Transmitters, Receivers,

Antennas and Propagation

UNIT 6 TRANSMITTERS, RECEIVERS,
ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives

6.2 Radio Transmitter

6.3 Radio Receivers
6.4 The Electromagnetic Waves
6.5 Antennas
6.6 The Refractive Index
6.7 Wave Propagation
6.8 Modulation
6.9 Demodulation
6.10 Summary
6.11 Answers to SAQs

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In electronic communication systems, the information, that we want to send, is first of all
converted to an electrical signal. This is generally a low frequency signal. This
information signal of varying electrical nature is then modulated on a high frequency
carrier signal. The modulated carrier signal is power amplified in the transmitter and fed
to a transmitter antenna for radiation. The transmitted signal wave propagates in the
atmosphere. The receiver antenna at the other end picks up this propagating wave and
feeds the high frequency carrier signal to the receiver. The received signal is very weak.
In the receiver, this signal is first of all amplified and then fed to a demodulator or
detector, which derives the desired information signal that had been transmitted. The
study of this unit would throw light on different elements of a wireless communication
system.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to
explain the purpose of transmitters and draw a schematic for an AM
Transmitter indicating various processes of signal processing.
list different radio receivers and explain each of them.
understand electromagnetic waves,
explain propagation of the waves,
describe the function of antennas,
describe several types of antenna,
enumerate ionospheric effects on wave propagation,
distinguish between ground waves and sky waves,
explain concepts of modulation,
define amplitude, frequency and phase modulation, and
distinguish between amplitude demodulation and frequency demodulation.
53
Electronics
6.2 RADIO TRANSMITTER
A Simple Transmitter
Figure 6.1 depicts a simple schematic of a transmitter. The speech or acoustic signal is
converted by a microphone to an electrical signal. This signal is then amplified by an
audio amplifier.
Antenna
Audio
Amplifier
Mic

Oscillator Modulator

Figure 6.1 : A Simple Scheme of a Transmitter

The carrier frequency, which is generally very high compared to the speech signal
frequencies, is generated by a crystal oscillator so that the signal is stable in frequency.
Sometimes frequencies much higher than can be generated by a crystal are required to be
transmitted. In such a case the crystal oscillator is followed by one or two class C
amplifiers. Such amplifiers produce distortion in the oscillator signal. The distortion in
turn generates harmonics of the stable oscillator signal. The desired harmonic frequency
is picked up and used as the carrier signal. The carrier and the audio signals are then fed
to the modulator. The modulator may be an amplitude modulator, frequency modulator,
phase modulator about which you would study in the succeeding sections. The modulated
carrier signal which is by now a high power signal is then supplied to the antenna for
broadcasting, or for point-to-point communication, as the case may be.
An AM Transmitter
Figure 6.2 depicts the schematic of an amplitude modulation transmitter. As seen signals
from the microphone are input at first to an audio frequency processing and filtering
system.
Antenna

RF RF RF RF Power
Oscillator Buffer Power Amplifier
Amplifier Amplifier Modulator

Mic
AF AF AF AF Power
Processing Pre-Amp. Power Amp.
Filtering Amplifier

Figure 6.2 : Schematic of an A.M. Transmitter

This subsystem limits the bandwidth of the signal to around 10 kHz by the process of
frequency filtering, i.e. all the higher frequencies are suppressed. Here the amplitude of
the signal is also compressed to limit the maximum and minimum signal so that the
signals are kept within the operating range of the succeeding stages. These signals are
then fed to an audio frequency pre-amplifier. This amplifier raises the signal levels to a

54
 Transmitters, Receivers,
level sufficient to drive the following power amplifier. Signals from the power amplifier Antennas and Propagation
drive the audio frequency output amplifier that couples the A F signal to the modulator.
The carrier signal is generated, as described earlier by an R F crystal oscillator or
harmonic generators according to the required frequency. The oscillator is followed by
on R F buffer amplifier. This amplifier has high input impedance but low output
impedance, and therefore, protects the oscillator from being loaded and thereby affect its
stability. The carrier signal is then power amplified in an R F power amplifier and fed to
the final power amplifier where amplitude modulation is carried out. The amplitude
modulated high power carrier is then fed to the antenna system for broadcasting or for
transmitting to a predetermined receiving station.

6.3 RADIO RECEIVERS

A Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver
We first of all show the working of a simple Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver.
Figure 6.3 depicts the scheme.

Antenna

RF Detector Audio Speaker

Amplifier Amplifier

Figure 6.3: A Simple Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

This consists of an RF amplifier which is tuned to the signal or station we want to

receive. This amplifier selects and amplifies the incoming signals. After the amplification
the signal is demodulated in the detector. The detected signals are at audio frequency.
These are amplified in the audio power amplifier before feeding them to a speaker for
reproduction of the desired sound signals. TRFs are not suitable at the higher
frequencies because they produce unstable gain. At higher frequencies the sensitivity and
selectivity also falls off. Further the TRF receivers suffer from bandwidth variation over
the tuning range. The selectivity is also very low at higher frequencies.
A Superheterodyne Receiver
The above disadvantages of instability, insufficient adjacent frequency rejection and
bandwidth variation can be overcome by the use of superheterodyne receiver (superhet)
as shown in Figure 6.4. Its ability to operate on any frequency with the same selectivity
and good sensitivity makes it highly desirable.
Here the received signal voltage after RF amplification is mixed with the local oscillator
voltage and converted into a signal of a lower fixed frequency called intermediate
frequency (IF), which contains the same modulation as the original carrier. The superhet
receiver, in addition to TRF, contains the mixer, a local oscillator and IF amplifier.
Antenna

Speaker
RF Mixer I.F. Detector Audio
Amplifier Amplifier Power
Amplifier

Local
Oscillator

Ganged Capacitor
Tuning
Figure 6.4 : Superheterodyne Receiver
55
Electronics A constant frequency difference is maintained between the local oscillator signal and the
RF signal through capacitance tuning in which all capacitors are ganged together. The IF
amplifier contains two to three transformers each consisting of a pair of mutually coupled
tuned circuits. This amplifier provides most of the gain and bandwidth requirement of the
receiver. In broadcast receivers generally IF amplifier stage is tuned to fixed frequency of
450 kHz. Since the characteristics of IF amplifiers are independent of the frequency to
which the receiver is tuned, the selectivity and sensitivity of the superhet receiver
remains unchanged. The RF circuits are used mainly to select the desired frequency, to
reject interference and to reduce the noise level of the receiver. The mixer and the
oscillator stages are sometimes combined in a single module which is referred to as a
down-converter. Superhet receivers are used in AM, FM communication in TV and
Radios, etc.
The RF stage is a tunable circuit whose input is connected to the antenna where only
desired frequencies are selected while others are rejected. The RF stage of amplifier is
mainly used for the following reasons:
(i) good sensitivity
(ii) to improve signal to noise ratio
(iii) for better selectivity (Reject unwanted frequencies)
The signal-to-noise ratio of a receiver (S/N) is the ratio of signal power to noise power
developed in it. It is required to reduce this ratio to minimum.
The noisiness of a radio receiver is defined in terms of its noise figure (NF). The noise
figure of a receiver is defined as the ratio of the signal to noise (Si/Ni) ratio at the input of
a receiver to signal to noise (So/No) ratio at its output
(Si / N i ) No
Noise Figure (NF) = =
(So / N o ) G Ni

S
where G = o is the receiver gain.
Si
Sensitivity
Sensitivity of a radio receiver is its ability to amplify weak signals. It is often
expressed in microvolts or in dBm, which is decibels above one microvolt. A
receiver with a sensitivity of 1 microvolt shall have sensitivity in dBm as
20 log10 1/1 = 0 dBm. The sensitivity also depends upon the gain of IF amplifier,
as well as, upon the noise figure of the receiver.
Selectivity
Selectivity is the ability of receiver to reject unwanted signals and accept only the
desired signals.
SAQ 1
(a) The ability of a receiver to amplify weak signals is known as its
(b) Use of oscillator in superheterodyne receiver is to produce
(c) List the seven stages of superhet receiver.
(d) RF stage of receiver is used for

56
 Transmitters, Receivers,
6.4 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Antennas and Propagation

The high frequency power generated by a transmitter and fed to antenna propagates in
space in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic (EM) waves are oscillating electric and magnetic fields that are at right
angles to each other, as well as, to the direction of propagation of the wave. Since the
variation of electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of the wave, these waves are referred to as transverse waves. These waves require no
medium for propagation and can travel through vacuum also. Light is also an EM wave
of mixed higher frequencies. These waves propagate through free space with the velocity
of light. The direction of the electric field, magnetic field and propagation are mutually
perpendicular in EM wave as shown in Figure 6.5.

Y Z

Figure 6.5 : Propagation of an Electromagnetic Wave in the Direction Z, with the Electric Field
variations in the direction Y and magnetic field variations in the direction X. The wave shown is
polarized in direction Y or vertically polarized (where the electric field points).

An EM wave can spread uniformly in all the directions into free space. The electric, E,
and magnetic, H, field intensities of electromagnetic waves are direct counterparts of
voltage and current in circuits. Therefore, for electromagnetic waves
E=Z.H
where E = RMS value of electric field strength (measured as volts per metre),
H = RMS value of magnetic field strength (measured as amperes per metre), and
Z = characteristic impedance of the medium (ohms).
The characteristic impedance of a medium is also given by
Z= /
where is permeability of the medium and is electric permittivity of medium. For free
space permeability of medium = (4 107) Henery/metre and permittivity of medium
1
= Farads/metre.
36109

Polarization
From Figure 6.5 the electric and magnetic fields are mutually perpendicular. The
magnetic field surrounds the wire and is perpendicular to it and the electric field is 57
Electronics parallel to the wire. This results into the concept of polarization which refers to the
physical orientation of the radiated waves in space. The direction of polarization is
same as the direction of antenna. Vertical antenna radiates vertically polarized
waves and horizontal antenna produces horizontal polarization.
Reception
When a wire is placed in an electro-magnetic field a current is induced in it, i.e. it
receives some of the radiation and therefore acts as a receiving antenna. A
transmitting antenna can as well be used for reception. A receiving antenna has,
however, low power handling requirements.
SAQ 2
(a) Electromagnetic wave polarization is caused by
(i) Reflections
(ii) The transverse nature of the waves
(iii) Longitudinal nature of the waves
(iv) Isotropic medium
(b) As EM waves travel in free space then these are
(i) Absorbed
(ii) Attenuated
(iii) Refracted
(iv) Reflected
(c) The electric and magnetic fields in EM wave are (parallel/perpendicular).

6.5 ANTENNAS
In electronic communication an electromagnetic wave travels from the transmitter to the
receiver through space, and antennas (or aerials) are required at both ends for the purpose
of coupling the transmitter and receiver. Thus, antenna is a structure which is capable of
radiating electromagnetic wave or receiving them and is used to convert high frequency
current into electromagnetic wave and vice-versa.
Antenna may be a simple conducting wire or rod. In resonant antennas, a standing wave
pattern is formed and in non-resonant antenna a travelling wave is formed. A TV antenna
is kind of resonant antenna whereas for short wave links non-resonant antennas are used.
There are many different antennas from a single wire to array of wires, from lens antenna
to huge parabolic disk antennas.
Half Wave Antenna
When two wires are bent in the same line as in Figure 6.6 (a), the electromagnetic energy
is coupled to the surrounding space and does not only remain confined between two
wires. This type of radiator is called a dipole. When total length of two wires is a half
wave length, the antenna is called half wave dipole as in Figure 6.6 (c). This has even
greater radiation because its basic property is like that of a quarter wave transmission
line, which is open circuited at the far end. This results in high impedance at the far end
and a low impedance at the antenna feed point. The low impedance at the feed point
allows greater current and, therefore, better coupling of power from the feeding
transmission lines and, therefore, the transmitter. A greater radiation of electromagnetic
energy is thus achieved. Figure 6.7 depicts the current and voltage distribution on a half
58 wave dipole antenna.
 Transmitters, Receivers,
Antennas and Propagation

2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.6 : Development of a Half Wave Dipole Antenna (a) Opening the Far Ends of a Transmission
Line; (b) Bending of Ends in a Straight Line; and (c) Half Wave Dipole

Voltage

Current

Figure 6.7 : Current and Voltage Distribution in a Half Wave Dipole Antenna

Full Wave Antenna

Maximum voltage appears at the middle and at the ends of a full wave antenna.
Maximum voltage at every half wave indicates the formation of standing waves on
antenna. Since there are two equal currents flowing in opposite directions, the radiation
from one half wave exactly equals the radiation from the other.
Resonant Antenna
When the far end of the dipole is open and not terminated by a suitable impedance, there
exist standing waves (maximum and minimum of voltage and current) over the antenna
length. This type of antennas are known as resonant antennas. The radiation pattern
mainly depends on its length. The radiation pattern is a line drawn to join points in space,
which have equal field intensity. The radiation pattern for various resonant dipole is
shown in Figure 6.8.

3
l= l= l = 3
l=
2 2

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 6.8: Radiation Pattern for Resonant Dipole

Figure 6.8 (a) shows the radiation pattern for a half wave dipole. Figure 6.8 (b) shows a
pattern for whole wavelength antenna, where the current on one half of the antenna is
opposite to that on the other half. There are 4 lobes in this case because field due to one
half fully cancels the field due to the other half of the antenna. The radiation pattern for 3
half wavelength is shown in Figure 6.8 (c) which contains 4 major and 2 minor lobes.
The maximum radiation occurs closer to the direction of dipole itself (major lobes).
Radiation for dipole of length 3 wavelength is shown in Figure 6.8 (d). Note that as the
length of resonant antenna is increased the direction of major lobes is brought closer to
the direction of the dipole.
59

3
Electronics

Figure 6.9 : Current Distribution in Three Half Wavelength

Non-Resonant Antenna
The non-resonant antennas are those in which there exist no standing waves. The far-end
is terminated with a suitable impedance and thus there is no reflected wave. In this type
of antennas two thirds of the power is radiated, whereas one third is dissipated in the
antenna. The radiation pattern in this case is unidirectional as shown in
Figure 6.10 for closed antenna.

Voltage Current and

Distribution

Antenna
R

(a) (b)
Figure 6.10 : A Non-resonant Antenna (a) Antenna Terminated with a Suitable Impendance Showing
Voltage and Current Distribution; and (b) the Radiation Pattern

Folded Dipole Antenna

The Folded Dipole is a single antenna with two elements. First is fed directly and second
is coupled conductively at the ends as shown in Figure 6.11. Note that the current is
distributed in two arms as I/2. As the current is halved, with same power applied the
folded dipole it would have four times the impedance to that of a straight dipole. It has
also greater bandwidth. It has similar radiation pattern as an ordinary dipole.

l 2

l 2
l

Figure 6.11 : A Folded Dipole Antenna

Yagi-Uda Antenna
The yagi-uda antenna is an array of elements arranged collinearly and close together. It is
used as H F transmitting antenna and as TV receiving antenna. These antennas have poor
gain but good unidirectional radiation pattern. If a driven half wave element is half wave
from another similar undriven elements as in Figure 6.12 the second has a voltage
induced in it by the radiated field from the first and is parasitically excited. The current
induced in parasitically excited element is 180 degrees out of phase with original waves.

2 2
60

2
Line
 Transmitters, Receivers,
Antennas and Propagation

Figure 6.12 : Two Half Wave Element

If a parasitic element is a long and placed within 0.1 of the driven element then
2
induced voltage and current is such that it acts as a director more than as a reflector and
produces appreciable gain. If a reflector is tuned for maximum forward gain and director
also tuned for maximum forward gain a three element yagi antenna results as shown in
Figure 6.13.

Reflector

Support
Director

Driven
Element
Line

Figure 6.13 : Yagi Antenna

Additional director element gives still more gain. A plane reflector antenna uses a plane
surface about 1 wave square behind the driven element. The yagi antenna does not have
high gain but its bandwidth is relatively high because of folded dipole. It has also a
good unidirectional radiation pattern with one reflector and several directors.
Loop Antenna
It is a single turn coil with a few closely wound turns either round, square or triangular in
shape carrying RF current as shown below in Figure 6.14. The loop is surrounded by a
magnetic field everywhere perpendicular to the loop. The directional pattern is
independent of the exact shape of loop.

Loop Loop

Feeder Feeder
(a) (b)

Figure 6.14 : Loop Figure Antenna as : (a) Circular Loop Antenna; (b) Square Loop Antenna

Radio waves passing across the loop induce a voltage in it. The circular and square
loops have the same radiation pattern. The loop antennas are suitable for direction
findings (DF) applications. It is rarely used for transmitting, but finds use as a
receiving antenna. For DF it is required to have an antenna that can indicate the
direction of a particular radiation. The DF properties of the loop are just as good at
medium frequencies as that of a directional microwave dish antenna but for the
gains that are not comparable.
A small loop, vertical and rotatable about a vertical axis whose out put is
connected to a meter is a simple direction finder. The loop is rotated until the
received signal is minimum. The plane of the loop is now perpendicular to the
direction of the radiation. Since loop is a bi-directional two bearings are needed to
determine the exact direction. If the distance between them is large the distance
between the source and the transmission may be calculated. Loops with several
turns around ferrite core increase the effective diameter of the loop. Hence such 61
Electronics loop antenna is used in a portable receiver. If loop is triangular, it is called delta
loop antenna.
Other Antennas
Horn Antenna
For high frequency transmission, a wave guide is used which is capable of
radiating energy into open space by use of horn antenna at the end of the wave
guide as shown below. Figure 6.15 shows two types of horn antennas that are
coupled to wave guides. These antennas are fairly directive and are often used as
feed elements for paraboloid dish antenna when kept at its focus.

Horn Antenna Circular Horn

(a) (b)

Figure 6.15 : Horn Antenna as: (a) Pyramidal Horn Antenna Fed by Rectangular Wave Guide; (b)
Conical Antenna Fed by a Circular Wave Guide

Helical Antenna
The Helical antenna is a broadband antenna and is used in VHF and UHF
transmission. It comprises a loosely wound helix with a back plane. It can be
designed to work in two modes of radiation (i) Axial (ii) Normal to axis. Figure
6.16 depicts a typical axial mode antenna with a gain of around 16 dB.
Here the radiation is along axis of the helix. These are used for satellite
communication and in radiometry.

0.3

Radiation

Helix

Ground Plane

Figure 6.16 : Helical Antenna

Discone Antenna
Discone antennas (Disk + cone) is ground plane antenna as shown in
Figure 6.17. There is inverted cone image above the disk.

Figure 6.17 : Discone Antenna

62
 Transmitters, Receivers,
It is a low gain omnidirectional antenna that is often used as a VHF and UHF Antennas and Propagation
receiving and transmitting antenna especially at airports because of its
omnidirectional property.
Marconi Antenna
Marconi antenna or grounded radiator is the usual antenna system used with
maritime transmitters in the intermediate or HF band. The Marconi radiator is
resonant to any odd multiple of a quarter wavelength. It operates generally as a
quarter wave antenna. It may, however, be operated at twice its resonant
wavelength with the use of an antenna inductance.
Antenna Characteristics
Antenna Gain
Directive gain is defined as the ratio of the power density radiated in that direction
by the antenna to the power density radiated by an isotropic antenna (radiates
energy in all directions). Directive gain is generally expressed in decibels.
Radiation Resistance
Antenna is acting as a source of power and must have an internal resistance or
impedance. If the radiated power and the current in antenna are known then
P = I 2 R or R = P/I 2 . This R is known as radiation resistance of antenna at its
centre.
Bandwidth of Antenna
It is a frequency over which operation is satisfactorily measured between half
power points. Bandwidth is also associated with radiation pattern and the input
resistance.
Beam Width
It is an angular separation between the two half power points on the radiation
pattern.
Polarization
It is a direction of electric vector of electromagnetic wave radiated from an antenna
and is parallel to antenna itself.
Antenna Losses and Efficiency
Antenna radiates energy and power which may be dissipated due to ground
resistance, discharge effects, dielectric losses and eddy currents due to nearby
objects. Efficiency of antenna depends on radiation resistance. These losses for
low and medium frequency antenna are significant.
Antenna Dangers
The electromagnetic (EM) Field contains non-ionizing radiation that can affect human
tissues. Radiation up to 50 MHz can penetrate through the body producing heat. Above
50 MHz tissues may get damaged. Maximum body heating occurs at about 1 GHz. The
field variation is very strong near the antenna. Sterility, cataract, tissue burning, etc. may
occur due to non-ionizing radiations. Low level microwave energy up to 1 GHz and more
may be injurious to the eye. To avoid these dangers, antenna should be erected, so that
none of the RF parts are within reach of any one. Antennas must be constructed
according to good electrical and mechanical concepts. When working on towers or high
poles safety belts and clip on tool bags must be worn by climbers and hard hats by
helpers below. Also transmitters should be turned off before working on any antenna.
SAQ 3
(a) Is receiver gain generally measured in voltage or dB?
(b) Where are maximum voltage points on half wavelength antenna?
63
Electronics (c) What is wave length of a 500 MHz wave?
(d) Which of the following antenna is best excited from a wave guide?
(i) Biconical
(ii) Horn
(iii) Helical
(iv) Discone
(e) Indicate which one is not wideband.
(i) Discone
(ii) Folded Dipole
(iii) Helical
(iv) Marconi
(f) Which one of the following does not apply to Yagi array?
(i) Good Band width
(ii) Parasitic element
(iii) Folded Dipole
(iv) High Gain
(g) An antenna that is circularly polarized is the
(i) Helical
(ii) Small Circular Loop
(iii) Parabolic Reflector
(iv) Yagi antenna

6.6 THE REFRACTIVE INDEX

It would be important that you become familiarized with the concept of the refractive
index of the medium in respect of the e.m. waves before you study about the propagation
of e.m. waves in the atmosphere. In this context it would be interesting to know that the
speed of the electromagnetic (e.m.) waves depends upon the medium through which
these waves travel. The e.m. waves travel fastest in vacuum conditions with the speed as
given by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) of USA as (299 792
48810) metres per second. In any other medium the speed would be less. The ratio of
the speed of the e.m. wave, c, in vacuum to their speed, u, in any other medium is termed
as the refractive index n of that medium. To express the refractive index in an equation
we would write
c
n= ,
u
where c = speed of e.m. waves in vacuum,
u = speed of e.m. waves in any medium, and
n = refractive index of that medium.

64
 Transmitters, Receivers,
In the upper atmosphere with near vacuum conditions u approaches c and, therefore, the Antennas and Propagation
refractive index n approaches 1. Near the ground, however, and especially at Sea level, u
is minimum, and therefore, n is maximum. There is a gradual decrease in the density of
air and other gases and the atmosphere becomes rarer as we move from near ground to
higher attitudes. These cause a gradual decrease in the refractive index as we go up. You
would study the effect of this gradual decrease of refractive index in the succeeding
section on the propagation of surface waves. You would see that when surface waves
propagate along the earth the e.m. wave front gradually tilts forward, as the upper portion
of the wave front travels faster in a rarer medium than the lower one traveling slow. You
would also see under the sky wave propagation, how the increasing electron or ion
density of an ionospheric layer which causes faster reduction in the refractive index with
height would gradually bend the e.m. waves down thereby propagating these, to our
advantage, to distance locations on the earth.

6.7 WAVE PROPAGATION

The high frequency, high power electric signals generated by the transmitter are fed to
the transmitting antenna. We have already learnt that the antenna radiates the
electromagnetic (e.m.) waves. The e.m. waves travel from the transmitting antenna to the
receiving antenna. This travel of the e.m. waves from the transmitting antenna to the
receiving antenna is known as propagation of waves. There are generally five modes by
which an e.m. wave may propagate from the transmitter to the receiver. These are:
(a) Surface Wave or Ground Wave Propagation
(b) Sky Wave Propagation
(c) Space Wave Propagation
(d) Tropospheric Scatter Propagation
(e) Propagation of Waves via the Satellites
Surface Wave or Ground Wave Propagation
Propagation of radio waves in the VLF and LF range of frequencies can be achieved
through surface wave or ground wave propagation. These waves as the name implies,
propagate along the surface of the earth. These should essentially be vertically polarized
to avoid short circuiting of the electric component of the e.m. wave by the ground. As the
ground wave progresses over the surface of the earth, it gets attenuated as a result of the
energy absorbed by the earth. In this propagation the wave-front increasingly tilts
forward as the wave progresses from the transmitter to the receiver as shown in Figure
6.18. As the wave progresses, the wave-front tilts more and more, so that, at one point,
short circuiting of the electric field component results with a consequent reduction in the
received signals. This reduction in the received signals can only be compensated by
boosting the transmitter power, as due to long wave lengths, the antennas are generally
low gain, at these frequencies. VLF communication using surface waves is used for ship
communication and for standard time and frequency transmissions. The frequencies
allocated for ship communication range from 10 kHz to 110 kHz, which are employed
for radio navigation and for maritime mobile communication.
Propagation Direction Increasing Angle
of Tilt

Earth
R
T
Figure 6.18 : Ground Wave Propagation Depicting the Progressively Tilting Plane Wave

Sky Wave Propagation

This propagation is achieved via the ionized region surrounding the earth that ranges
from a height of around 70 kms to 400 kms. The propagation occurs generally in the HF
65
Electronics range of frequencies, i.e. between 3 MHz to 30 MHz. The earths ionized region is
termed as the ionosphere. A brief explanation of the ionosphere and its different layers is,
therefore, necessary.
The Ionosphere and its Layers
The radiant energy from the sun comprising of ultra violate rays, , and rays
heat and ionize the gases present in the earths atmosphere; thereby, generating
free electrons, and positive and negative ions. This process of ionization is aided
by cosmic radiations and meteors. The ionization in the ionosphere ranging
between around 70 kms to 400 kms is not uniform. There are regions where the
ionization is maximum and regions where it is the minimum. The height ranges of
the ionosphere where the ionization is maximum are termed as layers. There are in
general four such layers classified as D, E, F1 and F2 layers. A brief description of
these layers follows. Please refer to Figure 6.19 in respect of the following
description.
D-Layer
This layer is formed at an average height of 70 kms and has a thickness of around
10 kms and exists as long as the suns radiations are there. This layer only helps
the VLF and LF in their surface wave propagation through reflection of these
waves. It does not help any HF propagation. On the contrary this layer absorbs the
HF waves when these pass through it for refraction from the upper layers.
E-Layer
The next higher layer is the E-layer which forms at an average height of 100 kms
with a thickness of around 25 kms. This layer also exists during the day when the
suns radiation is present and vanishes at night due to recombination of ions into
molecules. Like the D-layer it also helps the surface wave propagation of MF
signals. It, however, reflects some HF signals in the day time.

F2-LAYER
250-400 km

20 km F1-LAYER
180 km
EARTHS IONOSPHERE
E-LAYER
25 km 100 km

10 km D-LAYER
70 km
EARTH

Figure 6.19 : Approximate Day Time Heights and Thickness of the D, E, F1 and F2 Ionospheric Layers
of the Earths Atmosphere

F1-Layer
This ionospheric layer is also formed in the day time when the suns radiations are
present. The day time F1 height is around 180 kms with a thickness of around 20
kms. Some HF signals are reflected from this layer. It combines with the F2-layer
during the night. This layer causes absorption of high frequency signals when
these pass through it for the purpose of reflection from the F2 layer above.
66
 Transmitters, Receivers,
F2-Layer Antennas and Propagation
This is the most important layer for the purpose of HF communication. Its day time
height ranges from 250 kms. to 400 kms. It, however, combines with the F1-layer
at night and remains at a height of around 300 kms. You would be curious to know
that while all other layers vanish at night due to the absence of suns radiation,
why it is that the F layer stays back and provides better HF communication at
night. The reason for both these phenomenon is given below:
(i) The F2 layer is the top most layer and receives most of the radiation from
the sun. Though the actual air density is less at that height, most of the
molecules are ionized.
(ii) Because of the low air density the mean free path (statistical average
distance a molecule would travel before colliding with another molecule)
of molecules is large, and, therefore, the recombination of ions to convert
back to molecules is not fast.
(iii) Thirdly during the night time all other layers have vanished and, therefore,
the absorption or attenuation of HF signals that existed during day time is
not present at night. This provides better HF communication from the F-
layer during night.
The Process of Propagation
In the foregoing explanation of different ionospheric layers, it was mentioned for
simplicity that the ionospheric layers reflect the HF signals. But, in fact, it is not
the reflection. It is rather refraction that causes the propagation of waves from the
transmitter to the receiver. This process of propagation through refraction in the
ionosphere is explained here, with the help of Figure 6.20. For any layer the
electron or ion density increases with height, as it is shown that the electron or ion
density is maximum in the l3 portion of the layer than l2 and l1.

4 Ionospheric Layers with

l3 density increasing with
3 D height
l2
2 c l1
B
Propagating 1
HF Wave

Normal
T R
(a) (b)

Figure 6.20 : Refraction and Bending of an e.m. Wave as it Propagates through an Ionospheric Layer
(a) up-by: Wave Bending Away from Normal (decreasing refractive index) (b) down by:
Wave Bending Towards Normal (increasing refractive index)

This means faster decrease in the refractive index n with height. The ray AB of the
wave is entering at point B, a region of lower refractive index or in other words it
is entering from a denser to a rarer medium, and would, therefore, be bent away
from the normal. 2, the angle of refraction, is greater than the angle of incidence
1.. Now the ray BC of the wave is entering at point C the region l2 with still lower
refractive index. Or in other words it is again entering from a denser medium l1 to
a rarer medium l2, and is further bent away from the normal, i.e. 3 >2. Similarly,
for the region l3 such that we have 4 > 3 > 2 > 1. Now it can be easily seen that
the bending process would reverse and the wave would propagate down to the
receiver R.
Sky Wave Propagation Terminology 67
Electronics Before proceeding further in the study of sky wave or ionosheric propagation it
would be necessary to get familiarized with certain terms that are frequently used
in this mode of propagation.
The Virtual Height
The concept of virtual height of an ionospheric layer from which the refraction
takes place can be understood with the help of Figure 6.21. The wave traverses the
path from A (transmitter) to C (receiver) via the highest point B in the ionospheric
layer i.e. the path ABC. But if we project the path in the ionospheric layer as
though it is being reflected from point D within the layer, then OD or O' D' is
termed as the virtual height of the layer. If, some how, the virtual height is known,
it is possible to compute the angle of incidence required for a wave to be received
at a selected point on the ground.

D D

Virtual Height
Ionospheric Layer B

Actual
Height

Wave
A O C O'

Surface

Figure 6.21 : ABC Shows the Actual Propagation Path, and OD is the Virtual Height from which the
Wave Appears to be Reflected

The Critical Frequency (fc)

It is the highest frequency, for a given layer, that would return back to earth when
transmitted vertically up in the ionosphere, i.e. at an angle 1 (Figure 6.20) of zero
degree. It is important to know that waves of the critical frequency and frequencies
lower than this will be reflected from the layer, whatever may be the angle of
incidence. It is, therefore, necessary to know the value of the critical frequency
under given conditions, since fc is variable and is different under different
conditions. To give you an idea, the critical frequency of the F2 layer may vary
between 5 MHz to 12 MHz.
The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
It is also the limiting frequency but under conditions of a definite angle of
incidence other than = 0, where is the same as 1 above, i.e. the angle of
incidence. Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) may be expressed as

Critical Frequency f
MUF = = c
cos cos

Note: MUF is equal to fc when the angle of incidence = 0. MUF is often

expressed as:

MUF = fc sec

68
 Transmitters, Receivers,
which is also known as the Secant law. MUF, in fact, is the highest frequency that Antennas and Propagation
can be used for ionospheric communication between two given points on the earth.
Normal values of MUF range from 8 MHz to 35MHz and may be somewhat
higher under unusual solar activity.
Skip Distance
Figure 6.22 depicts an e.m. wave transmitted from point A on the earths surface,
which is then refracted from an ionospheric layer and is received at point B on the
earth surface. Now if the angle of incidence is increased, the point of reception B
moves to the right, i.e. the reception distance is increased. On the other hand, if
is decreased, the wave penetrates the ionospheric layer and is no longer returned to
earth. However a slight decrease in may return the wave to earth, but this
reception point would again be to the right of B as would be seen in the next
section. The skip distance is, thus, defined as the shortest distance from a
transmitter, along the surface of the earth, at which a sky wave of fixed frequency
(>fc) would be received at earth.

Isonospheric Layer

Wave

Skip Distance

A B
Ground Surface

Figure 6.22 : Depicts the Shortest Distance for any Frequency (>fc) for Which the Wave would be
Returned to Earth, also Called Skip Distance

Effect of Angle of Incidence on Waves Projected in the Ionosphere

It has been said earlier that waves of critical frequency and those lower than the
critical frequency would be received on earth whatever may be the angle of
incidence or the angle at which these are projected. However, when the frequency
of the wave exceeds the critical frequency, the effect of the ionosphere depends on
the angle of incidence. This effect is depicted in Figure 6.23 for different angles of
incidence. It is seen in the case of wave 1, where the angle of incidence 0 is
relatively large, the wave requires smaller bending, and therefore, the change of
refractive index with very small penetration of the wave into the ionosphere is
sufficient to return it to the earth at point A. However, as the angle of incidence is
decreased, as in the cases of waves 2 and 3, the bending of the wave required is
progressively greater. Therefore, these waves penetrate deeper into the ionosphere,
for sufficient change in refractive index to return them to earth to points B and C
respectively. In the above three cases of waves 1, 2 and 3, it is observed that as the
angle of incidence is reduced the wave returns closer and closer to the transmitter.
With the exception of wave 4. When the angle of incidence is further reduced, the
wave no longer returns to ground and penetrates the layer completely as shown
with case 5.
As we have seen earlier the distance from the transmitter, corresponding to the
minimum angle of incidence, as in the case of wave 3 is the skip distance.
Now consider the exceptional case of wave 4. In this case, the angle of incidence is
made only just smaller than wave 3. This wave gets bent very gradually, travels a 69
Electronics large distance within the layer and returns to ground at a point farther than the
return point of wave 3. This wave is, however, very much weakened due to its
parallel travel through the layer, and may tend to weaken the normal ionospheric
signals, as seen at point B, where the two waves may reach with out of phase
relationship and tend to cancel.
Now, any higher frequency, beamed up at an angle of wave 3 would not be
returned to earth. It is thus seen that the frequency which makes any distance
correspond to the skip distance is the Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF).
Whereas the minimum distance in the ionospheric propagation is limited by the
skip distance, the maximum distance is achieved when the wave is transmitted
almost tangential to the earth. The maximum distance in the ionospheric
propagation is generally around 4000 kms.

Ionospheric Layer

o
5
4 Upper Ray
3 o
2 Lower Ray

1
2
3
1
Skip Distance

T C B A T

Earth Surface

Figure 6.23 : Effect of the Angle of Incidence on the Wave of any Frequency Greater than the
Critical Frequency fc.

Fading in Ionospheric Propagation

Fading is a large reduction in signal strength or sometimes total absence even
though the transmitter is radiating the waves. It is as a result of interference
between signals that leave the transmitter but arrive at the receiver through
different paths which results in phase cancellation. Fading may result as in the case
of upper ray (4) and lower ray (2) when the signals arrive at point B as shown in
Figure 6.23, because the resultant signal would be the vector sum of the two
signals. The problem of fading is generally tackled in two ways. The first is called
the frequency diversity and the second as space diversity.
(i) Frequency Diversity
In this case, the transmitter radiates two closely spaced frequencies. It is to
take advantage of the fact that if signals of one frequency travelling in two
different paths experience phase cancellation, the signals of other frequency
may not experience the same, due to different wavelengths.
(ii) Space Diversity
In this case, the two receiver antennas are employed instead of one. Since
the path length from the transmitter to one receiver antenna would be
different to that of the other, it is probable that if one signal at one antenna
fades, the other may not.
Multi-hop Propagation
70
 Transmitters, Receivers,
Long distance ionospheric links are often designed taking in view the multi-hop Antennas and Propagation
propagation. This means the signals, radiated by the transmitter, first refract from

a particular ionospheric layer then reflect from the ground, experience a second refraction
from the layer and then arrive at the receiver. Such a propagation is shown in Figure
6.24.

Ionospheric Layer

Single Hop
First Hop
Second Hop

T R

Figure 6.24 : Multi Hop Sky Wave Propagation from the Transmitter (T) to the Receiver (R)
With multihop transmission, extremely long distance communication is possible. But
demerit is that the wave is rendered very weak due to successive reflection and refraction
since each time it undergoes a reflection or refraction, some energy is lost.
Variations in the Ionosphere
We have already read that the ionization process in the ionosphere depends upon
radiations from the sun. We have also studied that D and E layers vanish at night
and F1 and F2 layers merge to form an F-layer. These are called day and night or
diurnal variations of the ionosphere. Then there is change in intensity of suns
radiations with seasons, and, therefore, the ionosphere has seasonal variations.
Apart from these two normal variations of the ionosphere, there are certain
abnormal variations also, that are caused due to changes in the sun. The sun has an
11-year solar cycle over which its output varies tremendously. There are large
variations in the emissions of UV radiations, , and particle radiations, flares
and sun-spots during the 11-year cycle. The most important of the sun caused
ionospheric disturbance is termed as SIDs (Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances).
SIDs are caused by solar flares which are actually large emissions of hydrogen
from the sun. It should, however, be noted that only the ionosphere of the sun-
illuminated side of the earth is affected.
Ionospheric storms are caused due to and particle emissions from the sun.
There is a very erratic behaviour of the ionosphere due to this. During the storms
the signal strength fluctuates very fast and drops. This effect is more noticeable at
higher latitudes due to the earths magnetic field.
Space Wave Propagation
Propagation in the VLF band and part of the MF band of frequencies is achieved through
surface waves. Propagation in the HF band generally ranging from 3-30 MHz and
sometimes to 35 MHz is achieved through the ionosphere. Frequencies that lie in the
VHF and microwave bands can use none of the above two modes of propagation. These
frequencies are not suitable for ground wave propagation as ground absorption heavily
reduces the signal strength even at few hundred feet from the transmitter antenna. As we
have already seen these band of frequencies also penetrate the ionosphere and cannot be
refracted down from it. These frequencies, therefore, use space-wave mode of
propagation.

71
Electronics
A

B
Ht
TX
ANTENNA Hr RX
O ANTENNA

Earth Surface

(a)

d
d1 d2
A B
O
TX
ANTENNA Ht Hr
RX
ANTENNA
Earth Surface

(b)

Figure 6.25 : Line of Sight (LOS) Space Wave Propagation (a) with a Direct AB and Ground Reflected
AOB Paths, (b) Showing the Maximum Distance AOB Corresponding to the Antenna Heights

Space waves propagate in the tropospheric space from the transmitter to the receiver,
using generally tall antennas or antennas located on high hills, such that the two antennas
are in the line of sight. When the transmitting antenna (Tx Antenna) and the receiving
antenna (Rx Antenna) are not at such a large distance that the curvature of the earth
obscures any one of them, the propagation is through two way paths as shown in Figure
6.25 (a). The signals would reach the Rx antenna from the direct line of sight (LOS) path
AB, as well as, through the ground reflected path AOB. The signal at B would be the
vector sum of the signals arriving from the two propagation paths. The antenna location
of such links are adjusted such that the two signals arrive as close in phase as possible
and thereby reinforce.
Figure 6.25 (b) shows space wave propagation between the Tx antenna and Rx antenna in
the path AOB when the distance AOB is quite large such that the wave almost grazes the
earth. The maximum propagation distance d in such a case is limited by the curvature of
the earth and has an empirical relation as
d = d1 + d 2 = 4 H t + 4 H r
where Ht = Height of the Tx antenna in metres,
Hr = Height of the Rx antenna in metres,
d1 = Distance from the transmitting antenna to point O in kms, and
d2 = Distance from the receiving antenna to point O in kms.
As these waves generally propagate close to ground, these are bound to be obstructed by
any tall building or installation, producing shadow zones and back reflections.
Care, therefore, is necessary in planning these links such that the antennas are located
higher than such installations. When designing LOS space wave propagation links at
microwave frequencies, care has to be taken to take into account the effects of
atmospheric absorption at the frequencies employed and the effects of precipitation, such
as, rain, snow, etc. Long distance space wave communication is achieved by employing
number of repeater stations, where a repeater receives the signals from the previous
station, translates the frequency, boosts the signal and retransmits to the next station.
Example 6.1
Calculate the radio horizon, when the transmitting antenna height is 100m and the
receiving antenna height is 25 m.
72

Solution
Tx antenna height Ht = 100 m
Rx antenna height Hr = 25 m
Radio Horizon (d) = (d1 + d2) = 4
Transmitters, Receivers,
Antennas and Propagation
Ht + 4 Hr

where d1 and d2 are in kms.

d = 4 100 + 4 25

= ( 40 + 20 ) = 60 kms.

Tropospheric Scatter Propagation

Propagation of waves in the UHF band of frequencies is often achieved by tropospheric
scatter propagation. Troposphere is the region of the atmosphere ranging from ground to
a height of around 15 kms. Anybody who has travelled by air would have experienced
the phenomenon of turbulence in this region of the atmosphere. This causes abrupt
changes in the refractive index of the atmosphere that ride over the linear variation of this
parameter as was discussed earlier. When signals in the UHF range of frequencies
(sometimes higher also) are projected over such regions they get scattered. The forward
scattered signals are picked up by beyond the horizon receiver antennas. Highly
directional antennas as shown in Figure 6.26 are made to look at a common volume,
generally referred to as the scattering volume. The signals forward scattered from the
scattering volume are generally one millionth or one billionth of those incident on it from
the transmitter. For this reason, the transmitters radiate large powers and the receivers
are very sensitive and have very low signal to noise ratios. The directional gain of the
antennas is also large. Such propagation links are very useful in long distance microwave
propagation in inhospitable terrains where microwave line of sight (LOS) space wave
propagation links are difficult to erect. Troposcatter or forward scatter links, as these are
generally named, cover distances in the range of 300 kms to 500 kms.
Scatterers

Scattering
Volume

Forward Scatter
Signal
Incident
Signal

Tx
Antenna Rx
Antenna

Earth Surface

Figure 6.26 : Tropospheric Scatter Propagation with the Highly Directional (Generally Parabolic Dish
Antennas) Transmitting and Receiving Antennas Looking at the Scattering Volume in the
Troposphere

Fading is the common feature of this mode of propagation. The fast acting fading is
caused by multi path propagation and the slowly occurring fading is caused by variations
of the atmosphere in its path. The problem of fading is again tackled here, as in the case
of sky-wave propagation, using space, as well as, frequency diversity techniques.
Propagation of Waves via the Satellites
The beginning of the era of satellites has brought in a new mode of propagation using
satellites. A communication satellite works like a microwave repeater station. The signals 73
Electronics transmitted by an earth station are received by the antenna of the satellite. The
communication system kept in the satellite down-converts (by the process of mixing) this
signal to an IF frequency, where the signal is provided the necessary gain. These signals
are then up-converted (by the process of mixing again) to another frequency, which is
generally lower than the up-link frequency and transmitted to a distant earth station.
There are two types of satellites that are used for communication purpose:
(1) The low orbit chain of satellites that move fast.
(2) The geosynchronous orbit satellites.
Low Orbit Satellites
These are generally polar orbit satellites that circle round the earth in low orbits
that may range from a few hundred kilometers to a few thousand kilometers. An
example of these satellites is the Iridium constellation of 66 LEO (low earth orbit)
satellites that orbit from pole to pole in 100 minutes, with each satellite scanning
the earth in around 15 revolutions, from the orbital distance of around 725 kms.
The Iridium constellation of satellites allows voice and data communication using
hand held devices. This system is also being used for maritime and aviation
services.
Geosynchronous Orbit Satellites
These are equatorial orbit satellites, located above the equator at a distance of
around 36000 kms from the earth at different longitudes as suitable to the location
of different countries. The angular speed of revolution of these satellites is the
same as the angular speed of rotation of the earth, such that these look stationary to
an observer on earth. The earliest geosynchronous satellites were the Intelsat IV
series of satellites launched from USA that used a transmit/receive band of
6 GHz/4GHz. Each geosynchronous satellite can look at earth over an angle of
around 120o so that three satellites can view the whole globe. The Indian series of
geosynchronous INSAT series of satellites is located at 83o longitude and can
service the whole country. It operates in 6 GHz/4GHz transmit/receive band. Other
examples of geosynchronous communication satellite are Chinas PRC series and
USAs Intelsat V series that operate on 30GHz/10GHz transmit/receive band and
Russias Raduga Series operating in 6GHz/4GHz band. The higher microwave
frequencies used in this communication mode can have greater band width and,
therefore, greater number of simultaneous communication channels that can be
used.

SAQ 4
(a) What is skip distance?
(b) What waves should necessarily be vertically polarized?
(c) High frequency waves are :
(i) absorbed by F2 layer
(ii) reflected by the D layer
(iii) used for long distance communication on the moon
(iv) affected by solar cycle.
(d) The ground waves disappear as one moves away from the transmitter
because of
(i) Interference from the sky wave
(ii) Maximum single-hop distance limitations
74
 Transmitters, Receivers,
(iii) Tilting Antennas and Propagation
(iv) Solar fluxes
(e) Which layer has the greatest thickness during the day?
(f) Name the lowest ionospheric layer.
(g) What causes abnormal ionosphere variations?

6.8 MODULATION
The process of changing the characteristics such as amplitude, frequency or phase of a
wave in accordance with the instantaneous value of some other signal voltage is called
modulation.
The wave whose characteristics are varied is called carrier wave and the signal voltage
which is used to vary characteristics of carrier wave is called modulating signal.
Need for Modulation
Practical Antenna Length
In order to transmit a wave effectively, the length of the transmitting antenna
should be comparable to the wavelength of the wave. At the audio frequencies that
range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, the length of the transmitting antenna required would
be extremely large running into several kilometers. So, it is impracticable to
radiate audio signals directly into the atmosphere. Moreover, for a particular
antenna dimensions, higher the frequency, the greater would be the gain and there
would be greater effective radiated power by the antenna.
Amplitude Modulation
If the amplitude of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the instantaneous value of
the modulating wave, the modulation is called amplitude modulation. Figure 6.27 (a)
depicts the low frequency modulating signal of frequency fm, (b) is the carrier wave fc and
(c) shows the variation of the carrier amplitude in accordance with the modulating signal.

Vm
fm

(a) Signal Wave

fc

Vc

(b) Carrier Wave

75
Vmax
B B
Electronics

V min

(c) AM Wave

Figure 6.27 : (a) The Modulating Signal with Vm as the Maximum Amplitude; (b) The Carrier Wave
with Vc as the Maximum Amplitude.; and (c)The Modulated Carrier with Vmax as the Maximum
Amplitude and Vmin as the Minimum Amplitude

In amplitude modulation
(i) The amplitude of the carrier wave changes according to the instantaneous
voltage of modulating wave.
(ii) The amplitude variations of the carrier wave is at the signal frequency fm.
(iii) The frequency of the amplitude-modulated wave is same as that of carrier
frequency fc.
Modulation Factor or Modulation Index (m)
The ratio of maximum amplitude of signal wave to the maximum amplitude of
unmodulated carrier wave is called the modulation factor or modulation index.
M ax . amplitude of modulating wave
Modulation Factor ( m) =
M ax . amplitude of carrier wave
Vm
i.e., m =
Vc

+ (Vc + Vm sin mt)

Vm
Vmax
Vm
Vc
Vmin
Voltage

Time

Figure 6.28 : An Amplitude Modulated (a.m.) Signal with its Maximum Amplitude Vmax and Minimum
Vm [Vmax Vmin ]
Amplitude Vmin, with Modulation Index m= = .
Vc [Vmax + Vm ]
Figure 6.28 depicts an amplitude modulated carrier wave. The maximum amplitude of
the modulated wave is Vmax and its minimum amplitude is Vmin. From Figure 6.28, we
have
Vmax Vmin
Vm = (I)
2
and Vc = Vmax Vm

= Vmax
[Vmax Vmin ]
2
Vmax + Vmin
Vc = (II)
2
76
 Transmitters, Receivers,
Dividing Eq. (I) by (II), we have the modulation index, Antennas and Propagation
Vm (Vmax Vmin )
m = =
Vc (Vmax + Vmin )
Equation of AM Wave
A carrier wave may be represented by
Vic = Vc cos c t
where Vic = instantaneous voltage of carrier wave
Vc = maximum amplitude of carrier wave
c (= 2 fc) = angular velocity at carrier frequency fc.
And modulating wave may be represented as,
Vim = Vm sin m t
where Vim = instantaneous voltage of modulating signal
Vm = maximum amplitude of modulating signal
m = 2 fm = angular velocity of modulating signal frequency fm.
Amplitude A of the modulated signal can be written as A = (Vc + Vm sin mt)
since Vm = mVc
A = Vc (1 + m sin mt)
The instantaneous voltage of the amplitude modulated wave, v, is therefore
v = A sin = A sin ct
= Vc (1 + m sin mt) sin ct (III)
Equation (III) can be expanded using the trigonometric relation

2[
sin x. sin y = 1 cos ( x y ) cos ( x + y )] to give,

mVc mVc
v = Vc sin c t + cos ( c m )t cos ( c + m ) t
2 2
Thus, amplitude modulated wave contains 3 waves, one having amplitude Vc and
m Vc
frequency fc, the second having amplitude and frequency (fc + fm) and the
2
m Vc
third having amplitude and frequency (fc fm).
2
The sum of carrier frequency and modulating signal frequency, i.e. fc + fm is called
upper side band frequency (USB), and the difference (fc fm) as the lower side
band frequency (LSB).
The difference between upper side band frequency and lower side frequency is
called bandwidth of amplitude modulation wave, i.e.
Band width = (fc + fm) (fc fm) = 2fm

LSB
USB

fm fm

(fc fm) fc (fc + fm)

Figure 6.29 : Spectrum of Amplitude Modulated Wave Depicting the Lower Side Band (LSB) and the
Upper Side Band (USB)

Example 6.2
An AM wave is represented by the equation 77
Electronics Vim = 10 (1 + 0.6 cos 7770 t) sin 350 104 t volts.
(i) What are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the AM wave?
(ii) What frequency components are contained in the modulated wave and what
is the amplitude of each component?
Solution
The equation of the given AM wave is
v = 10 (1 + 0.6 cos 7770 t) sin 350 104 t . . . (i)
The standard equation of the AM wave is
v= Vc ( 1+m cos wm t ) sin wc t . . . (ii)

Comparing Eqs. (i) and (ii)

Vc = 10 volts
m = 0.6, Vm = 0.6, vc = 6 Volt
m = 7770 i.e. fm = 1236.6 Hz ; 1237 Hz
c = 350 104 i.e. fc = 55.7 104 Hz = 557325 Hz
(i) Minimum amplitude of AM wave Vmin = Vc Vm = 4 V

Maximum amplitude of AM wave Vmax = Vc + Vm = 16 V

(ii) Frequency components are

fc = 557325 Hz
fc + fm = 558562 Hz
fc fm = 556088 Hz
Amplitude of carrier voltage = Vc = 10V
m Vc
Amplitude of each side band component = = 3V .
2

SAQ 5
(a) A sinusoidal carrier voltage of frequency 1300 kHz is amplitude modulated
by a sinusoidal voltage of frequency 15 kHz resulting in maximum and
minimum modulated carrier amplitudes of 100 volt and 80 volt respectively.
Calculate
(i) Frequency of lower and upper side bands
(ii) un-modulated carrier amplitude
(iii) modulation index and amplitude of each sideband.
(b) An audio signal represented by 20 sin (8000 t) volts is used in amplitude
modulation along with a radio signal represented by 50 sin (7.5 106t).
Determine the modulation index, side band frequencies and bandwidth.

Frequency Modulation
If the frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the instantaneous value of
modulating wave voltage, the modulation is called frequency modulation.
78
 Transmitters, Receivers,
In frequency modulation, Antennas and Propagation
(i) the amplitude of the carrier wave remains the same.
(ii) the frequency of the carrier wave changes according to the instantaneous
voltage of modulating wave.

+ Vm

Voltage
Time t
Vm

(a) Modulating Signal

+ Vc

Voltage

Time t
Vc

(b) Carrier Signal

+ Vc

Voltage
Time t
Vc

(c) Frequency Modulated Carrier

fc + f

Frequency
Time t

fc f

(d) Variations in Frequency of the Modulated Signal

Figure 6.30: (a) Shows the Time Variations of the Modulating Signal, (b) Variations of Carrier
Amplitude with Time, (c) Shows the Frequency Modulated Carrier with its Frequency Varying
according to the amplitude of the Modulating Signal, (d) Depicts Variations in the Frequency of the
Modulated Carrier

Modulation Index
Modulation index of the frequency modulated signal mf is the ratio of maximum
frequency deviation and the frequency of modulating wave. 79
Electronics f
i.e. mf =
fm
where fm = frequency of modulating wave
f = maximum frequency deviation (= K Vm fc)
K = a constant
Vm = amplitude of modulating signal, fc = frequency of carrier signal.
Equation of FM Wave
The instantaneous value of FM wave voltage is given by (derivation not within the
scope of the present study),
Vif = Vc cos (c t + mf sin m t )

where Vif = instantaneous voltage of frequency modulated wave

Vc = maximum amplitude of carrier wave
c = angular velocity of carrier wave
mf = modulation index of frequency modulated signal
m = angular velocity of modulating signal.
If fc and fm are the carrier and modulating wave frequencies then frequency
modulated wave will have the frequencies, f c , f c f m , f c 2f m , f c 3f m and
so on.
Thus frequency-modulated wave contains infinite number of side band terms on
both lower and upper frequency sides of the carrier frequency at intervals equal to
the modulation frequency. With a good approximation, bandwidth of frequency
modulated wave can be taken as 2[f + fm].
SAQ 6
(a) A frequency modulated wave is given by equation

V = 40 cos (9 108 t + 5 sin 1400 t )

Find
(i) Carrier frequency
(ii) Signal frequency
(iii) Modulation index
(b) The carrier and modulating frequencies of an FM transmitter are 130 MHz
and 16 kHz respectively. If the maximum frequency deviation is 85 kHz,
find modulation index, bandwidth, first three upper and lower side band
frequencies.

Phase Modulation
If the phase angle of carrier voltage is changed in accordance with the instantaneous
value of modulating voltage, the modulation is called the phase modulation.
80
 Transmitters, Receivers,
Comparison of FM and PM Antennas and Propagation
Frequency modulation requires the modulated wave frequency to deviate both
above and below the carrier frequency. During the process of frequency
modulation, the peaks of each successive cycle in the modulated waveform occur
at times other than they would if the carrier were unmodulated. This is actually an
incidental phase shift that takes place along with the frequency shift in FM. Just
the opposite action takes place in phase modulation. The time period of each
successive cycle varies in the modulated wave according to signal wave variation.
Since frequency is a function of time period per cycle, a phase shift in the carrier
will cause its frequency to change. The frequency change in FM is vital, but in PM
it is merely incidental. The amount of frequency change has nothing to do with the
resultant modulated wave shape in PM.

6.9 DEMODULATION
The process of separation of modulating wave from modulated wave is called
demodulation.
The demodulation of an AM wave involves two operations, viz.,
(i) rectification of the modulated wave, and
(ii) elimination of carrier component of the modulated wave.
However, demodulation of an FM wave involves three steps, viz.,
(i) conversion of frequency changes produced by modulating signal into
corresponding amplitude changes,
(ii) rectification of the modulated wave, and
(iii) elimination of carrier component of the modulated wave.
Several types of AM and FM detectors have been developed and are in use, but, here we
will discuss diode detector for AM wave and slope detector for FM wave.
AM Diode Detector
Figure 6.31 (a) depicts a simple AM Detector Circuit. The received amplitude modulated
carrier Vim is selected by tuning the inductor L1 and Capacitor C1 of the parallel tuned
circuit and is passed on to the detector diode D. The diode conducts when it is forward
biased during the positive half cycles shown, in Figure 6.31 (b), as solid lines but does
not conduct during the negative half cycles as shown in (b) by dotted lines. The load
resistance RL is very high and is shunted by a small capacitor C. The capacitor gets
charged during the positive peaks at a voltage slightly less than the peak (due to diode
forward drop). During the negative cycle of the signal, the capacitor discharges, but the
charge is again replenished during the succeeding positive cycle. The modulating
envelope Vo shown in Figure 6.31 (b) is, therefore, detected and is available at the load
resistance RL (of course with a small carrier ripple).

L1 D
C1 VO
Vim

C
RL

(a) An AM Diode Circuit

Vo

81
Vim
t
Electronics

(b) The Process of Detection

Figure 6.31
FM Demodulator
In general an FM demodulator works by first changing the frequency deviations in the
frequency modulated carrier to amplitude variations that correspond to the frequency
variations. The amplitude variations are then detected by a similar circuit as was used in
the AM detector. Such a circuit is shown in Figure 6.32 (a). In this circuit the inductor L1
and capacitor C1 of the first parallel tuned circuit (primary side) are so adjusted that this
circuit is tuned to the centre of the frequency modulated carrier i.e. fc. However, the
second circuit comprising L2 and C2 is tuned slightly off from the carrier.

L1 L2
C1
C2 C
RL

(a)

C
b
B

B D a c e

B d
A E

fc fc +

a
b
c

d
e

fc f fc (fc + f)
(b)

Figure 6.32

The response of the second tuned circuit is shown in Figure 6.32 (b) as ABCDE. The
carrier fc lies at point B of the second tuned circuit curve whose resonance frequency is
(fc + ) and is at point C. The frequency variations are shown by the curve abcde. The
frequency deviations are from fc to (fc f ) and from fc to (fc + f ). These frequency
deviations are converted to amplitude variations a b c d e by the slope (B'BB'') of the
tuned circuit (comprising L2 and C2) response curve. This type of FM. detection is often
referred to as the slope detector. The resulting amplitude modulations are then detected
by the diode detector as in the case of AM. detection.
The above described FM. detector is important from the point of view that it gives the
concept of FM detection. However, in practice either the balaced slope detector or phase
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 Transmitters, Receivers,
discriminators are generally used for FM demodulation. You may do well to learn about Antennas and Propagation
these from the text.

6.10 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been introduced to the elements of wireless communication, i.e.
radio transmitters, radio receivers and antennas, and methods of electromagnetic wave
propagation. We have learnt about a simple AM transmitter. We have been introduced to
a simple TRF, as well as, a superheterodyne receiver. We have learnt how an EM wave
propagates as a transverse wave. We have been introduced to different type of antennas
that include resonant, nonresonant, directional and omnidiectional antennas. We have
become familiar with the refractive index of the atmosphere as applicable to the EM
waves. We learnt about different modes of wave propagation, i.e. surface or ground
waves, sky waves, space waves, troposcatter propagation, as well as, satellite
communication. We have also been made familiar with methods of modulation and
demodulation of signals including amplitude and frequency modulation and
demodulation.

6.11 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) Sensitivity
(b) IF frequency
(c) (i) Antenna
(ii) RF amplifier
(iii) down converter
(iv) IF amplifier
(v) detector
(vi) audio amplifier
(vii) speaker
(d) Enhancing selectivity and sensitivity of the receiver
SAQ 2
(a) (ii)
(b) (ii)
(c) Perpendicular
SAQ 3
(a) dB
(b) ends
(c) 0.6 m
(d) (ii)
(e) (iv)
(f) (iv)
(g) (i)
SAQ 4
(a) Shortest distance between transmitter and returned signal on earth for any
frequency f greater than fc.
(b) Ground waves
(c) (iv) 83
Electronics (d) (iii)
(e) F2-layer
(f) D-layer
(g) Ionospheric storms and SIDs
SAQ 5
(a) (i) 1315 kHz, 1285 kHz
(ii) 90 V
(iii) m = 0.111, 4.99 Volt
(b) m = 0.4
USB = 1195.541 kHz
LSB = 1192.993 kHz
BW = 2548 Hz
SAQ 6
(a) (i) 143.312102 106 Hz
(ii) 223 Hz
(iii) 5
(b) mf = 5.3
BW = 202 kHz
Side hands : 130.016 MHz 130.032 MHz 130.048 MHz
129.984 MHz 129.968 MHz 129.952 MHz

84