Bulk Deformation

Chapter
p 16: "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low
surface area
area-to-volume
to volume ratios
Bulk Forming
g Processes Significant
g shapep change
g
Starting forms:
Cylindrical bars and billets,
C
Rectangular billets and slabs
Plastic flow
C ld warm, and
Cold, d hot
h t working
ki

Introduction Classification of Deformation

Processes
Forging, rolling, and wire drawing were Bulk deforming processes can be classified as
performed in the Middle Ages primary or secondary processes
Primary processes reduce a cast material into slabs (
The Industrial Revolution allowed these ) plates
), plates, billets ()
(), and bloom ()
processes to be done at a higher level Secondary processes reduce shapes into finished or
semifinished products
R
Recently,
tl many processes h have b
begun tto b
be
Bulk deformation - thickness or cross sections are
automated
reduced
Sheet-forming - thickness and cross section remain
relatively constant
Bulk Deformation Processes Rolling

Rolling () Slab or plate is squeezed between opposing

Forging () rolls
Extrusion () Rolling
g operations
p reduce the thickness or
Wire, rod, and tube drawing () change the cross section of a material
through compressive forces
Cold forming, cold forging, and impact
extrusion Thick stock can be rolled into blooms, billets,
or slabs
Piercing
Squeezing processes

Starting Stock Flowchart of Rolling Operations

Blooms have a square or rectangular cross

section
Billets are usually
y smaller than a bloom and Figure
g 16-1 Flow chart for
the production of various
can have a square or circular cross section finished and semifinished
steel shapes. Note the
Can be further rolled into structural shapes abundance of rolling
operations. (Courtesy of
American Iron and Steel
Slabs are a rectangular
g solid with a width Institute, Washington,
D.C.)
greater than twice the thickness
Can be used to produce plates
plates, sheets
sheets, or strips
Basic Rolling Process Widening of Material
x

Metal is passed
between
bet ee ttwo
o rolls
o s tthat
at
rotate in opposite
directions
Friction acts to propel
the material forward
Metal is squeezed and
elongates to
compensate for the
decrease in cross- Figure 16-2 Schematic representation of the hot-
rolling process, showing the deformation and
sectional area recrystallization of the metal being rolled.

Rolling Mill Configurations Cluster

Cl ster rolls ssupport
pport smaller contacting
rolls

Figure 16-3 Various

roll configurations
used d iin rolling
lli
operations.

(Source: www.elgiloy.com)
Rolling Mill Configurations Continuous (Tandem) Rolling Mills
Figure 16-4
16 4 The effect of roll diameter on length
of contact for a given reduction.
Smaller diameter rolls Billets, blooms, and x

produce less length

p g of slabs are heated and
contact for a given
reduction and require less
fed through an
force to produce a given integrated series of
change in shape nonreversing rolling
S ll cross section
Smaller ti mills
provides a reduced stiffness Synchronization of
Rolls ma
may be prone to fle
flex rollers
elastically because they are
Figure 16-5 Typical roll-pass sequences used in
only
y supported
pp on the ends producing structural shapes
shapes.

Roll Forming (hot): I-beams

I beams Ring Rolling

Deformation process in
x

which a thick
thick-walled
walled ring
of smaller diameter is
rolled into a thin-walled
ring of larger diameter
Produces seamless rings
Circumferential grain
(L nchtime atop a Sk
(Lunchtime Skyscraper,
scraper bby Charles
orientation and is used in
C. Ebbets, http://en.wikipedia.org/) rockets, turbines, airplanes,
pressure vessels, and Figure 16-6 Schematic of horizontal ring rolling
operation As the thickness of the ring is reduced
operation. reduced,
pipelines its diameter will increase.

((Source: Kalpakjian,
p j , 2007))
Thread Rolling () Machined and Rolled Threads

Ad
Advantages
t over thread
th d cutting
tti (machining):
( hi i )
Higher production rates
Better material utilization
Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance due to work
hardening
g

(Source: Kalpakjian, 2007)

Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle.
(Source: Groover, 2005)

Characteristics, Quality, and Flatness Control and Rolling Defects

Precision of Rolled Products x

Hot-rolled products have little directionality in Rollers must be evenly

their properties spaced throughout for
Hot-rolled products are therefore uniform and perfectly flat pieces to
Figure
g 16-7 ((above)) ((a)) Loading
g on a rolling
g mill
h
have d
dependable
d bl quality
lit be produced roll. The top roll is pressed upward in the center
while being supported on the ends. (b) The
Surfaces mayy be rough
g or may
y have a surface Sometimes this elastic response to the three-point bending.

oxide known as mill scale variation

i ti iin roller
ll
flatness may be
Dimensional tolerances vary with the kind of
desired
metal and the size of the product
Cold rolled products exhibit superior surface
Cold-rolled Figure 16-8
16 8 Use of a crowned
crowned roll to compensate for
roll flexure. When the roll flexes in three-point bending,
finish and dimensional precision the crowned roll flexes into flatness.
Forging Open-die
Open die Hammer Forging

Work is squeezed and shaped between Same type of forging done by a blacksmith
opposing dies but mechanical equipment performs the
Processes that induce plastic deformation operation
th
through
h llocalized
li d compressive
i fforces applied
li d An impact is delivered by some type of
through dies
mechanical hammer
Parts can range in size
Simplest industrial hammer is a gravity drop
Methods
machine ()
Upset ()
Squeezed in closed impression dies Computer controlled
controlled-hammers
hammers can provide
varying blows

Open-die
Open die Hammer Forging Figure 16-10
16 10 (Top)
Illustration of the
unrestrained flow of
material in open-die
forging. Note the
barrel shape that
forms due to friction
between the die and
material. (Middle)
Open-die forging of a
multidiameter shaft.
(
(Bottom) ) Forging off a
seamless ring by the
open-die method.
(Courtesy of Forging
Industry Association,
Cleveland, OH.)

Figure
g 16-9 ((Left)) Double-frame drop
p hammer.
(Courtesy of Erie Press Systems, Erie, PA.)
(Right) Schematic diagram of a forging hammer.
Impression-Die
Impression Die Hammer Forging Impression-Die
Impression Die Hammer Forging

The dies are shaped to control the flow of metal Excess metal may squeeze out of the die
Upper piece attaches to the hammer and the lower This metal is called flash ()
piece to the anvil Flashless forging can be performed if the metal is
Metal flows and completely fills the die d f
deformed d iin a cavity
it that
th t provides
id total
t t l confinement
fi t
x

Many forged products are produced with a series of

cavities
Figure 16-11 Schematic of the
impression die forging process,
impression-die process
First impression
p is called edging
g g ((), ) fullering
g ((),
) or
showing partial die filling and the bending
beginning of flash formation in the
center sketch and the final shape Intermediate impressions are for blocking () the metal
with flash in the right-hand sketch.
to approximately its final shape
Final shape is given in its final forging operation

Press Forging
Figure 16-12
Impression drop-forging
di and
dies d th
the product
d t
resulting from each
impression. The flash is Press forging is used for large or thick
trimmed from the
finished connecting rod products
in a separate trimming
die. The sectional view
shows the grain flow
Slow squeezing
q g action p
penetrates completely
p y
resulting from the
forging process. through the metal
(Courtesy of Forging
Industry Association, Produces a more uniform deformation and flow
Cleveland, OH.)
Longer time of contact between the die and
workpiece
Dies may be heated (isothermal forging)
Presses are either mechanical or hydraulic
Design of Impression-Die
Impression Die Forgings Impression-Die
Impression Die Forgings
and Associated Tooling
Forging dies are typically made of high-alloy or tool Important design details
stee
steel Number of intermediate steps
Shape of each step
Rules for better and more economical parts:
Amount of excess metal to fill the die
Dies
es sshould
ou d pa
partt a
along
o g a ssingle,
g e, flat
at p
plane
a eoor follow
o o tthe
e co
contour
tou oof
the part Dimensions of flash at each step
Parting surface should be a plane through the center of the Good dimensional accuracy
forging
Adequate draft Figure 16-15 A forged-and-
Generous fillets and radii machined automobile
engine crankshaft that has
Ribs should be low and wide been formed from
Various cross sections should be balanced microalloyed steel.
Performance is superior to
Full advantage should be taken of fiber flow lines cranks of cast ductile iron.
Dimensional tolerances should not be closer than necessary

Upset Forging Upset Forging

Bolt manufacture
Increases the diameter of a material by compressing its length
Both cold and hot upsetting
Three rules of upset forging
1. The length of the unsupported material that can be gathered or
upset in one blow without injurious buckling should be limited to three
times the diameter of the bar.
2. Lengths of stock greater than three times the diameter may be
upsett successfully
f ll provided
id d th
thatt th
the diameter
di t off the
th upsett is
i nott more
than 1 times the diameter of the bar.
3. In an upset requiring stock length greater than three times the
di
diameter
t off the
th bar,
b and d where
h th
the diameter
di t off the
th cavity
it is
i nott more
than 1 times the diameter of the bar (the conditions of rule 2), the
length of the unsupported metal beyond the face of the die must not
exceed d th
the di
diameter
t off th
the b
bar.
(Source: Kalpakjian, 2007)
Upset Forging Automatic Hot Forging
x

Slabs, billets, and x

bl
blooms can b be slid
lid iinto
one end of a room and
hot-forged products can
emerge at the other
end, with every process
automated

Figure 16-18
16 18 (a) Typical four
four-step
step sequence to produce a spur
spur-gear
gear forging by automatic hot forging
forging.
Figure 16-17 Schematics illustrating the rules governing upset forging. (Courtesy of National The sheared billet is progressively shaped into an upset pancake, blocker forging, and finished gear
Machinery Company, Tiffin, OH.) blank. (b) Samples of ferrous parts produced by automatic hot forging at rates between 90 and 180
parts per minute. (Courtesy of National Machinery Company, Tiffin, OH.)

Roll Forging x

Round or flat bar stock

is reduced in thickness
and increased in length
P d
Produces products
d t
such as axles, tapered
l
levers, and
d lleaff springs
i
Little or no flash is
Figure 16-20 Schematic of the roll-forging process
produced showing the two shaped rolls and the stock being
formed. (Courtesy of Forging Industry Association,
Figure 16-19
16 19 (Top) Roll
Roll-forging
forging machine in operation
operation. Cleveland OH
Cleveland, OH.))
(Right) Rolls from a roll-forging machine and the
various stages in roll forging a part. (Courtesy of Ajax
Manufacturing Company, Euclid, OH)
Swaging () Swaging Figure
g 16-21 ((Below)) Tube being
g reduced in a
rotary swaging machine. (Courtesy of the Timkin
Company, Canton, OH.)

Also known as rotary swaging () and radial Figure 16-23 (Below) A variety of swaged parts,
some with internal details. (Courtesy of Cincinnati
forging Mil
Milacron, Inc.
I Cincinnati,
Ci i ti OH.)
OH )
Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece
radially inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies

Figure 16-22 (Right) Basic components and motions

(Source: Groover, 2005)
of a rotary swaging machine. (Note: The cover plate
has been removed to reveal the interior workings.)
(Courtesy of the Timkin Company,
Company Canton
Canton, OH
OH.))

Net Shape Forging () and

Net-Shape
Near-Net-Shape Forging
80% of the cost of a forged-part can be due
to post-forging
post forging operations
To minimize expense
p and waste,, p
parts
should be forged as close the final shape as
possible
These processes are known as net-shape or
precision forging
Manufacture of a spark plug body: (left) by machining from hexagonal
bar stock; (right) by cold forming. Note the reduction in waste.
(Courtesy of National Machinery Co.)
Unit Cost in Forging Relative Unit Costs of a Small
Connecting Rod

((Source: Kalpakjian,
p j 2007))

Extrusion

Metal is compressed and

forced to flow through a
shaped die to form
f a
product with a constant
cross section
May be performed hot or
cold
Commonly extruded metals:
aluminum, magnesium,
copper, and d lleadd
Figure 16-25 Direct extrusion schematic showing
the various equipment components. (Courtesy of
D i li W
Danieli Wean UUnited,
it d C
Cranberry
b T
Township,
hi PAPA.))

(Source: )
Typical Extruded Products Advantages of Extrusion

Many shapes can be produced that are not

possible with rolling
No draft is required
Amount of reduction in a single step is only
limited byy the equipment,
q p , not the material or
the design
Figure 16-26 Typical shapes produced by extrusion. (Left) Aluminum products. (Courtesy of Dies are relatively inexpensive
Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh, PA.) (Right) Steel products. (Courtesy of Allegheny
Ludlum Steel Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA.) Small quantities of a desired shape can be
produced economically

Extrusion Methods Forces in Extrusion

Direct extrusion Lubrication is important

Solid ram drives the entire billet to and through a stationary die
to reduce friction and
Must provide power to overcome friction
Indirect extrusion
act as a heat barrier
A hollow ram pushes the die back through a stationary, confined M t l flow
Metal fl in
i extrusion
t i
billet Flow can be complex
Surface cracks, interior
cracks and flow-related
cracks
k needd tto be
b
monitored Figure 16-28 Diagram of the ram force versus ram
position for both direct and indirect extrusion of the
same product.
d t ThThe area under
d ththe curve corresponds d
Figure 16-27 Direct and indirect extrusion. In direct extrusion, the ram and billet both move and
to the amount of work (force x distance) performed.
friction between the billet and the chamber opposes forward motion. For indirect extrusion, the billet is
The difference between the two curves is attributed to
stationary. There is no billet-chamber friction, since there is no relative motion.
billet-chamber friction.
Extrusion Die Features Extrusion of Hollow Shapes
x

Mandrels () may
be used to produce
hollow shapes or
shapes with multiple
longitudinal cavities

(a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion; (b) effect of die Figure
g 16-30 Two methods of extruding
g hollow shapes
p using g internal mandrels. In p
part ((a)) the
angle on ram force. (Source: Groover, 2005) mandrel and ram have independent motions; in part (b) they move as a single unit.

Hydrostatic Extrusion Defects

High-pressure
Hi h fl id surrounds
fluid d x

the workpiece and applies the

force to execute extrusion
Billet-chamber friction is

eliminated
High efficiency process

Pressure induced ductility -

b ittl materials
brittle t i l can be b
extruded
Temperatures are limited
because the fluid acts as a Figure 16-32 Comparison of conventional (left)
and hydrostatic (right) extrusion. Note the Centerburst Piping Surface cracking
heat sink addition of the pressurizing fluid and the O-ring (Chevron cracking)
Seals must be designed to and miter-ring seals on both the die and ram.
keep the fluid from leaking (Source: Groover, 2005)
Wire, Rod, and Tube Drawing Drawing Practice and Products

Reduce the cross section of a material by Drawing practice:

pulling it through a die Usually performed as cold working
Most frequently used for round cross sections
Similar to extrusion,, but the force is tensile
P d t
Products:
x x

Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat
hangers, and shopping carts
Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
p g
Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and
other processes
p
Figure 16-36 Cold-drawing smaller tubing
Figure 16-34 Schematic drawing of the rod-or bar- from larger tubing. The die sets the outer
drawing process. dimension while the stationary mandrel sizes
the inner diameter
diameter.

Tube and Wire Drawing

x

Figure 16-39 Cross section

through a typical carbide
wire-drawing die showing the
Tube sinking does not characteristic regions of the
contour.
use a mandrel
Internal diameter
precision is sacrificed for
cost and a floating plug is x

used Figure 16-37 (Above) Tube drawing with

a floating plug.

Figure 16-38 Schematic of wire drawing with a

rotating draw block. The rotating motor on the
draw block provides a continuous pull on the
incoming wire. Figure 16-40 Schematic of a multistation synchronized wire-drawing machine. To prevent
accumulation or breakage, it is necessary to ensure that the same volume of material passes through
each station in a given time. The loops around the sheaves between the stations use wire tensions
and feedback electronics to provide the necessary speed control
control.
Preparation of Work for Drawing Cold Forming, Cold Forging, and
Impact Extrusion
Annealing - to increase ductility of stock Slugs of material are
squeezed
squee ed into
to o
or
extruded from shaped
Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface die cavities to produce
p
finished parts of precise
and draw die shape and size
Cold heading (/
)) is a form of
Pointing - to reduce diameter of starting end Figure 16-41
16 41 Typical steps in a shearing and cold
cold-
upset forging heading operation.
to allow insertion through draw die Used to make the
enlarged sections on the
ends of rod or wire (i.e.
heads of nails
nails, bolts
bolts, etc
etc.))

Impact Extrusion () Cold Extrusion

Figure 16-44 (a)
Reverse (b)
forward (c)
x

combined forms of
A metal slug is cold extrusion.
positioned
pos t o ed in a d
die
e (Courtesy the
Aluminum
cavity where it is struck Association,
Arlington, VA.)
byy a single
g blow
Metal may flow forward,
backward or some Figure
g 16-45
(Right) Steps in
combination the forming of a
bolt by cold
The punch controls the extrusion cold
extrusion,
inside shape while the Figure 16-43 Backward and forward extrusion
heading, and
thread rolling.
die controls the exterior with open and closed dies
dies. ((Courtesy y of
National
shape Machinery Co.
Tiffin, OH.)
 Piercing ()
Seamless pipe, tube
Thick-walled seamless tubing can be made by rotary
pe c g
piercing
Heated billet is fed into the gap between two large,
convex-tapered
convex tapered rolls
Forces the billet to deform into a rotating ellipse
Figure 16-50 (Left)
Principle of the
Mannesmann process of
producing seamless tubing.
(Courtesy of American
Figure 16-46 Cold-forming sequence involving Figure 16-47 Typical parts made by upsetting Brass Company, Cleveland,
cutoff squaring,
cutoff, squaring two extrusions
extrusions, an upset
upset, and a and related operations
operations. (Courtesy of National OH ) (Right) Mechanism of
OH.)
trimming operation. Also shown are the finished Machinery Co., Tiffin, OH.) crack formation in the
part and the trimmed scrap. (Courtesy of National Mannesmann process.
Machinery Co., Tiffin, OH.)

Other Squeezing Processes Other Squeezing Processes

x

Figure
g 16-51 The
roll-extrusion process:
Roll extrusion- thin walled cylinders are produced (a) with internal
rollers expanding the
o tthicker-wall
from c e a cy cylinders
de s inner diameter; (b)
with external rollers
reducing the outer

Riveting ()
()- permanently joins sheets or plates diameter.

of material by forming an expanded head on the x

shank end of a fastener Figure 16-54

Permanently
Figure 16-52 Joining attaching a shaft
Staking permanentl joins parts together when
Staking-permanently hen a componentst by
b riveting.
i ti t a plate
to l t by
staking.
b

segment of one part protrudes through a hole in the

other
Other Squeezing Operations Surface Improvement by Deformation
Coining ()- cold
Figure 16-55 The coining process.
process
Processing
squeezing
i off metall x

Deformation processes can be used to improve or

while all of the surfaces
alter the surfaces of the metal
are confined within a
set of dies Peening ()- mechanical working of surfaces
b repeated
by t d bl
blows off iimpelled
ll d shot
h t or a round-nose
d
Hubbing- plastically
tool
forms recessed cavities
in a workpiece Burnishing- rubbing a smooth, hard object under
g
pressure over the minute surface irregularities
Figure 16-56 Hubbing a die block in a hydraulic
press. Inset shows close-up of the hardened hub
and the impression in the die block. The die block
Roller burnishing- used to improve the size and
is contained in a reinforcing ring
ring. The upper finish of internal and external cylindrical and conical
surface of the die block is then machined flat to
remove the bulged metal. surfaces

Summary

There are a variety of bulk deformation

processes
The main p processes are rolling, g, forging,
g g,
extrusion, and drawing
E hh
Each has lilimits
it and d advantages
d t as tto itits
capabilities
The correct process depends on the desired
shape surface finish
shape, finish, quantity
quantity, etc
etc.

(Source: )