Environmental studies

Environmental studies is the interdisciplinary academic field which systematically studies

human interaction with the environment. It is a broad field of study that includes also the natural
environment, built environment, and the sets of relationships between them. While distinct from
ecology and environmental science, the field encompasses study in the basic principles of those
two fields of learning as well as the associated subjects, such as: ethics, policy, politics, law,
economics, philosophy, sociology and other social aspects, planning, pollution control, natural
resources, and the interactions of human beings and nature.[1]

History
Middlebury College became the first institution of higher education in the United States to offer
an Environmental Studies major, establishing the major in 1965.[2]

The Association for Environmental Studies and Sciences (AESS) was founded in 2008 as the
first American professional association in the interdisciplinary field of environmental studies. An
academic journal is scheduled to begin publication in 2011.[3]

Environmental science
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For the Community episode, see Environmental Science (Community).

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and

biological sciences, (including but not limited to Ecology, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Soil
Science, Geology, Atmospheric Science and Geography) to the study of the environment, and the
solution of environmental problems. Environmental science provides an integrated, quantitative,
and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.[1]

Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmental engineering.

Environmental studies incorporates more of the social sciences for understanding human
relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment. Environmental engineering
focuses on design and technology for improving environmental quality.

Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes, evaluating
alternative energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and
the effects of global climate change. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction
of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental scientists bring a systems
approach to the analysis of environmental problems. Key elements of an effective environmental
scientist include the ability to relate space, and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis.
Environmental science came alive as a substantive, active field of scientific investigation in the
1960s and 1970s driven by (a) the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze complex
environmental problems, (b) the arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific
environmental protocols of investigation and (c) the growing public awareness of a need for
action in addressing environmental problems. Events that spurred this development included the
publication of Rachael Carson's landmark environmental book Silent Spring[2] along with major
environmental issues becoming very public, such as the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, and the
Cuyahoga River of Cleveland, Ohio, "catching fire" (also in 1969), and helped increase the
visibility of environmental issues and create this new field of study.

Components
Atmospheric sciences focuses on the Earth's atmosphere, with an emphasis upon its interrelation
to other systems. Atmospheric sciences can include studies of meteorology, greenhouse gas
phenomena, atmospheric dispersion modeling of airborne contaminants,[3][4] sound propagation
phenomena related to noise pollution, and even light pollution.

Taking the example of the global warming phenomena, physicists create computer models of
atmospheric circulation and infra-red radiation transmission, chemists examine the inventory of
atmospheric chemicals and their reactions, biologists analyze the plant and animal contributions
to carbon dioxide fluxes, and specialists such as meteorologists and oceanographers add
additional breadth in understanding the atmospheric dynamics.

Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and their environment. Ecologists
might investigate the relationship between a population of organisms and some physical
characteristic of their environment, such as concentration of a chemical; or they might
investigate the interaction between two populations of different organisms through some
symbiotic or competitive relationship. For example, an interdisciplinary analysis of an ecological
system which is being impacted by one or more stressors might include several related
environmental science fields. In an estuarine setting where a proposed industrial development
could impact certain species by water and air pollution, biologists would describe the flora and
fauna, chemists would analyze the transport of water pollutants to the marsh, physicists would
calculate air pollution emissions and geologists would assist in understanding the marsh soils and
bay muds.

Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical alterations in the environment. Principal

areas of study include soil contamination and water pollution. The topics of analysis include
chemical degradation in the environment, multi-phase transport of chemicals (for example,
evaporation of a solvent containing lake to yield solvent as an air pollutant), and chemical effects
upon biota.

As an example study, consider the case of a leaking solvent tank which has entered the habitat
soil of an endangered species of amphibian. As a method to resolve or understand the extent of
soil contamination and subsurface transport of solvent, a computer model would be
implemented. Chemists would then characterize the molecular bonding of the solvent to the
specific soil type, and biologists would study the impacts upon soil arthropods, plants, and
ultimately pond-dwelling organisms that are the food of the endangered amphibian.

Geosciences include environmental geology, environmental soil science, volcanic phenomena

and evolution of the Earth's crust. In some classification systems this can also include hydrology,
including oceanography.

As an example study of soils erosion, calculations would be made of surface runoff by soil
scientists. Fluvial geomorphologists would assist in examining sediment transport in overland
flow. Physicists would contribute by assessing the changes in light transmission in the receiving
waters. Biologists would analyze subsequent impacts to aquatic flora and fauna from increases in
water turbidity.

Regulations driving the studies

Environmental science examines the effects of humans on nature (Glen Canyon Dam in the U.S.)

In the U.S. the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 set forth requirements for
analysis of major projects in terms of specific environmental criteria. Numerous state laws have
echoed these mandates, applying the principles to local-scale actions. The upshot has been an
explosion of documentation and study of environmental consequences before the fact of
development actions.

One can examine the specifics of environmental science by reading examples of Environmental
Impact Statements prepared under NEPA such as: Wastewater treatment expansion options
discharging into the San Diego/Tijuana Estuary, Expansion of the San Francisco International
Airport, Development of the Houston, Metro Transportation system, Expansion of the
metropolitan Boston MBTA transit system, and Construction of Interstate 66 through Arlington,
Virginia.

In England and Wales the Environment Agency (EA), [5] formed in 1996, is a public body for
protecting and improving the environment and enforces the regulations listed on the communities
and local government site.[6] (formerly the office of the deputy prime minister). The agency was
set up under the Environment Act 1995 as an independent body and works closely with UK
Government to enforce the regulations.

Terminology
In common usage, "environmental science" and "ecology" are often used interchangeably, but
technically, ecology refers only to the study of organisms and their interactions with each other
and their environment. Ecology could be considered a subset of environmental science, which
also could involve purely chemical or public health issues (for example) ecologists would be
unlikely to study. In practice, there is considerable overlap between the work of ecologists and
other environmental scientists.
The National Center for Education Statistics in the United States defines an academic program in
environmental science as follows:

A program that focuses on the application of biological, chemical, and physical principles to the
study of the physical environment and the solution of environmental problems, including
subjects such as abating or controlling environmental pollution and degradation; the interaction
between human society and the natural environment; and natural resources management.
Includes instruction in biology, chemistry, physics, geosciences, climatology, statistics, and
mathematical modeling.[7]

What Is environment
Man has always inhibited two worlds. One is the ' Natural World ' of plants, animals,
air, water and soil of which man himself is a part; while other is the 'built world' of
social institutions and artifacts which he created for himself by using science and
technology. Since man inhabits both the worlds so they constitute an important part of
the environment. Therefore environment can be defined as one's surroundings
consisting of organisms i.e abiotic(non-living) and biotic(living) environment. Abiotic
environment consists of soil, water and air; while the biotic environment consists of
living organisms.

The global environment consists of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the
atmosphere. The lithosphere is the soil mantle that wraps the core of the earth, in
which the biological activities takes place. The hydrosphere consists of the oceans,
rivers, lakes and the shallow groundwater bodies that interflow with the surface
water. Approximately 70% of the earth is covered with water. The atmosphere is the
blanket of gases and suspended liquids and solids that entirely envelop the earth.

The biosphere is the thin shell that encapsulates the earth, and is made up of the
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. It is within the biosphere that all the life
forms of earth, including man, live. The waste product in the gaseous, liquid and solid
waste forms too are discharged into the biosphere. Thus providing sustenance to all
the living organisms.

Though the sustaining and assimilative capacity of the biosphere is tremendous, but it
is not infinite. The system is in operation for many years, but now it has begun to show
signs of stress, because of the impact of humans upon the environment
Impact of human upon environment
In a natural state, earth's life forms live in equilibrium with their environment. The
population and activities of every species are governed by the resources available to
them. Interaction among species is quite common, the waste product of one species
may form the food supply for another. Humans alone has the potential to gather
resources from beyond their immediate surroundings and process them into different
and more versatile forms. This has made humans to thrive and flourish beyond the
natural constraints. As a result of which the anthropogenic(man-induced) pollutants
have overloaded the system, and the natural equilibrium is disturbed.

Primitive humans used natural resources to satisfy their basic needs of air, water, food
and shelter. These natural and unprocessed resources were readily available in the
biosphere, and the residues produced by the use of these resources were generally
compatible with the environment. Even when use of fire became common, the
relatively small amounts of smoke generated was easily dispersed and assimilated by
the atmosphere. As these things were so few in number that no significant impact was
felt on environment.

With the dawn of industrial revolution, humans were better able than ever satisfy
their needs for air, water, food and shelter. So humans turned their attention to other
needs beyond those associated with survival. Automobiles, household appliances,
processed foods and beverages, etc. have become so popular as to seem necessities,
and meeting these acquired needs have become a major thrust of modern industrial
society. These acquired needs are usually met by the items that must be processed or
manufactured, and the production and construction of such items usually result in
production of more complex residuals or wastes, many of which are not compatible
with the environment. As the need increases so will the complexity of the production
chain, and mass and complexity of pollutants generated. Thus the impact of modern
humans upon environment is of a major concern.

Impact of environment upon human

Polluted water, air and soil exerts a very negative impact on the health, the aesthetic
and cultural pleasures, and economic opportunities of humans.

The various segments of the environment may host harmful biological and chemical
agents that can have a significant impact upon the health of humans. A wide range of
communicable diseases can be spread through the segments of the environment by
human and animal waste products.

The widespread use of chemicals in agriculture and industry has introduced many new
compounds in the environment. They may spread through air, water and soil as well as
through the food chain, and thus can pose a potential threat to human health. The
industrial waste which contains highly toxic elements like lead, mercury, etc. is
discriminately discharged into the rivers and streams. The water used for drinking,
irrigation and other purposes from these contaminated sources cause serious health
problems. Exposure to noise from industries, mining, traffic, smelting, etc. can cause
deafness, mental retardation and other related disabilities.

Clean air and clear, sparkling rivers, streams and lakes are an aesthetic delight; but
are becoming increasingly rare. Uncontrolled dumps, littered streets and highways
etc . give aesthetically displeasing effect of improper solid-waste disposal. The culture
as well as heritage is also under threat due to pollution.

Pollution also poses economic threats to human populations, e.g., the silting in of the
rivers, harbours and reservoirs due to uncontrolled erosion. Thus a polluted
environment poses a threat not only to human health, but also to the cultural
enjoyment, heritage and economic well-being.

Meaning and scope of ecology

Ecology can be defined as the study of organisms, plants and animals in relation to each
other and to their non-living environment. The term ecology is derived from the Greek
word 'Oekologie'. Literally 'Oekos' means 'home or surroundings' and 'logos' means
'study'. Thus it can be said that ecology is the study of earth's household including plants,
animals, micro-organisms and human beings that live together as independent
components.

SCOPE:
Earlier ecology was considered to be a branch of biology that deals with the relation of
organisms or group of organisms to their environment. Later on, it was realised that
ecology is not only concerned with the organisms, plants and animals but also with the
energy flows and material cycles on the lands, in the oceans, in the air and in fresh
waters. So keeping with the modern emphasis, ecology is defined as the study of
structure and function of nature.

The study of ecology starts with the understanding of the interaction of various
biological units with their environment for the production of a series of living systems,
i.e. Ecosystems. Ecosystems are classified on the basis of type and level of gross energy
flow. Now comes the understanding of the flows of energy and exchange of materials
between ecosystems. Then movement of materials back and forth between organisms and
environment is taken up. This movement of materials is known as Bio-geochemical
cycles.

The population ecology studies the interaction of organisms with organisms in the
maintenance of community structure and function. Here focus is on the role of great
physical and chemical forces in the nature.

The most important object of ecology is the study and maintenance of ecological balance
and role of man in the degradation of the environment and to suggest remedies for
minimising the effects of pollution, deforestation, population explosion, killing of
animals and many other problems.

Sub division of ecology

On the basis of nature of study, ecology can be subdivided as 'Autecology' and
'Synecology'.

Autecology deals with the study of individual organism or an individual species. Here,
the focus is on life-histories and behaviour, as means of adaptation to the environment
is made.

Synecology deals with the study of group of organisms which are associated together
as a unit
For example, if a study is carried out of the relation of a Neem tree with the
environment, then the approach is said to be autecological in nature. But if the study
is carried out of the forest( of which Neem tree is a part), then the approach is said to
be synecological in nature.

Eco System
An ecological system in which the community and the non living environment function
together is called ecosystem. An ecosystem is a natural grouping of nutrients, minerals,
plants, animals and their wastes linked together by flow of food, nutrients, and energy
from one part of system to another part. Thus an ecosystem is the smallest unit of
biosphere that has all the characteristics to sustain life. Pond, streams, seas, deserts,etc.
are all the examples of ecosystem.

The ecosystem can vary in sizes. An ecosystem can be only a few centimeters square in
size, like microbial mats; or its size can be in kilometers, like tropical forest. The
ecosystems are characterized by a diversity of species, but in an ecosystem there must be
representatives from the three functional or metabolic groups, viz. primary producers,
consumers and decomposers.

Primary producers are those organisms that derive energy from either sunlight or
inorganic compounds. For e.g. many producers like plants, fungi, photosynthetic bacteria
obtain energy from sunlight for making organic compounds; while others such as
sulphur oxidizing bacteria use energy stored in the chemical bonds of inorganic
compounds.

Consumers are those organisms which use organic compounds for their food and energy.
They can't make organic compounds from inorganic compounds but they can transform
one form of organic compounds into other form of organic compounds.

decomposer's are those which live on dead organisms and transform organic
compounds back into inorganic ones including carbon dioxide and water.

Ecosystem types
The kind of organisms which can live together in a particular ecosystem depends upon
their physical and metabolic adoptions to the environment of that place and on certain
aspects of history of our planet, which has determined what organisms have been able
to travel where. On earth, there are sets of ecosystem within a geographical region
which are exposed to same climatic conditions and having dominant species with a
similar life-cycle, climatic adoptions and physical structure. This set of ecosystem is
called a Biome. In biosphere there are Terrestrial and Aquatic biomes.

Terrestrial biomes are often defined by the vegetation types that dominate the
community. The types of vegetation affect the climate and soil structure and thus
characterize the particular biome. Terrestrial vegetation has a rapid exchange of
oxygen, water and carbon-dioxide. Terrestrial biomes include tropical rain forest,
grasslands, deserts, cultivated lands etc.

Aquatic biomes fall into two categories viz. fresh water and marine. Fresh water
biomes include lakes, rivers etc.; whereas marine biomes include deep sea and ocean.

Energy
Living organisms are operated by means of energy which is derived from the
environment. The sun is the main source of energy in the ecosystem. If the quantity or
quality of energy input in an ecosystem, say forest is reduced, then the forest begins to
degrade till it reorganizes itself at the lower level. The non-energy yielding materials,
such as nitrogen, carbon, etc. of which living organisms are composed, may circulate
many times between living and non-living segments, but energy doesn't circulate.
Energy once used by an organism is converted into heat and soon lost from the
ecosystem, as this degraded form(heat) can't power life processes. The food eaten by
an organism is no longer available once it has been respired. The food demand again
arises and so on. All living organisms can keep going only if there is continuous flow of
energy from outside. This one way flow of energy is a universal phenomenon.

Routes of usage
In an ecosystem energy's usage takes place in following ways:

1. The sunshine provides the necessary heat to maintain the required temperature
range in which proper physical and chemical processes can take place.

2. Certain bacteria obtain useful energy by oxidation of certain elements such as

sulphur and iron. But this is very limited because most of the iron and sulphur on
earth surface is already oxidized.

3. In the process of photosynthesis, plants use chlorophyll to transform sunlight

into chemical energy which is stored in chemical compounds(foods). These
compounds may be transferred from organism to organism and utilized as a source
of energy. The warm blooded animals extend the usage of such foods to provide
heat internally in their bodies and thus provide temperature conditions for
themselves, which other organisms must get from sun shine energy stored in
environment.

Food Chains

The transfer of food energy from the source in plants through a series of organisms
with repeated stages of eating and being eaten is known as the food chain. At each
transfer 80 to 90% of energy is lost. The shorter the food chain, or nearer the organism
to the begining of food chain, the greater the available energy. For example:

(1) Grass --> Deer ---> Lion

(2) Sap --> Aphid --> Beetle --> spider --> Lizard --> Snake --> Hawk --> Wolf

(3) Seeds --> Mouse --> Owl -->

(4) Algae --> Insects --> Fish --> Man

Types of Food Chain

There are basically two types of food chains, viz. grazing food chain, grazing food
chain and Detritus food chain.

(I) Grazing food chain: It starts from green plant base and goes to grazing
herbivores( animals eating living plants), and on to the carnivores(animal eaters). For
e.g.:

(i) Phytoplankton --> Zooplankton --> Fish --> Man

(ii) Algae --> Insects --> Fish

(iii) Green plant --> Deer --> Lion

(II) Detritus Food Chain : It starts from organic matter and goes to detritus feeding
organisms and on to their predators. Detrivores are consumers of dead organic matter,
like soil mites, worms, bacteria and fungi of decay. Ezample of detritus food chain are
as under:

(i) Plants --> Detrivores --> Predators

(ii) Leaves & Dead Plants --> Soil mites --> Insects

(iii) Organic Matter ------> Protozoa ---> Rotifers

Reduce Green House Gases

The International Aluminium Institute reports a 14% reduction in total greenhouse gas
emissions from the production processes of aluminium, including bauxite mining, from
2000 to 2005
The production processes of primary aluminium, including bauxite mining, alumina
refining, anode production, aluminium smelting and casting, between 2000 and 2005,
cut direct greenhouse gas emissions despite a 20 percent growth in primary aluminium
production over the period The reduction since 2000 has been driven primarily by an
impressive 56% reduction in perfluorcarbons (CF4 and C2F6) per tonne of primary
aluminium produced, combined with a 12% reduction in other direct emissions

Recycling of aluminium products needs only 5% of the energy required for primary
aluminium production.
The aluminium industry has taken a leadership role to establish a uniform global
monitoring approach to greenhouse gas emissions reduction.
The industry publishes the results of 13 sustainability indicators annually and a
complete life cycle inventory report every five years.
The latest Life Cycle Inventory is based on results from nearly three quarters of global
primary aluminium production and the industry is working aggressively to increase the
number of plants included in the survey.
Moreover the aluminium industry supports an approach to emissions reduction in which
all stages of the life cycle are included.
Hence, as well as reducing emissions from its own processes, the aluminium industry is
also working with its supply chain partners and other stakeholders to maximize the life
cycle benefits from the intrinsic qualities of aluminium, including its light weight,
strength and recyclability.
A recent life cycle study showed that automotive aluminium in passenger cars
manufactured in 2006 will lead to potential global savings of approximately 140 million
tons of CO2 equivalent greenhouse gas emissions

Pollution Types
Pollution residuals fall into one of three categories--degradable, nondegradeable, and persistent.
Damage done by each type, and thus external cost, typically varies. At one extreme are degradable
residuals and at the other are nondegradable. In the middle are persistent residuals.

Toxic pollution includes chemicals that poison and kill organisms in and near streams, rivers, lakes,
and the Bay. When a body of water has a high level of toxic pollution, fishing for the purpose of human
consumption is banned.

Sediment pollution is dirt, minerals, sand, and silt eroded from the land and washed into the water.
It comes from areas where there is inadequate vegetation to slow runoff.

Nutrient pollution results from an overabundance of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.
Living things cannot survive without nutrients, but too much can be detrimental to watershed
organisms.

Bacterial pollution occurs when there is an excess of harmful bacteria. There are many beneficial
bacteria in the water.

Environmental Issues
Polluting industries, including thermal power plants, have been a
significant source
of air and water pollution. Monitoring of designated cities/towns for air
pollution
revealed that while the levels of sulphur dioxide were within the standard
limits, those of oxides of nitrogen exceeded the limits in many cities, with
high levels of suspended particle matter (SPM) being the more prevalent
form of air pollution in almost all the metro-cities. Similarly, recent
assessment of water quality of aquatic resources reveal that while organic
pollution continued to be the predominant pollutant, there is a gradual
improvement in this indicator of water quality over time. Flyash,
phospho-gypsum and iron & steel slags comprise the main forms of solid
wastes generated in India.

The challenge of sustainable development requires integration of the quest

for economic development with environmental concerns. Traditional
energy- and resourceintensive and waste-generating models of
industrialization not only impose a heavy cost on society in terms of
pollution and deteriorating quality of life, but also is unsustainable in the
medium to long run, particularly with exhaustible natural resources.
Government has put in place necessary legislative and regulatory
measures, both preventive and promotive, for protection, conservation
and development of the environment, an effective implementation of
which is expected to harmonize the demands of development and
environment.

Biodiversity
Why Is Biodiversity Important?
But why is Biodiversity important? Does it really matter if there aren't so many species?
Biodiversity actually boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have
an important role to play and that it is this combination that enables the ecosystem to possess the ability
to prevent and recover from a variety of disasters. This is obviously useful for mankind as a larger
number of species of plants means more variety of crops and a larger number of species of animals
ensure that the ecosystem is naturally sustained.

Loss of Biodiversity and Extinctions

It is feared that human activity is causing massive extinctions. From various animal species, forests and
the ecosystems that forests support, marine life. The costs associated with deteriorating or vanishing
ecosystems will be high. However, sustainable development and consumption would help avert
ecological problems.
Climate Change Affects Biodiversity
The World Resources Institute reports that there is a link between biodiversity and climate change.
Rapid global warming can affect an ecosystems chances to adapt naturally. What have governments
around the world been trying to do about it?

Research has shown that air pollutants from fossil fuel use make clouds reflect more of
the suns rays back into space. This leads to an effect known as global dimming whereby
less heat and energy reaches the earth. At first, it sounds like an ironic savior to climate
change problems. However, it is believed that global dimming caused the droughts in
Ethiopia in the 1970s and 80s where millions died, because the northern hemisphere
oceans were not warm enough to allow rain formation. Global dimming is also hiding the
true power of global warming. By cleaning up global dimming-causing pollutants
without tackling greenhouse gas emissions, rapid warming has been observed, and
various human health and ecological disasters have resulted, as witnessed during the
European heat wave in 2003, which saw thousands of people die.

The impacts of disasters, whether natural or man-made, not only have human
dimensions, but environmental ones as well. Environmental conditions may exacerbate
the impact of a disaster, and vice versa, disasters have an impact on the environment.
Deforestation, forest management practices, agriculture systems etc. can exacerbate the
negative environmental impacts of a storm or typhoon, leading to landslides, flooding,
silting and ground/surface water contamination.
This special feature of GDRC's programme on Urban Environmental Management
explores the cyclical and intrinsic linkages between good (or bad) environmental
management on one hand, and disaster prevention and mitigation.

Environmental disaster and reduction

The world is facing an increasing frequency and intensity of disasters - natural and man-
made - that has had devastating impacts. As reported by the secretariat of the
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), the last ten years have seen
478,100 people killed, more than 2.5 billion people affected and about US$ 690 billion in
economic losses. Disasters triggered by hydro-meteorological hazards amounted for 97
percent of the total people affected by disasters, and 60 percent of the total economic
losses.
The November 2004 typhoons in the Philippines claimed over 1,000 lives and devastated
the livelihoods of many more. The recent Indian Ocean Tsunami was even more
distrutive: more than 150,000 lives were lost.
The greater tragedy is that many of the losses due to disasters could have been averted.
Logging, both legal and illegal, contributed to the incidence of flooding and landslides;
but this is only the most recent evidence of the importance of wise environmental
management for disaster risk reduction.
Around the globe, land use and land cover changes are eroding the natural buffers that
protect communities from hazard risk. These same changes often erode peoples capacity
to recover from disaster. Other environmental changes, such as anthropogenic global
warming, promise to create new challenges to the security and sustainability of
communities around the world. There are, however, opportunities to reduce disaster
risk, and enhance community resilience.
The impacts of disasters, whether natural or man-made, not only have human
dimensions, but environmental ones as well. Environmental conditions may exacerbate
the impact of a disaster, and vice versa, disasters have an impact on the environment.
Deforestation, forest management practices, agriculture systems etc. can exacerbate the
negative environmental impacts of a storm or typhoon, leading to landslides, flooding,
silting and ground/surface water contamination - as illustrated by the 2004 hurricane
and storm tragedies in Haiti, and in the Philippines.
The high volume of wastes from disasters, from households and debris from forests and
rivers, also constitute a major concern for proper disposal. A study conducted by Japan's
Ministry of Environment also showed that air pollution from urban and industrial
sources has lead to increased acid rain by hurricanes and typhoons.
We have only now come to realize that taking care of our natural resources and
managing them wisely not only assures that future generations will be able to live
sustainably, but also reduces the risks that natural and man-made hazards pose to
people living today. Emphasizing and reinforcing the centrality of environmental
concerns in disaster management has become a critical priority, requiring the sound
management of natural resources as a tool to prevent disasters or lessen their impacts on
people, their homes and livelihoods.
Meteorological and hydrological events, such as typhoons, are hazards that cause heavy
rain, high wind and sea surges. But the real damage also happens due to the
vulnerability of the people who lie in its path. Post-disaster assessment of hurricanes and
typhoons have clearly illustrated that, along with disaster preparedness, proper
management of the environment - its air, land, water, forests, and wastes, go a long way
in reducing the risks and vulnerabilities associated with typhoons.
Environmental degradation combined with human activities are at the origin of
numerous catastrophes such as flooding, desertification, fires, as well as technological
disasters and transport accidents.
"Around the world, a growing share of the devastation triggered by natural disasters
stems from ecologically destructive practices and from putting ourselves in harms way.
Many ecosystems have been frayed to the point where they are no longer able to
withstand natural disturbances ... Although the inherent links between disaster
reduction and environmental management are recognized, little research and policy
work has been undertaken on the subject. The concept of using environmental tools for
disaster reduction has not yet been widely applied by many practitioners." (ISDR).

Global Warming Defination

The phrase global warming refers to the documented historical warming of the Earth's
surface based upon worldwide temperature records that have been maintained by
humans since the 1880s. The term global warming is often used synonymously with the
term climate change, but the two terms have distinct meanings. Global warming is the
combined result of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and changes in solar
irradiance, while climate change refers to changes caused by global warming in
weather (temperatures, precipitation, frequency of heat waves, etc.) and other climate
system components, such as Arctic sea ice extent.

Global Mean Temperature over Land and Ocean (Jan-Dec). (Source:

NCDC/NESDIS/NOAA)
According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the decade of 1998-2007
is the warmest on record. The global mean surface temperature for 2007 is currently
estimated at 0.41C/0.74F above the 1961-1990 annual average of 14.00C/57.20F.
WMO states that among other remarkable global climatic events recorded in 2007, a
record-low Arctic sea ice extent was observed which led to first recorded opening of the
Canadian Northwest Passage.

The United States National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), found that in 2006
"Globally averaged land temperatures were +0.78C (+1.40F) and ocean
temperatures +0.45C (+0.81F) above average, ranking 4th and 5th warmest,
respectively. The land and ocean surface temperatures for the Northern and Southern
Hemisphere ranked 2nd and 6th warmest, respectively," since global temperature
record monitoring began in 1880. The NCDC report states that "during the past
century, global surface temperatures have increased at a rate near 0.06C/decade
(0.11F/decade) but this trend has increased to a rate approximately 0.18C/decade
(0.32F/decade) during the past 25 to 30 years. There have been two sustained periods
of warming, one beginning around 1910 and ending around 1945, and the most recent
beginning about 1976."

The NCDC's Preliminary Annual Report on the Climate of 2007 (released December
13, 2007) states that:

"the global annual temperature for combined land and ocean surfaces for 2007
is expected to be near 58.0F and would be the fifth warmest since records
began in 1880," and that
"the year 2007 is on pace to become one of the 10 warmest years for the
contiguous

Causes of Global Warming

In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report scientists conclude that "warming of the
climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in
global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and
rising global average sea level" and, furthermore, they conclude with "very high
confidence (at least a 9 out of 10 chance of being correct) that the globally averaged
net effect of human activities since 1750 has been one of warming" of the Earth's
climate system.

Water in a boiling pot receives heat from an element or flame and loses
heat via steam and radiative cooling.
As with every environmental variable, there are multiple factors that contribute to the
"warmth" of the Earth. Humans measure warmth as temperature which is a measure
of the amount of heat contained in a physical object. One can envision this concept by
thinking of a pot on a stove. As heat is applied to the pot from a flame or heating
element, the temperature of the pot will increase. But heat will also begin escaping the
pot in the form of steam and also through radiative and convective cooling from the
top and the sides of the pot. Eventually the rates of both heat loss (cooling) and heat
gain (warming) may stabilize and the heat then contained within the pot at an
instantaneous point of time would be reflected in an equilibrium temperature. This
equilibrium temperature could be measured directly but it also could be calculated by
determining all of the flux rates of heat entering (heating) and leaving (cooling) the
pot.

One way that climate scientists look at the warmth of the Earth's climate system is to
calculate the annual average temperature of the surface of the Earth using
temperature measurements systematically collected throughout the year from
thousands of land- and ocean-based weather and observation stations. The observed
trends in the Earth's annual average temperature is one of the factors leading to the
scientific conclusion that the Earth is now in a period of global warming.

In order to attempt to answer why the Earth is currently warming, scientists have
conducted accountings of each of the fluxes of heat into (warming) and out of
(cooling) the Earth's climate system. Since the measured data show that annual
average temperatures of the Earth have been increasing in recent decades, the year-to-
year annual flux of heat into the climate system must be greater than the annual flux
of heat out of the system. By accounting for each of the fluxes of heat into and out of
the system, scientists are able to assess which fluxes and processes are contributing to
net annual warming of the Earth's surface. By conducting such accountings, scientists
are able to quantify the influence that each natural and human factor has in altering
the balance of incoming and outgoing energy in the Earth-atmosphere system and can
calculate an index of the importance of each of the factor as a potential climate
change mechanism. Each of the factors are called climate drivers and the relative
impact or index of each factor's importance to climate change is called its radiative
forcing.

Relative importance of climate drivers to current global warming as

determined by the 4th Assessment of the IPCC. (Source: IPCC)
In completing such an assessment, the IPCC has concluded with very high confidence
that the globally averaged net effect of human activities since 1750 has been one of
warming. The scientists found that the combined radiative forcing due to increases in
carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide is the largest climate driver and its rate of
increase during the industrial era is very likely to have been unprecedented in more
than 10,000 years. Furthermore, the carbon dioxide radiative forcing increased by
20% from 1995 to 2005, the largest change for any decade in at least the last 200 years.

The IPCC also found that anthropogenic contributions to aerosols in the atmosphere
produce cooling effects, referred to as global dimming. However the cooling (global
dimming) effects due to human-caused aerosols are equivalent to about half of the
warming effects due to the combined radiative forcing of human-produced greenhouse
gases, causing a net warming.

Significant anthropogenic contributions to radiative forcing were also found to

have come from several other sources, including tropospheric ozone changes
due to emissions of ozone-forming chemicals, direct radiative forcing due to
changes in halocarbons, and changes in surface albedo, due to land-cover
changes and deposition of black carbon aerosols on snow. However the impacts
of each of these factors was relatively small compared to the impacts of
anthropogenic greenhouse gases (each showing relative impacts of 15% or less
relative to the greenhouse gas forcings).

Finally, an increase in solar irradiance since 1750 was estimated to have caused
a forcing that contributed to the recent warming of the Earth. However, the
impact of the increase in the amount of sunlight striking the Earth each year
during this ~250 year time span was estimated to be only about 1/20th of the
warming impacts of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The distribution of ozone in the stratosphere is a function of altitude,
latitude and season. It is determined by photochemical and transport
processes. The ozone layer is located between 10 and 50 km above the
Earth's surface and contains 90% of all stratospheric ozone. Under
normal conditions, stratospheric ozone is formed by a photochemical
reaction between oxygen molecules, oxygen atoms and solar radiation.

The ozone layer is essential to life on earth, as it absorbs harmful

ultraviolet-B radiation from the sun. In recent years the thickness of this
layer has been decreasing, leading in extreme cases to holes in the layer.
Measurements carried out in the Antarctic have shown that at certain
times, more than 95% of the ozone concentrations found at altitudes of
between 15 and 20 km and more than 50% of total ozone are destroyed,
with reductions being most pronounced during winter and in early
spring. Natural phenomena, such as sun-spots and stratospheric winds,
also decrease stratospheric ozone levels, but typically not by more than
1-2%.

The main cause of ozone layer depletion is the increased stratospheric

concentration of chlorine from industrially produced CFCs , halons and
selected solvents. Once in the stratosphere, every chlorine atom can
destroy up to 100 000 ozone molecules. The amount of damage that an
agent can do to the ozone layer is expressed relative to that of CFC-11
and is called the Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), where the ODP of
CFC-11 is 1.

The lifetime of some of these ozone depleting substances is very long,

and they may continue to deplete the ozone layer long after their use
has been phased out. In this publication the ODP values for 100-year
timespan are used. Nevertheless some shorter-lived substances may
have a very high chlorine loading potential and thus their effect in the
short term is much larger than reflected by their ODP value.
Aircraft emissions of nitrogen oxides and water vapour add to this
depletion effect by creating ice crystals that serve as a base for ozone
destroying reactions.

The main potential consequences of this ozone depletion are:

increase in UV-B radiation at ground level: a one percent loss of ozone

leads to a two percent increase in UV radiation. Continuous exposure to
UV radiation affects humans, animals and plants, and can lead to skin
problems (ageing, cancer), depression of the immune system, and
corneal cataracts (an eye disease that often leads to blindness).
Increased UV radiation may also lead to a massive die-off of
photoplancton (a CO 2 "sink") and therefore to increased global
warming.

disturbance of the thermal structure of the atmosphere, probably

resulting in changes in atmospheric circulation;

reduction of the ozone greenhouse effect: ozone is considered to be a

greenhouse gas. A depleted ozone layer may partially dampen the
greenhouse effect. Therefore efforts to tackle ozone depletion may
result in increased global warming.

changes in the tropospheric ozone and in the oxidising capacity of the

troposphere.

International targets for the reduction of ozone depleting substances

have resulted in the almost complete phasing out of CFCs, halons and
carbon tetrachloride in the EU. Methyl chloroform and methyl bromide
will be phased out by 2005 and HCFC by 2040.
The policy fields Ozone Layer Depletion and Climate Change are
different, but closely related and indicators such as CFCs and NO x
emissions appear in both chapters. However, only the potential effects
on the ozone layer will be taken into account under Ozone Layer
Depletion whereas Climate Change will focus on the effects on global
warming.

Acid Rain and Its Effects

What is Acid Rain?

Acid rain is a result of air pollution. When any type of fuel is burnt, lots of different
chemicals are produced. The smoke that comes from a fire or the fumes that come out
of a car exhaust don't just contain the sooty grey particles that you can see - they also
contains lots of invisible gases that can be even more harmful to our environment.

Power stations, factories and cars all burn fuels and therefore they all produce
polluting gases. Some of these gases (especially nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide)
react with the tiny droplets of water in clouds to form sulphuric and nitric acids. The
rain from these clouds then falls as very weak acid - which is why it is known as "acid
rain".

How acidic is acid rain?

Acidity is measured using a scale called the pH scale. This scale goes from 0 to 14. 0 is
the most acidic and 14 is the most alkaline (opposite of acidic). Something with a pH
value of 7, we call neutral, this means that it is neither acidic nor alkaline.

Very strong acids will burn if they touch your skin and can even destroy metals. Acid
rain is much, much weaker than this, never acidic enough to burn your skin.

Rain is always slightly acidic because it mixes with naturally occurring oxides in the
air. Unpolluted rain would have a pH value of between 5 and 6. When the air becomes
more polluted with nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide the acidity can increase to a
pH value of 4. Some rain has even been recorded as being pH2.

Vinegar has a pH value of 2.2 and lemon juice has a value of pH2.3. Even the
strongest recorded acid rain is only about as acidic as lemon juice or vinegar and we
know that these don't harm us - so why do we worry about acid rain?
The Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain can be carried great distances in the atmosphere, not just between countries
but also from continent to continent. The acid can also take the form of snow, mists
and dry dusts. The rain sometimes falls many miles from the source of pollution but
wherever it falls it can have a serious effect on soil, trees, buildings and water.

Forests all over the world are dying, fish are dying. In Scandinavia there are dead
lakes, which are crystal clear and contain no living creatures or plant life. Many of
Britain's freshwater fish are threatened, there have been reports of deformed fish
being hatched. This leads to fish-eating birds and animals being affected also. Is acid
rain responsible for all this? Scientists have been doing a lot of research into how acid
rain affects the environment

Allergies

-->Summer Allergies

-->Winter Allergies
Pollution

-->Pollution Types

General News

-->Why Greenland isn't

so green

-->Melting of ice in
Toronto

-->Global Dimming

-->Acid Deposition

-->Bhopal Gas Tragedy

-->The Three Mile Island

near nuclear disaster

-->Environment
Management Operation
Starts in China

-->The Impact Of
Disasters

-->Environmental
disaster and reduction

-->Tropical Storm
Gustav

-->Melting Arctic

-->Radioactive
 contamination

-->Pesticides endanger
Pacific salmon

-->Surprise soot from

ship emissions

-->Acid Rain and Its

Effects

-->Acid Rain and its

Prevention

-->Ozone Layer
Depletion

-->Resource Depletion

-->Climate change-
Antartica's Warmer Past
Revealed

Metal pollution is toxic

for endangered

-->Arctic ice melt due to

Sunny year

-->Global Warming-
defnition

-->Causes of Global
Warming

-->Earth Is Warming Up

-->Ozone Layer May Be

Damaged By Using
Chemicals

-->Global warming may

result into...