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A Technical Guide for Connection of

Embedded Generators to the Distribution


Network
Econnect & ILEX
November 1998

Econnect Ltd.
5 Cattle Market
Hexham
Northumberland
NE46 1LS
Tel: 01434 601545
Fax: 01434 609080
email: econnect@enterprise.net

ILEX Associates
King Charles House
Park End Street
Oxford
OX1 1JD
Tel: 01865 722660
Fax: 01865 722988
email: energy.consult@ilex.co.uk

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Contents

1. INTRODUCTION 7

1.1. The Guide 7


1.1.1. Who is this Guide for? 7
1.1.2. What is the aim of the Guide? 7
1.1.3. What is not covered in the Guide? 8

1.2. Clarification of key terms 8


1.2.1. What is an embedded generator? 8
1.2.2. What is a PES? 8
1.2.3. What is a connection? 9

2. SUMMARY - THE QUICK GUIDE 10

2.1. What needs to be done? 10


2.1.1. Agreements between the developer and the PES 10
2.1.2. Getting new connection infrastructure built 10

2.2. Connection costs and timescales 11

3. OVERVIEW OF THE UK ELECTRICITY SUPPLY INDUSTRY 13

3.1. Commercial and regulatory issues 13


3.1.1. The commercial structure of the industry 13
3.1.2. The Pool 13
3.1.3. The Master Connection and Use of System Agreement 14
3.1.4. The Electricity Act 14
3.1.5. Regulation and licensing 15

3.2. Technical description 17


3.2.1. Generation, transmission and distribution 17
3.2.2. Control of System Frequency 17
3.2.3. Interconnected electricity networks 17
3.2.4. Protection in distribution networks 18
3.2.5. Distribution network planning 20
3.2.6. Control and operation of the distribution network 20

4. STATUTORY FRAMEWORK FOR CONNECTION OF EMBEDDED


GENERATORS 21

4.1. The PES Licences 21


4.1.1. Transparency of connection charges and provision of network information 21
4.1.2. Non-discrimination in the provision of connections 22
4.1.3. Requirement to offer terms for connection 22
4.1.4. Resolution of disputes 22

4.2. The Distribution Codes 23


4.2.1. Provision of generator information 23
4.2.2. Requirements for the design of the generator installation 24

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4.3. The Grid Codes 25
4.3.1. The Grid Code in England and Wales 25
4.3.2. The Grid Codes in Scotland 26

5. CONNECTION APPLICATIONS, COSTS AND CHARGES 27

5.1. Costs of connection infrastructure 27

5.2. Basis of PES connection charges 28


5.2.1. Initial costs and O&M costs 28
5.2.2. Extension costs and reinforcement costs 28
5.2.3. Return on investment 28
5.2.4. Allocation of costs 28

5.3. Other charges 29


5.3.1. Distribution use-of-system charges 29
5.3.2. Top-up and stand-by charges 29
5.3.3. Metering and data management charges 29
5.3.4. Charges for use of the NGC transmission system 29

5.4. Multiple applications 30


5.4.1. Bagging network capacity 30
5.4.2. Sharing costs between generation schemes 30

5.5. Renewables order applications 31

6. COMPETITION IN CONNECTIONS 32

6.1. PES connections 32

6.2. Third party connections 32


6.2.1. Contestable Work and Non-Contestable Work 32
6.2.2. Contractor approval 33
6.2.3. Adoption agreements 33
6.2.4. Practicalities of third party connections 33

7. EMBEDDED GENERATORS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON DISTRIBUTION


NETWORKS 35

7.1. Characteristics of generating plant 35


7.1.1. Size and rating 35
7.1.2. Export level 35
7.1.3. Characteristics of generation technologies 35

7.2. Effects of generators on distribution networks 36


7.2.1. System or network studies 36
7.2.2. Thermal ratings 37
7.2.3. Voltage control issues 38
7.2.4. Fault level contribution 38
7.2.5. Reverse power flows 38
7.2.6. Voltage flicker 39
7.2.7. Harmonics 39
7.2.8. Voltage and Current Unbalance 39

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8. PROTECTION, EARTHING AND SAFETY 41

8.1. Agreement of earthing and protection design 41


8.1.1. Who is the customer? 41

8.2. Protection 41
8.2.1. Switchgear 41
8.2.2. Short circuit protection 42
8.2.3. G59 protection 42
8.2.4. G75 protection 43
8.2.5. Auxiliary supplies 43

8.3. Site earthing 44


8.3.1. Site earth electrode 44
8.3.2. PES neutral to earth connection 44
8.3.3. Customers neutral to earth connections 44
8.3.4. Seperation or bonding of HV and LV earths 44
8.3.5. Hot sites 45
8.3.6. Equipotential bonding 45

8.4. Safety issues 45


8.4.1. Emergency trip button 45
8.4.2. Isolation and earthing 45

9. GETTING CONNECTED 47

9.1. The design phase 47


9.1.1. Data gathering 47
9.1.2. Informal contacts with the PES 47
9.1.3. Request network data 47
9.1.4. Provide data about the generation scheme 47
9.1.5. Agree preliminary connection scheme 48
9.1.6. Establish connection budget 48
9.1.7. Make connection application 48
9.1.8. Agree single line diagram 48

9.2. Planning and wayleaving activities 48


9.2.1. Planning 48
9.2.2. Wayleaving 49
9.2.3. Review point of supply 49
9.2.4. Starting negotiations 49

9.3. The build phase 49


9.3.1. Project management 49
9.3.2. Civil works 50
9.3.3. Customer works and equipment 50
9.3.4. Earthing 50
9.3.5. Telecommunications 50
9.3.6. Metering 51

9.4. Documentation 51
9.4.1. Nomenclature 51
9.4.2. Health and Safety File 51
9.4.3. Responsibility schedule 51
9.4.4. Contact details 51

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9.4.5. Protection settings 51
9.4.6. Site safety rules and safe working procedures 51
9.4.7. Hand-over certificates 51
9.4.8. Connection agreement 52

9.5. Testing and commissioning phase 52


9.5.1. Clearance certificates 52
9.5.2. Safe working areas, procedures and warning notices 52
9.5.3. Pre-commissioning tests 52
9.5.4. Energisation 52
9.5.5. Commissioning 52

9.6. Operation 52
9.6.1. Provision of personnel 52
9.6.2. Posting of notices/information 52
9.6.3. Safe working procedures and personnel 53
9.6.4. Future modifications 53

10. GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 54

11. INDEX 57

12. APPENDIX A - TYPICAL NETWORK INFORMATION FROM A PES 59

13. APPENDIX B - CHECKLISTS 60

14. APPENDIX C - PES NETWORKS 63

15. APPENDIX D - POWER FACTOR AND REACTIVE POWER 64

16. APPENDIX E - FAULT LEVELS 68

17. APPENDIX F - STANDARDS AND OTHER DOCUMENTS 70

17.1. Technical standards and codes of practice 70


17.1.1. British and European standards 70
17.1.2. Electricity Association Reports and Recommendations 70
17.1.3. Metering codes of practice 70

17.2. Grid Codes and Distribution Codes 71

17.3. Guidance documents for health and safety 71

17.4. Acts of Parliament and Statutory Instruments 71

17.5. Technical reference texts 72

18. APPENDIX G - CONTACT DETAILS FOR ORGANISATIONS 73

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18.1. PESs 73

18.2. Other organisations 75

1.

6
Introduction

1.1. The Guide

1.1.1. Who is this Guide for?


This Guide is intended to help people who are planning to set up electricity generation
schemes connected to the UKs national electricity network. More specifically, it provides
information about the statutory requirements and the technical issues relating to the
connection of embedded generators. This is the term used in the UK to describe
generators which are connected to local electricity distribution networks. It applies to most
electricity generation schemes, with the exception of very large power stations. As a rule,
the following types of generation schemes will be embedded generators:

Renewable energy schemes


Waste to energy schemes
On-site generation and CHP schemes
Peak lopping schemes using back-up generators

In the Guide, the person or organisation aiming to develop an electricity generation


scheme is referred to as the developer. Getting a generation scheme connected to the
local distribution network involves a lot of communication between the developer and the
company responsible for the operation and maintenance of the network. In England and
Wales, this company is the local Regional Electricity Company (REC), whereas in
Scotland it is one of the two Scottish electricity companies, ScottishPower and Hydro-
Electric. All of these companies hold statutory Public Electricity Supply licences, and for
this reason they are known collectively as Public Electricity Suppliers, or PESs.

Developers planning to set up generation schemes in Scotland should note that the
Scottish regulatory framework for embedded generators differs in some respects from the
framework in England and Wales. Where these differences occur, information relating to
the Scottish system is highlighted in the Guide using underlined text - like this paragraph.

1.1.2. What is the aim of the Guide?


The main aim of the Guide is to provide a route-map of the process of getting a
generation scheme connected to the network. As mentioned earlier, this process involves
negotiations and agreements between the developer and the local PES. This process is
more likely to be successful if the parties can communicate effectively and understand
each others concerns. So, in addition to its main aim of providing a route-map of the
process, the Guide has a number of subsidiary aims:

To provide background information about the electricity industry


To explain some of the jargon commonly used in the industry
To describe the main factors affecting connection costs and timescales
To explain the technical issues that commonly crop up during connection negotiations
To explain the different contracts that relate to the connection

Every embedded generation scheme has a unique set of technical and commercial
circumstances, so it is not really possible to provide specific guidelines and solutions for
the design of connection arrangements. Instead, the Guide is intended to give the reader
a general understanding of the issues which affect the design and cost of connections for
embedded generators.

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1.1.3. What is not covered in the Guide?
In addition to the problem of getting a network connection, the developer of an electricity
generation scheme has to address many other problems in order to get the scheme up
and running. Some of these other problems are listed here:

Designing, installing and operating the generator installation


Buying and selling electricity
Planning the project
Financing the project
Resolving local planning issues

These issues are outside the scope of this Guide.

1.2. Clarification of key terms

1.2.1. What is an embedded generator?


An electricity generation scheme is classed as an embedded generator if it is intended to
operate while electrically connected to a PESs distribution network. This mode of
operation is sometimes referred to as mains paralleling, as the generator operates while
connected in parallel with the mains electricity supply. The generator may be directly
connected to the PESs network (figure 1.1a), or indirectly connected via a privately-
owned network (figure 1.1b). It may export power into the PESs network (figure 1.2a), or
just offset part of a large on-site demand (figure 1.2b). In all of these cases, the generator
operates in parallel with the mains supply, so the operator must comply with the statutory
requirements applying to embedded generators.

1.2.2. What is a PES?


A PES (Public Electricity Supplier) is a company which is responsible for the operation
and maintenance of a public electricity distribution network. ScottishPower, Hydro-Electric
and the twelve Regional Electricity Companies of England and Wales all hold Public
Electricity Supply licences, so they are all PESs. However, these companies also have
other areas of business, and so each company is divided into a number of notionally
seperate businesses.

The part of the company which is responsible for the operation and maintenance of the
local distribution network is often referred to as the distribution business, or sometimes as
the wires business. This business is in a monopoly position with regard to the provision of
access to the distribution network in its region. To ensure that the PES does not abuse
this position, the distribution business is subject to regulation which is designed to provide
a level playing field for new and existing customers seeking to make use of the
distribution network. Note that PES distribution businesses often use the term customers
to refer to generators as well as consumers of electricity.

The other PES businesses operate in areas of activity where there are competitive
pressures, and they are therefore not subject to the same level of regulation as the
distribution business. Each PES has a supply business, which buys electricity from
generators and sells it on to consumers. Most PESs have generation businesses, which
may be involved in developing schemes for renewable electricity generation or CHP.
Some PESs have also set up seperate connection businesses, which act as contractors
for the installation of new connection infrastructure.

In some recent cases, there has been some confusion over the role of PES connection
businesses in relation to the provision of new connections for embedded generators. The
proper role of these businesses is quite straightforward (see figure 1.3). The provision of

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the connection is the subject of a contractual agreement between the developer and the
PES distribution business. The distribution business may choose to contract with the
connection business for the installation of the connection infrastructure. However, there is
no direct contractual relationship between the developer and the connection business.

To discuss the connection of a planned embedded generation scheme, the developer


should therefore establish and maintain clear lines of communication with the appropriate
personnel in the PES distribution business. It is this business which is responsible for
planning the development of the network and for engineering new connections.
Furthermore, the distribution business is subject to regulations requiring them to provide
technical information about the distribution network, and to offer terms for providing a
connection. Thus, where this Guide refers to dialogue between the developer and the
PES, this will usually mean dialogue between the developer and the PES distribution
business.

1.2.3. What is a connection?


Various physical and contractual arrangements must be in place before a generation
scheme can be connected to a PESs network for mains parallel operation. The physical
arrangements consist of electrical infrastructure such as cables, switchgear, civil works
etc. which constitute the electrical connection itself. The contractual arrangements consist
of agreements between the developer and others. These agreements cover many issues,
including connection arrangements, power purchase arrangements and so on.

The physical infrastructure which connects an embedded generator to a PES network can
be divided into two sections: that owned by the developer, and that owned by the PES
(figure 1.4). The interface between these two parts is known as the ownership boundary,
or point of supply. The developer has sole responsibility for the design, installation and
operation of the equipment on their side of this interface, although the PES will want to
assure themselves that this equipment does not pose a hazard to their distribution
network. The PES will assume responsibility for operation and maintenance of all
infrastructure on their side of the interface, but the design and installation of any new
PES-owned infrastructure is a matter for dialogue and co-operation between the
developer and the PES. In this Guide, references to the connection, connection
schemes, connection costs and so on relate specifically to this PES-owned
infrastructure.

2.

9
Summary - The Quick Guide
The aim of this chapter is to provide a brief overview of the process of connecting a
generation scheme to the network. The main tasks are identified and described, and there
is a short discussion of costs and timescales. The reader is referred to other chapters of
the Guide where appropriate.

2.1. What needs to be done?


Before operation of an embedded generator can begin, both the developer and the PES
must be satisfied that all the necessary arrangements are in place for safe and
satisfactory operation:

Appropriate agreements between the developer and the PES must be negotiated and
signed
Any new connection infrastructure must be installed, commissioned and signed off

Not all generation schemes require the installation of new PES-owned connection
infrastructure. Some schemes are installed at sites with existing PES connections, and in
some cases the existing connection infrastructure can accomodate the new generation
capacity. In other cases, the existing connection or other PES assets may have to be
reinforced in order to accomodate the new generation capacity.

The requirement for appropriate agreements to be set up between the developer and the
PES applies to all embedded generation schemes, regardless of whether new connection
infrastructure is needed.

2.1.1. Agreements between the developer and the PES


Whether new connection infrastructure is required or not, the developer must inform the
PES of the new generation scheme, and provide them with certain technical information.
This requirement is specified in the Distribution Code. The information is usually provided
in the process of making a connection application, as the PESs application forms have
sections requesting the appropriate technical information. In cases where no new
connection infrastructure is required, the developer should notify the PES of the planned
generation scheme, and provide the information they request. Chapter 4 specifies the
information which must be provided by the developer.

The developer of the generation scheme must also enter into a connection agreement
with the PES or, if there is an existing connection agreement, the parties must modify this
agreement to include conditions relating to the new generation scheme. The connection
agreement sets out the terms and conditions under which the PES will provide a
connection to their system. More specifically, it specifies the rights and obligations of each
party with respect to the installation, use and operation of the connection, and details the
connection charges to be paid by the developer.

In addition to the connection agreement itself, the developer may be required to enter into
other agreements with the PES. Technical and operating agreements specify the
technical arrangements for carrying out operations such as de-energising the connection.
Maintenance agreements specify the charges to be paid by the developer for ongoing
maintenance of the PES-owned connection infrastructure.

2.1.2. Getting new connection infrastructure built


Many generation schemes require the installation of new PES-owned connection
infrastructure. Figure 2.1 shows the main steps which are involved in the design and
installation of this new infrastructure. This process can be divided into three main phases:
a design phase, a build phase, and a testing and energisation phase.

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2.1.2.1. The design phase
The aim of the design phase is to explore different options for connecting the generation
scheme to the network, and to identify the most cost-effective option. Early discussions
between the developer and the PES can be useful to identify possible connection
schemes, and also network constraints which may limit the amount of new generation
capacity that can be connected without incurring extra costs. Chapter 4 describes the type
of network information which the PES is obliged to provide on request.

The developer may then wish to establish a budget estimate of the connection costs for
the purposes of project evaluation, financial assessment and project planning. Budget
estimates are often obtained from the PES, but they can also be provided by some
specialist consultants. Chapter 5 provides information about connection costs and
charges.

The next step is for the developer to make a formal application for a connection to the
PESs network. On receipt of this application, the PES reserves the network capacity to
be used by the generation scheme. Usually, the application would be made once the
project has overcome important hurdles such as the granting of financial backing and
local planning permission. However, in some cases it may be prudent to make an early
connection application so that the required network capacity can be reserved as soon as
possible. Chapter 5 provides more information about this type of situation.

2.1.2.2. The build phase


The developer has two options when it comes to getting the connection infrastructure
built. The first option is to accept the PESs connection offer, and to pay the PES to supply
and install the connection infrastructure. The second option is to opt for a third party
connection. Under a scheme known as competition in connection, the developer can
choose to contract with a third party for some of the work involved in building the
connection. The PES can be asked to specify the scope of this contestable work in their
connection quotation, so that third party contractors can be asked to bid for it. Chapter 6
provides more information about competition in connection.

Regardless of whether the connection infrastructure is installed by the PES or by a third


party, the developer must ensure that the generator installation itself complies with the
various regulations and recommendations regarding embedded generators. Chapter 8
provides some information regarding arrangements for protection and earthing of the
installation.

2.1.2.3. The testing and energisation phase


Before the connection is energised, tests must be carried out to ensure that the
connection infrastructure is correctly installed, and that the protection systems operate as
required. The PES may ask to witness some of these tests, and should in any case be
notified of the results. Chapter 9 provides information about testing and commissioning.

2.2. Connection costs and timescales


Connection costs can have a major impact on the financial viability of embedded
generation projects. These costs are project-specific, depending on various
characteristics of the generation scheme and the local distribution network. The location
of the scheme, connection voltage and export capacity will all impact on the connection
cost. Chapter 5 contains more information about connection costs and charges.

It takes time to get a connection built. There are lead times for materials and items of
plant which need to be ordered, and timescales for installation and commissioning. Exact
timescales vary depending on project-specific factors. However, high-voltage connections

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tend to take longer than connections to low-voltage systems. Table 2-1 provides some
rough guidelines for connection timescales.

Connection voltage Connection timescale


11kV 4 - 8 months
33kV 6 - 12 months
66/132kV 9 - 18 months
Table 0-1: Guidelines for connection timescales

3.

12
Overview of the UK Electricity Supply Industry
The aim of this chapter is to provide some background information about the UKs
Electricity Supply Industry (ESI). The chapter is divided into two main sections. The first
section contains information relating to commercial relationships and industry regulation.
The second section contains information about the technical operation of the electricity
system.

3.1. Commercial and regulatory issues

3.1.1. The commercial structure of the industry


The commercial structure of the ESI in England and Wales is shown in figure 3.1. There
is a competitive market in electricity retailing, enabling industrial, commercial and
domestic electricity users to contract with any one of a number of competing electricity
suppliers. These suppliers are responsible for meter reading, billing and other aspects of
the customer relationship. There is also a wholesale electricity market, in which suppliers
buy electricity in bulk from competing electricity generators. At present, the central feature
of this wholesale market is the Pool (see section 3.1.2).

The transmission and distribution systems are owned and operated by regulated
monopoly businesses: the National Grid Company (NGC) owns the transmission system,
and the twelve Regional Electricity Companies (RECs) own the distribution networks.
These wires businesses recover the costs of operating and maintaining these systems by
levying use of system charges on all electricity trades between generators and suppliers.

The commercial structure of the ESI in Scotland is shown in figure 3.2. The Scottish
electricity market is split into two trading areas corresponding to the geographic areas of
the two Scottish electricity companies, ScottishPower and Hydro Electric. These
companies are responsible for the operation of the transmission and distribution networks
in their areas. They are also active in electricity generation, trading and supply. The
Scottish electricity market is also open to other suppliers, traders and independent
generators. There is no equivalent of the Pool in Scotland - trading takes place through
bilateral trades between generators and suppliers.

3.1.2. The Pool


The Electricity Pool of England and Wales is usually referred to simply as the Pool. The
Pool is a non-profit making association, whose members buy and sell electricity through a
managed, bid-based system for managing the scheduling and payment of large
generating plants. All Pool members are signatories to the Pooling and Settlement
Agreement (P&SA). This denotes their agreement to operate according to the Pools
trading system. The operators of large generating plants are obliged to join the Pool, as
are suppliers and various other participants in the wholesale electricity market.

There are proposals to change the structure of the wholesale electricity market in England
and Wales, with the Pool being superseded by a system of bilateral trading between
suppliers and large generators. However, at the time of writing these changes appear to
be two or three years away.

3.1.2.1. Pooled and non-Pooled generators


Generating plants whose output is traded through the Pool are referred to as Pooled
generators. All generating plants - embedded or otherwise - that export more than 50MW
are required to be Pooled. Operators of generating plants that export less than 50MW can
choose not to join the Pool, and to operate these plants as non-Pooled generators.

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Instead of selling their electricity through the Pool, non-Pooled generators trade directly
with suppliers. Most generators exporting less than 50MW choose to be non-Pooled, as
this option usually provides them with greater economic benefits. Direct trades between
non-Pooled generators and suppliers are not subject to many of the charges which are
levied on trades through the Pool. As a result, non-Pooled generators can often get a
better price for their output than they would if they traded through the Pool.

3.1.3. The Master Connection and Use of System Agreement


The NGC transmission system is vital to the operation of the wholesale electricity market
in England and Wales. The transmission system provides the physical means by which
electricity can be traded between generators and suppliers operating in different regions.

The Master Connection and Use of System Agreement (MCUSA) is a multi-party


document creating contractual obligations among and between all users of the
transmission system, parties connected to the transmission system, and NGC. Persons
wishing to use the NGC transmission system or to connect to it will normally be required
to sign the MCUSA and to enter into a Supplemental Agreement with NGC.

The Supplemental Agreements and the MCUSA set out the terms and conditions
applicable for use of the NGC transmission system. In particular, they set out the
customers obligations to:

pay all use of system and connection charges;


comply with the provisions of the Grid Code;
become a member of the Pool, which may require the payment of certain charges
under the Pooling and Settlement Agreement;
enter into an appropriate Ancillary Services Agreement.

The contractual framework of the MCUSA and Supplemental Agreement may not be
appropriate for some users of the transmission system, such as directly connected
customers and embedded generators. In these cases NGC will offer to enter into bilateral
agreements with the relevant parties.

3.1.4. The Electricity Act


The Electricity Act 1989 is the most important legislative document relating to the ESI in
England and Wales. It defines the general duties of the industry regulators - the Secretary
of State for Trade and Industry (also known as the President of the Board of Trade) and
the Director General of Electricity Supply (DGES). These duties include:

the Secretary of States power, after consultation with the DGES, to grant licenses for
the generation, transmission and supply of electricity, and to authorise exemptions
from the requirement to hold a generation or supply licence.

the Secretary of State and the DGESs duty to ensure that:


- all reasonable demands for electricity are satisfied
- all licence holders are able to finance the activities they are licensed to undertake
- competition in the generation and supply of electricity is promoted

the Secretary of State and the DGESs undertaking to perform their duties in a manner
that:
- best protects the interests of consumers
- promotes efficiency and economy in the supply and transmission of electricity, and
the efficient use of electricity
- promotes research and development activities

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- protects the public from dangers arising from the generation, transmission or supply
of electricity;
- secures the establishment and maintenance of procedures for promoting the health
and safety of those employed in such activities.

The Electricity Act 1989 is a form of enabling legislation. That is, it is legislation that
provides a framework which can be amended through the use of secondary legislation.
The secondary legislation that applies to the Electricity Act is encompassed within
Statutory Instruments issued by the Secretary of State.

3.1.5. Regulation and licensing


The DGES is responsible for regulating prices and performance in the monopoly elements
of the ESI, and also for making determinations to resolve disputes between different
parties in the ESI. The Office of Electricity Regulation (OFFER) assists the DGES in these
duties. The DGESs role in the competitive areas of the ESI such as generation and
supply should diminish as competitive markets become established. To date, however,
the DGES has had to make major interventions in these sectors.

The DGES also has regulatory jurisdiction over Scotland, although his statutory duties
with respect to the Scottish ESI are shared with the Secretary of State for Scotland. In
Scotland, the DGES is represented by the Deputy Director General for Scotland.

Under the Electricity Act, the Secretary of State has the power, after consultation with the
DGES, to grant licences for the generation, transmission or supply of electricity and to
authorise exemptions from the requirement to hold a generation or supply licence.
Licences granted under the Electricity Act have a number of regulatory functions:

to regulate, where appropriate, the economic behaviour of licence holders


to set up a framework for competition in generation and the progressive introduction of
competition in supply
to underpin the arrangements relating to security of supply
to protect the technical integrity of power systems
to make provision for certain types of customer services

As a rule, companies involved in the generation, transmission, distribution or supply of


electricity are required to hold licenses. There are some exemptions to this requirement.

3.1.5.1. Generation
Owners of large electricity generating plants are required to hold generation licences. This
requirement applies to large embedded generators, as well as to major power stations.
Owners of smaller generation schemes are exempted from the requirement to hold
generation licences. This exemption covers most embedded generators.

The criteria for exemption are based on a combination of the declared net capacity (DNC)
of the scheme, and the amount of power exported from the site into the public network. If
the DNC of the scheme is 100MW or more, it must export less than 10MW in order to
avoid the need for a generation licence. However, if the DNC of the scheme is less than
100MW, it can export up to 50MW without the need for a licence.

3.1.5.2. Transmission
NGC is the only holder of a transmission licence in England and Wales. NGCs
transmission licence prohibits it from purchasing or otherwise acquiring electricity on its
own account for the purpose of sale to third parties.

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3.1.5.3. Distribution
The twelve RECs of England and Wales hold Public Electricity Supply (PES) licences.
Under the terms of these licenses, each REC is allowed to distribute electricity within its
own geographical area. The PES licences differentiate between the businesses of supply
and distribution. To facilitate competition in supply, each PES is required under the terms
of its licence to allow other suppliers to use its distribution network for the purpose of
transferring electricity from the transmission system (and from embedded generators) to
customers.

3.1.5.4. Supply
Unless covered by an exemption, any person who supplies electricity to any premises is
required to hold a supply licence. Supply licences are of two kinds - Public Electricity
Supply (PES) Licences and Second Tier Supply Licences.

PES Licence. Each of the PESs holds a licence giving it rights and obligations relating
to supplies to customers within its authorised area. These licences are called Public
Electricity Supply (PES) licences.

Second Tier Supply Licence. Other companies can apply for Second Tier Supply
Licences. Such a licence enables the holder to sell electricity to customers in
competition with the local PES and other second tier suppliers. PESs holding such a
licence can supply customers outside their own authorised areas. Generators holding
Second Tier Supply Licences can supply customers directly.

Holders of supply licences are required to be signatories to the P&SA.

A company can be exempted from the need to hold a Supply Licence if it supplies less
than 500kW in aggregate to customers across PES distribution systems, or if it supplies
customers across a private network.

3.1.5.5. Scottish Composite Licences


Scottish Power and Scottish Hydro-Electric are each bound by a single Generation,
Transmission and Public Electricity Supply Licence. This composite licence covers all the
activities of the company within its own geographical area.

3.1.5.6. Others
In addition to the main ESI activities of generation, transmission, distribution and supply,
there are also a range of other activities for which a form of licensing is required. These
other activities concern the management of data relating to transfers of electricity. They
include the provision of electricity meters, meter operation, data collection and data
aggregation.

The metering of electricity transfers is governed by a number of Codes of Practice. These


Codes of Practice are issued by the Electricity Pool of England and Wales, and are
integral to the metering provisions of the Pooling and Settlement Agreement. However,
non-Pooled electricity transfers must also be metered in accordance with the relevant
Codes of Practice. Thus, the metering of electricity exports from embedded generators
must comply with these codes:

Code 1 relates to circuits on which the capacity exceeds 100 MVA


Code 2 relates to circuits on which the capacity does not exceed 100 MVA
Code 3 relates to circuits on which the capacity does not exceed 10 MVA

16
3.2. Technical description
The aim of this section is to provide a brief technical overview of the UKs electricity
system, particularly as it relates to the connection of embedded generators. There are
many good textbooks which provide more in-depth information (key words: electric power
systems; transmission and distribution systems). Some books are referenced in appendix
F.

3.2.1. Generation, transmission and distribution


The UK benefits from having a highly developed electricity system, which is shown
schematically in figure 3.3. The backbone of this system is the national grid, a high-
voltage transmission system which is used to transport electricity from where it is
generated to where it is used.

Most of the electricity consumed in the UK is generated in large power stations running on
coal, natural gas and nuclear power. These large power stations are connected directly to
the transmission system. In general, the coal-fired stations are located on the coalfields of
Scotland, Wales and northern England. The gas-fired stations are less geographically
concentrated, but many are located close to the major North Sea gas terminals on the
east coast of England. The nuclear stations are sited around the coastline of England,
Wales and Scotland.

Whereas the UKs electricity generation capacity is located mainly in the north,
consumption is weighted towards the population centers of south-east England and the
midlands. Each region of the country is served by an electricity distribution network, which
is connected to the transmission system at one or more grid supply points. Power passes
through the distribution network, from the grid supply point to the final users.

By definition, embedded electricity generators are connected to the local distribution


network rather than to the transmission system. For a given level of demand on the
distribution network, the operation of embedded generators results in a reduction in the
amount of power which has to be imported from the transmission system via the grid
supply point.

3.2.2. Control of System Frequency


In the UK, the electricity system operates at a nominal frequency of 50Hz. All electricity
users - and generators - rely on the fact that the system frequency is kept close to this
nominal level. This is achieved by scheduling generation to match demand, and by means
of deliberate control actions on the part of some generators. In the absence of these
control actions, variations in the level of demand on the system would result in
undesirable changes in system frequency.

3.2.3. Interconnected electricity networks

3.2.3.1. Physical infrastructure of electricity networks


Electricity transmission and distribution networks are made up of several interconnected
layers, as shown in figure 3.4. Each layer consists of a network of wires (i.e. overhead
lines and underground cables) operating at a particular nominal voltage. Transformers act
as the connections between layers, allowing power to be transferred between different
nominal voltage levels. In general, power flows down through the layers, from higher
voltage systems to lower voltage systems. Most electricity users are connected to low
voltage systems operating at 400/230V, although some larger users are connected at
higher voltages.

17
3.2.3.2. Standard nominal voltages
Figure 3.5 shows the standard nominal voltage levels used for the transmission and
distribution of electricity in the UK. The transmission system consists of systems operating
at nominal voltages of 400kV, 275kV and 132kV. Distribution networks include systems
operating at 132kV, 66kV, 33kV, 20kV, 11kV, 6.6kV and 400V. Engineers use the nominal
voltage to refer to a particular layer of the network. Thus, people talk about the 11kV
system or the 33kV system.

European Standard EN 50160 (BS EN 50160) defines standard or nominal voltages for
public electricity supply. According to this document, the standard nominal voltage for
public low-voltage supply is 230V, with a tolerance of +/-10%.

The terms HV (high voltage) and LV (low voltage) are often used, but they can mean
different things to different people. The Electricity Supply Regulations define HV to mean
anything above 1000V, with LV covering anything below 1000V. BS EN 50160 uses the
same definition for LV, but defines voltages from 1000V to 35kV as MV (medium voltage).

3.2.3.3. Control of System Voltage


The control of voltage levels in distribution networks is an important issue, due to the need
to maintain consistent supplies to electricity users. Although PESs try to keep system
voltages close to their nominal levels, the actual voltage varies from point to point around
the system, and also with time as the load on the system changes. Voltages tend to fall
when people are using a lot of electricity as shown in figure 3.6, and they are often lower
at the ends of long distribution lines, as shown in figure 3.7. Conversely, power in-feeds
from embedded generators tend to increase local voltage levels.

PES distribution networks are designed to provide electricity to users at reasonably


constant voltage levels. To achieve this, they are designed with a functional split between
systems with voltage regulation and those without. Systems operating at higher voltages
such as 66kV are used to transport large amounts of electricity over long distances, and
are subject to relatively large voltage variations. Systems operating at lower voltages
such as 11kV are used to provide 400V supplies to customers, via fixed tap transformers.
In sparsely populated areas, 20kV and even 33kV systems are used to provide 400V
supplies. To ensure that the customers are supplied at a reasonably steady voltage, these
systems must be isolated from the voltage changes on the higher-voltage systems (refer
to figure 3.5).

To achieve this isolation, the step-down transformers which transfer power from the
higher- to the lower-voltage systems are fitted with automatically controlled tap changers.
These tap changers automatically alter the transformer ratio to compensate for voltage
changes on the HV side. Some tap changer control schemes also compensate for voltage
changes in the lower-voltage system (line drop compensation), and some allow the use of
two or more transformers in parallel (negative reactance compounding).

3.2.4. Protection in distribution networks

3.2.4.1. Faults and fault currents


Although distribution networks are very reliable systems, electrical faults do sometimes
occur. These faults may be caused by events such as an overhead line breaking, or the
accidental excavation of an underground cable. When these things happen, very high
currents can occur at the fault and in the parts of the network that feed current into the
fault. If they are not quickly detected and stopped, these fault currents are a risk to life and
can cause extensive damage to cables, transformers and other equipment, as well as
affecting the supply of electricity to consumers.

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3.2.4.2. Protection systems
To protect people and distribution infrastructure from the effects of faults, fuses and circuit
breakers are fitted at strategic points in the network, together with systems which trip the
circuit breakers on detection of unusually high currents or other abnormal conditions.
These circuit breakers and tripping devices are known as protection systems.

The operation of protection systems following a fault often results in some electricity users
being disconnected from the supply. Most distribution networks are designed to ensure
that faults can be isolated with minimum disruption to users, as shown in figure 3.8.
However, networks in isolated rural areas are often less robust, with radial lines
supplying users along the length of valleys, roads and so on. If a fault occurs on a radial
line, it can only be isolated by disconnecting all the users beyond the fault, as shown in
figure 3.9.

3.2.4.3. Auto Reclosers


Distribution networks in rural areas are prone to transient faults, usually caused by
branches, birds and other objects touching against overhead lines. When they occur on
radial lines, these faults can result in the disconnection of many users from the supply. To
minimise the inconvenience caused by such faults, circuit breakers in radial lines are
usually fitted with automatic re-closing devices. These devices re-close the circuit breaker
a few seconds after it is tripped. If the fault has not cleared by this stage, the protection
will be activated and the circuit breaker will trip again. However, if the fault has cleared,
the line will then remain reconnected to the supply.

Automatic re-closers are usually set to operate up to three or four times after a fault. If the
fault does not clear after this number of operations, the circuit breaker remains tripped
and must be re-set manually. The dead time between each sucessive reclosure is
important information for generators in order that generator protection can be designed to
avoid the auto-recloser closing with the generator and the grid out of synchronism.

3.2.4.4. Fault levels and switchgear ratings


At a given moment, every point in a distribution network has a particular fault level. The
fault level is a measure of the current which would occur in the event of a solid three-
phase short circuit at that point. Fault levels are expressed in units of apparent power
(kVA or MVA). More information about fault levels is given in appendix E.

The fault levels in a distribution network can change over time, due to changes in the
configuration of the network to allow routine maintenance or to isolate faults. Thus, it is
not very useful to give a single value for the fault level at a point in the network - whatever
the fault level is today, it may be different next week. Instead, maximum and minimum
values are usually specified for the fault level at a particular point. The actual fault level
will vary within the range specified by these values.

Changes to the network, such as the connection of new generators or loads, can result in
increases in fault levels. However, the rating of existing circuit breakers places an upper
limit on the range of fault levels which can be permitted in a particular part of the network.
This upper limit is sometimes referred to as the design fault level in that part of the
network. Design fault levels in distribution networks can sometimes be a limiting factor in
the connection of new generators or loads, as illustrated in figure 3.10.

Generally generators would not be permitted to push maximum fault levels beyond the
design fault levels. In some cases they may be required to contribute to the cost of new
switchgear to accomodate the increase in fault level.

19
Many PESs use common standards for the specification of circuit breakers to be fitted in
their networks. As a result, similar values are often specified for design fault levels in PES
networks. Table 3-1 shows typical design fault levels at some common UK distribution
voltages.

System voltage (kV) 11 33 132


Design fault level (MVA) 250 750 3,500
Table 0-1: Typical design fault levels in distribution networks

3.2.5. Distribution network planning


Electricity distribution networks must be extended, reinforced and modified in response to
changing patterns of demand for electricity. New housing developments, industrial sites
and electricity generation schemes all require extensions to distribution networks. Existing
network infrastructure sometimes has to be upgraded so that it can support growing
demand for electricity. Old equipment has to be replaced, and parts of networks which are
no longer in use have to be de-commissioned.

All of these changes have to be co-ordinated to maintain standards of safety, reliability,


operability and so on. PESs are responsible for planning the development of their
networks, for keeping losses at an acceptable level, and for maintaining standards of
safety and reliability. For this reason, they must be involved in the process of designing
and specifying connection arrangements for new electricity users and generation
schemes.

3.2.6. Control and operation of the distribution network


Most distribution networks can be operated in a variety of configurations. This is a useful
feature, which can reduce the disruption caused by network faults and routine
maintenance work. In the event of a fault, for example, the network operator can re-
configure the network, selecting the configuration which maintains supplies to the greatest
number of customers while the fault is being rectified.

This type of operational flexibility is of growing importance, due to the emphasis the
DGES places on maintaining supplies to customers. It is also being aided by the
introduction of computer-based systems which enable the control and operation of
distribution networks to be automated. These systems carry out switching and re-
configuration operations using real-time data combined with knowledge about the
network.

Re-configuration of the distribution network can result in changes to the electrical


characteristics of the network from the point of view of an embedded generator. For
example, the fault level at the connection can be reduced significantly, and the generator
can be subject to greater voltage fluctuations. The effect of alternative network
configurations should be considered when designing a connection arrangement.

4.

20
Statutory Framework for Connection of Embedded
Generators
Several statutory documents contain clauses relating to the connection of embedded
generators. The PES Licences, the Distribution Codes and the Grid Codes all contain
such clauses. These documents constitute the statutory framework for the connection of
embedded generators.

In England and Wales, the relevant documents are the PES Licences, the Distribution
Code of the Public Electricity Suppliers of England and Wales, and the Grid Code
published by the National Grid Company.

The statutory provision for the connection of embedded generators in Scotland is similar
to that in England and Wales, but is set out in different documents. These are the Scottish
Composite Licences, the Distribution Code of the Public Electricity Suppliers of Scotland,
and the Grid Codes published by ScottishPower and Hydro-Electric.

4.1. The PES Licences


PESs have a number of obligations relating to the connection of new customers (including
generators) to their networks. These obligations are specified in the PES Licences. The
conditions of the licences include provisions relating to:

transparency of connection charges and provision of network information


non-discrimination in the provision of connections
the requirement to offer terms for connection
resolution of disputes

In the PES Licences covering England and Wales, these provisions are contained in
conditions 8, 8A, 8B and 8C of part II. In the Scottish Composite Licences, these
provisions are contained in conditions 2, 2A, 2B and 2C of part VI.

4.1.1. Transparency of connection charges and provision of network information

4.1.1.1. Condition 8 statements


Each PES is obliged to publish information about the charges they make for connection to
their distribution systems. The PES provides this information in the form of a statement of
basis of charges for connection to the distribution system, also known as a condition 8
statement. The form of this document must be approved by the DGES, and should enable
people applying for connection to make a reasonable estimate of the connection charges.
PESs provide copies of their connection charge statements on request, at a nominal
price.

The condition 8 statement includes four schedules:

The first schedule outlines the basis of the charges made, and the principal terms and
conditions for connection to the network.
The second schedule lists items of significant cost required for connection to the
network, together with indicative charges for each item.
The third schedule provides an illustrative list of abnormal services which may be
reflected in the connection charge.
The fourth schedule outlines the principles for the calculation of tariff support
allowances.

21
The statement also includes an annex covering the operation of competition in connection
(see chapter 6).

4.1.1.2. Statement of system capacity and loading


If asked to do so by a developer or any other person, a PES is obliged to provide a
statement containing specific information about the network circuits and nodes specified
in the request. In addition to present and future circuit capacity, forecast power flows and
loading, and fault levels, this statement must contain such further information as shall be
reasonably necessary to enable [the developer] to identify and evaluate the opportunities
available when connecting to and making use of the part or parts of [the PESs]
distribution system specified in the request. If specifically requested, the PES is also
obliged to include, in the statement, their comments about the suitability of that part of the
system for new connections. Appendix A provides an example of the information which
should be provided in such a statement.

The PES can charge the developer for reasonable costs incurred in the preparation of
the statement. An estimate of these costs must be provided to the developer within ten
days of receiving the original request. If the developer undertakes to meet these costs, the
PES must provide the statement itself within a further 28 days. If the request involves a lot
of work, the DGES may allow the PES a longer period to prepare the statement.

4.1.2. Non-discrimination in the provision of connections


In carrying out connection works, PESs are not permitted to give preferential treatment to
particular applicants, types of applicants, or to their own subsidiary businesses. Applicants
who feel that they have been discriminated against can raise the matter with OFFER.

4.1.3. Requirement to offer terms for connection


If a developer makes an application for connection to the system, the PES is obliged to
offer to enter into a connection agreement. This agreement should set out the terms and
conditions under which the PES will provide a connection to their system. More
specifically, it should specify the rights and obligations of each party with respect to the
installation, use and operation of the connection, and detail the connection charges to be
paid by the developer.

The PES can refuse to offer terms for connection if the developer fails to provide the
necessary information with their application, or if the developer refuses to be bound by the
terms of the appropriate Distribution Code or Grid Code, as applicable. The PES can also
refuse if providing the connection would be likely to breach any of their duties and
obligations under their licence, the Electricity Act, the Electricity Supply Regulations, the
Grid Code or the Distribution Code. In practice, this means that the PES can refuse to
provide a connection if they are not satisfied that the applicant is competent to manage
the planned generator installation.

PESs are obliged to offer connection terms as soon as practicable, but within three
months of receiving an application with all the necessary information. This time limit can
be extended with the permission of the DGES.

4.1.4. Resolution of disputes


In the event of a dispute between a PES and a developer, either party can ask OFFER to
issue a determination to settle the dispute. A determination issued by OFFER is binding
on both parties. OFFER will intervene in a dispute if they consider that the PES has failed
to meet any of its obligations with regard to disclosing information and offering terms, or
that the connection terms offered by the PES are unreasonable.

22
4.2. The Distribution Codes
There are two Distribution Codes: one applying to England and Wales, and the other
applying to Scotland. The Distribution Codes specify standards for the design and
operation of PES-owned distribution networks. To meet these standards, PESs need to
be forewarned about the connection of large loads and generator installations to their
networks. The Distribution Codes therefore require users of distribution networks, such as
electricity consumers and generators, to provide certain information about new loads and
generator installations. They also specify arrangements for the design of connections to
PES networks, and certain requirements for the control and protection of embedded
generators.

In the Distribution Code of the Public Electricity Suppliers of England and Wales, these
requirements are contained in DPC5, DPC6 and DPC7. In the Distribution Code of the
Public Electricity Suppliers of Scotland, these requirements are contained in DPC
appendix B, DCC6 and DCC7.

4.2.1. Provision of generator information


To allow the PES to assess the effect of the planned generation scheme on the
distribution network, the developer must provide the PES with certain information. The
amount of information to be provided depends on the size of the generator installation and
the required connection voltage. The following basic data must be provided for all
generator installations.

Location and timescale


- the point of connection to the PESs system
- the date from which the connection is required

Generator
- generator type (synchronous, asynchronous, etc.)
- terminal voltage (kV)
- rated kVA
- rated kW
- maximum active power sent out (kW)
- reactive power requirements (kVAr)

Other plant details


- type of prime mover
- anticipated operating regime (continuous, intermittent, peak lopping)
- fault level contribution
- method of voltage control
- generator transformer details
- requirements for top-up and stand-by supplies

Interface arrangements
- means of synchronisation
- earthing arrangements
- switching arrangements

The following additional data must be provided if the capacity of the generator installation
is greater than 5MW, or if the connection voltage is higher than 20kV. It should be noted
that most of the specified data is only applicable to synchronous generators.

Generator
- MW/MVAr capability chart
- type of excitation system

23
- inertia constant (MWs/MVA) for the whole machine
- stator resistance
- direct axis reactances (sub-transient, transient and synchronous)
- quadrature axis reactances (sub-transient and synchronous)
- direct axis time constants (sub-transient and transient)
- quadrature axis time constant (sub-transient)
- zero sequence resistance and reactance
- negative sequence resistance and reactance

Generator transformer
- resistance and reactance
- MVA rating
- tap arrangement
- vector group
- earthing arrangement

Automatic voltage regulator


- block diagram of the AVR system
- gains, time constants and voltage control limits

Speed governor and prime mover


- block diagram of the governor system
- gains, time constants
- prime mover rating and maximum power

Capacity and stand-by requirements


- registered capacity and minimum generation of each generating unit (MW)
- auxiliary power requirements (active and reactive) at maximum generation (MW
and MVAr)
- auxiliary power requirements (active and reactive) at minimum generation (MW and
MVAr)

If the capacity of the generator installation is greater than 50MW, additional data specified
in the appropriate Grid Code must also be provided. In Scotland, this additional data must
be provided for installations over 30MW.

4.2.2. Requirements for the design of the generator installation


To ensure that operation of generator installations do not contribute to problems on the
network, developers must ensure that their installations meet certain technical
requirements.

4.2.2.1. Generating plant performance


The generator installation should be capable of supplying its full declared output
regardless of variations in system frequency over the range 49.5 to 50.5Hz. The power
output of the installation should not be affected by permitted voltage variations on the
network.

4.2.2.2. Control arrangements


For certain types of generator installations, the PES may specify that a continuously acting
fast response automatic excitation control system is required to provide suitable control of
voltage over the operating range of the installation.

24
4.2.2.3. Protection co-ordination
The protection systems installed with the generator installation must co-ordinate properly
with the protection systems on the PESs network. To ensure that this is achieved, the
generator protection must satisfy the following requirements:

It must meet target clearance times specified by the PES.


Its settings must be agreed between the developer and the PES.
It must co-ordinate with any auto-reclose policy specified by the PES.
It must withstand the negative phase sequence loading incurred during clearance of a
close-up phase-to-phase fault, without tripping the generator.

4.2.2.4. Islanding
The PES should specify whether they want the embedded generator to remain connected
in the event that the section of the PES network to which it is connected becomes isolated
from the rest of the network (see section 8.2.3.1). If so, arrangements must be put in
place to ensure that the generator is disconnected before the islanded section of network
is reconnected to the rest of the network.

4.2.2.5. Black start capability


The developer must notify the PES if their generator installation is capable of starting
without connection to an external power supply.

4.2.2.6. Commissioning tests


If the developer needs to connect the generator installation to the PESs network before
the commissioning date, to carry out tests, this must be done in accordance with the
requirements of the connection agreement. In particular, the developer must provide the
PES with a commissioning programme and, if time allows, obtain the PESs approval for
this programme.

4.3. The Grid Codes


The Grid Codes specify standards for the design and operation of transmission systems.
Although embedded generators are not directly connected to transmission systems, their
operation can have a significant effect on the operation of these systems. For this reason,
transmission system operators need to be informed about the connection of large
embedded generation plants to PES networks which are, in turn, connected to their
transmission systems. The Grid Codes specify requirements for the provision of
information regarding such generator installations, as well as certain requirements for the
performance, control and protection of these generators.

In the Grid Code published by the National Grid Company, the requirements for the
connection of embedded generators are contained in PC.A.3, PC.A.5 and CC.6.3.

In the Grid Code published by ScottishPower, the requirements for the connection of
embedded generators are contained in section 3 of appendix B of the planning code, and
sections 4.2 and 4.3 of the connection conditions. In the Grid Code published by Hydro-
Electric, the same requirements are contained in section 3 of appendix 2 of the planning
code, and sections 4.2 and 4.3 of the connection conditions.

4.3.1. The Grid Code in England and Wales


At present, the connection conditions of the NGC Grid Code apply only to embedded
generators with a registered capacity of 50W or more. The connection conditions refer to
the MCUSA and to the Supplemental Agreement between the user of the NGC system
and NGC itself. If the registered capacity of an embedded generation scheme is 50MW or
more, the owner of the scheme is required to enter into these agreements with NGC.

25
At the time of writing, OFFER is considering a proposed change to the MCUSA which
would have the effect of extending the scope of the connection conditions to include all
embedded generators with a registered capacity of 10MW or more. Owners of these
generation schemes would be required to sign up to the MCUSA and enter into
Supplemental Agreements with NGC.

4.3.1.1. Provision of generator information


The Grid Code requirements for provision of information do not apply to most embedded
generation schemes. They do apply to all Pooled generators which are centrally
despatched. They also apply to non-despatched generators, including non-Pooled
generators, where:

the registered capacity is 50MW or more, and


the generator connection is at the same voltage level as the connection between the
PESs network and the NGC transmission system.

Where the Grid Code requirements apply, the developer must provide technical details of
the generation scheme to NGC. These details must include all the information required
under the Distribution Code, plus some additional information. Developers who are
required to comply with this requirement should consult the Grid Code itself.

4.3.1.2. Requirements for the design of the generator installation


The Grid Code requirements for technical and design criteria do not apply to generation
schemes with registered capacities of less than 50MW. They also do not apply to hydro
units and renewable energy plant not designed for frequency and voltage control. Thus,
these requirements do not apply to most embedded generation schemes.

Where the Grid Code requirements do apply, they cover a number of aspects of the
performance and control of the generating plant. Again, some of the requirements mirror
those in the Distribution Code, but the Grid Code includes some additional requirements.
Developers who are required to comply with these requirements should consult the Grid
Code itself.

4.3.2. The Grid Codes in Scotland


The Scottish Grid Codes contain similar requirements to the NGC Grid Code with respect
to the connection of generators. However, it is not clear whether any of these
requirements apply to embedded generators, of any description. Given this situation, the
best strategy for developers is to discuss with the local PES (which is also the local
transmission system operator) whether they need to meet any requirements over and
above those specified in the Distribution Code.

In Scotland, local distribution networks include fewer high-voltage circuits than those in
England and Wales, and there is less scope for the connection of large embedded
generation schemes. As a result, some generation schemes which would be embedded
if they were located in England and Wales may have to be connected to the transmission
system in Scotland. Developers of such schemes must comply with all the Scottish Grid
Code requirements for the connection of generators.

5.

26
Connection Applications, Costs and Charges
When a developer makes a connection application, the PES is obliged to offer terms for
providing a suitable connection for the proposed generation scheme. These terms will
include charges to the developer, to cover the PESs costs in providing the connection.
The aim of this chapter is to describe the main components of these costs, and the basis
on which these costs are charged to the developer. The chapter also outlines some of the
other charges which the developer may have to pay. Finally, there are sections
concerning the allocation of connection costs in situations where two or more connection
applications are received by the PES, and also concerning connection applications linked
to renewables order contracts.

5.1. Costs of connection infrastructure


The connection cost for a generation scheme depends on the nature and extent of the
works which have to be carried out to provide the connection. Table 2-1 provides
indicative costs for some of the main elements of this work. The unit costs for works such
as trenching and cabling depend on the length of line to be installed. The lower unit costs
apply to cases where several kilometres of line are needed.

Works Approx. cost


Cable trenching and reinstatement
in public highway (tarmac) 50-100 per metre
in fields or rough ground 20-40 per metre
11kV equipment* (up to 5MW capacity)
underground cable 20-50 per metre
overhead line 10-25 per metre
switching substation (no transformer) 15-50,000
33kV equipment* (up to 20MW capacity)
underground cable 20-100 per metre
overhead line 20-35 per metre
switching substation (no transformer) 100-250,000
*costs include supply, installation, testing and commissioning, but
exclude O&M
Table 0-1: Cost guidelines for connection works
To obtain a more accurate picture of the connection costs, the developer can ask the PES
to provide a budget estimate for the project in question. Estimates of connection costs can
also be provided by specialist electrical engineering consultants. Either way, the developer
should expect to be invoiced for this service.

Developers should exercise care in interpreting budget estimates of connection costs.


Normally, these estimates relate only to the cost of the infrastructure on the PES side of
the point of supply. However, there can also be significant costs associated with electrical
infrastructure on the developers side of the point of supply. These two areas of cost must
be considered in total when evaluating projects, and also when considering alternative
connection options. As an example, the PES may indicate that the connection costs would
be lower if they were to provide a supply at 33kV instead of 11kV. This option might
require the developer to install and operate a 33kV/11kV transformer, in which case the
cost of this transformer would have to be weighed against the lower PES costs.

Finally, connection schemes proposed by the PES or by others may involve requirements
or assumptions regarding the provision of equipment on the developers side of the point
of supply. These assumptions are not always obvious to the developer, and this can lead
to misunderstandings and under-budgeting. Technical assistance can help developers to
avoid these situations.

27
5.2. Basis of PES connection charges

5.2.1. Initial costs and O&M costs


In cases where work has to be done to modify an existing connection or to provide an
entirely new one, some or all of this work will be done by the PES. Thus, some initial costs
will be incurred. These costs are invariably charged to the developer up-front, as part of
the connection charge.

The PES will also incur costs associated with the operation, maintenance repair and
replacement of the new or modified connection infrastructure. These operation and
maintenance (O&M) costs must be considered in addition to the initial costs. O&M costs
are often capitalised and charged to the developer up-front as part of the connection
charge. Alternatively, it may be possible for the developer to pay an annual service charge
to cover these costs.

O&M charges are normally capitalised at 19-30% of the value of the assets, depending on
the PES and the assets involved. Where connection costs involve reinforcement and
engineering costs it may be that no O&M charges should be applied to some of these
items.

5.2.2. Extension costs and reinforcement costs


In effect, the connection provides an electrical path into the network, starting at the
ownership boundary between the generator installation and the PESs network. The work
required to provide this path can be broken down into two categories. Firstly, new
infrastructure must be installed in order to provide an extension of the existing network,
from the point of common coupling up to the point of supply. Secondly, some
reinforcement of the existing network infrastructure may be necessary in order to
accomodate the planned generation capacity. These components of the connection work
are illustrated in figure 5.1.

Reinforcement work is usually required to increase the electrical capacity of those parts of
the network which form part of the electrical path from the generator into the network.
However, some network reinforcements do not fit this pattern. For example, it may be
necessary to upgrade the switchgear at a substation some distance from the proposed
generation scheme, due to the increase in fault level caused by the connection of the
generator.

5.2.3. Return on investment


According to condition 8 of the PES licence, connection charges should be set at a level
which enables the PES to recover the appropriate proportion of both their initial costs and
their O&M costs associated with the provision of the connection. This includes initial and
O&M costs for reinforcement of existing network infrastructure, as well as for extension of
the network. In addition, the connection charges should provide the PES with a
reasonable rate of return on any capital expenditure. A pre-tax return of around 7% per
annum was suggested by OFFER in their 1994 proposals for distribution price control.

5.2.4. Allocation of costs


In some cases, it may be appropriate for the PES to charge all the costs of the connection
works to the developer. However, in many cases, the works carried out to provide a
connection can provide benefits to the PES or to other users of the network. Network
reinforcement is often beneficial from the PESs viewpoint, and new network infrastructure
installed to provide a connection for one generation scheme may be used subsequently to
provide connections for other generators or electricity users.

28
Condition 8B of the PES licence specifies that any benefit obtained by the PES or by third
parties, including possible future benefits, should be taken into account when determining
the appropriate proportion of the connection costs to be charged to the developer. It also
specifies that the PES should not charge the developer for network reinforcement costs:

on circuits where the new or increased load requirement is 25% or less of the existing
capacity.
on circuits more than one voltage level above the voltage of the connection.

These guidelines are designed to ensure that the developer is only charged for the costs
of network reinforcement works which are clearly occasioned by the need to provide the
connection.

5.3. Other charges


In addition to the PES connection charge itself, there are a number of other charges which
developers of embedded generation schemes should be aware of. These charges
include:

distribution use-of-system charges;


top-up and stand-by charges;
metering and data management charges; and
charges for use of the NGC transmission system

5.3.1. Distribution use-of-system charges


Although electricity demand customers pay both connection and use-of-system charges,
embedded generators are exempt from the need to pay distribution use-of-system
charges. This is because all the PESs costs associated with generator connections are
recovered through the up-front connection charge together with any ongoing service
charges.

5.3.2. Top-up and stand-by charges


Top-up and stand-by electricity supplies are often required to supplement the output from
embedded generators. Top-up supplies cover any routine shortfall between the output of
the generator and the on-site demand, or the demands of directly supplied customers.
Stand-by supplies cover these demands in exceptional circumstances such as generator
outages. Stand-by supplies are usually required, even by generators with no on-site
demand or customers, to cover the generators own auxiliary load during start-up.

Top-up and stand-by supplies can be purchased from the host PES. Alternatively, they
can be purchased from other electricity suppliers, other embedded generators, or directly
from the Pool.

5.3.3. Metering and data management charges


Embedded generators are bound by certain metering and data management
requirements. These requirements, and the associated charges, relate to the activities of
meter installation, meter operation, meter reading, data collection and data aggregation.
The host PES can often provide the necessary metering and data management services.
However, many of these services can also be provided by other specialist companies.

5.3.4. Charges for use of the NGC transmission system


At present, NGC must be notified of the connection of any embedded generator with a
capacity of 50MW or more. This allows NGC to study the impact of the generator on the
operation of the transmission system. If this study indicates a need to carry out work on
the NGC system in order to accomodate the generator, then the generator is required to

29
enter into a bilateral agreement with NGC. Connection may be delayed until the NGC
work has been carried out. NGC will charge their connected customer - the PES - for the
work it carries out. Whether the PES chooses to recover this charge from the embedded
generator is another matter, and the policy will vary depending on the PES.

OFFER is presently considering a change to the MCUSA which would have the effect of
extending this requirement to embedded generators of 10MW or more.

5.4. Multiple applications


It is not uncommon for two or more generation schemes to be in development in the same
area. In such cases, the limited availability of spare network capacity can lead to disputes
between the developers and the PES over the allocation of network reinforcement costs.
There are no clear rules covering these situations. Depending on the approaches taken
by the developers and the PES, the reinforcement costs can either be allocated on a first
come, first served basis, or they can be shared in a more equitable way.

5.4.1. Bagging network capacity


In general, circuits in distribution networks can accomodate the connection of some
generation capacity without reinforcement. As a result, well-informed developers can
avoid network reinforcement costs by appropriate siting and sizing of their generation
schemes.

Problems inevitably arise when two or more developers want to connect their generation
schemes into the same circuit. The developers may design their schemes such that each
scheme could, on its own, be accomodated without reinforcement. However, the circuit
has to be reinforced in order to accomodate more than one scheme. The question is, who
pays for this reinforcement?

At present, most PESs operate a first come, first served policy with regard to the use of
spare circuit capacity. The developer who makes the first connection application has the
option to use the spare capacity for their scheme without any liability for reinforcement
costs. The spare capacity to be used by this scheme is deemed to be reserved from the
date when the PES receives the formal application. Subsequent connection applications
are treated as though this capacity is not available, and are therefore offered terms for
connection which include charges for reinforcement work.

For obvious reasons, this system results in the practice of capacity bagging . Some
developers make connection applications for schemes in the very early stages of
development, in order to bag spare network capacity before someone else makes an
application for connection to the same circuit. There is nothing to stop developers from
doing this, apart from any up-front charges the PESs may make for connection
quotations. It is up to individual developers to judge for themselves whether it is worth
paying this charge earlier than necessary in order to avoid the risk of losing the free
access to network capacity.

Sometimes, network capacity is reserved for a generation scheme which is never built,
perhaps due to problems with financing or planning issues. To ensure that capacity is not
tied up indefinitely by failed schemes, PESs only reserve capacity for twelve months from
the developers acceptance of the connection offer (see figure 5.2). If work on the
generation scheme does not start in earnest by the end of this period, the capacity is
made available to other schemes.

5.4.2. Sharing costs between generation schemes


In allocating the cost of connection work between itself and the developer, the PES is
obliged to consider the possible future benefits arising from this connection work, either to

30
itself or to third parties. Thus, if connection work carried out for one generation scheme is
of direct benefit to a second scheme, the PES should allocate the cost of this work
appropriately between the two projects.

This obligation also applies to cases where the second project is developed some time
after the connection work has been carried out. If the developer of the first project met all
the cost of the connection work, they may be able to obtain a refund or rebate from the
PES, corresponding to an appropriate fraction of these costs. The PES, in turn, will
charge this cost to the developer of the second project.

If it appears likely that connection infrastructure will be of benefit to future projects, the
developer should ensure that provisions for refunds are written into the PESs connection
quotation. If some of the connection work is to be carried out by a third party, it may be
necessary to include clauses for refunds in the adoption agreement.

There have been cases of cost sharing when connection applications for generation
schemes have coincided with applications for new or increased demand from nearby load
customers. These cost sharing arrangements have been to the benefit of all the parties
concerned.

Another possible mechanism for sharing connection costs between generation projects is
for the developers to make a joint application for connection works. At the time of writing,
no connections have been constructed under this type of arrangement. However, this type
of consortium connection may become increasingly attractive, particularly in areas where
there is a combination of high potential for embedded generation on the one hand, and
insufficient distribution infrastructure on the other.

5.5. Renewables order applications


If the developer is bidding for a contract under the NFFO/SRO schemes, early
discussions with the PES can help to identify the connection options and establish the
available network capacity. The developer can then tailor the bid capacity accordingly.
They can also help to avoid unpleasant shocks relating to connection costs, in a process
which does not readily allow time for discussions between prices being offered and bids
needing to be submitted.

The price offered by the PES should be on the basis that the project in question is the only
project to be connected. It should ignore other projects even if these already have
contracts under a previous order, unless the grid connection construction contract has
been placed (ie. the scheme is under construction). Some PESs helpfully indicate what
might be the range of connection prices assuming a proportion of other projects go
ahead. Costs may rise with the number of projects getting the go-ahead, due to the need
for major reinforcements. However, they can sometimes fall, reflecting the wider sharing
of the cost of reinforcements which would have been necessary even for a single project.

The price indicated during the renewables order process gives no guarantee that this
price will be applicable when the project is built some one to six years later. Discussions
with the PES to understand network constraints may allow developers to consider what if
scenarios if other generation schemes are developed in the area. Information on other
schemes may be in the public domain due to planning applications or renewables order
contracts.

6.

31
Competition in Connections
In getting a connection built, the developer has two options:

To ask the PES to undertake all the necessary works to provide the connection, and to
pay the corresponding charges.

To contract with a third party to provide and install the connection infrastructure, and to
obtain the PESs agreement to adopt this infrastructure.

These two options both involve a contractual relationship between the developer and the
PES, as shown in figure 6.1. However, the third party connection option involves the
developer in an additional relationship, with the third party contractor. By choosing the
third party connection option the developer gains access to a wider range of potential
contractors, and this can result in lower costs. However, this benefit must be weighed
against the time and effort involved in managing this additional relationship.

6.1. PES connections


If the developer wishes, the PES will arrange for all the necessary connection works to be
undertaken. The cost of these works will be charged to the developer, on the basis set out
in the PES licence. In practice, the PES distribution business will undertake the design
and specification of the connection infrastructure, but the installation work will often be
undertaken by another organisation under contract to the distribution business. This
organisation may be the PESs own connection business, or it may be an external
contractor.

6.2. Third party connections


Instead of getting the PES to undertake the connection works, the developer can opt to
contract with a third party to carry out some of the work. This option to contract with third
parties to do connection work is known as competition in connection. Developers can
make use of competition in connection to ensure that they get connection work done at
competitive prices.

Competition in connection is fairly new, having been introduced in early 1995. Before that,
PESs effectively had a monopoly of connection work. Each PES specifies their
arrangements for competition in connection in an annex to their condition 8 statement.
However, many PES personnel are unfamiliar with these arrangements.

As the PESs have to take over the ownership, operation and maintenance of connection
infrastructure installed by third parties, they are keen to ensure that work is carried out to
an acceptable standard. For this reason, connection work done by third parties is subject
to inspection and approval by the PES.

6.2.1. Contestable Work and Non-Contestable Work


So that they can maintain co-ordination and control of their networks, the PESs insist on
carrying out some of the tasks relating to the provision of new connections themselves.
This part of the connection work is referred to as non-contestable works as it is not open
to competition. Conversely, the part of the work that is open to competition is referred to
as contestable works.

The costs incurred by the PES in carrying out the non-contestable works are charged to
the developer. These charges are governed by the conditions of the PES licence, as in
the case of an all-in PES connection. Thus, the developer must pay some charges to the
PES, in addition to paying the third party contractor for carrying out the contestable works.

32
Each PES provides its own definition of contestable and non-contestable works in its
condition 8 statement. The various PESs definitions are broadly similar. Table 6-1 shows
which activities are typically non-contestable and which are contestable. Note that all
activities to do with the existing network are non-contestable.

Non-contestable activities Contestable activities


Activities Assessing the effects of the new connection
to do with on the existing network.
the All work to do with reinforcing the existing
existing distribution infrastructure.
network Deciding on the point of connection to the
existing network.
Connecting the new installation to the
network, and energising the connection.
Removing or moving existing connection
infrastructure.
Activities Design and specification of the contestable Procuring and providing materials for the
to do with works. extension.
new assets Obtaining any necessary consents and Trenching and other preparation of the site.
wayleaves. Construction of the extension.
Operation, repair and maintenance of Recording of work and cable routes and
extension assets. equipment on site and the provision of this
Inspection, monitoring and testing of information to the PES.
contestable works. Reinstatement of the site, including the
circuit route.
Making provision for the installation of
metering equipment.

Table 0-1: Non-contestable and contestable activities

6.2.2. Contractor approval


Third party contractors must be approved by the PES before they can carry out
contestable works under competition in connection. If the developer wants to obtain third
party bids for contestable work, they should contact the local PES to obtain contact details
of approved contractors.

Some PESs subscribe to a contractor evaluation scheme which is run by Lloyds Register.
Under this scheme, Lloyds Register evaluates contractors on behalf of individual PESs.
However, it is the PES that decides whether or not to grant approval. If approval is
granted, the contractor is issued with a certificate jointly by Lloyds Register and the PES in
question. Developers should note that a contractor with a Lloyds Register certificate may
not be approved by all the PESs who subscribe to the scheme.

6.2.3. Adoption agreements


If the developer contracts with a third party for the provision of contestable work, they will
also be required to enter into an adoption agreement with the PES. Adoption agreements
cover arrangements for the PES to take over responsibility for the infrastructure installed
by the third party, including arrangements to ensure that the work meets the PESs
requirements. The general scope of adoption agreements is specified in the PESs
condition 8 statement, although the exact wording of a particular adoption agreement
depends on the details of the project in question.

6.2.4. Practicalities of third party connections


If the developer wishes to get third party quotations for connection work, they must first
establish:

the scope of the work that is contestable


the relevant standards for the specification of work, materials and equipment

33
details of approved contractors

It is up to the PES to define the scope of the contestable work, although they may be open
to negotiation on some points. Formal notification of the scope of the contestable work is
normally provided in the PESs connection quotation. The PES will also have preferred
design standards, and preferred specifications for materials and equipment. However
developers should be aware that the statutory requirements for connection works are set
out in the Distribution Codes, and that these requirements may be less demanding than
the PESs preferred standards.

On making the request for a connection quotation, the developer should inform the PES
of their interest in obtaining third party bids for contestable work, and ask for the quotation
to show charges for contestable work and non-contestable work seperately. The
developer can also take this opportunity to ask the PES for details of approved
contractors, and for their preferred design standards and equipment specifications.

The PES is obliged to provide the quotation within three months of the request, but will
usually respond within one month. The quotation should specify the contestable activities
and scope of supply. The developer can then invite the approved contractors to bid for
these activities.

If the developer decides to contract with a third party for contestable work, it is the
developers responsibility to ensure that the contractors work is acceptable to the PES
under the terms of the adoption agreement. So, before contracting with a third party, the
developer should ensure that the contractors bid covers all the necessary items of work,
and provides for materials and equipment which comply with the requirements of the
adoption agreement. The developer should keep the PES fully informed of the source and
specification of equipment to be procured and installed as part of the third party contract.
It may be prudent to set up a design review to enable the PES to formally review and
approve the contractors proposed scope of supply.

7.

34
Embedded Generators and their effects on Distribution
Networks
The aim of this chapter is to describe some of the key technical characteristics of
electricity generating plants, and the effects embedded generators have on distribution
networks. There are many references to technical issues which are covered in chapter 3.

7.1. Characteristics of generating plant


The electrical characteristics of the embedded generator are an important factor in the
design of the connection scheme. Clearly, the electrical capacity of the scheme should be
taken into account, together with whether the scheme exports power into the network.
The characteristics of the particular electricity generation technology should also be borne
in mind. Some of the key factors are considered here.

7.1.1. Size and rating


The size of an embedded generation scheme is normally expressed in terms of its rated
electrical power output. This is usually expressed in kilowatts (kW) or megawatts (MW).
The rated power output normally refers to the maximum continuous output which can be
sustained by the generation scheme. Some generators operate at or near their rated
output for most of the time, but others - notably wind, wave and solar installations -
generate considerably less than their rated output most of the time.

The Declared Net Capacity (DNC) of a generation scheme is a key parameter in the
renewables order process. The DNC is a measure of the expected average power output
of a generation scheme. It is calculated by multiplying the rated power output by a
specified capacity factor. The value of this capacity factor is 0.33 for wave energy
schemes, 0.43 for wind energy schemes, and 1.00 for other types of generation schemes.

As well as generating electrical power, generation schemes often generate or consume


reactive power (see Appendix D). This must be taken into account in the design of the
connection scheme, as transfers of reactive power will contribute to the total current in the
connection.

7.1.2. Export level


Many generation schemes supply some on-site demand, with the result that the maximum
power exported into the network is less than the rated power output. In such cases, it is
the maximum export level rather than the rated output which determines the required
connection capacity.

In some cases the normal on-site demand is greater than the rated output of the
generation scheme, so no power is exported. Even if this is the case, operation of the
generation scheme can have consequences for safe operation of the network under fault
conditions. Fault levels in the network will be increased, and there is a danger of islanded
operation. For this reason, the statutory requirements apply to all embedded generators,
regardless of whether they export power or not.

7.1.3. Characteristics of generation technologies


Various technologies are used for generating electricity from other forms of energy. These
generator technologies can be grouped as follows:

rotating machines coupled to synchronous AC generators


- steam turbines
- gas turbines
- diesel engines

35
- spark ignition engines
- large water turbines

rotating machines coupled to induction generators


- small water turbines
- fixed speed wind turbines

DC current sources coupled to electronic inverter systems


- fuel cells
- photo-voltaics
- some wind turbines

The electrical characteristics of synchronous generators, induction generators and


electronic inverters are quite different, particularly with respect to fault contribution (see
section 7.3.4) and harmonics (see section 7.3.7). Table 7-1 indicates the relative effect of
these devices.

Synchronous Induction Electronic


generators generators inverters
Fault contribution high low very low
Harmonic contribution very low very low significant

Table 0-1: Network effects of generation technologies


There may be more than one suitable generation technology for a particular scheme. In
such cases, it is often worth considering the relative network effects of the different
options. For example, wind energy schemes can make use of either fixed speed wind
turbines or variable speed, inverter-coupled turbines. If the fault level at a particular site is
close to the design fault level, this might tip the balance towards the selection of variable
speed machines. Their relatively low fault contribution will allow more machines to be
connected without exceeding the design fault level.

7.2. Effects of generators on distribution networks


Connecting a generation scheme to an electricity distribution network will affect the
operation and performance of the network. The PES will be concerned to maintain
network safety, and to ensure that operation of the scheme does not cause problems for
nearby electricity users. Through careful design of the connection arrangement, the
developer and the PES can ensure that the scheme does not cause problems. In many
cases, embedded generators can enhance the performance of the network.

This section provides an overview of the main technical issues relating to the connection
of generators to electricity distribution networks. An appreciation of these issues will help
the developer to understand some of the PESs concerns about the design of the
connection scheme.

7.2.1. System or network studies


All PESs maintain detailed databases describing the electrical characteristics of their
networks. This data can be used to analyse how the networks will behave under different
loading conditions, or in the event of particular faults. These case studies are usually
referred to as system studies or network studies.

Due to the complexity of the networks and the amount of data involved, system studies
are invariably carried out using specialised computer software packages known as load
flow software. Some commercially available load flow software packages are listed below:

PSS/E, from Power Technologies Ltd.

36
ERACS, from ERA Technology
DINIS, from International Computers Ltd.

Using one of these packages, a user can create a model of the network in question,
specifying the networks topology and the electrical parameters of its components. This
model can be stored as a file. The user can then specify the loading on the network and
any fault conditions or transient events, and store this data as a seperate file. Once all this
data has been entered, the user can invoke a part of the software package which carries
out the analysis and stores the results in one or more output files.

The connection of an embedded generator to a distribution network will inevitably result in


some local changes to the characteristics of the network. To evaluate the possible
consequences of these changes, the PES will usually carry out some network studies with
the embedded generator included in the network model. In carrying out these studies, the
PES engineers will be particularly interested in whether the proposed generator
connection results in any of the following:

Thermal ratings of equipment being exceeded (see section 7.3.2)


Unacceptable voltage rise in medium-voltage systems (see section 7.3.3)
Fault level limits of existing switchgear being exceeded (see section 7.3.4)
Transformers operating with reverse power flows (see section 7.3.5)

In addition the studies may consider the effects of prposed generation on the existing
protection schemes, assessing whether discrimination can be acheived and whether
changes will be needed.

The PES engineers may carry out the system studies themselves, or they may contract
the work out to a third party. Either way, the cost of the studies will be charged to the
developer. The developer is therefore the customer in this situation, and should be
provided with a full set of results from the studies. If the PES offers unreasonable terms
for providing the connection, the developer may be able to use the study results to
challenge the basis of the offer.

7.2.2. Thermal ratings


Each element of the existing distribution infrastructure - lines, cables, transformers and so
on - has a limited current-carrying capacity. If it is loaded above this limit for an extended
period of time, it will overheat. For this reason, the current-carrying capacity of the device
is referred to as its thermal rating. Loading a device beyond its thermal rating may lead to
permanent damage, or even to a dangerous event such as a fire or explosion.

Connecting a generator to a distribution system has the effect of changing the current
flows in the system. With a suitable choice of site and connection scheme, connecting a
generator can have an entirely beneficial effect, with no increases in current levels and
some significant reductions. Although this is clearly a desirable outcome, it is not always
possible or cost-effective. In many cases, the most convenient connection design results
in higher current levels in parts of the system. These new current levels may exceed the
thermal ratings of existing cables or lines. If so, the developer may opt to pay for these
existing assets to be reinforced or up-rated. However, if the cost of this reinforcement is
very high, it may be worth considering an alternative connection arrangement, possibly at
a higher voltage level. The connection of generation to high voltage systems is less likely
to be constrained by thermal ratings than connection to lower voltage systems.

37
7.2.3. Voltage control issues

7.2.3.1. Steady-state voltage rise


The operation of an embedded generator will tend to push up local voltage levels on the
system to which it is connected. This can conflict with the PESs obligation to ensure that
electricity consumers are supplied at the standard voltage, especially if the generator is
connected to a voltage-regulated circuit. Voltage regulation is used on 11kV circuits, and
on 20kV and 33kV circuits in some areas (see section 3.2.3.3). Voltage-regulated circuits
can only accomodate relatively small amounts of embedded generation. Conversely, the
connection of embedded generators to un-regulated 33kV, 66kV and 132kV systems is
unlikely to be constrained by voltage control issues.

7.2.3.2. Step voltage change


The process of starting an embedded generator can sometimes cause step changes in
voltage levels in the distribution network. These step changes are caused by inrush
currents, which may occur when transformers or induction generators are energised from
the network. Synchronous generators do not give rise to inrush currents themselves, but
their generator transformers may do so if they are energised from the network. Step
voltage changes will also occur whenever a generator is suddenly disconnected from the
network due to faults or other occurrences.

The acceptable level and frequency of step voltage changes are specified in the Electricity
Associations Engineering Recommendation P28.

Where induction generators are used, such as in fixed speed wind turbines, they are
normally fitted with soft starters. These devices limit inrush currents to roughly the same
level as the normal rated current. This reduces the magnitude of the step voltage changes
which occur on starting.

7.2.4. Fault level contribution


Connecting a generator to a distribution network has the effect of increasing the fault
levels in the network close to the point of connection. The additional fault level at the point
of connection due to the presence of the generator is referred to as the fault contribution
of the generator. If the local fault level is already close to the design fault level of the
system, the fault contribution of the generator may take the fault level over the limit.

This problem may be tackled in a number of ways. It may be possible to use a different
type of electrical source with an inherently lower fault contribution. If the connection
scheme includes step-up transformers, it may be possible to specify high impedance
transformers. Alternatively, a reactor can be included in the connection scheme.

7.2.5. Reverse power flows


Since the 1950s, the design and operation of most electricity distribution networks in the
UK has been based on a key assumption - that power always flows from high voltage
systems to lower voltage systems. However, this rule is being undermined by the recent
development of renewable electricity generation, combined heat and power, and waste-to-
energy schemes. In some cases, the connection schemes for these embedded
generators result in reverse power flows in distribution transformers. In these cases, the
generator exports more than enough power to supply all the loads on the system to which
it is connected. The surplus power is transferred back through the distribution
transformer, and is fed into a higher voltage system.

The possibility of reverse power flows in transformers can sometimes present a problem
with the operation of automatically controlled tap changers which are fitted to the
transformers to provide voltage regulation on the low voltage side of the transformer (see

38
section 3.2.3.3). The critical issue is the type of voltage control scheme which is used to
operate these tap changers. Most of the commonly-used voltage control schemes operate
perfectly well with reverse power flows, but there are problems with certain schemes.

7.2.6. Voltage flicker


Voltage flicker refers to rapid fluctuations in the voltage level on a distribution system.
These fluctuations can be very annoying for local electricity users, as they cause light
bulbs to flicker instead of producing a steady light. Fluctuations at frequencies close to
8Hz cause the most annoyance.

The issue of voltage flicker is often raised in connection with wind energy schemes. This
is because one or two early wind turbine projects caused voltage flicker on the distribution
systems to which they were connected. As a result, many people in the electricity industry
still associate wind energy schemes with voltage flicker. In fact, the vast majority of wind
energy schemes have not caused problems with flicker.

The classic danger situation for voltage flicker is when one or two fixed-speed wind
turbines are connected to a weak rural network with low fault levels. The power output of
wind turbines varies rapidly due to wind turbulence, and on a system with low fault level
this can result in voltage fluctuations. A wind farm with several turbines is less likely to
cause flicker, as the variations in the power outputs of the different turbines tend to cancel
out. Furthermore, a system with healthy fault levels is unlikely to suffer from flicker as a
result of the connection of one or two of wind turbines.

The potential to cause voltage flicker is peculiar to fixed-speed wind turbines, and is due
to the electrical characteristics of induction generators. Variable-speed wind turbines are
less likely to cause flicker. Gensets and other types of generators operating at constant
power output do not cause flicker.

The Engineering Associations Engineering Recommendation P28 specifies


recommended limits on flicker in distribution networks.

7.2.7. Harmonics
Ideally, the voltage at any point in a distribution system should have a perfectly sinusoidal,
50Hz waveform. However, this is rarely achieved in practice. Rectified power supplies,
compact flourescent lights, variable speed motor drives and other switched loads
introduce harmonic components, which distort the waveform as shown in figure 7.1.
Harmonics can also be introduced by inverter-coupled embedded generation schemes
using technologies such as fuel cells and photo-voltaics.

Limits on the level of harmonic currents that generators and loads are permitted to inject
into distribution networks are specified in the Electricity Associations Engineering
Recommendation G5/3. This document also specifies permitted limits on the level of
harmonic voltage distortion at any point in a distribution network.

7.2.8. Voltage and Current Unbalance


The connection of unbalanced loads and generation to the distribution network can result
in unbalanced currents and voltages, as shown in figure 7.2. However, the vast majority of
embedded generation schemes use 3-phase generators or inverters which inject
balanced currents into the distribution network. Such generation schemes do not increase
levels of voltage unbalance in the network. In fact, embedded generators which use 3-
phase induction generators can actually reduce voltage unbalance. Limits on the level of
voltage unbalance in public distribution networks are specified in the Electricity
Associations Engineering Recommendation P29.

39
8.

40
Protection, Earthing and Safety
The aim of this chapter is to describe the normal arrangements for protection and earthing
of embedded generators and the connected distribution system, focusing particularly on
the division of responsibilities regarding switchgear and other assets at the point of
supply. Other issues relating to site safety are also discussed.

8.1. Agreement of earthing and protection design


The PES has a responsibility to ensure that the generator installation will not adversely
affect the distribution network and other customers, before they allow it to be connected to
the distribution network. For this reason, they have a legitimate interest in the the design
of the protection and earthing systems for the installation, and in other safety issues such
as the provision of the emergency trip button. It is therefore essential for the developer or
their engineers to obtain agreement with the PES on these arrangements, before placing
contracts for the supply and installation of equipment.

The best way to obtain this agreement is to arrange a meeting with the PES. At this
meeting, the developer can table a single line diagram describing their proposed design.
This provides a useful focus for the meeting, enabling the PES to understand the
developers proposals and to make concrete suggestions for changes. Scope of supply
issues can also be clarified at the meeting. Written confirmation of the agreed design and
scopes of supply should be obtained after the meeting.

8.1.1. Who is the customer?


In this chapter, there are various references to the customer, customer assets and so
on. This reflects the common use of this terminology in other relevant documents, and in
the industry generally. In this context, the customer refers to the developer, and
customer assets are assets which are owned by the developer - ie. assets on the
developers side of the point of supply. It should be noted that the developer may be
required to supply and install some items which are not strictly customer assets. Of
course, this is particularly true in the case of third party connections.

8.2. Protection

8.2.1. Switchgear
One or more circuit breakers must be installed at the point of supply to the generator
installation, to allow isolation of the generator from the PESs distribution network. As a
minimum, the PES will require that a circuit breaker is installed on their side of the point of
supply, to allow them to disconnect the generation plant from the distribution system if
necessary. However, it is not uncommon for a second circuit breaker to be installed on
the developers side of the point of supply (see figure 8.1). This second breaker is
commonly referred to as the customers circuit breaker. It provides a back-up to the PESs
breaker, and also allows the developer to provide their own isolation and earthing for
maintenance of the generator installation.

In some cases it may be possible to make cost savings by omitting the second circuit
breaker. However, if there is only one breaker, PES engineers have to be called out to
provide isolation and earthing of the generator installation, and the PES will charge for this
service. Thus, the initial cost saving must be weighed against these ongoing costs.

The generator installation may include additional circuit breakers, isolators or other
switchgear, to allow isolation of individual machines or transformers.

41
8.2.1.1. Protection of customer assets by PES circuit breaker and protection
Under all circumstances the PESs circuit breaker will protect some customer assets,
even if this is just a short section of busbar between the PESs circuit breaker and the
customers circuit breaker. If there is no customers circuit breaker, the PESs circuit
breaker may protect transformer cables (tails) and transformer windings. These
arrangements must be agreed with the PES. Furthermore, it is the customers
responsibility to ensure that their assets are adequately protected, and that they satisfy
the Electricity Supply Regulations.

8.2.2. Short circuit protection


The developer must install protection systems to detect and isolate faults in the generator
installation. As a minimum, these systems should protect the generators, transformers
and cables against the following conditions:

over-current
earth fault

Additional protection may be required, depending on the design of the installation.


Guidance on the protection of generator installations is provided by the Electricity
Associations Engineering Technical Report 113.

8.2.3. G59 protection


Every embedded generator connection arrangement must include a suite of protection
systems which is commonly referred to as G59 protection. This name is derived from the
name of the document which specifies these protection requirements - the Electricity
Associations Engineering Recommendation G59/1. This document stricly applies only to
generation under 5MW and connected at 20kV or below. However, the same protection is
usually fitted for all embedded generator connections.

G59 protection includes systems for the detection of the following conditions at the
generator installation:

over-voltage
under-voltage
over-frequency
under-frequency
loss of mains
and possibly:
neutral voltage displacement (NVD)
reverse power

A set of relays must be installed at the point of supply to detect these conditions.
Indicative settings for these relays are specified in Engineering Recommendation G59/1.
However, the document is a recommendation rather than a standard, and it may be
appropriate to apply different settings to suit the specific circumstances.

The relays which form the G59 protection are normally within the developers scope of
supply, and are used to trip the customers circuit breaker or the generator circuit
breakers.

8.2.3.1. Loss of mains protection


In the event of an electrical fault in a distribution network, circuit breakers in the network
are tripped in order to isolate the fault from the supply. The operation of these circuit
breakers results in a part of the network being disconnected from the main grid supply. If

42
one or more embedded generators are connected to this part of the network, it is possible
that these generators could continue to operate, supplying power to loads which are
connected to the same section of the network. This scenario, illustrated in figure 8.2, is
referred to as islanding.

Although some PESs deliberately use islanded generators to maintain supplies to users
during network outages, unplanned islanded operation of embedded generators is
generally regarded as unsafe and undesirable. To prevent unplanned islanding, all
embedded generators must be fitted with loss of mains protection, which aims to detect
when the generator is islanded and to disconnect it from the network.

Loss of mains protection is commonly implemented using rate of change of frequency


relays, usually referred to as RoCoF relays (pronounced rock-off). Alternatively, vector
shift relays can be used. There are some other types of relays which can be used to
detect loss of mains.

Although loss of mains protection systems will detect islanding in most cases, there is no
system which can guarantee to detect it in all cases. Problems can arise when the
islanded part of the network includes loads which closely match the output of the
embedded generator. It is extremely difficult for loss of mains protection systems to detect
islanding in this situation. The only way to guarantee loss of mains protection is to provide
inter-tripping with the PESs circuit breaker at the primary sub-station. This arrangement
means that the generator is automatically disconnected from the PESs network if the
local network becomes disconnected from the grid.

8.2.4. G75 protection


Electricity Association Engineering Recommendation G75 specifies certain protection
requirements for larger embedded generating plants, specifically those with outputs of
over 5MW or connected above 20kV. G75 does not give specific recommendations for
relay settings, but gives guidelines as to operational requirements.

It should be noted that some of the recommendations in G75 may not be applicable to
embedded generation projects in Scotland.

8.2.5. Auxiliary supplies


The protection relays are normally powered by batteries, which are continuously topped
up by a charger connected to an AC supply. The battery bank should be sized to provide
enough standby time to cover suppy failures or prolonged outages.

The top-up supply may be provided in various ways:

from a separate LV supply provided by the PES


from an auxiliary transformer connected to the developers HV system
from the developers LV system

This decision has implications for metering in the case of renewable generation schemes
selling their output under the NFFO or SRO orders. If a separate PES supply is used to
provide power to the site for battery top-up or any other purpose, this power may have to
be netted off the power exported from the site for the purpose of calculating payments to
the generator under the renewable order scheme.

43
8.3. Site earthing

8.3.1. Site earth electrode


The developer is normally required to provide a site earth electrode and main earthing
terminal which will be used for earth bonding of the PES-owned assets on the site. This
earthing system is normally used to earth some of the customers assets as well. In
general, the resistance of this earth electrode should be less than 10 ohms. The earthing
system must be designed to ensure that the installation is safe under earth fault
conditions, especially with regard to step and touch potentials.

The PES may supply an earth electrode connection through a cable sheath. However, the
continuity of a single sheath cannot be assumed, so the requirement to install a site earth
electrode still applies. The cable sheath should be bonded to this electrode.

The reader should refer to the Electricity Supply Regulations and BS 7671 for guidance on
earthing systems and terminology.

8.3.2. PES neutral to earth connection


The design of the system to which the generation scheme is connected (ie. the PESs
11kV, 20kV or 33kV system) has an impact on the earth fault protection of the generator
installation. This system will normally have one point of connection from neutral to earth at
the PESs primary substation. The method used to make this connection is a key
determinant of the earth fault currents which might occur.

Solidly earthed - The neutral point is solidly bonded to earth. This can result in high
earth fault currents.

Resistance earthed - The neutral point is bonded to earth through a resistance to limit
earth fault currents. Most PES networks are earthed using this method.

Arc suppression coil earthed - The neutral point is connected to earth through
inductive coils which are tuned to match the network capacitance. This limits the fault
current that flows in the event of an earth fault. These systems are designed to operate
for extensive periods with an earth fault in place. This displacement of the neutral point
places a higher stress on any components (especailly cables and transformers)
connected to it. The design of any such components on the customers system should
be checked against this scenario. Alternatively customers may wish to fit their own
neutral voltage displacement protection and alarm or trip in such circumstances.

8.3.3. Customers neutral to earth connections


The customer is responsible for providing neutral to earth connections for any LV systems
at the site, where these systems are not connected directly to a PES LV system. This
generally applies wherever an HV/LV transformer is provided by the customer.

Neutral earthing arrangements of LV systems vary depending on the type of generators


which are used in the generation scheme. With induction machines, the neutral to earth
connection is normally made at the generator transformer. This arrangement can also be
used with synchronous generators, although some generator contractors insist on making
the connection at the generator. Where multiple neutral to earth links are used, care must
be taken regarding circulating currents.

8.3.4. Seperation or bonding of HV and LV earths


For sites with both HV and LV systems, there are two options for the provision of earth
electrodes for the two systems:

44
Provide two separate earth electrodes for the HV and LV systems.
Provide a common earth electrode (or bond HV and LV electrodes together)

In generation projects with individual generation units of less than 2MW, it is often cost-
effective to use a common earthing system for the customers LV and HV systems. In
such cases, it is especially important to ensure that the requirements of the Electricity
Supply Regulations are met. (The relevant section is Part II, 5d(i).) In particular, the
overall resistance of the common earth electrode must be no greater than 1 ohm.

8.3.5. Hot sites


At some sites, high soil resistivity can result in high local earth potentials in the event of
earth faults. If the local earth potential is likely to exceed 430V, the site is defined as a hot
site. (The threshold potential is 650V if it can be shown that earth faults will be cleared in
less than 200 milliseconds.) There are special requirements for the isolation of incoming
telephone lines and other signal or control lines at hot sites. These include the provision of
isolating links, opto-couplers and the ducting of incoming cables for at least 100m.

The PES and the customer should jointly determine whether the site will be hot. This is
done by calculating the local earth potential which would occur in the event of an earth
fault. This is a function of the earth fault current and the earth electrode resistance. The
earth fault current is determined by the PES method of neutral earth connection at the
primary substation, and the earth electrode resistance is normally measured by the
customer.

8.3.6. Equipotential bonding


The customer is responsible for all equipotential bonding and protective conductors to
comply with the IEE Wiring Regulations.

8.4. Safety issues

8.4.1. Emergency trip button


The Electricity Supply Regulations require that an emergency trip button is provided at the
point of supply, to enable the customer to trip the PES-owned circuit breaker in the event
of an emergency. If the PES installs the connection assets, they may include the
emergency stop button in their scope of supply. However, some PESs do not provide the
emergency stop button, in which case the developer must provide it. In some PES areas,
the developer is required to provide a relay and battery as part of the emergency stop
function.

The emergency stop button is normally located in the substation where the PESs circuit
breaker is installed. The button must be located in an area of the substation which can be
accessed by the developers personnel. Sometimes it is appropriate to relay duplicates of
this stop button function to other parts of the generation site such as the generator control
rooms or cubicles.

8.4.2. Isolation and earthing


If the developer wishes to undertake maintenance work on electrical equipment in the
generator installation, this equipment must be isolated and earthed. Isolation and earthing
of some parts of the generator installation will involve opening a circuit breaker at the
point of supply. This is a straightforward process if the developer has their own circuit
breaker in addition to the PESs circuit breaker. However, if there is no customers circuit
breaker, these assets can only be isolated by opening the PESs circuit breaker. The PES
will charge the developer for the cost of sending out an engineer to provide isolation and

45
earthing, and may not be able to provide this service on demand. However, some
developers choose to accept these drawbacks in order to avoid the initial cost of the extra
circuit breaker.

9.

46
Getting Connected
The aim of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive list of the activities which are
involved in connecting an embedded generator to the PESs network. This list is
structured using the three phases (design, build, and testing and commissioning) which
were outlined in chapter 2. Figure 9.1 shows how these phases are related in time. The
timing of some other activities, such as wayleaving and documentation, are also indicated.

The activities described in this chapter apply to a new connection involving an extension
to the PES system and the provision of a new point of supply. Most of these activities are
not needed if the generation scheme is to be connected to the network via an existing
point of supply.

9.1. The design phase

9.1.1. Data gathering


The developer may be able to gather some information on the PESs network from maps,
or from other published documents. Site visits can be particularly useful for identifying
overhead lines and major substations. This background information may be useful in
planning the project and in opening discussions with the PES.

9.1.2. Informal contacts with the PES


Preliminary contacts between the developer and the PES provide a valuable opportunity
to discuss available connection options. These discussions can be held on the phone,
although it is usually better to arrange a meeting if this is possible. The developer will
need to outline their plans in order to give the PES personnel an idea of the type of
generation scheme being proposed, its location, the planned generating capacity,
operational regime etc. In turn, the PES personnel may be able to provide some general
information about the local distribution network infrastructure, and to give their views on
the most appropriate connection options. It may be possible to discuss the different
limitations and requirements of these connection options, as well as the associated costs.

At this stage, it may be worth discussing the PESs own plans for developing their
network. They may have plans to upgrade the local distribution infrastructure, in which
case it may be possible to accommodate the proposed generation scheme at very little
extra cost. Even if no major works of this kind are planned, the PES may be willing to
consider re-configuring the network in order to accommodate the scheme.

9.1.3. Request network data


Information about the capacity and loading of the PESs network can be useful in
identifying promising connection options. The developer can ask the PES to provide this
information, under the PES license (see chapter 4). Some PESs are reluctant to provide
information about their networks, but some will provide detailed information including
maps, network diagrams, maximum and minimum loads, complex network impedances,
fault levels, switchgear ratings, thermal ratings, network configurations and open points.
(A typical example of the data provided by PESs is shown in Appendix A.) PESs are
allowed to make a charge to cover the cost of providing this information. Some PESs
provide it free of charge, and others make a nominal charge of about 100.

9.1.4. Provide data about the generation scheme


Only a general description of the planned generation scheme will be needed in preliminary
discussions with the PES. However, more details of the generating plant and its operating
regime will have to be provided as the project progresses. In practice, the data required
will depend on what studies need to be done and the familiarity of the PES engineers with

47
the type of generation involved. However, the PES may ask the developer to provide all
the data which is specified in the Distribution Code.

9.1.5. Agree preliminary connection scheme


The developer and the PES should come to a preliminary agreement on the most suitable
connection arrangement for the proposed generation scheme. In many cases, it is clear
which is the most suitable arrangement, and this can be agreed at the first meeting
between the developer and the PES. In other cases two or more connection options may
need to be considered, and further studies or costings undertaken.

9.1.6. Establish connection budget


Once the connection scheme is agreed it should be possible to establish a budget for the
connection costs. The developer may be able to prepare this budget themselves. If not, it
can be provided by the PES or by the developers consultant. The PES may make a
charge for providing a connection budget and this should be agreed beforehand.

9.1.7. Make connection application


When the other pieces of the generation project are in place or close to completion, the
developer will need to make a formal connection application. The PES must provide a
connection offer within three months of receiving this application. However, they may ask
the developer to make an up-front payment to cover the costs of system studies and other
design work which is involved in preparing the connection offer. This payment will usually
be deducted from the connection charge if the scheme goes ahead.

If the developer is considering a third party connection, the scope of the contestable and
non-contestable works should be agreed with the PES. To enable the PESs offer to be
compared with third party connection offers, the developer may request that the PESs
connection offer includes separate costs for contestable and non contestable works.

9.1.8. Agree single line diagram


A preliminary single line diagram of the generation scheme should be discussed with PES
engineers - ideally at a meeting. This discussion should cover the proposed location of
protection relays, VTs, CTs, metering, switchgear, transformers, synchronising breakers,
and points of isolation and earthing. Issues such as responsibility for protection and
earthing, provision of relays, and co-ordination of protection should also be discussed at
this meeting. Agreement on these issues at this stage will avoid unnecessary difficulties
later on in the process.

9.2. Planning and wayleaving activities

9.2.1. Planning
Developers should be aware of the planning implications of the grid connection when they
are advancing the planning application for their generation project. In addition to planning
permission for the generation plant itself, permission will also need to be obtained for
overhead lines and new substations which may be off-site.

9.2.1.1. Section 37 consent


Section 37of the Electricity Act requires special consents to be obtained from the DTI for
the construction of overhead lines. This requirement does not apply to overhead lines
which supply a single customer, or to lines operating at a voltage of 20kV or less.

The procedure for obtaining a section 37 consent is described in a Joint Circular titled
Electricity Generating Stations and Overhead Lines, issued in 1990. This Joint Circular
can be obtained from HMSO. It contains models for forms which the developer must

48
prepare and submit to the local planning authority. The planning authority will complete
another part of the form (this can take up to two months) before returning it. The
developer then submits the form to the Energy Section of the DTI (previously the
Department of Energy) for their consideration.

9.2.2. Wayleaving
Negotiating wayleaves for connection infrastructure can be a delicate matter, and it is
often difficult to forecast how long it will take. To make matters worse, this process is
often on the critical path for the whole project. If new wayleaves are needed, the
developer should try to ensure that discussions with landowners get under way as soon
as possible.

It is normal practice for the PES to obtain the necessary wayleaves or easements for the
PES-owned connection assets, even if these assets are to be installed by a third party.
The PES will usually aim to obtain these wayleaves at standard rates. Negotiations
between the PES and the landowner can take a long time. If progress is slow, there may
be opportunities for the developer to work with the PES in order to secure a deal with the
landowner.

9.2.3. Review point of supply


Instead of asking the PES to provide a point of supply close to the site, the developer can
opt to install lines or cables to connect the site to a more distant point of supply. This can
save time by avoiding the need for the PES to negotiate wayleaves with the landowner. It
can also result in a significant reduction in the PESs connection charge and associated
O&M costs. Against these benefits, the developer must weigh the cost of installation and
maintenance of the line, and the fact that the electrical losses in the line will reduce the
metered output from the generation scheme.

The remote point of supply may be a useful option to consider where:


there are access problems for the PES to reach a substation on site.
the developer would rather be in total control of costs and timescales.
the cost savings are significant.

9.2.4. Starting negotiations


Certain wayleaving or planning issues may be identified as potential critical path items
even before the connection quotation is completed or accepted. Work to resolve planning
issues and to negotiate wayleaves for developer-owned infrastructure should be started
as soon as possible. If wayleaves are to be obtained by the PES, the developer can often
persuade them to start preliminary work on these negotiations for payment up to an
agreed fee limit.

9.3. The build phase

9.3.1. Project management


The developer is responsible for the project management of the generation scheme and
as such must consider the overall programme, communicating and co-ordinating with all
the different contractors who may be involved and ensuring that the project is compliant
with the relevant Regulations and legislation.

9.3.1.1. Construction Design & Management (CD&M) Regulations


The developer is responsible for ensuring that the project complies with the CD&M
Regulations. These regulations specify that a Principal Contractor and a Planning
Supervisor should be appointed to oversee the project, review meetings should be held,
and all contractors should be asked to provide method statements and risk assessments.

49
It should be noted that the PES is a contractor to the project, and they should therefore
fulfill the same requirements as any other contractor with respect to the CD&M
Regulations.

Under the CD&M Regulations the designer is responsible for ensuring that the project
can be operated safely. The developer should ensure that this responsibility is assigned
to, and accepted by, an organisation with the appropriate skills and expertise. This
organisation may be the developer themselves, a contractor or a consulting engineer.

9.3.1.2. Other regulations


The developer is responsible for ensuring that their installation complies with relevant
safety legislation including the appropriate parts of the Electricity Supply Regulations and
the Electricity at Work Act. The PES is responsible for the safety of their own connection
assets, but not for the developers assets.

9.3.2. Civil works


It is normal practice for all civil works at site to be carried out by the developer or their
contractors. This includes the provision of foundations for new substations and other
equipment which is to be provided by the PES. (The PES may provide civil works where
these are required at an existing substation.) The PES will usually provide foundation
drawings for this equipment, perhaps in a format that the developer can modify to suit the
ground conditions at the particular site. It should be noted that the design of foundations
for outdoor substation compounds can involve a considerable amount of work.

The PES may want to inspect the civil works at completion, or at several stages
throughout construction in the case of large foundations.

9.3.3. Customer works and equipment


The developer is of course responsible for the supply and installation of the generation
plant, access roads, accommodation, operational facilities etc. This normally includes all
electrical infrastructure up to the point of supply. It should not be assumed that the
generation plant purchased from a generator supplier will interface directly with the PES
assets without the need for any other equipment.

9.3.4. Earthing
Responsibility for provision of earth electrodes, bonding and main earth terminals should
have been agreed during the design phase. However, further detail will inevitably emerge
as the project progresses, and this may require further discussion of solutions and
responsibilities between the developer and the PES.

9.3.5. Telecommunications
Telephone lines will normally be required at the site of the generation scheme for
purposes of metering, communications (substation phone to call PES control and
operation centre) and possibly for protection. Getting these lines installed is normally the
developers responsibility. This process can take a long time, especially if the site is in a
remote location.

If the site is a hot site, the developer should inform the provider of the telephone lines
(usually British Telecom). This is because special precautions are required to ensure that
high local earth potentials do not interfere with the operation of the telecommunications
system.

50
9.3.6. Metering
The developer is responsible for appointing a meter operator to install and maintain
metering equipment at the point of supply. Other metering functions - such as data
collection and aggregation - are outside the scope of this Guide, but developers should
ensure that they understand their responsibilities with regard to these functions.

9.4. Documentation
Documentation relating to the generation scheme and connection arrangement should be
compiled as the project progresses. Some documents are needed to record agreements
between the developer and the PES on issues such as the settings for protection relays.
Other documents are needed to provide useful information such as nomenclature and
contact details.

9.4.1. Nomenclature
The naming and numbering of all equipment should be agreed between the developer
and the PES at an early stage in the project. This ensures that references to items of
equipment in correspondence, drawings and safety documentation are unambiguous and
clear. This nomenclature should also be used for labelling of equipment at site.

9.4.2. Health and Safety File


The Health and Safety File is a requirement of the CD&M Regulations. It should contain
all relevant design information to enable the safe operation, development and
decommissioning of the project. On completion of the project, the file should be passed to
the project owner.

9.4.3. Responsibility schedule


For connections at high voltage (ie. over 1kV), the PES is required to produce a
responsibility schedule covering all assets at the ownership boundary. (This requirement
is specified in the Distribution Code.) For each item of equipment, the responsibility
schedule should indicate who owns it and who is responsible for its operation,
maintenance, fault investigation and testing. This information is normally provided in the
form of a table.

9.4.4. Contact details


A schedule of contact details must be posted at the point of supply. This should include
contacts for both the PES and the operator of the generation scheme. Both parties should
appoint one or more competent persons who will attend the site in an emergency.

9.4.5. Protection settings


Settings for the protection relays should be agreed between the developer and the PES. A
record of these agreed settings should be kept by both parties.

9.4.6. Site safety rules and safe working procedures


The developer is responsible for ensuring that there are written site safety rules and safe
working procedures to cover all operations and eventualities on site following
energisation. These rules are in addtion to site safety rules applicable during the
construction phase which should be made available to all contractors working on the site,
including the PES.

9.4.7. Hand-over certificates


When a contractor completes a section of their works, they should issue the developer
with a hand over certificate. The purpose of this certificate is to certify fitness for testing or
energisation and pass ownership, control and operation to the developer.

51
9.4.8. Connection agreement
The connection agreement is normally signed during the build phase of the project. Early
agreement and signing has the advantage that the terms of the connection are defined.
However, signing can sometimes be delayed due to protracted negotiations over terms.
The PES will not normally energise the connection until the connection agreement has
been signed by both parties.

9.5. Testing and commissioning phase

9.5.1. Clearance certificates


Before the connection is energised, the developer may require contractors to sign
clearance certificates. These certificates provide the developer with a written assurance
that staff and subcontractors under the contractors control no longer have access to
certain areas, and in particular to the equipment to be energised.

9.5.2. Safe working areas, procedures and warning notices


Before energisation, a thorough inspection must be completed and equipment locked off,
cordoned off and labelled as live. Permit to work procedures must be initiated at this stage
even if equipment is not yet energised. It is the developers responsibility to set up and
manage permit to work procedures covering the customer assets.

9.5.3. Pre-commissioning tests


The PES will commission and test the PES assets, and the developer or their engineer
will commission and test the customer assets. The PES may ask to witness certain tests
of customer assets, or at least to see the test results. These tests may include earth
electrode resistance measurements, tests on protection relays, pressure tests on cables
and switchgear, and tests on integrity of connections.

9.5.4. Energisation
The connection will be energised by the PES using their safety rules.

9.5.5. Commissioning
Following energisation, the developer is in a position to commission his plant. If the
generation scheme uses synchronous machines, the PES may wish to witness the first
synchronisation of these machines. The PES may want to perform some protection tests,
including G59 tests, with the generation operating at various power levels.

9.6. Operation

9.6.1. Provision of personnel


In the case of un-manned sites, the PES will require the developer to nominate a
competent person to be available to attend site. This person may be required to attend
site at an hours notice. This may be reasonable in some cases, but in other cases it may
be possible to negotiate a longer time period.

9.6.2. Posting of notices/information


The following documents must be posted at the point of supply. This is normally in the
substation building:
Contact numbers for competent persons (for both PES and customer)
Responsibility schedule
Single line diagram.
Protection settings

52
It is also recommended that site safety rules and operational procedures are posted with
these.

9.6.3. Safe working procedures and personnel


Under the CD&M Regulations, it is the responsibility of the designer to ensure that the
installation can be safely operated, and to specify safe working procedures. These
procedures should be subject to regular review, and may need to be modified in the light
of experience.

It is the responsibility of the owner of the system to follow these procedures, and to
provide, designate and train the necessary competent personnel and define their
operational responsibilities and capabilities.

9.6.4. Future modifications


The developer should inform the PES if they are planning to modify or extend the
installation. Any changes should be discussed and agreed with the PES. If changes are
made, these changes should be documented in the Health and Safety File, and revised
documents should be posted at the point of supply. Such changes would include changes
to the generation plant, protection settings, electrical system characteristics or controls.

10.

53
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations
active power - combination of alternating currents and voltages which result in a transfer
of energy across an electrical system.

adoption agreement - an agreement between a developer and a PES, concerning the


transfer into PES ownership of infrastructure supplied and installed by a third party.

approved contractor - a contractor which has been approved by the PES for carrying out
third party connection work.

condition 8 statement - document published by a PES outlining the basis of charges for
connection to the PESs distribution system.

connection agreement - an agreement setting out terms relating to a connection with the
PES Distribution System (excluding any such agreement with NGC).

connection voltage - voltage level at which a site is connected to the transmission or


distribution system.

CDM Regulations - The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994.


Regulations specifying the duties of designers to minimise health and safety hazards
involved in the construction of buildings and other installations.

DGES - Director General of Electricity Supply, based at OFFER.

DNC - the maximum power available for export on a continuous basis minus any power
imported by the station from the network to run its own plant.

declared net capacity - see DNC.

determination (of disputes) - Any dispute arising under certain sections of the Electricity
Act 1989 between a PES and a person requiring a supply of electricity, can be referred to
the DGES for determination. These determinations are then published as a matter of
public record, and then forms case law on the subject.

ESI - Electricity Supply Industry.

embedded generator - a generator which is connected to a PESs distribution network


rather than to the transmission grid. Embedded generation is generally a lot smaller than
plant connected to the transmission grid as the maximum operating voltage of the
distribution network is 33kV.

extension - It is sometimes necessary to extend the PESs distribution network in order to


provide a connection for a new user or generator of electricity. Network extensions are
often required for generation schemes in remote locations.

fault contribution - the contribution of an electrical source, such as an embedded


generator, to the total fault levels in a distribution network.

G59/1 - The name of the Electricity Associations Engineering Recommendation which


contains details of protection arrangements applicable to generators under 5MW and
connected at 20kV or below.

54
G75 - The name of the Electricity Associations Engineering Recommendation which
specifies certain protection requirements for larger embedded generating plants,
specifically those with outputs of over 5MW or connected above 20kV

hot site - a site where an earth fault can result in a local earth potential exceeding
specified levels (normally 430V, or 650V if the fault clearance time is less than 200
milliseconds).

islanding - islands of supply are discrete parts of a distribution system which are capable
of generating and maintaining a stable supply of electricity to the customers within those
discrete parts without any connections to the rest of the system.

line drop compensation - a voltage control scheme (used for the control of voltage levels
in distribution networks) which compensates for the change in voltage drop in a long line
as the current in the line changes.

loss of grid - the loss of an electrical connection between a section of a distribution


network and the main grid supply, often due to the operation of circuit breakers.

mains paralleling - the operation of an electrical generator while connected in parallel with
the main grid supply.

negative reactance compounding - a voltage control scheme (used for the control of
voltage levels in distribution networks) which allows the voltage-regulated system to be
fed from two or more transformers in parallel.

non-pooled generator - a generator which does not trade electricity through the Pool.

OFFER - the Office of Electricity Regulation

P&SA - Pooling and Settlement Agreement: signed by the market participants, it sets out,
inter alia, the rules and procedures for the operation of the electricity Pool of England and
Wales and for the operation of a settlement system.

PES - Public Electricity Supplier, the holder of a public electricity supply licence.

point of common coupling - the point in the distribution network where the lines or cables
which are used solely to provide the supply to one customer (eg. a generation scheme)
are connected to infrastructure which is also used to provide supplies to other customers.

Pool - the electricity trading market, the rules and procedures of which are contained in
the Pooling and Settlement Agreement.

pooled generator - A generator which trades through the Pool. Includes all generators with
a DNC less than 100MW but with an export greater than 50MW, and those with a DNC
greater than 100MW and an export greater than 10MW.

Pooling and Settlement Agreement - see P&SA.

protection system - the provisions for detecting abnormal conditions in a system and
initiating fault clearance or actuating signals or indications.

REC - Regional Electricity Company.

reactive power - combination of alternating currents and voltages which does not result in
any transfer of energy across an electrical system.

55
reinforcement - Reinforcement work is usually required to increase the electrical capacity
of those parts of the network which form part of the electrical path from the generator into
the network. Other work might include upgrading the switchgear at a substation some
distance from the proposed generation scheme, due to the increase in fault level caused
by the connection of the generator.

supplier - a person or company providing a supply of electricity. This could be the local
PES, a second tier supplier or an exempt supplier.

thermal rating - the current-carrying capacity of a cable, an overhead line or any other
electrical infrastructure, which is determined by the heating effect arising from electrical
losses.

third party connection - connection provided by a contractor other than the local PES.

11.

56
Index
Generation business, 4
Adoption agreements, 31 Generator, 9
Approved contractors, 31 Generator technologies, 33
Auxiliary supplies, 41 Grid Codes, 22
Grid supply point, 13
Budget estimate, 7
Harmonics, 37
Capacity bagging, 27 Health and Safety File, 49
CD&M Regulations, 48 High voltage. See Voltage:HV
Civil works, 48 Hot site, 43
Clearance certificates, 50 Hydro-Electric, 4
Competition in connection, 7, 19, 30
Condition 8 statement, 18 Islanding, 41
Connection agreement, 6, 19 Isolation and earthing, 44
Connection business, 5
Connection charges Licenses, 11
allocation of costs, 26 Load flow software, 35
initial costs, 25 Loss of mains protection, 41
multiple generation schemes, 27 Low voltage. See Voltage:LV
O&M costs, 25
refunds, 28 Mains paralleling, 4
sharing, 28 Maintenance agreement, 6
Connection costs, 24 Master Connection and Use of System
Contestable work, 7 Agreement. See MCUSA
Contestable works, 30 MCUSA, 10
Customer assets, 39 medium voltage. See Voltage:MV
customer's circuit breaker, 39 Metering, 27
protection by PES circuit breaker, 40 Metering Codes of Practice, 13

Declared Net Capacity. See DNC National grid, 13


Determination, 11 National Grid Company. See NGC
DGES, 10 Network extension, 25
Director General of Electricity Supply. See Network reinforcement, 25
DGES Network studies, 34
Distribution business, 4 Neutral to earth connection
Distribution Code, 6 HV system, 42
Distribution Codes, 20 LV systems, 42
DNC, 33 NFFO, 28
NGC, 9, 10
Earth electrode, 42 Nomenclature, 49
Electricity Act, 10 Non-contestable works, 30
Electricity Supply Industry, 9 Non-Pooled generators, 10
Embedded generator, 4
Emergency trip button, 43 OFFER, 11
Export level, 33 Office of Electricity Regulation. See OFFER
Ownership boundary, 5
Fault contribution, 36
Fault currents, 15 P&SA, 9
Fault levels, 16 PES, 4
design fault levels, 16 PES Licences, 18
Faults, 15 Point of common coupling, 25
Point of supply, 5
G59 protection, 40 Pool, 9
G75 protection, 41 Pooled generators, 10

57
Pooling and Settlement Agreement. See Tap changers, 15, 37
P&SA Tariff support allowances, 18
Protection systems, 15 Technical and operating agreement, 6
Public Electricity Supplier. See PES Telephone lines, 49
Thermal rating, 35
Rated power output, 33 Third party connection, 7
Reactive power, 33 Third party connections, 30
Re-closers, 15 Timescales, 8
RECs, 9 Top-up supplies, 26
Regional Electricity Companies. See RECs
Regulator, 10 Use of system charges, 9
Responsibility schedule, 49 Use-of-system charges, 26
Reverse power flows, 36
Voltage
ScottishPower, 4 HV, 14
Second tier supplier, 12 LV, 14
Secretary of State, 10 MV, 14
Section 37 consent, 47 standard nominal voltage levels, 14
Site safety rules, 50 steady-state voltage rise, 36
SRO, 28 step voltage change, 36
Stand-by supplies, 26 voltage regulation, 14
Statement of system capacity and loading, Voltage flicker, 37
19 Voltage unbalance, 38
Supplemental Agreement, 10
Supplier, 9 Wayleaves, 47
Supply business, 4 Wires business, 4
System studies, 34 Wires businesses, 9

12.

58
Appendix A - Typical Network Information from a PES
This appendix describes the information which should be provided by a PES, in a
statement of system capacity and loading (see section 4.2.1.2). The content and
presentation of these statements varies from one PES to the next. The example shown
here is representative of good practice.

Scope of the statement


It is usual for the developer, or those acting on their behalf, to ask the PES for information
relating to a particular system within the local network, such as the 33kV system or the
11kV system. Obviously, information would normally be requested for the system to which
the proposed generation scheme is likely to be connected.

Thus, the PESs statement would normally contain information relating solely to the
system in question. Incoming and outgoing feeds to other systems and MVA ratings of
transformers might be indicated in diagrams, but it is not normal for more detailed
information about these feeds to be provided.

Content of the statement


A well-prepared statement might include the following elements:

Operational schematic diagrams of the system - These diagrams provide


information about the configuration of the system, and the location of grid infeeds,
loads, transformers and circuit breakers. An example is shown in figure A1.

Physical map - This map shows the geographical location of the assets in the
schematic diagram.

Table of circuit data - This table specifies the key parameters of each line in the
system. These parameters include line length, resistance, reactance, conductor
specification and ratings (possibly differentiated into normal, summer and winter
ratings).This data may be provided in the form of output from the PESs load flow
software system, as shown in figure A2. It may be accompanied by a schematic
diagram generated by the same software, such as the one shown in figure A3. This
can be useful to help identify the nodes and lines described in the table.

Table of loads - This table specifies the location and magnitude of the loads on the
system. It should specify the active and reactive loads at conditions of maximum
demand, and should enable some estimate to be made of the minimum demand
levels.

Short circuit data - This should include, as a minimum, the three pahse fault level at
the infeed to the system.

13.

59
Appendix B - Checklists
This appendix contains checklists for the various phases of the connection process, as
outlined in chapter 9. These checklists are intended as a memory-jogger for the
developer, rather than as something to be followed slavishly. Some of the actions may not
be relevant or appropriate to some projects, and the order in which they are carried out
may vary from one project to another.

Design phase
Done Date
Data gathering
Maps obtained
Site visited / surveyed
Informal contacts with the PES
Initial phone call
Meeting held
Request for network data
Formal request made
Data received
Provide data on generation scheme
Data to be provided agreed with PES
Data sent
Agree connection scheme and budget
Route and connection voltage agreed
Formal request for budget made
Budget received
Make connection application
Formal application made
Application acknowledged by PES
Up-front payment made
Connection quotation received
Connection quotation accepted
Agree single line diagram
Proposed SLD issued to PES
Comments received / meeting held
Amended SLD issued and agreed
Detail design
Customer system
PES system
Earthing System
Protection Studies

Planning and wayleaving activities


Done Date
Division of responsibilities
Responsibilities agreed with the PES
Planning
Local planning authority notified of plans
Formal planning application submitted
Planning permission granted / witheld
Application made for section 36 consent
Section 36 consent granted / witheld
Wayleaving
Initial approach to landowners made

60
Negotiations started
Negotiations concluded
Application made for section 37 consent
Section 37 consent granted / witheld

Build phase
Done Date
CD&M Regulations
Health and Safety Plan completed
Principal Contractor appointed
Planning Supervisor appointed
First site meeting held
Health and Safety File(s) completed
Place orders
Civil works
Miscellaneous site work (fencing, roads etc)
Generation plant and equipment
Third party connection work
Metering equipment and services
Earth electrode(s)
Telecommunications connection

Documentation
Done Date
Issues to be agreed with the PES
Nomenclature agreed
Responsibility schedule agreed
Protection settings agreed
Connection agreement signed
Technical & operating agreement signed
Information to be posted at point of supply
Contact details posted
Responsibility schedule posted
Protection settings posted
Single line diagram posted
Site safety rules posted
Completion and hand-over documentation
Hand-over certificates received
Health and safety file received

Testing and commissioning


Done Date
Planning
Test programme agreed with PES
Provision of test results agreed with PES
Safety measures as appropriate, eg.:
Operational safety rules completed
Authorised persons appointed
Clearance certificates signed
Equipment locked off
Permit to work system initiated
Test execution and energisation
Pre-commissioning tests executed

61
G59 tests completed & witnessed
Connection energised
First synchronisation witnessed
Meters commissioned

14.

62
Appendix C - PES Networks
The following table provides some general information about the distribution networks of
the fourteen Public Electricity Suppliers in England, Wales and Scotland.

Area No. of Customer Ohead Uground Units dist.d Units dist.d


(km2) customers density circuit circuit at LV at HV
(millions) (1/km2) (km) (km) (GWh) (GWh)
Eastern 20,300 3.09 152 35,355 51,123 21,366 6,662
East Midlands 16,000 2.20 138 26,237 40,533 13,469 9,471
London 665 1.94 2,914 52 29,629 15,644 3,481
Manweb 12,200 1.32 108 21,179 22,630 8,604 4,310
Midlands 13,300 2.16 162 27,302 36,566 13,505 8,655
Northern 14,400 1.43 99 17,306 23,033 8,435 3,348
NORWEB 12,500 2.13 170 14,653 43,592 13,248 7,118
SEEBOARD 8,200 1.95 238 12,166 31,205 13,548 2,985
Southern 16,900 2.53 150 28,917 42,031 17,850 6,506
SWALEC 11,800 0.94 79 18,788 12,883 5,547 2,068
South Western 14,400 1.27 88 29,018 17,890 9,123 2,732
Yorkshire 10,700 2.00 187 15,233 37,480 11,946 7,743
Hydro-Electric 54,390 0.60 11 32,808 11,923 5,929 1,355
ScottishPower 22,950 1.75 76 24,405 37,174 14,343 4,791

Source: OFFER

15.

63
Appendix D - Power Factor and Reactive Power
The aim of this appendix is to provide a brief introduction to the concepts of power factor
and reactive power. These concepts are important in the design and operation of
electricity systems based on alternating current (AC). The two concepts are closely
related, together with the concepts of active power and apparent power.

The following notation is used in this appendix:

symbol meaning units

P active power watts


Q reactive power volt-amperes reactive
VA apparent power volt-amperes
pf power factor
phase angle

Vrms r.m.s. voltage volts


Irms r.m.s. current amps

Pinst instantaneous power watts


Vinst instantaneous voltage volts
Iinst instantaneous current amps

Active power
Active power is a measure of the rate of energy transfer in AC circuits (see figure D1). It
has units of watts (W, kW or MW).

Active power is generated in some circuit components, notably generators, and is


consumed in other components including lines, transformers and loads. Taking a circuit
as a whole, the total generation and the total consumption of active power are always
equal.

At any interface between two parts of a circuit, there is a transfer of active power from one
part to the other. The circuit shown in figure D1 consists of three components - the
generator, the transmission line and the load. Point A represents the generator terminals,
and point B represents the terminals of the load. Thus, the active power transferred at A is
equal to the active power fed into the transmission line by the generator. Similarly, the
active power transferred at B is equal to the active power drawn from the transmission line
by the load. Some active power is consumed in the line itself, so the active power
transferred at B is slightly less than that transferred at A.

In specifying the transfer of active power at a point in a circuit, it is important to indicate


the direction of the transfer as well as its magnitude. In figure D1, the arrows at points A
and B indicate a convention to be used for specifying transfers of active power in this
example. Given this convention, transfers of active power from left to right are denoted by
positive values, and transfers from right to left are denoted by negative values.

Apparent power
Apparent power is a measure of the electrical stress placed on circuit components such
as transformers and transmission lines. The electrical capacity of circuit components is
usually given in units of volt-amperes (VA, kVA or MVA).

Apparent power is a characteristic of a point in an AC circuit, such as points A and B in


figure D1. In a three-phase circuit, the apparent power is equal to root 3 times the product
of the r.m.s. voltage (phase-to-phase) and the r.m.s. current:

64
VA = sqrt3 x Vrms x Irms

Unlike active power, apparent power has no directional characteristics. It is not generated
or consumed, and it is not transferred from one part of a circuit to another. For this
reason, its value is always positive or zero.

Power factor
Power factor is a measure of the effectiveness of energy transfer in AC circuits. It is a
dimensionless parameter, equal to the ratio of active power to apparent power at a
particular point in a circuit:

pf = P / VA
and P = VA x pf

At any point in an AC circuit, the magnitude of the active power transferred is always less
than or equal to the apparent power at that point (see next section). For this reason, the
power factor always lies between -1 and +1. However, power factors in practical power
systems are usually kept as close to unity (+1) as possible. This maximises the amount of
energy which can be transferred using circuit components with a given volt-ampere
capacity. It also minimises energy losses in these components.

Phase relationships in AC circuits


The apparent power at a point in an AC circuit depends only on the magnitudes of the
voltage and current waveforms at that point. However, the active power also depends on
the phase relationship between these two waveforms.

If the load in figure D1 is purely resistive, the voltage and current waveforms at point B are
in phase, as shown in figure D2. However, if the load is purely inductive, the current
waveform at B lags the voltage waveform by a quarter of a cycle, or 90, as shown in
figure D3. Note that the peak values of the voltage and current waveforms are equal to
root 2 times the corresponding r.m.s. values.

Figures D2 and D3 also show how the instantaneous rate of energy transfer at B varies
with time. This instantaneous power is simply the product of the instantaneous current
and voltage at B:

Pinst = Vinst x Iinst

In the case of the purely resistive load, the instantaneous rate of energy transfer varies
from a minimum value of zero (when both the voltage and the current are zero) to a
maximum value equal to twice the apparent power (when the current and voltage are both
at a positive peak, or both at a negative peak). Therefore, the average rate of energy
transfer (the active power) is equal to the apparent power, and so the power factor is
equal to +1.

In the case of the purely reactive load, the instantaneous rate of energy transfer varies
about an average value of zero, with positive and negative peak values equal to the
apparent power. The active power is zero, even though the apparent power is non-zero.
Thus, the power factor is zero in this case.

It can be shown that the power factor is equal to the cosine of the phase angle between
the voltage and current waveforms:

pf = P / VA = cos

65
Leading and lagging power factors
The words leading and lagging are often used to describe phase relationships in AC
circuits. Where the current waveform leads the voltage waveform, for example when
supplying a capacitative load, the power factor is said to be leading. Conversely, where
the current waveform lags the voltage waveform, the power factor is said to be lagging.

Phase relationships in AC circuits are often specified by stating the power factor followed
by the word leading or lagging. This is because the power factor, on its own, does not
indicate whether the phase angle between the voltage and current waveforms is positive
or negative. In other words, it does not indicate whether the voltage waveform leads the
current waveform, or vice versa.

Reactive power
Reactive power is analogous to active power in many ways. It is generated in some circuit
components, and consumed in others. The generation and consumption of reactive power
in a circuit must balance, in the same way as the generation and consumption of active
power. And reactive power is transferred from one part of a circuit to another, in the same
way as active power.

However, reactive power does not represent the rate of energy transfer, as active power
does. Whereas active power is a measure of the in-phase component of the current and
voltage waveforms at a particular point, reactive power is a measure of the out-of-phase
component. This out-of-phase component does not contribute to the transfer of energy,
but it does contribute to the electrical stress on circuit components.

The mathematical expression for reactive power is similar to that for active power.
However, whereas active power is proportional to the cosine of the phase angle between
the voltage and current waveforms, reactive power is proportional to the sine of the phase
angle:

P = VA x cos
and Q = VA x sin

Reactive power is consumed by inductive loads, and generated by capacitive loads. As a


result, the phase angle is deemed to be positive when the current waveform lags the
voltage waveform, and negative when the voltage waveform lags the current waveform.

Thus, in the case of the purely resistive load (figure D2) there is a positive transfer of
active power at B, but no reactive power transfer. Conversely, in the case of the purely
inductive load (figure D3) there is a positive transfer of reactive power at B, but no active
power transfer. Most real electrical loads have a resistive component and an inductive
component, so they consume a mixture of active power and reactive power. Figure D4
shows the relationship between voltage, current and power in this type of situation.

Quadrant diagrams
The relationship between active power, reactive power, apparent power and phase angle
can be illustrated using a quadrant diagram, as shown in figure D5. This is simply a graph
with real power plotted along the x-axis and reactive power plotted along the y-axis. A
point (X) can be plotted on this chart, corresponding to the transfer of real and reactive
power at the terminals of a black box. The length of the vector OX corresponds to the
apparent power at the terminals. The angle between the x-axis and the vector OX,
corresponds to the phase angle between the voltage and current waveforms.

In figure D5, the point is plotted in quadrant 2 of the diagram. This indicates that the black
box is generating active power, but consuming reactive power. Each quadrant represents
a different combination of generation and consumption:

66
Quadrant 1: Consumption of both active and reactive power
Quadrant 2: Generation of active power, consumption of reactive power
Quadrant 3: Generation of both active and reactive power
Quadrant 4: Consumption of active power, generation of reactive power

16.

67
Appendix E - Fault Levels
The aim of this appendix is to provide a brief introduction to fault analysis and fault levels.
These analytical tools are used in the design of electrical power systems, to calculate the
magnitude of fault currents and ensure that circuit breakers are rated to handle these
currents.

Faults and fault paths


A fault in an electricity distribution network provides a low-impedance electrical connection
between live conductors or from a live conductor to earth, which short-circuits the normal
loads on the network (see figure E1). As a result, there is a collapse in voltage close to
the location of the fault, and abnormally high currents flow in those parts of the network
which form pathways from sources of electrical energy - ie. generators - to the fault
location. These pathways are sometimes referred to as fault paths.

Types of faults
Three types of faults occur in three-phase electricity systems (see figure E2). Single
phase to earth faults and phase to phase faults are relatively common in distribution
networks with overhead lines, as they can be caused by objects falling onto lines or by line
breakages. Three-phase faults can be caused by accidental damage to cables or other
equipment, but this is very rare.

Three-phase faults result in higher fault currents than other types of fault. For this reason,
switchgear and other network components are usually rated to withstand the calculated
three-phase fault currents. Fortunately, three-phase faults are the easiest type of fault to
model and calculate the corresponding fault currents. Although it is often necessary to
model other types of faults as well, most fault calculations relate to three-phase faults.

Fault level and fault infeeds


The fault level at a point in a distribution network is a measure of the fault current which
would occur in the event of a three-phase fault at that point. In a three-phase system, the
fault level is given by the following relationship:

F = sqrt3 x Vn x If
where
F = fault level volt-amperes
Vn = nominal voltage at the fault location volts
If = fault current amps

Thus, fault levels are expressed in units of apparent power (VA, kVA or MVA).

Each electrical source in the network contributes to the current which flows at the fault
itself. These contributions to the fault level are known as fault contributions, or fault
infeeds. These fault infeeds can also be expressed in units of apparent power. The
magnitude of the fault infeed from a particular source depends on two things: the
characteristics of the source itself, and the impedances of the network components which
form the pathway from the source to the fault.

The main grid supply into a distribution network can be regarded as an electrical source.
Thus, if a fault occurs in the distribution network, there is fault infeed from the grid (see
figure E3). There may be additional fault infeeds, due to embedded generators which are
connected to the network. In case (a) of figure E3, the fault infeed from the embedded
generator comes from the same side of the fault as the infeed from the grid. In this case,
the circuit breaker at point A sees the fault infeeds from both the grid and the generator.
In case (b) the two fault infeeds come from opposite sides of the fault, and the circuit

68
breaker at A only sees the infeed from the grid. In both cases, the fault infeed from the
embedded generator contributes to the total fault level at point B.

Sub-transient, transient and synchronous fault infeeds


Synchronous generators respond to three-phase faults in quite a complex way (see figure
E4). Immediately after the fault occurs, the generator produces a short surge of current
which declines rapidly. The behaviour of the generator during this initial period is referred
to as the sub-transient response. After the first 200ms or so the current declines more
slowly, gradually approaching a steady value. This period of slower decline is known as
the transient response, and the steady-state behaviour is known as the synchronous
response. The synchronous fault current is often less than the full load current of the
generator.

The fault response of a synchronous generator is usually specified in terms of three


different values for the internal reactance of the generator: a sub-transient reactance, a
transient reactance and a synchronous reactance. In fault calculations involving
synchronous generators, it is important to use the appropriate reactance values to
calculate the sub-transient, transient and synchronous fault infeeds from the generator.

Calculation of fault infeeds and fault levels


Fault analysis is a complex subject, and the description of the relevant analytical models
and methods is outside the scope of this Guide. For an explanation of these methods,
readers are referred to textbooks on electric power systems. Some recommended texts
are listed in appendix F.

17.

69
Appendix F - Standards and other Documents

17.1. Technical standards and codes of practice

17.1.1. British and European standards


The following standards can be obtained from the British Standards Institution.

BS EN 50160 : 1995
Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution systems.

17.1.2. Electricity Association Reports and Recommendations


The following reports and recommendations can be obtained from the Electricity
Association (Engineering and Safety Division).

Engineering Recommendation G.59/1


Recommendations for the connection of embedded generating plant to the Regional
Electricity Companies distribution systems.

Engineering Recommendation G.75


Recommendations for the connection of embedded generating plant, to Public Electricity
Suppliers systems above 20kV, or with outputs over 5MW.

Engineering Recommendation P.28


Planning limits for voltage fluctuations caused by industrial, commercial and domestic
equipment in the United Kingdom.

Engineering Recommendation P.2/5


Security of supply.

Engineering Recommendation P.29


Planning limits for voltage unbalance in the United Kingdom.

Engineering Recommendation G.5/3


Limits for harmonics in the UK electricity supply system.

Engineering Technical Report No.113


Notes of guidance for the protection of embedded generating plant up to 5MW for
operation in parallel with Public Electricity Suppliers distribution systems.

17.1.3. Metering codes of practice


The following codes of practice govern the requirements for metering energy exported by
embedded generators in England, Wales and Scotland. Code of Practice Seven may be
relevant to some generators with requirements for auxiliary power supplies. These codes
of practice can be obtained from The Electricity Pool of England and Wales.

Code of Practice One


Code of practice for the metering of circuits with a rated capacity exceeding 100MVA for
settlement purposes.

Code of Practice Two


Code of practice for the metering of circuits with a rated capacity not exceeding 100MVA
for settlement purposes.

Code of Practice Three

70
Code of practice for the metering of circuits with a rated capacity not exceeding 10MVA
for settlement purposes.

Code of Practice Four


Code of practice for the calibration, testing and commissioning requirements of metering
equipment for settlement purposes.

Code of Practice Five


Code of practice for the metering of energy transfers with a maximum demand of up to
(and including) 1MW covered by the Pooling and Settlement Agreement.

Code of Practice Six - has been superceded

Code of Practice Seven


Code of practice for the metering of energy imports via low voltage circuits fused at
100amps or less per phase for settlement purposes.

17.2. Grid Codes and Distribution Codes


These documents can be obtained from the organisations specified.

The Distribution Code of the Public Electricity Suppliers of England and Wales
Available from any of the twelve Public Electricity Suppliers in England and Wales

The Distribution Code of the Public Electricity Suppliers of Scotland


Available from ScottishPower or Scottish Hydro-Electric

The Grid Code (for England and Wales)


Available from the National Grid Company (Grid Code Secretariat)

ScottishPower plc. The Grid Code


Available from ScottishPower

Scottish Hydro-Electric Grid Code


Available from Scottish Hydro-Electric

17.3. Guidance documents for health and safety


These documents can be obtained from the Health and Safety Executive (HSE Books).

Managing construction for health and safety: Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 1994 (Approved Code of Practice L54)
Contains both the CDM Regulations and the Approved Code of Practice.

Designing for health and safety in construction


Provides practical advice on how designers can reduce health and safety risks to site
workers.

A guide to managing health and safety in construction


Explains how the CDM Regulations affect each phase of the construction project.

17.4. Acts of Parliament and Statutory Instruments


The following documents can be obtained from HMSO.

The Electricity Act 1989


Sets out the legal and regulatory framework for the UK electricity supply industry.

71
The Electricity Supply Regulations 1988
Specifies legal requirements for earthing, protection and other safety-related measures.

Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974


Provides a legislative framework to promote high standards of health and safety at work.

The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989


Specifies legal requirements relating to the design, maintenance and operation of
electrical equipment.

17.5. Technical reference texts


The following texts are recommended to readers who want more in-depth coverage of
some of the technical issues raised in this Guide.

Bayliss
Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering
1996, Butterworth-Heinemann

Davies
Protection of Industrial Power Systems
1984, Pergamon Press Ltd.

Gonen
Electric Power Transmission System Engineering
1988, John Wiley and Sons

Pete
Electric Power Systems Manual
1992, McGraw-Hill

Seidman, Beaty and Mahrous


Handbook of Electric Power Calculations 2nd Ed.
1996, McGraw-Hill

18.

72
Appendix G - Contact Details for Organisations

18.1. PESs
East Midlands Electricity
Mr. G. Mather - Power System Planning Manager
East Midlands Electricity
Great Northern Road
Derby
DE1 1QF
tel. 01332 226226
fax. 01332 226833

Eastern Electricity
Mr. Mez Joarder
Networks Projects Department
Eastern Electricity - Stowmarket Office
Needham Road
Stowmarket
Suffolk
IP14 2AH
tel. 01449 772389
fax. 01449 772396

London Electricity
Mr. Trevor Lloyd
Asset Management
London Electricity
261 City Road
London
EC1B 1LE
tel. 0171 865 7737
fax. 0171 865 7889

Manweb
Mr. Bob Sheedy - Commercial Operations
Power Systems Department
Manweb
Prenton Way
Birkenhead
L43 3ET
tel. 0151 609 2096
fax. 0151 609 2098
email bob.sheedy@manweb.co.uk

Midlands Electricity
Mr. D. Harrison - Network Development Engineer
Network Development Department
Midlands Electricity
P.O. Box 9
Toll End Road
Tipton
West Midlands
DY4 0HH
tel. 0121 557 2811
fax. 0121 522 6175

73
Northern Electric
Mr. Colin Ray - Commercial Engineer
Commercial Section
Northern Electric Distribution Ltd.
Carliol House
Market Street
Newcastle upon Tyne
NE1 6NE
tel. 0191 210 2588
fax. 0191 210 1121
email colin.ray@northern-electric.co.uk

Norweb
Mr. Howard Smith - Third Party Connections Manager
Norweb Distribution
Hathersage Road
Manchester
M13 0EH
tel. 0161 257 4646
fax. 0161 257 4494

Scottish Hydro-Electric
Ms. Eve Milne - Core Connections Manager
Scottish Hydro-Electric plc.
South Inch Business Centre
Shore Road
Perth
PH2 8BN
tel. 01738 455972
fax. 01738 455709
email eve.milne@hydro.co.uk

ScottishPower
Mr. Phil Gordon
Commercial Operations Department
ScottishPower Power Systems
Cathcart Business Park
Spean Street
Glasgow
G44 4BE
tel. 0141 568 3740
fax. 0141 568 3559
email phil.gordon@scottishpower.plc.uk

Seeboard
Mr. Steve Willis - Network Strategy Manager
Distribution Department
SEEBOARD
Russell Way
Crawley
West Sussex
RH10 1UL
tel. 01293 656475
fax. 01293 656402

74
South Western Electricity
New Connections Department
South Western Electricity plc.
Osprey Road
Sowton Industrial Estate
Exeter
EX2 7HZ
tel. 0345 650650
fax. 01392 444497

Southern Electric
Mr. Richard Roe - Project Leader (Major Works Planning)
Strategic Planning Department
Southern Electric plc.
Westacott Way
Littlewick Green
Maidenhead
Berkshire
SL6 3QB
tel. 01628 584123
fax. 01628 584523
email richard.roe@southernelectric.co.uk

Swalec
Mr. Ivor Rogers - Generation Connections Manager
Swalec
Newport Road
St. Mellons
Cardiff
CF3 9XW
tel. 01222 771279
fax. 01222 777759

Yorkshire Electricity
Mr. Alan Creighton - Distribution Utilisation Engineer
Yorkshire Electricity plc.
P.O. Box 161
161 Gelderd Road
Leeds
LS1 1QZ
tel. 0113 241 5476
fax. 0113 241 5594

18.2. Other organisations


Association of Electricity Producers
1st Floor
41 Whitehall
London
SW1A 2BX
tel. 0171 930 9390
fax. 0171 930 9391
email 100577.3072@compuserve.com

British Standards Institution


389 Chiswick High Road
London

75
W4 4AL
tel. 0181 996 9000

Combined Heat and Power Association


Grosvenor Gardens House
35/37 Grosvenor Gardens
London
SW1W 0BS
tel. 0171 828 4077
fax. 0171 828 0310
email info@chpa.co.uk

Department of Trade and Industry (DTI)


tel. 0171 215 5000

The Electricity Association


30 Millbank
London
SW1P 4RD
tel. 0171 963 5700
fax. 0171 963 5959

The Electricity Pool of England and Wales


38 Euston Road
10th floor
Regents Place
London
NW1 3BP
tel. 0171 380 4100
fax. 0171 380 0407

HMSO
HMSO Publications Centre
PO Box 726
London
SW8 5DT
tel. 0171 873 9090
fax. 0171 873 8200

Health and Safety Executive


HSE Information Centre
Broad Lane
Sheffield
S3 7HQ
tel. 0114 289 2345
fax. 0114 289 2333

HSE Books
PO Box 1999
Sudbury
Suffolk
CO10 6FS
tel. 01787 881165
fax. 01787 313995

The National Grid Company plc.

76
Stoneleigh Deer Park
Stareton
Kenilworth
Warwickshire
CV8 2LY
tel. 01203 537777

Office of Electricity Regulation (OFFER)


Hagley House
Hagley Rd.
Birmingham
B16 8QG
tel. 0121 456 2100
fax. 0121 454 9115

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