reach the tied stoplight Can you make i€ through all three lights without stop. ring? (8) Another ear was topped at the first light when All the lights turned green. H can accelerate atthe rate of 20un/s? to the speed limit, Can the second car make it ‘through al three lights without stopping? FIGURE 2-42. Problem 76. General Problems 4377. A police car at rest, passed by a speeder traveling at a constant 120m, takes off in hot pursuit. The police olfcer catches up to the speeder in 730m, maintaining a constant acceleration. (a) Oualitatively plot the position ‘time graph for both ears from the police ears stat to the catch-up point. Calevlate (b) how long it took the polige officer to overtake the spocder, (c) the required police car acceleration, and (d) the spced ofthe police ear athe overtaking point 78. A stone is dropped from the roof ofa building; 2.0 after Uta second stone i thrown straight down with an inital speed of 280m/s. and the two stones land at the same Lime, (a) How long did it take the fist stone to reach the ground? (b) How high is the building? (c) What are the speeds of the two stones just before they hit the ground? “79. Two stones are thrown vertically up atthe same time, The first stone is thrown with an initial velocity of 11.0m/s from a 12thloor balcony of a building and hits the ground after 45s. With what initial velocity should the second stone be throwin from a floor balcony so that it hits the ground atthe same time as the frst stone? Make simple assumptions, ike equal-height floors, 80. If there were no aie resistance, how long would it take a free-falling parachutist to fall from a plane at 3200m to fn altitude of 350m, where sho will pull her ripcord? What would her speed be at 350m? (In realty, the air resistanee will restrict her speed to perhaps 150m.) ‘81, A fast-food restaurant uses a conveyor bell to send the burgers through a giling machine. Ifthe grilling machine is Lm long and the hurgers require 25 min to ook, how fast must the conveyor bele travel? If the burgers are spaced 1S em apart, what isthe rate of burger production (in burgers/min)? 2, Bill can throw a ball vertically at a speed 1.5 vimes faster than Joc ean, Hos many tines higher will Bills ball go than Joe? 5, You stand atthe top ofa lif while your friend stands oa the ground below you. You drop a ball from rest and see that it takos 1.28 for the ball to hit tho ground below Your friend then picks up the ball and throws it up to you, such tha it just comes to rest in your hand. What is the speed with which your friend threw the hall 84, Two students are asked 10 find the height of a particular Imniing using a barometer. Instead of using the harom ter as an alutude-measuring device, they take it to the oof of the building and drop it eff iming its fall. One student reports a fall time of 2.08, and the other, 2.3% How much difference dacs the 0.38 make for the esti ‘mates of the building's height? Figure 2-43 shows the position vs. time graph for two bicycles, A and B. (a) Is there any instant at which the two hieyeles have the same velocity? (B) Which bieyele thas the larger acceleration? [e) AU which instant(s) are the bieycles passing each other? Which bieyele is pasing the other? (i) Which bicyele has the highest instant neous velocity? (e) Which bieyele has the higher average velocity? +, x AUB FIGURE 2-43 Pealem 85 ‘Answers to Exercises A: 0) Br (@) (6) 110 1 + co D: 49 m/e, Ez That plane on which a smooth bull will nt roll; or perpendicular to vertical. 44 CHAPTER 2 Describing Motion: Kinematics in One Dimension