10th May- 9thjune 2010

SUBMITTED BY:

unknown
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that unknown has carried out a Industrial Training at

“National Thermal Power Plant, Badarpur“, under my guidance in
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of bachelor of
technology in Electronics And Communication Engineering from
St. Margaret Engineering College, Neemrana during the academic
year 2010-2011 to the best of my knowledge and believe that this
work has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any other
degree.

Mr.

(Project Guide)

Date : June 8, 2010

Place: New Delhi

 CONTENT

1. Introduction to the Company

a. About the Company
b. Vision
c. Evolution

2. Introduction to the Project

3. Project Report
a. Generation Of Electricity

b. EMD – I
i. Coal Handling Plant
ii. Motors
iii. Switchgear
iv. High Tension Switchgear
v. Direct On Line Starter
c. EMD – II
i. Generator
ii. Protection
iii. Transformer

4. Control and Instrumentation Lab

5. Control And Monitoring Mechanisms

6. Automatic Control System Lab
 INTRODUCTION TO
THE COMPANY

• About the Company

• Vision
• Evolution
 About The Company
India’s largest power company, NTPC was set up in 1975 to accelerate power
development in India. NTPC is emerging as a diversified power major with
presence in the entire value chain of the power generation business. Apart from
power generation, which is the mainstay of the company, NTPC has already
ventured into consultancy, power trading, ash utilization and coal mining.
NTPC ranked 317th in the 2009, ’ Forbes Global 2000’ ranking of the World’s
biggest companies.

The total installed capacity of the company is 31,704 MW (including JVs) with
15 coal based and 7 gas based stations, located across the country. In addition
under JVs, 3 stations are coal based & another station uses naphtha/LNG as
fuel. By 2017, the power generation portfolio is expected to have a diversified
fuel mix with coal based capacity of around 53000 MW, 10000 MW through
gas, 9000 MW through Hydro generation, about 2000 MW from nuclear
sources and around 1000 MW from Renewable Energy Sources (RES). NTPC
has adopted a multi-pronged growth strategy which includes capacity addition
through green field projects, expansion of existing stations, joint ventures,
subsidiaries and takeover of stations.

NTPC has been operating its plants at high efficiency levels. Although the
company has 18.10% of the total national capacity it contributes 28.60% of total
power generation due to its focus on high efficiency.

In October 2004, NTPC launched its Initial Public Offering (IPO) consisting of
5.25% as fresh issue and 5.25% as offer for sale by Government of India. NTPC
thus became a listed company in November 2004 with the government holding
89.5% of the equity share capital. The rest is held by Institutional Investors and
the Public. The issue was a resounding success.
NTPC is among the largest five companies in India in terms of market
capitalization.
 VISION
A world class integrated power major, powering India's growth with increasing
global presence.
Develop and provide reliable power related products and services at competitive
prices, integrating multiple energy resources with innovative & Eco-friendly
technologies and contribution to the society
View of a well flourished power plant
Core Values – BCOMIT
 Business ethics
 Customer Focus
 Organizational & Professional Pride
 Mutual Respect & Trust
 Innovation & Speed
 Total Quality for Excellence

At NTPC, People before Plant Load Factor is the mantra that guides all HR
related policies. NTPC has been awarded No.1, Best Workplace in India among
large organizations and the best PSU for the year 2009, by the Great Places to
Work Institute, India Chapter in collaboration with The Economic Times.
The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility is deeply ingrained in NTPC's
culture. Through its expansive CSR initiatives, NTPC strives to develop mutual
trust with the communities that surround its power stations
 NTPC Limited

Type Public

Industry Electricity generation

Founded 1975

Headquarters Delhi, India

Key people R S Sharma, Chairman & Managing Director

Products Electricity

Revenue ▲INR Rs 1,05,224 crore (21.6 billion USD)

Net income ▲INR Rs 8,201 crore (1.7 billion USD)

Employees 23867 (2006)

Website www.ntpc.co.in

EVOLUTION OF NTPC
 NTPC was set up in 1975 with 100% ownership by the Government
1975 of India. In the last 30 years, NTPC has grown into the largest
power utility in India.

In 1997, Government of India granted NTPC status of “Navratna’

1997 being one of the nine jewels of India, enhancing the powers to the
Board of Directors.

NTPC became a listed company with majority Government

ownership of 89.5%.NTPC becomes third largest by Market
2004 Capitalization of listed companies

The company rechristened as NTPC Limited in line with its

2005 changing business portfolio and transforms itself from a thermal
power utility to an integrated power utility.

National Thermal Power Corporation is the largest power

2008 generation company in India. Forbes Global 2000 for 2008 ranked it
411th in the world

National Thermal Power Corporation is the largest power

2009 generation company in India. Forbes Global 2000 for 2009 ranked it
317th in the world

NTPC is the largest power utility in India, accounting for about 20% of India’s installed
capacity. But lately in 2010 Forbes Global 200 for 2010 ranked NTPC 341th in the world
 INTRODUCTION TO
THEMAL POWER
PLANT

• Introduction
• Classification
• Functioning
 INTRODUCTION
Power Station (also referred to as generating station or power plant) is an
industrial facility for the generation of electric power. Power plant is also used
to refer to the engine in ships, aircraft and other large vehicles. Some prefer to
use the term energy center because it more accurately describes what the plants
do, which is the conversion of other forms of energy, like chemical energy,
gravitational potential energy or heat energy into electrical energy.

At the center of nearly all power stations is a generator, a rotating machine that
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by creating relative motion
between a magnetic field and a conductor. The energy source harnessed to turn
the generator varies widely. It depends chiefly on what fuels are easily available
and the types of technology that the power company has access to.

In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine,

which transforms thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into
rotational energy. Most thermal power stations produce steam, and these are
sometimes called steam power stations. About 80% of all electric power is
generated by use of steam turbines. Not all thermal energy can be transformed
to mechanical power, according to the second law of thermodynamics.
Therefore, there is always heat lost to the environment. If this loss is employed
as useful heat, for industrial processes or district heating, the power plant is
referred to as a cogeneration power plant or CHP (combined heat-and-power)
plant. In countries where district heating is common, there are dedicated heat
plants called heat-only boiler stations. An important class of power stations in
the Middle East uses byproduct heat for desalination of water.
 CLASSIFICATION

By Fuel

1. Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor's heat to operate a steam

turbine generator.
2. Fossil fuelled power plants may also use a steam turbine generator or in
the case of natural gas fired plants may use a combustion turbine.
3. Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot underground
rocks.
4. Renewable energy plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane,
municipal solid waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass.
5. In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas is a low-cost, although
low-energy density, fuel.
6. Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally concentrated enough
to use for power generation, usually in a steam boiler and turbine.

 By Prime Mover

1. Steam turbine plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding

steam to turn the blades of a turbine. Almost all large non-hydro plants
use this system.
2. Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases to
directly operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled turbine plants can start
rapidly and so are used to supply "peak" energy during periods of high
demand, though at higher cost than base-loaded plants.
3. Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a
steam boiler and steam turbine which use the exhaust gas from the gas
turbine to produce electricity.
4. Internal combustion Reciprocating engines are used to provide power for
isolated communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration
plants.
5. Micro turbines, Sterling engine and internal combustion reciprocating
engines are low cost solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill
gas, digester gas from water treatment plants and waste gas from oil
production.
 FUNCTIONING

Functioning of thermal power plant:

A thermal power station consists of all the equipments and a subsystem required
to produce electricity by using a steam generating boiler fired with fossil fuels
or befouls to drive an electric generator. In a thermal power plant, one of coal,
oil or natural gas is used to heat the boiler to convert the water into steam. The
steam is used to turn a turbine, which is connected to a generator. When the
turbine turns, electricity is generated and given as output by the generator,
which is then supplied to the consumers through high-voltage power lines.
Typical diagram of a coal power thermal power station-

1. Cooling Tower 10. Steam Control Valve 19. Super-heater

2. Cooling Water pump 11. High Pressure Turbine 20. Forced draught fan
3. Transmission Lines (3-phase) 12. De-aerator 21. Re-heater
4. Step-up Transformer (3-phase) 13. Feed Water heater 22. Air intake
5. Electric Generator (3-phase) 14. Coal Conveyor 23. Economizer
6. Low Pressure Turbine 15. Coal Hopper 24. Air pre-heater
7. Condensate Pump 16. Coal Pulverizer 25. Precipitator
8. Surface Condenser 17. Boiler Drum 26. Induced draught fan
9. Intermediate Pressure Turbine 18. Ash Hopper 27. Chimney Stack
1. Cooling Tower  Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to
transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere. Cooling towers may either
use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working
fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or rely solely on air to cool the
working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature. Common applications
include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries, chemical
plants, power stations and building cooling. The towers vary in size from
small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures (as in Image 1)
that can be up to 200 meters tall and 100 meters in diameter, or
rectangular structures (as in Image 2) that can be over 40 meters tall and
80 meters long. Smaller towers are normally factory-built, while larger
ones are constructed on site.

2. Cooling Water Pump  Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove

heat from various sources such as machinery or heated process material.
The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers is to remove the heat
absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in power
plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing
plants, food processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and other industrial
facilities. The circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MW coal-
fired power plant with a cooling tower amounts to about 71,600 cubic
meters an hour (315,000 U.S. gallons per minute) and the circulating
water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5 percent (i.e.,
3,600 cubic meters an hour).
 If that same plant had no cooling tower and used once-through
cooling water, it would require about 100,000 cubic meters an hour and
that amount of water would have to be continuously returned to the
ocean, lake or river from which it was obtained and continuously re-
supplied to the plant. Furthermore, discharging large amounts of hot
water may raise the temperature of the Receiving River or lake to an
unacceptable level for the local ecosystem. Elevated water temperatures
can kill fish and other aquatic organisms. A cooling tower serves to
dissipate the heat into the atmosphere instead and wind and air diffusion
spreads the heat over a much larger area than hot water can distribute heat
in a body of water. Some coal-fired and nuclear power plants located
in coastal areas do make use of once-through ocean water. But even there,
the offshore discharge water outlet requires very careful design to avoid
environmental problems.

3. Transmission lines  Three phase electric power is a common method

of electric power transmission. It is a type of polyphase system mainly
used for power motors and many other devices. In a three phase system,
three circuits reach their instantaneous peak values at different times.
Taking one conductor as reference, the other two conductors are delayed
in time by one-third and two-third of cycle of the electrical current. This
delay between phases has the effect of giving constant power over each
cycle of the current and also makes it impossible to produce a rotating
magnetic field in an electric motor.

At the power station, an electric generator converts mechanical power

into a set of electric currents one from each electromagnetic coil or
winding of the generator. The currents are sinusoidal functions of time,
 all at the same frequency but offset in time to give different phases. In a
three phase system, the phases are spaced equally giving a phase
separation of one-third of one cycle. Generators output at a voltage that
ranges from hundreds of volts to 30,000 volts.
After numerous further conversions in the transmission and distribution
network, the power is finally transformed to standard mains voltage i.e.
the household voltage. The power may already have been split into single
phase at this point or it may be still three phase, where the step-down is
three phase. The output of the transformer is usually star connected with
the standard mains voltage being the phase neutral voltage.

4. Step- Up Transformer (3 Phase)  The transformer is based on two

principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a magnetic
field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field
within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil
(electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil
changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux
induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing

through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and
secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic
permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes
through both the primary and secondary coils.
5. Electric Generator  An electrical generator is a device that coverts
mechanical energy to electrical energy, using electromagnetic induction
whereas electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy with the help
of electric motor. The source of mechanical energy may be a
 reciprocating turbine steam engine. Turbines are made in variety of sizes
ranging from small 1 hp(0.75 kW) used as mechanical drives for pumps,
compressors and other shaft driven equipment to 2,000,000 hp(1,500,000
kW) turbines of the steam is used to generate electricity.

6. Steam Turbine  he steam generated in the boiler is sent through a

steam turbine. The turbine has blades that rotate when high velocity
steam flows across them. This rotation of turbine blades is used to
generate electricity. Energy in the steam after it leaves the boiler is
converted into rotational energy as it passes through the turbine. The
turbine normally consists of several stages with each stage consisting of a
stationary blade (or nozzle) and a rotating blade. Stationary blades
convert the potential energy of the steam (temperature and pressure) into
kinetic energy (velocity) and direct the flow onto the rotating blades. The
rotating blades convert the kinetic energy into forces, caused by pressure
drop, which results in the rotation of the turbine shaft. The turbine shaft is
connected to a generator, which produces the electrical energy. The
rotational speed is 3000 rpm for Indian System (50 Hz) systems and 3600
for American (60 Hz) systems.

A TYPICAL POWER STATION STEAM TURBINE AND ITS

EXTERNAL EQUIPMENT

In a typical larger power stations, the steam turbines are split into
three separate stages, the first being the High Pressure (HP), the
second the Intermediate Pressure (IP) and the third the Low Pressure
(LP) stage, where high, intermediate and low describe the pressure of
the steam.
After the steam has passed through the HP stage, it is returned to the
boiler to be re-heated to its original temperature although the pressure
 remains greatly reduced. The reheated steam then passes through the
IP stage and finally to the LP stage of the turbine.
A distinction is made between "impulse" and "reaction" turbine
designs based on the relative pressure drop across the stage. There are
two measures for pressure drop, the pressure ratio and the percent
reaction. Pressure ratio is the pressure at the stage exit divided by the
pressure at the stage entrance. Reaction is the percentage isentropic
enthalpy drop across the rotating blade or bucket compared to the
total stage enthalpy drop. Some manufacturers utilise percent pressure
drop across stage to define reaction.
7. Condensate Pump  A condensate pump is a specific type
of pump used to pump the condensate (water) produced in
an HVAC (heating or cooling), refrigeration, condensing boiler furnace
or steam system. They may be used to pump the condensate produced
from latent water vapor in any of the following gas mixtures:

 Conditioned (cooled or heated) building air

 Refrigerated air in cooling and freezing systems

 Steam in heat exchangers and radiators

 The exhaust stream of very-high-efficiency furnaces

Condensate recovery systems help you reduce three tangible costs of producing
steam:

 Fuel/energy costs

.Boiler water make-up and sewage treatment

  Boiler water chemical treatment

8. Surface Condenser  Surface condenser is the commonly used term for

a water-cooled shell and tube heat exchanger installed on the
exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power stations.
These condensers are heat exchangers which convert steam from its
gaseous to its liquid state at a pressure below atmospheric pressure.

Where cooling water is in short supply, an air-cooled condenser is often

used. An air-cooled condenser is however significantly more expensive
and cannot achieve as low a steam turbine exhaust pressure as a surface
condenser.

9. Steam Control Valve  Control valves are valves used to control

conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and liquid level by fully
or partially opening or closing in response to signals received from
controllers that compare a "set point" to a "process variable" whose value
is provided by sensors that monitor changes in such conditions. The
opening or closing of control valves is done by means of electrical ,
hydraulic or pneumatic systems.
 Positioners are used to control the opening or closing of the actuator
based on Electric, or Pneumatic Signals. These control signals,
traditionally based on 3-15psi (0.2-1.0bar), more common now are 4-
20mA signals for industry, 0-10V for HVAC systems, & the introduction
of "Smart" systems, HART, Field bus Foundation, & Profile bus being
the more common protocols.

10. De-aerator  A De-aerator is a device for air removal and used to

remove dissolved gases from boiler feed water to make it non-corrosive.
A de-aerator typically includes a vertical domed de-aeration section as the
de-aeration feed water tank. A steam generating boiler requires that the
circulating steam, condensate and feed water should be devoid of
dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones and dissolved or suspended
solids.
 The gases will give rise to corrosion of the metal. The solids will deposit
on heating surfaces giving rise to localized heating and tube ruptures due
to overheating. De-aerator level and pressure must be controlled by
adjusting control valves-the level by regulating condensate flow and
pressure by regulating steam flow. Most de-aerators guarantee that if
operated properly, oxygen in de-aerated water will not exceed 7ppb by
weight.

11. Feed-water Heater  A feed water heater is a power plant

component used to pre heat water delivered to a steam generating boiler.
Feed water heater improves the efficiency of the system. This reduces
plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to boiler
metal when the feed water is introduced back into the steam cycle. Feed
water heaters allow the feed water to be brought upto the saturation
temperature very gradually.

This minimizes the inevitable irreversibility associated with heat transfer

to the working fluid (water). A belt conveyer consists of two pulleys,
with a continuous loop of material- the conveyer belt that rotates around
them. The pulleys are powered, moving the belt and the material on the
belt forward. Conveyer belts are extensively used to transport industrial
and agricultural material, such as grain, coal, ores, etc.

12. Coal Pulverizer  A pulverizer is a mechanical device for the

grinding of many different types of materials. Basically Pulverizers are of
five types :-
 • Ball and Tube Mill

• Ring and Ball Mill

• MPS Mill

• Bowl Mill

• Demolition Pulverizer

13. Boiler Steam Drum  The water enters the boiler through a
section in the convection pass called the economizer. From the
economizer it passes to the steam drum. Once the water enters the steam
drum it goes down the down comers to the lower inlet water wall headers.
From the inlet headers the water rises through the water walls and is
eventually turned into steam due to the heat being generated by the
burners located on the front and rear water walls (typically). As the water
is turned into steam/vapor in the water walls, the steam/vapor once again
enters the steam drum.
The steam/vapor is passed through a series of steam and water separators
and then dryers inside the steam drum. The steam separators and dryers
remove the water droplets from the steam and the cycle through the water
walls is repeated. This process is known as natural circulation.
The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and
igniter guns, soot blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the
furnace walls) for observation of the furnace interior. Furnace explosions
due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a trip-out are avoided
by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the
coal.
 External View of an Industrial Boiler at Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi

The steam drum (as well as the super-heater coils and headers) have air
vents and drains needed for initial startup. The steam drum has an internal
device that removes moisture from the wet steam entering the drum from
the steam generating tubes. The dry steam then flows into the super-
heater coils.
Geothermal plants need no boiler since they use naturally occurring
steam sources. Heat exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam
is very corrosive or contains excessive suspended solids. Nuclear plants
also boil water to raise steam, either directly passing the working steam
through the reactor or else using an intermediate heat exchanger.
14. Bottom Ash Hopper  At the bottom of every boiler, a hopper has
been provided for collection of the bottom ash from the bottom of the
furnace. This hopper is always filled with water to quench the ash and
clinkers falling down from the furnace. Some arrangement is included to
crush the clinkers and for conveying the crushed clinkers and bottom ash
to a storage site.

15. Super-heater As the steam is conditioned by the drying

equipment inside the drum, it is piped from the upper drum area into an
elaborate set up of tubing in different areas of the boiler. The areas known
as super heater and re heater. The steam vapor picks up energy and its
temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The
 superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the
valves of the high pressure turbine. Basically a Super heater is a device in
a steam engine that heats the steam generated by the boiler again
increasing its thermal energy and decreasing the likelihood that it will
condense inside the engine. Super heaters increase the efficiency of the
steam engine, and were widely adopted. Steam which has been
superheated is logically known as superheated steam; non-superheated
steam is called saturated steam or wet steam.

16. Re-Heater  Power plant furnaces may have a reheater section

containing tubes heated by hot flue gases outside the tubes. Exhaust
steam from the high pressure turbine is rerouted to go inside the reheater
tubes to pickup more energy to go drive intermediate or lower pressure
turbines

17. Economizer  Economizer, or in the UK economizer, are

mechanical devices intended to reduce energy consumption, or to perform
another useful function like preheating a fluid. The term economizer is
used for other purposes as well. Boiler, power plant, and heating,
ventilating and air conditioning. In boilers, economizer are heat exchange
devices that heat fluids , usually water, up to but not normally beyond the
boiling point of the fluid. Economizers are so named because they can
make use of the enthalpy and improving the boiler’s efficiency. They are
a device fitted to a boiler which saves energy by using the exhaust gases
from the boiler to preheat the cold water used the fill it (the feed water).
Modern day boilers, such as those in cold fired power stations, are still
fitted with economizer which is decedents of Green’s original design. In
this context they are turbines before it is pumped to the boilers.
 A common application of economizer is steam power plants is to capture
the waste hit from boiler stack gases (flue gas) and transfer thus it to the
boiler feed water thus lowering the needed energy input , in turn reducing
the firing rates to accomplish the rated boiler output . Economizer lower
stack temperatures which may cause condensation of acidic combustion
gases and serious equipment corrosion damage if care is not taken in their
design and material selection.

18. Air Pre-heater  Air pre-heater is a general term to describe any

device designed to heat air before another process (for example,
combustion in a boiler). The purpose of the air pre-heater is to recover the
heat from the boiler flue gas which increases the thermal efficiency of the
boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the fuel gas. As a consequence,
the flue gases are also sent to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a lower
temperature allowing simplified design of the ducting and the flue gas
stack. It also allows control over the temperature of gases leaving the
stack.
19. Precipitator  An Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or electrostatic
air cleaner is a particulate device that removes particles from a flowing
gas (such As air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge.
Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices, and can
easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air
steam. ESP’s continue to be excellent devices for control of many
industrial particulate emissions, including smoke from electricity-
generating utilities (coal and oil fired), salt cake collection from black
liquor boilers in pump mills, and catalyst collection from fluidized bed
catalytic crackers from several hundred thousand ACFM in the largest
coal-fired boiler application. The original parallel plate-Weighted wire
design (described above) has evolved as more efficient ( and robust)
discharge electrode designs were developed, today focusing on rigid
discharge electrodes to which many sharpened spikes are attached ,
maximizing corona production.
 Transformer–rectifier systems apply voltages of 50-100 Kilovolts at
relatively high current densities. Modern controls minimize sparking and
prevent arcing, avoiding damage to the components. Automatic rapping
systems and hopper evacuation systems remove the collected particulate
matter while on line allowing ESP’s to stay in operation for years at a
time.

20. Fuel Gas Stack  A Fuel gas stack is a type of chimney, a

vertical pipe, channel or similar structure through which combustion
product gases called fuel gases are exhausted to the outside air. Fuel
gases are produced when coal, oil, natural gas, wood or any other large
combustion device. Fuel gas is usually composed of carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water vapor as well as nitrogen and excess oxygen remaining
from the intake combustion air. It also contains a small percentage of
pollutants such as particulates matter, carbon mono oxide, nitrogen
oxides and sulfur oxides. The flue gas stacks are often quite tall, up to
400 meters (1300 feet) or more, so as to disperse the exhaust pollutants
over a greater aria and thereby reduce the concentration of the pollutants
to the levels required by governmental environmental policies and
regulations.
 ELECTRICITY GENERATION
PROCESS
(A BASIC OVERVIEW)

At NTPC (Badarpur) the man two paths are the flue gas or air cycle and steam
or condensate paths.

HOW ELECTRICITY IS GENERATED?

Thermal power station burns fuel and uses the resultant heat to raise steam
which drives the TURBO GENERATOR. The fuel may be
‘fossil’(coal,oil,natural gas) or it may be fissionable, whichever fuel is used, the
objective is same to convert the mechanical energy into electricity by rotating a
magnet inside a set of winding.

COAL TO STAEM
Its other raw materials are air and water. The coal brought to the station by
trains or by other means, travels handling plant by conveyer belts, travels from
pulverizing mills, which grind it as fine as the face powder of size upto 20
microns. The finely produced coal mixed with preheated air is then blown into
the boiler by a fan called primary air fan where it burns more like a gas than as a
solid, in the conventional domestic or industrial grate, with additional amount of
air, called secondary air supply, by forced draft fan.

As coal is ground so finally the resultant ash is also a fine powder. Some of it
binds together to form pumps, which falls into ash pits at the bottom of the
furnace. The water-quenched ash from the bottom is conveyed to pits for
subsequent disposal or sale. Most of ash, still in fine partical form is carried out
of boilers to the precipitator as dust, where electrodes charged with high voltage
electricity trap it. The dust is then conveyed to water to disposal area or to
bunker for sale while the clean flue gases are passed on through IP fans to be
discharged through chimneys.
The heat released from the coal has been absorbed by the many kilometers
tubing which line the boiler walls. Inside the tubes the boiler feed water, which
is transformed by heat into staemat high temperature and pressure.. The steam
superheated in further tubes (superheaters) passes to turbine where it is
discharged through the nozzle on the turbine blades. Just as the energy of wind
turns the sail of the windmill, the energy of steam striking the blade makes the
turbine rotate.

Coupled to the end of the turbine is the rotor of the generator. The rotor is
housed inside the stator having heavy coils of the bars in which electricity is
produced through the movement of magnetic field created by the rotor.
Electricity passes from stator windings to step-up transformer which increases
its voltage so that it can be transmited efficiently over lines of grid.

The staem which has given up its heat energy is cahnged back into water in a
condenser so that it is ready for re-use. The condenser contains many kilometers
of tubing through which cold water is constantly pumped. The staem passing
around the tubes looses heat.Thus it is rapidly changed back into water.

But, the two lots of water, that is, the boiler feed and cooling water must never
mix. Cooling water is drawn from river- bed, but the boiler feed water must be
absolutely pure, far purer than the water we drink (de-mineralized water),
otherwise it may damage the boiler tubes.
 TABLES OF CYCLES

 COAL CYCLE
 CONDENSATE CYCLE
 FEED WATER CYCLE
 STEAM CYCLE
 EMD – I
• Coal Handling Plant

• Motors

• Switchgear

• High Tension Switchgear

• Direct On Line Starter

Coal Handling Plant

Coal is delivered by highway truck, rail, barge or collier ship. Some plants are
even built near coal mines and coal is delivered by conveyors. A large coal train
called a "unit train" may be a kilometers (over a mile) long, containing 60 cars
with 100 tons of coal in each one, for a total load of 6,000 tons. A large plant
under full load requires at least one coal delivery this size every day. Plants may
get as many as three to five trains a day, especially in "peak season", during the
summer months when power consumption is high. A large thermal power plant
such as the Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi stores several million

Coal Handling Plant Layout

tons of coal for use when there is no wagon supply. Unloading a unit train takes
about three hours. Modern unloaders use rotary dump devices, which eliminate
problems with coal freezing in bottom dump cars. The unloader includes a train
positioner arm that pulls the entire train to position each car over a coal hopper.
The dumper clamps an individual car against a platform that swivels the car
upside down to dump the coal. Swiveling couplers enable the entire
Shorter trains may use railcars with an "air-dump", which relies on air pressure
from the engine plus a "hot shoe" on each car. This "hot shoe" when it comes
into contact with a "hot rail" at the unloading trestle, shoots an electric charge
through the air dump apparatus and causes the doors on the bottom of the car to
open, dumping the coal through the opening in the trestle. Unloading one of
these trains takes anywhere from an hour to an hour and a half. Older unloaders
may still use manually operated bottom-dump rail cars and a "shaker" attached
to dump the coal. Generating stations adjacent to a mine may receive coal by
conveyor belt or massive diesel-electric-drive trucks.

Layout of Coal Handling Plant at Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi
Coal is prepared for use by crushing the rough coal to pieces less than 2 inches
(50 mm) in size. The coal is then transported from the storage yard to in-plant
storage silos by rubberized conveyor belts at rates up to 4,000 tons/hour.
In plants that burn pulverized coal, silos feed coal pulverizers (coal mill) that
take the larger 2 inch pieces grind them into the consistency of face powder,
classify them, and mixes them with primary combustion air which transports the
coal to the furnace and preheats the coal to drive off excess moisture content. In
plants that do not burn pulverized coal, the larger 2 inch pieces may be directly
fed into the silos which then feed the cyclone burners, a specific kind of
combustor that can efficiently burn larger pieces of fuel.

Run-Of-Mine (ROM) Coal

The coal delivered from the mine that reports to the Coal Handling Plant is
called Run-of-mine, or ROM, coal. This is the raw material for the CHP, and
consists of coal, rocks, middlings, minerals and contamination. Contamination
is usually introduced by the mining process and may include machine parts,
used consumables and parts of ground engaging tools. ROM coal can have a
large variability of moisture and maximum particle size.

Coal Handling
Coal needs to be stored at various stages of the preparation process, and
conveyed around the CHP facilities. Coal handling is part of the larger field of
bulk material handling, and is a complex and vital part of the CHP.

Stockpiles
Stockpiles provide surge capacity to various parts of the CHP. ROM coal is
delivered with large variations in production rate of tonnes per hour (tph). A

Coal Handling Division of Badarpur Thermal Power Station,

New Delhi

ROM stockpile is used to allow the wash plant to be fed coal at lower, constant
rate.
A simple stockpile is formed by machinery dumping coal into a pile, either from
dump trucks, pushed into heaps with bulldozers or from conveyor booms. More
controlled stockpiles are formed using stackers to form piles along the length of
a conveyor, and reclaimers to retrieve the coal when required for product
loading, etc.
Taller and wider stockpiles reduce the land area required to store a set tonnage
of coal. Larger coal stockpiles have a reduced rate of heat lost, leading to a
higher risk of spontaneous combustion.

Stacking
Travelling, lugging boom stackers that straddle a feed conveyor are commonly
used to create coal stockpiles. Stackers are nominally rated in tph (tonnes per
hour) for capacity and normally travel on a rail between stockpiles in the
stockyard. A stacker can usually move in at least two directions typically:
horizontally along the rail and vertically by lugging its boom. Lugging of the
boom minimizes dust by reducing the height that the coal needs to fall to the top
of the stockpile. The boom is lugged upwards as the stockpile height grows.

Wagon Tripler at Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi

Some stackers are able to rotate by slewing the boom. This allows a single
stacker to form two stockpiles, one on either side of the conveyor.
Stackers are used to stack into different patterns, such as cone stacking and
chevron stacking. Stacking in a single cone tends to cause size segregation, with
coarser material moving out towards the base. Raw cone ply stacking is when
additional cones are added next to the first cone. Chevron stacking is when the
stacker travels along the length of the stockpile adding layer upon layer of
material.
Stackers and Reclaimers were originally manually controlled manned machines
with no remote control. Modern machines are typically semi-automatic or fully
automated, with parameters remotely set.

Reclaiming
Tunnel conveyors can be fed by a continuous slot hopper or bunker
beneath the stockpile to reclaim material. Front-end loaders and
bulldozers can be used to push the coal into feeders. Sometimes front-
end loaders are the only means of reclaiming coal from the stockpile.
This has a low up-front capital cost, but much higher operating costs,
measured in dollars per tonne handled.

Coal Storage Area of the Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi
High-capacity stockpiles are commonly reclaimed using bucket-wheel
reclaimers. These can achieve very high rates.
Coal Sampling
Sampling of coal is an important part of the process control in the CHP. A grab
sample is a one-off sample of the coal at a point in the process stream, and tends
not to be very representative. A routine sample is taken at a set frequency, either
over a period of time or per shipment.

Screening
Screens are used to group process particles into ranges by size. These size
ranges are also called grades. Dewatering screens are used to remove water
from the product. Screens can be static, or mechanically vibrated. Screen decks
can be made from different materials such as high tensile steel, stainless steel,
or polyethelene.

Screening and Separation Unit of Coal Handling Division of a Thermal Power Plant

Magnetic Separation
Magnetic separators shall be used in coal conveying systems to separate tramp
iron (including steel) from the coal. Basically, two types are available. One type
incorporates permanent or electromagnets into the head pulley of a belt
conveyor. The tramp iron clings to the belt as it goes around the pulley drum
and falls off into a collection hopper or trough after the point at which coal is
charged from the belt. The other type consists of permanent or electromagnets
incorporated into a belt conveyor that is suspended above a belt conveyor
carrying coal. The tramp iron is pulled from the moving coal to the face of the
separating conveyor, which in turn holds and carries the tramp iron to a
collection hopper or trough. Magnetic separators shall be used just ahead of the
coal crusher, if any, and/or just prior to coal discharge to the in-plant bunker or
silo fill system.

Coal Crusher
Before the coal is sent to the plant it has to be ensured that the coal is of uniform
size, and so it is passed through coal crushers. Also power plants using
pulverized coal specify a maximum coal size that can be fed into the pulverizer
and so the coal has to be crushed to the specified size using the coal crusher.
Rotary crushers are very commonly used for this purpose as they can provide a
continuous flow of coal to the pulverizer.

Pulverizer
Most commonly used pulverizer is the Bowl Mill. The arrangement consists of
2 stationary rollers and a power driven bowl in which pulverization takes place
as the coal passes through the sides of the rollers and the bowl. A primary air
induced draught fan draws a stream of heated air through the mill carrying the
pulverized coal into a stationary classifier at the top of the pulverizer. The
classifier separates the pulverized coal from the unpulverized coal.

An external view of a Coal Pulverizer

Advantages of Pulverized Coal

• Pulverized coal is used for large capacity plants.
• It is easier to adapt to fluctuating load as there are no limitations on the
combustion
capacity.
• Coal with higher ash percentage cannot be used without pulverizing
because of the problem of large amount ash deposition after combustion.
• Increased thermal efficiency is obtained through pulverization.
• The use of secondary air in the combustion chamber along with the
powered coal helps in creating turbulence and therefore uniform mixing
of the coal and the air during combustion.
Greater surface area of coal per unit mass of coal allows faster
combustion as more coal is exposed to heat and combustion.
• The combustion process is almost free from clinker and slag formation.
• The boiler can be easily started from cold condition in case of
emergency.
• Practically no ash handling problem.
 • The furnace volume required is less as the turbulence caused aids in
complete combustion of the coal with minimum travel of the particles.
The pulverized coal is passed from the pulverizer to the boiler by means of the
primary air that is used not only to dry the coal but also to heat is as it goes into
the boiler. The secondary air is used to provide the necessary air required for
complete combustion. The primary air may vary anywhere from 10% to the
entire air depending on the design of the boiler. The coal is sent into the boiler
through burners. A very important and widely used type of burner arrangement
is the Tangential Firing arrangement.

Ash Handling
The ever increasing capacities of boiler units together with their ability to use
low grade high ash content coal have been responsible for the development of
modern day ash handling systems. The widely used ash handling systems are
1. Mechanical Handling System
2. Hydraulic System
3. Pneumatic System
4. Steam Jet System
The Hydraulic Ash handling system is used at the Badarpur Thermal Power
Station.

Hydraulic Ash Handling System

Ash Handling System of a

Thermal Power Plant
The hydraulic system carried the ash with the flow of water with high velocity
through a channel and finally dumps into a sump. The hydraulic system is
divided into a low velocity and high velocity system. In the low velocity system
the ash from the boilers falls into a stream of water flowing into the sump. The
ash is carried along with the water and they are separated at the sump. In the
high velocity system a jet of water is sprayed to quench the hot ash. Two other
jets force the ash into a trough in which they are washed away by the water into
the sump, where they are separated. The molten slag formed in the pulverized
fuel system can also be quenched and washed by using the high velocity system.
The advantages of this system are that its clean, large ash handling capacity,
considerable distance can be traversed, absence of working parts in contact with
ash.

SWITCHGEAR
The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or grid,
refers to the combination of electrical disconnects, fuses and/or circuit breakers
used to isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize
equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream.

The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches,
mounted on insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages
rapidly escalated, making open manually-operated switches too dangerous to
use for anything other than isolation of a de-energized circuit. Oil-filled
equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely controlled. By the
early 20th century, a switchgear line-up would be a metal-enclosed structure
with electrically-operated switching elements, using oil circuit breakers. Today,
oil-filled equipment has largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF6
equipment, allowing large currents and power levels to be safely controlled by
automatic equipment incorporating digital controls, protection, metering and
communications.

A View of Switchgear at a Power Plant

Types
A piece of switchgear may be a simple open air isolator switch or it may be
insulated by some other substance. An effective although more costly form of
switchgear is "gas insulated switchgear" (GIS), where the conductors and
contacts are insulated by pressurized (SF6) sulfur hexafluoride gas. Other
common types are oil [or vacuum] insulated switchgear.
Circuit breakers are a special type of switchgear that are able to interrupt fault
currents. Their construction allows them to interrupt fault currents of many
hundreds or thousands of amps. The quenching of the arc when the contacts
open requires careful design, and falls into four types:
Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil
through the arc.
Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and
then rely upon the dielectric strength of the SF6 to quench the stretched arc.
Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other
than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small
amount (<2-3 mm). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern
medium-voltage switchgear to 35,000 volts.
Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively,
the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the
displaced air thus blowing out the arc.
Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very quickly:
typically between 30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age and construction
of the device.
Several different classifications of switchgear can be made:
By the current rating:
• By interrupting rating (maximum short circuit current that the device can safely
interrupt)
• Circuit breakers can open and close on fault currents
• Load-break/Load-make switches can switch normal system load currents
• Isolators may only be operated while the circuit is dead, or the load current is very
small.

By voltage class:
• Low Tension (less than 440 volts AC)
• High Tension (more than 6.6 kV AC)

By insulating medium:
• Air
• Gas (SF6 or mixtures)
• Oil
• Vacuum

By construction type:
• Indoor (further classified by IP (Ingress Protection) class or NEMA enclosure type)
• Outdoor
• Industrial
• Utility
• Marine
• Draw-out elements (removable without many tools)
• Fixed elements (bolted fasteners)
• Live-front
• Dead-front
• Open
• Metal-enclosed
• Metal-clad
• Metal enclose & Metal clad
• Arc-resistant
By IEC degree of internal separation:
• No Separation
• Bus bars separated from functional units
• Terminals for external conductors separated from bus bars
• Terminals for external conductors separated from functional units but not from each
other
• Functional units separated from each other
• Terminals for external conductors separated from each other
• Terminals for external conductors separate from their associated functional unit

By interrupting device:
• Fuses
• Air Blast Circuit Breaker
• Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
• Oil Circuit Breaker
• Vacuum Circuit Breaker
• Gas (SF6) Circuit breaker

By operating method:
• Manually-operated
• Motor-operated
• Solenoid/stored energy operated

By type of current:
• Alternating current
• Direct current

By application:
• Transmission system
• Distribution.
A single line-up may incorporate several different types of devices, for
example, air-insulated bus, vacuum circuit breakers, and manually-operated
switches may all exist in the same row of cubicles.
Ratings, design, specifications and details of switchgear are set by a
multitude of standards. In North America mostly IEEE and ANSI standards
are used, much of the rest of the world uses IEC standards, sometimes with
local national derivatives or variations.
 HIGH TENSION SWITCHGEAR
High voltage switchgear is any switchgear and switchgear assembly of rated
voltage higher than 1000 volts.
High voltage switchgear is any switchgear used to connect or to disconnect a
part of a high voltage power system.
These switchgears are essential elements for the protection and for a safety
operating mode without interruption of a high voltage power system. This
type of equipment is really important because it is directly linked to the
quality of the electricity supply.
The high voltage is a voltage above 1000 V for alternating current and above
1500 V for direct current.

High Tension Switchgear of a Thermal Power Plant

The high voltage switchgear was invented at the end of the 19th century for
operating the motors and others electric machines. It has been improved and
it can be used in the whole range of high voltage until 1100 kV.

Functional Classification

Disconnectors and Earthing Switches

They are above all safety devices used to open or to close a circuit when there
is no current through them. They are used to isolate a part of a circuit, a
machine, a part of an overhead-line or an underground line for the operating
staff to access it without any danger.
The opening of the line isolator or busbar section isolator is necessary for the
safety but it is not enough. Grounding must be done at the upstream sector
and the downstream sector on the device which they want to intervene thanks
to the earthing switches.
In principle, disconnecting switches do not have to interrupt currents, but
some of them can interrupt currents (up to 1600 A under 10 to 300V) and
some earthing switches must interrupt induced currents which are generated
in a non-current-carrying line by inductive and capacitive coupling with
nearby lines (up to 160 A under 20 kV).

A Vacuum Circuit Breaker (High Tension Switchgear)

High-Current Switching Mechanism

They can open or close a circuit in normal load. Some of them can be used as
a disconnecting switch. But if they can create a short-circuit current, they can
not interrupt it.

Contactor
Their functions are similar to the high-current switching mechanism, but they
can be used at higher rates. They have a high electrical endurance and a high
mechanical endurance.
Contactors are used to frequently operate device like electric furnaces, high
voltage motors. They cannot be used as a disconnecting switch.
They are used only in the band 30 kV to 100 kV.

Fuses
The fuses can interrupt automatically a circuit with an over current flowing in
it for a fixed time. The current interrupting is got by the fusion of an electrical
conductor which is graded.
They are mainly used to protect against the short-circuits. They limit the peak
value of the fault current.
In three-phase electric power, they only eliminate the phases where the fault
current is flowing, which is a risk for the devices and the people. Against this
trouble, the fuses can be associated with high-current switches or contactors.
They are used only in the band 30 kV to 100 kV.

Circuit Breaker
A high voltage circuit breaker is capable of making, carrying and breaking
currents under the rated voltage (the maximal voltage of the power system
which it is protecting) : Under normal circuit conditions, for example to
connect or disconnect a line in a power system; Under specified abnormal
circuit conditions especially to eliminate a short circuit. From its
characteristics, a circuit breaker is the protection device essential for a high
voltage power system, because it is the only one able to interrupt a short
circuit current and so to avoid the others devices to be damaged by this short
circuit. The international standard IEC 62271-100 defines the demands linked
to the characteristics of a high voltage circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker can be equipped with electronic devices in order to know
at any moment their states (wear, gas pressure...) and possibly to detect faults
from characteristics derivatives and it can permit to plan maintenance
operations and to avoid failures.
To operate on long lines, the circuit breakers are equipped with a closing
resistor to limit the over voltages.
They can be equipped with devices to synchronize the closing and/or the
opening to limit the over voltages and the inrush currents from the lines, the
unloaded transformers, the shunt reactances and the capacitor banks.
Some devices are designed to have the characteristics of the circuit breaker
and the disconnector. But their use is limited.

DIRECT ON LINE STARTER

A direct on line starter, often abbreviated DOL starter, is a
widely-used starting method of electric motors. The term is
used in electrical engineering and associated with electric
motors. There are many types of motor starters, the simplest
of which is the DOL starter.
A motor starter is an electrical/electronic circuit composed of
electro-mechanical and electronic devices which are
employed to start and stop an electric motor. Regardless of
the motor type (AC or DC), the types of starters differ
depending on the method of starting the motor. A DOL starter
connects the motor terminals directly to the power supply.
Hence, the motor is subjected to the full voltage of the power
supply. Consequently, high starting current flows through the
motor. This type of starting is suitable for small motors below
5 hp (3.75 kW). Reduced-voltage starters are employed with
motors above 5 hp. Although DOL motor starters are
available for motors less than 150 kW on 400 V and for
motors less than 1 MW on 6.6 kV. Supply reliability and
reserve power generation dictates the use of reduced voltage
or not.

Internal View of a Direct On Line Starter

Major Components

There are four major components of a Direct On Line Starter. They are given
as follows:
1. Switch
2. Fuse
3. Conductor (Electromagnetic)
4. Thermal Overload Relay (Heat & Temperature)

Auxiliary Components

According to our desire and use of work, we use auxiliary components in a

DOL Starter. There are basically two types of Auxiliary Components given as
follows:
1. Auxiliary Conductor
2. Timer (Range - 0.5s to 60s)

DOL Reversing Starter

Most motors are reversible or, in other words, they can be run clockwise and
anti-clockwise. A reversing starter is an electrical or electronic circuit that
reverses the direction of a motor automatically. Logically, the circuit is
composed of two DOL circuits; one for clockwise operation and the other for
anti-clockwise operation.

External View of a Direct On Line Starter

Motor Direction Reversal

Changing the direction of a 3-Phase Squirrel-Cage Motor requires swapping

any two phases. This could be achieved by a contactor KM1 swapping phase
L2 and L3 between the supply and the motor.
 EMD – II
• Generator

• Protection

• Transformer
 GENERATORS
The basic function of the generator is to convert mechanical power, delivered from
the shaft of the turbine, into electrical power. Therefore a generator is actually a
rotating mechanical energy converter. The mechanical energy from the turbine is
converted by means of a rotating magnetic field produced by direct current in the
copper winding of the rotor or field, which generates three-phase alternating
currents and voltages in the copper winding of the stator (armature). The stator
winding is connected to terminals, which are in turn connected to the power system
for delivery of the output power to the system.

A 210 MW Turbine Generator at Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi

The class of generator under consideration is steam turbine-driven generators,

commonly called turbo generators. These machines are generally used in nuclear
and fossil fueled power plants, co-generation plants, and combustion turbine units.
They range from relatively small machines of a few Megawatts (MW) to very large
generators with ratings up to 1900 MW. The generators particular to this category
are of the two- and four-pole design employing round-rotors, with rotational
operating speeds of 3600 and 1800 rpm in North America, parts of Japan, and Asia
(3000 and 1500 rpm in Europe, Africa, Australia, Asia, and South America). At
Badarpur Thermal Power Station 3000 rpm, 50 Hz generators are used of
capacities 210 MW and 95 MW.
As the system load demands more active power from the generator, more steam (or
fuel in a combustion turbine) needs to be admitted to the turbine to increase power
output. Hence more energy is transmitted to the generator from the turbine, in the
form of a torque. This torque is mechanical in nature, but electromagnetically
coupled to the power system through the generator. The higher the power output,
the higher the torque between turbine and generator.
The power output of the generator generally follows the load demand from the
system. Therefore the voltages and currents in the generator are continually
changing based on the load demand. The generator design must be able to cope
with large and fast load changes, which show up inside the machine as changes in
mechanical forces and temperatures. The design must therefore incorporate
electrical current-carrying materials (i.e., copper), magnetic flux-carrying materials
(i.e., highly permeable steels), insulating materials (i.e., organic), structural
members (i.e., steel and organic), and cooling media (i.e., gases and liquids), all
working together under the operating conditions of a turbo generator.

An open Electric Generator at Power Plant

Since the turbo generator is a synchronous machine, it operates at one very specific
speed to produce a constant system frequency of 50 Hz, depending on the
frequency of the grid to which it is connected. As a synchronous machine, a
turbine generator employs a steady magnetic flux passing radially across an air gap
that exists between the rotor and the stator. (The term "air gap" is commonly used
for air- and gas-cooled machines). For the machines in this discussion, this means a
magnetic flux distribution of two or four poles on the rotor. This flux pattern
rotates with the rotor, as it spins at its synchronous speed. The rotating magnetic
field moves past a three-phase symmetrically distributed winding installed in the
stator core, generating an alternating voltage in the stator winding. The voltage
waveform created in each of the three phases of the stator winding is very nearly
sinusoidal. The output of the stator winding is the three-phase power, delivered to
the power system at the voltage generated in the stator winding.
In addition to the normal flux distribution in the main body of the generator, there
are stray fluxes at the extreme ends of the generator that create fringing flux
patterns and induce stray losses in the generator. The stray fluxes must be
accounted for in the overall design.
Generators are made up of two basic members, the stator and the rotor, but the
stator and rotor are each constructed from numerous parts themselves. Rotors are
the high-speed rotating member of the two, and they undergo severe dynamic
mechanical loading as well as the electromagnetic and thermal loads. The most
critical component in the generator are the retaining rings, mounted on the rotor.
These components are very carefully designed for high-stress operation. The stator
is stationary, as the term suggests, but it also sees significant dynamic forces in
terms of vibration and torsional loads, as well as the electromagnetic, thermal, and
high-voltage loading. The most critical component of the stator is arguably the
stator winding because it is a very high cost item and it must be designed to handle
all of the harsh effects described above. Most stator problems occur with the
winding.

STATOR
The stator winding is made up of insulated copper conductor bars that are
distributed around the inside diameter of the stator core, commonly called the
stator bore, in equally spaced slots in the core to ensure symmetrical flux linkage
with the field produced by the rotor. Each slot contains two conductor bars, one on
top of the other. These are generally referred to as top and bottom bars. Top bars
are the ones nearest the slot opening (just under the wedge) and the bottom bars are
the ones at the slot bottom. The core area between slots is generally called a core
tooth.

Stator of a Turbo Generator

The stator winding is then divided into three phases, which are almost always wye
connected. Wye connection is done to allow a neural grounding point and for relay
protection of the winding. The three phases are connected to create symmetry
between them in the 360 degree arc of the stator bore. The distribution of the
winding is done in such a way as to produce a 120 degree difference in voltage
peaks from one phase to the other, hence the term "three-phase voltage." Each of
the three phases may have one or more parallel circuits within the phase. The
parallels can be connected in series or parallel, or a combination of both if it is a
four-pole generator. This will be discussed in the next section. The parallels in all
of the phases are essentially equal on average, in their performance in the machine.
Therefore, they each "see" equal voltage and current, magnitudes and phase angles,
when averaged over one alternating cycle.
The stator bars in any particular phase group are arranged such that there are
parallel paths, which overlap between top and bottom bars. The overlap is
staggered between top and bottom bars. The top bars on one side of the stator bore
are connected to the bottom bars on the other side of the bore in one direction
while the bottom bars are connected in the other direction on the opposite side of
the stator. This connection with the bars on the other side of the stator creates a
"reach" or "pitch" of a certain number of slots. The pitch is therefore the number
slots that the stator bars have to reach in the stator bore arc, separating the two bars
to be connected. This is always less than 180 degrees.
Once connected, the stator bars form a single coil or turn. The total width of the
overlapping parallels is called the "breadth." The combination of the pitch and
breadth create a "winding or distribution factor." The distribution factor is used to
minimize the harmonic content of the generated voltage. In the case of a two
parallel path winding, these may be connected in series or parallel outside the
stator bore, at the termination end of the generator. The connection type will
depend on a number of other design issues regarding current-carrying ability of the
copper in the winding.
In a two-parallel path, three-phase winding, alternating voltage is created by the
action of the rotor field as it moves past these windings. Since there is a plus and
minus, or north and south, to the rotating magnetic field, opposite polarity currents
flow on each side of the stator bore in the distributed winding.
The currents normally flowing in large turbo generators can be in the order of
thousands of amperes. Due to the very high currents, the conductor bars in a turbo
generator have a large cross-sectional area. In addition they are usually one single
turn per bar, as opposed to motors or small generators that have multiple turn bars
or coils. These stator or conductor bars are also very rigid and do not bend unless
significant force is exerted on them.

R OTOR
The rotor winding is installed in the slots machined in the forging main body and is
distributed symmetrically around the rotor between the poles. The winding itself is
made up of many turns of copper to form the entire series connected winding. All
of the turns associated with a single slot are generally called a coil. The coils are
wound into the winding slots in the forging, concentrically in corresponding
positions on opposite sides of a pole. The series connection essentially creates a
single multi-turn coil overall, that develops the total ampere-turns of the rotor
(which is the total current flowing in the rotor winding times the total number of
turns).
There are numerous copper-winding designs employed in generator rotors, but all
rotor windings function basically in the same way. They are configured differently
for different methods of heat removal during operation. In addition almost all large
turbo generators have directly cooled copper windings by air or hydrogen cooling
gas.

Rotor of a Turbo Generator

Cooling passages are provided within the conductors themselves to eliminate the
temperature drop across the ground insulation and preserve the life of the
insulation material.
In an "axially" cooled winding, the gas passes through axial passages in the
conductors, being fed from both ends, and exhausted to the air gap at the axial
center of the rotor. In other designs, "radial" passages in the stack of conductors are
fed from sub slots machined along the length of the rotor at the bottom of each slot.
In the "air gap pickup" method, the cooling gas is picked up from the air gap, and
cooling is accomplished over a relatively short length of the rotor, and then
discharged back to the air gap. The cooling of the end-regions of the winding
varies from design to design, as much as that of the slot section. In smaller turbine
generators the indirect cooling method is used (similar to indirectly cooled stator
windings), where the heat is removed by conduction through the ground insulation
to the rotor body.
The winding is held in place in the slots by wedges, in a similar manner as the
stator windings. The difference is that the rotor winding loading on the wedges is
far greater due to centrifugal forces at speed. The wedges therefore are subjected to
a tremendous static load from these forces and bending stresses because of the
rotation effects. The wedges in the rotor are not generally a tight fit in order to
accommodate the axial thermal expansion of the rotor winding during operation.
There are also many available designs and configurations for the end-winding
construction and ventilation methods. As in the rotor slots, the copper turns in the
end-winding must be isolated from one another so that they do not touch and create
shorts between turns. Therefore packing and blocking are used to keep the coils
separated, and in their relative position as the rotor winding expands from thermal
effects during operation. To restrain the end winding portion of the rotor winding
during high-speed operation, retaining-rings are employed to keep the copper coils
in place.

BEARINGS
All turbo generators require bearings to rotate freely with minimal friction and
vibration. The main rotor body must be supported by a bearing at each end of the
generator for this purpose. In some cases where the rotor shaft is very long at the
excitation end of the machine to accommodate the slip/collector rings, a "steady"
bearing is installed outboard of the slip-collector rings. This ensures that the
excitation end of the rotor shaft does not create a wobble that transmits through the
shaft and stimulates excessive vibration in the overall generator rotor or the turbo
generator line.
There are generally two common types of bearings employed in large generators,
"journal" and "tilting pad" bearings. Journal bearings are the most common. Both
require lubricating and jacking oil systems, which will be discussed later in the
book, under auxiliary systems.
When installing the bearings, they must be aligned in terms of height and angle to
ensure that the rotor "sits" in the bearing correctly. Such things as shaft "catinery"
must be considered and "pre-loading" or "shimming" of the bearings to account for
the difference when the rotor is at standstill and at speed. Getting any of these
things wrong in the assembly can cause the rotor to vibrate excessively and
damage either the rotor shaft or the bearing itself. Generally, a "wipe" of the
bearing running surface or "babbitt" results.

AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
All large generators require auxiliary systems to handle such things as lubricating
oil for the rotor bearings, hydrogen cooling apparatus, hydrogen sealing oil, de-
mineralized water for stator winding cooling, and excitation systems for field-
current application. Not all generators require all these systems and the
requirement depends on the size and nature of the machine. For instance, air cooled
turbo generators do not require hydrogen for cooling and therefore no sealing oil as
well. On the other hand, large generators with high outputs, generally above 400
MVA, have water-cooled stator windings, hydrogen for cooling the stator core and
rotor, seal oil to contain the hydrogen cooling gas under high pressure, lubricating
oil for the bearings, and of course, an excitation system for field current.
There are five major auxiliary systems that may be used in a generator. They are
given as follows:
1. Lubricating Oil System
2. Hydrogen Cooling System
3. Seal Oil System
4. Stator Cooling Water System
5. Excitation System

PROTECTION
The protection system of any modern electric power grid is the most crucial
function in the system. Protection is a system because it comprises discrete devices
(relays, communication means, etc.) and an algorithm that establishes a
coordinated method of operation among the protective devices. This is termed
coordination. Thus, for a protective system to operate correctly, both the settings of
the individual relays and the coordination among them must be right. Wrong
settings might result in no protection to the protected equipment and systems, and
improper coordination might result in unwarranted loss of production. The key
function of any protective system is to minimize the possibility of physical damage
to equipment due to a fault anywhere in the system or from abnormal operation of
the equipment (over speed, under voltage, etc.). However, the most critical
function of any protective scheme is to safeguard those persons who operate the
equipment that produces, transmits, and utilizes electricity.
Protective systems are inherently different from other systems in a power plant (or
for that matter any other place where electric power is present). They are called to
operate seldom, and when they are, it is crucial they do so flawlessly. One problem
that arises from protective systems being activated not often is that they are
sometimes overlooked. This is a recipe for disaster. The most common reason for
catastrophic failure of equipment in power systems is failure to operate or miss-
operation of protective systems.
Purchasing, installing, setting/coordinating, and properly maintaining protective
systems are not an insignificant expense. Therefore the extent any device or
electric circuit is protected depends on the potential cost of not doing so
adequately.
Electric power generators are most often the most critical electrical apparatus in
any power plant. In fact, given the electrical proximity between the generator and
the main step-up transformer (SUT), those two most important apparatuses share
some of the protective functions. Given the prohibited cost of replacing any of
these two, in particular, the generator, significant expense goes in providing the
most comprehensive protection coverage.
Protection is considered by many an art as much as a science. Although the basic
protective components are well known, and the commonly used settings for those
devices are spelled out in a number of standards and other widely available
literature, the particular combination of protective relays, settings, and
coordination schemes are particular to every site. Therefore it is impossible to
describe or prescribe a single protective system for generators. The description we
attempt here is on the most commonly encountered protection arrangements and
functions.
Protection systems can be divided into systems monitoring current, voltage (at the
machine's main terminals and excitation system), windings, and/or cooling media
temperature and pressure, and systems monitoring internal activity, such as partial
discharge, decomposition of organic insulation materials, water content, hydrogen
impurities, and flux probes. Protective functions acting on the current, voltage,
temperature, and pressure parameters are commonly referred to as primary
protection. The others are referred to as secondary protection or monitoring
devices. Secondary functions tend to be monitored real time, or on demand. For
instance, hydrogen purity is monitored on-line real time, while water content (for
water leaks) is not. Temperature detectors (RTDs or thermocouples) on bearings
(and sometimes in on windings) may be monitored on-line real time, or they may
not. Furthermore these functions may more often than not result in an alarm, rather
than directly trip the unit (e.g., core monitors). The discussion of where and when
to use these monitoring devices and how to set them is provided in. To the primary
protective functions monitoring currents, voltages, temperatures and pressures,
there can be added the mechanical protective function of vibration. Typically it
will alarm, but it can also be set to trip the unit. Protections function can also be
divided into short-circuit protection functions. The short-circuit protection
comprises impedance, distance, and current differential protection.

Multi-function Generator Protection Device

GENERATOR PROTECTIVE FUNCTION

Protection devices are designed to monitor certain conditions, and subsequently, to
alarm or trip if a specified condition is detected. The condition is represented by a
function or protective function code. Thus there is a relay for every protective
function. If a relay only monitors and thus protects against a single set of
conditions, it is said that the relay is a "single-function device". In the past most
relays were single-function devices. With the advent of solid-state electronics,
manufacturers have combined several functions in one unit or device.
These "multi-function" relays or protective devices offer specific protective
functions designed for certain types of apparatus. Some multi-function relays are
dedicated to transformers, others to motors, and others to generators. Advances in
solid-state electronics have led to less costly devices. Today a multi-function solid-
state device with, for instance, five protective functions, is less expensive than five
separate relays for five protective functions.
The number of functions covered by different relays and the number of
multifunction devices are decided, among other things, by the expected losses of
all the protective functions covered by the multi-functional relay, if that particular
device becomes faulty. A multi-functional relay containing all the protective
functions required for the protection of a generator can be combined with a few
discrete relays providing backup protection for critical functions. Alternatively,
two or more multi-functional relays can be applied, providing partial or
comprehensive redundancy. There are many combinations of these discrete and
multi-functional relays that can be adopted, depending on when the power plant
was build, the size of the units, system conditions, the idiosyncrasy of the designer,
and many other factors.
Relays or protection devices are divided into two categories according to how they
process data. The first category is that of analog relays; the second is that of
numerical (also called digital) relays. Bear in mind that a relay can be electronic
but still process the data in an analog manner. The advantages of numerical
processing are various. Accuracy is enhanced. So is flexibility in use. For instance,
a numerical relay offers user-shaped protection widows such that the user can
change the shape of the operation/non-operation areas for a specific function of the
relay. Furthermore the shape of the region of operation may change according to
system conditions (adaptive function).
Finally, there is rather a new—still evolving—approach (from the early 1990s) for
protecting large generating units by the so-called expert protection systems. The
idea is to protect the unit based not only on the basic protective functions (given
below), but also as a combination of protective and monitoring data and built-in
expertise in the form of diagnostic prescriptions. Invariably, building the expertise
base of these systems consists in expressing probable causes for a particular
combination of symptoms, expressed as a probabilistic tree.
A number, according to a worldwide-accepted nomenclature, identifies protective
functions. The functions shown in table are typical of generation protection. A
number of the functions included in table are so important that they will always
find their way into the protection scheme of any generator (e.g., 25, 59, and 87).
Others may be omitted in some applications (e.g., 49). The larger and more
expensive the generator and the more critical the application, the more intense is
the protection applied to protect it from abnormal operating conditions or faults.

51GNTable:
Time over current
Generator protection;
Protection backup
device for generator
Function Numbers ground faults
51TN Time over current protection; backup for ground faults
51V Voltage-controlled or voltage-restrained time over current protection;
backup for system and generator zone phase faults
59 Overvoltage protection
15Synchronizer21Distance protection; backup for system generator zone phase
faults24Volts/Hertz protection forprotection;
59BG Zero-sequence voltage ground fault protection
the generator25Sync-check for an
protection27Under
ungrounded bus
voltage32Reverse power protection; anti-motoring protection for generator (and
59GN Voltage protection; primary ground fault protection for a generator
associated
60 prime balance
Voltage mover)40Loss-of-field protection46Stator
protection; detection unbalanced
of blown potential current
transformer fuses
protection49Stator thermal protection50BInstantaneous
or otherwise open circuits over current protection used as
61 Time overcurrent
currentdetector
protection; detection of turn-to-turn
in a breaker-failure scheme faults in generator
windings
62B Breaker failure protection
64F Voltage protection; primary protection for rotor ground faults
78 Loss-of-synchronism protection; not commonly used as part of the
generator protection package
81 Over- and under frequency protection
86 Hand-reset lockout auxiliary relay
87B Differential protection. Primary phase-fault protection for the generator
87GN Sensitive ground fault protection for the generator
87T Differential protection for the transformer; may include the generator in
some protective schemes
87U Differential protection for overall unit protection of generator
and transformers
94 Self-reset auxiliary tripping relay
It is beyond the scope and purpose of this report to go into a detailed description of
each protective function and the various schemes that incorporate them into a
generator's protection package. Instead, a basic description of the protective
functions and their application will follow. For the same reason no specific values
are recommended for setting protective relays. These values oftentimes depend in
the particular machine and system to which it is connected. There are numerous
sources for information on the setting of protective relays. The vendors' manuals
are one good place to start. Various methods of Generator Protection are explained
further.

TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a static device consisting of a winding, or two or more coupled

windings, with or without a magnetic core, for inducing mutual coupling between
circuits. When an alternating current flows in a conductor, a magnetic field exists
around the conductor. If another conductor is placed in the field created by the first
conductor such that the flux lines link the second conductor, then a voltage is
induced into the second conductor. The use of a magnetic field from one coil to
induce a voltage into a second coil is the principle on which transformer theory and
application is based.
 A 220 kV Transformer at Power Plant
ANSI/IEEE defines a transformer as a static electrical device, involving no
continuously moving parts, used in electric power systems to transfer power
between circuits through the use of electromagnetic induction.
The transformer is one of the most reliable pieces of electrical distribution
equipment. It has no moving parts, requires minimal maintenance, and is capable
of withstanding overloads, surges, faults, and physical abuse that may damage or
destroy other items in the circuit. Often, the electrical event that burns up a motor,
opens a circuit breaker, or blows a fuse has a subtle effect on the transformer.
Although the transformer may continue to operate as before, repeat occurrences of
such damaging electrical events, or lack of even minimal maintenance can greatly
accelerate the eventual failure of the transformer.
The fact that a transformer continues to operate satisfactorily in spite of neglect
and abuse is a testament to its durability. However, this durability is no excuse for
not providing the proper care. Most of the effects of aging, faults, or abuse can be
detected and corrected by a comprehensive maintenance, inspection, and testing
program.
Transformers are exclusively used in electric power systems to transfer power by
electromagnetic induction between circuits at the same frequency, usually with
changed values of voltage and current. There are numerous types of transformers
used in various applications including audio, radio, instrument, and power. In
Badarpur Thermal Power Station, we deal exclusively with power transformer
applications involving the transmission and distribution of electrical power. Power
transformers are used extensively by traditional electric utility companies, power
plants, and industrial plants.
The term power transformer is used to refer to those transformers used between the
generator and the distribution circuits, and these are usually rated at 220 kVA and
above. Power systems typically consist of a large number of generation locations,
distribution points, and interconnections within the system or with nearby systems,
such as a neighboring utility. The complexity of the system leads to a variety of
transmission and distribution voltages. Power transformers must be used at each of
these points where there is a transition between voltage levels. Power transformers
are selected based on the application, with the emphasis toward custom design
being more apparent the larger the unit. Power transformers are available for step-
up operation, primarily used at the generator and referred to as generator step-up
(GSU) transformers, and for step-down operation, mainly used to feed distribution

A Power Transformer at a Thermal Power

Plant
circuits. Power transformers are available as single-phase or three-phase apparatus.

CONSTRUCTION
A power transformer is a device that changes (transforms) an alternating voltage
and current from one level to another. Power transformers are used to "step up"
(transform) the voltages that are produced at generation to levels that are suitable
for transmission (higher voltage, lower current). Conversely, a transformer is used
to "step down" (transform) the higher transmission voltages to levels that are
suitable for use at various facilities (lower voltage, higher current). Electric power
can undergo numerous transformations between the source and the final end use
point.
• Voltages must be stepped-up for transmission. Every conductor, no matter how
large, will lose an appreciable amount of power (watts) to its resistance (R)
when a current (T) passes through it. This loss is expressed as a function of the
applied current (P=I2R). Because this loss is dependent on the current, and since
the power to be transmitted is a function of the applied volts (E) times the amps
(P=IE), significant savings can be obtained by stepping the voltage up to a
higher voltage level, with the corresponding reduction of the current value.
Whether 100 amps is to be transmitted at 100 volts (P=IE, 100 amps X 100
volts = 10,000 watts) or 10 amps is to be transmitted at 1,000 volts (P=IE, 10
amps X 1,000 volts = 10,000 watts) the same 10,000 watts will be applied to the
beginning of the transmission line.
• If the transmission distance is long enough to produce 0.1 ohm of resistance
across the transmission cable, P=I2R, (100 amp)2 X 0.1 ohm = 1,000 watts will
be lost across the transmission line at the 100 volt transmission level. The 1000
volts transmission level will create a loss of P=I2R, (10 amp)2 X 0.1 ohm = 10
watts. This is where transformers play an important role.
• Although power can be transmitted more efficiently at higher voltage levels,
sometimes as high as 500 or 750 thousand volts (kV), the devices and networks
at the point of utilization are rarely capable of handling voltages above 32,000
volts. Voltage must be "stepped down" to be utilized by the various devices
available. By adjusting the voltages to the levels necessary for the various end
use and distribution levels, electric power can be used both efficiently and
safely.
• All power transformers have three basic parts, a primary winding, secondary
winding, and a core. Even though little more than an air space is necessary to
insulate an "ideal" transformer, when higher voltages and larger amounts of
power are involved, the insulating material becomes an integral part of the
transformer's operation. Because of this, the insulation system is often
considered the fourth basic part of the transformer. It is important to note that,
although the windings and core deteriorate very little with age, the insulation
can be subjected to severe stresses and chemical deterioration. The insulation
deteriorates at a relatively rapid rate, and its condition ultimately determines the
service life of the transformer.

Core
The core, which provides the magnetic path to channel the flux, consists of thin
strips of high-grade steel, called laminations, which are electrically separated by a
thin coating of insulating material. The strips can be stacked or wound, with the
windings either built integrally around the core or built separately and assembled
around the core sections. Core steel can be hot- or cold-rolled, grain-oriented or
non grain oriented, and even laser-scribed for additional performance. Thickness
ranges from 0.23 mm to upwards of 0.36 mm. The core cross section can be
circular or rectangular, with circular cores commonly referred to as cruciform
construction. Rectangular cores are used for smaller ratings and as auxiliary
transformers used within a power transformer. Rectangular cores use a single
width of strip steel, while circular cores use a combination of different strip widths
to approximate a circular cross-section. The type of steel and arrangement depends
on the transformer rating as related to cost factors such as labor and performance.
Just like other components in the transformer, the heat generated by the core must
be adequately dissipated. While the steel and coating may be capable of
withstanding higher temperatures, it will come in contact with insulating materials
with limited temperature capabilities. In larger units, cooling ducts are used inside
the core for additional convective surface area, and sections of laminations may be
split to reduce localized losses.
The core is held together by, but insulated from, mechanical structures and is
grounded to a single point in order to dissipate electrostatic buildup. The core
ground location is usually some readily accessible point inside the tank, but it can
also be brought through a bushing on the tank wall or top for external access. This
grounding point should be removable for testing purposes, such as checking for
unintentional core grounds. Multiple core grounds, such as a case whereby the core
is inadvertently making contact with otherwise grounded internal metallic
mechanical structures, can provide a path for circulating currents induced by the
main flux as well as a leakage flux, thus creating concentrations of losses that can
result in localized heating.
The maximum flux density of the core steel is normally designed as close to the
knee of the saturation curve as practical, accounting for required over excitations
and tolerances that exist due to materials and manufacturing processes. For power
transformers the flux density is typically between 1.3 T and 1.8 T, with the
saturation point for magnetic steel being around 2.03 T to 2.05 T.
There are two basic types of core construction used in power transformers: core
form and shell form.
• In core-form construction, there is a single path for the magnetic circuit. For
single-phase applications, the windings are typically divided on both core legs
 as shown. In three-phase applications, the windings of a particular phase are
typically on the same core leg. Windings are constructed separate of the core
and placed on their respective core legs during core assembly.

Schematic Diagram of Shell-form Construction

In shell-form construction, the core provides multiple paths for the magnetic
circuit. The core is typically stacked directly around the windings, which are
usually "pancake"-type windings, although some applications are such that the core
and windings are assembled similar to core form. Due to advantages in short-
circuit and transient-voltage performance, shell forms tend to be used more
frequently in the largest transformers, where conditions can be more severe.

Schematic Diagram of Shell-form

Construction
Variations of three-phase shell-form construction include five and seven-legged
cores, depending on size and application.

Windings
The windings consist of the current-carrying conductors wound around the sections
of the core, and these must be properly insulated, supported, and cooled to
withstand operational and test conditions.
Copper and aluminum are the primary materials used as conductors in power-
transformer windings. While aluminum is lighter and generally less expensive than
copper, a larger cross section of aluminum conductor must be used to carry a
current with similar performance as copper. Copper has higher mechanical strength
and is used almost exclusively in all but the smaller size ranges, where aluminum
conductors may be perfectly acceptable. In cases where extreme forces are
encountered, materials such as silver-bearing copper can be used for even greater
strength. The conductors used in power transformers are typically stranded with a
rectangular cross section, although some transformers at the lowest ratings may use
sheet or foil conductors. Multiple strands can be wound in parallel and joined
together at the ends of the winding, in which case it is necessary to transpose the
strands at various points throughout the winding to prevent circulating currents
around the loop(s) created by joining the strands at the ends. Individual strands
may be subjected to differences in the flux field due to their respective positions
within the winding, which create differences in voltages between the strands and
drive circulating currents through the conductor loops. Proper transposition of the
strands cancels out these voltage differences and eliminates or greatly reduces the
circulating currents. A variation of this technique, involving many rectangular
conductor strands combined into a cable, is called continuously transposed cable
(CTC).
In core-form transformers, the windings are usually arranged concentrically around
the core leg, which shows a winding being lowered over another winding already
on the core leg of a three-phase transformer. Shell-form transformers use a similar
concentric arrangement or an interleaved arrangement.
With an interleaved arrangement, individual coils are stacked, separated by
insulating barriers and cooling ducts. The coils are typically connected with the
inside of one coil connected to the inside of an adjacent coil and, similarly, the
outside of one coil connected to the outside of an adjacent coil. Sets of coils are
assembled into groups, which then form the primary or secondary winding.
When considering concentric windings, it is generally understood that circular
windings have inherently higher mechanical strength than rectangular windings,
whereas rectangular coils can have lower associated material and labor costs.
Rectangular windings permit a more efficient use of space, but their use is limited
to small power transformers and the lower range of medium-power transformers,
where the internal forces are not extremely high. As the rating increases, the forces
significantly increase, and there is need for added strength in the windings, so
circular coils, or shell-form construction, is used.
In some special cases, elliptically shaped windings are used. Concentric coils are
typically wound over cylinders with spacers attached so as to form a duct between
the conductors and the cylinder. As previously mentioned, the flow of liquid
through the windings can be based solely on natural convection, or the flow can be
somewhat controlled through the use of strategically placed barriers within the
winding. This concept is sometimes referred to as guided liquid flow.
A variety of different types of windings have been used in power transformers
through the years. Coils can be wound in an upright, vertical orientation, as is
necessary with larger, heavier coils; or they can be wound horizontally and placed
upright upon completion. As mentioned previously, the type of winding depends
on the transformer rating as well as the core construction. Several of the more
common winding types are discussed further.

1. Pancake Windings
Several types of windings are commonly referred to as "pancake" windings due to
the arrangement of conductors into discs. However, the term most often refers to a
coil type that is used almost exclusively in shell-form transformers. The conductors
are wound around a rectangular form, with the widest face of the conductor
oriented either horizontally or vertically. This type of winding lends itself to the
interleaved arrangement previously discussed.

2. Disc Windings
A disc winding can involve a single strand or several strands of insulated conductors
wound in a series of parallel discs of horizontal orientation, with the discs connected at
either the inside or outside as a crossover point. Each disc comprises multiple turns
wound over other turns, with the crossovers alternating between inside and outside. Most
windings of 25-kV class and above used in core form transformers are disc type. Given
the high voltages involved in test and operation, particular attention is required to avoid
high stresses between discs and turns near the end of the winding when subjected to
transient voltage surges. Numerous techniques have been developed to ensure an
acceptable voltage distribution along the winding under these conditions.

3. Helical Windings
Helical windings are also referred to as screw or spiral windings, with each term
accurately characterizing the coil's construction. A helical winding consists of a few to
more than 100 insulated strands wound in parallel continuously along the length of the
cylinder, with spacers inserted between adjacent turns or discs and suitable transpositions
included to minimize circulating currents between parallel strands. The manner of
construction is such that the coil resembles a corkscrew. Helical windings are used for the
higher-current applications frequently encountered in the lower-voltage classes.

4. Layer (Barrel) Windings

Layer (barrel) windings are among the simplest of windings in that the insulated
conductors are wound directly next to each other around the cylinder and spacers. Several
layers can be wound on top of one another, with the layers separated by solid insulation,
ducts, or a combination. Several strands can be wound in parallel if the current magnitude
so dictates. Variations of this winding are often used for applications such as tap
windings used in load-tap-changing (LTC) transformers and for tertiary windings used
for, among other things, third-harmonic suppression.

CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

This division basically calibrates various instruments and takes care of any faults
occur in any of the auxiliaries in the plant.

This department is the brain of the plant because from the relays to transmitters
followed by the electronic computation chipsets and recorders and lastly the
controlling circuitry, all fall under this.

Instrumentation can be well defined as a technology of using instruments to

measure and control the physical and chemical properties of a material.

Control and instrumentation has following labs:

1. Manometry lab
2. Protection and interlocks lab
3. Automation lab
4. Electronics lab
5. Water treatment plant
6. Furnaces Safety Supervisory System Lab

1. Manometry lab
• Transmitters- Transmitter is used for pressure measurements of gases and liquids,
its working principle is that the input pressure is converted into electrostatic
capacitance and from there it is conditioned and amplified. It gives an output of 4-
20 ma DC. It can be mounted on a pipe or a wall. For liquid or steam measurement
transmitters is mounted below main process piping and for gas measurement
transmitter is placed above pipe.
• Manometer- It’s a tube which is bent, in U shape. It is filled with a liquid. This
device corresponds to a difference in pressure across the two limbs.
• Bourden Pressure Gauge- It’s an oval section tube. Its one end is fixed. It is
provided with a pointer to indicate the pressure on a calibrated scale. It is of two
 types : (a) Spiral type : for low pressure measurement and (b) Helical type : for
high pressure measurement

2. Protection and Interlock Lab

• Interlocking- It is basically interconnecting two or more equipments so that if one
equipments fails other one can perform the tasks. This type of interdependence is
also created so that equipments connected together are started and shut down in
the specific sequence to avoid damage. For protection of equipments tripping are
provided for all the equipments. Tripping can be considered as the series of
instructions connected through OR GATE. When The main equipments of this lab
are relay and circuit breakers. Some of the instrument uses for protection are: 1.
RELAY It is a protective device. It can detect wrong condition in electrical
circuits by constantly measuring the electrical quantities flowing under normal and
faulty conditions. Some of the electrical quantities are voltage, current, phase
angle and velocity. 2. FUSES It is a short piece of metal inserted in the circuit,
which melts when heavy current flows through it and thus breaks the circuit.
Usually silver is used as a fuse material because: a) The coefficient of expansion
of silver is very small. As a result no critical fatigue occurs and thus the
continuous full capacity normal current ratings are assured for the long time. b)
The conductivity of the silver is unimpaired by the surges of the current that
produces temperatures just near the melting point. c) Silver fusible elements can
be raised from normal operating temperature to vaporization quicker than any
other material because of its comparatively low specific heat.
• Miniature Circuit Breaker- They are used with combination of the control circuits
to. a) Enable the staring of plant and distributors. b) Protect the circuit in case of a
fault. In consists of current carrying contacts, one movable and other fixed. When
a fault occurs the contacts separate and are is stuck between them. There are three
types of -MANUAL TRIP - THERMAL TRIP - SHORT CIRCUIT TRIP.
 • Protection and Interlock System- 1. HIGH TENSION CONTROL CIRCUIT For
high tension system the control system are excited by separate D.C supply. For
starting the circuit conditions should be in series with the starting coil of the
equipment to energize it. Because if even a single condition is not true then system
will not start. 2. LOW TENSION CONTROL CIRCUIT For low tension system
the control circuits are directly excited from the 0.415 KV A.C supply. The same
circuit achieves both excitation and tripping. Hence the tripping coil is provided
for emergency tripping if the interconnection fails.

3. Automation Lab

This lab deals in automating the existing equipment and feeding routes. Earlier,

the old technology dealt with only (DAS) Data Acquisition System and came to be
known as primary systems. The modern technology or the secondary systems are
coupled with (MIS) Management Information System. But this lab universally
applies the pressure measuring instruments as the controlling force. However, the
relays are also provided but they are used only for protection and interlocks.

4. Pyrometry Lab

• Liquid in glass thermometer - Mercury in the glass thermometer boils at 340

degree Celsius which limits the range of temperature that can be measured. It is L
shaped thermometer which is designed to reach all inaccessible places.
• Ultra violet censor- This device is used in furnace and it measures the intensity of
ultra violet rays there and according to the wave generated which directly indicates
the temperature in the furnace.
 • Thermocouples - This device is based on SEEBACK and PELTIER effect. It
comprises of two junctions at different temperature. Then the emf is induced in the
circuit due to the flow of electrons. This is an important part in the plant.
• RTD(Resistance temperature detector) - It performs the function of thermocouple
basically but the difference is of a resistance. In this due to the change in the
resistance the temperature difference is measured. In this lab, also the measuring
devices can be calibrated in the oil bath or just boiling water (for low range
devices) and in small furnace (for high range devices).

5. Furnace Safety and Supervisory System Lab

This lab has the responsibility of starting fire in the furnace to enable the burning
of coal. For first stage coal burners are in the front and rear of the furnace and for
the second and third stage corner firing is employed. Unburnt coal is removed
using forced draft or induced draft fan. The temperature inside the boiler is 1100
degree Celsius and its height is 18 to 40 m. It is made up of mild steel. An ultra
violet sensor is employed in furnace to measure the intensity of ultra violet rays
inside the furnace and according to it a signal in the same order of same mV is
generated which directly indicates the temperature of the furnace. For firing the
furnace a 10 KV spark plug is operated for ten seconds over a spray of diesel fuel
and pre-heater air along each of the feeder-mills. The furnace has six feeder mills
each separated by warm air pipes fed from forced draft fans. In first stage indirect
firing is employed that is feeder mills are not fed directly from coal but are fed
from three feeders but are fed from pulverized coalbunkers. The furnace can
operate on the minimum feed from three feeders but under not circumstances
should any one be left out under operation, to prevent creation of pressure
different with in the furnace, which threatens to blast it.
6. Electronics Lab

This lab undertakes the calibration and testing of various cards. It houses various
types of analytical instruments like oscilloscopes, integrated circuits, cards auto
analyzers etc.Various processes undertaken in this lab are: 1. Transmitter converts
mV to mA. 2. Auto analyzer purifies the sample before it is sent to electrodes. It
extracts the magnetic portion.
 CONTROL AND MONITORING
MECHANISMS

There are basically two types of Problems faced in a Power Plant

 Metallurgical
 Mechanical
Mechanical Problemcan be related to Turbines that is the max speed permissible
for a turbine is 3000 rpm , so speed should be monitored and maintained at that
level. Metallurgical Problem can be view as the max Inlet Temperature for Turbile
is 1060 oC so temperature should be below the limit.Monitoring of all the
parameters is necessary for the safety of both:

 Employees
 Machines
So the Parameters to be monitored are :

 Speed
 Temperature
 Current
 Voltage
 Pressure
 Eccentricity
 Flow of Gases
 Vaccum Pressure
 Valves
 Level
  Vibration

PRESSURE MONITORING

Pressure can be monitored by three types of basic mechanisms

 Switches
 Gauges
 Transmitter type

For gauges we use Bourden tubes : The Bourdon Tube is a non liquid pressure
measurement device. It is widely used in applications where inexpensive static
pressure measurements are needed.

A typical Bourdon tube contains a curved tube that is open to external pressure
input on one end and is coupled mechanically to an indicating needle on the other
end, as shown schematically below.

Typical Bourdon Tube Pressure Gages

For Switches pressure swithes are used and they can be used for digital means of
monitoring as swith being ON is referred as high and being OFF is as low.All the
monitored data is converted to either Current or Voltage parameter.

The Plant standard for current and voltage are as under

• Voltage : 0 – 10 Volts range

• Current : 4 – 20 milliAmperes
We use 4mA as the lower value so as to check for disturbances and wire breaks.

Accuracy of such systems is very high .

ACCURACY : + - 0.1 %

The whole system used is SCADA baseD.

Programmable Logic Circuits ( PLCs) are used in the process as they are the heardt
of Instrumentation .
Pressure
Electricity
Start HL switch Level low
Pressure in line LevelAN
High
D

High level
LL switch
pump Electricity
Stop
OR
Pressure

Electricity

BASIC PRESSURE CONTROL MECHANISM

 TEMPERATURE MONITORING

We can use Thernocouples or RTDs for temperature monitoring. Normally RTDs are
used for low temperatures.

Thermocoupkle selection depends upon two factors:

 Temperature Range
 Accuracy Required
Normally used Thermocouple is K Type Thermocouple:

Chromel (Nickel-Chromium Alloy) / Alumel (Nickel-Aluminium Alloy)

This is the most commonly used general purpose thermocouple. It is inexpensive and,
owing to its popularity, available in a wide variety of probes. They are available in the
−200 °C to +1200 °C range. Sensitivity is approximately 41 µV/°C.RTDs are also used
but not in protection systems due to vibrational errors.

We pass a constant curre t through the RTD. So that if R changes then the Voltage also
changes

RTDs used in Industries are Pt100 and Pt1000

Pt100 : 0 0C – 100 Ω ( 1 Ω = 2.5 0C )

Pt1000 : 0 0C - 1000Ω

Pt1000 is used for higher accuracy

The gauges used for Temperature measurements are mercury filled Temperature gauges.

For Analog medium thermocouples are used. And for Digital medium Switches are used
which are basically mercury switches.

FLOW MEASUREMENT

Flow measurement does not signify much and is measured just for metering
purposes and for monitoring the processes

ROTAMETERS:

A Rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed
tube. It is occasionally misspelled as 'rotometer'.

It belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters, which measure flow rate
by allowing the cross sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing some
measurable effect.

A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float inside
that is pushed up by flow and pulled down by gravity. At a higher flow rate more
area (between the float and the tube) is needed to accommodate the flow, so the
float rises. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and spherical
ellipses being the most common. The float is shaped so that it rotates axially as the
fluid passes. This allows you to tell if the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it
is not.

For Digital measurements Flap system is used.

For Analog measurements we can use the following methods :

 Flowmeters
 Venurimeters / Orifice meters
 Turbines
 Massflow meters ( oil level )
 Ultrasonic Flow meters
 Magnetic Flowmeter ( water level )
Selection of flow meter depends upon the purpose , accuracy and liquid to be
measured so different types of meters used.

Turbine type are the simplest of all.They work on the principle that on each
rotation of the turbine a pulse is generated and that pulse is counted to get the flow
rate.
 CONTROL VALVES

A valve is a device that regulates the flow of substances (either gases, fluidized solids,
slurries, or liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways.
Valves are technically pipe fittings, but usually are discussed separately.

Valves are used in a variety of applications including industrial, military, commercial,

residential, transportation. Plumbing valves are the most obvious in everyday life, but
many more are used.

Some valves are driven by pressure only, they are mainly used for safety purposes in
steam engines and domestic heating or cooking appliances. Others are used in a
controlled way, like in Otto cycle engines driven by a camshaft, where they play a major
role in engine cycle control.

Many valves are controlled manually with a handle attached to the valve stem. If the
handle is turned a quarter of a full turn (90°) between operating positions, the valve is
called a quarter-turn valve. Butterfly valves, ball valves, and plug valves are often
quarter-turn valves. Valves can also be controlled by devices called actuators attached to
the stem. They can be electromechanical actuators such as an electric motor or solenoid,
pneumatic actuators which are controlled by air pressure, or hydraulic actuators which
are controlled by the pressure of a liquid such as oil or water.

So there are basically three types of valves that are used in power industries besides the
handle valves. They are :

• Pneumatic Valves – they are air or gas controlled which is compressed to turn
or move them
• Hydraulic valves – they utilize oil in place of Air as oil has better compression
• Motorised valves – these valves are controlled by electric motors
 Automatic Control System Lab
This lab deals in automating the equpiment and feeding routes. The automatic
control system provides safe operation under all plant disturbance and component
failure.

This lab universally applies the pressure measuring instrument as the controlling
force. Once the measured quantity is common like pressure, the control circuit can
easily be designed with single chip having multiple applications. In the plant all
control instruments are excited by 24 V DC supply (4.20 mA).

The systems installed here in btps are Old Russian systems, these are ACS
(Automated Controlled System), which are slowly being replaced by DCS (Digital
Controlled System). In the present ACS systems Most of the decision mking hs to
be done manually like opening or closing of any pressure valve etc.

RMC or Reversable Magnetic Contactor can work on 24 VDC as well as on 220

VAC, it has the ability to reverse the phase thus reversing the direction of
operation.

A Simple Circuit: 4-20 mA 4-20 mA 1-5 V

24 V DC Transmittor 71 E 01 E ME44

250 ohm grounded

Receiver

Card Functions

A few card functions are given below :

20R Scaling and biasing card

06R Summarizer and subtraction

71E Low current detectors

01E Current to voltage converter

74R Root card

76R Isolating card

ME44 Multiple and divider card