Evangelical Dictionary of World Mission

FM Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/8/03 3:54 PM Page 1
Evangelical
Dictionary
of World
Missions
Baker Reference Library A. Scott Moreau (D.Miss., Trinity Evangelical

Divinity School) is associate professor of
Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics Missions and Intercultural Studies at Wheaton
Norman L. Geisler Graduate School. While working with Campus
Baker Encyclopedia of Psychology Crusade for Christ in Africa, he taught for eight
and Counseling, 2nd ed. years at the Nairobi International School of
Edited by David G. Benner Theology and served as a Deputy Administrator
and Peter C. Hill for the Accrediting Council for Theological
Evangelical Commentary on the Bible Education in Africa. Dr. Moreau has numerous
Edited by Walter A. Elwell publications to his credit, including several
Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology books such as The World of the Spirits,
Edited by Walter A. Elwell Essentials of Spiritual Warfare, and Twentieth-
Century Dictionary of Christian Biography for
Evangelical Dictionary of Theology which he acted as associate editor.
Edited by Walter A. Elwell
Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions Harold Netland (Ph.D., Claremont Graduate
Edited by A. Scott Moreau School) serves as Associate Professor of
Topical Analysis of the Bible Philosophy of Religion and Mission. He is also
Edited by Walter A. Elwell the director of Trinitys Doctor of Philosophy in
Intercultural Studies Program and holds the
Naomi A. Fausch Chair of Missions. Prior to
coming to Trinity, Dr. Netland served for a
number of years on the faculty of Tokyo
Christian University. He also served as a mis-
sionary with the Evangelical Free Church of
America in Japan for nine years. Among Dr.
Netlands numerous published works is the
book, Dissonant Voices: Religious Pluralism and
the Question of Truth, along with many articles
on mission, apologetics, and East Asia.
Charles Van Engen (Ph.D., Free University of

Amsterdam) is the Arthur F. Glasser Professor
of Biblical Theology of Mission at Fuller
Theological Seminary. Before coming to Fuller
he taught missiology at Western Theological
Seminary in Michigan. Dr. Van Engen also
served as president of the General Synod for
the Reformed Church in America in 1997 and
is widely traveled with his many responsibili-
ties. His wide-ranging publications include
Gods Missionary People, Mission-On-the-Way:
Issues in Mission Theology, and Footprints of
God: Mission OF, IN, and ON the Way.
Evangelical
Dictionary
of World
Missions
General Editor:
A. Scott Moreau
Associate Editors: Harold Netland
and Charles Van Engen
Consulting Editors: David Burnett, Samuel Escobar,

Paul G. Hiebert, Peter Kuzmic,
Lois McKinney Douglas, Bong Rin Ro,
Tite Tinou, and Chris Wright
b
2000 by Baker Book House
Published by Baker Books

a division of Baker Book House Company
P.O. Box 6287, Grand Rapids, MI 49516-6287
and
Paternoster Press
P.O. Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS
United Kingdom
Printed in the United States of America
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any meansfor example,
electronic, photocopy, recordingwithout the prior written permission of
the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Evangelical dictionary of world missions / general editor, A. Scott

Moreau ; associate editors, Harold Netland and Charles Van Engen ;
consulting editors, David Burnett . . . [et al.].
p. cm. (Baker reference library)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8010-2074-3 (hardcover)
1. MissionsDictionaries. 2. MissionsTheoryDictionaries.
I. Moreau, A. Scott, 1955 II. Netland, Harold, A., 1955
III. Engen, Charles Edward Van. IV. Burnett, David, 1943
V. Series.
BV2040.E92 2000
266'.003dc21 99-044001
British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 0-85364-995-2
For information about academic books, resources for Christian leaders, and
all new releases available from Baker Book House, visit our web site:
http://www.bakerbooks.com
Dedicated
in loving memory of
Harvie Conn
a colleague who encouraged, inspired, and
constantly challenged the rest of us to keep
our eyes faithfully on the eternal Word as
we struggle to understand the realities of our
changing worlds
Preface
In the more than twenty-five years since the last tire discipline and practice of missions. Includ-
comprehensive mission dictionary (Concise Dic- ing the articles on people and countries, there
tionary of Christian World Mission, 1971) was are over 1,400 entries, with an additional 250
compiled the field of mission and missiology has cross-reference listings to enable easier access to
undergone considerable changes. One of the the particular topics of interest to the reader.
changes has been a strengthening of evangelical Opinions will always vary as to which articles
involvement not only in missionary practice but may have been added or removed, and the reader
in the study of mission on the formal level. The is humbly requested to bear in mind the impos-
evangelical commitment to missionary work has sibility of pleasing everyone with the final list.
been supplemented by a host of evangelical Features to Note. For the most effective use of
scholars who are studying the missionary task in the EDWM, several features need to be under-
new and fresh ways, bringing better analytical stood. First, the authors were asked to stress the
tools to our task without losing sight that it is the missiological aspect of each subject. For the the-
Bible which is the foundation of our work. ological articles, for example, they were asked not
In recent years a plethora of new research ma- only to outline the general theological idea but
terials has been produced, including biographi- also to incorporate issues, discussion, and appli-
cal dictionaries, handbooks of mission agencies, cation of mission significance. Where appropri-
encyclopedias of missionary statistics, prayer ate, critical evaluations were also to be included.
guides of missionary work around the globe, and Second, to ensure access to the non-technical
dictionaries from a broader theological spec- reader, the authors were asked to keep the lan-
trum. However, there has been no reference work guage used at the popular level rather than the
with an admittedly evangelical orientation en- technical level. Our goal was that the scholar will
compassing the issues of missionary work and find that what is said is fair and correct, while
reflection into a single resource, and thus the the lay reader will find it understandable.
motivation for the Evangelical Dictionary of Third, we worked hard to make the full
World Missions. breadth of the work accessible to the reader.
The EDWM was designed to provide a readily There are three means by which this is accom-
accessible overview of mission which is irenic to- plished. (A) Within each article we mark words
ward differing perspectives, interdenominational on which entries appear elsewhere in the dic-
in outlook, and still firmly committed to the in- tionary in SMALL CAPS. It should be noted that we
spiration and authority of the Bible in orienting were not exhaustive in this process, assuming
us to the task God has entrusted to the church. that readers would be aware that words such as
This is not a dictionary of evangelical missions, God, Jesus, Mission, Missiology, Islam,
but a dictionary on world missions from an evan- and so on would be found as articles elsewhere
gelical perspective. in this type of dictionary. (B) There are cross-list-
This work is intended for educated lay people, ings at the end of many articles which are in-
pastors, students, students, missionaries, and tended to supplement the use of small cap cross-
mission specialists. It is part of the Baker Refer- references within each article. (C) Finally, we
ence Library series, which includes The Evangel- included one index (persons) as well as a com-
ical Dictionary of Theology, The Evangelical Dic- plete outline of all of the content articles (i.e.,
tionary of Biblical Theology, Baker Encyclopedia non-biographical and non-geographical). It is ex-
of Psychology and Counseling, Evangelical Com- pected that mission educators will find the out-
mentary on the Bible, and Baker Encyclopedia of line and the index particularly helpful, as they
Apologetics. It has the same orientation, format, allow the educator to read on and also readily
and style as these works. point students to a variety of appropriate articles
The EDWM was also designed to be compre- for use in any missions-related class.
hensive without being exhaustive. Literally thou- Fourth, we intend that the work will stimulate
sands of possible entries were initially consid- and enable further research and reflection. To-
ered for inclusion. The approximately 700 ward that end, most of the articles include short
content articles finally included represent the en- bibliographies. These are selective rather than
7
Preface
exhaustive. As with all of the reference works in Seventh, and finally, authors were given lati-
this Baker series, the publisher has chosen to tude to cover what they wanted in the country ar-
limit the bibliographies to readily available En- ticles. Not all included statistics; and the statisti-
glish resources. cal variations among the articles were not
Fifth, as in any work with some 330 contribu- harmonized with two exceptions: (A) All popula-
tors, there will be differences of opinion and ter- tion figures are taken from the United Nations
minology. We made no effort to harmonize or 1994 projections for the A.D. 2000 populations,
force an artificial uniformity on such differences, and (B) All country areas (square miles and kilo-
as they are a reflection the breadth of approach meters) are from the MacMillan Centennial Atlas
of evangelicals toward mission. This applies not of the World (1997). Additionally, when countries
only to ideas but to certain terms, three cate- are mentioned in non-country articles, they are
gories of which should be noted. It was our deci- generally referred to by contemporary names
sion in these cases to allow the authors latitude rather than names in history (e.g., Gold Coast is
to use the term(s) they preferred rather than forc- Ghana; Siam is Thailand). One exception is that
ing an artificial uniformity. (A) Terms such as de- of the former Zaire (now Democratic Republic of
veloping world, non-Western world, Third World, Congo), the name of which changed too late in
and Two-Thirds World, are some of the designa- the project to allow for name changes to be made
tions used to refer to African, Asian, Latin Amer- throughout.
ican, and Oceanic countries and cultures. (B) In Acknowledgments. As with any project of this
missiological circles there is still some fluidity magnitude, the list of those who deserve thanks
concerning intercultural and cross-cultural. is longer than the space allowed to name them.
Technically they refer to two distinct ideas: inter- In particular I extend my deepest gratitude to
cultural generally refers to the interaction of peo- J. D. Douglas and Walter A. Elwell, both editors
ple of diverse cultures, while cross-cultural refers of numerous parallel projects, whose advice and
to the study of the same phenomena in different encouragement helped throughout the years of
cultures for purposes of comparison and con- labor this work entailed. The Associate and Con-
trast. However, these two terms are not used contributing Editors have been invaluable resources
sistently in the missiological literature. (C) Fi- and references throughout the life of the project.
nally, the terms mission and missions are not They sharpened the thinking in the beginning,
used uniformly in the literature. There is ongoing helped carry the load throughout, and were es-
debate within the evangelical community as to sential to the success of completing this project.
the appropriate term to use (see the article MIS- Special thanks go to David Barrett for the UN
SION AND MISSIONS), and we generally left the population statistics, and to the various graduate
term as used by the author in recognition of that assistants at Wheaton whose involvement over
debate. the years of the project made things go much
Sixth, there are 483 biographical articles scat- more smoothly than they would have otherwise:
tered throughout the dictionary. To attempt to re- Wendy Larson, Penny Mason Gushiken, Tracy
flect the two-way flow of missions, 92 of our the Smith, Gary Lamb, Grace Klein, Jackie Busch,
subjects originated from non-Western contexts. Sheri Skinner, Vicki Cairns, and Nicole Feria.
To emphasize the role women have taken in mis- The people at Baker Book House, especially Jim
sionary efforts, 105 are chronicled here. On a Weaver, Maria denBoer, and Rebecca Cooper,
continental basis, 239 of our subjects came from have been particularly helpful in making impor-
Europe, 152 from North America, 48 from Asia, tant administrative decisions, keeping the project
22 from Africa, 12 from Latin America and the on track throughout, and encouraging me to
Caribbean, and 10 from Oceania. On the other keep to the course.
end, 196 served in Asia, 94 in Africa, 66 in Eu- Finally I offer deep appreciation for the sup-
rope, 53 in North America, 49 in Latin America port and advice supplied by my colleagues in the
and the Caribbean, and 25 in Oceania. In part Missions and Intercultural Studies department at
because evangelical missiology is relatively young Wheaton College, including John Gration, Doug
as a discipline, even though we consciously McConnell (now with Pioneers), Evvy Campbell,
sought to limit the number of living people in- Robert Gallagher, Alan Seaman, Cheri Pierson,
cluded in the Dictionary to a minimum, at the and Carol Fowler. I also express my gratitude to
time of this writing, 52 of the subjects are still those who provided guidance and encourage-
alive. To limit the proliferation, a cut-off birth ment at needed junctures, especially Ken Mul-
year for the inclusion of living people in the Dic- holland and Ken Gill. Finally, I would like to ex-
tionary was set at 1930, with four exceptions press my appreciation to Wheaton College and
made for particularly important non-Western the environment of support it offers which en-
leaders (Panya Baba, David Yonggi Cho, Rene abled this task to be taken from the stage of a
Padilla, and Luis Palau). dream to the work you now hold in your hands.
8
Contributors
Aboagye-Mensah, Robert. Ph.D., University of Athyal, Saphir P. Ph.D., Princeton Theological

Aberdeen. General Secretary, Christian Council Seminary. Director, Mission and Evangelism,
of Ghana; Supervisory Staff, Akrofi-Christaller World Vision International, Monrovia, California.
Memorial Centre for Mission Research and Ap-
plied Theology, Akropong-Akuapem, Ghana. Austin, Thomas L. D.Min., Westminster Theo-
logical Seminary. Director, Africa Theological
Adeney, Miriam. Ph.D., Washington State Uni- Training Resources/Mission to the World,
versity. Research Professor of Mission, Regent Nairobi, Kenya.
College, Vancouver, Canada; Associate Professor
of Cross Cultural Ministries, Seattle Pacific Uni- Baker, Kenneth John. D.Miss., Trinity Evangel-
versity, Seattle, Washington. ical Divinity School. Director, Missionary Care
and Leadership Development (Niger), SIM Inter-
Akers, John N. Ph.D., University of Edinburgh. national, Niamey, Niger.
Special Assistant, The Billy Graham Evangelistic
Association, Montreat, North Carolina. Baker, William H. Th.D., Dallas Theological
Seminary. Professor of Theology, Moody Bible
Akins, Clinton M. D.Min., Southern Baptist Institute, Chicago, Illinois.
Theological Seminary. Professor of Missiology
and Religion, Indian Ocean Training Center, Barrett, David. Ph.D., Columbia University,
Madagascar. New York. Research Professor of Missiometrics,
Regent University School of Divinity, Richmond,
Allison, Gregg. Ph.D., Trinity Evangelical Di- Virginia.
vinity School. Assistant Professor of Theology
and Church History, Western Seminary, Port- Barro, Antonio C. Ph.D., Fuller Theological
land, Oregon. Seminary. President, South American Theologi-
cal Seminary, Londrina, Brazil.
Allison, Norman E. Ph.D., University of Geor-
gia. Director, School of World Missions, Toccoa Baumgartner, Erich W. Ph.D., Fuller Theologi-
Falls College, Toccoa Falls, Georgia. cal Seminary. Associate Director, Institute for
World Mission and Associate Professor of World
Anderson, Gerald H. Ph.D., Boston University. Mission, Andrews University, Berrien Springs,
Retired. Former Director, Overseas Ministries Michigan.
Study Center, New Haven, Connecticut.
Beals, Paul A. Th.D., Dallas Theological Semi-
Anderson, Justice C. Th.D., Southwestern Bap- nary. Professor of Missiology, Grand Rapids Bap-
tist Theological Seminary. Professor of Missions; tist Seminary, Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Director, World Missions Center, Southwestern
Baptist Theological Seminary, Forth Worth, Bellingham, George Robert. D.Min., Eastern
Texas. Baptist Seminary. Development Services Coordi-
nator, World Vision of New Zealand, Auckland,
Arnold, Clinton E. Ph.D., Cambridge Univer- New Zealand.
sity. Associate Professor of New Testament Lan-
guage and Literature, Talbot School of Theology, Bennett, Charles. M.A., Claremont Graduate
LaMirada, California. School. President, Partners International, San
Jose, California.
Askew, Thomas A. Ph.D., Northwestern Uni-
versity. Professor and Chair of History, Gordon Beougher, Timothy K. Ph.D., Trinity Evangeli-
College, Wenham, Massachusetts. cal Divinity School. Billy Graham Chair of Evan-
gelism, Associate Professor of Evangelism, and
Athyal, Sakhi. Ph.D., Fuller Theological Semi- Associate Dean, Southern Baptist Theological
nary. Free Lance Writer, Glendora, California. Seminary, Louisville, Kentucky.
9
Contributors
Bevans, SVD, Steven B. Ph.D., University of Burnett, David. Ph.D., Bradford University.
Notre Dame. Director, Chicago Center for Global Academic Dean, All Nations Christian College,
Ministries and Associate Professor of Doctrinal Ware, Herts, United Kingdom.
Studies, Catholic Theological Union, Chicago,
Illinois. Bush, Luis. Th.M., Dallas Theological Semi-
nary. International Director, A.D. 2000 & Beyond
Beyerhaus, Peter. Ph.D., Kennedy School of Movement, Colorado Springs, Colorado.
Missions. Professor Emeritus of Mission and Ec-
umenical Theology, Eberhard-Karls Univertt Buss, Siegfried A. Ph.D., Vanderbilt University.
Tbingen, Tbingen Germany. International Representative, Ochanomizu Chris-
tian Center, Tokyo, Japan.
Bonk, Jonathan J. Ph.D., University of Ab-
erdeen. Associate Director, Overseas Ministries Butman, Richard E. Ph.D., Fuller Graduate
Study Center, New Haven, Connecticut. School of Psychology. Professor of Psychology,
Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois.
Bowers, W. Paul. Ph.D., University of Cam-
bridge. Deputy Administrator, Accrediting Coun- Calenberg, Richard D. Th.D., Grace Theologi-
cil for Theological Education in Africa (ACTEA), cal Seminary. Missionary, SIM International, Jos,
SIM International, Kalk Bay, South Africa. Nigeria.
Bradshaw, Bruce. M.A., Gordon-Conwell The- Campbell, Evvy Hay. Ph.D., Michigan State
ological Seminary. Director, Holistic Develop- University. Associate Professor of Missions and
ment Research, World Vision International, Mon- Intercultural Studies, Wheaton Graduate School,
rovia, California. Wheaton, Illinois.
Breshears, Gerry. Ph.D., Fuller Theological Carroll R., Mark Daniel. Ph.D., The University
Seminary. Professor of Theology, Western Semi- of Sheffield (England). Professor of Old Testa-
nary, Portland Oregon.
ment, Denver Seminary, Denver, Colorado.
Brewster, Elizabeth. Ph.D., University of Texas.
Carson, Don A. Ph.D., Cambridge University.
Assistant Professor of Language/Culture Learn-
Research Professor of New Testament, Trinity
ing, Fuller School of World Mission, Pasadena,
Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois.
California.
Briggs, John H. Y. M.A., Cambridge. Principal, Chancellor, James Darrell. Ph.D., Duke Univer-
Westhill College of Higher Education, Birming- sity. W.O. Carver Professor of World Religions
ham, United Kingdom. and Missions, Southern Baptist Theological Sem-
inary, Louisville, Kentucky.
Brodeen, Judi. M.A., Wheaton College. Mis-
sionary, Christian and Missionary Alliance, Chuang, Tsu-Kung. Ph.D., Trinity Evangelical
Pasadena, California. Divinity School. Senior Pastor, Chinese Bible
Church of Greater Boston, Boston, Massachusetts.
Broucek, David R. Ph.D., Trinity Evangelical
Divinity School. Missionary Training and Re- Clouse, Robert G. Ph.D., University of Iowa.
search Coordinator, The Evangelical Alliance Professor of History, Indiana State University,
Mission, Wheaton, Illinois. Terre Haute, Indiana.
Bruce, Janet Sue. MS. Ed., Purdue University. Coggins, Wade T. LL.D., Nyack College. Retired
Department Coordinator, Christian Education/ Executive Director, Evangelical Foreign Missions
Educational Ministries, Wheaton College, Whea- Association, Kensington, Maryland.
ton, Illinois.
Coleman, Robert E. Ph.D., University of Iowa.
Buehler, Herman. Ph.D., Fuller Theological Director, Billy Graham Institute of Evangelism
Seminary. Missionary-at-Large, West Coast and Wheaton, Illinois; Director, School of World Mis-
Micronesia, Liebenzell Mission of U.S.A., Glen- sion and Evangelism and Professor of Evange-
dora, California. lism, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deer-
field, Illinois.
Bundy, David. Ph.D. Cand., Catholic Univer-
sity, Louvain. Associate Professor of Church His- Conn, Harvie M. Th.M., Westminster Seminary.
tory, Christian Theological Seminary, Indianapo- Professor of Missions, Westminster Theological
lis, Indiana. Seminary, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Deceased.
10
Contributors
Connor, J. Michael. Ph.D. Cand., Trinity Inter- Davis, Charles A. Ph.D., Trinity Evangelical Di-
national University. Diplomatic Representative, vinity School. Research Associate, The Evangeli-
Christian Embassy, Washington, D.C. cal Alliance Mission, Wheaton, Illinois.
Corwin, Gary Russell. M.Div. (Missions), Trin- Deiros, Pablo A. Ph.D., Southwestern Baptist
ity Evangelical Divinity School. Editor, Evangeli- Theological Seminary. Professor of Mission His-
cal Missions Quarterly, Evangelical Missions In- tory, Fuller School of World Mission, Pasadena,
formation Service, Wheaton, Illinois. California.
Cotterell, F. Peter. Ph.D. Retired, former Prin- Dekar, Paul R. Ph.D., University of Chicago.
cipal, London Bible College, London, United Professor of Evangelism and Missions, Memphis
Kingdom. Theological Seminary, Memphis, Tennessee.
Couchell, Dimitrios G. B. A., Holy Cross Greek DeVries, Sue. M.A., Wheaton College. Assistant
Orthodox School of Theology. Executive Director, Editor, Kenya Church Growth Bulletin, Africa
Orthodox Christian Mission Center, St. Augus- Ministry Resources (OC International), Nairobi,
tine, Florida. Kenya.
Covell, Ralph. Ph.D., University of Denver. Se- Deyneka, Anita. M.A., Mundelein College. Di-
nior Professor World Christianity, Denver Semi- rector of Research, Peter Deyneka Russian Min-
nary, Denver, Colorado. istries, Rockford, Illinois.
Crawford, Nancy. Psy.D., Wheaton College. DeYoung, Lee. M.B.A., University of Chicago.
Psychologist, African Inland Mission, Wheaton, Vice President of Broadcasting, Words of HOPE,
Illinois. Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Dickerson, Lonna. Ph.D., University of Illinois.

Cruse, Richard K. Th.M., Dallas Theological
Director, Institute for Cross Cultural Training,
Seminary. Europe Area Director, OC Interna-
Wheaton, Illinois.
tional, Kandern, Germany.
Dollar, Harold E. Ph.D., Fuller School of World
Crutchley, David. Ph.D., Southwestern Baptist
Mission. Chair of the Department of Mission,
Theological Seminary. Senior Lecturer, Baptist
Biola University, LaMirada, California.
Theological College, Cape Town, Republic of
South Africa. Douglas, J. D. Ph.D., Hartford Seminary Foun-
dation. Author, Singapore Bible College, Singapore.
Cunningham, Scott. Ph.D., Dallas Theological
Seminary. Administrative Secretary for Accredita- Douglas, Lois McKinney. Ph.D., Michigan State
tion, Accrediting Council for Theological Educa- University. Emeritus Professor of Mission, Trinity
tion in Africa (ACTEA), Charlotte, North Carolina. Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois.
Dale, Kenneth J. Ph.D., Union Seminary, New Dunavant, Donald R. Ph.D., Mid-America
York. Professor Emeritus, Japan Lutheran Theo- Baptist Theological Seminary. Pastor, Bartlett,
logical Seminary, Japan. Tennessee.
DaSilva, Jarbas. M.A., Wheaton College. Mis- Durnbaugh, Donald F. Ph.D., University of
sionary, Africa Inland Mission, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Pennsylvania. Archivist, Juniata College, Hunt-
ingdon, Pennsylvania.
Davidson, Allan K. Ph.D., Aberdeen University.
Lecturer in Church History and Pacific Studies, Dyrness, William A. D.Theol., University of
St. Johns College, University of Auckland, Auck- Strasbourg. Dean of School of Theology and Pro-
land, New Zealand. fessor of Theology and Culture, Fuller Theologi-
cal Seminary, Pasadena, California.
Davies, Ron E. Ph.D., Fuller Theological Sem-
inary. Associate Lecturer, All Nations Christian Easterling, John. D.Miss., Trinity Evangelical
College, Ware, Herts, United Kingdom. Divinity School. Professor of Cross-Cultural Min-
istries, Northwestern College, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Davies, Stanley. Dip Th., London University.
Executive Director, Evangelical Missionary Al- Eitel, Keith E. D.Theol., The University of
liance, London, England. South Africa. Professor of Christian Missions,
11
Contributors
Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary, Fryling, Robert A. M.A., Wheaton Graduate

Wake Forest, North Carolina. School. President, InterVarsity Press, Downers
Grove, Illinois.
Elliston, Edgar J. Ph.D., Michigan State Uni-
versity. Provost, Hope International University, Fuller, Daniel. D.Theol., University of Basel. Se-
Fullerton, California. nior Professor of Hermeneutics, Fuller Theologi-
cal Seminary.
Elwell, Walter A. Ph.D., Edinburgh. Professor
of Biblical and Theological Studies, Wheaton Fuller, Lois. M.A., Trinity Evangelical Divinity
College, Wheaton, Illinois. School. Nigerian Field Leader, World Partners of
the Missionary Church, Lagos, Nigeria.
Enroth, Ron. Ph.D., University of Kentucky.
Professor of Sociology, Westmont College. Fuller, W. Harold. D.Litt., Biola. Missions au-
thor and historian, Willowdale, Ontario, Canada.
Escobar, J. Samuel. Ph.D., Thornley B. Wood
Professor of Missiology, Eastern Baptist Theolog- Gailey, Charles R. Ph.D., University of South
ical Seminary, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania. Africa. Director, School of World Mission and
Evangelism, Nazarene Theological Seminary,
Eshleman, Paul A. M.B.A., Michigan State Kansas City, Missouri.
University. Director, Jesus Film Project, Campus
Crusade for Christ, Laguna Nigel, California. Galadima, Bulus Y. Ph.D., Trinity Evangelical
Divinity School. Academic Dean and Lecturer,
Estep, John H. D.D., Denver Theological Semi- Jos ECWA Theological Seminary, Jos, Nigeria.
nary. Executive Director, Retired, Mission to the
Americas, Glendale Heights, Illinois. Gallagher, Robert. Ph.D., Fuller Theological
Seminary. Assistant Professor of Missions and In-
tercultural Studies, Wheaton College, Wheaton,
Eyring, Margot O. Ph.D., University of Ten-
Illinois.
nessee at Knoxville. Adjunct Professor, American
Studies Program, Washington, D. C.
Gensichen, Hans-Werner. D.Theol., University
of Gttingen. Emeritus Professor of History of
Ferris, Robert Weston. Ph.D., Michigan State
Religions and Missiology, University of Heidel-
University. Associate Dean for Doctoral Studies,
berg, Heidelberg, Germany.
Columbia Biblical Seminary, Columbia, South
Carolina. Gibbs, Eddie. D.Min., Fuller Theological Semi-
nary. Professor of Church Growth, Fuller School
Fiedler, Klaus. Th.D., Heidelberg University. of World Mission, Pasadena, California.
Professor, University of Malawi, Zomba, Malawi.
Gill, Kenneth D. Ph.D., University of Birming-
Finley, Thomas John. Ph.D., University of Cal- ham, UK. Associate Director, Billy Graham Cen-
ifornia at Los Angeles. Professor of Old Testa- ter, Wheaton, Illinois.
ment and Semitics, Talbot School of Theology,
LaMirada, California. Gilliland, Dean. Ph.D., Hartford Seminary
Foundation. Professor of Contextualized Theol-
Flowers, Jamie L. M.A., Wheaton College. Free- ogy and African Studies, Fuller School of World
lance Writer, Chicago, Illinois. Mission, Pasadena, California.
Forgette, Adrienne M. Ph.D., Fuller Theologi- Ginn, Jeffery B. Ph.D., Mid-America Baptist
cal Seminary. Assistant Professor of Psychology, Theological Seminary. Director and Professor of
Northwestern College, Orange City, Iowa. Missions, Northeast Campus of Mid-America Bap-
tist Theological Seminary, Schenectady, New York.
Freundt, Jr., Albert H. D.Min., McCormick
Theological Seminary. Professor of Church His- Glasscock, L. E. Th.D., Grace Theological Sem-
tory, Reformed Theological Seminary, Jackson, inary. Associate Professor, Moody Bible Institute,
Mississippi. Chicago, Illinois.
Friesen, Paul H. Ph.D. Cand., University of St. Glasser, Arthur F. Ph.D., Union Theological
Michaels College/Toronto School of Theology. Seminary (New York). Dean Emeritus of Fuller
Professor of History, Ontario Bible College, School of World Mission, Fuller School of World
North York, Ontario, Canada. Mission, Pasadena, California.
12
Contributors
Gnanakan, Ken. Ph.D. General Secretary, Asia Hay, Ian M. D.Miss., Trinity Evangelical Divin-
Theological Association, Bangalore, India. ity School. General Director Emeritus, SIM In-
ternational, Charlotte, North Carolina.
Goldsmith, Martin. M.A., Oxford. Retired As-
sociate Lecturer, All Nations Christian College, Hayward, Douglas J. Ph.D., University of Cali-
Ware, Herts, United Kingdom. fornia Santa Barbara. Associate Professor, School
of Intercultural Studies, Biola University, LaMi-
Greenlee, David. Ph.D., Trinity Evangelical Di- rada, California.
vinity School. International Research and Strat-
egy Associate, Operation Mobilization, Carlisle, Hedlund, Roger E. D.Miss., Fuller Theological
England. Seminary. Professor of Mission Studies (Re-
search), Serampore College, Madras, India.
Greenway, Roger S. Th.D., Southwestern Bap-
Hertig, Paul. Ph.D., Fuller Theological Semi-
tist Theological Seminary. Professor of World
nary. Vera B. Blinn Assistant Professor of World
Missiology, Calvin Theological Seminary, Grand
Christianity, United Theological Seminary, Day-
Rapids, Michigan.
ton, Ohio.
Groothuis, Douglas. Ph.D., University of Ore- Hertig, Young Lee. Ph.D., Fuller Theological
gon. Assistant Professor of Philosophy of Religion Seminary. Vera B. Blinn Assistant Professor of
and Ethics, Denver Seminary, Denver, Colorado. World Christianity, United Theological Seminary,
Dayton, Ohio.
Gross, Edward N. D.Miss., Trinity Evangelical
Divinity School. Adjunct Faculty in Missions, Bib- Hesselgrave, David J. Ph.D., University of Min-
lical Theological Seminary, Hatfield, Pennsylvania. nesota. Professor Emeritus, Trinity Evangelical
Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois.
Gushiken, Penny. M.A., Wheaton Graduate
School. Freelance Writer, Chicago, Illinois. Hiebert, Paul G. Ph.D., University of Min-
nesota. Professor of Mission and Anthropology,
Guthrie, Stan. M.A., Columbia International Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield,
University. Managing Editor, Pulse and EMQ, Illinois.
Evangelical Missions Information Service,
Wheaton, Illinois. Hille, Rolf. Ph.D., University of Munich. Prin-
cipal, Albrecht-Bengel-Haus, Tubingen, Germany.
Hama, Jude. M.A., Wheaton College. General
Director, Scripture Union, Accra, Ghana. Hoke, Stephen. Ph.D., Michigan State Univer-
sity. Vice President of Staff Development and
Harber, Frank. Ph.D., Southwestern Baptist Training, Church Resources Ministries, Upland,
Theological Seminary. Evangelist and Apologist, California.
Frank Harber Evangelistic Association, Fort
Worth, Texas. Horan, Robert J. M.A., Wheaton College. Secu-
rity Consultant, Crisis Consulting International,
Hartford, Paul. M.A., Wheaton College. Dean Wheaton, Illinois.
of the College, Bethany College of Missions, Min-
Hornberger, Andy. B.F.A., Ohio University. Pub-
neapolis, Minnesota.
lic Relations Supervisor, Africa Inland Mission
International, Pearl River, New York.
Harvey, David P. D.Min., Columbia Biblical
Seminary and Graduate School of World Mis- Howard, David M. M.A., Wheaton Graduate
sions. Associate Professor of Missiology, Toccoa School. Retired; former President, Latin America
Falls College, Toccoa Falls, Georgia. Mission, Miami, Florida.
Harvey, John. Th.D. , Toronto School of Theol- Hsu, John D. L. Ph.D., Aquinas Institute of
ogy. Associate Professor, Columbia Biblical Sem- Theology. President, Evangel Seminary and
inary and School of Missions, Columbia, South Chairman, Asia Theological Association, Hong
Carolina. Kong, Peoples Republic of China.
Harvey, Richard S. M.A., University College, Hunsberger, George R. Ph.D., Princeton Theo-
London. Lecturer, All Nations Christian College, logical Seminary. Professor of Missiology, Western
Ware, Herts, United Kingdom. Theological Seminary, Grand Rapids, Michigan.
13
Contributors
Hutchinson, Mark P. Ph.D., University of New Keyes, Lawrence E. D.Miss., Fuller Theological
South Wales. Director, Centre for the Study of Seminary. President, OC International, Colorado
Australian Christianity, Sydney, Australia. Springs, Colorado.
Iadonisi, Joe C. M.A., Wheaton College. Mis- Khai, Chin K. Th.M., International Theological
sionary, Bogota, Colombia. Seminary. Student, Fuller School of World Mis-
sion, Pasadena, California.
Inagaki, Hisakazu. Ph.D., Tokyo Metropolitan
University. Professor of Philosophy, Tokyo Chris- King, Roberta Rose. Ph.D., Fuller School of
tian University, Tokyo, Japan. World Mission. Missionary, CBInternational, sec-
onded as Senior Lecturer in Ethnomusicology,
Jackson, Eleanor M. Ph.D., Birmingham Uni- Daystar University, Nairobi, Kenya.
versity. Senior Lecturer in Religious Studies,
University of Derby, Derby, United Kingdom. Klaus, Byron D. D.Min., Fuller Theological
Seminary. Professor of Church Leadership and
Jacobs, Donald R. Ph.D., New York University. President, Assemblies of God Theological Semi-
Executive Director, Mennonite Christian Leader- nary, Springfield, Missouri.
ship Foundation, Landisville, Pennsylvania.
Klein, Grace L. M.A., Wheaton College. Free-
James, Violet. Ph.D., University of Aberdeen. lance Writer, Wheaton, Illinois.
Lecturer, Singapore Bible College, Singapore.
Kopp, Thomas J. D.Th., University of South
Jennings, John Nelson. Ph.D., Edinburgh Uni- Africa. Professor of Missions and Intercultural
versity. Assistant Professor of Christian Studies, Studies Department Chair, Multnomah Bible Col-
Tokyo Christian University, Tokyo, Japan. lege, Portland, Oregon.
Jensma, Jeanne L. Ph.D., Biola University Kstenberger, Andreas J. Dr. rec. soc. oec., Vi-
(Rosemead School of Psychology). Clinical Di- enna University of Economics; Ph.D., Trinity
rector, Tuscarora Resource Center, Mt. Bethel, Evangelical Divinity School. Associate Professor
Pennsylvania. of New Testament, Southeastern Baptist Theo-
logical Seminary, Wake Forest, North Carolina.
Johnson, Todd M. Ph.D., William Carey Inter-
national University. Researcher, Global Evange- Kraft, Charles H. Ph.D., Hartford Seminary
lization Movement, Richmond, Virginia. Foundation. Professor of Anthropology and In-
tercultural Communication, Fuller School of
Johnson, Wayne. Ph.D., Trinity International World Mission, Pasadena, California.
University. Academic Dean and Lecturer, Nairobi
International School of Theology, Nairobi, Kraft, Marguerite. Ph.D., Fuller Theological
Kenya. Seminary. Professor of Intercultural Studies,
Biola University, LaMirada, California.
Johnstone, Patrick J. B.S., Chemistry. Director
for Research, WEC International, Gerrards Kuzmic, Peter. Dr. Theol., Catholic Faculty of
Cross, Bucks, England. Theology. Distinguished Professor of World
Missions and European Studies, Gordon Con-
Jrgensen, Knud. Ph.D., Fuller Theological well Theological Seminary, South Hamilton,
Seminary. Director, Christian Mission to Bud- Massachussetts.
dhists, Oslo, Norway.
Lamb, Gary N. M.A., Wheaton Graduate
Kantzer, Kenneth. Ph.D., Harvard University. School. Missionary, Pioneers, Orlando, Florida.
Dean Emeritus and Distinguished Professor of
Biblical and Systematic Theology, Trinity Evan- Larkin, William J. Ph.D., University of Durham
gelical Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois. (England). Professor of New Testament and
Greek, Columbia Biblical Seminary and School
Kelsey, George E. M.A., Wheaton. Director, of Missions, Columbia, South Carolina.
Arab Study Program, Amman, Jordan.
Larson, Wendy S. M.A., Wheaton Graduate
Kendall, Glenn. M.Div., Denver Seminary. Africa School. Missionary, Pioneers, Sarajevo, Bosnia-
Director, CBInternational, Denver, Colorado. Herzegovina.
14
Contributors
Lee, David Tai Woong. D.Miss., Trinity Evan- McConnell, C. Douglas. Ph.D., Fuller Theolog-
gelical Divinity School. Director, Global Mission- ical Seminary. International Director, Pioneers,
ary Training Center, Seoul Korea. Orlando, Florida.
Lewis, James F. Ph.D., University of Iowa. As- McElhanon, Ken. Ph.D., Australian National
sociate Professor of Religious Studies, Wheaton University. Missionary, Wycliffe Bible Translators
College, Wheaton, Illinois. and Adjunct Faculty, University of Texas, Dallas,
Texas.
Limpic, Ted. M.Div., Talbot Theological Semi-
nary. Assistant Field Director, OC International, McGee, Gary B. Ph.D., Saint Louis University.
Sao Paulo, Brazil. Professor of Church History, Assemblies of God
Theological Seminary, Springfield, Missouri.
Lineham, Peter. D.Phil., University of Sussex.
Senior Lecturer in History, Massey University, McIntosh, John Alan. D.Miss., Trinity Evangel-
Palmerston North, New Zealand. ical Divinity School. Associate Professor of Mis-
sions, Reformed Theological Seminary, Jackson,
Ling, Samuel. Ph.D., Temple University. General Mississippi.
Director, China Horizon, LaMirada, California.
McKinley, Edward. Ph.D., University of Wis-
Lingenfelter, Judy. Ph.D., University of Pitts- consin. Professor of History, Asbury College,
burgh. Director, Ed.D. Program in Cross-Cultural Wilmore, Kentucky.
Education, Biola University, LaMirada, California.
McKinney, Carol V. Ph.D., Southern Methodist
Lingenfelter, Sherwood. Ph.D., University of University. Associate Professor, Graduate Insti-
Pittsburgh. Dean and Professor of Anthropology, tute of Applied Lingusitics, University of Texas at
Fuller School of World Mission, Pasadena, Cali- Arlington; SIL International Anthropology Con-
fornia. sultant, Wycliffe Bible Translators and the Sum-
mer Institute of Linguistics, Dallas Texas.
Lodwick, Kathleen L. Ph.D., University of Ari-
zona. Associate Professor of Asian History, Penn
McQuilkin, Robertson. M.Div., Fuller Theolog-
State University, Allentown, Pennsylvania.
ical Seminary. General Director, Evangelical Mis-
siological Society and President Emeritus, Co-
Love, Richard D. Ph.D., Fuller Theological
lumbia International University, Columbia, South
Seminary. US Director, Frontiers, Mesa, Arizona.
Carolina.
Luter, A. Boyd. Ph.D., Dallas Theological Sem-
inary. Adjunct Professor of Biblical Studies, McRay, John. Ph.D., University of Chicago.
Golden Gate Baptist Theological Seminary, San Professor of New Testament and Archaeology,
Francisco, California. Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois.
Maruyama, Tadataka. Ph.D., Princeton Theo- McReynolds, Kathy. M.A., Talbot School of The-
logical Seminary. President, Tokyo Christian Uni- ology. Free lance writer, La Mirada, California.
versity, Tokyo, Japan.
Medeiros, Elias dos Santos. D.Miss., Reformed
Massaro, Dennis K. M.A., Wheaton College Theological Seminary. Chair and Associate Pro-
Graduate School. Free Lance Writer, Wheaton, fessor of Mission, Reformed Theological Semi-
Illinois. nary, Jackson, Mississippi.
Mathews, Edward. D.Miss., Fuller Theological Moffett, Eileen F. M.R.E., Princeton Theologi-
Seminary. Professor of Missions, Abilene Christ- cal Seminary. Missionary to Korea (Retired),
ian University, Abilene, Texas. Free-Lance Writer, Princeton, New Jersey.
Maust, John. M.A., Wheaton Graduate School. Molyneux, Gordon. Ph.D., London University.
President, Media Associates International, Lecturer and Course Director for the Bachelor of
Bloomingdale, Illinois. Arts Program, All Nations Christian College,
Ware, Herts, United Kingdom.
McClain, T. Van. Ph.D., Southwestern Baptist
Theological Seminary. Professor of Old Testa- Monsma, Tim. Ph.D., Fuller Theological Semi-
ment and Hebrew, Director of Library Services, nary. Africa Director of Action International Min-
Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary, istries; Professor, Africa Bible College, Lilongwe,
Northeast Branch, Schenectady, New York. Malawi.
15
Contributors
Moreau, A. Scott. D.Miss., Trinity Evangelical Osborne, Grant R. Ph.D., University of Ab-
Divinity School. Associate Professor, Missions erdeen. Professor of New Testament, Trinity
and Intercultural Studies, Wheaton College, Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois.
Wheaton, Illinois.
Park, Timothy Kiho. Ph.D., Fuller Theological
Muck, Terry C. Ph.D., Northwestern University. Seminary. Associate Professor of Asian Mission,
Professor of Comparative Religions, Austin Pres- Fuller Theological Seminary School of World
byterian Theological Seminary, Austin, Texas. Mission, Pasadena, California.
Mulholland, Kenneth B. D.Th.P., Fuller Theo- Parshall, Philip Lewis. D.Miss., Fuller Theolog-
logical Seminary. Dean and Professor of Mis- ical Seminary. Philippines Field Director, SIM In-
sions, Columbia Biblical Seminary and School of ternational, Manila, Philippines.
Missions, Columbia, South Carolina.
Patterson, James A. Ph.D., Princeton Theolog-
Murray, Jocelyn M. Ph.D., University of Cali- ical Seminary. Professor of Christian Studies,
fornia Los Angeles. Free lance writer, London, Union University, Jackson, Tennessee.
United Kingdom.
Pemberton, Sherman S. M.A., California State
Musa, David. Ph.D. Cand., Trinity International University (Fullerton). Inter-Cultural Studies
University. Free lance writer, Zionsville, Indiana. Chair, Hope International University, Fullerton,
California.
Nassif, Bradley. Ph.D., Fordham University. Di-
rector of Academic Programs, Fuller Seminary, Perez, Pablo E. D.Miss., Fuller Theological
Southern California Extension, Irvine, California. Seminary. Translator, In Touch Ministries, Suwa-
nee, Georgia.
Neely, Alan P. Ph.D., American University,
Washington D.C. Emeritus Henry W. Luce Pro- Peterson, Douglas. Ph.D., Oxford Center for
fessor of Ecumenics and Mission, Princeton The- Mission Studies. President, Latin America Child-
ological Seminary, Princeton, New Jersey. care and Director DFM, Central America Assem-
blies of God, San Jose, Costa Rica.
Ness, David C. Ph.D., Temple University. Chris-
tian Leadership Ministries, Campus Crusade for Peterson, Wendy. M.A., Providence Theological
Christ, Austin, Texas. Seminary. Director, Religious Movements Re-
source Center, Providence College and Theologi-
Netland, Harold A. Ph.D., Claremont Graduate cal Seminary, Otterburne, Manitoba, Canada.
School. Associate Professor of Mission, Trinity
Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois. Pfister, Lauren F. Ph.D., University of Hawaii.
Associate Professor, Religion and Philosophy De-
Neumann, Mikel. D.Miss., Fuller Theological partment, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong
Seminary. International Resource Consultant, Kong, Peoples Republic of China.
CBInternational and Associate Professor, Western
Seminary, Portland, Oregon. Phillips, James M. Ph.D., Princeton University.
Associate Director, Overseas Ministries Study
Nyquist, John W. Ph.D., Trinity Evangelical Di- Center, New Haven, Connecticut.
vinity School. Associate Professor of Mission and
Evangelism, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Phillips, Timothy R. Ph.D., Vanderbilt. Associ-
Deerfield, Illinois. ate Professor of Biblical Studies, Wheaton Col-
lege, Wheaton, Illinois.
ORear, Michael G. M.A., Wheaton College
Graduate School. President, Global Mapping In- Phillips, W. Kenneth. Ed.D., University of
ternational, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Georgia. Professor of Christian Education/Inter-
national Theological Education, Columbia Bibli-
Olson, Laurel P. M.A., Wheaton Graduate cal Seminary and School of Missions, Columbia,
School. Freelance Writer, Troy, New York. South Carolina.
Orme, John. Th.D., Dallas Theological Semi- Pierard, Richard V. Ph.D., University of Iowa.
nary. Executive Director, Interdenominational Professor of History, Indiana State University,
Foreign Mission Association, Wheaton, Illinois. Terre Haute, Indiana.
16
Contributors
Pierson, Paul E. Ph.D., Princeton. Dean Emer- Rascher, Len. Ph.D., Northwestern University.
itus, Fuller School of World Mission, Pasadena, Director, Practical Christian Ministry Depart-
California. ment, Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, Illinois.
Pierson, Steven J. Ph.D., Trinity Evangelical Di- Raupp, Werner. Dr. Theol., Author and Lec-
vinity School. Adjunct Lecturer, Wheaton Col- turer in Church History and Philosophy, College
lege, Illinois. for Social Affairs, Reutlingen, Germany.
Platt, Daryl. D.Miss., Fuller Theological Semi- Read, Terry. Ph.D., Trinity Evangelical Divinity
nary School of World Mission. Director of School. Missionary, Church of the Nazarene,
Church Growth Ministries, International Min- Nairobi, Kenya.
istry Team, OC International, Colorado Springs,
Colorado. Reapsome, James W. Th.M., Dallas Theological
Seminary. Retired, Former Editor Evangelical
Plueddemann, James. Ph.D., Michigan State Missions Quarterly, Evangelical Missions Infor-
University. General Director, SIM International, mation Service, Wheaton, Illinois.
Charlotte, North Carolina.
Renicks, Philip M. Ed.D., University of Al-
Pocock, Michael. D.Miss., Trinity Evangelical abama. Vice President, International Ministries,
Divinity School. Professor and Department Chair Association of Christian Schools International,
of Missions and Intercultural Studies, Dallas The- Colorado Springs, Colorado.
ological Seminary, Dallas Texas.
Richard, H. L. B.A., Regent College, New York.
Pont, Arthur. Retired General Secretary, Inter- Research Scholar, Delhi, India.
serve, Middlesex, United Kingdom.
Richardson, Don. D.Litt., Biola University. Am-
bassador-at-Large, World Team, Woodland Hills,
Porter, David. M.A., University of Ulster. Direc-
California.
tor, Evangelical Contribution on Northern Ire-
land (ECONI), Belfast, Northern Ireland.
Riggans, Walter. Ph.D., University of Birming-
ham, England. Joint Director, Prophetic World
Poston, Larry A. Ph.D., Northwestern Univer-
Ministries, Moggerhanger, Bedford, United King-
sity. Professor of Religion, Nyack College, Nyack,
dom.
New York.
Riley, Terry J. B.S., Mankato State University.
Prasad, Andrew. M.Th., Presbyterian College Associate Director, Adopt-A-People Clearing-
and Theological Seminary, Seoul, Korea. Secre- house, Colorado Springs, Colorado.
tary for Personnel Resources, Council for World
Mission, London, England. Ro, Bong Rin. Th.D., Concordia Lutheran
Seminary. Director of Overseas Ministry, Torch
Priest, Robert J. Ph.D., University of California, Center, OMF International, Seoul, South Korea.
Berkeley. Associate Professor of Missions and In-
tercultural Studies, Trinity Evangelical Divinity Robert, Dana Lee. Ph.D., Yale University. Pro-
School, Deerfield, Illinois. fessor of International Mission, Boston Univer-
sity School of Theology, Boston, Massachusetts.
Prigodich, Raymond P. M.Div., Denver Semi-
nary. Assistant Professor of World Christianity/ Robinson, Richard A. Ph.D., Westminster The-
Department Chair, Denver Seminary, Denver, ological Seminary. Research Librarian and Web
Colorado. Site Coordinator, Jews for Jesus, San Francisco,
California.
Rainer, Thom S. Ph.D., The Southern Baptist
Theological Seminary. Dean, Billy Graham Rogers, Juan D. Ph.D., Virginia Polytechnic In-
School of Missions, Evangelism and Church stitute. Assistant Professor, School of Public Pol-
Growth, Louisville, Kentucky. icy, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta,
Georgia.
Ramseyer, Robert. Ph.D., University of Michi-
gan. Emeritus Professor of Missions and Anthro- Rommen, Edward. Dr. Theol., Munich Univer-
pology, Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary, sity. Deacon, Orthodox Church of America, Co-
Elkhart, Indiana. lumbia, South Carolina.
17
Contributors
Roxborogh, John. Ph.D., Aberdeen. Head, De- Seruyange, Lazarus. D.Min., Western Conserv-
partment of Mission Studies, Bible College of ative Baptist Seminary. Principal, Nairobi Inter-
New Zealand, Waitakere City, New Zealand. national School of Theology, Nairobi, Kenya.
Roy, Kevin. Ph.D., University of South Africa. Sharma, Bal Krishna. M.Th., Serampore Col-
Lecturer, Baptist Theological College, Cape Town, lege. Minister, Assemblies of God of Nepal, Kath-
South Africa. mandu, Nepal.
Russell, Tom. Ph.D., Vanderbilt. University Shaw, Daniel. Ph.D., University of Papua New
Lecturer, Western Kentucky University, Nashville, Guinea. Professor of Anthropology and Transla-
Tennessee. tion, Fuller School of World Mission, Pasadena,
California.
Sakurai, Kunio. Th.M., Fuller Theological
Seminary; LL.M., University of Nagoya. Director,
Shaw, Mark. Th.D., Westminster Theological
Kyoritu Christian Institute for Theological Stud-
Seminary. Lecturer in Theology and Church His-
ies and Mission; Associate Professor of Theology
tory, Nairobi Evangelical Graduate School of
and Law, Tokyo Christian University, Tokyo,
Japan. Theology, Nairobi, Kenya.
Satyavrata, Ivan Morris. Th.M., Regent Col- Shenk, David D. Ph.D., New York University.
lege, Vancouver, Canada. Assistant Professor; Academic Dean and Professor of Theology,
Chair, Department of Theology and Ethics, Lithuania Christian College, Klaipeda, Lithuania.
Southern Asia Bible College, Bangalore, India.
Shenk, Wilbert. Ph.D., Aberdeen. Associate
Scherer, James A. Th.D., Union Theological Professor of Mission, Fuller School of World Mis-
Seminary (New York). Professor Emeritus, World sion, Pasadena, California.
Mission and Church History, Lutheran School of
Theology at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Shepherd, David H. Ph.D., Mid-America Bap-
tist Theological Seminary. Associate Professor of
Schirrmacher, Christine. Ph.D., University of Theology/Practical Theology, Northeast Campus
Bonn. Visiting Professor of Islamics, Philadelphia of Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary,
Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Schenectady, New York.
Schirrmacher, Thomas. Th.D., Johannes Calvin Showalter, Richard A. M.Div., Associated Men-
Foundation (Theological University), Kampen/ nonite Biblical Seminaries. President, Eastern
Netherlands. Professor of Missions, Philadelphia Mennonite Missions, Landisville, Pennsylvania.
Theological Seminary and Director, Institut fr
Weltmission und Christliche Gesellschaft (Insti- Shuster, Robert D. M.A., University of Wiscon-
tute for World Mission and Christian Society), sin. Director of Archives, Billy Graham Center,
Bonn, Germany. Wheaton, Illinois.
Schroeder, SVD, Roger. D.Miss., Pontifical Gre- Siewert, John. M.Div., North American Baptist
gorian University (Rome). Assistant Professor in Seminary. Director, Global Information Sharing
Cross-Cultural Studies, Catholic Theological
Program, World Vision International, Monrovia,
Union, Chicago, Illinois.
California.
Scott, Florence R. M.A., Wheaton Graduate
School. Free-Lance Writer, Wheaton, Illinois. Silzer, Peter James. Ph.D., Australian National
University. Program DirectorSIL at Biola, Sum-
Scott, Jr., J. Julius. Ph.D., University of Man- mer Institute of Linguistics/Wycliffe Bible Trans-
chester. Professor of Biblical and Historical Stud- lators, LaMirada, California.
ies, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois.
Smarto, Don. M.A., Catholic University. Free
Scott, Lindy. Ph.D., Northwestern University. lance writer, Wheaton, Illinois.
Associate Professor of Spanish, Wheaton College,
Wheaton, Illinois. Smith, A. Christopher. Ph.D., Southern Baptist
Theological Seminary. Vice-President for (Col-
Seaman, Alan A. Ph.D., University of Virginia. lege) Academics and Professor of Intercultural
Assistant Professor of TESL, Wheaton College, Studies, Providence College, Ottorburne, Mani-
Wheaton, Illinois. toba, Canada.
18
Contributors
Smith, Donald K. Ph.D., University of Oregon. Starr, J. Barton. Ph.D., Florida State University.
Chair, Division of Intercultural Studies, Western Chair and Professor of History, Hong Kong Baptist
Seminary, Portland, Oregon. University, Hong Kong, Peoples Republic of China.
Smith, Ebbie C. Ph.D., Southwestern Baptist Steffen, Tom A. D.Miss., Biola University. Asso-
Theological Seminary. Professor of Christian ciate Professor of Intercultural Studies, Biola
Ethics and Missions, Southwestern Baptist The- University, LaMirada, California.
ological Seminary, Fort Worth, Texas.
Steward, John. Ph.D., Adelaide University. De-
velopment Services Manager, World Vision Aus-
Smith, Eric D. Th.M., Talbot Theological Sem-
tralia, Warranwood, Victoria, Australia.
inary. Field Director, OC International, Pasig City,
Philippines. Steyne, Philip M. D.Miss., Fuller Theological
Seminary. Professor of Missions, Columbia Bib-
Smith, Gordon. T. Ph.D., Loyola School of The- lical Seminary and School of Missions, Colum-
ology. Vice President, Dean and Associate Profes- bia, South Carolina.
sor of Spiritual Theology, Regent College, Van-
couver, Canada. Sywulka, Stephen R. Ph.D., Syracuse Univer-
sity. Director, Ration Station TGNA, Guatemala
Smith, Tracy K. M.A., Wheaton Graduate City, Guatemala.
School. Missionary, OC International, Kath-
mandu, Nepal. Tallman, J. Ray. D.Miss., Trinity Evangelical Di-
vinity School. Senior Advisor for Middle East and
Sgaard, Viggo B. Ph.D., Fuller Theological North Africa, OC International, Colorado
Seminary. Associate Professor of Communica- Springs, Colorado.
tion, Fuller School of World Mission, Pasadena,
California. Tan, Che Bin. Ph.D., University of Manchester.
Pastor-In-Charge, River of Life Community
Sookhdeo, Patrick. D.D., Western Conservative Church, San Gabriel, California.
Baptist Seminary. Director, Institute for the Study
Tanner, John. D.Miss, Fuller Theological Sem-
of Islam and Christianity, London, England.
inary. Director of Missions Interlink, The Mis-
sions Commission of the Australian Evangelical
Spindler, Marc R. Ph.D., State University of Alliance, New Farm, Queensland, Australia.
Strasbourg. Emeritus Professor of Missiology
and Ecumenics, Universities of Leiden and Taylor, William D. Ph.D., University of Texas.
Utrecht, Talence, France. Director of Missions Commission, World Evan-
gelical Fellowship, Austin Texas.
Spradlin, Michael. Ph.D., Mid-America Baptist
Theological Seminary. President and Professor of Terry, John Mark. Ph.D., Southwestern Baptist
Old Testament, Hebrew, and Practical Theology, Theological Seminary. Associate Professor of
Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary, Missions, Southern Baptist Theological Semi-
Northeast Branch, Schenectady, New York. nary, Louisville, Kentucky.
Spruance, F. David. D.Min., Denver Seminary. Thomas, Harold. Ph.D. Cand., Fuller Theolog-
Retired; Adjunct Professor, International School ical Seminary School of World Missions. Stu-
of Theology, Manila, Philippines. dent, Fuller School of World Mission, Pasadena,
California.
Stamoolis, James J. Th.D., Stellenbosch. Exec-
Thrasher, William D. Th.D., Dallas Theological
utive Director Theological Commission, World
Seminary. Professor of Bible and Theology,
Evangelical Fellowship, Wheaton, Illinois.
Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, Illinois.
Stanley, Brian. Ph.D., Cambridge University. Tienou, Tite. Ph.D., Fuller Theological Semi-
Director of North Atlantic Missiology Project, nary. Professor of Missions, Trinity Evangelical
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois.
Kingdom.
Tiersma, Judith. Ph.D., Fuller Theological Sem-
Stansell, Ronald G. D.Miss., Trinity Evangelical inary. Assistant Professor in Urban Mission,
Divinity School. Professor of Religion and Mis- Fuller School of World Mission, Pasadena, Cali-
sions, George Fox University, Newberg, Oregon. fornia.
19
Contributors
Tinder, Donald. Ph.D., Yale University. Acade- Ward, Ted W. Ed.D., University of Florida. Re-
mic Dean, Tyndale Theological Seminary, Badho- tired; G. W. Aldeen Professor of International
evedorp, Netherlands. Studies and Mission, Trinity Evangelical Divinity
School, Deerfield, Illinois.
Trulear, Harold Dean. Ph.D., Drew University.
Vice President, Church Collaborative Initia- Warner, Timothy M. Ed.D., Indiana Univer-
tives, Public/Private Ventures, Philadelphia, sity. Senior Vice President for International
Pennsylvania. Ministry, Freedom in Christ Ministries, Fort
Wayne, Indiana.
Tucker, Albert Frank. Th.M., Fuller Theological
Seminary. Lecturer in Missiology, Tabor College, Weber, Charles W. Ph.D., University of
Hove, SA, Australia. Chicago. Professor of History, Wheaton College,
Wheaton, Illinois.
Van der Heyden, Ulrich. Doctorate, Humboldt
University, Berlin. Research Fellow, Center for Wenzel, David R. Ph.D., Loyola College. Asso-
Modern Oriental Studies, Berlin, Germany. ciate Professor of Pastoral Counseling, Western
Seminary, Portland, Oregon.
Van Engen, Charles. Ph.D., Free University of
Amsterdam. Associate Professor, Fuller School of White, Francis J. Ph.D., University of Mary-
World Mission, Pasadena, California. land. Professor Emeritus of Psychological Stud-
ies, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois.
Van Rheenen, Gailyn. D.Miss., Trinity Evangel-
ical Divinity School. Associate Professor of Mis- Wiarda, Timothy. M.A., Wheaton College. Lec-
sions, Abilene Christian University. turer in Theology and Missions, Singapore Bible
College, Singapore.
Vardell, Douglas J. Th.M., Dallas Theological
Seminary. Chaplain, St. Lukes Hospital, Racine,
Wibberley, John. Ph.D., University of Reading.
Wisconsin.
Visiting Fellow in Agricultural Extension & Rural
Development, University of Reading; Communi-
Vencer, Jun. D.D., Ebenezer Bible College and
cations Unit Coordinator of RURCON, Ryde, Isle
Seminary. International Director, World Evangel-
of Wight, United Kingdom.
ical Fellowship, Quezon City, Philippines.
Wickstrom, David. Ph.D., Rosemead Graduate
Veronis, Luke. Th.M., Fuller School of World
Mission. Missionary, Albanian Orthodox Church, School of Psychology. Clinical Psychologist; Re-
Tirana, Albania. searcher with MK-CART/CORE; Adjunct Profes-
sor of Psychology and Missions, Columbia Inter-
Voelkel, Jack. D.Miss., Fuller School of World national University, Columbia, South Carolina.
Mission. Professor of Missiology and Chair, De-
partment of Missiology, Seminario Biblico de Wiebracht, Dean. D.Min., Talbot Theological
Colombia, Medelln, Colombia. Seminary. Assistant Team Leader, OC Interna-
tional, Northern Philippines Team, Pasig City,
Wagner, C. Peter. Ph.D., University of Southern Philippines.
California. Donald A. McGavran Professor of
Church Growth, Fuller School of World Mission, Wilkins, Michael J. Ph.D., Fuller Theological
Pasadena, California. Seminary. Dean of Faculty, Professor of New Tes-
tament Language and Literature, Talbot School
Wagner, William L. Th.D., University of South of Theology, LaMirada, California.
Africa. Professor of Missiology, Evangelical The-
ological Faculty, Leuven, Belgium. Williams, Bud. Ed.D., Northern Illinois Uni-
versity. Associate Professor of Kinesiology,
Wagner, William Mark. Ph.D., Southwestern Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois.
Baptist Theological Seminary. Pastor and In-
structor, Bibelseminar, Bonn, Germany. Wilson, Everett A. Ph.D., Stanford University.
President, Bethany College, Scotts Valley, Cali-
Wan, Enoch. Ph.D., State University of New fornia.
York at Stony Brook. Professor of Missions and
Anthropology. Director, Ph.D. Intercultural Stud- Wilson, Samuel. Ph.D., Cornell. Professor, Trin-
ies Program, Reformed Theological Seminary, ity Episcopal School for Ministry, Ambridge,
Jackson, Mississippi. Pennsylvania.
20
Contributors
Winter, Ralph. Ph.D., Cornell. President, partment of History, Hong Kong Baptist Univer-
William Carey International University and Gen- sity, Hong Kong, Peoples Republic of China.
eral Director, U.S. Center for World Mission,
Pasadena, California. Woodberry, J. Dudley. Ph.D., Harvard Univer-
sity. Dean and Professor of Islamic Studies, Fuller
Wisely, Thomas N. Ph.D., Fuller Theological School of World Mission, Pasadena, California.
Seminary. Division Head, International Christian
Studies, Tokyo Christian University, Tokyo, Wright, Christopher J. H. Ph.D., Cambridge.
Principal, All Nations Christian College, Ware,
Japan.
Herts, United Kingdom.
Wong, Hoover. D.Min., Fuller Theological Sem- Yamamori, Tetsunao. Ph.D., Duke University.
inary. Senior Associate Professor, Director of Chi- President, Food for the Hungry International,
nese Studies, Fuller School of World Mission, Scottsdale, Arizona.
Pasadena, California.
Yu, Carver Tatsum. D.Phil., Oxford University.
Wong, Timothy Man-Kong. Ph.D., The Chinese Vice President, China Graduate School of Theol-
University of Hong Kong. Assistant Professor, De- ogy, Hong Kong, Peoples Republic of China.
21
Abbreviations
ABCFM American Board of Commissioners DEM Dictionary of the Ecumenical

of Foreign Mission Movement, ed. Nicholas Lossky
ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David DJG Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels,
N. Freedman ed. Joel B. Green and Scot
ADLR Abingdon Dictionary of Living McKnight
Religions, ed. Keith Crim DPCM Dictionary of Pentecostal and
AEF African Evangelical Fellowship Charismatic Movements, ed. Stanley
AFC Ambassadors for Christ, ed. John Burgess and Gary B. McGee
D. Woodbridge DPHL Dictionary of Paul and His Letters,
AIM Africa Inland Mission ed. Gerald Hawthorne and Ralph
ASV American Standard Version P. Martin
BaMS Basel Mission Society DSCHT Dictionary of Scottish Church
History and Theology, ed. Nigel de
BDCM Biographical Dictionary of Christian
S. Cameron
Missions, ed. Gerald Anderson
DWCH A Dictionary of Women in Church
BDEB The Blackwell Dictionary of
History by Mary L. Hammack
Evangelical Biography, 17301860,
ed. Donald Lewis DWME Division of World Mission and
BEB Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible, ed. Evangelism
Walter A. Elwell EB Encyclopedia Britannica
BDT Bakers Dictionary of Theology, ed. EBC The Expositors Bible Commentary
Everett F. Harrison EDBT Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical
BibSac Bibliotheca Sacra Theology, ed., Walter A. Elwell
BM Basel Mission EDT Evangelical Dictionary of Theology,
BMS Baptist Missionary Society ed. Walter A. Elwell
CCen Christian Century EFMA Evangelical Fellowship of Mission
Agencies
CDCWM Concise Dictionary of Christian
World Mission, ed. Stephen C. Neill, EI Encyclopedia of Islam, ed. B. Lewis,
Gerald H. Anderson, and John V. L. Mnage, Ch. Pellat, and
Goodwin J. Schacht
CEI The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, EJ Encyclopedia Judaica
ed. Cyril Glass EM Encyclopedia of Missions, ed. Henry
CIM China Inland Mission O. Dwight, H. Allen Tupper, and
CMA Christian and Missionary Alliance Edwin M. Bliss
CMS Church Mission Society EMA Evangelical Missionary Alliance
CT Christianity Today EMCM Encyclopedia of Modern Christian
DAB Dictionary of American Biography Missions: The Agencies, ed. Burton
L. Goddard
DAC Dictionary of the Apostolic Church,
ed. James Hastings EMIS Evangelical Missions Information
Service
DAWN Discipling a Whole Nation
EMQ Evangelical Missions Quarterly
DBA Dictionary of Baptists in America, ed.
Bill J. Leonard ER Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mircea
Eliade
DCA Dictionary of Christianity in America,
ed. Daniel G. Reid ERE Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics
DCSRO Dictionary of Cults, Sects, Religions ERT Evangelical Review of Theology
and the Occult, ed. George A. Mather ESB Encyclopedia of Southern Baptists
23
Abbreviations
EWM Encyclopedia of World Methodism, NAE National Association of Evangelicals

ed. Nolan B. Harmon NBD New Bible Dictionary, ed.
FJIJ From Jerusalem to Iryian Jaya, Ruth J. D. Douglas
Tucker NCC National Council of Churches
GCOWE Global Consultation of World NCE New Catholic Encyclopedia
Evangelization
NDT The New Dictionary of Theology, ed.
GGC Guardians of the Great Commission, Joseph Komonchak, Mary Collins,
Ruth Tucker and Dermot A. Lane
GNB Good News Bible NeRMs New Religious Movements
HBD Harpers Bible Dictionary, ed. NIDCC The New International Dictionary
Madeline Sweeny Miller of the Christian Church, ed.
HCM A History of Christian Missions, J. D. Douglas
Stephen Neill NIDNTT The New International Dictionary of
HEM A History of the Ecumenical the New Testament, ed. Colin Brown
Movement, Ruth Rouse and Stephen
NIDOTTE New International Dictionary of Old
C. Neill
Testament Theology and Exegesis, ed.
IAMS International Association for Willem A. Gemeren
Mission Studies
NTCERK The New Twentieth Century
IBMR International Bulletin of Missionary Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge,
Research ed. J. D. Douglas
ICETE International Council for NIV New International Version
Evangelical Theological Education
NLB New Living Translation
ICHR Indian Church History Review
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
IDB Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible,
ed. George A. Buttrick ODCC Oxford Dictionary of the Christian
Church, ed. F. L. Cross
IEM India Evangelical Mission
ODS Oxford Dictionary of the Saints, ed.
IFES International Fellowship of
David H. Farmer
Evangelical Students
OMF Overseas Missionary Fellowship
IFMA Interdenominational Fellowship of
Mission Agencies OW Operation World, ed. Patrick
Johnstone
IJFM International Journal of Frontier
Missions PA Practical Anthropology
IMC International Missionary Council PWCM Perspectives on the World Christian
IRM International Review of Mission Movement: A Reader, ed. Ralph
D. Winter and Stephen C. Hawthorne
ISBE The International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia, ed. James Orr RSV Revised Standard Version
ISBE Rev The International Standard Bible SCM Student Christian Movement
Encyclopedia, revised edition, ed. SIM Society for International Ministries
Geoffrey Bromiley SPG Society for the Propogation of the
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature Gospel
JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological SCM Student Christian Movement
Society SUM Sudan United Mission
JBP J. B. Phillips Translation SVM Student Volunteer Movement
JPC Journal of Psychology and TCDCB Twentieth Century Dictionary of
Christianity Christian Biography, ed.
JPT Journal of Psychology and Theology J. D. Douglas
KJV King James Version TCKs Third Culture Kids
LMS London Missionary Society TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New
MAF Mission Aviation Fellowship Testament, ed. Gerhard Kittel
MARC Mission Advanced Research and TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old
Communication Center Testament, ed. G. Johannes
ML Mission Legacies, ed. Gerald Botterweck
H. Anderson TEAM The Evangelical Alliance Mission
MS Mission Studies TEE Theological Education by Extension
24
Abbreviations
TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign WEF World Evangelical Fellowship

Language WmTJ Westminster Theological Journal
TESL Teaching English as a Second WSCF World Student Christian Federation
Language
WWCH Whos Who in Church History, ed.
TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of
Other Languages William Pierson Barker
TWOT Theological Wordbook of the Old ZPBD Zondervan Pictoral Bible Dictionary,
Testament, ed. R. Laird Harris ed. Merrill C. Tenney
WCC World Council of Churches ZPEB Zondervan Pictoral Encyclopedia of
WCE World Christian Encyclopedia, ed. the Bible, ed. Merrill C. Tenney
David Barrett
25
A-B Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/8/03 3:56 PM Page 27
Abakua. See LATIN AMERICAN NEW RELIGIOUS

MOVEMENTS.
Abolitionist Movement. The abolitionist move-

ment in the United States had a great impact on
the home and overseas missionary movement.
During the 1820s and 1830s antislavery and
proabolition activity put pressure on mission
agencies to sever all relationships with slave-
holders: not to appoint them as missionaries, re-
Aa
already existing mission activities and many new
ones. By 1856 it had a total of seventy-nine mis-
sionaries working among North American Indi-
ans and in Africa, the Sandwich Islands, Jamaica,
ceive their donations, place them on their Siam (Thailand), Egypt, and Canada. The AMA
boards, or receive them as members in their began work among Chinese in America in 1852,
home mission churches. As a result, the AMERI- and this led to the formation of the California
CAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MIS- Chinese Mission by 1875. With the beginning of
SIONS (ABCFM) from 1840 to 1860 repeatedly the Civil War the work of the AMA began to focus
was presented with petitions that called it to deal almost exclusively on the freedmen in the South,
with issues of slaveholding and slaveholders in and it ceased broader missionary efforts at home
connection with its work among the Cherokee and abroad. Important leaders in the work of the
and Choctaw people in the United States. Ten- AMA included such evangelical abolitionists as
sions within the churches and the board itself be- Lewis Tappan and Joshua Leavitt.
tween moderate and radical proabolition fac- RALPH R. COVELL
tions made it difficult for the agency to solve Bibliography. J. R. McKivigan, The War against
these disputes to everyones satisfaction. Proslavery Religion: Abolitionism and the Northern
Such adjustments that the ABCFM and other Churches, 18301865; B. Wyatt-Brown, Lewis Tappan
mission agencies made did not satisfy the radical and the Evangelical War against Slavery; C. Whipple, Re-
abolitionists. Therefore, the antislavery American lations of the American Board of Commissioners for For-
Home Mission Society was formed in 1826, and eign Missions to Slavery; R. Torbet, Venture of Faith.
by the early 1840s a number of comeouter
groups separated from denominational boards. Aboriginal Religions. Aboriginal religions in
For example, the American Baptist Free Mission Australia share many similarities with other pri-
Society (ABFMS) was organized in 1843 and no mal religions, yet they are as distinctive and as
longer worked with the Triennial Convention of different as the variety of aboriginal languages.
northern Baptists. This society, which existed In traditional aboriginal cosmology there was
until 1868, became the means through which an- awareness among some tribes of a deity, such as
tislavery Baptists engaged in missions at home the All Father or All Mother, although these have
and abroad. During the years of their existence not generally been important. A lesser, but more
the ABFMS had personnel in Japan and Burma. significant being is the widely known Rainbow
It also agitated in Baptist state associations in Serpent. This Rainbow Serpent and a variety of
the north on behalf of slaves, as well as in slave- formative spirit-beings were responsible for the
holding areas in Kentucky and Virginia. formation of the present world order.
Similar to the ABFMS in all but a denomina- The foundation for the aboriginal view of real-
tional name was the American Missionary Asso- ity is the primeval, mythical epoch called the
ciation (AMA) formed in Albany, New York, in Dreaming. The Dreaming events are recounted
1846. Strongly proabolition, the AMA at its in the aboriginal myths. In the Dreaming a vari-
founding integrated into itself three antislavery ety of formative spirit-beings emerged from the
missionary organizationsthe Union Missionary earth or sea and took on part plant or animal
Society, the Committee for West India Missions, and human forms. They moved across the fea-
and the Western Evangelical Society. It promoted tureless landscape, forming the various topo-
27
Aboriginal Religions
graphical features, plants, animals, and humans. ularly known in the West as Bishop Abraham,
Some of the formative spirit-beings then re- Abraham Mar Thoma was born in Kallooppara
turned to the earth, forming various topographic in Travancore, a state in southern India. He was
phenomena that are regarded as sacred sites. raised by an uncle who belonged to the Syrian
While the initial creativity of the Dreaming is Mar Thoma Church, an indigenous denomina-
complete, the Dreaming is ever present to the tion. He committed his life to Christ at age 13
people through participation in ritual, cere- and was ordained in 1911. After education at
monies or corroborees, art, and song. The Madras Christian College, Toronto University,
Dreaming myths give rise to the aboriginal un- and Wycliffe College (also in Toronto), he had a
derstanding of their relationship with the land, parish ministry for a brief time. In 1917 he was
animals, and plant life. Aboriginal people see consecrated suffragan (or assistant) metropolitan
themselves sharing a common ancestry with the to help the head of the denomination, Titus II.
plants and animals, being of common spiritual The church at this time probably had a little
essence. Each group is obligated to others to per- more than one hundred thousand members. For
form the ceremonies relevant to their particular more than a quarter of a century, the two worked
totemic ancestors to ensure the continuity and together to strengthen the spiritual life of the
sustenance of the species.
church and to make it an active participant in the
The main religious activity is associated with
spread of the gospel. In 1924 Abraham helped
keeping alive the Dreaming creativity in the pres-
formally organize the Voluntary Evangelists As-
ent to ensure renewal or renovation of the cosmic
order. In the ritual reenactment the primordial sociation, a lay organization that encouraged
events are made present and the performer be- Christians to study and pray together and to go
comes the totemic ancestor. Some rituals are out regularly witnessing to individuals and
solely for initiated men and held in secret; some groups. His passion for spreading the gospel was
are exclusively for women; others are shared by an encouragement and example to many in the
both genders with separate responsibilities. The church, as was his personal piety. On Tituss
Dreaming spirit-beings provided a precedent for death in 1944, he became metropolitan. The
all ceremonies and social customs as well, so all church by the time of Abrahams death three
of life is seen to be sacred; their responsibility is years later had grown to about two hundred
to keep them alive and productive. To the aborig- thousand members and was known for its evan-
ine living is a religious activity. Human life be- gelistic outreach. E. STANLEY JONES, in paying
gins and ends in the spirit world. tribute to his friend, called him the greatest
The change brought about by acculturation Christian in India.
and white encroachment has been cataclysmic, ROBERT SHUSTER
resulting in widespread desacralization and de-
moralization of society. Consequently there have Abrahamic Covenant. Gods initial call to Abra-
been few recorded revitalization movements, yet ham to leave his family and his country in order
aboriginal religions have survived and changed to follow wherever the Lord would lead him and
dramatically among the tribal people. the promises God made to Abraham constitute
Whether aboriginal religious tradition is still the core of the Abrahamic covenant (Gen.
an important reality for individuals or not, abo- 12:13). Throughout the story of Abraham these
riginal thinking processes, basic concerns, and promises are reiterated or expanded (Gen. 12:7;
needs expressed in the myths remain. For this 13:1417; 15:121; 17:127; 22:1518), and Abra-
reason missions and church need to treat aborig- ham demonstrates his commitment by his obedi-
inal religions seriously, irrespective of how their ence, culminating in his willingness to sacrifice
significance is understood, and assist the aborig-
Isaac (Gen. 22:118). The same promises are re-
ines in recapturing the gospel that addresses
peated, in whole or in part, to Abrahams descen-
their needs. There remains a great need to ex-
dants (Gen. 21:12, 13, 18; 25:16; 28:34, 1215),
plore the use of indigenous art, music, and cor-
roboree to communicate the gospel. and the covenant then becomes a central part of
ALBERT F. TUCKER
the rest of the Bible.
Gods call of Abraham parallels his creation of
SEE ALSO Primal Religions. humankind in his own image (Gen. 1:2628). The
Bibliography. M. Charlesworth, H. Morphy, D. Bell,
first two chapters of Genesis depict a harmony
and K. Maddock, Religion in Aboriginal Australia: An between God and humanity, between man and
Anthology; M. Eliade, Australian Religions: An Intro- woman, and between humanity and the rest of
duction; E. Kolig, The Silent Revolution: The Effects of creation. That harmony was severed when the
Modernization on Australian Aboriginal Religion. original pair chose the path of autonomy from
God (Gen. 3:119), but God invited Abraham to
Abraham Mar Thoma (18801947). Indian surrender to a new path that he would mark out
church leader and promoter of evangelism. Pop- for him (Gen. 12:1).
28
Abrams, Minnie F.
The Abrahamic covenant has a key role within for foreign missionaries, and sent missionaries
Gods plan to get the gospel to all the world. First, to India. The training school also functioned as
Gods dealings with Abraham have the seed of the a seminary for hundreds of short-term students
gospel within it. As with his promise of salvation destined for ministry in North American Wes-
to all who receive the Son by faith (John 1:12), leyan/Holiness churches. During the Shermans
the promise to Abraham was unconditional. four-year mission to India, Abrams assumed
Abraham opened himself to Gods grace, reori- leadership of all aspects of the program. Her
enting his life to Gods new work on his behalf. In primary tasks were financial, educational, and
that act he became both an example for all future editorial. Her primary role outside the mission
generations of believers and the channel through was as a mission theorist. Her missiological es-
which God mediated his promise of reconcilia- says were published initially in The Vanguard,
tion to all the world (cf. Gen. 12:3 with Rom. 4 and then reprinted in numerous periodicals, pri-
and Gal. 3). marily those of the smaller and more radical
Second, the land that God promised to Abra- Wesleyan/Holiness churches. In these essays she
ham and his descendants became the central perpetuated concerns of Taylor and other self-
point from which the gospel would spread to the supporting missionaries, but in dialogue with
rest of the world (Acts 1:8). God created the phys-
the mission theory prevalent in the mainline
ical world and its people with their physical bod-
churches.
ies, and he began his plan of reconciliation with
A close, cooperative relationship was main-
a real place.
Third, when God promised to give Abraham tained with the Pentecost Bands (see WESLEYAN/
countless descendants, he established him as the HOLINESS MISSIONS) and the Free Methodist
human source of Jesus Christ, the Savior of all Church. The latter relationship was generally ter-
humanity (Matt. 1:1). Also Israel, the nation that minated after the expulsion of the Pentecost
came from Abraham, became the first of the na- Bands from the Free Methodist Church in 1896.
tions that God purposed to reach with the gospel Abrams became involved in a struggle for control
(Matt. 28:1920; Rom. 1:16). of the Vanguard Mission in 1907, when leader-
Fourth, Gods promise to make Abrahams ship was temporarily usurped by a Holiness/Pen-
name great becomes an evidence of the restored tecostal evangelist. The actuarial dates and other
relationship between God and humanity. When prosopographical data on Abrams have not been
we try to gain a name for ourselves it results in found. The archives of the Vanguard Mission
alienation from God (Gen. 11:19), but when were burned in 1907. Many missionaries from
God establishes our identity for us, it results in a the Vanguard Training School served under the
new life that is much better than any we could aegis of the Wesleyan Methodist, Pentecost Bands
have imagined for ourselves (Matt. 19:39; Rev. of the World, and Free Methodist Churches.
2:17). DAVID BUNDY
Fifth, and finally, God promised Abraham that
Bibliography. A. Abrams, The Vanguard 23:5 (1903):
all peoples on earth will be blessed through you
1; idem, The Vanguard 21:18 (1903): 1; idem, The Van-
(Gen. 12:3). This promise moves the focus of guard 25:7 (1905): 1; idem, The Vanguard 26:15 (1906):
Gods plan from an individual to the entire world. 1; idem, The Vanguard 26:4 (1906): 8.
Gods heart was for the world, but he began with
choosing one person.
THOMAS J. FINLEY
Abrams, Minnie F. (18591912). American mis-
sionary to India. Abrams had attended the
Bibliography. B. W. Anderson, Interpretation 42 Chicago Training School for Home and Foreign
(1988): 35366; F. Blauw, The Missionary Nature of the Missions and went to Bombay in 1887 with the
Church; W. J. Dumbrell, Reformed Theological Review Womans Foreign Missionary Society of the
41 (1982): 4250; R. De Ridder, Discipling the Nations;
A. Glasser, Kingdom and Mission; C. L. Rogers, BibSac Methodist Episcopal Church. She helped estab-
127 (1970): 24156; J. H. Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as lish and supervise a Christian girls school and
Narrative; J. M. L. Young, CT 13 (1968): 16263, 165. worked with children in orphanages. In 1898 she
followed the Lords leading in becoming affiliated
Abrams, Anna (c. 1858c. 1910). American Ho- with the Mukti Mission, PANDITA RAMABAIs home
liness missionary in India. Daughter of a Michi- for Indian widows, in Kedgaon.
gan Free Methodist minister, she joined her sis- Early in 1905 seventy volunteers at the mission
ter, Bessie Sherman, and Charles W. Sherman in responded to Ramabais call for prayer for re-
establishing the Vanguard Mission in St. Louis vival. Six months later the Spirit was poured out
around 1880. It was a self-supporting enterprise among them, the praying band having swelled to
developed on the model of W ILLIAM T AYLOR s 550, meeting twice daily. The revival, weeping,
mission theory and described itself as a Pauline praying, and confessing of sins continued almost
mission program. They established missions in uninterrupted for days, and then during the fol-
American urban areas, began a training school lowing year spread to other Indian mission sites.
29
Abrams, Minnie F.
In her book The Baptism of the Holy Ghost and The years after the Second World War found
Fire (1906) Abrams recorded the revival she wit- mission studies in deepening difficulty at aca-
nessed and her own experience. With biblical ref- demic institutions. This was the case until the
erences and theological explanations she de- early 1970s, when a renaissance in mission stud-
scribed the fire accompanying (or following) the ies coincided with growing awareness that Chris-
spirit baptism as a burning that brought both tianity was becoming a predominantly non-West-
pain over ones sin and joy over its cleansing. The ern religious phenomenon. Highly significant
baptism was often accompanied by an urgent de- here were Olav G. Mykelbusts mid-1950s vol-
sire to reach souls, a boldness for service, and umes on The Study of Missions in Theological Ed-
some gifts of the Spirit. Abrams called every ucation. The director of the Egede Institute of
Christian to seek the fire, the baptism, and con- Missionary Study and Research (Oslo) called for
tinued refillings of the Spirit (Acts 4:2331). creation of an international institute of scientific
Abrams advocated faithfulness to the Word of mission research. This eventually led to the offi-
God as the constant in the Christians life. Send- cial founding of the INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION
ing a copy of her book the following year to a FOR MISSION STUDIES (IAMS) in 1972. The IAMS
former classmate serving in Valparaiso, Chile, was to function as an umbrella covering a world-
greatly influenced the beginnings of the Pente- wide network of national and regional missiolog-
costal movement there. ical associations.
After a year back in the United States, Abrams In North America the ASSOCIATION OF PROFES-
returned to India in 1910. Determined to take the SORS OF MISSIONS (APM) was formed in
gospel to unreached peoples, she led a party of Louisville, Kentucky, in 1952 in the face of criti-
seven single women missionaries to evangelize in cal challenges to the very existence of missiologi-
the United Provinces, Fyzabad, and Bahraich. cal studies in the academy. Discussions ensued
She died of malaria undertaking this work. about the need for a new professional society to
JANET BRUCE promote mission studies in the United States, a
society broader, more comprehensive, and more
Bibliography. G. B. McGee, DPCM, p. 7.
inclusive than APM. The result was a gathering of
missiologists at Nashville, Tennessee, in June
Absoluteness of Christianity. See THEOLOGY OF 1972 to found the ASM, which would include
RELIGIONS. Christian missiologists of all denominations and
traditions. Its goal was to reinforce the place of
Academic Associations of Mission. In the nine- missiology as a bona fide academic discipline.
teenth century there was very little research in After much serious debate, an inaugural assem-
the field of missions and the confrontation of be- bly was held in St. Louis in June 1973. A new
liefs and cultures in the modern world. Major journal, Missiology: An International Review (see
steps were taken following the WORLD MISSIONARY JOURNALS OF MISSION AND MISSIOLOGY), was estab-
CONFERENCE at Edinburgh (1910): the launching lished with the editorship rotating among evan-
of the International Review of Missions in 1912 gelical, conciliar Protestant, and Roman Catholic
and the founding of the Missionary Research Li- mission scholars. This reflected the tripartite,
brary in New York in 1914. These initiatives stim- balanced nature of the associations leadership.
ulated the inclusion of mission instruction in The ASM quickly achieved a membership of
programs of theological education. five hundred, with the result that the fledgling
The first society to be established for the aca- Association of Evangelical Professors of Missions
demic study of missions was German, the was soon eclipsed. The AEPM had been con-
Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Missionswissenschaft ceived by fifteen missions professors in 1967 at
(GERMAN SOCIETY FOR MISSIOLOGY). Founded in the Urbana student convention. Officially formed
1918, it initially concentrated on publishing and at a meeting of the INTERDENOMINATIONAL FOREIGN
on assisting the development of missiology as an MISSION ASSOCIATION (IFMA) and the EVANGELICAL
academic discipline in German Catholic facul- FELLOWSHIP OF MISSION AGENCIES (EFMA) at
ties. After the Second World War, the German So- Winona Lake, Indiana, in October 1968, its pur-
ciety for Missiology became more active in suppose was to provide a forum for interaction be-
porting research projects and the development of tween teachers of missions in Bible schools,
missiological documentation. Christian colleges, and seminaries.
On the other side of the Atlantic, the 1920s wit- From 1974 onwards, the ASM was an affiliate
nessed high-quality discussion by a fellowship of member of the IAMS. Two years later, it was ad-
leading missiologists. The Lux Mundi group on mitted to membership in what is now known as
the east coast of North America broke new the Council of Societies for the Study of Religion.
ground and may be said to have sharpened con- Following presentations by officers of the ASM,
cepts that came to full bloom in the founding of the Association of Theological Schools (ATS) in
the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MISSIOLOGY (ASM) fifty 1987 recognized the legitimacy and value of mis-
years later. siology as a field of learning in its own right. The
30
Accommodation
ATS proceeded to accept the doctorate of missi- Prominent among them are two associations of
ology as worthy of endorsement and inclusion French-speaking mission scholars. The Centre de
within the roster of professional degrees. This Recherches et dEchanges sur la Diffusion et lIn-
was an important achievement. culturation du Christianisme (CREDIC) was
The ASM has normally met in conjunction founded in 1979 to provide a common forum for
with the annual meetings of the APM. Since Catholic mission scholars and institutes. More re-
1980, the ASM has published a monograph series cently, the Association Francophone Oecumnique
through Orbis Books. Dozens of titles have been (AFOM) was established in Paris in 1994 by
issued. In 1993 a new ASM dissertation series Roman Catholic and Protestant missiologists for
began in cooperation with the University Press of dialogue on the intercultural and intercontinen-
America. tal expressions of Christian faith in todays world.
In 1988 the IAMS Secretariat was based in The more specialized Berlin Society for Mission
Hamburg, Germany, and the journal Mission History was founded in 1994.
Studies was inaugurated. Assemblies have been Farther afield, it is important to recognize ini-
held around the world every three or four years tiatives in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In the
since 1972. IAMS has also sponsored interna- Southern Hemisphere, the Southern African Mis-
tional working groups and consultations on such siological Society (SAMS) was founded in 1968
vital issues as biblical research for mission stud- under the pioneer leadership of DAVID J. BOSCH.
ies (BISAM), healing and mission, and mission Based in the department of missiology at the
bibliography, documentation, and archives (DAB). University of South Africa, Pretoria, SAMS pro-
In November 1990 the AEPM broadened its duced Missionalia and carried on an important
base and changed its name to the EVANGELICAL abstracting service. In south Asia, the Fellowship
MISSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY (EMS). The goal of the new of Indian Missiologists (FOIM), founded at Purn-
organization was to serve the needs and interests odaya, Bhopal, in June 1991, is worthy of note.
of missionaries, agency executives, students, and The South Pacific Association for Mission Stud-
professors of mission. It was particularly con- ies (SPAMS) was founded in Australia in the
cerned to include conservative evangelical admin- 1980s, while the Associaao de Professores de
istrators and field missionaries in its membership Missoes no Brasil, an association of mission pro-
so as to enhance communication between the ac- fessors in Brazil, was founded in 1992. All of
ademic world and the sending agencies. Its meet- these are active in fostering and publishing schol-
ings synchronize with North American meetings arly research and writing in their area.
of the Evangelical Theological Society, IFMA, The loose network of national and interna-
EFMA, and the Association of Canadian Bible Col- tional professional associations of mission has
leges (ACBC). Proclaiming its intention to serve as grown significantly over the last two decades. It
a launching pad for biblical missiology in the has done much to facilitate global communica-
twenty-first century, the EMS purposed from the tion and cross-pollination in missiological
beginning to provide avenues for publication of thought, with the result that the field of mission
evangelical missiological monographs and books studies was much stronger at the end of the
that otherwise might not see the light of day, such twentieth century than at mid-century.
as Edward Rommens Spiritual Power and Mis- A. CHRISTOPHER SMITH
sions and David Hesselgraves Scripture and Strat-
Bibliography. D. J. Hesselgrave, EMQ 27:2 (April
egy. The EMS also publishes an Occasional Bul- 1991): 18487; J. N. J. Kritzinger and W. A. Saayman,
letin to communicate its news and views. eds., Mission in Creative Tension: A Dialogue with
The British and Irish Association for Mission David J. Bosch; S. Neill, in The Mission of the Church
Studies (BIAMS), which was founded in 1990, and the Propagation of the Faith, pp. 14970; W. R.
keeps in tune with the initial vision of the IAMS. Shenk, The American Society of Missiology, 197287;
A key catalyst in this development was ANDREW F. J. A. Siewert, ed., Directory of Professors and Schools of
WALLS, the founding secretary of the Scottish In- Mission; A. F. Walls, IBMR 15:4 (1991): 14654.
stitute for Missionary Studies (SIMS, 1967) and a
specialist in intensive IAMS and European missi- Accommodation. Missionary practice of accom-
ological networking. Another precedent for missi- modating the rituals, practices, and styles of the
ological consultation in Britain was the English- missionarys sending church to those of the re-
based Evangelical Fellowship for Missionary cipient culture. It indicates what are generally
Studies, which had been founded in 1968 to pro- conscious processes of adaptation, done with the
vide opportunities for evangelicals working in the willingness to adopt some of the forms of the re-
whole area of missionary studies and to encour- ceiving culture and at times to leave aside some
age further research and publication. The EFMS of the prior Christian churchs customs consid-
was closely connected with the London-based ered to be an impediment to embracing Christian
EVANGELICAL MISSIONARY ALLIANCE (EMA). faith in the receiving culture.
In continental western Europe, various associ- As a technical term within the history of mis-
ations have arisen to serve mission studies. sion in the Roman Catholic Church, accommo-
31
Accommodation
dation identifies a series of specific experiments The notion of accommodation has re-emerged
in this direction during the sixteenth through in recent missiological reflection, now more as
eighteenth centuries, around which a great missionary problem than strategy. In this respect,
amount of controversy gathered. Most of these the term speaks of the way churches in the West
were undertaken by Jesuits, the two most notable have by stages taken into themselves post-
of whom were MATTEO RICCI in China and Enlightenment culture that places a high pre-
ROBERTO DE NOBILI in South India. mium on the rational, autonomous self, a belief
Riccis efforts (from 1583 until his death in in the inevitability of progress, and confidence in
1610) to lodge the Christian faith among people technology and technique for managing the
closely associated with the imperial palace led world and constructing social order. The question
him to accommodations to Chinese practice in arises whether, and to what extent, churches in
language (the use of the term Tien [heaven] as a the societies of a waning Christendom have lost
term for deity), in veneration of Confucius (con- their distinctive character as communities of wit-
sidering the term applied to him, Sheng [holy], ness by becoming overly accommodated to such
to be a term of honor for anything venerable), a cultures assumptions, values, and instincts.
and in the veneration of ancestors (taken to be This question fuels the challenge put so directly
symbolic of the cohesion of the family and not by LESSLIE NEWBIGIN to imagine what would be
religious worship). These issues persisted into the involved in the missionary encounter of the
eighteenth century in what became known as the gospel with Western culture.
Rites Controversy. In 1704, limitations were GEORGE R. HUNSBERGER
placed on the accommodations Ricci had made,
but this was followed in 1720 by a number of Bibliography. P. Schineller, A Handbook on Incultur-
ation; S. Neill, HCM; W. H. Willimon and S. Hauerwas,
concessions or permissions granted by a legate of
Resident Aliens.
Rome. Finally, in 1742 a papal bull issued by
Benedict XIV swept away those permissions and
required Roman practice in every detail as the Accra Conference (195758). The final assem-
law for the missions. This stood until 1938. bly of the INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL took
In the case of the work of Roberto de Nobili in place in Accra in December 1957 and January
South India from 1605 until his death in 1656, 1958. In the context of the conviction that the
the controversy arose around his efforts to be- Christian world mission is Christs, not ours, it
come as Indian as possible, adopting the lifestyle was decided to recommend the integration of the
and practices of a holy man of the Brahman work of the missionary council with that of the
caste. That involved refusing customs that gave WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES (WCC), with the in-
offense (such as eating meat or wearing leather tention that this would place mission, including
shoes). It also meant not requiring converts to clearly identified evangelism, at the heart of
break with caste rules except where directly idol- World Council life. Some missionary leaders,
atrous. De Nobilis refusal to identify with the al- however, feared the marginalization of these con-
ready existing church, which was viewed by Indi- cerns, which historically had been promoted by
ans as the caste of the parangi (Portuguese), led independent missionary agencies enjoying con-
to charges of schism. A papal bull in 1744 dic- siderable independence from denominational bu-
tated essentially the same requirements for India reaucracies. Two national missionary councils
as for China. (Norway and Congo), in fact, did not immedi-
Accommodation as mission policy and strategy ately associate with the new integrated Division
represented an advance over imposition by of World Mission and Evangelism of the WCC.
which the missionary churchs culture entirely Other critics have subsequently questioned
displaced the recipient culture in the definition of whether the Accra hope has been properly ful-
Christian life and community. But when com- filled within the life of the WCC.
pared with more recent notions of CONTEXTUAL- From the point of view of the World Council
IZATION (a term more common among Protes- there was an issue of credibility, given its judg-
tants) and INCULTURATION (a term preferred ment that unity and disunity were essentially is-
among Roman Catholics) there remain inherent sues that challenged the missionary effectiveness
dilemmas. First, the missionary church remains of the church: mission and unity belonged to-
in charge of the transaction and decides what gether in one organization. There was also a need
adaptations are appropriate, this instead of the to recognize that Christian missions, whatever
full participation of those receiving and believing their origins, had established churches that
the message. Second, it tends to give attention to might be younger than the historic churches of
external practices and rituals and fails to engage Western Christendom but were still churches. If
the more deeply felt meaning structures of the they were churches, then their fellowship was
culture. Third, it leaves untouched the question needed in the World Council and as churches
of the culture of the missionary by which the they, too, were called to mission. On the other
Christian faith has thus far been shaped. hand, there were voices in the council, including
32
Acosta, Jos de
those of some of the Orthodox members, mindful tation is a self-monitoring function of non-
of what they took to be the proselytizing activi- governmentalbut government recognized
ties of some Protestant groups, who pointed out associations of colleges and schools. In much of
that the WCC was a council of churches, not the world, educational quality is assured by a na-
Christian agencies, however benevolent their in- tional Ministry of Education, which assesses
tention. Accra represents a turning point in the and certifies educational institutions. Because
history of the ecumenical movement, for by Ministries of Education in many nations view
opening the way for younger churches to join the theological schools as religious (versus educa-
World Council it marked the end of northern tional) institutions, theological educators have
dominance in the life of that body, a change that developed peer-accrediting structures. Since
the historic churches have sometimes been slow these structures lack the benefit of government
to recognize. sanction, their credibility depends on the appro-
At Accra the Theological Education Fund was priateness and implementation of their accredit-
successfully set up. Generously endowed by J. D. ing procedures.
Rockefeller Jr., who offered $2 million to be In most regions, accreditation is a five-step
matched by the mission boards, the Fund has process. (1) A national or regional agency defines
sought to remedy the grave weaknesses in minis- the programs and awards it will accredit, and
terial formation programs evident among the adopts standards for accrediting theological
younger churches. schools. When a theological school indicates its
JOHN A. Y. BRIGGS desire to seek accreditation, a review process is
initiated. Normally this includes (2) institutional
SEE ALSO World Council of Churches Confer-
self-assessment on the basis of standards of the
ences.
accrediting agency, plus (3) review and assess-
Bibliography. L. Newbigin, HEM, II:18193; R. K. ment by a panel of external visitors. The external
Orchard, The Ghana Assembly of the IMC, 1958; visitors report their assessment and recommen-
T. Stransky, DEM, pp. 52629; A. J. van Der Bent, DEM, dations. (4) This report, with the institutions self-
pp. 32536. assessment, is reviewed by the agencys accredit-
ing commission, and (5) an accreditation
Accreditation. A procedure for certifying the ap- decision is takeneither to grant or to deny ac-
propriateness of an educational institution and creditation.
its instructional programs; also, the recognition Two associations promote communication and
awarded to an institution or program thus certi- coordination among regional theological educa-
fied. In missions, accreditation often refers to tion accrediting agencies. The INTERNATIONAL
certification of theological education in the Third COUNCIL FOR EVANGELICAL THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
World. (ICETE) was founded in 1980 as a project of the
A concern for appropriateness assumes both a Theological Commission of the WORLD EVANGELI-
system of values and criteria by which imple- CAL FELLOWSHIP. Member agencies include the
mentation of those values can be assessed. Theo- Accrediting Association of Bible Colleges (North
logical educators often find it easier to define ac- America), the Accrediting Council for Theologi-
creditation criteria than to clarify the qualities cal Education in Africa, Asia Theological Associ-
that distinguish appropriate ministry training. ation, Caribbean Evangelical Theological Associ-
Accreditation affords significant benefits, but ation, European Evangelical Accrediting
also entails real dangers. Accreditation certifies the Association, the Evangelical Association for The-
compliance of ministry training institutions and ological Education in Latin America, and South
programs with assessment criteria; it facilitates Pacific Association of Bible Colleges. A conciliar
communication and cooperation among similar counterpart, the World Conference of Associa-
institutions; it enables students to select appropri- tions of Theological Institutions (WOCATI),
ate programs; and it can provide a stimulus for founded in 1989, lists twenty national and re-
program improvement. Nevertheless, the prestige gional associations, some of which (e.g., the As-
attached to accreditation appeals almost irre- sociation of Theological Schools in the United
sistibly to elitist motives and the quest to attain States and Canada) provide accrediting services.
and retain accreditation may tempt theological ROBERT W. FERRIS
educators to compromise the contextual appropri-
ateness of their programs. When issues of appro- Bibliography. R. Kemp and P. Bowers, eds., ERT
19:3 (1995): 211315.
priateness and worth are slighted, accreditation
may promote Western structures and programs
without sensitivity to the non-Western churchs Acculturation. See CULTURE LEARNING.
training needs or to its economic realities.
In Europe, assurance of educational quality is Acosta, Jos de (15401600). Spanish Jesuit
entrusted to universities chartered by the na- early missiologist and missionary to Peru. Hav-
tional government. In the United States, accredi- ing taken Jesuit vows in 1570, Acosta arrived in
33
Acosta, Jos de
Peru in 1572, where he initially served as provin- in the expansion of mission efforts into the
cial and rector of the Colegio of Lima. During his Nordic countries, Scandinavia, Greenland, and
tenure in Latin America he established a mission Iceland.
station near Lake Titicaca, was appointed the A. SCOTT MOREAU
provincial superior of the Jesuits (1576), served
Bibliography. ODCC; E. N. Johnson, Speculum 9
as theologian at the important Third Provincial
(1934): 14779; R. Kay, NCE, 1:112; S. Neill, HCM.
Council of Lima (158283), and traveled and ob-
served Catholic work and local populations. In
1587 ill health forced his permanent return to Adaptation. A term belonging to a cluster of
Spain. ideas linked to CONTEXTUALIZATION, which in-
Acosta is best known for two of his works. In cludes concepts such as ACCOMMODATION and IN-
De Procuranda Indorum Salute (On How to Bring DIGENIZATION as well as related ideas such as
about Indian Salvation; 1588) he deals with TRANSLATABILITY, IDENTIFICATION, and (in an op-
proper ways to evangelize Indians in the New posing sense) SYNCRETISM. The basic idea is that
World. This was the first systematic treatment of of changing the form of Christian theological
missionary work and problems in dealing with ideas and practice (e.g., adaptation of the liturgy
the New World and greatly influenced Catholic in high church contexts) so that they can be un-
missionary efforts in the Americas. In it Acosta derstood in a cultural context different from that
emphasized the learning of indigenous lan- of the communicator. It has as its foundation the
guages, cultural adaptation, and the establish- reality of cultures role in human reasoning and
ment of educational institutions. Historia Natural actions and the resulting culture-embeddedness
y Moral de las Indias (Natural and Moral History of religious ideas, even though theological truths
of the Indies; 1590) presented his systematic per- are transcultural.
spectives of the philosophical impact of the New Adaptation and accommodation are often used
World on the natural order of life and history. He interchangeably; attempting to nuance the differ-
carefully presented his observations on the envi- ences between them so as to distinguish them is
ronment and history of the Indians, arguing unacceptably stretching their use in the literature
forcefully that they were just as human as the and in practice. Adaptation has typically been
Europeans. While he did not hold their tradi- used more in Catholic circles than in Protestant,
tional religious beliefs and practices in high re- especially before the term contextualization was
gard, he still respected them as people bearing popularized in the early 1970s. Though propo-
Gods image whose lot in life could be signifi- nents of contextualization sought to go beyond
cantly improved through education. the other terms, the core ideas inherent in con-
Together these two books provided a formative textualization build on the previously established
and thorough treatment of the encounter of the concepts and cannot be completely separated
church with the people of the Americas. Ad- from them.
vanced in relation to the thinking of their times, A. SCOTT MOREAU
they stand as foundations of early systematic
missiological reflection. Bibliography. L. J. Luzbetak, NCE, 1:12022.
A. SCOTT MOREAU
Bibliography. J. Klaiber, BDCM, pp. 34; S. MacCor- Adjustment to the Field. Rapid, authentic ad-
mack, Religion in the Andes; L. Martin, The Jesuit Tradi- justment to the field is an important key to effec-
tion in Education and Missions, pp. 20514; E. OGor- tive cross-cultural communication of the Chris-
man, NCE, 1:88. tian faith. During preparation, and especially on
arrival, the missionary family must be aware of
Acts. See NEW TESTAMENT THEOLOGY OF MISSION. this challenge. The problems of adjustment must
be anticipated and then positively experienced.
Adalbert of Bremen (c. 10001072). German The number one problem is CULTURE SHOCK. Ba-
promoter of mission to Nordic Europe. Born in a sically, culture shock is an emotional and mental
Saxon noble family, Adalbert became a canon in stalemate brought about by experiences in a cul-
1032 and archbishop of Bremen-Hamburg in ture that contrast too much with the culture a
1045. Simultaneously aristocratic, capable, and person is accustomed to. No missionary is ex-
ambitious, and prompted by a desire to establish empt from culture shock; everyone will suffer
ecclesiastical control over the northern European from it to a certain extent. Like most ailments, it
regions in which he, as the leading church offi- has its own symptoms, causes, and cures. Some
cial, would report directly to the pope, Adalbert never recover from it; others live in a constant
promoted missionary work into the region to es- state of such shock; many recover beautifully.
tablish beachheads there. His dream of establish- Positive handling of culture shock is the first step
ing a patriarchate was never realized, but his en- toward genuine adjustment to the new field and
ergy in mobilizing missionaries remains a legacy its people.
34
Adventist Missions
Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety C. P. Wagner, Frontiers in Missionary Strategy; T. Ward,
that results from losing familiar signs and sym- Living Overseas.
bols of social intercourse. When the missionary
enters a strange culture, all or most of these fa- Adopt-a-People. It is difficult to sustain a mis-
miliar cues are removed; feelings of lostness and sion focus on the billions of people in the world
frustration are not uncommon. Rejection and re- or even on the multitudes of languages and cul-
gression result and strange reactions are com- tures in a given country. Adopt-a-people is a mis-
mon. Some symptoms are excessive washing of sion mobilization strategy that helps Christians
hands; excessive concern over drinking water, get connected with a specific group of people
food, and bedding; fits of anger over delays; re- who are in spiritual need. It focuses on the goal
fusal to learn the language; and excessive fear of of discipling a particular people group (see PEO-
being cheated, robbed, or injured. A sequence of PLES, PEOPLE GROUPS), and sees the sending of
four stages is common: curious fascination; a missionaries as one of the important means to
hostile and aggressive attitude; a superior atti- fulfill that goal.
tude to the people; and gradual acceptance that Adopt-a-people was conceptualized to help
brings enjoyment and understanding. The stage congregations focus on a specific aspect of the
of culture shock in which the missionary family GREAT COMMISSION. It facilitates the visualization
lives will have great bearing on its cross-cultural of the real needs of other people groups, enables
witness. the realization of tangible accomplishments, de-
What can be done to reduce culture shocks velops and sustains involvement, and encourages
downward spiral? Usually missiologists recom- more meaningful and focused prayer. A people
mend three things: empathy, observation, and ex- group focus helps Christians to maintain an em-
perimentation. Empathy helps missionaries get phasis on the goal of reaching a people group
to know the people of their host culture, to feel as and then discipling Christians from within that
others feel. How missionaries relate to others is people. Churches in the people group are also
the basis of cross-cultural effectiveness. Can they helped to evangelize their own people and even-
trust others? Can they accept help from others? tually to send out their own missionaries.
Empathy leads to a mutually dependent relation- Adopt-a-people does not mean that a church or
ship that results in a nonjudgmental attitude. In- mission organization is adopting a group into
tentional observation makes missionaries break their own organization or that no other churches
out of their cultural cocoon and become alert to or groups can work with that particular people.
what is going on around them. Experimentation, Rather, the goal of adopt-a-people is to be used
or, in other words, trying out something and see- by God to see a people adopted into his heavenly
ing what happens! is the way a child learns a family. Thus, the implementation of the adopt-a-
culture, by inquiry and discovery learning. Like people concept requires maintaining a commit-
the child, the missionary finds out through trial ment until the Great Commission is fulfilled in
and error. the targeted group. In pragmatic terms, the min-
Adjustment comes as the missionary family imal involvement for a church (or fellowship)
learns to cope with culture shock. Coping comes using the adopt-a-people idea is to provide in-
through building a knowledge background of the formed, dedicated prayer for the targeted people
culture, which includes the language; through group. Other levels of involvement range from lo-
copying a reliable model in the new culture; and gistical or research help to financial support to
through creatively acting on ones best insights short-term projects among the targeted people
and making appropriate adjustments. Like any group and even the commissioning and support
healthy learning experience, mastering culture of long-term missionaries from the adopting or-
shock is an enriching experience. It produces a ganization.
deeper sense of human values; it conquers harm- TERRY J. RILEY
ful ethnocentrism; it earns a freedom to con-
structively criticize; and it builds immunity to Bibliography. IJFM 12:1 (JanuaryMarch 1995).
further serious cases. Those missionaries who
have successfully passed through culture shock Adventist Missions. The Seventh-Day Adventist
and have successfully adjusted to their fields of (SDA) Church is an evangelical denomination
service emerge different people, in many ways with 10 million members (1998) working in 205
healthier and better adjusted than before. countries. It is rooted in the renewal movement
JUSTICE C. ANDERSON of William Miller, a Baptist farmer in New En-
gland, who preached the impending second ad-
SEE ALSO Culture Shock; Extent of Missionary vent of Christ in the 1840s.
Identification. Background. When Christ did not return by
Bibliography. J. S. Hofman, Mission Work in Todays October 22, 1844, the Millerite movement disin-
World: Insights and Outlooks; M. W. Hubbell, Who Me? tegrated into several groups. The SDA church
Go Where? Do What?: The Missionary and the Mission; eventually developed from one of these groups as
35
Adventist Missions
a missionary movement with a strongly evangeli- cuss and clarify theological positions, share ex-
cal theological core (e.g., primacy of the Scrip- periences, and unite believers. Soon it also be-
tures, salvation through Christ), a set of distinct came an effective instrument to spread the Ad-
doctrines (e.g., seventh-day Sabbath, premillen- ventist missionary vision and propagate the faith
nial eschatology, spiritual gifts, tithing), and a in many different settings. As of 1998 the church
definite lifestyle (e.g., healthful living). After a runs over 50 publishing houses, printing litera-
formative period under the guidance of influen- ture in almost 230 languages. It also uses radio
tial leaders like James and Ellen White, Joseph and television to broadcast the gospel on all con-
Bates, and Uriah Smith, Adventists cultivated a tinents.
global missionary consciousness that grew out of The backbone of the worldwide growth has
the Adventist understanding of biblical prophe- been the organizational structure of the church.
cies (cf. Rev. 14:612). Early Adventists resisted formal organization.
The SDA insistence on a healthy lifestyle that But the global mission of the church made a
reflects personal holiness, the keeping of the sev- functional structure necessary. The first step was
enth-day Sabbath, and the acceptance of Ellen the creation of the General Conference (GC) of
White as a prophetic messenger to the church Seventh-Day Adventists in 1863. The current rep-
have sometimes caused other Christians to criti- resentative four-tier church structure (local
cize the SDA church as a cult. But a review of churches, conferences, union conferences, and
SDA theology reveals that Adventists are firmly the general conference with twelve world divi-
committed to the Reformation principles of sola sions) goes back to 1901, when the church reor-
scriptura and righteousness by grace through ganized its administrative structure to adapt to
faith. Adventist practices such as Sabbath-keep- the enormous global growth. The current depart-
ing, tithing, and a commitment to world mission mental structure throughout all organizational
are understood to grow out of the believers re- levels focusing on different concerns such as
sponse to Christs transforming grace. Christian education, family, youth, healthful liv-
Missionary Expansion. At first Adventist mis- ing, missionary outreach, social ministries, stew-
sionary efforts were directed largely toward those ardship, and so on, was adopted at about the
who had shared their experience in the Millerite same time.
movement. But soon Adventist immigrants in the Another element of Adventist mission practice
United States were also sharing their convictions is the medical work and other social ministries of
with friends and relatives, some of them on other the church which grow out of a holistic view of
continents. Michael Czechowski (181876), a for- the nature of human life and the lordship of
mer Catholic priest from Poland, eventually went Christ over all aspects of life. Adventists promote
back to Europe in 1864, starting SDA groups in a healthful lifestyle with wholesome nutrition,
Switzerland, Italy, and Romania. The existence of abstinence from harmful substances, often vege-
such groups led the church to send John An- tarianism, and a balanced life expressed through
drews to Europe in 1874 as the first official mis- the regular keeping of a work-free Sabbath. The
sionary. While Adventists were latecomers to the modern breakfast cereal industry started with a
GREAT CENTURY OF MISSIONS, their missionaries simple Adventist invention: the cornflakes of
were soon working on all continents. The SDA John H. Kellogg. As of 1998 the church employed
practice of tithing and a system of sharing finan- over 60,000 persons in over 580 healthcare insti-
cial resources upwardly throughout the organi- tutions. The Adventist Development and Relief
zation gave mission strategists means to boldly Agency (ADRA) is working in 143 countries.
move the church forward around the world. The constant expansion of the mission of the
Today the church is organized into twelve world church also demanded the continual develop-
divisions and growing at a decadal rate of about ment of educational facilities to train men and
75 percent (lower in Western countries) with 90 women. Adventists believe that education should
percent of its members in non-Western countries. prepare students not only academically but also
This growth testifies to a firm commitment to the spiritually and practically for a life of service. The
task of world evangelization which is part of the first college was established in Battle Creek in
Adventist identity. 1874. While some of its 4,400 primary schools,
Mission Practices. In addition to the strong 975 secondary schools, and 87 colleges and uni-
missionary vision of the church there are several versities were established through grant-in-aid
elements that have consistently contributed to programs, they were all built on an Adventist
the solid growth of the missionary enterprise of ideal that has touched millions with the trans-
the SDA church, such as the churchs use of forming power of the gospel.
media (especially publishing), a global financial Current Challenges. Despite the fact that the
and organizational structure, and a network of SDA church has grown consistently for the last
service and educational institutions. 150 years it is facing a number of challenges. One
The publishing work initially served to link the of them is the task to maintain unity and identity
rather dispersed group of Adventist believers, dis- across multiple cultural barriers. Another is to re-
36
Africa
sist the temptation to let the enormous institu- late Middle Ages. However, serious rivalry be-
tional network absorb all available financial and tween two Christian traditions, Jacobite (mono-
human resources and neglect the millions yet un- physite) and Nestorian (dyophysite), and the rise
reached. In response to this pressure the church of Islam seriously weakened Christian witness.
in 1990 established the office of Global Mission The name Afghanistan dates from 982, by
focusing on reaching unreached peoples (see PEO- which time Christian missionary activity was al-
PLES, PEOPLE GROUPS) and has encouraged the ready in decline. With the rise of the Mogul dy-
emergence of Third World missions (see NON- nasty in the sixteenth century, the area was
WESTERN MISSION BOARDS AND SOCIETIES), other closed to Christianity. Subsequently, no mission-
supportive ministries, and volunteer missions. aries have been allowed into the country. Under
The Adventist 1000 Missionary Movement in Islamic law, shariah, it is a capital offense for a
the Philippines has sent out more than one thou- Muslim to convert to Christianity. As the penalty
sand short-term missionaries (see SHORT-TERM for apostasy from Islam is death, indigenous
MISSION) all over the world. Adventist Frontier Afghan Christians tend to leave the country. A
Missions in Michigan, a private SDA mission small Armenian church of about a dozen mem-
agency started in 1985, focuses on planting the bers existed in Kabul, but the church was de-
church in new territories. But the church is not stroyed in 1898 and the group exiled.
only celebrating successes. Maybe the greatest In this century, some Christian activity has ex-
challenge today is the churchs need to reaffirm its isted. In 1933, the governments of Afghanistan
missionary identity in the Western world where and Italy signed an agreement which led to cre-
SECULARISM and POSTMODERNISM have eroded the ation of the Work of Spiritual Assistance to
churchs traditional missionary identity. Catholics of Afghanistan. The constitution of
ERICH W. BAUMGARTNER 1964 guaranteed non-Muslims freedom of wor-
Bibliography. E. W. Baumgartner, ed., Re-Visioning ship, but Christian evangelization was forbidden.
Adventist Mission in Europe; J. Dybdahl, ed., Adventist In July 1973, a military junta overthrew the
Mission in the 21st Century; G. R. Knight, The Fat Lady monarchy and suspended the constitution of
and the Kingdom: Adventist Mission Confronts the Chal- 1964. Among its first decrees was the provision,
lenges of Institutionalism and Secularization; G. Land, Afghanistan is a republican state in accordance
ed., Adventism in America: A History; Ministerial Asso- with the true spirit of Islam. As a result, expatri-
ciation, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists; ates compose the Christian community almost
Seventh-day Adventists Believe . . . An Exposition of 27 exclusively.
Fundamental Doctrines; G. Oosterwal, Mission Possible.
PAUL R. DEKAR
Aedesius (4th century). Syrian pioneer mission- Bibliography. S. H. Moffett, A History of Christianity
ary to Ethiopia. Aedesius and his brother FRU- in Asia; J. Stewart, Nestorian Missionary Enterprise. The
Story of a Church on Fire.
MENTIUS were traveling on a ship with their father
from Tyre to India when the ship was wrecked.
All on board except the two brothers were killed; Africa. The growth of the church in Africa is one
they were found by representatives of the of the most surprising facts of twentieth-century
Ethiopian King Ella Amida and taken into his church history. From an estimated 4 million pro-
service. Their education stood them in good fessing Christians in 1900 African Christianity
stead and they introduced the king and his young has grown to over 300 million adherents by the
son to the Christian faith. When Aeizanas, the year 2000. What accounts for such growth? The
prince, became king he and his court gave them- common notion that nineteenth-century mis-
selves to Christ. Eventually Aedesius returned to sionary efforts explain African Christianitys re-
Tyre, while Frumentius was appointed bishop cent explosion is an oversimplification. The true
and returned to Ethiopia. story behind these statistics reaches back to the
A. SCOTT MOREAU very earliest centuries of Christian history.
Beginnings. The roots of African Christianity
Bibliography. S. C. Neill, HCM. are to be found in the four regional churches of
Africa in the Roman eraEgypt, North Africa,
Affluence. See MISSIONARY AFFLUENCE. Nubia, and Ethiopia. The origins of Christianity
in Egypt are obscure. The first documentary evi-
Afghanistan (Est. 2000 pop.: 26,674,000; 652,090 dence of the existence of an Egyptian church
sq. km. [251,772 sq. mi.]). The country occupies dates from A.D. 189 with Bishop Demetrius. Per-
a strategic place in central Asia for the meeting of secution in the third century caused the faith to
cultures and has existed as an autonomous entity spread down the Nile into rural Egypt among the
since the eighteenth century. Christians entered Coptic-speaking population, where it found a
the territory by the fourth century. A bishop from new champion in Antony, the father of monasti-
Herat attended the Council of Seleucia in 424, cism. After a period of syncretism in the fourth
and a Nestorian bishop served in Kabul until the century, mature Coptic churches emerged in the
37
Africa
fifth century under the leadership of independ- The African Middle Ages. These four original
ently minded monastic leaders such as Shenout. sources of African Christianity faced their great-
The signs of an indigenous Christianity rooted in est challenge during the African Middle Ages.
the language and life of the people were every- The first challenge, which inaugurated the
where evident, including Coptic-speaking clergy African Middle Ages, came from a new religion
and Coptic liturgies together with Scripture Islam. The second challenge, which brought the
translations. African Middle Ages to an end, came from the
North Africa. While Egyptian Christianity was kingdoms of European Christendom represented
a testimony to the importance of a contextualized by the Portuguese and the Dutch.
Christianity, North Africa was a sober reminder North African and Nubian collapse. The rise
of the fragility of a faith insufficiently rooted in and spread of Islam across Africas northern
the life of the people. The Roman segment of shore in the seventh and eighth centuries was fol-
North Africa embraced the gospel with vigor but lowed in the tenth and eleventh centuries by a
the Punic and Berber peoples were never ade- southward expansion led by the merchant and
quately reached. The brilliance of North African the missionary. North Africa was most dramati-
Christianity cannot be doubted. The genius of cally affected by this expansion of Islam. The de-
Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustine is well known, cline of North African Christianity was nearly
yet even their brilliance could not prevent the de- total by the sixteenth century. Attempts by the
cline of a church troubled by separatism and per- fourth crusade (1215) to liberate North Africa po-
secution. Despite the failure of North African litically and Franciscan attempts to revive it spir-
Christianity to contextualize the faith, Augus- itually ended in failure. A faith only lightly rooted
tines observation that the story of the African in the life of the people faded into memory.
church is the story of the clash of two kingdoms, Nubia proved more resistant. During the
the City of God and the earthly city, continued to eighth through tenth centuries, while Islam con-
illuminate African church history. tinued to expand in Africa, Nubian Christianity
Ethiopia. Solid evidence for the conversion of reached its height. But in 1272 Muslim Turks
Ethiopia appears in 350, when King Ezana be- sent by the legendary Saladin overthrew northern
Nubia. In 1504 the southernmost kingdom, Alwa,
gins to ascribe his victories to the Lord of All . . .
was conquered by a tribe from the south recently
Jesus Christ who has saved me rather than to
converted to Islam. The last word from Nubian
the traditional gods. Crucial to this change was
Christianity occurs in 1524 when they wrote to
the ministry of Bishop FRUMENTIUS, who had
the Coptic patriarch of Egypt for help to meet
been commissioned by Athanasius of Alexandria
their critical shortage of clergy. The lack of in-
as a missionary to Ethiopia. The precedent set by
digenous church leaders combined with the fail-
Athanasius became entrenched and the Ethio- ure to evangelize the peoples to the south con-
pian Orthodox Church continued to receive its spired to undermine Nubian Christianity.
abun (bishop) by appointment of the Egyptian Egyptian and Ethiopian survival. Christianity
Coptic patriarch. By Ezanas death in 400 Chris- survived the onslaught of Islam but not without
tianity was firmly rooted at court but had made losses. Caliph Umar had forbidden new churches
little impact on the countryside. That changed in or monasteries but under the Umayyids (661
the sixth century with the coming of a new mis- 750) this law was not enforced. Other forms of
sionary force from Syria. The tesseatou Kidous- pressure, however, were applied. In 744 the Mus-
san (nine saints) established monasteries in the lim governor of Egypt offered tax exemption for
rural areas and engaged in widespread evangel- Christians who converted to Islam. Twenty-four
ism. Linked with the Egyptian Coptic Christian- thousand responded. Throughout the African
ity and armed with the Scriptures in the vernac- Middle Ages the Coptic church suffered from a
ular the Christians of Ethiopia entered the lack of trained leadership, discriminatory laws,
Middle Ages, where they slept near a thousand and a stagnant ritualism in worship. Nonetheless,
years, forgetful of the world, by whom they were it survived. By 1600 Egypt was a country of dual
forgotten (Gibbon). religious cultures.
Nubia. Like Ethiopia, Nubia (modern Sudan) Ethiopian Christianity also followed the path
was never part of the Roman Empire. The Chris- of survival. After a crisis in the tenth century
tianity that infiltrated Nubia began a religious when the pagan Agau nearly toppled the king,
revolution in Nubia that transformed both people Ethiopian clergy began to work for reform and
and prince by the sixth century. Archaeological revival of the national faith. One movement of
evidence that came to light only in the 1960s has renewal brought a new dynasty to the imperial
revealed the vigor of Nubian Christianity. Two throne of Ethiopia. The most popular leader of
sixth-century missionaries from Byzantium, Ju- the Zagwe dynasty, Lalibela, strengthened
lian and Longinus, are credited with officially in- Ethiopias religious patriotism by building a New
troducing the Christian faith, in its Monophysite Jerusalem in the Ethiopian highlands and
form, to this kingdom along the Blue Nile. strengthening the belief that Ethiopians were the
38
Africa
new Israel through whom God would bring light up the cause. Early opposition to slavery came
to the nations. Under the missionary monk from Granville Sharp, Thomas Clarkson, and
TEKLA-HAYMANOT Ethiopian Christianity experi- William Wilberforce through the support of his
enced revival. New missionary efforts among the upper-class evangelical friends (the CLAPHAM
Shoa of the south met with success. Emperor SECT). The first breakthrough came in 1807 with
Zara-Yaqob (d. 1468) brought Ethiopia to new the passage of a bill prohibiting the slave trade
heights of glory but by 1529 the kingdom was in but allowing ownership. By 1833 legislation was
decline. Ahmad Gragn, a Muslim, successfully passed abolishing slavery everywhere in the
overthrew the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia but British Empire. British evangelicals had opposed
his reign was short-lived. Within a few years slavery both on humanitarian grounds as well as
Christian Ethiopia was restored, this time with missiological ones. They realized that their desire
the help of a new player on the African stage to engage in missions in Africa would be seri-
the Portuguese. ously thwarted by the existence of slavery. The
The Portuguese. Inspired by their visionary missionaries that English societies sent out to
leader, Prince Henry, the Portuguese embarked Africa were therefore equipped with the dual
on a campaign of aggressive expansion between message of Christianity and commerce. It was
1450 and 1700. This expansion led to the Euro- thought that Western-style commerce would
pean discovery of Africa and the establishment make slavery economically unnecessary, thus
of a trading empire that spread from Lisbon to permitting the message of Christianity to make
India. Christian communities were established in its way deep into the lives of the hearers.
West Africa and in port cities along the southern The growth of Christianity in Western Africa. In
and eastern coasts but Portuguese missions en- 1787, 411 freed blacks left London to found a
joyed its greatest success in the ancient kingdom community called Freetown in what is now
of Congo, where the king Afonso I promoted the Sierra Leone. It became a haven for freed slaves
new faith aggressively. Yet the missionary efforts and an outpost for the spread of the gospel. Like
of the Catholic missionaries were eventually un- the Puritans who settled New England, these
dermined by the commercial interest of Por- early settlers burned with religious zeal. Free-
tuguese merchants who quickly saw potential for town became a Christian commonwealth that in-
a profit in the slave trade. Hatred of the Por- spired similar Christian communities farther
tuguese trader soon was directed at the Por- down the coast in the Nigerian towns of
tuguese priest. By the time of Livingstones trav- Abeokuta and Badagry. Recaptives (slaves lib-
els in the mid-nineteenth century few vestiges of erated by the British Navy) added to the popula-
Portuguese Christianity could be found. tion of Freetown. Many converted to the Chris-
Dutch Expansion. In 1652, one hundred repre- tian faith and found an opportunity for training
sentatives of the Dutch East India Company at Freetowns Fourah Bay college, established in
landed on Africas southernmost tip and pro- 1827.
ceeded to establish a way station for the com- One of the most outstanding graduates of the
pany ships traveling from Amsterdam to Batavia college was a young recaptive named SAMUEL
in the Pacific. From this modest beginning came AJAYI CROWTHER. Crowther was ordained in 1843,
Cape Town and the beginnings of the nation of and in 1864 became Africas first Anglican
South Africa. The first church established was bishop. The CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY (CMS)
that of the Dutch Reformed Church but by 1900 recognized in Crowther the leader they needed to
Lutherans and Moravians had also begun their further the spread of Christianity in Africa.
work. The churches of the settlers soon came Under HENRY VENN, an aggressive program of
into conflict with a missionary Christianity Africanization was adopted that called for the
spawned by the wave of GREAT AWAKENINGS that immediate building of self-supporting, self-prop-
were sweeping North America, England, and Eu- agating, and self-governing local churches.
rope in the eighteenth century. An early repre- Crowther was asked to implement this strategy in
sentative of this new evangelical movement was the Nigerian interior. Through the failure of some
the Moravian GEORG SCHMIDT, who began work members of his team and through the hostility of
among the Khoisan of the Cape in 1738. He soon white missionaries opposed to Venns policies,
came into conflict with the established church Crowther was forced to resign. Leadership of the
and was stopped from further mission work in CMS work in West Africa fell into white hands.
1748. This led to a number of African-initiated
African Christianity in the Nineteenth and churches. In addition to Nigeria, work went on in
Early Twentieth Centuries. The Antislavery cru- Liberia, Ghana, Cameroon, Gabon, Senegal, and
sade. While Schmidt was struggling with the Zaire, which was the main arena for Catholic
stubbornness of his Dutch hosts, English evan- missions.
gelicals began to struggle with the issue of slav- Southern Africa. While West Africa was evan-
ery. JOHN WESLEY condemned slavery in a pam- gelized largely by Africans returning to their
phlet of 1774, and a number of his followers took motherland, South Africa from the very earliest
39
Africa
days of Christianity was dominated by the white the formation of an independent Anglican com-
expatriate. Despite the common denominator of munion in South Africa. Like Colenso, John
white domination, there was little unity in South Jabavu regarded politics as an appropriate arena
African Christianity, which saw three distinct and for Christian involvement. A tireless campaigner
mutually hostile expressions of Christianity for African rights, he founded his own independ-
emerge in the nineteenth century. ent newspaper. This third expression of Chris-
The first expression was that of Afrikaner tianity would become a major force in the years
Christianity and the Dutch Reformed Church. following South Africas Sharpville massacre of
After England gained control of South Africa in 1960.
1815, conflicts between Boer farmers and En- Despite the fragmented witness to the king-
glish administrators multiplied, which led to dom of God provided by South African Chris-
mass migrations of Afrikaner families to north- tianity, this region entered the twentieth century
eastern regions of South Africa. One small party as one of the most Christianized regions in all of
of voortrekkers encountered an army of Zulu Africa. Yet white domination of the churches
warriors. Their surprising victory at the battle of would eventually spawn a vigorous movement of
Blood River in 1838 coupled with the tradition Ethiopianismseparatist churches that de-
that the trekkers had made a special covenant manded respect from the Westerner and a
with God prior to the battle fueled the belief that greater share of church leadership.
Afrikaner Christians were an elect nation en- Eastern Africa. The nineteenth century wit-
dowed by God with both a right to rule the land nessed the reintroduction of Christianity into the
and a right to resist the nonelect. This religious former Nubia (Sudan) and in Mombasa (Kenya).
tradition became a political and cultural force Ethiopian Christianity was also revitalized during
that found expression in the formation of the the century. Additionally the lands of Tanzania
Afrikaner Nationalist Party. and Uganda saw the initial introduction of this
A second expression of South African church ancient African faith among their own people.
life in the nineteenth century was that of mis- Ethiopia and Sudan. In 1830 the CMS arrived in
sionary Christianity, which made major inroads Ethiopia. Originally working within the Coptic
into the Xhosa community and produced out- church, Protestant missionaries such as J. LUDWIG
standing believers such as the hymn writer KRAPF clashed with Coptic church authorities,
Ntsikana and the African Presbyterian leader, leading to expulsion in 1843. Under Emperor
Tiyo Soga. Such African leaders encouraged the Menelik II, Ethiopian Christianity experienced a
missionary-dominated churches to engage in new surge of life and entered the twentieth cen-
programs of training, including Lovedale College tury carefully guarding its dearly won political and
and Fort Hare University. DAVID LIVINGSTONES religious independence. In Sudan, Catholic work
fame exceeded that of all other nineteenth- under the leadership of the Verona Fathers was
century missionaries despite his failure as evan- swept away by the Islamic Mahdist movement.
gelist (he saw only one convert, who eventually Kenya. Krapf began work in Kenya in 1844
fell away). His achievements as an explorer, an after his expulsion from Ethiopia. Together with
antislavery crusader, and missions promoter es- his colleague Johann Rebmann, Krapf envisioned
tablished his place in history. a chain of mission stations across the continent,
Though missionary Christianity tended to em- linking up with Freetown in West Africa. His vi-
phasize an inward piety and a broadly evangeli- sion would guide numerous mission agencies for
cal theology that stood in contrast with the more the next century. Though he attempted to estab-
reformed Afrikaners by the late nineteenth cen- lish the eastern link of this chain at Rabai Mpyia,
tury, attempts were made to bridge the gap. Most it was the later formation of Freetown in 1874 as
successful was ANDREW MURRAY JR., moderator of a refuge for runaway slaves that gave Christian-
the DRC and champion of both evangelical piety ity its firmest foothold in British East Africa.
and missions. His emphasis on Absolute Sur- Outstanding Christian leaders came from the
render and the formation of new agencies such community at Freetown, including David Koi,
as the South Africa General Mission (now Kenyas first Protestant martyr. These missionary
African Evangelical Fellowship) acted as a cor- efforts on the coast were soon augmented by a
rective to the Afrikaner Christianity. new thrust inland. James Stewart, a Presbyterian
A third expression of South African Christian- missionary at Lovedale College, was recruited by
ity was that of the social gospel championed by Livingstone to establish an industrial mission in
people like the Anglican bishop John Colenso the Kenyan interior in 1891. The CMS began
and John Jabavu. The emphasis of this form of work among the Kikuyu of Kenyas central high-
Christianity was upon economic and political jus- lands in 1901. PETER CAMERON SCOTT and his
tice. Colenso opposed the Afrikaner and English newly founded AFRICA INLAND MISSION began
messianic nationalism, which he saw at the root churches among the Kamba people in 1895. The
of injustice in South Africa. His clash with Holy Ghost Fathers began work in Nairobi in
Bishop Robert Gray of Cape Town ended with 1899.
40
Africa
Tanzania. Catholic missionary efforts centered Independent religious movements. One reaction
around the formation of a Christian Village at to the missionary factor was the birth of the
Bagamoyo (1868), where three hundred freed AFRICAN INITIATED CHURCH MOVEMENT. The inde-
slaves found a place of refuge. Protestant work pendent churches that were founded tended to
was conducted by the Universities Mission to fall into distinct groupings. Some were primarily
Central Africa (UMCA), who were vigorous in concerned with African leadership and only sec-
their opposition to the Arab slave trade that was ondarily concerned with changing missionary
decimating the inland peoples of Africas Great theology or worship. A second grouping empha-
lake region, where the LMS and CMS had estab- sized healing and the supernatural. Armed with
lished a presence. Through the intervention of Scriptures in their own languages they struck out
Germany the Arab slave trade was broken and a on their own, like WILLIAM WADE HARRIS of
number of German mission agencies introduced Liberia, whose preaching in West Africa between
Lutheranism. 1913 and 1915 claimed over one hundred thou-
Uganda. More dramatic than in any other part sand adherents. Others like SIMON KIMBANGU of
of East Africa was the response to the gospel in Zaire catalyzed separation from missionary
Uganda. Christianity was introduced by the CMS churches into new denominations. In some cases
in 1877 and flourished under the zealous leader- these prophet churches moved clearly outside the
ship of Alexander Mackay. White Fathers intro- bounds of orthodoxy. Such was the case with Isa-
duced Catholicism in 1879. Despite the indiffer- iah Shembe and his Church of the Nazarites in
ence of King Mutesa I and the violent hostility of South Africa. After his death in 1935 his followers
his son Mwanga, Protestant and Catholic Chris- proclaimed that he had risen from the dead and
tianity eventually produced a religious revolution was in fact the true Christ for Africa. A third cate-
in Uganda that spilled beyond the borders of the gory covers movements of revival within estab-
kingdom of Buganda into the smaller kingdoms lished denominations. The passion in these types
that make up the modern-day nation of Uganda. of movements was the discovery of a vital Chris-
The missionary factor. The colonial era (1885 tianity to replace a numbing nominalism in the
1960) brought sweeping changes to African church. The outstanding example of this third
Christianity. The most notable change was the type of movement is the East Africa Revival that
proliferation of missionaries and agencies from swept much of East Africa from 1930 onwards.
the West and the corresponding growth of Afri- Christianity in Independent Africa. In 1960,
can Christianity. In 1900 there were an estimated fourteen African nations achieved selfhood and
4 million Christians spread throughout the con- inaugurated a new era within African Christian-
tinent compared to 60 million Muslims. By the ity. Henry Venns vision of an African Christianity
autumn of colonialism in 1950 the number of that was self-governing, self-propagating, and
African Christians had reached 34 million. self-supporting was at last realized. In denomi-
The missionaries of the colonial era were, on nation after denomination African leaders re-
the whole, a remarkable lot. Like ROWLAND BING- placed missionaries. The new leaders faced a
HAM of the Sudan Interior Mission (SIM; now SO- number of new challenges in the modern era.
CIETY FOR INTERNATIONAL MINISTRIES), they were a Five challenges in particular have dominated
tough-minded breed who often buried their col- African Christianity in the closing decades of the
leagues and kept going. Like GEORGE GRENFELL of twentieth century.
the Baptist Mission Society of Congo, they were Church and state. The overarching fact of mod-
tireless explorers and enemies of the slave trade. ern African life since the late 1960s was wide-
Like ALBERT SCHWEITZER of Gabon they were spread disillusionment with the nation-state. As
often humanitarians. Like MARY SLESSOR of the the promise of the new African ruling elite turned
Calabar mission many were single women who sour, criticism began to mount. The common re-
gave their entire lives to the work. Like P. A. Ben- sponse of the ruling elite to the growing chorus
nett, acting secretary of the CMS in Nigeria, they of criticism was tightened control, promotion of
were sometimes incorrigible racists. But like personality cults and messianic nationalism, and
Archdeacon Dennis, also of the CMS in Nigeria, growing conflict with the church. Kwame
they more often opposed racism with equal vigor. Nkrumahs tragic rise and fall in Ghana was all
Like Father Shanahan of Nigeria they aggres- too typical. Zaires Mobutu Sese Seko, Liberias
sively founded schools. Most important, like Carl Samuel Doe, Ugandas Idi Amin, and Ethiopias
Christian Reindorf of Ghana, they mastered the Mengistu Haile Mariam were typical of leaders
vernacular languages of the people and like who saw the church as a dangerous independent
GEORGE PILKINGTON of Uganda, they translated voice. Church responses have varied from silent
the Scriptures and trained indigenous evangel- partnership with the ruling elite (Roman Catholi-
ists. This last factor, vernacular translations and cism in Rwanda, DRC in South Africa) to critical
the training of national evangelists, accounts for protest of state injustice (Desmond Tutu in South
the remarkable church growth that took place Africa, NCCK in Kenya). Occasionally the state
during the colonial decades. has lashed out violently against the church as in
41
Africa
the cases of the martyred Archbishop Janani may be expanding at the periphery even while
Luwum of Uganda and the numerous impris- it is collapsing at the center (Roland Oliver).
oned pastors of Mengistus Ethiopia. Leadership development and the training of the
Unity and diversity. Over six thousand different laity seem to be the crucial needs of this conti-
independent churches were documented in Africa nent shaped like a question mark (Ali Mazrui).
by the late 1960s. Organizations like the All Africa MARK SHAW
Conference of Churches (AACC), the Organization
Bibliography. J. Baur, 2000 Years of Christianity in
of African Instituted Churches (OAIC), and the
Africa; J. de Gruchy, The Church Struggle in South
Association of Evangelicals in Africa (AEA) have Africa; R. Gray, Black Christians and White Missionar-
sought to bring some unity to the fractured body ies; C. P. Groves, The Planting of the Church in Africa;
of Christ in Africa. A series of Pan-African Chris- A. Hastings, The Church in Africa, 14501950;
tian Leadership Assemblies (PACLA) have sought E. Isichei, A History of Christianity in Africa; L. Sanneh,
additional harmony by bringing leaders of the West African Christianity; M. Shaw, The Kingdom of God
AACC and AEA together. Parachurch agencies in Africa.
have also played their part in bridging denomina-
tional dividing lines, some by working with the Africa Evangelical Fellowship. Founded in 1889
independent churches. by Martha Osborn-Howe, Spencer Walton, and
Theology and culture. In Roman Catholic as ANDREW MURRAY for the purposes of spiritual re-
well as Protestant circles great effort has gone newal and missionary outreach, Africa Evangeli-
into the formation of a Christian theology that cal Fellowship (AEF) was initially known as the
would adequately address the modern African Cape General Mission and later the South African
context. The varieties of theologies within the General Mission. The name was changed to its
African context range from theologies of identity current designation in 1965. By the turn of the
to traditional evangelical formulations to radical twentieth century work had expanded from South
liberation theology. African evangelical theology Africa to Swaziland and Zimbabwe; Malawi was
is still emerging, but important voices include entered in 1901 and Zambia in 1910. By 1930
Tokunboh Adeyemo, Kwame Bediako, Byang work was present in Angola and Mozambique as
Kato, Lamin Sanneh, and Tite Tinou. well. Work presently has extended to Botswana,
African missions and church growth. In the Namibia, Gabon, Tanzania, and the Indian Ocean
1970s Kenyan Presbyterian leader John Gatu islands of Reunion, Madagascar, and Mauritius.
called for a MORATORIUM on Western missionaries The American branch was started in 1906. AEF
in order to foster selfhood within the church. was loosely organized until 1941, when a consti-
The outcome of this debate has been a decrease tutional organization was adopted that provided
in mainline missionaries (5,000 in 1959 to for a general director and appropriate adminis-
3,000 in early 1970) At the same time there has trative personnel. The international office is in
been a resurgence of missions in three other Newbury, England, with additional branches
groups. In 1974 a Synod of Bishops at Rome re- (known as Sending Councils) in the United States,
jected the call for moratorium and pledged Canada, South Africa, and Australia.
100,000 new missionaries by the year 2000. An interdenominational FAITH MISSION, AEF
Evangelical missionaries from the faith missions services include the areas of education, health,
grew from 11,000 in the 1970s to over 16,000 in and church planting. Educational ministries in-
the late 1980s. In addition dozens of new African clude Bible schools, elementary schools, corre-
mission agencies emerged in the 1970s, 1980s, spondence courses, literacy training, and pub-
and 1990s. The most dramatic story of church lishing work. Health ministries include a school
growth in Africa, however, was the expansion of for the blind, clinics and hospitals, and lep-
Pentecostal and charismatic preachers, evangel- rosaria. Currently AEF has 291 long-term and 41
ists, and missionaries in the closing decades of short-term missionaries.
the twentieth century. The gospel of health, A. SCOTT MOREAU
wealth, and wholeness accounted for much of the
appeal of this form of Christianity. Bibliography. G. B. A. Gerdener, Recent Develop-
Discipleship, leadership, and nominalism. The ments in the South African Mission Field; J. Pollock,
greatest challenge facing African Christian lead- CDCWM, pp. 56263; E. A. Shank, EMCM, pp. 34.
ership was the challenge not of the unreached
but of the undiscipled. If one accepts the statis- Africa Inland Mission, International (AIM). In
tics that African Christianity has grown from an 1895 PETER CAMERON SCOTT, a young man who
estimated 4 million professing Christians in 1900 had given himself fully to the task of reaching
to some 300 million adherents today then one is Africa for Christ, founded the Africa Inland Mis-
forced to ask how these huge numbers of people sion. Scott, who died in Africa only a year after
can be discipled. Though the promise of African his arrival, had a vision of establishing a line of
Christianity is great, the church of Africa must mission stations from Mombasa, Kenya, up to
wrestle with the dilemma of a Christianity that Lake Chad in hopes of hampering the spread of
42
African Initiated Church Movement
Islam to the south. Following the deaths of Scott ary movement in Africa, the African Independent
and several of the other founding missionaries, Churches (AICs) today number 55 million church
AIMs future was in serious question. But the members in some 10,000 distinct denominations
words of ARTHUR T. PIERSON, a council member, present in virtually all of Africas 60 countries.
kept AIM pressing onward: Gentleman, he said, This title is the most frequent descriptive term in
the hallmark of God on any work is death. God the current literature of some 4,000 books and ar-
has given us that hallmark. Now is the time to go ticles describing it. However, because Western de-
forward. And so they did. nominations and Western-mission related
Today, over one hundred years later, Scotts vi- churches in Africa regard themselves also as in-
sion has come to fruition. AIM now has five send- dependent, African AIC members have since
ing councils worldwide and over eight hundred 1970 promulgated the terms African Instituted
missionaries serving in fourteen African nations Churches, or African Indigenous Churches, or
and in various urban centers throughout the locally founded churches. Some Western scholars
United States. AIMs primary goal is to plant still use the older terms African Separatist
churches through the evangelization of UN- Churches or NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS.
REACHED PEOPLES and effective training of church These movements first began with a secession
leaders. The methodology involves identifying and from Methodist missions in Sierre Leone in 1817.
filling perceived needs in order to establish rela- Spreading rapidly across Africa by means of vir-
tionships based on trust and caring; after such re- tually unrelated but similar schisms and seces-
lationships are established, Christ can be appro- sions, by 1900 there were a hundred thousand
priately shared. The growth of the planted members of these churches, by 1935 two million,
churches requires trained indigenous leaders, and by 1968 six million, and by 1997 55 million.
Bible schools have been established to that end. Countries most heavily involved are, in order of
AIM offers a variety of support services such as number of members, South Africa, Congo-
AIM AIR, AIM TECH, and AIM SERV. They pro- Kinshasa, and Nigeria. The largest distinct de-
vide air transportation as well as logistical and nominations are: Zion Christian Church (12 mil-
technical assistance to both the mission body and lion in 10 countries), Church of Jesus Christ on
nationals in the local church. In 1906, AIM es- Earth through the Prophet SIMON KIMBANGU (8
tablished the Rift Valley Academy (RVA), which million), Cherubim and Seraphim (3 million),
provides a quality education for close to five hun- Deeper Life Bible Church (2 million in 40 coun-
dred students whose parents serve in ninety dif- tries worldwide). Earlier movements closely
ferent mission organizations and twenty-two copied their parent bodies in name, polity, titles,
African countries. dogmas, liturgies, and ecclesiastical dress, and
were frequently seen as merely Pentecostal imi-
Further, AIM established the Training in Min-
tations. But from 1980 onward, newer bodies be-
istry Outreach (TIMO) program to provide train-
came much more dynamic, postdenominational-
ing for new missionaries. The program couples a
ist, charismatic, and apostolic, with a majority of
team of new missionaries with a more experi-
their leaders being highly educated professionals
enced missionary for a period of two years. Dur-
avoiding ecclesiastical dress and similar trap-
ing those two years the team studies a curricu-
pings, often leading megachurches with thou-
lum and simultaneously puts it into practice on
sands of enthusiastic young people as deeply
the field. Some of these teams have planted vi- committed members.
able ongoing churches during their two-year After decades of fruitlessly trying to join ecu-
ministries. menical councils of churches, evangelical coun-
AIM also challenges its constituents to involve cils or alliances, or Western confessional bodies,
themselves at a deeper level by adoption of an almost all of which rejected such applications,
unreached people group. The ADOPT-A-PEOPLE the AICs began their own conciliar movement
program encourages churches, small groups, and and today have over 100 AIC councils of
families to commit themselves to pray for, finan- churches across the continent and in several
cially support, or even go as missionaries to one cases even worldwide. In 1978 the major conti-
of sixty-one people groups that it identifies. nent-wide body was formed, OAIC (Organization
ANDY HORNBERGER of African Independent Churches, later renamed
Bibliography. D. Anderson, We Felt like Grasshop- Organization of African Instituted Churches), in
pers: The Story of Africa Inland Mission; S. Langford, Its collaboration with the Coptic Orthodox Church
a Battle; K. Richardson, Garden of Miracles: A History of of Egypt as the original African independent
the African Inland Mission; M. Sywulka, Workers To- church. By 1998, however, the sheer weight of
gether with Him: A Short History: Africa Inland Mission, numbers, Christian commitment, and credibility
Tanganyika Terr., Africa. had become such that OAIC was invited to be-
come, and became, an associate council of the
African Initiated Church Movement. Originally World Council of Churches, as well as a member
an unanticipated product of the modern mission- council of the All Africa Conference of Churches.
43
African Initiated Church Movement
Bibliocentric and christocentric throughout SIONS with no guaranteed salary or retirement

their history, these churches are now producing fund, no special schools for their children, and no
radically new Christian theology and practice. A work account funds. A few, like Sheepfold,
notable example is earthkeeping, a blend of the- Kenyas largest interdenominational board, pool
ological environmentalism or caring for Gods their income so that all missionaries get an equal
creation, especially in relation to land, trees, share of whatever comes into the mission that
plants, natural resources, and in fact the whole of month. Others receive directly whatever comes in
Gods creation. from their supporters. One trend can be seen
DAVID B. BARRETT everywhere: sinking local currencies have greatly
hurt development of the international element of
African Mission Boards and Societies. A study the African missionary movement.
of the general landscape of African mission Generally speaking, accountability and super-
boards and societies reveals that the majority of vision structures in African mission societies are
the work to date has taken place in the Anglo- loose. Financial support is typically low, erratic,
phone countries, particularly West Africa (Nige- and often based on only one or two special offer-
ria and Ghana). In Eastern and Central Africa, ings a year. Fragmentation of efforts is the norm.
largely Christian churches seem to assume either Each denomination or group sets its goals with-
that most people have already heard the gospel out any overall plan or sometimes even aware-
or that Western missionaries are the only ones to ness of where the unreached are, according to
tackle the job. For the Francophone church, the AEA. Sometimes the dominant motivation
seems to be the desire to plant a denominational
African missionaries crossing international
church in an urban center rather than to take the
boundaries in large numbers remains a dream to
gospel to those who have not yet had an opportu-
be fulfilled in the future.
nity to hear.
Perhaps most notable for zeal for internal
Language learning is often done informally at
cross-cultural evangelism is Zaire, a country
the destination, and with much less trauma and
which could legitimately claim to be too poor
fuss than for Western missionaries undergoing
to afford international missions. However, Chris-
LANGUAGE SCHOOL. Children of missionaries are
tians not hindered with a vision of missions re- educated in the local schools until high school
quiring a four-wheel-drive vehicle and a salary age, sometimes to their detriment educationally.
seem to be accomplishing the most for the king- Some mission boards and missionary training
dom, much of it undocumented. colleges belong to a particular denomination,
As an outstanding example of an indigenous such as the AIC Mission Board in East Africa or
missionary movement, Nigerias Evangelical Nigerias ECWA-EMS. Some denominations once
Churches of West Africa (ECWA) church and its had a missionary sending agency which has sub-
Evangelical Missionary Society (EMS, headed by sequently died out, such as the Church of the
PANYA BABA), is premier. A mighty mission force Province of Kenya (Anglican) Diocesan Mission
with 541 couples and 15 single missionaries, Association. Others are interdenominational and
EMS has been instrumental in the growth of the indigenous, such as Agape Missions, Calvary
church. One of the more successful campaigns of Ministry (CAPRO, with over 300 full-time mis-
Muslim outreach is Ugandas version of Heres sionaries), and Christian Missionary Fellowship
Life, adapted from Campus Crusade for Christ in (CMF). Together, these form the three largest in-
America. In Mozambique, the Deeper Life Chris- terdenominational mission agencies in Nigeria,
tian Ministry, led by Nigerians, has been espe- but there are also seventy other smaller mission
cially successful. It works in thirty countries boards there (see NIGERIAN MISSION Boards AND
across Africa. SOCIETIES). Some African mission boards have
Chad deserves imitation for its successful im- virtually become church denominations, such as
plementation of saturation mission. Association of the CMF.
Evangelicals of Africa (AEA) Secretary for Mis- But probably the most remarkable contribution
sions and Evangelism Bayo Famonure reports of Africans to the missionary movement has been
that 24,000 Chadian Christians were mobilized to the migration of Christian traders, businessmen,
reach 2,193 villages in a six-day period, aiming to and professionals, such as university professors
plant a church in every village. Costs were virtually and doctors, to other countries or neighboring
limited to food and transport for the volunteers. tribes where Christianity is not yet firmly estab-
Most African mission boards are run separately lished. These men and women leave home be-
from Western agencies. There seems to be space cause of economic privations, but by the working
to operate without the need to cooperate, though of the Holy Spirit have become church planters in
a few boards are experimenting with partnering their host countries. The fellowships they end up
such as Timo Teams, jointly sponsored by Africa planting are not always denominational or ethnic
Inland Church (AIC) and AFRICA INLAND MISSION and become broad-based churches. Their secular
(AIM). Some boards are modeled after FAITH MIS- jobs support them, and they have no professional
44
African Theology
missionary training apart from the modeling of and drew sharp criticism from Nigerian BYANG H.
healthy churches they have seen while growing KATO.
up in their home country. At this time, economic Kato pointed out, correctly, that Agbetis defi-
translocation rather than the formation of formal nition of African theology fits AFRICAN TRADI-
mission boards appears to be the most wide- TIONAL RELIGIONS better than it does Christianity.
spread and effective means of spreading the Kato contends that Agbetis basic concern . . . is
gospel currently practiced by the African church. an attempt to synthesize Christianity with
SUE DEVRIES African traditional religions (Theological Pitfalls,
p. 55). It should be noted, however, that the views
S EE ALSO Non-Western Mission Boards and of Agbeti and Kato are not as diametrically op-
Societies. posed as it may seem. Both agree that Christian
theology should be made indigenous to Africa.
African New Religious Movements. See AFRICAN When, for instance, Agbeti states that Christian-
INITIATED CHURCH MOVEMENT. ity and its theology will remain essentially the
same universally, even though the expression of
African Theology. The year 1956 symbolizes the the faith may differ from place to place (Agbeti,
official beginning of African theology, as it is usu- p. 7), he expresses one of Katos basic convic-
ally understood. Two important publications, one tions. One may also compare Agbetis call to
Catholic and one Protestant, make that year an African Christian theologians to indigenize Chris-
important milestone for African theology. The tian theology with the following statement from
Catholic publication, entitled Des prtres noirs Kato: The noble desire to indigenize Christian-
sinterrogent et suggrent, was the collective work ity in Africa must not be forsaken. An indigenous
of black priests from Africa and Haiti. They sug- theology is a necessity (Theological Pitfalls,
gested a real africanization of the church. For the p. 16). It is therefore somewhat unfortunate that
Protestants, Paul D. Fueters article Theological Katos depiction of African theology is the basis
Education in Africa, published in the Interna- on which many evangelicals evaluate the whole
tional Review of Missions (45 [1956]: 37795), sig- movement. Evangelicals may prefer a different
naled the recognition of the need to develop an terminology, such as African Christian Theol-
African expression of theology. ogy, for example, and they should not conclude
Recognizing 1956 as a pivotal year for African that everyone using the term African theology
theology does not mean, however, that all discus- advocates SYNCRETISM.
sions related to the africanization of Christianity There may be disagreement about what name
begin with that date. It is likely that the first to give to the process of indigenizing Christian
African converts to the Christian faith embarked theology in Africa; nevertheless, the various fam-
on intuitive and unconscious African theologiz- ilies of the Christian faith recognize the legiti-
ing (see Walls). Toward the end of the nineteenth macy of seeking ways to develop Christian the-
century, however, people such as Mojola Agbebi ologies related to African realities. This represents
(18601917) were deliberately calling for the in- a major step forward in light of the dissenting
tegration of Christianity and African culture. On voices, warning of the dangers of such a search,
April 7, 1889, Agbebi declared: To render Chris- often heard in the 1950s and 1960s. In the broad-
tianity indigenous to Africa, it must be watered est sense, African Christian theology [is] done in
by native hands, pruned with the native hatchet, Africa, . . . to a certain degree arises out of the
and tended with the native earth (Ayandele, identity of African people, draws on African cat-
p. 18). Since rendering Christianity indigenous egories of thought and speaks to the historical
to Africa is an important aspect of African the- situation of African people (Dickson, Kalilombe,
ology, regardless of how one defines it, Mojola and Presler, p. 94). Taking into account the four
Agbebi may be considered one of its precursors. characteristics of locality, identity, cognition, and
Missiologists and theologians have devoted history in producing theology can minimize for-
much time and energy to defining African theol- eignness. These characteristics also provide the-
ogy, especially in the early discussions of the sub- ologians with a basis from which to generate the
ject. Noting the lack of consensus among schol- relevant issues.
ars regarding the meaning of African theology, An examination of the literature on African
Ghanaian J. K. Agbeti suggested that Christian theology indicates that the authors tend to deal
Theology . . . expressed by African theologians with the following major issues: culture, color,
using African thought forms should be distin- poverty, and nation building/reconstruction. The
guished from African Theology; the latter being trends and contents of African theology relate to
the interpretation of the pre-Christian and pre- the issue chosen by the theologian and how that
Moslem African peoples experience of their God issue is treated. The focus on culture leads to
(1972, p. 6). Scholars have not adopted Agbetis African contextual or inculturation theologies
distinction as a general practice. In fact Agbetis while making color the primary concern leads to
attempt at clarification has generated confusion black theology. Similarly, liberation theology
45
African Theology
wrestles with the issue of poverty and the theol- challenge is to serve the church in Africa without
ogy of reconstruction seeks Christian solutions to being a footnote of Western theology or an exotic
the present political, economic, and social crises mixture of Christianity and African culture.
of the continent. African theology is not a program or a process
Contextual or inculturation theologies repre- for crafting new Christian doctrines. It is rather
sent the oldest kind of African theology. Much of an attempt to state biblical teaching and Chris-
the theological output in Africa can be classified tian doctrine in language and thought forms un-
in this category. Here African cultures and reli- derstandable to contemporary Africans. In that
gions are taken seriously in the formulation of sense, African theology is not very different from
Christian theology. Mbitis proposal that escha- efforts at contemporizing the Christian message
tology be built on an African concept of time, in the world and through the generations. In
Sawyers and Sundklers focus on the African con- their quest for securing the Christian faith firmly
cept of the Great Family as the basis for ecclesi- within African realities, African theologians have
ology in Africa, or Christology portraying Christ been forced to reexamine the nature of Christian
as Ancestor or Master of initiation (Nyamiti, theology and its purpose. In this process of reex-
Bujo, and Sanon) are all examples of this kind of amination, they have recaptured the character
theology. Evangelicals have generally expressed of theology as Christian intellectual activity on
reservations and criticisms over some of the un- the frontier with the non-Christian world, and
biblical excesses contained in these theologies. hence as essentially communicative, evangelistic
They are not, however, against the judicious and missionary (Bediako, p. 259). In an era of
usage of elements of African cultures, religions, transition for both missiology and theology, this
and thought forms. Kato, who is often cited for contribution of African theologians has signifi-
his extreme evangelical negative views of African cance for Africa and global Christianity.
cultures, states clearly: Every effort should be TITE TINOU
made to make the gospel indigenous in the local
culture where it has been introduced. . . . I am Bibliography. J. K. Agbeti, Presence 5:3 (1972); E. A.
fully in favour of the ever-abiding gospel being Ayandele, A Visionary of the African Church; K. Bediako,
Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a Non-Western Re-
expressed within the context of Africa, for
ligion; B. Bujo, African Theology in Its Social Context;
Africans to understand (African Cultural Revolu- K. A. Dickson, P. A. Kalilombe, and T. Presler, Mission
tion, p. 54). Studies 2:1 (1985): 9396; R. Gibellini, ed., Paths of
Scholars have not devoted the same time and African Theology; B. H. Kato, African Cultural Revolu-
energy to black theology, liberation theology, and tion and the Christian Faith; idem, Theological Pitfalls in
the theology of reconstruction as they have given Africa; S. Ngewa, M. Shaw, and T. Tinou, eds., Issues
to contextual theologies. Black theology is pri- in African Christian Theology; J. Parratt, ed., A Reader in
marily a movement in South Africa during the African Christian Theology, 2nd ed.; E. E. Uzukwu, A
apartheid years and its concerns make it similar Listening Church: Autonomy and Communion in
to black theology in the United States. Jean-Marc African Churches; A. F. Walls, IBMR 21:4 (October
1997), pp. 14653.
Ela, from Cameroon, has vigorously and consis-
tently articulated an African liberation theology
but liberation theology has not acquired the African Traditional Religions. General designa-
same status in Africa as it has in Latin America. tion for the religions of the ethnic groups of
The theology of reconstruction is rather recent Africa. It does not describe a specific religion. It
since it originated in the decade of the 1990s. does not refer to the religious system of any par-
Many of the proponents of the theology of recon- ticular group. By using expressions such as
struction have connections with the All Africa African Traditional Religions, African Primal
Conference of Churches. The initial impetus was Religions, or African Religion, scholars seek to
provided in essays presented at the March 1990 distinguish the indigenous religions of Africa
General Committee of the All Africa Conference from foreign and imported ones such as Chris-
of Churches. Kenyan J. N. K. Mugambis book tianity, Islam, Hinduism or Buddhism.
From Liberation to Reconstruction: African Chris- Scholars of religion in Africa do not agree
tian Theology After the Cold War was published in among themselves on the use of the plural for the
1995. Advocates of the theology of reconstruction term chosen to group together and describe the
also include Congolese K Mana and Rwandan indigenous religious beliefs of African peoples.
Andr Karamaga. It is difficult to ascertain the They also disagree on the necessity of keeping
specific contents of this theology. It appears to be adjectives like traditional and primal. There
more a program for Christian involvement in the is, however, near unanimity about the fact that
renaissance of African nations. The theology of certain terms used in the past are no longer ade-
reconstruction will likely be the subject of much quate or appropriate. For example, African reli-
debate in the future. gions have been called primitive, savage, native,
Theological currents come and go in Africa as tribal, pagan, animistic, or heathen. This way of
in the rest of the world. For African theology the describing African religions is now found mostly
46
African Traditional Religions
in older studies. Occasionally, in polemical liter- faces an important challenge: African religions
ature, one may still see references to idolatry and do not have known founders or sacred books pre-
fetishism as the main characteristics of African serving their teachings and doctrines. Oral nar-
religions. African Traditional Religions and ratives and rituals are therefore the main materi-
African Religion are, nevertheless, the terms als from which scholars derive the beliefs of
most commonly used in current studies. African peoples.
The preference for African Traditional Reli- The examination of African religious cere-
gions, African Religion, or an equivalent term monies and narratives reveals that they focus on
represents an important shift in understanding the importance of affirming life. A basic assump-
African religious beliefs and systems. This shift in tion seems to be that life is essentially good and
understanding and depicting the religions of that, ideally, people should have health and pros-
Africa is a recognition of the fact that these reli- perity and enjoy fulfillment, honor, and progeny
gions must be studied in their own right. They in the world. Yet, in their experience in the world,
are not varieties of primitive religion. They must people seldom attain this ideal good life. Evil
be viewed as major living religions. In that sense, forces tend to frustrate peoples destiny or pre-
African religions belong in the category world vent the enjoyment of full life. Since evil forces,
religions. One should not think, therefore, that visible and invisible, destroy life, people need to
traditional in African Traditional Religions in- find ways to protect themselves and maximize
dicates that these are dead or dying religions. life. This seems to be one of the foundational
They are the beliefs and practices of contempo- principles undergirding African religious prac-
rary Africans. Their present vitality is best sug- tices. It provides the basis for understanding the
gested by the use of African Religions or Religion purpose of religion as the prevention of misfor-
since the adjective traditional may imply that tune and the maximization of good fortune.
these religions are either past or practiced by The focus on preventing misfortune and maxi-
non-modern Africans. mizing good fortune makes African religions an-
Should one approach the study of religion in thropocentric; that is, a major goal of African re-
Africa with the assumption of unity or multiplic- ligions is to ensure the present well-being of
ity? Are we faced with many ethnic religions or humans and their communities. Harmony be-
are these religions different manifestations of a tween spiritual and physical forces, the environ-
coherent African religion? If a single coherent ment, and humans is the prerequisite for the
African religion does not exist, how useful is the well-being of the individual and the community.
linking together of all indigenous African reli- God, the all-powerful Creator of all things, is be-
gions? These questions have fueled much debate lieved to be benevolent. In that sense, harmony,
among students of religion in Africa. There success, and abundant life come from him. But
seems to be a growing consensus that unity is a God is rather uninvolved in the daily lives of hu-
better way of conceptualizing the religious beliefs mans. He has given the responsibility of regulat-
and practices of Africans. One must, however, ing human lives to spiritual entities that can be
use caution in generalizing about religion in called minor deities. In this regard, Joseph
Africa. One should neither proceed too quickly to Osei-Bonsu notes that [t]he idea of minor deities
make comparisons nor refrain from noting simi- is found among our people. These are believed to
larities. General and comparative studies of reli- be the sons of the Supreme Being, created by
gion in Africa are indicated when one deals with him, and to whom he has delegated the supervi-
questions of religious presuppositions, world- sion of the affairs of this world (1990, 354).
view, and structure. This kind of study is useful Mediation between God and humans is the
in its description of broad and general character- chief religious role of the minor deities. They
istics which may be common to the majority of share this role with the ancestors, the elders, and
African religions. For concrete everyday religious the various religious functionaries of African so-
life and practice, however, there is need to be as cieties. Harmony in the world and all the condi-
specific as possible: for example, one may inves- tions for health, prosperity, and abundant life are
tigate the doctrines and practices of Yoruba or achieved by the mediation of these multiple in-
Akamba religion. Numerous monograph studies termediaries. This conception of mediation is
of African religions by anthropologists and oth- crucial for understanding the essence of African
ers are representative of this approach. These religions. Mediation is also one of the fundamen-
and other specific studies provide the necessary tal points of divergence between African religions
complement to general comparative descriptions and Christianity since the idea of intermediary
of African religion. They elucidate the ethnic divinities has no place in Christianity (ibid.).
grounding of these religions, thereby depicting The relationship between God and the media-
the particular African traits. tors, taken together with the focus on the lesser
Whether one studies the religion of a particu- divinities, helps explain why it is nearly impos-
lar ethnic group or attempts to understand the sible to solve the nature of theism in African reli-
general characteristics of African religions, one gions. One cannot categorically state that African
47
African Traditional Religions
religions are either monotheistic or polytheistic. mission to study education in Africa. In 1924 he
Belief in God, the One and Supreme High Being, accepted an appointment as the first staff mem-
is widespread. Yet, the Supreme Being may not ber and one of the vice-principals of Achimota
be approached without the help of intermedi- College in Ghana, an institution designed to rem-
aries. This means that theism in African religions edy the faults in African education pointed out by
can be described as ontological monotheism with the Commissions report. In 1927 he returned to
liturgical polytheism. It is liturgical polytheism the United States to continue his Ph.D. work but
that makes African religions pragmatic, anthro- died of meningitis before it was completed. An
pocentric, and resilient. early African voice for recognition of African ca-
The utilitarian characteristic of African reli- pabilities, Aggrey excelled as a scholar, professor,
gions and their anthropocentric spirituality make pastor, and international spokesman for relevant
them appealing to many modern Africans, espe- African education.
cially those who want to live in continuity with DONALD K. SMITH
Africas indigenous cultures and religions while
Bibliography. E. C. Smith, Aggrey of Africa.
embracing modernity. African religions have
shown a remarkable ability for adapting to
change. They have not disappeared in the en- Agnew, Eliza (180783). American missionary to
counter of African peoples with modernity, secu- Sri Lanka. Born in New York City, Agnew dedi-
larization, and missionary religions such as cated her life to missionary service while she was
Christianity or Islam. The capacity for adaptation still a girl, but she did not actually sail from
has assured survival for African religions over the Boston to Sri Lanka until 1839, after the death of
years. More recently, survival has given way to her parents. She is believed to be the first single
resurgence. The resurgence of African religions woman missionary to Sri Lanka.
means that they will continue to be an important Agnew served for forty years as principal of the
dimension of the context of Christian mission in AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN
Africa for the foreseeable future. Christian mis- MISSIONS Uduville girls boarding school.
sionaries, evangelists, and theologians who are Founded in 1824, the school had ninety-five stu-
interested in Africa cannot, therefore, afford to dents when Agnew arrived to help overworked
ignore or neglect the study of African religions. missionary wives. During her tenure, Agnew in-
TITE TINOU structed and influenced about 1,300 young
women, more than 600 of whom made profes-
Bibliography. R. J. Gehman, African Traditional Re- sions of Christian faith. Her three and four gen-
ligion in Biblical Perspective; L. Magesa, African Reli- erations of pupils often returned to their homes
gion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant Life; J. S. Mbiti,
as Christian wives and teachers.
Concepts of God in Africa; J. Osei-Bonsu, AFER: African
Ecclesial Review 32:6 (December 1990): 34658. Agnew never left Sri Lanka. During vacations,
she visited many of her former students, encour-
aging them in their faith. Weathering setbacks to
Aggrey, J. E. Kwegyir (18751927). Ghanaian
the school prompted by the Three Self move-
educator in the United States. At the age of 13
ment toward the indigenization of missions,
Aggrey joined other youth and a missionary on
Agnew retired in 1879, a stalwart supporter of fe-
preaching trips. A year later, he made his own de-
male education. She died, having established a
cision for Christ. He began teaching first in a vil-
reputation as the Mother of a Thousand Daugh-
lage and then at Wesleyan Centenary Memorial
ters for her work in Uduville, Jaffna province.
School, where he also taught Sunday school and
STANLEY M. GUTHRIE
preached. He developed as a scholar and a
teacher, retranslating portions of the Fanti Bible Bibliography. A. R. Gracey, Eminent Missionary
and helping to prepare a book of Fanti hymns. Women; P. E. Kretzmann, Glimpses of the Lives of Great
In 1898 Aggrey was asked to become headmas- Missionary Women.
ter, but chose instead to leave for further educa-
tion in the United States. He attended Living- Agnosticism. Refusal to attempt answers to cer-
stone College in Salisbury, North Carolina, tain religious questions and specifically to the
earning the B.A. and M.A. He also received a D.D. question of the existence of God. Such a perspec-
from Hood Theological Seminary. Years later he tive is usually justified by appeal to the lack of
took another M.A. degree and completed Ph.D. sufficient evidence on which to base a meaning-
course work at Columbia University. ful answer.
From 1902 to 1920 Aggrey was a faculty mem- The term itself, which calls to mind the refer-
ber at Livingstone; he also took on responsibili- ence to the unknown [agnosto] god in Acts
ties as a pastor from 1914 to 1920. His ability to 17:23, appears to have been coined by Thomas
articulate clearly African issues to white audi- Huxley in 1869. The concept was affirmed by
ences led to appointment as the only nonwhite twentieth-century logical positivism, a short-lived
member of the prestigious Phelps-Stokes Com- philosophical movement building on the empiri-
48
Agricultural Missions
cism of David Hume. Since it appeared to be im- God has provided two means of conveying how
possible to specify a circumstance in which the this should be donecreation and the Bible
religious proposition God is love could be falsi- which are perceived through the senses and con-
fied (an explanation could always be found for science, and which require the motivation of the
any apparent contraindication), the proposition Holy Spirit to enable us to farm accordingly. The
itself was, in positivist terms, meaningless. creation mandate given to humankind is ex-
Friedrich Engels, in a celebrated comment, dis- pressed in Genesis 1:2631, notably the assign-
missed the agnostics as shamefaced atheists. ment of dominion (meaning in Hebrew, com-
There is, of course, a place for a thoughtful ag- plete authority) and the subsequent description
nosticism on some religious issues, most obvi- of plants pleasant to the eyes and good for food
ously where competent theologians are them- (Gen. 2:8). Wisdom and discernment are needed
selves divided. The nature of heaven and the to pursue a course of development that is not
duration of HELL are clear examples. More radi- only economic, but also social, and which ad-
cal religious agnosticism leads inevitably to the dresses the whole person, body, mind, and spirit.
elimination of explicit doctrinal beliefs. The right pursuit of agriculture, specific to
Agnosticism as related to belief in the existence each locality, has a crucial part to play in manag-
of God, however, is a more complex matter. Mus- ing change and increasing well-being of the local
lim radical agnosticism at this point, for exam- people. The local principle is extremely impor-
ple, leads to a negative hypostatization: when ap- tant: experience is the treasure of years, and gen-
plied to God, language is emptied of meaning. erations of local farmers have accumulated much
Furthermore, that the consequences of belief or wealth of this kind. It is the task of the agricul-
unbelief are discernible both in undoubted time tural missionary to learn, respect, and operate
and in prospective eternity brings into question within this fund of local experience, knowledge,
the very possibility of agnosticism. Our conduct and wisdom, introducing new ideas from else-
unequivocally demonstrates belief or unbelief. As where only if technically, economically, and so-
Blaise Pascal insisted, we began our journey in cioculturally appropriate. It may also be the mis-
life years ago (vous tes dj embarqu) and have sionarys task to help people discern local beliefs
already been compelled to make moral and ethi- and practices that may run counter to the will
cal decisions, and in making those decisions we and purposes of God. While some non-Christian
have inescapably demonstrated either our belief beliefs may leave people in undeveloped bon-
or our unbelief. dage, uncontrolled materialism leads to overex-
F. PETER COTTERELL ploitation of land, plants, animals, and people.
Agricultural missionaries need not only technical
Bibliography. R. A. Armstrong, Agnosticism and The- agricultural competence and wholistic biblical
ism in the Nineteenth Century; R. Flint, Agnosticism. understanding, but also humility to learn from
local farmers and cultural sensitivity to facilitate
Agricultural Missions. Agriculture is the main beneficial changes.
means of livelihood for 65 percent to 90 percent Activities. Agricultural missions comprise a
of the population in most African, Asian, and wide variety of activities. In Latin America mis-
Latin American countries. Even for industrial- sions have developed demonstration farms man-
ized countries such as the United Kingdom, aged at orphanages, and engage in land right
where farmers represent less than 2 percent of work for justice and reconciliation. In many
the workforce, agricultural mission is vitally countries of Africa, farmers savings clubs and co-
needed. operatives assist farmers financially and help
The practice of agriculture involves caring train leadership. Services are also operated to en-
management or stewardship of land and natural able farmers to combine responsible Christian
resources in order to satisfy several objectives, in- principles in their farming practice. Additionally,
cluding food production, maintenance of the en- rural development counseling is provided by
vironment (e.g., the soil and habitat), conserva- RURCON (Rural Development Counselors for
tion of genetic resources (of both domesticated Christian Churches in Africa). In Europe, the
and wild species), provision of creative employ- Farm Crisis Network was set up to help stressed
ment for people, sustenance of strategic stocks of European farmers, and the Christian Farmers As-
food against poor harvests, and the integration sociation was established for united action. In
with other uses of land for human welfare. North America, agricultural communities run by
Aims of Agricultural Mission. Agricultural Christians have been established, some of which
missionary work aims to present the good news are designed to provide a place where the needy
of Jesus Christ in rural areas so that this gospel such as ex-convicts can rehabilitate and develop
transforms not only individuals and their social marketable work skills. In countries in Asia, tree-
relationships, but also the way they farm. In planting services and alternative farming schemes
short, agricultural missions seek to promote liv- have been established. Around the world, teach-
ing and farming to the glory of God. In effect, ing agriculture in schools, colleges, and universi-
49
Agricultural Missions
ties provides the opportunity to develop appropri- dicted for a number of African and Asian coun-
ate agricultural techniques. tries. In Zimbabwe it could reduce life ex-
Summary. In addition to the development of pectancy from 70 to 40 years in the next 15 years.
appropriate agricultural techniques and land Sub-saharan Africa, with less than 10 percent of
stewardship, agricultural missions involve at the worlds population, has 70 percent of the
least three critical thrusts. The first is contextual worlds population infected with HIV.
evangelism, communicating the gospel to and Asia, the worlds most populous region, is
through people who live and work in an agricul- poised as the next epicenter of the epidemic. Ini-
tural context. The second is church growth, seek- tially spread in the region primarily by drug in-
ing to help improve and manage agricultural de- jection and men having sex with men, heterosex-
velopment as part of the life and witness of local ual transmission is now the primary cause of
churches. Finally is pastoral care, which includes infection. It is expected that child mortality in
ministry to those engaged in agriculture, and/or Thailand, where the sex-tourism industry has fu-
agricultural ethics and assisting the application eled the epidemic, will triple in the next 15 years
of biblical principles to farm practice and agri- without a sharp decline in the rate of HIV infec-
cultural policy formulation. tion. Latin America and the Caribbean, with 8.4
JOHN WIBBERLEY percent of the worlds population, have 11.5 per-
cent of the HIV infection. Primarily a homosex-
Bibliography. S. Higginbottom, The Gospel and the
ual and bisexual epidemic initially, heterosexual
Plow, Or, the Old Gospel and Modern Farming in Ancient
India; B. H. Hunnicutt and W. W. Reid, The Story of contact is becoming the primary mode of trans-
Agricultural Missions; I. W. Moomaw, Deep Furrows: mission, with needle sharing also being common.
Goals, Methods and Results of Those Who Work Toward Of the 8,500 new cases of HIV infection which
a Brighter Tomorrow. occur daily, 90 percent are in the developing
world. Much of Eastern Europe and most coun-
Aidan of Lindisfarne (d. 651). Irish missionary tries in the former Soviet Union, relatively free of
to northern Britain. Oswald, king of Northum- AIDS prior to the political shifts of the late 1980s,
bria, came to Christ in 634 after a vision in which are in the earlier stages of the epidemic, as are
COLUMBA OF IONA assured him of victory in battle. Bangladesh, the Philippines, parts of China, and
Victorious, he requested someone from the India.
monastery at Iona to revive the faith initially es- Key Issues. The economic and social impact of
tablished in Northumbria by PAULINUS but since AIDS in the developing world is profound be-
lapsed. The first monk sent, traditionally named cause it characteristically affects adults during
Corman, returned unsuccessful. Aidan was sub- the most economically productive ages of 15 to
sequently commissioned to the work. He walked 25. A Kenyan study estimated labor costs for
to his assignment, evangelizing as he went. Given some businesses could increase by 23 percent
space on the island of Lindisfarne, he established due to absenteeism, the cost of training new
a monastery. Aidan and his followers (WILFRED workers, death benefits, and health care costs by
was instructed there) carried the message of the year 2005. Service agencies strain to meet de-
Christ throughout northern England and south- mands created by the epidemic, and extended
west Scotland. family systems stagger under the burden of in-
A. SCOTT MOREAU creased dependents and decreasing numbers of
providers. In heavily affected areas of Asia and
Bibliography. B. Colgrave, NCE, 1:224; A. C. Fryer, Africa 30 to 50 percent of household income is
Aidan, Apostle of the North; ODCC; S. Neill, HCM. devoted to care of family members with AIDS
and funeral expenses may cost a years income.
AIDS and Mission. A Global Overview. AIDS Populations with behaviors that put them at
(acquired immune-deficiency syndrome), as a high risk for HIV infection include prostitutes
global pandemic, has provided a unique chal- and their clients, prisoners, long-distance truck-
lenge and opportunity to the church: a challenge ers, homosexual and bisexual men, soldiers, po-
to deal with lifes most fundamental moral and lice officers, and migrant workers. Sexual trans-
ethical issues, and an opportunity for service to mission of the virus is more efficient from men to
those in need. women than from women to men. Women also
Appearing in the late 1970s, AIDS is currently have higher levels of undiagnosed sexually trans-
one of the most critical health problems in the mitted diseases. Worldwide, these two factors
world. By 2020 there will be an estimated 55 mil- mean that women are becoming infected at
lion cases of HIV (human immunodeficiency faster rates than men.
virus) infection. In African countries with ad- Wealthy countries have access to the antiretro-
vanced HIV/AIDS epidemics life expectancy at virals and other drugs that prolong the lives of
birth has declinedto 37 years in Uganda, for ex- HIV-positive individuals. Worldwide 90 percent
ample, the lowest global life expectancy. By 2010 of those infected are not aware of their infection,
a decline of 25 years in life expectancy is pre- due to lack of access to costly AIDS tests. The rise
50
Aitolos, Kosmas
of tuberculosis (TB) rates is directly correlated to Agencies promoting networking among the
HIV prevalence and inversely correlated with the many Christian AIDS initiatives, often modest
quality of TB programs. programs linked to a local church or as free-
Responding to the AIDS Pandemic: Interna- standing grass-roots organizations, have been
tional Agencies, Governments, Nongovernment particularly valuable in strengthening the global
Organizations (NGOs), and Churches. The response of churches. AIDS Intercessors, for ex-
World Health Organizations Global Program on ample, provides a monthly prayer diary with up-
AIDS, under the dynamic leadership of Jonathan dates on the AIDS programs of more than forty
Mann, initiated a global response to HIV/AIDS Christian groups. Others agencies have multiple
during the first decade of the epidemic. Subse- affiliates. AIDS Care Education and Training
quently, UNAIDS has been the United Nations (ACET), based in London and started by Patrick
agency coordinating the global response. Min- Dixon, has prevention and care programs in Ro-
istries of Health throughout the world, often mania, Thailand, Tanzania, Uganda, and through-
dealing with multiple discreet epidemics in their out the United Kingdom.
countries, have become deeply involved in re- HIV/AIDS has unquestionably provided the
sponses to AIDS as their populations have been church with one of its greatest challenges and
affected by the epidemic. USAID (United States most significant opportunities for ministryand
Agency for International Development) has pro- the church is responding.
vided strategic leadership and significant funding EVVY CAMPBELL
through AIDSCAP (AIDS Control and Prevention Bibliography. G. Capdevila, Inter Press Service En-
Project). NGOs have also played a crucial role in glish News Wire, Nov. 28, 1997; P. Dixon, The Truth
responding to AIDS. MAP International, a Chris- About AIDS; D. Dortzbach, AIDS in Kenya: The Churchs
tian NGO working to build the capacity of Challenge; H. Dunphy, The Columbian, Nov. 3, 1997, A-
churches in East and southern Africa, partnered 2; D. E. Fountain, Care of Persons with AIDS in a Chris-
with the Association of Evangelicals in Africa and tian Hospital; E. B. Marks, Jr., Life at the Cross Roads:
the Evangelical Association of Uganda in 1994 to An Educational Curriculum Program from Youth at the
bring 150 participants from 28 countries for the Crossroads.
All Africa AIDS and the Church Consultation,
held in Kampala, Uganda. A powerful declaration Aitolos, Kosmas (171479). Greek Orthodox mis-
to the church resulted from the conference, urg- sionary evangelist in the Balkans. Born in the
ing that AIDS issues become a priority on the Greek province of Aitolia, Kosmas Aitolos was
agenda of the church. Local initiatives, such as raised in a poor family with no opportunity for ed-
the Kenya Christian AIDS Network (Kenyan CAN ucation. Kosmass search for an education and his
or KCAN), with more than 30 branches meeting thirst for God led him to the Philotheu monastery
regularly, sprang up within two years after the on Mount Athos in 1743. For seventeen years,
conference. Kosmas lived a life of seclusion and studied dili-
A number of Christian AIDS programs are gently. Through his study he realized that Chris-
linked to mission hospitals. Under the leadership tians should be concerned not just with their own
of Major Ruth Schoch, a Swiss Salvation Army salvation, but also with the salvation of others.
office nurse and midwife who had already served Thus motivated, Kosmas left the monastery in
twenty years in the Republic of Zambia, a 1760 and became an itinerant preacher through-
Bethany Ward for the terminally ill was estab- out northern Greece, Albania, and southern Ser-
lished in 1987 and a significant community- bia. For twenty years, he traveled from village to
based initiative addressing AIDS was initiated at village preaching the gospel in a simple, contem-
the Salvation Armys Chikankata Hospital. Simi- porary form that villagers could understand. He
larly, the Vanga Evangelical Hospitala 400-bed helped found more than two hundred elementary
hospital with eight full-time physicians under the schools and ten higher schools. His ultimate
administration of the Baptist Community of purpose in starting schools was for people to
Western Zaireoffers whole-person care, includ- overcome their illiteracy and begin reading the
ing counseling, prayer, and group meetings, to Bible and church fathers. Kosmass life and work
those with HIV/AIDS through an HIV care pro- are considered one of the greatest influences in
gram. In Nigeria the SIM AIDS Project (SIM In- helping to preserve and strengthen Christianity
ternational) is helping Christians know how to in the Balkans during the eighteenth century.
minister to those affected by AIDS and is devel- Kosmas was martyred by hanging in the village
oping biblical teachings on sexuality, marital re- of Kalinkontasi.
lationships, and being made in Gods image. LUKE A. VERONIS
Campus Crusades Youth at the Crossroads has Bibliography. C. Cavarnos, St. Cosmas Aitolos; N. M.
developed Life at the Crossroads, a substantial Vaporis, Father Kosmas: The Apostle of the Poor; L. A.
educational curriculum program that addresses Veronis, Missionaries, Monks and Martyrs: Making Dis-
AIDS from a positive biblical viewpoint. ciples of All Nations.
51
Albania
Albania (Est. 2000 pop.: 3,624,000; 28,748 sq. school for Chinese girls. In 1843, when the Treaty
km. [11,100 sq. mi.]). Albania, one of the poorest Ports were opened, she moved to Ningpo, where
countries in Europe, located in the southern she continued to conduct a school until 1861.
Balkans with a population of 3.6 million people, She had close links with LMS, but was never an
has experienced tremendous religious persecu- agent of any society. Several of her teachers were
tion in the past. Albanias political history has the Chinese-speaking daughters of missionaries,
strongly influenced the efforts of missionaries to including Maria Dyer, whose marriage to JAMES
evangelize. In spite of a Christian presence as HUDSON TAYLOR she strongly opposed, and Mary
early as A.D. 200, prior to the communist regime, Ann Leisk, who married William Russell, later
Islam was the major religion of Albania. The Or- bishop of North China. In 1861 she handed her
thodox and Roman Catholic Churches also had a school over to the CHURCH MISSION SOCIETY
strong presence. Overall, the country was accept- (CMS) and retired to Adelaide, Australia, where
ing of the religious influences that existed. The she lived until her death. She appears to have
tolerance level changed dramatically when the been the first unmarried woman missionary to
Communists took over in 1945. have worked in China, and the first, male or fe-
Enver Hoxha, the communist dictator, began male, to reach Ningpo. She worked in Malacca
an active campaign against religious institutions. and Ningpo for almost twenty-four years, and
Despite the adoption of a communist constitu- ought to be remembered, not only for her differ-
tion that guaranteed freedom of religion, he is- ences with Hudson Taylor, but as a pioneer
sued decrees that allowed the government to con-
worker in China.
trol the activities of religious institutions. Many
JOCELYN MURRAY
clergy and believers were tried, tortured, and ex-
ecuted by the government. All formal worship Bibliography. E. A. White, A Woman Pioneer in
was eventually eradicated. China: The Life of Mary Ann Aldersey; J. Pollock, Hud-
Upon Hoxhas death in 1991, a two-party dem- son Taylor and Maria. Pioneers in China; D. Mac-
ocratic form of government was elected to run Gillivray, ed., A Century of Protestant Missions in China
the country. Ramiz Alia, the successor to Hoxha, (18071907).
took a tolerant stance toward religious practice.
The ban on religious services was lifted and 95 Algeria (Est. 2000 pop.: 31,158,000; 2,381,741 sq.
percent of all mosques and churches that had km. [919,590 sq. mi.]). I see many knights going
been damaged during the communist rule were to the Holy Land beyond the seas, and thinking
restored. The drastic change in attitude toward that they can acquire it by force of arms. . . . It
religion has been very significant for Christian seems to me that the conquest . . . ought to be at-
mission efforts in Albania. tempted . . . by love and prayers, and the pouring
After the fall of communism, a number of mis- out of tears and blood. These are the words of
sion agencies entered the country to evangelize RAYMON LULL, who became a missionary martyr
and plant churches, many of which reported ex- in Algeria in 1315.
cellent results in their evangelistic efforts. More Since then, the largest continuous Protestant
recently, the Christian Broadcasting Network mission effort pouring out tears and blood
broadcast the first programs with a Christian among the Algerians has been the North Africa
message over government-owned television, with Mission (now the Arab World Ministries), estab-
a viewership of 1.8 million, over half of the pop- lished in 1881 by a Briton, a Swiss, and a Druze.
ulation. The future of evangelical missions in Al- Other missions include the Plymouth Brethren
bania is questionable, however, due to the fact (1885), Wesleyan Methodists (French) (1886), Al-
that the Catholics, Orthodox, and Muslims are giers Mission Band (1888; merged with NAM in
trying to pass legislation that will not allow other 1964), Rolland Mission (French) (1908), and
religions to exist within the country. If this legis- Methodist (1908).
lation is passed, Albania will once again return to A Bible Society was established in 1881, and
being a country with limited religious freedoms. Bible reading rooms have attracted great interest
MARKUS WAGNER
when they have been allowed, though literacy is
Bibliography. R. Peterson, Tomorrow You Die. only 50 percent. Evangelizing through the desert
as early as 1893, LILLIAS TROTTER reported again
Aldersey, Mary Ann (17971868). English pio- and again the great longing of the desert men for
neer missionary to China. Born in a prosperous books. Today radio, Bible correspondence
nonconformist family in London, she attended courses, the JESUS FILM in Kabyle Berber, Arabic
classes in Chinese taught by ROBERT MORRISON and French languages, and locally produced
when he visited England in 182426. She made music and Scripture tapes are received hungrily
generous gifts to the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY if clandestinely. Production cannot keep up with
(LMS) and when she was free from family duties demand. Postal censorship is severe, however.
she went to Batavia (1837) and established a Recipients may be interrogated by the police.
52
Allan, George
The gospel may have come to Algeria in the other human conflict, changes in technological
first century through believers in the large Alger- and social organization, and oppressive political
ian Jewish community. By the fourth century, systemswhich refer not just to subjective states
North Africa had given birth to some of the finest but to concrete conditions. The concept of alien-
Latin Christian theology, written by men like Au- ation derives from related theological and philo-
gustine, Tertullian, and Cyprian. Vandals in the sophical terms used from the times of Plotinus
fifth century and Muslims in the eighth erased and Augustine to those of Hegel (alienated
much of the church. Yet in the eleventh century spirit), Feuerbach (Mans alienation from his
five bishops remained. In 1645 the French own material nature), and Marx (alienation
Lazarists established a mission to ameliorate the labor).
suffering of the thousands of Europeans who had In each case these terms carry the sense of es-
been captured by Barbary pirates. By the nine- trangement and incompleteness resulting from
teenth century, Catholic bishops, orders like the ones separation from elements essential to per-
White Fathers and White Sisters, and hermits sonal realization. The cure is implied in the diag-
like Charles Foucauld sought to evangelize Alge- nosis: Hegel thought in terms of alienation from
rians. But the French colonial government de- God, but saw religious forms and organization as
ported evangelists, removed crucifixes from mis- themselves inhibiting spiritual wholeness; Feuer-
sion hospitals, and forbade Muslims to enter the bach sought to restore humans to their rightful
cathedral. During this century European Protes- place in the material world; and Marx identified
tants immigrated in large numbers, bringing alienation primarily as social injustice. While
their churches and pastors. However, these evangelical use of the term alienation may be
showed little concern for Algerians, and departed invested with these precedents, evangelicals gen-
at independence in 1962. After the bloody eight- erally apply alienation in the theological sense of
year war for independence, Catholic and Protes- viewing human sin (alienation from God) and re-
tant missions including the Salvation Army, Men- demption (reconciliation with God) as being the
nonites, and Friends helped rebuild the country. cause and antidote for all other human ills. Peo-
In particular, the Berbers have responded to the ple who respond to the gospel are primarily those
gospel. Numbering perhaps 25 million across who in some sense feel alienatedunfulfilled or
Africa, in Algeria Berbers may comprise 30 per- dissatisfied. Evangelicalism at its roots is a prom-
cent of the population. Somewhat independent in ise of wholeness, LIBERATION from the bondage of
mountain villages, thousands have come to Christ. sin, restitution to a community of transformed
Indigenous leadership is vigorous and creative. (born-again) believers, and an eschatological as-
Since 1992 an uprising of Islamists has massa- surance of ultimate salvation.
cred 75,000 civilians. The outcome could signifi- DOUG PETERSEN
cantly influence the rest of the Arab world toward Bibliography. D. Lyon, Karl Marx: An Assessment of
radical or moderate governments. Meanwhile, as His Life and Thought; J. Mguez-Bonino, Toward a
social trauma makes people more open to the Christian Political Ethic; D. Petersen, Not by Might Nor
gospel, believers meet in small Bible study by Power: A Pentecostal Theology of Social Concern.
groups. There is no seminary, though THEOLOGI-
CAL EDUCATION BY EXTENSION is conducted. Allan, George (c. 18701941). New Zealand mis-
MIRAM ADENEY sionary to Argentina and Bolivia and founder of
Bibliography. J. H. Kane, A Global View of Christian Bolivian Indian Mission. Both Allan and his
Mission; K. S. Latourette, A History of the Expansion of wife, Mary Stirling, were raised in South Otago
Christanity; P. St. John, Until the Day Breaks . . . : The and in Southland, New Zealand, in evangelical
Life and Work of Lilias Trotter, Pioneer Missionary to Presbyterian homes, and trained for missionary
Muslim North Africa; S. Zwemer, Raymond Lull: First service at the Angus Missionary College in Ade-
Missionary to the Moslems. laide, Australia. They became interested in serv-
ice in South America, and were sent out to
Alienation. Alienation describes the sense of Buenos Aires in 1899 with the South American
deprivation and marginalization of persons who Evangelical Mission, which was based in
perceive that their once-fulfilled lives, or the lives Toronto. Allans work took him on itinerant vis-
to which they aspired, have lost their sense or its to Bolivia. His mission amalgamated with the
possibility of personal fulfillment and satisfac- Regions Beyond Missionary Union in 1903, but
tion. Alienation may be attributed to a loss of the Australasian committee and its eight work-
norms, values, and a reassuring worldview, often ers became independent. In 1908 they formed a
brought about by abrupt change. This state cor- new body, the Bolivian Indian Mission, which
responds to the condition denoted by the term was based in the small town of San Pedro.
ANOMIE. But alienation may also be linked to The Allans initiated educational and evangelis-
other disadvantages, including discrimination, tic work for the Quechua and several Australians
exclusion, dislocation, the ravages of war and and New Zealanders joined their team of work-
53
Allan, George
ers. The translation of the New Testament into the professional actually squelches propagation
Quechua was one of their achievements. In 1915 of the gospel, he believed. His brief summation,
Allan founded a U.S. board of the mission, which Missionary Principles, expounds the principle that
resulted in a new influx of American missionar- the presence of Christ in the missionary is the
ies. In 1930 the mission center was moved to source from which all ministry springs. The mis-
Cochabamba and the work broadened to em- sionary spirit of Christ in us cannot rest until it
brace Spanish-speaking Bolivians. Here Allan finds an expression in some form of service, he
died, preceded by his wife in February of 1939. wrote (p. 105).
With quiet determination he had built a mission Allen was an unusual blend of the pragmatist
which later merged with SIM to create one of the (trying to loose the church overseas from foreign
great world missions. control) and the preacher, driving missionary work
PETER LINEHAM back to first principles of biblical discipleship.
JIM REAPSOME
Bibliography. M. A. Hudspith, Ripening Fruit: A His-
tory of the Bolivian Indian Mission. Bibliography. D. Paton, ed., The Ministry of the
Spirit: Selected Writings of Roland Allen; idem, Reform
Allen, Roland (18681947). English missionary of the Ministry: A Study in the Work of Roland Allen;
to China and Africa and missions theorist. H. J. B. Allen, Roland Allen: Pioneer, Priest, and Prophet.
Roland Allen was born in England, studied at Ox-
ford University, and was ordained in the Anglican Ambassador of God. A missionarys task is to
Church in 1892. He went to China with the Soci- represent God and his message to an alien world.
ety for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign This shows the special relationship between the
Parts in 1895, but returned for health reasons in Creator and the messenger, who is dispatched as
1904 to serve as a parish priest. He resigned in an envoy, an ambassador of God. An ambassador
1907 in a dispute over baptism, but served as a is an official diplomatic agent of high rank who
chaplain on a hospital ship during World War I. is sent out by a ruler or government as a public
From the 1920s on he was something of an in- representative. A missionary is one who is sent
ternational missions consultant, working with out to work as a citizen of the KINGDOM OF GOD,
groups trying to revive missionary vision. He vis- representing truth and light in a world of deceit
ited churches in Canada, India, Kenya, Zim- and darkness.
babwe, and South Africa. Allen finally settled in In the Old Testament there are numerous ex-
Kenya in 1931 and lived there until he died. After amples of Gods ambassadors. Noah represented
observing what he considered the drawbacks of Gods righteousness to unbelievers. Moses pro-
traditional missionary work, he revived the claimed Gods power and justice in pharaohs
teachings of RUFUS ANDERSON and HENRY VENN court. Joshua showed the might and strength of
and became a strong proponent of the so-called the Lord before the Canaanites. Both Gideon and
Three-Self theory, which holds that churches Deborah were mediators between God and the
started by foreign agencies should become self- rebellious and defeated Israelites. Gods special
governing, self-supporting, and self-propagating agents, called to proclaim and to direct people to
(see also INDIGENOUS CHURCHES). Allens some- obedience, lived lives that were testimonies of
what iconoclastic approach to missions attracted faith and commitment. Daniel and Esther served
wide interest among evangelical mission agen- in alien governments as ambassadors of God
cies. Largely because of his book, Missionary through their words and actions.
Methods: St. Pauls or Ours (1912), he ranks In the New Testament, Christ tells a parable of
among the most influential when it comes to ap- a ruler sending an emissary, a select delegation to
plying biblical principles to missionary work. negotiate peace (Luke 13:32). Gods ambassadors
Allen was a prolific writer of letters and arti- are a select, chosen few who challenge the enemy
cles. His second most influential book was The and seek to negotiate eternal peace in the hearts
Spontaneous Expansion of the Church and the of humanity. The apostle Paul wrote to the
Causes Which Hinder It (1927). There his deep church at Corinth stating that we are ambassa-
commitment to the work of the Holy Spirit in dors for Christ, as though God were making his
missions came to full flower. He is credited with appeal through us (2 Cor. 5:20). To the church at
being the first to develop the connection between Ephesus he wrote, I am an ambassador in
the HOLY SPIRIT and missions. chains (Eph. 6:20). This refers to his imprison-
In that context he challenged what he saw as ment for openly proclaiming the good news of
an overreliance on professionalism, money, and Jesus Christ. Paul measures himself as personally
organization in mission. For example, he wrote: commissioned by Christ to present the gospel to
There is a horrible tendency for an organization the entire world. The Greek word presbeuom liter-
to grow in importance till it overshadows the end ally means a senior, one who is aged. However,
of its existence, and begins to exist for itself Paul brings new meaning to the term. He is an
(p. 98). This system rooted in the material and elder statesperson representing the kingdom of
54
American Society for Church Growth
God before the rulers and their subjects on this bodies, leading to the establishment of Protestant
earth. churches.
Missionaries serve as ambassadors of God. In Sumatra the first two missionaries were
They are believers in Jesus Christ to whom God killed and eaten by the Bataks, but a church was
imparts certain spiritual gifts, and calls and later established among them by European mis-
sends out to make disciples and preach the good sionaries.
news (Matt. 20:1820; Rom. 10:15). As citizens of The Bible was translated into a number of lan-
the kingdom of God, they are subject to Gods guages, many of which were first reduced to writ-
laws and are under the authority of the Lord they ing. Educational institutions from the primary to
represent before the rest of the world. university levels were established, while PETER
JOHN EASTERLING PARKER and John Scudder were acclaimed for
their medical work in China and India.
American Bible Society. See BIBLE SOCIETIES. RUFUS ANDERSON, a secretary of the Board from
1823 to 1866, was Americas most outstanding
mission leader and theoretician of the nineteenth
American Board of Commissioners for For-
century. He is best known for his formulation,
eign Missions (ABCFM). The ABCFM was the
along with HENRY VENN of the CMS, of the
first and most important nineteenth-century
THREE-SELF formula, which stated that the goal
American mission board. Samuel Mills, a child of was to establish churches that were self-govern-
the Second Great Awakening, led a group of stu- ing, self-supporting, and self-propagating. He
dents at Williams College to pledge themselves to also advocated Christianization over civiliza-
missions in the HAYSTACK PRAYER MEETING in tionWesternizationin an important debate.
1806. In 1810, as students at Andover Seminary, The theological shift in New England Congre-
the group proposed to the Congregational Asso- gationalism in the last third of the nineteenth
ciation of Massachusetts the formation of a for- century greatly affected the Board and con-
eign mission board. tributed to its eventual decline. But by 1959 it
In 1812 the ABCFM was incorporated, and its had sent out over 4,800 men and women. With
first five missionaries sailed for India. Out of the the union of the Congregational and Evangelical
first group the JUDSONS and Luther Rice became and Reformed Churches in the 1950s the ABCFM
Baptists, the Judsons going on to Burma (now became the United Church Board of World Min-
Myanmar) while Rice returned to the United istries.
States to form the Baptist Missionary Union. PAUL E. PIERSON
The Boards purpose was to propagate the
gospel in heathen lands by supporting mission- Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, ed., To Advance the
aries and diffusing the knowledge of the Holy Gospel: Selections from the Writings of Rufus Anderson;
F. F. Goodsell, You Shall Be My Witnesses; C. J. Phillips,
Scriptures. Evangelism and church planting had
Protestant America and the Pagan World, the American
the highest priority, with Bible translation im- Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions,
portant and social concerns subordinate. About 18101860.
half of its missionaries were Congregationalists;
most of the others were Presbyterian or Re- American Samoa (Est. 2000 pop. 63,000; 197 sq.
formed. The Board worked in thirty-four fields, km. [76 sq. mi.]). American Samoa consists of
which included indigenous Americans. When the five islands and two atolls, 2,300 miles south of
Cherokees were expelled from their land in Geor- Hawaii and 1,600 miles northeast of New
gia, two missionaries went to prison in protest; Zealand. Complex rivalry between British, Ger-
others accompanied the people on the Trail of man, and American strategic interests in Samoa
Tears. Traders had arrived in Hawaii by 1800; as in the nineteenth century resulted in American
a result, the native population had fallen by half, Samoa becoming an unincorporated territory of
its culture disintegrating. In 1820 the missionar- the United States in 1900. Fifty percent of its
ies came, and by 1840 the language was reduced 63,000 people are members of the Christian Con-
to writing, most of the Bible translated, literature gregational Church (formerly LMS), 20 percent
produced, schools established, and twenty thou- are Roman Catholics, with Methodists and Mor-
sand people, a fifth of the population, had be- mons also prominent.
come church members. The local rulers passed ALLAN K. DAVIDSON
laws against prostitution, gambling, and drunk-
enness. SEE ALSO Polynesia.
In the Middle East the goals were to work with
Muslims, ancient Christian churches, and Jews. American Society for Church Growth. The
Success among Muslims was limited, and al- American Society for Church Growth (ASCG) was
though the missionaries did not plan to PROSELY- founded in 1984 as the North American Society
TIZE members of the older churches, converts to for Church Growth. C. PETER WAGNER served as
evangelical Christianity were expelled from those the societys first president. The ASCG describes
55
American Society for Church Growth
itself as a professional association of Christian 1990s to make available doctoral dissertations of

leaders worldwide whose ministry activities are importance in the field. The ASM Dissertation Se-
based on the basic and key principles of church ries, published through University Press of Amer-
growth as originally developed by the late DONALD ica, produced its first volume in 1997.
MCGAVRAN. From the outset, the ASM has maintained a
Membership in the ASCG includes those who close relationship with the ASSOCIATION OF PRO-
specialize in monocultural contexts, as well as FESSORS OF MISSION which normally holds its
those who minister cross-culturally. It is open to meetings in conjunction with those of the ASM.
professors, theoreticians, and practitioners, in- The ASM is a constituent society of the Council
cluding pastors and denominational or para- of Societies for the Study of Religion and an af-
church leaders in the United States. filiate society in the INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION
The ASCGs activities include an annual meet- FOR MISSION STUDIES.
ing and publication of the Journal of the Ameri- GEORGE R. HUNSBERGER
can Society for Church Growth.
Bibliography. W. R. Shenk, The American Society of
CHARLES VAN ENGEN
Missiology 197287.
SEE ALSO Church Growth Movement.
Bibliography. T. S. Rainer, The Book of Church
Amerindian Religions. See INDIGENOUS AMERI-
CAN RELIGIONS.
Growth; E. Towns, ed., Evangelism and Church Growth:
A Practical Encyclopedia; E. Towns, J. N. Vaughan, and
D. Siefert, eds., The Complete Book of Church Growth. Amillennialism. As a term, amillennialism, like
premillennialism and postmillennialism, was not
American Society of Missiology. The American coined until the 1840s. But, in fact, all three views
Society of Missiology is a professional associa- are represented through the long history of the
tion for mission studies in North America. It was church. And they have shared much in common.
founded in 1972 and grew out of a concern to Shared Perspectives. Dominating those com-
provide a community of scholarship, fellowship mon features has been a confidence in the per-
and mission that would draw together not only sonal, visible, and glorious return of Jesus Christ to
professors of mission but mission administrators consummate his work of redemption and restora-
and missionaries as well. Its purpose is to main- tion begun with his life, death, and resurrection.
tain an interdisciplinary approach to the study of Also shared, with varieties of interpretation,
mission, giving attention to the historical, social, has been the neo-Augustinian perception of this
cultural, biblical, theological, and methodologi- age stretching between the first and the second
cal aspects of mission. It does this within a con- coming of Christ as a day of divine grace offered
scious commitment to be inter-confessional, in- to the sinner.
corporating within its structures of governance a In the years following the sixteenth century,
balance of representation from three major that understanding combined especially with the
streams: Roman Catholic, conciliar Protestant, colonialist expansion of Europe. An expanded
and independent/evangelical. The societys publi- knowledge of the world called for an expanded
cations and presentations at its meetings reflect effort to announce that divine word of grace and
this tripartite constituency as well. forgiveness in Christ. And sadly, in that expan-
The society sustains publication efforts along sion, Western ethnocentrism often had difficulty
several lines. It publishes one of the leading jour- in extracting Christianizing from civilizing.
nals in the field of mission studies, Missiology: An Eschatology as Christ-centered hope too often
International Review, a quarterly journal that began to look strangely like Western-centered
picked up the heritage of Practical Anthropology progress.
when that journal ceased publication at the end of Restraining this tendency toward the national-
1972 (see also JOURNALS OF MISSION AND MISSIOL- ization of eschatology were other beliefs shared in
OGY). Missiology continues the distinctive contri- common by the three millennial viewpoints. The
butions of that prior journal within an expanded expectation of a full exhibition of the glorious
range of issues in the field of missiology. The jour- reign of God on earth with Christs appearance, of
nal represents the interdisciplinary approach of the physical resurrection from death, of the gath-
the society itself, giving attention to history, the- ering in of the fullness of the Gentiles (Rom.
ology, anthropology, communication theory, reli- 11:25), and the salvation of all Israel (Rom.
gious encounter, ecumenics, and methodology. 9:26) have had long standing in the church. These
In addition, monographs on critical issues in shared perspectives often create difficulties in too
mission are published in the ASM Series, a series sharply dividing pre-nineteenth-century mil-
produced collaboratively with Orbis Books. In the lenarianism into specific schools (Murray, 1971,
first nineteen years since the initiation of the se- 4849).
ries in 1979, over twenty-five volumes appeared. Missiological Trajectories. What are those
In addition, another series was begun in the late particular features of amillennialism (sometimes
56
Amsterdam Assembly
called realized or inaugurated millennialism) that Fifth, and finally, this same perception of amil-
nurture the accomplishment of the missionary lennialism as missions between the times also
task? underlines a sense of discontinuity. There is still
First, the movement remains relatively unen- the reality of sin to bar missionary enthusiasm
cumbered by the elaborate chronological details and promote the nations obstinate refusal of
needed to insert a literal 1000-year period into an Christ. Over-optimism concerning the course of
eschatological sequence. Its understanding of the human history toward the gospels consumma-
millennium as the gospel age separating the first tion is restrained by the reality that many are
and second coming concentrates more on Christ called but few are chosen (Matt. 22:14).
as the center of history and Christs return as the Historys Modifications. Amillennialism, like
ultimate outcome of history. Its eschatological its counterparts, has not escaped reshaping in the
center thus tends to orbit more around Christol- history of the church. And that reshaping has not
ogy than around specific details immediately sur- always strengthened its missionary dimensions.
rounding the second coming of the Lord. Its strong emphasis on continuity and the
Second, amillennialism, with postmillennial- churchs eschatological role between the times
ism, traces many of its theological roots to Puri- can sometimes lead its supporters to a kind of
tanisms earlier emphasis on the sovereign rule of church imperialism that blurs the line between
God in history. Missions, particularly in its Re- the church and the Kingdom of God. Its sensitiv-
formed expression, is then seen as still deeply ity to discontinuity can find the churchs mis-
MISSIO DEI. sionary role reduced to that of guerrilla action
In common with evangelical thought, late- within an institutional remnant. In doing so, its
nineteenth-century mission thinking has im- understanding of the presence of the kingdom in
pacted this motivation with an additional focus Christ can become a world-avertive shelter in-
on obedience to the GREAT COMMISSION (Beaver, stead of a worldformative intrusion. And, in
1968, 141142). But the movement still clings to common with other millennial viewpoints, it can
the union, formulated by Jonathan Edwards become so lost in chronological debates with
(17031758), of the themes of the divine reign of those alternatives that it falls into eschatological
God and of the demand for regeneration, per- paralysis.
HARVIE M. CONN
sonal faith, and revival (Beaver, 1959, 67).
Third, this focus on the mission of God has SEE ALSO Millennial Thought.
made it somewhat easy for the movement to in-
corporate the current growing consensus in evan- Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, Basileia, pp. 6075; idem,
Reinterpretation in American Church History, pp.
gelical circles between missions and the KINGDOM 11351; J. DeJong, As the Waters Cover the Sea: Millen-
OF GOD. In that consensus the kingdom is seen as nial Expectations in the Rise of Anglo-American Mis-
the saving reign of God initiated by Christs com- sions, 16401810; A. Hoekema, The Bible and the Fu-
ing (the already) and to be consummated by his ture; I. Murray, The Puritan Hope; B. Nicholls, In Word
coming again (the not yet). and Deed: Evangelism and Social Responsibility.
And for the amillennialist the missionary
preaching of the kingdoms good news to all be- Amersterdam 1983 and 1986. See INTERNA-
comes a divine requirement given to the Chris- TIONAL CONFERENCES FOR ITINERANT EVANGELISTS.
tian community on its way to eschatological ful-
fillment (1 Cor. 9:16). Empowered by the Holy Amsterdam Assembly (1948). On August 23,
Spirit (Acts 1:8), the church is under obligation 1948, the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES came into
(Rom. 1:14) to announce that Christ has come to being by action of its first general assembly. This
inaugurate the kingdom through his redemptive gathering, held from August 22 to September 4 in
work (Mark 1:1415; Luke 4:1821). Amsterdam, culminated a process initiated in
Fourth, amillenialism sees eschatology (the 1937 to bring together two streams of ecumeni-
last days) as initiated by the redeeming work of cal life, the Faith and Order Movement and the
Christ (1 Cor. 10:11; Heb. 1:2). This pleads for a Life and Work Movement, into a fully represen-
strong element of continuity between our life in tative global assembly of churches. A total of 351
the Spirit in the present age and in the age to delegates from 44 nations and 147 denomina-
come (Eph. 1:21). tions participated. The assembly adopted as its
This continuity becomes a powerful incentive basis: The World Council of Churches is a fel-
for a holistic understanding of missions as both lowship of churches which accept our Lord Jesus
word and deed, evangelism and socio-cultural in- Christ as God and Savior. Deliberations focused
volvement (Matt. 25:3146). Because perfect on the church as the agency through which God
righteousness and peace will characterize the would accomplish his purposes.
kingdoms future we seek also their beginnings in The theme of the Amsterdam Assembly, Mans
the kingdoms present, yet imperfect, manifesta- Disorder and Gods Design, was considered in
tion (2 Peter 3:1114; Matt. 6:10). four sections: the universal church in Gods de-
57
Amsterdam Assembly
sign; the churchs witness to Gods design; the devotion to Christ, passionate commitment to
church and the disorder of society; the church evangelism, and radical separation of church and
and the international order. The second section state. Several groups also lived communally,
in particular addressed issues related to mission preached eschatological urgency, and were paci-
and evangelism. Recognizing the existence and fists. The blend of unswerving evangelistic fervor
growth of the younger churches, it called for the and persistent refusal to take oaths of loyalty to
whole church to set itself to the task of winning earthly rulers resulted in the perception that they
the whole world for Christ. Also, it stressed the were insurrectionists. They were thus outlawed
close relationship between unity and inner re- almost everywhere they went.
newal, and declared invalid the distinction be- Literally thousands were martyred, many by
tween Christian and non-Christian nations. drowning as a cruel parody of their baptismal
The third section developed the concept of the practice. The sheer number of martyrs, however,
responsible society, one which seeks to maintain attests to the movements vitality. Long before
the balance between justice and freedom. It cri- WILLIAM CAREY, and in contrast to the Reformers,
tiqued the assumption of laissez-faire capitalism Matthew 28:1920 was a central text in Anabap-
that justice will follow automatically the exercise tist mission motivation. A primary goal was
of free enterprise, and the communist assump- reestablishing the biblical model of the church,
tion that freedom will come once economic jus- which they felt had been lost in the mixed mar-
tice is established. Since no civilization can avoid riage of church and state. Generally they gath-
the judgment of Gods Word, none is to be ac- ered people in homes rather than ecclesiastical
cepted uncritically. structures for worship, and these home groups
At Amsterdam, the assembly, which is the maintained fluidity and the ability to multiply
supreme legislative body of the World Council of rapidly. The movement was largely lay-driven;
Churches, adopted a constitution, set conditions each person responding to Christ became an ac-
for membership, outlined programs, defined tive missionary, sharing Christ at home, in the
structures and policies, made decisions about market, and in vocational life. Those who fled
how to relate to other ecumenical bodies, estab- persecution witnessed wherever they went.
lished offices in Geneva, and elected a central Eventually the combination of constant perse-
committee, which in turn named W. A. Visser t cution, slowing apocalyptic fervor, and loss of
Hooft as the first general secretary. Apart from first-generation commitment led to withdrawal
highlighting the vital role of the laity in the ongo- from mainstream culture and second-generation
ing witness of the church, the Amsterdam As- complacency. At a time when the Reformers
sembly did not contribute substantial new mate- largely ignored the need for missionary outreach,
rial to the reflection on mission. It did, however, however, the Anabaptists engaged in work that
create a new context in which common concerns remains a model still relevant today, and contem-
could be discussed. While the World Council of porary Mennonites carry on their legacy (see
Churches and the INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY MENNONITE MISSIONS).
COUNCIL were considered to be in close associa- A. SCOTT MOREAU
tion with each other, emphasis fell upon the es-
sential unity of the church as distinguished from Bibliography. H. Kasdorf, Anabaptists and Mis-
its missionary obligation. sion, pp. 5160; R. L. Ramsayer, Anabaptists and
KEN MULHOLLAND Mission, pp. 17878; N. van der Zijpp, Anabaptists
and Mission, pp. 11936.
Bibliography. R. Rouse and S. Neill, eds., A History
of the Ecumenical Movement 15171948; W. A. Visser t
Hooft, The Genesis and Formation of the World Council Ancestral Beliefs and Practices. Throughout
of Churches; idem, ed., The First Assembly of the World the world, cultures recognize the continuance of
Council of Churches; World Council of Churches, Mans life after death. Wherever this is true, such recog-
Disorder and Gods Design: The Amsterdam Assembly nition often results in the belief that the departed
Series. ancestors are still alive and correspondingly need
to be recognized or acknowledged in some fash-
Anabaptist Missions. Anabaptist (re-bap- ion. Though this basic belief is commonly found
tizer) is a cover name given to a movement of around the world, the formal manifestations and
splinter groups initiated at the time of the Refor- means by which this belief is acted out are repre-
mation. They denied infant baptism, instituting a sented in a staggering variety of beliefs, ethical
restriction of baptism to believing adults. Though codes, and rituals.
not thinking of themselves as rebaptizers, this pe- Beliefs and Ethics. In parts of Asia where CON-
jorative label (given by the Catholics and Reform- FUCIANIST thinking undergirds culture, the obliga-
ers who persecuted them) has through historical tion of filial piety undergirds the ethical need to
use become the accepted term of reference. respect the ancestors. Maintaining ones place in
In addition to believers baptism, Anabaptist life, and (in the case of the eldest son) carrying
groups were characterized generally by personal out the role of supporting the departed in their
58
Anderson, Gerald H
place in ongoing life is critical. The cult of the an- guidance in evaluating the cultural beliefs and
cestors has critical social functions, such as practices in light of Gods revelation.
maintaining order in society through sustaining A. SCOTT MOREAU
respect for the elders and adherence to social
Bibliography. R. J. Hammer, CDCWM, pp. 2021;
roles. In many parts of southern Africa no im-
H. Hardacre, ER, 1:26368; H. Kuckertz, ed., Ancestor
portant family decision would be made without Religion in Southern Africa: Proceedings of a Seminar on
hearing from the ancestors through divination, Ancestor Belief; J. Y. Lee, ed., Ancestor Worship and
dreams, or possession. The dead are thought of Christianity in Korea; A. S. Moreau, The World of the
as the living dead, and local ethical codes de- Spirits; M. Odell and M. Schwartzbaum, ADLR, pp.
mand that they be granted the same respect in 3033; B. Rin Ro, ed., Christian Alternatives to Ancestor
death that they enjoyed as elders while alive. Practices; M. Singleton, Pro Mundi Vita Bulletin 68
When times are troubling, whether from drought (SeptemberOctober, 1977): 235; G. Van Rheenen,
or disease, the ancestors may be called upon to Communicating Christ in Animistic Contexts.
protect the living. Among indigenous peoples of
Latin America, as also in Africa, the ancestors are Anderson, Gerald H. (1930 ). American missi-
still seen as participating in the community of ologist, advocate, and missionary in the Philip-
the living, even though their attention may not al- pines. After graduation from Grove City College
ways be welcome. In all these contexts, failure to with a degree in business administration, Ander-
acknowledge the dead may result in retribution son chose to follow Gods calling to enter the
by the dead on the living. Thus, the obligation to ministry and pursued theological studies at
participate in the practices and beliefs is often Boston University School of Theology. After com-
seen as a cultural necessity. Even in the material- pletion of his masters degree, and with the help
istic West the popularity of attempts to reach the of a Fulbright scholarship, his studies took him
dead, whether through seances or mediums, to universities in Germany, Switzerland, and
shows that the need for ongoing connection with Scotland. He received his Ph.D. in church history
the departed remains an important felt need. from Boston University in 1960.
Rituals. The rituals associated with the ances- His work in the Philippines was at Union The-
tors vary widely. They include personal devo- ological Seminary, where he taught church his-
tions, household rituals, rites of the extended tory and served as academic dean (196366) and
family or clan, and rites of the whole people on director of graduate studies (196870) before re-
behalf of all of the ancestors. Rites of transition turning to the United States to take the post of
may be necessary to ensure that the departed is president at Scaritt College for Christian Workers
accepted by the spirit realm, and great funerals (Nashville; 197073). After a one-year appoint-
may be the means by which this is done. Cyclical ment as a senior research associate at Cornell
rites, such as recognition on the departeds birth- University, Anderson became the associate direc-
day or death date may be needed to cement the tor of the Overseas Ministries Study Center
family together. Rites of crisis enable the living to (OMSC; 1974).
beseech the dead for protection or deliverance The Theology of the Christian Mission (1961)
from their troubles. They ensure that the living was the first of more than a dozen major edited
do not join the dead before the appropriate time! works and it exemplified both the level and
Missionary Response. A perplexing problem for breadth of scholarship which characterizes An-
missionaries is understanding exactly what the be- derson. Bringing together a spectrum of voices
liefs are, what the roles of the ancestors are, and from conservative to liberal and engaging them
why the living feel they need to relate to them. Ini- in fruitful dialogue is a unique hallmark of his
tially missionaries considered the relationship to scholarship and ministry. This has been seen
be one of worship. More recently it has been rec- through his collaborative editorial work on books
ognized that worship, in the sense of paying hom- (Concise Dictionary of Christian World Missions,
age to deity, is not always an appropriate word to
the Mission Trends series, Biographical Dictionary
use and ancestral veneration has become the ac-
of Christian Missions) and the widely acclaimed
cepted term. However, the reality is that the prob-
International Bulletin of Missionary Research
lem is not just one of vocabulary, but of finding
(1977) as well as his roles in the founding of the
ways to enable Christian communities to obey the
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MISSIOLOGY and the INTER-
fifth commandment (honoring mother and father)
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF MISSION STUDIES and in
in their cultural context without violating warn-
his work as OMSC director (19762000). In 1995
ings against contact with the dead (e.g., Lev. 19:31;
he received an honorary D.D. degree from Mora-
20:6, 27; Deut. 18:914; 1 Sam. 28:320). Proposed
answers have ranged from simply declaring an- vian Theological Seminary. He retired in 2000,
cestral practices Christian to abolishing them al- after 26 years at OMSC.
A. SCOTT MOREAU
together. The missionarys main role is not to
make decisions for the local community, but to as- Bibliography. R. T. Coote, Toward the 21st Century in
sist that community in going to the Scriptures for Christian Mission.
59
Anderson, John
Anderson, John (180555). Scottish pioneer Anderson believed that mission compounds
missionary to India. Born in Galloway, Scotland, and reliance on foreign missionaries hindered
in the parish of Kilpatrick-Durham on May 23, the growth of the national church. He was firmly
1805, he studied at parish schools and at age committed to the training and ordination of na-
twenty-two entered Edinburgh University, where tional pastors. His theories were published in
he distinguished himself as a student. He was or- 1856 by the ABCFM as the Outline of Missionary
dained and sent as a missionary of the Church of Practice.
Scotland in 1836. He devoted his work to evan- JIM REAPSOME
gelism through education of the Indians in Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, To Advance the Gospel:
Madras. He began his work by taking over a Selections from the Writings of Rufus Anderson.
small school that had been started by two chap-
lains for the East India Company. His first prior- AndersonVenn Formula. See INDIGENOUS
ity was to move the school into the heart of CHURCHES.
Madras where it could establish an academic
reputation and attract higher-caste Hindus. The Andorra (Est. 2000 pop.: 81,000; 453 sq. km. [175
school grew, but suffered setbacks because of sq. mi.]). Andorra is a small autonomous princi-
community pressure after students came to pality in the southern Pyrenees between France
Christ and lower-caste students were admitted. and Spain. Over 90 percent of the population is
The first two to come to faith were baptized in either Spaniard or Catalonian. The vast majority
1836. In 1843 funds from Scotland were dis- of these are Roman Catholic. Jehovah Witnesses
rupted and the school came under the authority number about 400 and evangelical Protestants,
of the Free Presbyterian Church of Madras. An- mainly Seventh-Day Adventists, are less than 100.
derson did not marry until 1947, when he joined Most evangelical mission work is limited to liter-
with Margaret Locher of Zurich who had come ature distribution.
to teach the younger women. By 1850 Anderson TODD M. JOHNSON
was experiencing health problems that were se-
vere enough that he returned to Scotland with an Andrews, Charles Freer (18711950). English
early convert by the name of Rajahgopal. He re- missionary to India. Born in Carlisle, England,
turned to India the next year but died only four son of a Catholic Apostolic Church minister, at
years later on March 25, 1855. Under the direc- nineteen he had an intense conversion experi-
tion of William Miller the school Anderson ence. He graduated brilliantly from Cambridge,
founded was developed into Madras Christian became an Anglican, worked in the London
College, a school that has provided over a century slums (18961900), and was vice president of
of Christian witness in India. Westcott House, Cambridge (19001904). He
JOHN EASTERLING then went to India under the Cambridge Mission
Bibliography. J. Braidwood, True Yokefellows in the
and, dismayed by British arrogance and the caste
Mission Field; H. Holcomb, Men of Might in India Mis- system, became a champion of the deprived
sions: The Leaders and Their Epochs 17061899. classes. He counted Hindus, Muslims, and Bud-
dhists among his dearest friends, saw the Spirit
of Christ in those who did not call themselves
Anderson, Rufus (17961880). American mis-
Christians, and wondered whether he could draw
sion theorist. Born in Yarmouth, Maine, he was
the boundaries of Christian thought as sharply as
educated at Bowdoin College and Andover Sem- he once did. He rejected the literal interpretation
inary. There he volunteered to go to India at a of Scripture and the damnatory clause in the
time when world missions was largely an after- Athanasian Creed. He disliked aggressive evan-
thought in American church life. gelism and held that Christianity was often more
The AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR professed than practiced.
FOREIGN MISSIONS (ABCFM) ordained him as an Invited in 1913 to help the oppressed Indian
evangelist. In 1826 he became assistant secretary community in South Africa, he became a close
and in 1832 he became foreign secretary, a post friend of Mahatma Gandhi. Andrews severed his
he held until his retirement in 1866. His influ- missionary connection with mutual goodwill in
ence was extended through his worldwide trav- 1914, became chairman of the Indian Trades
els, teaching, and writing. He was probably the Union Congress, was a longtime mediator be-
first person rightfully to be called a missionary tween Indians and Europeans, and spent long
statesman. He shaped the policies of his own meditative stays at Rabindranath Tagores
board by strongly emphasizing that the churches ashram. He campaigned against all forms of
established overseas should be self-governing, racial prejudice, but eventually spent most of his
self-supporting, and self-propagating. (See IN- time striving for the abolition of indentured In-
DIGENOUS CHURCHES.) This formula was soon dian labor, a long-entrenched evil. Before the bat-
adopted by other agencies as well. tle was finally won, he had visited South and
60
Anglican Missions
East Africa, Fiji, Australia, North America, and of the mission were admitted, and its basics in
the Caribbean area. any sense accomplished in England and Wales.
His What I Owe to Christ (1932) tells how Scotland and Ireland being extremely resistant to
through the many difficulties and changes he had English power, the church planted there was far
known, a simple, joyful faith in Jesus Christ was more tenuous and unpopular. Anglican clergy up
the very center of his life. Andrews wrote a biog- to this point did not venture out of the nation as
raphy of SUNDAR SINGH, as well as social and hu- missionaries, but as chaplains to wealthy emi-
manitarian works. grant families and commercial companies.
J. D. DOUGLAS It was 1701 before the SOCIETY FOR THE PROPA-
GATION OF THE GOSPEL IN FOREIGN PARTS (SPG), the
Bibliography. T. Hugh, The Ordeal of Love: C. F. An-
first overseas Anglican mission, was formed. In-
drews and India; N. Macnicol, C. F. Andrews: Friend of
India; B. Chaturvedi and M. Sykes, Charles Freer An-
stigated by Anglican priests, generously sup-
drews: A Narrative. ported by the gentry and aristocracy, and blessed
by the Anglican archbishop of Canterbury, its
mission was for the most part in America. Its
Anglican Missions. The Anglican Church will
goal was to bring colonists back into the Angli-
seem to have an eccentric history and theology of
can Church and to evangelize the native popula-
missions if it is seen only through the prism of tion by planting the self-sufficient parish system
modern Protestant denominationalism. For well of the mother country. Yet even its limited suc-
documented political, religious, and cultural rea- cess was suddenly cut short by the American
sons the Roman Catholic Church in England Revolution. Yet there was a silver lining to the
broke communion with the pope during the con- cloud. American Anglicans were urgently pro-
tinental reformations under the direction of the pelled into establishing a ground-breaking au-
English king Henry VIII (150947). After hesita- tonomous Episcopal church with its own mission
tions and compromises it emerged as the Church (Samuel Seabury, the first American and first
of England under Elizabeth I (15581603), with overseas Anglican bishop, being forced to seek
the monarch as its governor and the aristocracy consecration in 1784 at the hands of Scottish
and gentry as its patrons. Anglicanism, then, was Episcopal bishops), and the SPG was pushed to
susceptible to Erastianism and tended strongly to take up other fields of endeavor. Both unintended
Protestantism in its key theological claims and to consequences of the Revolution stretched the def-
Catholicism in regard to sacraments, sensibili- inition of Anglican missions.
ties, and ecclesiastical organization. So protes- Within a few years (1787) the archbishop of
tant and catholic (and later conservative and Canterbury consecrated the first Canadian
liberal) Anglicans learned early to tolerate, if bishop (Nova Scotia), and the pattern was set for
barely sometimes, each others presence in the colonial Anglicanism as Anglican missions en-
church. Anglican protestantism has given bish- tered the nineteenth century. Anglican mission-
ops significant ecclesiastical freedom in their aries went wherever the British Empire led, and
own jurisdictions and the sometimes unwelcome began to concentrate more and more on indige-
political council of powerful local laity. Anglican nous peoples. The formation of the second Angli-
catholicity has rendered most of its adherents re- can mission agency, the very evangelical CHURCH
spectful of sacramental acts and wary of schisms: MISSIONARY SOCIETY (CMS) in 1799, was not de-
it has also often made its missionaries hesitant to structive of Anglican unity and effectiveness.
seek converts from the Orthodox and Roman Both the SPG and the CMS recruited missionary-
Catholic Churches. These realities helped forge clergymen, raised their support, and helped build
Anglicanism, over the years, into a network of independent Anglican dioceses throughout the
dioceses with a shared culture and a wide toler- growing British commonwealth. Markedly pro-
ance. Yet it could not have been anticipated that testant or catholic Anglican agencies that
Anglican missions would lead to an international, sprouted up in the following yearsthe Colonial
multilingual communion of some 60 million on and Continental Church Society (1823), the
all continents by the end of the twentieth century. South American Missionary Society (1844), the
In the latter sixteenth century, when the Universities Mission to Central Africa (1857),
Church of England first saw itself as a reformed, and othersquarreled, but did not cause
national church, its leaders saw its chief mission schisms. They fed their efforts into new and far-
to be the spiritual care of all those subject to the flung dioceses that were closely governed by au-
English Crown, their education in Anglicanism, tonomous bishops and able to function quickly
and the gaining of their loyalty to the established as independent parts of a rapidly growing Angli-
order as the ordinance of God. Yet it was only can communion.
after Puritan emigration to the American In the late nineteenth century Anglican mis-
colonies, a religious and political civil war in sions were sent not only from Britain, but from
England, and the act tolerating religious non- American and colonial dioceses as British immi-
conformists in the country (1689) that the limits grants concentrated on natives in what was now
61
Anglican Missions
their hinterland and on indigenous peoples in Carmelites were the first to evangelize the area.
more remote British and other European posses- The church grew rapidly at first. The king of the
sions. Anglican missions also continued their di- ruling Kongo kingdom accepted Christianity, and
versifying tendencies, and began to encompass his son became the first African bishop. This
everything from direct evangelism to medical, ed- early growth, however, was not sustained. Ma-
ucational, and agricultural projects, learning the laria and dysentery killed many priests. Further-
value of challenging or even defying imperial au- more, Portugal became deeply involved in the
thority to accomplish their mandate. But in the world slave trade. Bishops and priests would
years following the great WORLD MISSIONARY CON- baptize groups of slaves before they were shipped
FERENCE in Edinburgh (1910) in which they opti- to foreign lands, and this involvement with the
mistically participated, Anglican missions met slave trade caused the people to become disillu-
tough new challenges. The national independ- sioned with the church. It was not until the late
ence movements that followed, the trend to nineteenth century that the Roman Catholic
democracy in all societal institutions, the rapid Church began to establish itself, beginning to
theological changes that emerged in Western the- work in the interior of Angola.
ology, and the consequent plunge in missionary Protestant work in Angola was pioneered by
vocations shook their self-understanding. the British Baptists, who arrived in 1878 to work
But several encouraging trends have emerged. among the Bakongo people in the north. Shortly
The accelerated ordination of indigenous clergy after their arrival, the American Board Mission
and bishops has encouraged the self-sufficiency sent a party to work among the Ovimbundu. In
of even more recent Anglican mission areas, and 1884 the Brethren began their labors in Angola,
put Anglicans of European descent in the role of pioneered by FREDERICK ARNOT. William Taylor
requested consultants. More recently, non-Euro- brought a party from America and founded the
pean Anglican missionaries have become con- United Methodist Church. Others followed, and
sultants to moribund Anglicanism in Europe and some of the largest Protestant communities in
North America. The episcopal system has contin- Angola today are the fruit of these early pioneers.
ued to avoid schisms and it has become more re- Under Portuguese Catholic rule Protestant
sponsive to the laity as a whole, which has gener- churches and missionaries experienced some de-
ated its patrons and voting members for its gree of discrimination, although the Constitution
elections and synods and has given new energy allowed freedom of worship. This became worse
and leadership to the Anglican communion. And with the onset of the struggle for independence
though theological controversy, secularism, and after 1961 since the leaders of all three national-
growing pluralism have sapped Anglican mission ist movements were the sons of Protestant
of much of its vitality in the West, Anglicans have church leaders. Many Protestant churches were
become more sympathetic to their co-religionists closed and missionaries were expelled.
in countries dominated by other world religions When the Portuguese formally withdrew from
or Western economies. Finally, Anglicans re- Angola in 1975, the MPLA, one of three main lib-
sponded to their predicament by supporting a eration movements, gained control of the central
communion-wide Decade of Evangelism government with the assistance of Cuban troops,
(198898), run between its global Lambeth con- setting up a one-party Marxist state. In the first
ferences. ten years after independence, Christians suffered
PAUL. H. FRIESEN considerable persecution; many pastors and be-
lievers were martyred and many churches were
Bibliography. C. Craston, ed., By Word and Deed:
destroyed. Independence was also followed by al-
Sharing the Good News through Mission; H. G. G Herk-
lots, Frontiers of the Church: The Making of the Anglican most twenty years of civil war between the MPLA
Communion; J. S. Higgins, One Faith and Fellowship: government (backed by the former Soviet Union
The Missionary Story of the Anglican Communion; and Cuba) and UNITA (backed by the United
S. Neill, Anglicanism; A. Nichols, Equal Partners: Issues States and South Africa). In 1988 a treaty among
of Mission and Partnership in the Anglican World; Angola, Cuba, and South Africa led to the with-
W. Sachs, The Transformation of Anglicanism: From drawal of all foreign troops, a ceasefire between
State Church to Global Communion. the Angolan government and UNITA, and prepa-
rations for multiparty democratic elections in
Angola (Est. 2000 pop.: 13,074,000; 1,246,700 sq. 1992. MPLA won the elections but civil war re-
km. [481,351 sq. mi.]). Angola, a country more sumed when UNITA refused to accept the results
than twice the size of France with a population of as valid. In 1995 an agreement to bring UNITA
about 13 million people, situated on the west into a government of national unity gave promise
coast of southern Africa, had its first contact with of achieving a more lasting peace.
Christianity through the early Portuguese navi- Through all the fiery trials of decades of war,
gators who arrived in 1483. In 1491 the Por- bloodshed, suffering, famine, and hardship the
tuguese established the first Catholic mission to church in Angola has grown rapidly. Bodies in-
Angola in the north. Jesuits, Capuchins, and clude Congregationalists, Christian Brethren,
62
Annihilationism
Methodists, Seventh-Day Adventists, and Assem- Annihilationism. Proponents of annihilationism

blies of God. maintain that Gods JUDGMENT utterly obliterates
KEVIN ROY the wicked. Recently annihilationism has made
inroads among evangelicals. These annihilation-
Bibliography. M. Froise, ed., World Christianity: ists dispute the extent of punishment due the sin-
South Central Africa; World Council of Churches, Sur-
ner. They affirm Gods punishment in HELL is
vey on Angola, Handbook of Member Churches.
eternal in its effects, but not in its length. Some-
times this position is linked with an anthropo-
Anguilla (Est. 2000 pop.: 8,000; 91 sq. km. [35 sq. logical view called conditional immortality,
mi.]). An island in the Lesser Antilles. Anguillas which holds that humans have only potential im-
population is 95 percent Afro-Caribbean. Aridity mortality. The issue of annihilationism and hells
has kept this member of the British Common- extent has occasioned much debate in recent
wealth dependent on fishing and tourism, leaving scholarship. Four major points are in contention.
it with one of the lowest per capita incomes in A Punishment with Eternal Results. Some
the region. The population is 96 percent Protes- annihilationists argue that when the Greek ad-
tant, mainly Anglican and Methodist, of whom jective for eternal, aiom nios, is used with nouns of
18 percent are evangelical. action, it refers to an occurrence with eternal re-
EVERETT A. WILSON sults, not an eternal process (Fudge). So eternal
punishment denotes a punishment that occurs
SEE ALSO Caribbean. once with everlasting results. But this argument
Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer-
is weak. For everlasting salvation (Heb. 5:9)
ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His- refers not simply to Christs work long ago. Scrip-
tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to ture describes believers, even in the age to come,
the Present. as existing in Christ (2 Cor. 5:17; Col. 2:6, 7;
2 Tim. 2:10). So aiom nios som teria refers to a salva-
tion that is everlasting in action and its result.
Animism. The term animism was coined by
Similarly, everlasting punishment should be in-
the early anthropologist E. B. Tylor and defined
terpreted as everlasting in process and result.
as belief in spiritual beings. From dreams and Confirming this meaning, Jesus uses the same
death early humans inferred the idea of the adjective (aiom nios) for eternal life and eternal
soul, Tylor argued. And if humans had souls, punishment, indicating that in his mind the ex-
then perhaps so did animals, plants, and moun- tent of each future is identical (Matt. 25:46).
tains. From the idea of a soul that survives the Destruction. Some annihilationists insist that
death of a body evolved the idea of disembod- the biblical imagery of destruction and a con-
ied spirits, gods, and eventually God. Animists suming fire implies the cessation of life (Stott).
impute human attributes to the world, and em- However, the Greek verb destroy (apollumi)
ploy the same actions used to affect humans and its cognates range in meaning from lost
(love, gifts, threats, punishment) to affect such (Luke 15:8, 24) to ruined (Matt. 9:17). Even
things as rain. But since spirits are tied to the when referring to physical death, destroy does
physical world, animists also employ actions not suggest extinction; for Jesus cautions that
designed to manipulate the physical world to those who kill the body cannot kill the soul
control spirits. (Matt. 10:28). Jesus juxtaposing the two destinies
At one level, animism is a term linked to an of life and destruction (Matt 7:1314; John
outdated theory about the primordial core of re- 3:16) is not contrasting survival and extinction.
ligion. Yet many anthropologists still use the Rather these are two qualitatively different types
term. They use it, first, as a synonym for tradi- of life, one involving a loving communion with
God and another lacking it and in a state of
tional, tribal, FOLK, or PRIMAL RELIGION, as op-
ruin (John 8:12; 10:10; 1 John 5:1112).
posed to major WORLD RELIGIONS. Second, they
The annihilationists argument that fire totally
use the term where religious belief focuses on
consumes what it burns ignores that Jesus por-
spirits that interpenetrate the physical material trayal of hells fires are not literal descriptions.
world, and religious practice is characterized by These are metaphors for Gods retributive pun-
attempts to manipulate the physical world by re- ishment (Luke 17:29) which must cohere with
course to spirits and spirits by recourse to the other biblical accounts. Elsewhere Jesus pictures
physical world. hell as a place where their worm does not die,
ROBERT J. PRIEST suggesting that this worm is endlessly linked to
the damned as their due; so their worm has tra-
SEE ALSO Folk Religions; Primal Religions;
ditionally been interpreted as the souls internal
Spiritism.
torment (Mark 9:48). Other Scriptures explicitly
Bibliography. E. A. Nida, Introducing Animism; A. R. teach that the wicked are punished with ever-
Tippett, Bibliography for Cross-Cultural Workers. lasting torment (Rev. 20:10, 15; 14:1011).
63
Annihilationism
Justice of God. While acknowledging Gods ret- Anointing. Ritual application of a substance to a
ributive judgment, annihilationists insist that this person or an object. As well as having diverse sec-
punishment must be commensurate with the evil ular uses (e.g., cosmetic, aesthetic, medicinal, fes-
deed. Why should sins committed in time require tal) anointing is almost universal in the history of
torment throughout eternity? Is not everlasting ancient and modern religions, although the sub-
torment vindictive, and incompatible with the stance used (usually fat, oil, or water) and the de-
LOVE OF GOD? The punishment due to the sinner tails of the cultic practice vary considerably.
is the central challenge of the annihilationists. In religious contexts anointing has the general
Scripture is the norm for delineating the purpose of symbolically transferring spiritual or
penalty for sin, not our own self-justifying as- divine presence or power on the anointed object
sessments. Scripture identifies Christs priestly or person. The more specific meaning attributed
work of ATONEMENT as the penalty necessary for by its practicioners may be summarized in three
sin. For God in Christ became our substitute to distinct, though related, categories. (1) Healing:
bear the punishment for our sins: He did this to The physical healing properties of oil often can-
demonstrate his justice . . . so as to be just and to not be separated from the magical or supernatu-
be the one who justifies those who have faith in ral conceptions often associated with anointing
Jesus (Rom. 3:2126; 2 Cor. 5:21; 1 Peter 2:24). since disease is often attributed to the power of
If Christ was only a human, his substitutionary malevolent spiritual beings. (2) Consecration:
work would suggest that the penalty is simply a People or objects may be consecrated for a par-
finite loss. Suffering a finite penalty as extinction ticular sacred purpose or task through anointing,
is consistent with that scenario. But Christ was which symbolizes the focusing of divine pres-
simply not human. God himself was present at ence, pleasure, power, or protection. (3) Ordina-
the cross establishing this RECONCILIATION by action: Anointing also occurs in many cultures
cepting the punishment due us (1 Cor. 2:8). Jesus when certain individuals are appointed to posi-
priestly work indicates that the penalty for sin tions of prominence and leadership associated
against the Infinite is infinite. As Scripture testi- with sacred duty.
fies, Gods punishment of the damned is infinite, When used in a religious context, anointing in
and of everlasting duration. biblical texts generally falls into these categories.
Annihilationisms Theological Shift. Annihila- In the Old Testament anointing is at times con-
tionism does not simply mute hells horror, it rep- nected with the Spirit of God (1 Sam. 16:13; Isa.
resents an anthropocentric reading which places 61:1) and thus the anointing of Israels priests
in motion decisive theological changes. Denying (Exod. 28:41), kings (1 Sam. 10:1), and prophets
that sin is an infinite offense against the infinite (1 Kings 19:16) symbolized their separation for
God requiring an infinite punishment undercuts the task and divine empowerment for it. Objects
the gravity of humanitys rebellion as well as Gods associated with the worship of Yahweh were also
lordship. Just because we are finite does not en- consecrated through anointing (Exod. 30:2629).
tail that sin is finite offense. Rather sins gravity is The Hebrew title messiah (Greek, christos)
established by the one to whom we are account- means anointed one and its New Testament ap-
able, God our Creator (Rom. 2:616; 1 Peter 4:5). plication to Jesus stems from the prophetic tra-
Moreover, rejecting an everlasting hell disparages dition associating the coming messiah with King
the cost of our salvation. It renders the sacrifice David. Besides references to Jesus, who was
of the God-man in and of itself unnecessary. Nor anointed by the Holy Spirit (Luke 4:18), the few
is it accidental that in mainline circles annihila- other religious uses in the New Testament associ-
tionism has historically gone hand in hand with a ate anointing with divine healing (James 5:14)
denial of Jesus deity (Socinianism and non-uni- and anointing by the Holy Spirit which is true of
versalist liberals). But ultimately annihilationisms every Christian (1 John 2:20, 27).
anthropocentric focus fails. For historically the These biblical allusions to anointing have led
commitment to EVANGELISM of even evangelical to its diverse uses in various Christian traditions
annihilationist institutions has faltered after the throughout history. In the Roman Catholic
second or third generation. Underemphasizing Church it became the sacrament known as ex-
the importance of hell tends to diminish the mo- treme unction (after Vatican II, anointing of the
tivation for missions. sick) with the intention of effecting remission of
TIMOTHY R. PHILLIPS sin and restoration of bodily health. In reaction
to Roman Catholic practice, Reformation
Bibliography. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: churches have largely suppressed the practice.
Christianity Confronts Pluralism, pp. 51536; D. L. Ed-
Perhaps because of the cultural distance of the
wards and J. Stott, Evangelical Essentials, pp. 30631;
E. Fudge, The Fire That Consumes; S. McKnight,
symbolism, it appears to be less common in cul-
Through No Fault of Their Own: The Fate of Those Who turally Western churches. However, it is more fre-
Have Never Heard, pp. 14757; J. I. Packer, Reformation quent among churches influenced by charismatic
and Revival 6:2 (Spring 1997): 3751; M. R. Talbot, Re- and Pentecostal traditions, which emphasize the
formation and Revival 5:4 (Fall 1996): 11734. linkage to the Holy Spirit. Christian churches in
64
Ansgar
non-Western cultures may find anointing more viewing of the movement as simply a reactionary
meaningful due to its use in non-Christian reli- crutch to deteriorating conditionsa haven of
gious contexts with which they are familiar as the massesobscures and abuses one of its most
well as their appreciation of anointing in Old Tes- characteristic features. Religious conversion is not
tament contexts, an understanding that stems a negative reaction but rather is an action that re-
from similarities to their own cultures. In these sults in positive transformationan antidote in
situations caution should be exercised so that the midst of upheaval that produces a radical shift
such practices as the anointing of new church in worldview. The experience is not a refuge
leaders and the sick are biblically (and not just from the world but rather a strategy by which to
culturally) informed and interpreted. live successfully in the world. The secret of this re-
SCOTT CUNNINGHAM ligious experience in an individual is receiving di-
vine love, resulting in empowerment. The power
Bibliography. M. Dudley and G. Rowell, eds., The Oil
of Gladness: Anointing in the Christian Tradition; G. W. of love in the struggle for social transformation
Bromiley, EDT, pp. 11416; ERE, II: 367406. prompts a resocialization, an adaptation or trans-
formation of the person. The nonperson, who
hears and receives the message of transformation,
Anomie. The concept of anomie originated in
personally experiences the reality of an intimate
Emile Durkeims Suicide, and was developed by
relationship with God in his or her life. Converts
R. K. Merton in Social Theory and Social Struc-
are immediately thrust into a loving and caring
ture and later by Peter Berger and Thomas Luck-
community. Dignity, value, personal worth, and
man in The Social Construction of Reality.
identity are collectively celebrated. Salvation
Anomie has generally been described as a con-
within the non-person culminates in a radical
dition in which values, norms, and worldview
transformation to self-acceptance and self-love.
that give stability to the individual and collective
The new believer, who receives spiritual conver-
life break down, and people are left without a
sense of self-image, dignity, and social identity. sion, professes that he or she has been accepted by
Further dislocation brought about by economic God and now belongs to the community of love. To
deprivation and the breakdown of traditional so- be in Christ means not just to have received eter-
ciety culminate in the consequent loss of tradi- nal life, but also to have the privilege to be a par-
tional values. Social relations and ethical norms ticipant in a loving and caring community. By
are shattered. It has been suggested that a signif- being incorporated into such a community, the be-
icant majority of the Two-Third Worlds poor and liever regains dignity and self-acceptance and
displaced people have experienced some degree therefore becomes a meaningful participant in the
of anomiea social reality that leaves them further creation of the community both in indi-
bereft of any meaningful social structure. These vidual and corporate terms.
DOUG PETERSON
conditions, accelerated by rapid demographic
and economic change after World War II, pro- Bibliography. E. Durkeim, Suicide: A Study on Soci-
voked crises that forced the displaced masses to ology; R. K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure;
grope for solutions to an anomic existence. P. Berger and T. Luckman, The Social Construction of
There seems to be little disagreement with the Reality.
concept of anomie, although the use of the term
has become so accepted that it often lacks preci- Ansgar (801865). Early French missionary to
sion. Further, different contexts may allow con- Sweden. Known for his humility, courage, and
siderable latitude in definitions. Though proba- initiative, he was born in northwestern France.
ble, the conclusion generally offered, namely, that Displaying serious Christian commitment at an
anomie leads directly to loss of self-image, dig- early age, his missionary zeal came most likely
nity, and social identity, may apply more to the from the Corbey monastery, which found spiri-
disintegration of society than to the pathologies tual roots in Columban and Irish monasticism
of a person. Whether the majority of the worlds (see CELTIC MISSIONARY MOVEMENT). Later he
poor have experienced anomie depends upon cri- helped found a monastery in Westphalia (New
teria upon which there may not be agreement. Corbey) for newly converted Saxons, holding the
For example, many people seem to survive well office of preacher and first master.
in the midst of a crisis even though apparently Ansgars first mission was to Denmark (c. 823),
they do not have good reason to feel confident. accompanying recently baptized King Harald to
On the other hand, Durkeim used anomie to establish converts in Schleswig. In 829 Swedish of-
show how socially well-established people also ficials arrived at the court of Louis the Pious (suc-
suffer from rapid change when, for instance, a cessor to Charlemagne) asking for missionaries.
family suddenly comes into wealth. Ansgar responded, leaving Denmark. He and his
However correct some scholars may have been companions endured hardships and piracy, even-
in relating the rise of religious experience among tually arriving in Birka on the island of Bjrk in
the masses to emotional and economic crisis, their Lake Mlar, west of present-day Stockholm.
65
Ansgar
Among Ansgars first acquaintances were by missionaries emerged. Fison with A. W.

Christian slaves, brought to Sweden from Viking Howitt published The Kamileroi and the Kurnai,
raids. These and others (including members of still considered a basic work on Australian abo-
the royal court) were organized into Ansgars first riginals. Codringtons Melanesians contributed
congregation. Ansgar left Sweden to assume the to anthropology its understanding of mana.
archbishopric of Hamburg. His return to Sweden Junods two-volume Life of a South African Tribe
was delayed nearly twenty years by pagan reac- was years later still regarded as one of the finest
tions to Christianity. Upon returning, he reorgan- anthropological monographs. And Schmidts
ized the congregation, later abandoned when twelve-volume study of the origin of religion did
commerce moved from Birka to Uppsala. Ans- much to dissuade the academic community
gars legacy is that of a harbinger. Although his from their commitment to an evolutionary
personal efforts yielded little lasting fruit, Chris- explanation.
tianity would be established in Sweden some 250 The most notable early British advocate for
years later with the destruction of the pagan tem- missiological anthropology was EDWIN SMITH.
ple at Uppsala. Born in Africa of missionary parents, Smith for
STEVEN J. PIERSON three decades wrote and taught widely on African
Bibliography. K. S. Latourette, The Thousand Years cultures. His most famous book is The Golden
of Uncertainty; R. Murray, A Brief History of the Church Stool. Two other British missionary anthropolo-
of Sweden; Rimbert, Anskar, the Apostle of the North. gists to note are W. C. Willoughby, who published
The Soul of the Bantu, and Denys Shropshire,
Anthropology, Biblical. See HUMANKIND, DOC- who wrote The Church and Primitive Peoples.
TRINE OF. In America, with the exception of Hartford
Seminary Foundations Kennedy School of Mis-
Anthropology, Missiological Anthropology. sions, where Willoughby taught from 1919 and
The relationship between anthropology and Smith lectured from 1939 to 1943, little was done
world missions has been a long and profitable to provide anthropological instruction for mis-
one with the benefits flowing both ways. Though sionaries before World War II. Wheaton College
for philosophical reasons recent generations of (Illinois) had begun an anthropology department,
anthropologists have tended to be very critical of and the WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS Summer
missionaries, much of the data used by profes- Institute of Linguistics, though primarily focused
sional anthropologists from earliest days has on LINGUISTICS, was serving to alert many to the
come from missionaries. Anthropological pio- need to take culture seriously.
neers such as E. B. Tylor (18321917) and J. G. Though Gordon Hedderly Smith had published
Frazer (18541954) in England, L. H. Morgan The Missionary and Anthropology in 1945, it was
(181882) in the United States, and Wilhelm EUGENE NIDA who sparked the movement to
Schmidt (18681954) in Austria were greatly in- make anthropology a major component in mis-
debted to missionaries for the data from which sionary thinking. He used his position as secre-
they constructed their theories. Such early an- tary for translations of the American Bible Soci-
thropological pioneers as R. H. Codrington ety to demonstrate to missionaries and their
(18301922), Lorimer Fison (18321907), Diedrich leaders the value of anthropological insight. His
Westermann (18751956), H. A. Junod (1863 lectures on anthropological topics in the 1940s
1934), and Edwin Smith (18761957) were mis- and early 1950s, published as Customs and Cul-
sionaries for part or all of their careers. tures in 1954, contributed greatly to an awaken-
The first of the numerous Protestant mission- ing within the missionary community to the need
ary conferences in the English-speaking world to for and benefits of anthropological insight. By
include formal discussion of anthropological the mid-1950s Nida had surrounded himself at
matters was the WORLD MISSIONARY CONFERENCE the Bible society with four very perceptive, an-
in Edinburgh (1910). Roman Catholics led the thropologically oriented translation consultants,
way on the Continent, sponsoring several work- W. A. SMALLEY, W. D. Reyburn, W. L. Wonderly,
shops on missions and ethnology. A notable cen- and J. A. LOEWEN. As these men worked with
ter for ethnological research was established in translators around the world, they demonstrated
Vienna by Schmidt, who devoted his professional the value of anthropology. In 1955, Smalley took
life to researching, teaching, and writing on lan- over the editorship of the bimonthly journal Prac-
guages and cultures in order to help missionar- tical Anthropology (PA), which Robert Taylor had
ies. For this purpose he founded the journal An- started in 1953 at Wheaton with the aim of ap-
thropos in 1906 and the Anthropos Institute in plying anthropology to missions. The writings of
1932. Nida, Smalley, Reyburn, Wonderly, and Loewen
Though the influence of professional anthro- in PA were formative for a generation of anthro-
pology on missionaries was small during this pologically oriented missionaries working in the
era, some impressive anthropological writing 1950s and 1960s.
66
Anthropology, Missiological Anthropology
From 1965 on, another stream of missiological stirred up the opposition of Christian anthropol-
anthropology was developing under DONALD MC- ogists. Among them are the overextension of evo-
GAVRAN at Fuller Seminarys School of World lutionary and relativistic thinking. Early on, one
Mission. McGavrans first faculty appointee was of Schmidts motivations was to combat the sim-
ALAN TIPPETT, an Australian anthropologist who plistic evolutionary theory concerning the origin
had worked for two decades in Fiji. The Nida and development of religion. His Origin of the
stream merged with this stream under Mc- Idea of God was so successful that most secular
Gavrans next two appointees, RALPH WINTER and anthropologists dropped the theory. Christians
Charles Kraft, both anthropologists strongly in- have not been so successful in convincing the an-
fluenced by Nida and the other PA contributors. thropological establishment that though certain
These events of the 1950s and 1960s laid the aspects of evolutionary and relativistic thinking
foundations for validating missiological anthro- make sense, they need to be balanced by the
pology within the professional subdiscipline of recognition that someone started things and es-
applied anthropology. Important publications of tablished certain absolutes.
the 1960s included Nidas Message and Mission There are four general areas in which the in-
and LOUIS LUZBETAKS Church and Cultures, which sights of anthropology are enabling greater ef-
focused helpfully on the dynamics of cultural fectiveness in Christian ministry. First, the two-
change. Tippetts Solomon Islands Christianity way flow of influence between missiological
showed how competent anthropology could be anthropology and BIBLE TRANSLATION continues
used to analyze Christian witness and practice. to be significant, especially in the United States.
KENNETH PIKES Language in Relation to a Unified Nida has had a lot to do with this. A second sig-
Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior, nificant application of anthropology relates to
though long and technical, contributed impor- the influences of culture on the communication
tant insights concerning the relationships of lan- process. Nidas pioneering Message and Mission
guage and culture. Many of the PA articles were brought this topic forcefully to our attention.
collected by Smalley in Readings in Missionary MARVIN MAYERS, a Wycliffe translator who taught
Anthropology, which was followed by Culture and at Wheaton and later at Biola, both highlighted
Human Values, a collection of perceptive articles
and broadened this theme in his important book
by Loewen.
Christianity Confronts Culture. A third important
In 1973, PA, then edited by Charles Taber, an
area of application is the contextualization or in-
anthropologist teaching at Emmanuel School of
culturation of Christianity. Kraft in Christianity
Religion, was merged into Missiology, the fledg-
in Culture creatively used linguistic and Bible
ling journal of the newly formed AMERICAN SOCI-
translation theory as well as basic anthropology
ETY OF MISSIOLOGY. Tippett became the first edi-
tor. This journal has maintained a strong focus and COMMUNICATION theory to produce a cross-
on anthropology. cultural perspective on theology. This book did
Currently, anthropology plays an important much to show both that an anthropological ap-
part in the majority of missionary training pro- proach can positively influence theologizing and
grams in evangelical institutions. The primary at- that CONTEXTUALIZATION should be an evangelical
tention of missiological anthropology is directed issue, not merely an ecumenical theory. A fourth
toward understanding the nature of CULTURE and important area presently in focus is that of
the pervasiveness of its influence on those we ap- WORLDVIEW.
proach with the gospel. A second concern is to In addition, we should mention Homer Bar-
understand the influence of culture on the mis- netts psychological anthropology and especially
sionaries themselves. To this has been added the his ideas on cultural change, which have had a
recognition that since the Bible is a cross-cultural strong influence on Tippett and Luzbetak. More
book, those who would understand and interpret recently, the symbolic anthropology of Clifford
it correctly need cultural insight. The articles in Geertz and Mary Douglas has influenced the per-
PA provided understanding of these and many spectives of Paul Hiebert and Sherwood Lingen-
other important areas. felter. Important recent books by missiological
Over the years, missiological anthropology has anthropologists include Tippetts Introduction to
sometimes followed the vogues of secular an- Missiology, Darrell Whitemans Melanesians and
thropology, sometimes resisted them. Missionary Missionaries, Hieberts Anthropological Insights
anthropologists have found congenial such secu- for Missionaries and Anthropological Reflections
lar anthropological insights as the focus on spe- on Missiological Issues, Daniel Shaws Transcul-
cific cultures, the strengths of research based on turation (1988), Lingenfelters Transforming Cul-
participant observation, certain aspects of the ture (1992) and Agents of Transformation (1996),
functionalist emphasis on the internal workings Hiebert and Eloise Meneses Incarnational Min-
of culture, the dynamics of cultural change, and istry (1995) and Krafts Anthropology for Christian
the necessity to understand WORLDVIEW. On the Witness (1996). A lifetime of dealing with the
other hand, certain secular emphases have Bible in cross-cultural perspective is summarized
67
Anthropology, Missiological Anthropology
in Jacob Loewens masterful The Bible in Cross- in time, would be displaced by rational, empiri-
Cultural Perspective (1997). cal science.
CHARLES H. KRAFT Opposition to evolutionary theories of religion
came from two quarters. In Vienna, Father Wil-
Bibliography. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Social Anthro-
helm Schmidt of the Kulturkreis School of An-
pology and Other Essays; S. A. Grunlan and M. K. May-
ers, Cultural Anthropology: A Christian Perspective; P. G.
thropology showed from missionary reports that
Hiebert, Cultural Anthropology; D. L. Whiteman, ed., most simple societies believe in an all-powerful
Missionaries, Anthropologists, and Cultural Change. creator God, a belief evolutionists attributed only
to advanced universalistic religions. In the United
States Franz Boas and his students called for em-
Anthropology of Religion. The anthropological
pirically based history to replace the armchair
study of religion is related to the sociological, speculation that had characterized evolutionary
psychological, and comparative studies of reli- theories.
gions. Its unique contribution lies in its data The theory of cultural evolution influenced the
mainly the study of non-Western tribal and FOLK modern mission movement in several ways. First,
RELIGIONSand its use of in-depth ethnographic many missionaries assumed the superiority of
descriptions and cross-cultural comparisons. An- Western civilization and peoples. Members of
thropological studies of religion fall broadly into other races might share in their goodness and
four periods, each characterized by particular wisdom, but Westerners were the leaders and
questions and theories. would remain so for a very long time. Missionar-
Evolutionary Theories of Religion. Like me- ies considered their task to be to civilize and
dieval Christian theologians, nineteenth- and Christianize the people they served. They built
early-twentieth-century anthropologists sought to schools and hospitals alongside churches, and
account for religions in a single comprehensive saw science as essentially a part of the curricu-
history, but unlike theologians they did so in nat- lum as the gospel. This equation of the gospel
uralistic terms. They postulated the evolution of with Western culture made the gospel unneces-
religion from simple animistic beliefs and prac- sarily foreign in other cultures.
tices to the complex religions of the present. They Second, many missionaries saw traditional re-
attributed this to the growth of human rational- ligions, with their fear of spirits, witchcraft, and
ity, and divided it into three stagesanimistic, magical powers, as animistic superstitions, and
metaphysical/theological, and scientific. Central assumed that these would die out as people ac-
to their debate were two questions: what were cepted Christianity and science. They saw little
the origins of religion, and what role did it play need to study these religions. Consequently,
in the evolution of human thought? many of the old beliefs went underground be-
E. B. Tylor (1871) attributed the origins to an cause the missionaries had not dealt with them
early belief in spirit beings that arose when prim- or provided Christian answers to the problems
itive humans, reflecting on the nature of dreams these addressed. Today these underground beliefs
and death, concluded that humans have invisible are resurfacing around the world and creating
souls which leave the body and wander to distant havoc in young churches (see also ANIMISM).
places. Later they extended this notion of spirit Social-Functional Approaches to Religion.
or soul to animals, plants, and even inanimate During the period between the World Wars, an-
thropologists were heavily influenced by sociol-
objects. From a belief in spirits, Tylor argued, it
ogy which held that social phenomena, like nat-
is only a small step to belief in the continuance
ural phenomena, obey laws discoverable by
of these spirits beyond death in an after-world,
empirical observation and human reason. Emile
their embodiment in objects, their possession Durkheim (1915) argued that religion plays a
of living persons, and the existence of powerful vital role in maintaining cohesion and moral
high gods. Robert Marett argued that belief in order in a society. He saw religion as a set of
spirits was preceded by a stage in which humans symbols that refer not to supernatural beings,
experienced a sense of awe at the great forces of but to the society itself. Gods, spirits, and other
nature, and came to believe in a mysterious im- religious symbols represent segments of a society,
personal power or mana. Sir James Frazer (1922) or its whole. By ordering these symbols in rituals,
posited that religious beliefs are rooted in pre- the social order is affirmed; and by declaring
logical beliefs in MAGIC based on two mistaken these symbols sacred, the authority of the society
notions of causality, namely, that of similarity is validated, and the egocentric impulses of indi-
(pouring water produces rain), and contagion viduals that threaten to destroy it are suppressed.
(acts performed on one part of a persons body, As individuals participate in religious rituals,
such as hair clippings, affects that person). Cul- they affirm their place in and subordination to
tural evolutionists took religious beliefs seriously, the society. Religions, therefore, serve vital posi-
but discounted these as prelogical and metaphys- tive functions in maintaining societies, but their
ical attempts to understand the universe, which, explicit beliefs cannot be taken as true state-
68
Anthropology of Religion
ments about the nature of reality, or even of how living largely on reservations. Their central ques-
the people view reality. tions had to do with religious change, and their
The central question social anthropologists chief contributions were a series of historical ac-
asked was, What functions do religions serve in a counts of nativistic and messianic movements
society? In England A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, who that often emerge where traditional peoples are
studied tribal religion in Sri Lanka, R. F. Fortune, overrun by modernity. Ralph Linton studied the
who studied sorcery among the Dubu, and Ray- Ghost Dance of the North American Indians, and
mond Firth, who investigated the ritual cycle of Glen Cochrane the Cargo Cults of Melanesia.
the Tikopia, believed that religions help maintain From such studies A. F. C. Wallace (1956) devel-
social cohesion and order by declaring sacred oped a broad theory explaining these revitaliza-
those things that were directly or indirectly es- tion movements. American anthropologists were
sential for their survival. also influenced by Sigmund Freud, who saw reli-
Bronislaw Malinowski (1935) went a step fur- gion as a projection of authority figures, and
ther. He refused to treat people as anonymous in- William James, who examined the personal emo-
dividuals trapped in social webs and their ideas tional dimension of religion.
as merely social projections, and recognized the The American school influenced missions
importance of religious beliefs qua beliefs. All through the writings of ALAN TIPPETT, LOUIS LUZ-
people, he said, have folk sciences by which they BETAK, JACOB LOEWEN, and other missiologists
seek to meet their human needs through under- dealing with CONVERSION and religious change,
standings of how the world works. Religion and and through the work of HAROLD TURNER and
magic, he noted, are rational responses to the those studying the African Independent Churches
universally experienced emotions of stress that (see AFRICAN INITIATED CHURCH MOVEMENT) and
arise when these sciences fail. The difference be- other new emerging religious movements (see
tween religion and magic is one of purpose. NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS).
Magic is utilitarian and instrumental. It is used Symbolic and Cognitive Anthropology. Before
to influence events such as unforeseen calamities World War II, some anthropologists rejected the
that are beyond normal human control. Religion, reduction of religion to social dynamics, and ar-
on the other hand, is an end unto itself. It pro- gued we must take religious beliefs seriously as be-
vides people with an explanation for suffering, liefs because they are what people believe to be the
crisis, and death, and thereby assures them that true nature of reality. Their central question was
the world is indeed orderly and meaningful. Ma- how religions give humans a sense of meaning.
linowski argued that we must understand the L. Levy-Bruhl (1926) saw primal religions as
world as the people see it to understand why they reflections of a primitive mentality which has
act as they do. its own rationality, one that is radically different
Social anthropology has had a deep impact on from that of modern science. Primitive logic, he
missions in recent years. Earlier, mission leaders argued, is mystical, and governed by emotions,
used geography to order their strategies. Mis- dreams, and notions about supernatural entities.
sionaries went to India, Africa, or other coun- JOHN TAYLOR (1963) captured this approach in his
tries, and divided these into mission fields. DON- study of African religions. These scholars overes-
ALD MCGAVRAN, PETER WAGNER, and the CHURCH timate the rationality of Western thought, and ig-
GROWTH MOVEMENT showed how social dynamics nore the fact that in much of their lives, all peo-
play a major role in the growth and organization ple use natural common sense.
of the church. They introduced concepts such as E. E. Evans-Pritchard also moved from func-
homogeneous groups (see HOMOGENEOUS UNIT tion to meaning in his study of magic and witch-
PRINCIPLE), people movements (see MASS MOVE- craft among the Azande (1937) and Nuer (1940)
MENTS), and RECEPTIVITY/resistance. The Un- of Africa. He argued that the Azande have sound
reached People movement shifted mission strate- empirical knowledge of nature which they distin-
gies based on geography to ones based on social guish from the mystical workings of magic and
organization (see PEOPLES, PEOPLE GROUPS). Both witchcraft, and that the latter are rational sys-
were in danger, however, of social reductionism, tems of thought, given the assumptions the
where success is based merely on understanding Azande have about the world. He held that cos-
and applying social principles and measured mological beliefs provide people with their cate-
largely in quantitative terms. gories of thought, and noted that tribal religions
American Historical Approaches to Religion. are this-worldly religions concerned with abun-
A second theoretical challenge to the theory of dant life and fullness of years.
cultural evolution emerged in North America, Edmund Leach, Mary Douglas, Victor Turner,
and came to be known as American historicism. and Claude Lvi-Strauss opened the door further
It was pioneered by Franz Boas (18581942), to cognitive structural approaches to the study of
A. L. Kroeber (18761960), and their disciples. religion. Douglas (1966) argues that religions cre-
They studied the North American Indians whose ate symbolic systems about purity and pollution,
cultures had been shattered and who were now sacred and profane that reflect and reinforce so-
69
Anthropology of Religion
cial orders. Victor Turner (1974) analyzed the Primitive Culture; A. F. C. Wallace, American Anthropol-
structure of religious rituals and showed how ogist, 58 (1956): 26481.
they serve as boundary markers, setting off vari-
ous types of social reality and transforming per- Antigua and Barbuda (Est. 2000 pop.: 68,000;
sons from one status to another (see also RITES OF 442 sq. km. [171 sq. mi.]). Antigua, an arid, vol-
PASSAGE). Lvi-Strauss (1966) affirmed that be- canic Caribbean island, and nearby Barbuda, a
hind the empirical diversity of religions, human coralline island, formed a British dependency of
minds are fundamentally the same everywhere. nearly 100,000 inhabitants until it became inde-
He contended that religion, like science, provides pendent in 1981. The inhabitants rely on tourism
humans with a sense of meaning by mentally or- and light industry. The population of the two is-
dering the world in which they live, and that this lands, 98 percent Afro-Caribbean, is in large part
meaning is generated by the universal uncon- nominally Protestant, of whom 12 percent are
scious processes of the human mind. evangelical.
Social and symbolic approaches examine the EVERETT A. WILSON
underlying structures of religions, but do not
SEE ALSO Caribbean.
study the content of their beliefs. Taking a prob-
lem-solving approach, Clifford Geertz argues that Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer-
religion provides answers to three fundamental ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His-
human experiences that threaten to make life tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to
meaningless: the problem of bafflement when the Present.
human explanation systems fail, the problem of
suffering and death, and the problem of injustice Apartheid. See ETHNOCENTRISM.
or feeling of moral disorder and chaos. Religion
answers these by appealing to higher realities Apologetics. Definitions and Distinctions. In a
outside of daily experience. Robin Horton (1964) general sense apologetics (from the Greek apolo-
goes further and examines the content of African gia, a defense) can be understood as the de-
religious beliefs. He sees them as theoretical fense of the distinctive beliefs or practices of a
models of reality, like those of science, but that particular religious tradition against criticisms
they transcend the everyday world of common from those outside that tradition. As such, apolo-
sense. Daryl Forde, Marcel Griaule, and others getics can be found among a variety of religions
show that religions are philosophical systems and usually occurs when a particular religious
that shape peoples worldviews. tradition is confronted with different religious or
Symbolic and cognitive anthropology has nonreligious perspectives that call into question
much to contribute to missions, most of which some of the central beliefs, values, and practices
has yet to be mined. These approaches take tra- of that tradition. Although the term is usually as-
ditional religions seriously, and help us to pro- sociated today with Christianity, the history and
vide Christian responses to the questions FOLK literature of Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Bud-
RELIGIONS ask rather than ignoring them as su- dhism are replete with examples of apologetics
perstitions. They help us understand the impor- directed at alternative religious and philosophi-
tance of rituals (see RITUAL AND CEREMONY) and cal perspectives.
myths (see MYTH, MYTHOLOGY) in religious life, Christian apologetics is the response of the
and the importance for missionaries influenced Christian community to criticisms of the truth-
by the modern denigrating of these to rediscover claims about God, human beings, sin, salvation,
their importance in the life of the church. How- and Jesus Christ, which are said to apply to all
ever, while taking the religious beliefs of people people in all cultures at all times. This inevitably
seriously, most intellectualists fail to raise the on- brings Christian faith into conflict with alterna-
tological question of the truth of these religious tive worldviews that assume quite different be-
beliefs. It is here that Christian anthropologists liefs. The history of Christian missions is in part
must go beyond the current approaches, and lead the story of very different peoples worldwide
in new ways of studying religions. coming to modify their worldviews and to accept
PAUL G. HIEBERT central Christian beliefs as true. An integral ele-
ment in this process has been successful Chris-
Bibliography. M. Douglas, Purity and Danger; tian apologetics, which helps people eliminate
E. Durkeim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life; obstacles to belief and resolve questions of doubt.
E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic
Theoretical apologetics, or problem solving
among the Azande; idem, The Nuer; J. G. Frazer, The
Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion; R. Hor- apologetics, is concerned with the objective justi-
ton, Africa, 34 (1964): 85104; L. Lvy-Bruhl, How Na- fication of the Christian faith irrespective of any
tives Think; C. Lvi-Strauss, The Savage Mind; B. Mali- human response. The purpose here is to answer
nowski, Coral Gardens and Their Magic; J. V. Taylor, The satisfactorily certain fundamental questions
Primal Vision; V. Turner, The Ritual Process; E. B. Tylor, about the truth of the Christian worldview: How
70
Apologetics
do we acquire religious knowledge? Can we blindness, and produces new birth (John 3:38;
know whether God exists, and if so, how? Are the 16:811; 1 Cor. 2:1416). But this does not make
Scriptures a reliable revelation from God? Did apologetics unnecessary any more than it renders
Jesus in fact rise from the dead? Discussion on evangelism optional. Although ultimately it is the
this level involves highly technical issues in disci- Holy Spirit who produces confidence in the truth
plines such as philosophy, history, archaeology, of the gospel within the believer (Rom. 8:16;
the sciences, biblical criticism, and so on. 1 John 3:24; 4:13), the Spirit uses various means
Applied apologetics, or apologetics as persua- in bringing about this conviction of truth. By re-
sion, is very much concerned with human removing obstacles to belief and also showing pos-
sponse to the proclamation of the gospel. It ac- itive grounds for belief, apologetics can be used
tively seeks to persuade others to accept Christian by the Spirit to produce confidence in the gospel.
faith as true. Applied apologetics involves appro- Scripture indicates that appeal to evidential
priate and culturally sensitive justification proce- factors in support of the truth-claims of Christian
dures and data in the actual defense of the truth- faith is legitimate. The examples of the Old Tes-
claims of Christianity to a particular target tament prophets, our Lord Jesus Christ, and the
audience. Effective applied apologetics must be apostles all illustrate appropriate use of eviden-
creative, flexible, and sensitive to the distinctives tial factors in support of ones claims. When chal-
of each audience. Applied apologetics builds on lenged on his authority to forgive sins Jesus re-
theoretical apologetics; answers to questions sponded by providing visible evidence of his
raised on the applied level (How can I be sure that authority in healing the paralytic (Mark 2:112).
God really exists?) are logically dependent upon Paul frequently appealed to various forms of evi-
answers to corresponding questions on the theo- dence in support of his claim that Jesus was the
retical level (does God exist?). But applied apolo- Messiah (Acts 9:22; 13:1641; 17:23, 2231) and
getics is person- and culture-specific in a way that the bodily resurrection of Jesus (1 Cor. 15:319).
theoretical apologetics is not. The kinds of issues Apologetics is not the same thing as EVANGE-
raised in an Islamic context will differ from those LISM. Evangelism, understood as the COMMUNICA-
emerging from Buddhist or post-Christian secu- TION of the gospel of Jesus Christ, has a certain
larist contexts. Appropriate levels of sophistica- priority over apologetics. But where appropriate,
tion in apologetic response will vary with individ- evangelism should be supplemented by an in-
uals, depending on educational background. formed and sensitive response to criticisms and
Appropriate means of persuasion will also vary questions, demonstrating why the unbeliever
with cultures; vigorous public debates on reli- ought to accept the gospel as truth. Both apolo-
gious issues might be acceptable in one culture getics and evangelism should be conducted with
but counterproductive in others. much prayer and conscious reliance on the Holy
A further distinction is often made between Spirit.
positive (offensive) and negative (defensive) Christian theologians do not agree on the na-
apologetics. Negative apologetics is primarily con- ture of appropriate Christian apologetics. Virtu-
cerned with responding to direct attacks on the ally all thinkers would accept that negative apolo-
Christian faith, showing that the criticism is un- getics is appropriate and necessary; erroneous
justified. Positive apologetics goes beyond merely views should be refuted and specific criticisms of
responding to attacks and attempts to demon- Christianity should be answered. But not all the-
strate that the unbeliever also ought to accept the ologians endorse positive apologetics. For some,
claims of Christianity as true. Positive apologet- any attempt to demonstrate the truth of the
ics tries to show that there is adequate reason or Christian faith is to subject God and his revela-
justification for accepting the truth-claims of tion to a higher norm for truth and thus must be
Christianity. rejected. Gods self-revelation is held to be self-
Theological Guidelines. Some biblical guide- authenticating and in need of no external corrob-
lines for apologetics should be noted. Scripture oration. Others regard this position to be episte-
teaches that the mind and thinking processes are mologically confused and contend that this view
tainted by sin, and that the mind is used to distort ultimately reduces to a cognitive relativism that
what we know to be true about God (Rom. is incapable of either justifying its own claim to
1:1820; 1 Cor. 2:14; 2 Cor. 4:4). But the effects of truth or rejecting alternative perspectives as false.
sin should not be exaggerated. For even the unre- Apologetics and Missions. Apologetics has a
generate retain the image of God and can know long, if not always distinguished, history in
some things to be true about God (Rom. 1:1921). Christian missions. The early church produced
Furthermore, the essential role of the Holy some brilliant apologists (Justin, Tertullian,
Spirit in effective apologetics must be acknowl- Clement, and later Augustine) who effectively ad-
edged. Apologetics, just like evangelism, is inef- dressed criticisms arising from Hellenistic cul-
fective apart from the work of the Holy Spirit on ture and Roman paganism. During the twelfth
the heart (1 Cor. 12:3; Titus 3:56). It is the Holy through fifteenth centuries writers such as Peter
Spirit who convicts of sin, removes spiritual the Venerable and RAYMON LULL wrote significant
71
Apologetics
apologetic works directed against Islam. Thomas getics; G. Lewis, Testing Christianitys Truth Claims;
Aquinas enormously influential Summa contra J. K. S. Reid, Christian Apologetics; P. Griffiths, An Apol-
gentiles was intended in part to be a training ogy for Apologetics.
manual for Christian missionaries among Mus-
lims in Spain. MATTEO RICCI in seventeenth- Apostasy. The deliberate abandonment of the be-
century China produced impressive and effective liefs and practices of a religion by one who was
writings directed to the cultural elite influenced formerly an adherent. The concept entered Chris-
by Confucianism. Nineteenth-century Protestants tianity through Judaism, where Old Testament
such as W. A. P. MARTIN in China and Joseph Ed- examples of individuals (2 Chron. 29:19) and cor-
kins in Japan wrote influential works defending porate Israel (Jer. 2:19) turning from Yahweh
Christianity and raising questions about oppos- are found.
ing perspectives. The New Testament contains examples of apos-
Some issues have been of perennial concern tasy and warnings against it. Judas is the prime
throughout various cultures and times. The prob- example, but others are also named (1 Tim.
lem of evil/suffering, for example, is a classic 1:1920; 2 Tim. 4:10). In the warning passages
problem for apologetics, which finds expression the writer of Hebrews reminds the readers of the
in writings from ancient Hellenism as well as in consequences of apostasy (6:48; 10:26).
Hindu, Confucian, and Buddhist critiques of Missionaries today likewise reckon with the
Christianity. The Renaissance and Enlightenment possibility of apostasy among converts, a possi-
in Europe placed a new set of issues on the table. bility often aggravated by persecution or false
Christian apologetics in the West in the past teachers. In this context the church must wrestle
three centuries has been dominated by the post- with a number of different issues, most of which
Enlightenment agenda, focusing on issues such have been given a variety of instructive responses
as the existence of God, faith and reason, the re- during the early history of the church.
lation between science and Scripture, the ques- What is essential to Christianity such that its
tion of miracles, the resurrection of Jesus, and denial indicates a denial of the faith? How far
the reliability of Scripture. Given the increasingly can one depart before becoming apostate? Apos-
global spread of MODERNITY and SECULARIZATION, tasy should be distinguished from heresy in both
non-Western churches will need to develop ap- kind and degree, although in practice the line is
propriate responses to these issues as well. How- not always easily drawn. Heresy is denial of one
ever, each culture also presents a unique set of or more tenets of the faith while still claiming to
challenges to the gospel. Thus Christian commu- be Christian, whereas apostasy is a total rejection
nities in various cultures will need to study their of the faith itself. Apostasy should also be distin-
own cultures, discern the particular challenges to guished from a temporary lapse in faith such as
Christian faith that arise within those contexts, that manifested by the apostle Peters denials
and respond in a biblically sound and culturally (Matt. 26:3135, 6975).
appropriate manner to those issues. How should apostasy be theologically under-
A particularly urgent problem facing the stood? Is it possible for a true believer to cease to
church worldwide is the increasingly vigorous at- believe and fall from salvation? Calvinists point
tack on the Christian claim to the uniqueness to Gods purpose and power to preserve his cho-
and sufficiency of Jesus Christ as the only Savior sen (John 6:3739; 10:2829) and to the eternal
for all humankind. Resurgence of the great reli- nature of regeneration in support of the view that
gions of Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism, com- the apostate has not lost his or her salvation, but
bined with a sense of nationalism and anti-West- was rather never genuinely saved in the first
ern sentiment, has made the exclusive claims of place. Apostasy reveals the unbelief earlier
Christianity highly problematical in many cul- masked by an outward profession and associa-
tures today. The West itself is increasingly char- tion with the believing community (cf. Judas,
acterized by ethnic and religious diversity. Such Matt. 7:2123; 1 John 2:19). Others point to the
pluralization, combined with growing disen- biblical warnings against departure, scriptural
chantment with Christianity in the West and in- examples, and anecdotal evidence in saying that
creased relativism in ethical and religious mat- an apostate actually loses his or her salvation.
ters, makes religious PLURALISM an extremely Once apostatized, is restoration possible? This
attractive ideology. Thus, whether in the West or question was important to the church in its first
in non-Western contexts, the church must be several centuries due to intense persecution and
prepared to show why it can claim that in Jesus frequent apostasy. In the early church restoration
alone can we find the Way, the Truth, and the was only possible beginning in the third century
Life (John 14:6). and then only through conditions of penitence.
HAROLD A. NETLAND Before that time apostasy was usually considered
Bibliography. D. Clark, Dialogical Apologetics; unpardonable. Church leaders sometimes made
W. Craig, Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apolo- distinctions among apostates, such as between
72
Apostle, Apostles
those who apostatized voluntarily and those who Apostolos is used eighty times in the New Tes-
did so under compulsion. tament and rarely used outside the New Testa-
How should apostates be treated by the faith- ment. Josephus used it only once in any compar-
ful? In the Reformation period both Catholics ative sense. Eighty-six percent of these 80
and Protestants used civil power to punish those occurrences are found in the writings of Paul
charged with apostasy. However, it later became (35x) and Luke (34x). The 11 other uses are
widely accepted that persuasion rather than cofound throughout the New Testament.
ercion was the Christian ideal. The word apostle is indebted to the Hebrew
Missionaries working among Muslims give term shaliach. A shaliach, as used by the Jews,
special consideration to Islams law of apostasy was someone sent by one party to another to
in understanding the spirit of intolerance and handle negotiations concerning matters secular
persecution and the consequent fear of conver- (such as marriage) or matters religious (such as
sion to Christianity. The general dictum of Mus- liturgical decisions between Jerusalem and the
lim tradition is, He that adopts any other reli- diaspora). But the universal mission of Jesus de-
gion shall be put to death. termined the precise New Testament definition
SCOTT CUNNINGHAM and prominence of the term.
The New Testament use of apostle arose out of
Bibliography. ERE, I:62326; S. M. Zwemer, The the need to authenticate a mission that reversed
Law of Apostasy in Islam.
the particularistic nature of salvation history.
This definition would stress (1) the relationship
Apostle, Apostles. The numerous appearances of to Jesus and his incarnation, and (2) the Chris-
the word apostle in the New Testament compared tians participation in extending the mission
with its relative absence from all other literary begun by Jesus.
sources can be traced in part to its intimate rela- In its broadest sense the word apostle can refer
tionship to the mission of the early church. The to a church sending members on a mission
New Testament writers, especially Luke and Paul, (1 Cor. 8:23; Phil. 2:23; Acts 14:4, 14). This mis-
picked up on Jesus rare usage of the word to give sion can include preaching the gospel, raising
importance to the missionary dynamic of the money, or ministering to another missionary. The
church. Apostle is almost synonymous with mis- number of those included in this broader sense
sion. The word is primarily used of the twelve men are unknown.
chosen by Jesus to accompany him and of Paul Apostles and Mission in Paul. From a literary
the missionary to the Gentiles. These, along with and theological standpoint, the first definition of
a small number of other apostles, were vanguard apostle can be traced to Pauls writings. He uses
missionaries as the gospel moved from Jewish the word throughout his writings (35x), with its
particularism to multicultural universalism. usage concentrated in 23 references in Romans
According to the Synoptic Gospels, Acts, and (3x), 1 Corinthians (10x), 2 Corinthians (7x), and
the Epistles, Jesus specifically designated at least Galatians (3x). Pauls polemical use of this term
these thirteen people to be his apostles. The can be traced to his Gentile mission (Rom. 1:5;
Twelve came out of Jesus own sociocultural con- 11:13; Gal. 12). The radical nature of Pauls
text, accompanying him on his mission to the preaching elicited opposition from Jews within
Jews (Matt. 10:12; 15:24; John 20:21). One of the and outside the church. How was Paul going to
Twelve abandoned his apostolic office and was re- legitimate his mission and message? He was
placed by Matthias (Acts 1:1626). Jesus chose a compelled to clarify his own special calling and
thirteenth apostle a few years after his ascension commission. Thus, Pauls use of the term apostle
(1 Cor. 15:9). Together, they were specifically cho- was fundamentally missiological.
sen to continue Jesus mission. The Twelve func- Pauls nonpolemical and even general use of
tioned to authenticate Jesus mission and message this term in 1 Thessalonians 2:6, when compared
of the inclusion of the Gentiles (Gal. 2:110; Acts with its use in his other early Epistles, shows the
1:1626); Paul was chosen especially to imple- extent to which his use of the term is tied to his
ment and clarify the mission to the Gentiles. need to authenticate his mission. Paul allowed
Biblical Study of Apostleship. Apostle (apos- for a general use of the word apostle while clearly
tolos) is defined by its use in the New Testament defending a technical use for an exclusive few.
and its relationship to the three words apostellom, While he calls a number of people apostles, he
pempom, and the Twelve. Apostellom (to send) is sees the Twelve (1 Cor. 15:3) and himself (Gal.
used frequently in the Gospels, Acts, and the 1:1) as apostles in a special sense.
Epistles when referring to an authoritative com- Pauls use of apostle in his discussion of his
mission. John never uses the word in a formal mission to the Gentiles shows the direct relation-
sense; rather, he uses the words apostellom and ship between apostle and mission. The Twelve
pempom as synonymous terms describing Jesus and Paul were responsible for clarifying the na-
authoritative mission and commissioning (John ture of the churchs mission (Gal. 2:110). Jesus
20:21). specifically chose the Twelve to extend his mis-
73
Apostle, Apostles
sion into the Jewish world and authenticate the These twelve lay the foundation of the mission
Gentile mission. Pauls personal mission was to in their ministry in Jerusalem. They, then, con-
implement, defend, and clarify the mission to the firm the strategic ministry of the Hellenists (Acts
Gentiles. Even when Paul stresses the revela- 6:17; 8:1414). Peters paradigmatic mission to
tional dimensions of the word apostle, the missi- the Gentiles reflects the nature of the church
ological implications remain prominent (Eph. (Acts 10:111:18; 15:135; 16:4). All other wit-
3:113). nesses who come after them are part of this
Apostles and Mission in Luke. Luke uni- chain of events that results in the inclusion of the
formly uses the word apostles (pl.) in LukeActs Gentiles. The apostles strategic role in salvation
(34x). He never specifically calls any one person history is both missiological and ecclesiological.
an apostle. In all but three occurrences (Luke Out of their missionary ministry arises a church
11:49; Acts 14:4, 14) it is used of the twelve apos- whose fundamental calling is to constantly push
tles chosen by Jesus. He uses the word six times forward into those areas where the gospel has yet
in his Gospel and twenty-eight times in Acts. to be heard.
Whereas in his Gospel Luke calls the apostles Lukes use of the word apostle for Paul (14:4,
disciples, in Acts he only calls them apostles. 14) merits a brief comment. In both of these in-
Luke alone specifically says that Jesus called the stances Barnabas is equally linked with Paul, and
Twelve apostles (Luke 6:13). in one instance (v. 14) the order of their names is
Lukes view of apostleship as seen in Acts is reversed. Luke, like Paul, uses apostles in a sec-
rooted primarily in his missiology and only secondary sense, that is, Barnabas and Paul are
ondarily in his ecclesiology. The decision of the apostles of the Antiochene church. Does Lukes
120 in choosing an apostolic replacement for failure to call Paul an apostle in the primary
Judas is the central event between the ascension sense indicate some tension between Pauls defi-
and Pentecost (1:1226). Why does this decision nition and Lukes? For Luke the Twelve are
on an apostolic replacement occupy such a unique (with this Paul agrees, 1 Cor. 15:9; Gal.
prominent place in Lukes narrative? Luke ac- 2:110), but Paul receives even greater promi-
cents its importance by giving the qualification
nence in Acts than do they. Pauls authority, mis-
and the definition of an apostle and by recording
sion, and effectiveness are, if anything, superior
only this event between the ascension and Pente-
to those of the Twelve. But for Luke each has a
cost (1:2125). An apostle is defined as someone
special role to play in world evangelization.
who has followed Jesus from the time of John the
Summary and Conclusion. The early church
Baptist until the resurrection. Second, his func-
found in the word apostle a key concept for de-
tion is to bear witness to the resurrection (cf.
Acts 1:1526 with 1 Cor. 9:1ff.; 15:711). scribing the unique nature of its mission. But it
The following conclusions can be drawn from was Paul and Luke in particular who unpacked
Acts 1:1526. The apostles are twelve in number; this term and left us with a rich theology of apos-
they must have accompanied Jesus since the time tleship. An apostle is a person who was with Jesus
of his baptism; and their basic function is wit- during his incarnation (a Lukan concept), wit-
nessing about the resurrection. Judas betrayal of nessed his resurrection, and participated in au-
Christ and abandonment of his office were thenticating and engaging in worldwide missions.
prophesied in the Old Testament. Second, God While Paul and Luke have unique develop-
directed the entire electoral process, even in the ments of apostleship, both agree that the twelve
casting of lots (2426). Third, Matthias is cho- apostles chosen by Jesus became missionaries to
sen just as the eleven were (Acts 1:2, 13). These the Jews and laid the foundation for a mission to
twelve Spirit-filled apostles chosen by Jesus will the nations. Both Luke and Paul agree that Paul
extend the mission begun by Jesus. had a unique role in this mission. Pauls prefer-
But why is it so important that Luke establish ence would be to use the term apostle to describe
the apostolic Twelve as a unique group and what his authority and mission. Although Luke uses
relationship does this have to the mission to the this for Paul only in a secondary sense, he would
Gentiles? Lukes definition of apostleship is readily agree with Paul that his mission and call-
found in the context of his overall purpose in ing are unique. The word apostle may be used in
writing a two-volume narrative of early Chris- this secondary sense today, yet not without clari-
tianity. For Luke, the inclusion of the Gentiles fying its meaning.
takes place, not as an aberration involving some There is, then, a fundamental relationship be-
marginal Christians, but through an unbroken tween the concept of apostleship and the mission
procession that begins with Jesus and continues to the world. Any definition of the term apostle
through the Hellenists and Paul. Luke wants to that neglects its missiological dimensions has
establish these twelve apostles chosen by Jesus as missed a central ingredient, without which the
successors of Jesus, thus legitimizing the Gentile term loses some of its dynamic.
mission. HAROLD E. DOLLAR
74
Argentina
Bibliography. F. Agnew, JBL 105 (1986): 7596; F. W. saw in Protestantism an ally against ignorance
Barnett, DPHL, pp. 4551; A. C. Clark, ERT 13 (1989): and superstition and against the excessive power
34483; K. Lake, Beginnings, pp. 3758; J. B. Lightfoot, of the clergy, and welcomed European immi-
The Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians, pp. 92101; grants. Dozens of groups settled in Argentina:
K. H. Rengstorf, TDNT, 1:40747.
British Anglicans (1824), Scottish Presbyterians
(1825), Welsh Baptists (1865), Italian Walden-
Archives, Mission. See MISSION LIBRARIES. sians (1859), German Lutherans (1843), and
Dutch Reformed. These immigrants tended to
Argentina (Est. 2000 pop.: 36,648,000; 2,780,400 settle close to each other in order to preserve
sq. km. [1,073,512 sq. mi.]). A nation with a their ethnic, cultural, and linguistic identity. They
strong European culture, nominally Roman generally did not engage in missionary work.
Catholic (85%), but with a sizable minority of A second path of early Protestant penetration in
Protestants (8%), and an important Jewish com- Argentina was the work of the American and
munity, Argentina occupies a long stretch in British Bible societies. Many colporteurs (see COL-
South America, sharing borders with Chile PORTAGE) traveled throughout the country follow-
(West); Bolivia and Paraguay (North); Brazil and ing a common pattern: First the Bible, then a
Uruguay (Northeast). convert, then a church. A third, later pattern of
One of the most remarkable features of Ar- penetration came with missionary activity fos-
gentinas religious history has been the endurance tered by the Protestant churches of Europe and
and the stability of the Roman Catholic Church. North America. Many of the missions came late
Throughout the colonial period (to 1810), the to Argentina because Protestant missionary soci-
Church remained unchallenged and monolithic in eties of the period considered the country to be al-
its dominance of public religion. Church officials ready Christianized. As late as 1910, for this rea-
breathed the spirit of the Roman religion into the son, the country as well as Latin America as a
structures of the Spanish colonial administration, whole was not included in the agenda of the
and Catholic cultural hegemony became an in- WORLD MISSIONARY CONFERENCE held in Edin-
evitable fact of life. Three centuries thus passed burgh. The needs of the region, however, were in-
between the beginning of Roman Catholic evan- creasingly recognized, and in 1916 the continent
gelization and the introduction of Protestant was officially considered to be a mission field by
Christianity. Apart from isolated cases, Protestant the Congress on Christian Work in Latin America,
penetration did not begin until the first third of which met in Panama that year (see PANAMA CON-
the nineteenth century. GRESS). By then, Protestant missionary efforts in
The advance of liberal ideas from France and Argentina, though limited, were eighty years old.
the growing political and economic influence of With the work of European and especially
the Anglo-American powers fostered such pene- North American missionary societies, a new
tration. These liberals saw in Protestantism an phase of Protestant expansion began, through
ally with which to confront the regalist and cler- conversion rather than immigration, as first the
ical order inherited from Spain, and looked to Presbyterians and later the Methodists, Baptists,
the Protestant countries as their political mod- Plymouth Brethren, and Seventh-Day Adventists
els. With the struggles between church and state arrived. In this way, Protestantism gained a
that followed independence, the power of the foothold in Argentina toward the close of the
Roman Catholic Church began to wane and nineteenth century and, through the establish-
Protestantism made inroads into Argentina. Dur- ment of mission churches and institutions, began
ing this period (181050), Roman Catholic rela- to develop and grow in size.
tions with the state were marked by acrimony. In the twentieth century, Protestant missionary
The Church lost the support of the state, which penetration in Argentina has occurred most reg-
sought to restrict the religious sphere of influ- ularly and effectively in the urban areas. The rate
ence by introducing civil registration and mar- of urban growth in Argentina, especially in the
riage, secularized cemeteries, abolishing tithes, past fifty-five years, has been very significant. In
and expropriating the Churchs lands. In spite of this urban context, new evangelical denomina-
these troubles, however, Catholicism retained tions have found extraordinary opportunities for
the loyalty of the masses and the Church contin- mission, especially the Pentecostals. Today, Pen-
ued to have structural links with the state. tecostal denominations represent 75 percent of
Because it was thus planted in a culturally hos- the Protestants in Argentina.
tile environment, Protestantism grew very slowly Most converts to Protestantism in Argentina
during the first decades of its presence. It ap- are nominal Roman Catholics. They integrate
peared in the country via three routes. At the be- into congregations that will receive the generic
ginning, it was an importation brought by Euro- qualification of evangelical, in the sense of non-
pean immigrants who came to the country as Catholic or Protestant. The different churches or
part of the colonizing efforts on liberal govern- denominations in the country generally tend to
ments. Leaders such as Domingo F. Sarmiento be strikingly heterogeneous and to reflect three
75
Argentina
influences: the social environment in which they William Durham and received the Pentecostal ex-
are developing, their particular ecclesiastical and perience. Returning to Canada he introduced
theological tradition, and their overseas links. others to Pentecostalism, emphasizing divine
The first type corresponds to mainline Protes- healing, the baptism of the Holy Spirit, and the
tantism, which is also called historical Protes- premillennial return of Christ. He founded Cal-
tantism, because it is related to the churches of vary Temple in Winnipeg, which became one of
the Reformation. It is found in the ethnic com- Canadas largest Pentecostal churches. From this
munities of immigrant origin and in the churches center he encouraged the establishment of other
founded by the missionaries of these groups, charismatic churches in the major cities of his
mostly from the United States and Europe, that homeland. He was also instrumental in the emer-
followed the settlers. With them, the historical gence of the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada
churches opened themselves to the native com- (191020). Leaving his business and ministry, he
munity. These churches are suffering a deep cri- became a traveling evangelist with his daughter
sis of identity and mission. Zelma and his son Watson during the 1920s and
However, todays most characteristic form of 1930s. Among his many publications, the most
Argentinean Protestantism is evangelical Protes- notable was a magazine, the Apostolic Messenger.
tantism. Evangelicalism in Argentina corresponds His preaching, leadership, church founding, and
to a current inside the great Protestant confes- writings led to the growth of the Pentecostal
sions associated with the free church tradition. movement in Canada. However, even more im-
This type includes both denominational and non- portant than these activities was the inspiration
denominational missions. The majority of these that his children and their spouses provided for
ecclesiastical institutions reached Argentina the movement of the Holy Spirit in their native
through missionary work from the United States. land.
So influential are these denominations that evan- ROBERT CLOUSE
gelical is today practically synonymous with
Bibliography. Z. Argue, Contending for the Faith.
Protestant in Argentina. This Protestantism is
fundamentally conservative in doctrine and firmly
committed to zealous evangelization. Armenia (Est. 2000 pop.: 3,813,000; 29,800 sq.
A third expression of Argentinean Protes- km. [11,506 sq. mi.]). Armenia is a landlocked,
tantism is Pentecostalism, represented either in mountainous republic of the former Soviet
autochthonous Pentecostal movements that Union, located in the southern Caucasus region.
emerged from the evangelical denominations or Armenia was evangelized during the third cen-
in movements that originated in the missionary tury and is considered to be the worlds first
work of European and American Pentecostals in Christian state. More than 75 percent of the pop-
the first decades of the twentieth century. In the ulation claims allegiance to the Armenian Apos-
second half of this century a new type developed, tolic Church, including nearly one hundred thou-
noted by the term charismatic movement or sand people who participate in a significant
charismatic renewal movement, which has autonomous evangelical movement known as the
drawn members from classic Pentecostalism as Brotherhood. Protestant evangelicals, the major-
well as from both the historical and missionary ity of whom are Pentecostal, are growing in num-
churches. An even more recent development and bers but make up less than one percent of the
in many ways the most dynamic one, is a post- population. Few expatriate missionaries serve in
denominational movement that Wagner calls the Armenia.
new apostolic reformation (see NEW APOSTOLIC RAYMOND P. PRIGODICH
REFORMATION MISSIONS). Interestingly, this move- SEE ALSO Commonwealth of Independent
ment is growing among the more traditional States.
evangelical churches.
PABLO DEIROS
Arminian Theology. Arminianism is an influen-
Bibliography. A. W. Enns, Man, Milieu, and Mission tial movement within Protestant Christianity
in Argentina: A Close Look at Church Growth; J. L. founded by Jacobus Arminius (15601609), a
Mecham, Church and State in Latin America: A History Dutch Reformed pastor, professor, and theolo-
of Politico-eclesiastical Relations. gian.
The Founder. Arminius lived during the revolt
Argue, Andrew Harvey (18681959). Canadian of the Netherlands against the domination of
Pentecostal pioneer, pastor, and evangelist. Spain, a conflict led by William, Prince of Or-
Reared in a Methodist family in Ontario, he re- ange, conducted intermittently from 1566 to
ceived a sixth-grade education before moving 1609. During this time, the Dutch Reformation
west to Winnipeg, where he became a successful was taking shape in the Netherlands. In 1581,
realtor and a lay preacher in the Holiness Move- Leiden University sent Arminius to study in John
ment Church. In 1907 he went to Chicago to hear Calvins Academy in Geneva, at the time the prin-
76
Arminian Theology
cipal Reformed university in Europe. Ordained a there has ever been a Church with the word go at
minister in the Reformed Church in Amsterdam, the center of its life, it is the Methodist
Arminius served as a pastor from 1587 to 1603. Church. . . . Any church must be missionary in
In the Reformed churches in the Netherlands, spirit or it dies. But this is particularly true for
Calvinism prevailed. A Presbyterian form of Methodism because its whole spirit and polity are
church government was adopted and the Belgic not proper for a finished institution. We must
Confession and Heidelberg Catechism were con- march or lose our life. . . . This devotion is the
sidered to be theologically foundational, together mark of a Methodist (1960, 3744).
with the Bible. However, there was also some Samuel Wesley, the father of John and Charles,
feeling that these theological documents should was so committed to missionary zeal that in 1705
be checked against the Bible as the only founda- he presented Queen Anne of England a compre-
tion for Christian faith. Arminius called for a free hensive scheme for the evangelization of the
church founded only upon the Holy Scriptures, East, offering to go himself as a missionary to
and a state that defended the opportunity for Abyssinia, India, or China (G. Smith, History of
freedom of conscience. Wesleyan Methodism, I:1859, 81). It is no wonder,
The Remonstrants. In 1610 a group of forty-four then, that six months after their fathers death,
ministers of the Dutch Reformed Church signed a John and Charles were on their way to the dis-
theological statement known as the Remonstrants, tant colony of Georgia, on the American conti-
supporting the emphases of Arminius. In 1618, rep- nent. John Wesleys famous saying, The world is
resentatives from most of the Reformed churches my parish, expresses the missionary and evan-
in Europe convened the Synod of Dort in Dor- gelistic concern which was Wesleys deepest pas-
drecht, the Netherlands. The Synod condemned siona passion Wesley received from his Armin-
Arminianism and followers of Arminius were ex- ian roots (see also WESLEYAN/HOLINESS MISSIONS).
communicated. They responded immediately by The theology of Calvinism arises, naturally
establishing a new denomination known as the Re- and properly, as a theology of the people of God
monstrant Brotherhood, with church laws based on within the household of God. An Arminian theol-
tolerance, peacefulness, and knowledge of the ogy arises equally naturally and properly as a the-
truth which accords with godliness (Titus 1:1). ology of mission to the unbeliever. . . . Wesleys
Theological Emphases of Early Arminian- Arminianism . . . was an Arminianism of the
ism. Solidly Reformed, the Remonstrants never- heart, a precondition of the missionary activity
theless vehemently opposed the Dutch Calvinist undertaken that all (people) might be saved by
view of predestination that before the fall, even the power of Christ (G. Nutall in G. McCulloh,
before creation, God had already determined the 1962, 5961).
eternal destiny of each person. The Remonstrants Arminian Contributions to Mission Theol-
emphasized the following five major points: ogy. Arminian thought has contributed to mis-
(a) that those who believe in Christ are saved sion theology in at least the following five major
and those who do not are damned, and that nei- areas. First, the insistence that Christ died for all
ther is the result of divine predestination; (b) that peoples (not only the elect) has provided a fun-
Christ died on the cross for the redemption of all damental and strong motivation for mission on
(people), not just the elect; (c) that (humans) re- the part of those churches grounded in Arminian
ceive saving faith not from their own free will but theology. Second, the emphasis on the experi-
from the grace of God by rebirth and renewal; ence of conversion and a personal relationship
(d) that all good works are solely due to the grace with Jesus Christ provided a powerful impetus
of God; and (e) that although humans can refor evangelism, support for revivalism and a call
main in a state of grace and will be sustained and for the transformation of all of life. Third,
protected by the Holy Spirit, it is possible for Arminianisms stress on prevenient grace (differ-
them, through their own negligence, to lose that ing from Roman Catholic natural theology and
state (Lambetus Jacobus van Holk, in G. McCul- Calvinist general revelation) emphasized that
loh, 1962, 28). Gods grace heals the disorders caused by sin
Wesleyan Methodism. During the next two cen- and perfects everything that can be called good
turies Arminianism became a primary stream in (in humans). Thus, all good works, without ex-
Protestantism in England, continental Europe, ception, are to be attributed to God alone, and to
and North America, due especially to the work the operation of his grace. This perspective pro-
and ministry of two of the most famous Armini- vided a remarkable openness to differing cul-
ans, John and Charles Wesley. English Methodists tural forms around the world, providing a foun-
regard Arminianism as their communions special dation for a very creative approach to cultural
heritage. analysis and contextualization.
Arminianisms Missionary Zeal. In The Marks Fourth, the Arminian call for religious freedom
of a Methodist, Methodist Bishop Gerald Kennedy of the church in relation to the state provided a
writes, Sometimes I think the GREAT COMMISSION free-wheeling, creative approach to mission that
was given with the Methodists in mind. For if was relatively unencumbered by the control of
77
Arminian Theology
colonial governments. Finally, the Arminian view Bibliography. J. Mather, ESB, p. 82; B. Sorrill, Annie
of human freedom and responsibility in syner- Armstrong: Dreamer in Action; idem, Annie Armstrong:
gistic cooperation with God, coupled with Wes- Shaper of Missions.
leyan and later Methodist emphases on disci-
plined Christian activism as Gods agents of Arnot, Frederick Stanley (18581914). Scottish
mission, provided the people and forms that missionary to Africa. Born into a Free Church
powerfully contributed to world evangelization family in Glasgow that later transferred to the
and social reform on every continent during the Christian Brethren, he was converted in his teens
last two centuries. and much influenced by DAVID LIVINGSTONE,
CHARLES VAN ENGEN whose family he knew. He attended Livingstones
funeral in Westminster Abbey in 1874, and was
Bibliography. C. Bangs, Arminius: A Study in the to edit his Missionary Travels and Researches in
Dutch Reformation; G. Curtis, Arminianism in History; South Africa (1899). Arnot went to South Africa
J. K. Girder, EDT, pp. 7981; G. Kennedy, The Marks of in 1881 and began the first of his many journeys
a Methodist; A. C. Knudson, The Doctrine of Redemp- into the hinterland. He was a peacemaker to
tion; K. S. Latourette, A History of Christianity; G. O. King Lewanika of the Barotse, and dissuaded
McCulloh, ed., Mans Faith and Freedom: The Theologi-
him from attacking the white settlers. After work-
cal Influence of Jacobus Arminius; T. Runyon, Wesleyan
Theology Today: A Bicentennial Theological Consultation;
ing in Angola he went in 1885 to the Belgian
G. Smith, History of Wesleyan Methodism; W. W. Sweet, Congo, invited by King Mushidi of Garenganze
The Story of Religion in America; H. O. Wiley, Christian (in modern Zaire), and there established a mis-
Theology. sion station.
Like Livingstone, Arnot was criticized both for
his independence (he was linked to no mission-
Armstrong, Annie Walker (18501938). Ameri-
ary society and happily helped colleagues of
can missions activist. Miss Annie was born in
other denominations) and for doubling as an ex-
Baltimore, Maryland, the fourth child of
plorerwhich brought him a fellowship of the
James D. and Mary E. Armstrong. Annies father
Royal Geographical Society. Arnot nevertheless
died when she was an infant; her mothers con- established many mission stations, despite mul-
victions about Christian missions and the influ- tiple obstacles including disease and lack of food
ence of her pastor, Richard B. Fuller, profoundly and water. His example brought other workers,
stimulated young Annie to missions activism. including Dan Crawford and the physician Wal-
She was a uniquely successful missions mobi- ter Fisher, and led to the founding of the Chris-
lizer, promoter, and supporter. One historian has tian Mission in Many Lands.
labeled her a Dreamer in Action. She led in the He published two volumes on Garenganze
formation of the Womans Missionary Union (1889, 1903) and wrote Missionary Travels in Cen-
(WMU) of the Southern Baptist Convention tral Africa (1913).
(SBC), establishing mission support networks and J. D. DOUGLAS
stimulating nationwide production of missions
Bibliography. E. Baker, The Life and Explorations of
educational literature for local SBC churches.
Frederick Stanley Arnot.
Baltimores urban plight aroused Armstrongs
social involvement. She demonstrated keen lead-
ership abilities and held several positions related Aroolappen (Arulappan), John Christian
(181067). South Indian (Tamil) churchman and
to home mission causes in the Convention. Her
evangelist. Born in Ukirramankottah, Tinnevelly
talents were nationally recognized in 1888 when
(Tamil Nadu), John Christian Aroolappen con-
she became corresponding secretary of the Con-
verted from Roman Catholicism to the Anglican
ventions newly formed Womans Missionary Church under CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH SCHWARTZ.
Union, serving without pay until 1906. The Aroolappen family later came under the in-
Armstrongs lasting influence was the estab- fluence of Karl Rhenius. Although trained as a
lishment of one-week prayer and offering em- catechist under Rhenius, Aroolappen by 1833
phases for foreign and home missions. CHAR- had accepted the ecclesiology and eschatology of
LOTTE MOON wrote from China requesting an the Plymouth (Open) Brethren through the in-
offering just before Christmas to support new struction of Anthony Norris Groves.
missionaries. The campaign succeeded largely Along with Groves, Aroolappen believed that
due to Armstrongs tireless efforts and still con- Christians should follow the apostolic methods of
tinues among Convention churches. A similar ef- evangelism portrayed in the New Testament. Fur-
fort was launched in 1895 to support HOME MIS- thermore, he believed that the gifts of the Holy
SIONS and is likewise still in effect. The latter Spirit remained available for the growth of the
bears Armstrongs name as a lasting tribute to a church. When news of spiritual awakenings in
life well spent for mission causes. America and the United Kingdom reached Tinn-
KEITH E. EITEL evelly, Aroolappen and his followers in Christian-
78
Arthington, Robert
pettah prayed for the outpouring of the Spirit not keep Christianity from having in many places
(Joel 2:2829) there as well. Revival began in a profound impact on indigenous art, as in the
March 1860 with phenomena that included case of the so-called Hindu renaissance in India
speaking in tongues, prophecy, and visions. Other and the presence of Christian artists in most ex-
notable features included prayer for the sick, hibits of contemporary African art.
helping the poor, women preachers, and the Happily the growing understanding of culture
evangelization of non-Christians, which Anglican and its role in faith and worship in our century
missionaries noted as the first entirely indigenous has made many missionaries sensitive to the im-
effort on the part of Indian Christians. Though portance of the arts. Again the Catholic mission-
the revival, which peaked in 1865, was criticized aries have taken the lead in founding centers and
by missionaries for its unusual phenomena and artists guilds where the arts have flourished
indigenous leadership, it did contribute to re- throughout the world, an advance that was
markable church growth in Tinnevelly. chronicled especially between the wars in the
GARY B. MCGEE pages of the journal Liturgical Arts. Notable
among Protestant efforts are the Church Art So-
Bibliography. A. N. Groves, Memoir of Anthony Nor-
ris Groves, 3rd ed.; G. H. Lang, History and Diaries of an
ciety (Episcopal) founded in Nanking, China, in
Indian Christian; Church Missionary Intelligencer 7 (Au- 1934; the Kado Art Association founded after
gust 1860): 17589. World War II in Japan; the Christian Literature
Society in Madras; and the wonderful work of
Art. From the time of the New Testament Chris- the Protestant church in Bali, Indonesia. All these
tians have used the various arts to express their efforts give promise that the younger churches
faith in Christ, often appropriating and in the and their mission activity will show us ways to
processtransforming art taken from the cul- bring the honor and glory of the nations into the
tures where they have proclaimed the gospel, as heavenly kingdom.
Paul did on Mars Hill. As the church spread WILLIAM DYRNESS
throughout the Roman Empire, Christians devel- Bibliography. W. A. Dyrness, Christian Art in Asia;
oped particularly the visual arts and architecture, A. Lehmann, Christian Art in Africa and Asia; M. Take-
and later, during the Middle Ages, music and naka, Christian Art in Asia; R. Taylor, Jesus in Indian
drama. These were all vitally connected with the Paintings.
worship of the church and marked the Christian
presence wherever it appeared. Nestorian Chris- Arthington, Robert (18231900). English mis-
tianity in China in the eighth century is marked sions philanthropist. Born on May 20, 1823, he
by a monument making use of fine calligraphy, gave generously to causes fostering frontier
and carved crosses near Peking date to the four- evangelistic initiatives among humanitys mil-
teenth century. lions without the gospel. After his death, his es-
After the Reformation, Catholic missions, with tate accrued approximately 1,000,000 for mis-
their strong liturgical traditions, continued to sion causes. The will allowed no endowments
feature the arts. MATTEO RICCI not only intro- and by 1936 his trust ceased. The impact of his
duced foreign influences into Chinese indigenous giving affected evangelical mission causes
arts but adapted Chinese ceremonies for Christ- throughout Africa and Asia.
ian purposes, stimulating a debate that finally led Arthington inherited 200,000 from his father
to a papal decision against him in 1704. Chris- in 1864. He rarely engaged in business himself,
tians in early-seventeenth-century Japan fash- relying instead on investment managers to in-
ioned holy pictures to grace their homes. In Latin crease his wealth. Living meagerly and alone, he
American and Filipino churches sculpture serves became the miser of Headingley because of his
as a visual record of the spread of Christianity. reluctance to give to local charities.
Similarly, Orthodox missions have carried with Yet he was charitable to causes he preferred.
them their consecrated icons that defined the sa- Arthington favored evangelistic missions rather
cred space of orthodox worship. than humanitarian ones, as well as those that re-
Modern Protestant missions inherited the icon- sisted creating social institutions in order to ex-
oclastic and word-centered theology that stems pedite advancing the gospel in unreached areas.
from the Reformation. As a result, while many While Arthington gave to various causes, the
missionaries made use of music and some, such LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY (LMS) and the Bap-
as WILLIAM CAREY, made special contributions to tist Missionary Society (BMS) received the most
the advance of literature, the visual arts were benefit because of their policies, not because of
largely undeveloped. Even the verbal arts and denominational preference.
music were, with a few exceptions, imported from Distinctly premillennial eschatological convic-
home rather than adapted from local materials tions invigorated his missiological ideas and
a practice that was, as often as not, encouraged shaped his aim of spreading the gospel among all
by the attitudes of national Christians. This did nations to hasten Christs return. Arthington
79
A-B Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:36 AM Page 80
Arthington, Robert
helped form strategic policies by his giving. Poli- entry pondering his motives for going to the
cies he inspired lend credibility to the claim that rough frontier territory. He concluded, I am
some evangelical organizations tended to limit going to live to God, and to bring others to so
their social entrenchment and resisted aligning do. If the statistics are any indication, he cer-
with secular governments that were bent on ac- tainly became the maker of a movement in his
complishing temporal imperialistic aims. Eccen- adopted land.
tric for his day, he nevertheless was an early KEITH E. EITEL
champion of UNREACHED PEOPLES, deinstitution-
Bibliography. F. Asbury, The Journal and Letters;
alization, interdenominational cooperation, and F. Baker, From Wesley to Asbury: Studies in Early Ameri-
BIBLE TRANSLATION. can Methodism; R. E. Richey, Early American Methodism.
KEITH E. EITEL
Bibliography. L. Pachuau, ICHR 28 (1994): 10525. Asceticism. Asceticism is a virtually universal
phenomenon in world religion found in various
Aruba (Netherlands Autonomous Area) (Est. locations and periods in both ancient and mod-
2000 pop.: 73,000; 193 sq. km. [75 sq. mi.]). An ern worlds. Its roots may be located in the earli-
arid, low-lying Dutch island just off western est stages of Indian civilization, probably dating
Venezuela, Aruba, together with nearby Bonaire from the third millennium B.C., although some of
and Curaao, was governed as an integral part of the worlds best-known ascetic traditions from
the Kingdom of the Netherlands prior to its se- this region such as Buddhism and Jainism
cession in 1986. Aruba was for a time the site of emerged in a later period. In the Western world,
an oil refinery. Most Arubans are Antillean Cre- Christian culture is the only one which has rec-
oles who speak Papiamento, a Creole language ognized asceticism as a legitimate way of life,
that includes many Spanish, Portuguese, and Christian asceticism having had its beginnings
Dutch words. The majority of the population is with St. Anthony in Egypt at the end of the third
Roman Catholic; 10 percent is Protestant. century B.C.
EVERETT A. WILSON Its varied religious and cultural expressions
make asceticism a complex phenomenon difficult
SEE ALSO Caribbean. to define. In broad terms, however, asceticism in-
Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer- volves rigorous self-discipline and the habitual
ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His- renunciation of natural human desires in order
tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to to cultivate the spiritual life or attain a higher
the Present. spiritual state. The principal traits of the alterna-
tive lifestyle which asceticism represents include
Asbury, Francis (17451816). English mission- withdrawal from society, mystic contemplation,
ary to North America. Born to Joseph and Eliza- and such austere practices as fasting, poverty,
beth Rogers Asbury in Handsworth near Birm- sexual abstinence, and self-inflicted physical or
ingham, England, he had little formal education, mental pain.
but apprenticed himself to JOHN WESLEY. Upon Throughout the history of the church Christian
arrival in America, he set himself to the task of ascetics have usually gravitated toward ascetic
evangelizing and establishing churches among communities or monastic orders, through which
the migrant pioneers of the emerging country. much of their spiritual energy has been chan-
During the American War for Independence, As- nelled toward missionary activity and social serv-
bury was the only one of Wesleys missionary am- ice. While sincere seekers may be found among
bassadors to remain. Throughout his itinerant various groups of non-Christian ascetics, at-
preaching ministry, he traveled the rugged re- tempts to reach them are often hindered by their
gions by horse, approximately three hundred lack of accessibility and sense of self-sufficiency.
thousand miles from Canada to Georgia and the IVAN SATYAVRATA
Atlantic coast to Kentucky. Bibliography. R. L. Gross, The Sadhus of India: A
In 1784 Wesley appointed both Asbury and Study of Hindu Asceticism; W. Kaelber, ER I:44145;
THOMAS COKE to the office of superintendent. V. L. Wimbush, Ascetic Behaviour in Greco-Roman An-
Soon Asbury assumed the title of bishop contrary tiquity: A Sourcebook.
to Wesleys wishes. His independent spirit be-
came a hallmark of his ministry, and his single- Asia. Asia covers thirty independent nations in
minded mission led to the firm founding of the vast areas of land from Japan in Northeast
American Methodism. In 1771, when Asbury ar- Asia, numerous other nations in Southeast Asia
rived, there were approximately three hundred and South Asia, and up to Turkey in West Asia.
Methodists; by the time Asbury died in 1816, Asia represents three major cultural blocs
there were over two hundred thousand. Asbury (Mesopotamia, India, and China) and the birth-
contributed greatly to this amazing growth. places of the major living WORLD RELIGIONS of
When sailing for America, Asbury made a journal Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
80
Asia
The regions population of approximately three which derives from chauvinistic, patriotic pas-
billion represents 60 percent of the worlds total sion has been expressed in cultural, linguistic,
population. Its five thousand years of history and religious ways. A common motto throughout
have made it a continent of rich cultural heritage. Asia is Import Western technology, but retain
The major wars of the past four decades have your own traditional culture.
been fought in Asia, bringing much suffering to Third, the rise of the communist threat was
millions of Asians but also awakening them to real throughout Asia during the Korean War
their need for spiritual values. (195053) and the Vietnam War (196475). Com-
Historian Arnold Toynbee once stated, The munist ideology still controls over two billion
changing events of Asia will decide the future of people in China, North Korea, Vietnam, Kam-
the world tomorrow. With the rapid moderniza- puchea, and Laos. In these countries the activi-
tion and economic dynamism of Asian nations, ties of national churches and of foreign religious
particularly in the Asia-Pacific basin (Japan, Tai- workers are restricted.
wan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and China), many Economic and Social Changes. One word that
are saying that the 21st Century will be the Age describes Asia the best is changes, for Asia is
of Asia. rapidly changing in social and cultural patterns
Changing Patterns of Asian Societies: Politi- as well as in economic living standards. New
cal Changes. Politically, there are three major building construction sites for high-rise apart-
factors affecting Asia and the Asian church. First, ments, department stores, and government of-
every nation in Asia except Japan and Thailand fices are commonly observed in major cities of
have experienced bitter foreign colonial domina- Asia. Rapid URBANIZATION, traffic congestion, air,
tion, especially from the Western nations. But noise, and water pollution, drugs, prostitution,
today all nations in Asia are politically independ- and crime have marred the dreams of many
ent. National independence from political COLO- Asians. The lifestyle of the urban cities is getting
NIALISM has brought enormous changes in the po- more materialistic, secularistic, and Westernized.
litical structures of the national governments as However, rural people are still living as they al-
well as many internal conflicts and wars among ways have for hundreds of years. There is a
different ethnic groups in many Asian nations. widening gap between urban and rural and be-
Related to independence and strong NATIONALISM tween rich and poor. With the increase in eco-
is the withdrawal of Western powers, finalized nomic power, many Christians in Asia are not
for Britain in July of 1997 when Hong Kong re- only able to manage their churches financially
verted back to China. The mass exodus of British but also to support their own missionaries within
troops from the former colonies in South and and outside their borders.
Southeast Asia, the French defeat in former With the rise of living standards and the rapid
French Indo-China (Vietnam, Cambodia, and MODERNIZATION of Asian society, Asians are facing
Laos), and the American military withdrawal many social and cultural changes. The influx of
from South Vietnam, Taiwan, and the Philippines Western cultures into Asia through mass media
have created a political vacuum in many regions. by introducing Hollywood movies into theaters
In the past it was the foreigners who controlled and TV, rock music, fashion shows, and other
the internal as well as foreign affairs of their secular and hedonistic events along with fast
colonies. The expatriates regulated missionary food chains have made a tremendous impact
activities according to their own national inter- upon Asian lifestyles. Consequently, there is an
ests. In contrast today an increasing number of increasing gap between the older and younger
Asian nations have used political pressures generations. Young people today care much less
against foreign missionary activities in their about traditional culture, have no memory of the
countries, especially in the communist (China, wars and the sufferings of their parents genera-
North Korea, Vietnam, Kampuchea, and Laos) tion, and readily accept new ideas and practices.
and Islamic (Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Religious Resurgence. There are three large
Malaysia, and Central and Middle Eastern) na- non-Christian religious groups which constitute
tions. Hindu nations (India and Nepal) and Bud- the majority of Asias three billion people: one bil-
dhist nations (Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myan- lion Muslims, 700 million Hindus, and 300 mil-
mar) also bring pressure against Christian lion Buddhists (see ISLAM, HINDUISM, BUDDHISM).
activities. In 1997 more than 83 percent of the There has been a resurgence of major religions in
Asian population resided in countries where the Asia and religions are used by the national gov-
acquisition of a missionary visa was very limited. ernments to promote unity among different
A creative access strategy is needed in order to fa- tribes, cultural groups, and languages. The influ-
cilitate alternative ways of carrying on mission- ence of Islam, seen in the reintroduction of
ary activities (see CREATIVE ACCESS COUNTRIES). Sharia and the rise of Islamic fundamentalism,
Second, as a result of this self-control, Asian is growing. Malaysia exemplifies this. The Feder-
nations are experiencing a resurgence of nation- ation of Malaysia consists of West Malaysia,
alism and traditional values. This resurgence Sarawak, and Sabah. It has 22.3 million people,
81
Asia
52.5 percent of whom are Malays, 30 percent India and Nepal represents more than 700 mil-
Chinese, 8.1 percent Indians, and 8.9 percent lion Hindus in 2,000 unreached groups. Most of
tribals. The Federation is trying to unite these the 300 million Buddhists are found in Southeast
different races through the unification of lan- and Northeast Asia, representing approximately
guage and religion. The Malaysian government 1,000 unreached people groups. The Chinese in
enforced the Bahasa Malaysian program in China today represent by far the largest number
which the Malay language is used, instead of the of unreached peoples in the world with 1.2 bil-
vernaculars. Consequently, there has been a grad- lion people, living in some 1,000 unreached peo-
ual assimilation of the Chinese and Indians into ple groups. There are millions of other people
the Malay Islamic culture. who belong to 3,000 small individual tribes.
Buddhism, too, has been revived in Thailand, Therefore, Asia still presents the greatest chal-
Myanmar, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, and other Buddhist lenge to Christian missions today and in the next
nations. Throughout urban cities and rural com- century.
munities one can observe thousands of devout Most nations in the 10/40 WINDOW do not eas-
Buddhists worshiping the statues of Buddha and ily grant visas for foreign missionary work. Ap-
offering food and burning incense in Buddhist proximately 20 percent of the total missionary
temples. force in the world works in these restricted na-
In India, Hinduism was also revived through tions in Asia. This means that the future focus of
its reform movements such as Brammo Samaj, world missions in the twenty-first century must
Arya Samaj, and Rama Krishna Mission of the be on the two billion unreached peoples of Asia.
nineteenth century. Radical Hindu followers of With the development of modern transportation
the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the and mass media through television, film, radio,
Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) contributed sig- telephone, fax, and e-mail service, we can now
nificantly to rejuvenate Hinduism and Hindu na- know the background of these unreached peoples
tionalism in India and make minority communi- in Asia (see also INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, MEDIA,
ties of Muslims and Christians feel threatened and MASS COMMUNICATION). The GLOBAL CONSUL-
and insecure by insisting that a true Indian must TATION OF WORLD EVANGELIZATION (GCOWE 95)
be a Hindu. which met in Seoul, Korea, with 4,000 partici-
In Japan, there is a renewed interest in tradi- pants from 186 nations in May 1995 adopted a
tional religious traditions, including some signs motto, A church for every people and the gospel
of increasing links between the state and Shinto- for every person, and challenged all participants
ism. Nevertheless, with rapid church growth in to pray especially for the unreached peoples of
many nations in Asia, there has been an increas- the world within the 10/40 Window.
ing confrontation between Christianity and other Expansion of Christianity in Asia. The his-
traditional religions of Asia. Therefore, it is cru- tory of Christianity in Asia goes back to the first
cial for the Asian church to learn how to deal century. According to the Acts of Thomas, St.
with the traditional religions of Asia. Thomas came to the Malabar coast of Kerela,
Asia: The Least Evangelized Continent. Asia South India, to preach the gospel to the Indians
is the least evangelized continent in the world, and became a martyr near Madras in A.D. 72. The
with approximately 3 percent of the three billion Christian message penetrated into the regions of
people following Christ. Johnstone provides sta- Media, Persia, Parthia, and Bactria (modern Iraq,
tistics of seven large Asian nations which have Iran, and Afghanistan) by A.D. 150. According to
small Christian populations, including China, the Nestorian Tablet which was discovered in the
Taiwan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Japan, and city of Sian in central China in 1625, a Nestorian
Thailand. The vast majority of the unreached missionary from the Syrian church, Alopen, went
people today reside in these countries. to China in A.D. 635. During the Mongolian Em-
The AD2000 and Beyond Movement has empire of the twelfth to thirteenth centuries, several
phasized the evangelization of unreached peoples Roman Catholic friars such as John of Plano
in the 10/40 WINDOW. These countries cover the Carpini, JOHN OF MONTECORVINO, and William
whole continent of Asia from Japan to India, and Rubruck went to China as missionaries.
from Central Asia to North Africa. The Adopt-a- With the historic voyage of Vasco Da Gama to
People Campaign of the U.S. Center for World Capetown, South Africa, in 1498 and to Malabar,
Mission in Pasadena reports that there are ap- India, two years later, the Western colonial age
proximately two billion people in 11,000 unknown as the Vasco Da Gama Age began in
reached people groups (out of a worldwide total Asia, Africa, and South America. FRANCIS XAVIER,
of 24,000). a Jesuit missionary, came to Kagoshima, Japan,
The vast majority of these two billion are in 1549 and ministered to the Japanese for more
found in four major blocs. The Islamic world than two years, moved to South China in 1552,
contains over one billion Muslims, most of whom and died there after four months. Since then,
reside in Asia, with over 4,000 unreached Muslim thousands of other Roman Catholic missionaries
people groups in the world. The Hindu world of have been commissioned to Asia.
82
Asia
The beginning of the Protestant missions in the dom in Asia, was very hostile to the gospel until
early eighteenth century heralded another era in a multipolitical party system developed in 1991.
Asias mission history. In 1706 the first Protestant It has experienced remarkable church growth
missionaries arrived in South India from Europe. from only a handful of believers to over 52,000
The DANISH-HALLE MISSION sent BARTHOLOMAEUS Protestant members (0.56% of the population)
ZIEGENBALG and Henrich Plutschau to Tranque- and 2,100 Roman Catholics (0.02% of the popu-
bar to work among the Tamil-speaking Indians. lation) today.
In 1792 the BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY in En- Slower growth has been seen in countries
gland commissioned WILLIAM CAREY to Calcutta, such as Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, and India.
India. He did missionary work in India for forty- Minimal growth has been experienced in nations
one years. In 1807 ROBERT MORRISON of the LON- where there are tremendous struggles and re-
DON MISSIONARY SOCIETY came to Macao and sulting pressures from unsympathetic govern-
translated the Bible into the Chinese language. In mental and religious leaders, such as Pakistan,
1813 ADONIRAM JUDSON from the United States ar- Bangladesh, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and the Mid-
rived in Rangoon, Burma, and ministered to the dle Eastern nations.
Burmese for thirty-seven years. Since then, thou- Seven Basic Issues of an Asian Church. Many
sands of other Protestant missionaries from Eu- Asian church leaders and theologians have dis-
rope, North America, and Australia/New Zealand cussed various issues of the Asian church
have followed these pioneers to work in different through different consultations. With the rapid
parts of Asia. growth of the church in different parts of Asia,
Church Growth in Asia. The amazing church the Asian churches are facing seven important is-
growth in Asia since the end of World War II has sues: (1) grassroots evangelism must be empha-
been widely reported throughout the world. Sev- sized in order to reach the vast number of non-
eral countries have experienced dramatic rates of Christians in Asia; (2) leadership training for
church growth. The Christian population in both full-time Christian workers and lay leaders
South Korea has reached 12 million Protestants is needed since there is a tremendous shortage of
(25% of the population) and 2.4 million Roman trained leaders at the local church level; (3) since
Catholics (6% of the population) among 47 mil- lay Christians play a very important role in
lion people since the arrival of the first Protestant church growth, there has been an increasing de-
missionaries in Korea in 1884. China, the most mand for lay training programs; (4) national
populous nation in the world, had never ex- Christians must seriously evaluate their own con-
ceeded one percent Christian population until the textual situation in order to find the most effec-
Peoples Republic of China was established in tive indigenous ways to communicate the gospel
1949. Since the modernization of China began in of Jesus Christ (see CONTEXTUALIZATION); (5) theo-
1979, the Christian population has sharply in- logical issues emerging from various kinds of
creased. Some China watchers in Hong Kong re- ASIAN THEOLOGIES, religious DIALOGUE, RELIGIOUS
port that there are between 50 million and 70 PLURALISM, and HUMAN RIGHTS have created the-
million Christians and 50,000 house churches ological confusion in the Asian theological arena;
(see CHINESE HOUSE CHURCH MOVEMENT), even (6) Christian social responsibility with its holistic
though the Three Self Patriotic Movement approach must be emphasized to help the poor
(TSPM) and the Communist Party only acknowl- and to alleviate the suffering from social injustice
edge the growth of the church from one million and discrimination; and (7) spiritual renewal
Protestant members in 11,470 churches in 1949 within the church is desperately needed to bring
to 7,000 state churches with 6 million Christians spiritual revival among the members of the
and 20,000 registered home meetings in 1995. church. There must be a discernible difference
The Philippines, which is the only Roman between the lifestyles of Christians and their non-
Catholic nation in Asia, has a growing number of Christian neighbors.
Protestant believers. Indonesia, with the largest The Asian Missionary Movement. It is en-
Muslim population in the world, has also experi- couraging to observe that many Asian churches
enced rapid church growth. After the communist particularly since 1970 have been sending their
coup failed in Indonesia in 1966, President own cross-cultural missionaries. Many Asian
Suhartos government guaranteed religious free- church leaders who attended the international
dom to five major religions (Islam, Hinduism, missions congresses were deeply challenged for
Buddhism, Protestantism, and Roman Catholi- the task of world evangelization, and as a result
cism) according to the Pantasila policy in the organized their own national and regional evan-
Constitution. Singapore, known as the cross- gelism congresses and missions consultations
roads of Asia with a multiracial and multireli- (see ASIAN MISSION BOARDS AND SOCIETIES).
gious background, has Protestant and Roman Consequently, the Asia Missions Association
Catholic populations of 8 percent and 5.7 percent (AMA) was organized in 1973 to coordinate mis-
respectively, particularly among educated Chi- sions agencies throughout Asia. In 1990 the First
nese and Indians. Nepal, the only Hindu king- Asian Missions Congress was held in Seoul,
83
Asia
Korea, sponsored by the Missions Commission of phasizing the spiritual gifts: It was he who gave
the Evangelical Fellowship of Asia (EFA) with some to be apostles, some to be prophets, and
1,200 participants from different parts of Asia. some to be evangelists, and some to be pastors
The theme of the congress was World Missions: and teachers, to prepare Gods people for works
The Asian Challenge. The Second Asian Mis- of service, so that the body of Christ may be built
sions Congress was held in Pattaya, Thailand, in up (Eph. 4:1112). There is a Chinese proverb
1997 with 350 participants with the theme, Into that teaches a similar lesson, Give a man a fish
the 21st Century: Asian Churches in Missions. In and he will eat for a day. Teach a man to fish and
1997 approximately 30,000 Asian missionaries he will have food for a lifetime. It was impera-
from India, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, tive, therefore, for Paul to train the leaders of the
Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Ephesian church in order that they would be able
and others joined their hands with Western mis- to train others to bring the gospel to 500,000 peo-
sionaries for world evangelization. Two nations ple in the city of Ephesus. Likewise, the training
in Asia which sent out the largest number of of national church leaders in the Asian church
cross-cultural missionaries were India and South
today is also imperative in order to reach three
Korea with 20,000 and 5,500 cross-cultural mis-
billion Asians with the gospel. These spiritual
sionaries respectively.
leaders will be able to mobilize the laity of the
Challenge of Asia to Christian Missions
Today. As Paul had his missionary concern for church at the grassroots level in order to pene-
the Jews and Gentiles in Palestine, Asia Minor, trate into the non-Christian Asian society with
Macedonia, Achaia, and Rome in the first cen- the gospel of Christ.
tury, so Asian Christians today must have their Therefore, three important proposals need to
deep prayerful concern to reach their own people be stressed for the evangelization of Asia. First,
with the gospel of Christ on the grassroots level. the burden of communicating the gospel and
How Paul evangelized the largest city of Ephesus making disciples in Asia today must rest primarily
in Asia Minor in the first century provides a very with the national Christians. Therefore, the na-
significant missiological lesson to the Asian tional church must implement the concept of
church today. There are a number of similarities Christianization of the nation among the na-
between the Ephesus of Pauls time and urban tional Christians. Second, effective church growth
cities in Asia today and between the Ephesian in Asia depends on the creative and spirit-filled
church then and the Asian church in our time. If leadership of pastors and lay leaders. Third, and
Paul were to come to Asia today and walk on the finally, the top priority of the Asian church in the
streets of Bombay, Singapore, Jakarta, Bangkok, twenty-first century must be the training of na-
Hong Kong, Shanghai, Taipei, Seoul, and Tokyo, tional church leaders in order that they would be
what kind of ministry would he launch to bring able to mobilize the laity of the church.
the good news of the gospel of Jesus Christ to God has always worked through his chosen
Asians? people in the history of redemption. Peter says in
The city of Ephesus of the first century and 1 Peter 2:910, But you are a chosen people, a
Asian cities today have three main similarities. royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belong-
First, Ephesus, which was the largest city in Asia ing to God, that you may declare the praises of
Minor with a population of 500,000, had a great him who called you out of darkness into his
harbor, emporium, library, commerce, education, wonderful light. Once you were not a people, but
and culture. Likewise, Asian cities are crowded now you are the people of God; once you had not
with the masses of people and many high-rise received mercy, but now you have received
buildings developed in modern surroundings. mercy. In centuries past God has used the
Second, as Ephesus was the religious city with
churches in Europe and North America to bring
the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:2341), so is Asia
the gospel to Asia, Africa, and South America.
today filled with spirits, idols, and superstitious
Asia, known spiritually as the darkest continent
beliefs of traditional religions of Hinduism, Bud-
dhism, Taoism, Shintoism, and Islam. Third, in the world with the least Christian population
Ephesus was a sinful city, as Paul described it as of any continent, is experiencing Gods spiritual
having lost all sensitivity, they have given them- awakening among its peoples. God has chosen
selves over to sensuality so as to indulge in every Asia and the Asian church in the twenty-first cen-
kind of impurity, with a continual lust for more tury to proclaim his wonderful light to millions
(Eph. 4:19). Likewise, Asian cities are filled with of Asians and around the world.
sin, crime, drugs, sexual immorality, bribery, and BONG RIN RO
injustice. Bibliography. S. Athyal, ed., Church in Asia Today;
When Paul faced the great task of evangelizing D. E. Hoke, ed., The Church in Asia; S. H. Moffett, A
Ephesus and many other cities in Asia Minor and History of Christianity in Asia; M. Mohamad and
Europe in his time, he concentrated on the lead- S. Ishihara, The Voice of Asia; B. R. Ro, ed., Christian
ership training of the Ephesian church by em- Suffering in Asia; P. T. Welty, The Asians.
84
Asian Mission Boards and Societies
Asian Mission Boards and Societies. General more than the average Western missionaries. Ad-
Description. Though Asian missionary activity is ditionally, without senior missionaries on hand
recorded as early as 1884, it was not until the to provide supervision, oversight, and pastoral
1970s that the rest of the Christian world began care, the new missionaries are forced to exercise
to notice this activity. In 1972, there were over great creativity sometimes just to survive the rig-
100 mission agencies in Asia. Growth continued ors of the field.
so that out of the 1,541 NON-WESTERN MISSION Fifth, there is a surprisingly high rate of finan-
BOARDS AND SOCIETIES known in 1995, more than cial autonomy among Asian mission boards. Re-
825 were Asian. The most active countries are cent estimates indicate that 91 percent of the
India (with an estimated 281 agencies in 1995), Asian boards are funded by indigenous sources.
Korea (113 agencies in 1994), Japan (63 agencies This is particularly true of Japanese and Korean
in 1995), and the Philippines (20 agencies in boards, and most missionaries from these coun-
1995). Well-known agencies include the Indian tries are well supported by sponsoring churches
Mission Association, which in 1995 included 81 and agencies. Missionaries from India, the
member mission boards with some 10,000 Indian Philippines, and Indonesia have generally not
missionaries (with as many as 200 other Indian fared as well.
mission agencies not yet part of the Indian Mis- The final characteristic is the mix of denomi-
sion Association). These numbers do not include national and parachurch sending agencies. In
workers who operate independently within their countries such as Korea and Japan denomina-
own country. In the Philippines alone, it is esti- tional boards are the major contributors to the
mated that 2,000 nationals serve in this capacity. mission board scenario. In Korea, both Hap
Characteristics. One important characteristic Dong and Tong Hap Presbyterians are the two
of Asian missions is the phenomenon of mission- largest sending agencies. Between them they
aries crossing cultural boundaries within their send out more than one-fourth of the missionar-
own country. Following CASTE divisions, some es- ies from Korea. By way of contrast, the vast ma-
timate that India has at least three thousand PEO- jority of the members of the Indian Mission As-
PLE GROUPS. The vast bulk of Indian missionary sociation are parachurch organizations.
work is carried out within India. This is also seen Relationships with International Agencies.
in other major Asian missionary-sending coun- Some of the early attempts to send out Asian
tries such as Indonesia and Myanmar. missionaries were through indigenous mission
A second characteristic is that Asian mission agencies. An Indian Methodist was sent to
boards cannot be equated with Western agencies, Malaysia in 1884. The Korean Presbyterian For-
which have elaborate structures and manage- eign Mission Board sent out the first team of
ment systems. Many of the Asian boards are still cross-cultural missionaries to Shantung, China,
simple with inexpensive systems, relying more on in 1913. International mission agencies began to
faith than man-made management structures. formulate sending bases in Asia during the
This is especially true with the mission agencies 1960s. The CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY ALLIANCE
that send people within their own country. Ad- (CMA) and the OVERSEAS MISSIONARY FELLOWSHIP
ministrative overhead expenditures are therefore (OMF) were pioneers in this endeavor. Pate esti-
very low in comparison with Western agencies. mates that somewhat more than 6 percent of the
A third characteristic is that Asian boards are total Third World mission force serves with in-
focusing their deployment into the 10/40 WIN- ternational organizations. One of the advantages
DOW. Indian mission boards have sent approxi- of utilizing international agencies is the enjoy-
mately five hundred missionaries into Nepal, ment of the benefit of already well-established
Bhutan, and Uzbekistan. Most of the Myanmar field structures.
missionaries stay within their own country, At the same time, however, there are prices to
which is part of the 10/40 Window. There are ex- be paid for these inconveniences. The high cost of
ceptions, such as Korea, Japan, and Hong Kong, supporting missionaries to equalize pay scales be-
where the boards have greater financial re- tween Westerner and non-Westerner is one. Addi-
sources to send missionaries into non-Asian con- tionally, the cultural differences within a multina-
texts and out of the 10/40 Window. tional team (and organization) can be a source of
Fourth, with some exceptions, there seems to problems. Finally, the fact that the non-Western
be tremendous creativity in Asian mission missionaries often have to learn the organizations
boards. With very little support, for example, Ko- language (often English) in addition to the ver-
rean missionaries are being sent to remote places nacular of their field of service raises an extra bar-
in China. Their boards, lacking the elaborate rier to the development of true partnership.
communication and management structures of Conclusion. The Asian missionary movement
Western boards, have no choice but to allow a is still young. For the time being, Asian mission
great deal of freedom to the missionaries. This boards can afford to be simple without elaborate
means that the missionaries must be more able support systems, such as retirement plans, a
to stand on their own and be willing to suffer complicated pastoral care system, and large
85
Asian Mission Boards and Societies
schools for missionary children (MK). The hon- ject of study. Also, there is a tendency on the part
eymoon period, however, is rapidly disappearing. of most Western Christian observers to view such
Missionaries from countries such as Korea, movements with indifference or disdain.
Japan, and India are struggling with the educa- In Korea, popular folk religion is polytheistic,
tion of their children. The cases are so complex claiming eight million gods, including nature gods
for Korean mission boards that it has taken al- and the spirits of the living and dead. Divination,
most a decade to get a consensus on the objec- fortune telling, geomancy (religious significance in
tives for MK education. Additionally, field struc- the orientation of buildings), ancestor worship,
tures also present tremendous challenges. So far, and shamans (mudang) and shamanic rituals (kut)
a scattered effort without much teamwork with their elaborate dances and songs are all im-
among the Asian missionaries satisfied some portant elements in popular folk religion.
Asian churches. Currently there is a need for field Nationalism is also a significant element. This
structures to coordinate and encourage a team is eminently true of the first postPacific War
effort. It will take time and effort to creatively new religious group, the Tonghak (Eastern
formulate infrastructures that are new, afford- Learning) movement. Some of the new religions
able, and flexible enough for the ever-changing teach that Korea will become chief among the
world. worlds nations. Most new religions are directed
Maintaining the momentum of the Asian mis- toward alleviating economic and health prob-
sionary movement is a heavy burden that Asian lems; they anticipate a utopia on earth. Some
mission boards must carry. Logically this burden new religions, such as Won Buddhism, are close
should be borne by the Asian church. However, to traditional Buddhism. Others, such as Sun
the Asian church is being bombarded with secu- Myung Moons Unification Church, are similar to
larism and is threatened by major traditional Christianity, yet alien to orthodox Christianity.
Asian religions. Can the Asian mission boards The South Korean governments statistics put
still afford to do missions, even when it is be- total membership at about one million in 1983
coming more costly and risky? Probably not (3% of the total population). The number of ad-
without the initiative taken by Asian churches. herents has not grown greatly because, unlike
The well-being of the Asian mission movement neighboring Japan, Christianity has proved to be
and the future of Asian mission boards will more powerful in attracting the masses.
greatly depend on how the Asian church tackles In modern Taiwan, prior to 1949, the year of
these challenges. the communist takeover in mainland China,
DAVID TAI WOONG LEE many Buddhist and Taoist clergy, including
SEE ALSO Non-Western Mission Boards and So- renowned leaders like the Taoist Heavenly Mas-
cieties. ter, moved to Taiwan from the mainland, creating
a strong Buddhist influence there. Many new
Bibliography. L. Pate, From Every People: A Hand- temples were built and old ones refurbished.
book of Two-Thirds World Mission with Directory/Histo- In popular religions, belief in ghosts and wor-
ries/Analysis; Korea Research Institute for Mission, Ko-
rean Mission Handbook; L. Keyes, The Last Age of
ship of ancestors is the backbone. One of the
Missions; H. Y. Kim, From Asia to Asia: A Study on Mis- most popular observances is the Pho To festival
sion History of the Presbyterian Church in Korea (Universal Salvation). It is so widely celebrated
(18761992). that it is considered to be a force of unity in the
country. At this festival the suffering souls in the
Asian New Religious Movements. During the underworld are released to enjoy a month of free-
past 150 years, a wide variety of popular religious dom. People give offerings and join in celebrating
movements have emerged throughout Asia. In the climactic ghost-feeding ritual, ghosts being
some countries, such as Japan, these appear in or- the departed spirits of strangers.
ganized form as new religions, but in other Among the new religious groups are Li Chiao
countries they are amorphous and unorganized. and Hsuan-yuan Chiao. One of the more aggres-
Thus, the discussion of religious phenomena in sive Buddhist sects is Hsi Lai. It claims to be a re-
countries other than Japan must deal with popu- turn to the pure teachings of the Buddha. Hsi
lar religion in a somewhat broader sense than Lai literally means coming to the West, and
new religious organizations as such. New is rel- this sect has visibility on the West Coast of the
ative, and must be used in contrast to the ancient United States.
established traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism, In Hong Kong, as in Taiwan, Buddhist, Con-
Confucianism, and so on, referring to movements fucian, and Taoist influence is prevalent, but the
mainly, but not confined to, the twentieth century. extreme secular materialism of Hong Kongs
With the exception of Japan, little literature is commercialism precludes the development of
available on these movements in most of the influential new religious movements. Popular
Asian countries. Their newness and their fluid FOLK RELIGIONS of the common people are cen-
and changing nature makes them a difficult ob- tered in ancestor worship, but even this is losing
86
Asian New Religious Movements
its religious meaning, leaving only its social century, the number of groups grew to 414 in
significance. 1930. The end of the Pacific War, when official
Both Malaysia and Indonesia are predomi- state Shinto was dismantled, brought religious
nantly Islamic in background, and in recent freedom, so by 1950 there were 742 New Reli-
decades have seen new thrusts of Islamization. gions registered with the government. This num-
Since Malaysia gained independence from Great ber has been greatly reduced since then.
Britain, there has been renewed effort to instill The New Religions usually arose as a response
the ideals of Islam: peace, love, cooperation, hon- to some kind of social crisis, the major crisis
esty, hard work, honor, and abstinence from li- being the defeat of Japan in the Pacific War. Typ-
centious behavior. ically, they are founded by charismatic leaders,
In Indonesia a new Islamic association, Sare- often a female who could be identified as a
kat Islam, was formed in 1912 and spread like shaman. They tend toward monotheism, having
wildfire into a million-member group which one deity, one founder, and one revelation which
eventually came to lead a nationalist movement. sets the doctrine. They have a definite body of
In the Philippines, tribal religion has produced teaching, which usually takes a simplistic, opti-
many movements and cults that are separate mistic view of the human situation. They are syn-
from the mainstream of Roman Catholicism. For cretistic, drawing from several strands of religion
instance, tribes in northern Mindanao are known and culture, along with the worldview of Western
for their strong belief in the invisible forces of the science. They hold a this-wordly eschatology
spirit world and their peculiar rituals. In 1931 a they see that society can change toward a utopian
violent anticlerical sect called Colorums of Cen- goal. They offer concrete, material blessings and
tral Luzon arose, aiming to establish an inde- prosperity to their followers. They have an elegant
pendent Philippine government. sacred center, a national headquarters which
There are numerous modern native cults in the functions as a foretaste of paradise for the be-
Melanesian Islands of the South Pacific. Life lievers who gather there. There is an emphasis on
here, lived in a half-way world between ancient health and healing of sickness, and an emphasis
paganism and envied modern Westernization, on the power of positive thinking to solve lifes
has given rise to some bizarre cults. For example, problems. They have effective propagation meth-
in 1939 a European missionary agitated for the ods and are easy to join, and have ways of getting
need for a chairman and rules of procedure in sizable offerings from members once they have
formal meetings. He was misinterpreted, and a joined.
new religious movement called the Chair and We may classify a few of the large representa-
Rule Movement arose in the Solomon Islands, tive groups in Japan into the following three cat-
which elevated a flag, a wooden chair, and a egories. The old New Religions, or those
wooden ruler into a place of ritual importance. founded before the Meiji Restoration, are repre-
In India, exposure to nineteenth-century sented by Tenrikyo (Religion of Heavenly Wis-
British colonialism and modernization, along dom), founded by Miki Nakayama in 1838, who
with Christian missions, stimulated various Neo- identified the deity as God the Parent.
Hindu reform movements and new religious The Omoto Group. (1) Seicho on Ie (House of
movements. After the introduction of Christian- Growth), established by Masaharu Taniguchi in
ity by WILLIAM CAREY in 1793, there was a call for 1930, is a cross between Japanese spiritual tradi-
religious and ethical reform among Hindu intel- tion and American New Thought. (2) Sekai
lectuals. This resulted in the Samaj (Society) Kyuseikyo (World Messianity), established by Mo-
movement. In the nineteenth century, under the kichi Okada in 1950, focuses on the ritual of jorei,
leadership of Keshab Chandra Sen, there arose which channels divine light and healing through
the Brahmo Samaj (Theistic Society), seeking a the outstretched palm of the hands. (3) Perfect
religious synthesis of Hinduism and Christianity. Liberty Kyodan, founded by Tokuchika Miki in
The Ramakrishna Mission, founded by Rama- 1946, takes as its motto, Life is art: live in a bal-
krishna Paramahamsa, has now spread through- anced, creative, esthetically expressive way. Sports
out India and also to 120 locations abroad. It and crafts are an important part of their religious
teaches the essential unity of all religions and the practice.
potential divinity of humans (see also HINDU NEW The Nichiren Group includes the largest and
RELIGIOIUS MOVEMENTS). strongest organizations: (1) Soka Gakkai (Value-
In Japan there have been a great number of creating Society), founded by Tsunesaburo
organized modern sects technically called Shinko Makiguchi in 1937, claimed to be the fastest
Shukyo (New Religions), and more recently a growing religion in the world in the 1950s, num-
new phenomenon called Shin-shinko Shukyo bering 750,000 households. A later leader,
(new New Religions, sects of the past decade, Daisaku Ikeda, also established a political party,
which generally focus on immediate benefits Komeito (Clean Government Party), which he
combined with mystical experience). Even under claimed would usher in a time of peace and
government control in the early decades of this plenty all over the world. (2) Rissho Koseikai,
87
Asian New Religious Movements
now counting more than six million members, be relevant and expressed in the language of the
was established through the efforts of Nikkyo Ni- common people, addressing the situation they
wano and Myoko Naganuma in 1938. Their em- confront.
phasis has been on happy living, taught in small Poverty and suffering have been rampant in
groups called hoza, and on world peace and in- Asia. An Asian response came from the Japanese
terreligious cooperation (see also JAPANESE NEW scholar Kazoh Kitamori. He wrote of the pain of
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS). God that heals our pains, developing his study
Although the new religious movements of Asia from Jeremiah 31:20, where God speaks of his
are too varied throughout time and culture to heart yearning for Ephraim. Kitamori under-
make any general statement, at least it can be stood the reality of God through the pain of God,
said that they are a clear sign of the hunger of the which is seen to be essential as well as eternal.
human spirit for something beyond physical and Gods revelation of his love through Jesus Christ
economic life. With this comes a challenge to was the revelation of this pain. Theology in these
Christian mission to satisfy that hunger. terms certainly addresses the suffering context of
We also are made aware of the intricate rela- Asia, but could easily tend to justify or even deify
tionship among religion, culture, politics, and su- suffering.
perstition. To be a truly redeeming influence in Kosuke Koyama, a Japanese professor, after
this complex situation, the church must realize many years in Thailand, proposed water buffalo
its own cultural biases, strive to understand the theology. He incorporated Christian beliefs into
dynamics of the new spiritual phenomena into Thai thinking by using their daily experiences
which it is thrust, and at the same time discern with life, nature, and habits alongside teachings
the essence of the Christian faith, being willing to of Buddhism. Koyama was also concerned to
let go of nonessentials for the sake of contextual- communicate the gospel effectively to a people
izing the meaning of Christ in any particular cul- caught in a technological revolution and culture.
tural setting. He emphasized that God worked slowly and so
KENNETH J. DALE we, too, must slow down to a walk. Only then can
we hear God speaking. Koyamas theology is not
SEE ALSO New Religious Movements. systematic and needs further development. His
Bibliography. K. Dale, Circle of Harmony: A Case concern for the communication of the gospel to
Study in Popular Japanese Buddhism; H. B. Earhart, common people in Asia is commendable but the
The New Religions of Japan; J. H. Grayson, Korea: A Re- tendencies toward SYNCRETISM and UNIVERSALISM
ligious History; N. McFarland, The Rush Hour of the minimize the uniqueness of the Christian gospel.
Gods; J. A. Saliba, Perspectives on New Religious Move- Minjung, meaning people, is a peoples theol-
ments; F. von der Mehden, Religion and Nationalism in ogy developed in Korea (see also MINJUNG THEOL-
Southeast Asia; R. Weller, Unities and Diversities in Chi- OGY). Like its Latin American counterparts, it is a
nese Religion. political theology describing a struggle to free
common people from the domination of the rul-
Asian Theologies. Asia is a complex continent ing class. Accordingly Minjung theologians focus
with many diverse cultures. These cultures are on two main realities of the peopletheir social
directly linked with major religions such as Hin- history and economic condition. They try to re-
duism, Buddhism, and Islam as well as with a va- late the gospel of Jesus to the struggles and aspi-
riety of animistic religions. Christianity in most rations of the people of Korea in their sociopolit-
parts of the continent is a minority religion al- ical situation. There are three main sources of
though the influence of Christian missionaries Minjung theology. First is the Bible and a new in-
has been significant. Christian theology has had terpretation of the biblical truths to show how
to interact with these religions and their contexts God dealt with the people. It recognizes the
and in recent decades numerous theologies have Deuteronomic code and the covenant code in the
evolved. Old Testament were given to protect the rights of
The complexity of Asia includes more than re- the poor people. The second source is the history
ligion. A contrast of rich and poor, rural and of the church, noting that the early beginnings of
urban, and ancient and modern make the people Christianity were among people who were a mi-
a diverse mass. Within such a context, a variety nority in their own communities. The third is the
of theologies have developedsome remaining peoples struggle for LIBERATION.
local while others have made a worldwide im- Although lacking a sound biblical basis, the-
pact. Kitamoris pain of God theology and ologies like Minung are taking root in other
Koyamas water buffalo theology are familiar to Asian countries wherever there are peoples
theologians all over the world. But there are struggles. For instance, Aloysius Pieris of Sri
many others that are local. Common to all these Lanka, concerned for the millions of poor people
theologies is the concern that Western theologi- on the continent and the numerous religions they
cal concepts are sometimes incomprehensible belong to, affirms that Christianity must give an
and irrelevant to the Asian context. They need to answer. Pieris advocates an Asian theology of lib-
88
Asian Theologies
eration. Pieris proposal is for tackling poverty Such a classless society is not possible where re-
within the pluralistic religious context; all reli- ligion becomes a potential force for strife. There-
gious dialogue must be in the context of the poor fore interreligious dialogues are important chan-
and oppressed. So Pieris calls for an effective nels for a Christ-centered SYNCRETISM, where
marriage between DIALOGUE and liberation. whole religious systems and ideologies, not just
Among other concerns, Pieris believes that for individuals, are converted to Christ. The mission
the churches in Asia to become churches of Asia of the church will result in a Christ-centered
the process of INCULTURATION must confront Asias Hindu church. The churchs mission is primarily
poverty. Also, interreligious dialogue has to take that of humanization and not evangelization. Al-
place at the level of human experience of suffer- though M. M. Thomas is acknowledged as an
ing. Basic human communities instead of outstanding scholar and thinker, some critics
basic Christian communities must bring Bud- show his work to be political and sociological
dhists and Christians together in their common rather than theological. His works are seldom
struggle for liberation. This will enable an inte- biblical. Thomas attempted to find revelation in
gration of Christian love with Buddhist wisdom. revolutions. Important aspects of theology deal-
There is another group of theologians who ing with God, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit
have grappled with Asias religious context. Ex- are undermined except with reference to human
clusivism belongs to colonial thinking, they say, action.
and we need to be more open to incorporating Stanley Joseph Samartha is an Indian theolo-
truths from other religions. For instance, Ray- gian of religion. He proposes that Hindus have
mondo Panikkar, a prominent Roman Catholic positively responded to Christ in their own way
theologian, attempted to link Hinduism and and accordingly asks the vital question, What
Christianity through Jesus Christ. He proposed does it mean to affirm that Jesus Christ is Lord
that Christ is present in the very core of Hin- and Savior today in India? Recognizing various
duism. This is Panikkars Unknown Christ of levels of Hindu response to Christ, Samartha says
Hinduism. He advocates a transformation of that the church needs to appreciate this fact
Hinduism to Christ without losing its identity. rather than being unduly suspicious. The Hindu
Panikkar further reconciled in the Christian must be considered a fellow citizen in the com-
Trinity the three ways of Hindu spirituality, monwealth of Christ and not as a recruit to the
namely, karma marga (action irrespective of re- kingdom of God. Samartha identifies the Hindu
ward), bhakti marga (of intense devotion), and anubhava (experience) as the main source of
jnana marga (exercise of intellect). For Pannikar, knowledge and our starting point. But anubhava
the Trinity is the junction where the authentic should be controlled by the historical fact of
spiritual dimensions of all religions meet. But Christ and it should have a social dimension that
with these concerns, Pannikar minimizes the is sustained, strengthened, and transmitted to
uniqueness of the biblical revelation of Jesus others in the fellowship of the church. Thus, ac-
Christ. Proclaiming the gospel also becomes cording to Samartha, Christ can be expressed as
unimportant. Brahman. Samarthas question is a valid starting
MADATHILPARAMPIL MAMMEN THOMAS, Asias point but like others he surrenders the UNIQUE-
lay theologian, made a significant contribution NESS OF CHRIST as portrayed in the Bible. He of-
to world ecumenical theology. With very little for- fers new interpretations of the cross, resurrec-
mal theological training, he took the human sit- tion, deity of Christ, and the meaning and
uation as the starting point for all his theological purpose of the death of Christ have little justifi-
reflection. Thomas acknowledges three revolu- cation from the Bible.
tions in the world: first, the scientific and tech- Evangelicals in Asia have not been known for
nological revolution; second, the revolution of major theological contributions. Most evangelical
the oppressed classes, nations, and races seeking theologians in Korea, Japan, Singapore, and India
social and international justice; and third, the tend to follow generally Western forms of theolo-
revolution of secularization. The church either gies that restrict mission to proclaiming the
shunned these revolutions as demonic or became gospel. But recently people like Vinay Samuel and
part of them blindly. Thomas recommends that Ken Gnanakan have developed biblical theologies
we identify those values prompted by Christ such that make the Christian faith strongly relate to the
as freedom, humanness of the community, and Indian context. Samuel has addressed mission in
involvement in the historical destiny of humans. terms of total transformation. Gnanakan advo-
The mission of the church is to participate in cates the actualization of the gospel in sociopolit-
these movements in such a way that we may ical, economic, and environmental demonstra-
witness to Jesus Christ as source, the judge, and tions of mission. Both maintain the uniqueness of
the redeemer of human spirituality. These revo- Christ while exploring newer ways of demonstrat-
lutions become partial fulfillment of the KINGDOM ing Gods mission in Asia.
OF GOD. Thomas advocates an open SECULARISM The 1980s saw the development of the so-
that will bring about a responsible world society. called Dalit theology. Dalit is a Sanskrit word that
89
Asian Theologies
means oppressed, broken, or downtrodden. In a mote among its members fellowship, spiritual
broad sense it is a concern for all the oppressed life, and professional usefulness in the study,
sectors of people in the society, but Dalit theology teaching, and mobilization of mission.
is particularly concerned for a huge mass of peo- The APM normally holds one annual meeting,
ple (about one-fifth of the total population of usually the second week of June, often scheduled
India) who were referred to as Harijans or chil- to coincide with the annual meeting of the AMER-
dren of God by Mahatma Gandhi. The Harijans ICAN SOCIETY OF MISSIOLOGY (ASM). The annual
are outside the traditional caste system of India, meeting usually includes presentations, work-
and are considered to be out-castes, ritually im- shops, discussion groups, and sharing of experi-
pure, and therefore untouchables. They have a ences and resources related to the teaching of
long history of oppression, an unsuccessful strug- mission. Once every four or five years there is a
gle for justice, and they continue to constitute the presentation of the syllabi that members have de-
poorest of the poor. veloped for the teaching of mission.
Many Dalits became Christians during the Membership is open to professors of mission
MASS MOVEMENTS in the nineteenth and twenti- at member institutions of the American Associa-
eth centuries and comprise an estimated 70 per- tion of Theological Schools and, by invitation of
cent of the Indian church. The advocates of Dalit the executive committee, to other qualified per-
theology strongly feel that hitherto the develop- sons. Members represent conciliar Protestant,
ment of Indian Christian theology ignored this Roman Catholic, evangelical, Pentecostal and
reality and wrote theologies addressing the charismatic traditions.
higher castes, particularly the Brahmins. Various CHARLES VAN ENGEN
forms of Dalit theologies are making their mark Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, Missiology 41:1 (1976):
both within ecumenical and evangelical 7587; W. R. Hogg, Missiology 15:4 (1987); 58786;
churches, strongly underlining the need to relate IBMR 56 (1967): 222ff.; N. A. Horner, Association of
theologies to the needs of these masses. Professors of Mission, 19521999; J. Scherer, Missiology
All Asian theologians have one thing in com- 13:4 (1985): 44560; J. Siewert, ed., Dictionary of
mon. There is a strong desire to address the con- Schools and Professors of Missions in the USA and
Canada; J. D. Woodberry, C. Van Engen, and E. J. Ellis-
text within which their people live. There is a
ton, eds., Missiological Education for the 21st Century.
missiological focus in their theologies, but this
focus varies with ones definition of mission.
Evangelicals will stress the need to directly make Association, the Socio-anthropology of. Of
known the redemptive message of Jesus Christ in vital importance to the churchs mission in gen-
the diverse context of Asia. eral and urban missions in particular is the study
KEN GNANAKAN
of voluntary associations or common interest
groups that have accompanied rapid social
Bibliography. T. D. Francis and F. J. Balasundaram, change and URBANIZATION. Not only should mis-
eds., Asian Expressions of Christian Commitment: A sion strategists capitalize on this, but anthropo-
Reader in Asian Theology; K. Gnanakan, ed., Biblical logically speaking, mission societies need to rec-
Theology in Asia; Y. Hwa, Theology and Mission in the ognize that they themselves exist as part of this
Asian Church; K. Koyama, Water Buffalo Theology;
phenomenon.
W. H. Lam, Chinese Theology in Construction; A. Pieris,
An Asian Theology of Liberation; V. Ramachandra, The At least thirty different disciplines, including
Recovery of Mission: Beyond the Pluralist Paradigms; missiology, sociology, and anthropology, cur-
S. J. Samartha, One Christ, Many Religions: Towards a rently recognize the significance of this topic.
Revised Christology; V. Samuel and C. Sugden, Sharing Distinct from what social scientists call primary
Jesus in Two Thirds World; C.-S. Song, Christian Mission groups or involuntary associations, which organ-
in Reconstruction: An Asian Attempt; R. S. Sugirthara- ize around such principles as age, sex, kinship,
jah, ed., Frontiers in Asian Christian Theology; Emerging and territory, voluntary associations are second-
Trends; M. M. Thomas, Salvation and Humanization: ary groupings, which organize around the princi-
Some Crucial Issues of the Theology of Missions in Con- ple of common interest or pursuit. In general, all
temporary India; A. Torrance and S. Martinez, eds.,
of the above are subsumed under the larger sub-
Doing Christian Theology in Asian Ways.
ject known as social organization. Whereas in-
voluntary groupings have existed universally as
Association of Evangelical Professors of Mis- fundamental to the nature of society, voluntary
sion. See EVANGELICAL MISSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. groups have varied in nature and distribution de-
pending upon the freedom of association allowed
Association of Professors of Mission. The As- in the societies concerned (see also SOCIOLOGY).
sociation of Professors of Mission (APM) was or- Mission agencies should carefully study com-
ganized in 1954 by professors who were teaching mon interest organizations as forms of social cri-
mission in seminaries in the United States. tique or dissent. This would help to surface some
R. PIERCE BEAVER was instrumental in its forma- key perceived needs and tensions socially existing
tion. The purpose of the association is to pro- during the lifetime of a given association. In some
90
Association, the Socio-anthropology of
contexts associations will exist as political buffers corporate in that they are autonomous and rep-
mediating between governments with their de- resentative, or they are federal, operating in a
mands and citizens with their common desires. In centralized fashion in accordance with the senti-
other situations common interest organizations ments of their founders. In this regard, it is inter-
will serve to expand services that the members esting to note that many associations ideally
deem lacking in the society and larger world. In claim to be the former, but in reality conform to
this context it is instructive to note that social sci- the latter.
entists often classify associations functionally as A study of the core values and the associated
being either expressive or instrumental. The for- assumptions and social expectations is vital in
mer signifies that a group exists primarily to meet taking one to the very heart or ethos of a com-
felt needs common to its members. Contrastingly, mon interest group. Identifying and distilling
the latter is more extroverted in that its mission is these makes explicit the driving motivations be-
to influence and change the larger world outside hind any association. Further, it reveals two car-
its own membership. dinal objectives of many voluntary associations;
Additionally, a mission body should recognize namely, those of influencing cultural transforma-
its identity as a common interest, voluntary asso- tion and cultural transmission. These are vital in
ciation and as such study itself in the same way validating an organizations current existence as
it would analyze a target affinity group. This well as assuring its future continuity.
would function to heighten its own sensitivity How associations recruit their membership
and discernment, thus allowing it to better iden- and the visibility profile they maintain in the
tify with and serve other groups. larger society are two valuable lines of inquiry. It
An association can be defined anthropologi- is in this context that the subject of secret soci-
cally as any common interest group. An adequate eties is often discussed. Even though the exis-
theory of association should at least include such tence of secret societies is almost universal, cul-
areas as: (1) workable definitions allowing for tures do differ as to the significance and meaning
wide comparative study; (2) a knowledge of the they attribute to the values of secrecy and exclu-
formative conditions that give rise to organiza-
sivity. Whereas in one context secrecy reveals the
tions; (3) knowledge of common types and clas-
fear of oppression, in others it may serve to safe-
sifications of associations; (4) organizational
guard sacred cultural knowledge or to reinforce
structures; (5) assumptions, values, and expecta-
special social statuses.
tions; (6) functions; (7) membership recruitment
Another fertile area of research is that of study-
process; and (8) visibility profile.
ing common interest groups in Scripture, such as
The formative conditions of modern associa-
tions are best summed up under the rubrics of Israel, Christs band of disciples, and the church
rapid sociocultural change and urbanization. In itself. Technically, the church, while fulfilling the
urban contexts associations often reflect per- criteria of a secondary or voluntary association,
ceived deficiencies of city life and the desire for could also be viewed as a primary or kinship
the continuity of rural services such as ethnic group in the sense of it being a spiritual family
identity, mutual aid, and bereavement support of with a common Father and culture.
minorities, immigrants, and migrant laborers. Research in this area is of vital importance to
With respect to rural communities the growth of the growing field of urban missions. There is also
common interest organizations often mirrors a the need to identify and understand voluntary
growing awareness of the larger world outside affinity organizations in broader national and in-
and a desire for elements of it. ternational contexts as well. The recruitment
Social scientists appeal to four major criteria process for associations should also be examined
in setting up taxonomies of associations: cultural carefully to determine how one can effectively
domain, stated purpose, practical function, and penetrate them for the sake of Gods kingdom.
organizational structure. Under cultural domain, Manifest as well as latent values should be iden-
groups may be classified as being religious, eco- tified, realizing that in so doing one uncovers the
nomic, political, educational, recreational, and so objectives that serve to ensure the organizations
on. Using the criterion of manifest purpose, we survival and impact. Such study should enable a
might classify them as professional, welfare, more relevant incarnation of the gospel. The
pressure, prestige, or philanthropic. Practical study of guilds, clubs, and secret societies in
function classification involves the expressive- rural or traditional settings also has value for
instrumental dichotomy. Instrumental groups missionaries in terms of reflecting indigenous
may be further classified as majoral, minoral, or perceptions of the home culture as well as the
medial associations depending on whether they world outside. Valuable insights about contextu-
serve the major interests of society, focus on mi- alization can be gained from study of the success
norities, or mediate between institutions, re- or failure of local citizens attempts to organize
spectively. Organizational structure is the final around new ideas and activities.
classificatory criterion. Groups may be either DAVID A. NESS
91
Association, the Socio-anthropology of
Bibliography. W. H. Brackney, Christian Voluntarism the one hand, this may be due to persistent sin,
in Britain and North America: A Bibliography and Criti- grieving the Holy Spirit, or demonic deception;
cal Assessment; S. Grunlan and M. K. Mayers, Cultural on the other hand, depression, personal anxiety,
Anthropology: A Christian Perspective; W. A. Haviland, inability to appropriate the biblical promises of
Cultural Anthropology; P. G. Hiebert, Cultural Anthro-
pology; E. S. Miller, An Introduction to Cultural Anthro-
assurance, or simply ignorance of this scriptural
pology; International Encyclopedia of the Social Sci- teaching may result in an absence of assurance.
ences; D. J. Publiese, Voluntary Associations: An Calvin noted that Satan has no more previous or
Annotated Bibliography. dangerous temptation to dishearten believers
than when he unsettles them with doubt about
Assurance of Salvation. The subjective confi- their election. As Barth affirms, however, There
dence which genuine Christians are privileged to can be no doubt that the Christian can and
possess that they truly belong to God as his chil- should have assurance of his faith and salvation.
dren and heirs of eternal life. Wesleyan-Arminian Believers throughout history who have possessed
theology focuses on the reality of the present a strong sense of assurance have stood fearlessly
state of grace of Christians and the assurance in giving testimony for Christ. Lucian, a pagan
that engenders, while Calvinism adds that this (second century), complained that Christians
assurance includes the confidence that they will have persuaded themselves that they will live
continue as believers throughout their life and forever, so they dont despise death. In Calvins
when they die they will certainly go to be with day, Geneva produced a race of martyrs spread-
Christ in heaven forever. ing the gospel despite the threat of death. Con-
Calvinism closely links assurance to divine vinced that their eternal destiny is secure, believ-
election and the perseverance of the saints (or ers will forsake their comfortable and familiar
ETERNAL SECURITY). Those whom God has pre- life, cross into unknown cultures, adopt new lan-
destined, he also saves, and this includes the ini- guages and customs, face overwhelming confu-
tiation, continuation, and consummation of sal- sion and stress, and even risk their lives for the
vation (Rom. 8:2830). Gods persevering work in sake of proclaiming the gospel of Christ. The his-
the lives of all true believers powerfully keeps tory of Protestant mission during the last two
them through the exercise of their faith for a hundred years is filled with the stories of thou-
waiting salvation (1 Peter 1:39). Grateful recog- sands of cross-cultural missionaries whose as-
nition of this results in assurance. surance of salvation enabled them to give their
To this may be added Christs own pledge to lives, literally, for gospel proclamation.
GREGG R. ALLISON
protect believers (John 6:3740; 10:2730), bibli-
cal promises of Gods faithfulness and love (Phil. Bibliography. D. Carson, WmTJ 54 (1992), pp. 129;
1:6; Rom. 8:3139; 2 Tim. 1:12), and assurances K. Barth, Church Dogmatics IV/3, 56566; J. Miley, Sys-
that Christians are privileged to know that they tematic Theology II:33953.
possess eternal life (1 John 5:13; John 3:36; 5:24).
Trust in this testimony of the Word of God pro- Astrology. Form of divination that regards the
duces assurance. stars and planets as powers that influence the
Scripture also speaks of the fruit of trans- lives and affairs of people and nations and seeks
formed lives that may generate confidence. Enti- to predict what those influences will be. Astrol-
tling this the witness of ones own spirit (Rom. ogy seems to have originated in Mesopotamia in
8:16), Wesleyan theology points to the biblical de- the third millennium B.C., where it spread to
scriptions of character qualities and good works India and appeared in Hinduism. Eventually it
which believers are expected to manifest. These spread to Greece, where it reached its fullest de-
include love for one another, obedience, and the velopment during the Hellenistic period. It was
fruit of the Spirit. When believers compare their through Hellenistic influence that the Arab
lives with these marks of authentic Christian tes- world was introduced to astrology and it per-
timony and a favorable judgment is rendered, sisted there in spite of the later prohibitions of
this witness of transformed lives gives a measure the QURAN. Forms of astrology also appeared in
of assurance. Some forms of Calvinism also em- pre-imperial China, probably through Arabic in-
brace this introspective approach. fluences, and it existed even in meso-American
Romans 8:16 and Galatians 4:6 present the Mayan and Aztec cultures, though its sources
Holy Spirit as another source of assurance of be- there are uncertain.
longing to God. Distinguishing the witness of Hindu astrology was part of the ancient Vedic
ones own spirit from the witness of the (Holy) literature and was also a part of medicine as well
Spirit, JOHN WESLEY affirmed this witness to be as a means of plotting the souls likely plan in the
a direct testimony of the Spirit upon the hearts of present incarnation through natal charts that
believers, attesting to their being children of God. represented the individuals past karmic patterns.
Despite these several grounds of assurance, Chinese astrology is uniquely independent from
many Christians lack a subjective confidence. On Mesopotamian influences in its different zodiac
92
Atonement
and twelve animal signs that delineate human any transcendent supreme Being. Other tradi-
characteristics. It was Arabic astrology that even- tions, such as some branches of Hinduism, philo-
tually spread to the Western world in spite of bib- sophical Taoism, and certain schools of Ma-
lical prohibitions through the translation of some hayana Buddhism, view the religious ultimate in
Muslim works into Latin. monistic or pantheistic terms. In a loose sense,
Several problems with astrology can be noted: these traditions can be regarded as atheistic from
(1) people who live above the Arctic Circle (66 de- the perspective of monotheism.
grees latitude) where the zodiac is not visible, WILLIAM H. BAKER
can have no horoscope and thus were astrologi-
Bibliography. A. Flew, The Presumption of Atheism;
cally never born; (2) astrology is based on pre- A. MacIntyre and P. Ricoeur, Religious Significance of
Copernican astronomy and thus involves an un- Atheism; G. Stein, The Encyclopedia of Unbelief, I:2729.
true conception of the solar system; (3) before
A.D. 1500 several planets like Uranus were never
Atheistic Humanism. See ATHEISM.
seen; thus if planets have influence then all pre-
vious horoscopes were invalid; (4) according to
astrological logic identical twins should live iden- Atlases, Mission. See MISSION ATLASES.
tical lives, but they do not; (5) if planets that are
closest influence more greatly, there should be Atonement. The biblical concept of atonement
mention of planet Earths great influence; and refers to a God-provided and -approved means of
(6) how can people with different horoscopes all paying the penalty for human violations of Gods
die in a mass tragedy? law; a means which alleviates individuals from
WILLIAM H. BAKER assuming that responsibility themselves. The
need for atonement arises as a result of human
SEE ALSO Divination, Diviner. sinfulness. Scripture teaches that all have sinned
Bibliography. J. R. Lewis, ed., The Astrology Ency- (Rom. 3:23). For that reason, human culpability
clopedia; C. Strohmer, What Your Horoscope Doesnt Tell is universal (Rom. 2:1). No one can claim exemp-
You. tion, regardless of culture, tradition, previous re-
ligious activities, or commitments. As a result,
Atheism. The English term atheism is derived every individual ought to be made to pay the full
from the Greek atheos, without God, and refers price of her or his own sin, which is death and
to a position that denies the existence of God. It eternal separation from God (Rom. 6:23). How-
is to be distinguished from AGNOSTICISM, which is ever, Scripture also teaches that God has pro-
the view that we cannot know whether God ex- vided a way to fulfill the demands of divine jus-
ists. In modern Western cultures atheism usually tice which is reasonable and effective, but does
means denial of the existence of the Judeo-Chris- not demand that the penalty be exacted from the
tian God. In other religious contexts atheism individual.
means denial of the prevailing understanding of The way in which God has chosen to resolve
deity. Thus, Christians in the Roman Empire the problem of sin is by providing an alternative
were accused of atheism for denying Greek and means of payment. In the Old Testament this was
Roman polytheistic views. Informal or practi- achieved primarily by means of animal sacrifice.
cal atheism occurs when, although belief in God The substitutes which will be accepted include
is not explicitly denied, God is not allowed a sig- the burnt offering (Lev. 1:4), the sin offering (Lev.
nificant place in ones life. 4:20; 7:7), and the offerings made on the Day of
Historically, Democritus and Epicurus advo- Atonement (Lev. 16:134). The clear teaching of
cated a form of materialistic atheism, and in the Old Testament is that unless some God-
modern Western thought atheism has been ad- approved means of atonement is provided, indi-
vanced by thinkers such as Karl Marx, Ludwig vidual sinners will themselves be required to pay
Feuerbach, Sigmund Freud, Friedrich Nietzsche, the penalty.
J. L. Mackie, and Antony Flew. The philosophical In the New Testament the idea of atonement is
and scientific school of logical positivism earlier focused on the person of Christ (Rom. 5:10). Rec-
in this century embraced atheism, dismissing onciliation between God and humans is no
language about God as cognitively meaningless. longer achieved by animal sacrifice (Heb. 9:26;
Modern secular humanism is another pervasive 10:4), but by the death of Christ (2 Cor. 5:19). The
form of atheism, at least to the extent that it finds death of Christ was a reasonable and effective so-
insufficient evidence for belief in the existence lution to the problem of human guilt because
of the supernatural and affirms that no deity Christ was fully human and fully divine (Mark
will save us; we must save ourselves (Humanist 10:45; 2 Cor. 5:21). Because Christ was fully
Manifesto I). human he was able to fully identify with the
Some religious traditions are atheistic as well. human state, was tested in every way as we are,
Theravada Buddhism, Zen Buddhism, and Jain- yet without sin (Heb. 4:1416). Because he was
ism are atheistic in that they deny the reality of fully God, he was able to provide a payment
93
Atonement
(Rom. 3:2526) of sufficient value to cover the sents no problem to the defenders of general
transgression of all humanity (Heb. 10:510). The atonement, but some have suggested that one of
two poles of Gods salvific method are most evi- the consequences of a limited atonement would
dent on the cross. There he suffered death as any be to discourage the universal, urgent proclama-
of us would have suffered it, and at the same tion of the gospel. However, since there is no way
time experienced a suffering of immeasurable infor us to identify the elect ahead of time, the
tensity, since he, the Son of God, had never gospel message should still be addressed to all. If
sinned, but was separated from the Father by vol- that is the case, we are under obligation to pro-
untarily taking upon himself the sins of the many claim the message of Christs atoning work with-
and turning away the wrath of God (Rom. 3:25). out reservation. It is to be proclaimed to all, in all
There is relatively little disagreement concern- places, and at all times.
ing the basic principles outlined above. Any indi- Second, the method God chose to provide
vidual who expresses faith in Christ is covered by atonement will cause some to stumble. The mes-
this payment. However, since Scripture does not sage of the cross will lead to opposition, cause of-
clearly specify the scope or extent of the atone- fense, and even be ridiculed (1 Cor. 1:1829). The
ment, this issue has precipitated considerable de- messengers will, of course, experience resistance.
bate. The basic question is whether the atone- Blinded by sin, many will find the notion of a
ment should be viewed as limited to a certain substitutionary death on the cross either offen-
subset of the human race, the elect, or whether it sive or foolish. That cannot be avoided. No man-
should be viewed as a provision intended for all ner of CONTEXTUALIZATION, effective communica-
of humankind. tion, or marketing techniques can remove the
Those who suggest that the atonement is lim- offense of the cross. However, care should be
ited do so on the basis of a combination of bibli- given so that any offense occasioned by the per-
cal passages and the use of logical arguments. son or the work of the messenger be kept to a
They point out that there are some passages minimum.
which do define a limited group of recipients. EDWARD ROMMEN
Christ died for his own people (Matt. 1:21), his
Bibliography. H. Berkhof, Christian Faith; D. G.
sheep (John 10:11), the church bought with his Bloesch, A Theology of Word and Spirit; G. D. Fee, Gods
own blood (Acts 20:28), and those whom God Empowering Presence; T. N. Finger, Christian Theology:
predestined and called (Rom. 8:2835). Further, An Eschatological Approach; S. J. Grenz, Theology for
they argue that since Gods will can never be the Community of God; S. J. Grenz, Revisioning Evan-
countermanded, if he had intended for all to be gelical Theology; P. K. Jewett, God, Creation, and Reve-
saved, all would be saved. In addition, they point lation; G. R. Lewis and B. A. Demarest, Integrative The-
out that Christ did not die simply to make salva- ology III; A. E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An
tion possible, but to actually save certain indi- Introduction; O. Weber, Foundations of Dogmatics.
viduals (Eph. 1:7; 2:8). They also fear that any
other understanding of the atonement necessi- Attributes of God. See DIVINE ATTRIBUTES OF
tates UNIVERSALISM. GOD.
The case for general atonement is made by ap-
pealing to Scripture passages and the history of Attrition. Departure from field service by mis-
doctrine. Scripture clearly states that Christ died sionaries, regardless of the cause. There are two
for all and for the whole world (Isa. 53:6; 1 John general categories. Unpreventable attrition (un-
1:29; 2:2; 1 Tim. 2:16; 4:10, Heb. 2:4). There are derstandable or acceptable) includes retirement,
no exegetical reasons for ascribing to these pas- completion of a contract, medical leave, or a le-
sages meanings other than the plain and inclu- gitimate call to another place or ministry. Pre-
sive sense they communicate. Proponents of gen- ventable attrition occurs when missionaries,
eral atonement also seek to demonstrate that it is because of mismanagement, unrealistic expec-
the traditional position of the church. From the tations, systemic abuse, personal failure, or
early church until today most of the fathers, re- other personal reasons, leave the field before the
formers, exegetes, and theologians believed that mission or church feels that they should. In so
Christ died for all. As for the danger of universal- doing, missionaries may reflect negatively on
ism, since salvation is only effective for those themselves, but of greater concern is the nega-
who express faith, suggesting that Christ made tive impact on the specific mission structure and
salvation possible for all in no way implies that the cause of world missions (Taylor, 1997, 18).
all will be saved (John 3:16). Attrition has been a critical issue facing the
Whichever position is taken on the extent of church through its history. In the New Testa-
the atonement, the evangelical understanding of ment, Stephen is martyred, John Mark abandons
the general principles of atonement have two sig- the apostolic team but is later restored to min-
nificant implications for missions. First, if the istry through Barnabas, and Demas apparently
problem of sin is universal then the message of leaves for good without known restoration.
atonement should be addressed to all. This pre- Throughout mission history, attrition has been
94
Australia
evident, reflecting the high cost of sending mis- Augustine of Canterbury (d. c. 604). Church-
sion, whether through sickness, change of heart, man and missionary to England. Augustine was
inability to sustain cross-cultural ministry, or prior of St. Andrews monastery in Rome when he
death on the field. was commissioned by Gregory the Great in 596
Facing the contemporary attrition challenges, to convert the pagan English and refound the
the WORLD EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP Missions church in England. He was a reluctant mission-
Commission carried out during 199597 a 14- ary, but one of duty who led a band of thirty
nation study of attrition in 6 Old Sending Coun- monks to England. He was well received by
tries (OSC) and 8 New Sending Countries (NSC). Ethelbert, king of Kent, whose wife was already
This study generated significant data on attrition a Christian before their marriage. Within one
in 454 agencies (and some mission-sending year of his arrival, Augustine had converted the
churches) with some 23,000 long-term missionar- king and many of his people. In 597 Augustine
ies (one-sixth of the global missionary force, ac- traveled to Arlis, France, to be consecrated arch-
bishop of Canterbury. Gregory then made him
cording to Patrick Johnstone). In terms of the
metropolitan bishop of England and established
global long-term missions force, one missionary in
Englands independence from the French see. Au-
twenty (5.l% of the mission force) leaves the field
gustine failed to regain the allegiance of the an-
yearly. Of these, 71% depart for preventable rea- cient Celtic church and was insensitive to local
sons. In other words, if we establish a global mis- customs. He did, however, lay a firm foundation
sionary force of 140,000, 5.1% overall annual at- for the church in England through the establish-
trition would be 7,140 people, and 71% of that ment of the see at Canterbury and building of the
figure suggests that 5,070 missionaries are return- monastery of Saints Peter and Paul in that city.
ing home for what is called preventable attrition. Augustines evangelistic effort was limited prima-
There are at least four perspectives regarding rily to Kent and the surrounding region, but led
the causes of any specific case of attrition: (1) the eventually to the conversion of all England.
reasons agency and church leaders believe they KENNETH D. GILL
have heard and understood; (2) the recorded rea-
Bibliography. Bede, Ecclesiastical History; M. Deanesly,
sons in agency files; (3) the reasons missionaries
Augustine of Canterbury; V. L. Walter, EDT, p. 105.
hold in private or may share with closest friends;
and (4) the reasons one can live with in public
knowledge. The true human picture is always Augustine of Hippo (354430). Seminal African
theologian and apologist. Aurelius Augustine,
complex and no single perspective will be totally
bishop of Hippo Regius in North Africa, is the
accurate.
most important Latin theologian of the Roman
Recent studies suggest that preventable attri-
Catholic Church and the spiritual father of all the
tion may be reduced by more and/or better major Reformers. In many of his voluminous
(a) initial screening and selection procedures, writings Augustine discusses problems of signif-
(b) appropriate pre-field equipping/training for icance to missions, as he was actively involved in
the task, and/or (c) field-based strategizing, shep- reaching African people as well as Roman citi-
herding, and supervising. Inadequate attention in zens. Augustine held both a strong belief in Gods
any of these areas may result in unwanted attri- predestination of people and a strong conviction
tion or, worse, the case of missionaries who that it is the will of God to preach the gospel
should go home, for their own good and the good everywhere. He denied that the Great Commis-
of the ministry, but do not. sion was already achieved by the apostles on the
Reducing attrition engages seven strategic basis of his personal awareness of barbarian
missions stakeholders: missionaries (current, tribes in Africa to whom the gospel had not yet
previous, future); missions mobilizers (the prime been preached. He recognized that God had not
motivators); church leaders (pastors and compromised that Abraham would be a blessing to
mittees); missionary trainers (regardless of type, the Romans alone, but to all the nations. Augus-
size, or level of equipping program); mission tine held that the majority of the nations and
sending bodies (churches and agencies); na- people would become Christians before the re-
tional receiving churches (where they exist); and turn of Christ, a postmillennial element in his
member care providers (pastors, medical and otherwise amillennial eschatology.
mental health personnel). While attrition cannot THOMAS SCHIRRMACHER
be totally eliminated, it can be significantly Bibliography. Augustine, Confessions; P. Brown, Au-
diminished. gustine of Hippo; H. Chadwick, Augustine; M. Marshall,
WILLIAM DAVID TAYLOR The Restless Heart: The Life and Influence of St. Augus-
tine; J. J. ODonnell, Augustine.
SEE ALSO Drop Out.
Bibliography. W. D. Taylor, Too Valuable to Lose: Ex- Australia (Est. 2000 pop.: 19,222,000; 7,713,364
ploring the Causes and Cures of Missionary Attrition. sq. km. [2,978,130 sq. mi.]). Though suspected of
95
Australia
existence since classical times, and reconnoitered ease. Most nineteenth-century missions to Abo-
in the seventeenth century, European settlement rigines followed this pattern, though more suc-
in Australia did not begin until a British penal cess attended the missions run by Moravians.
settlement was founded at Port Jackson (Sydney) German missions played a major part of all
in 1788. Almost as an afterthought, Pitts gov- evangelical attempts, including by the Presbyte-
ernment allowed placement of an evangelical An- rians (supplied at Nundah by the Gossner Mis-
glican chaplain, Richard Johnson, a nominee of sion in Berlin), and the Anglicans (supplied by
the Eclectic Society and member of the CLAPHAM the Moravians, e.g., Lake Boga, Ebenezer, and
SECT. For the first fifty years of the colony, evan- Ramahyuck, and the Basel Mission Institute, e.g.,
gelical Anglicans would dominate the jail chap- Wellington). This played an important part in the
laincy with the avowed intention of developing planting of Lutheranism in Australia. It is proba-
Australia as a base for mission. The second chap- bly true to say that, except for some individual ef-
lain, SAMUEL MARSDEN, like Johnson a Yorkshire- forts (e.g., Maloga and early Yarrabah) nine-
man with Eclectic links and Methodist sympa- teenth-century evangelical mission to the
thies, launched and coordinated the mission to Aborigines was a failure or at best a holding op-
New Zealand, from which activity he became eration. Dramatic extension of Christianity
known as the Apostle to the Maoris. He has among Aboriginal people only took place after re-
been less well treated by Australian historians, vival (particularly that commencing on Elcho Is-
and it is clear that the policing functions of clergy land in the late 1970s) created the grounds for an
in Australia defeated their missionary activities indigenous church. Even then, Aboriginal Chris-
among the convicts. tianity suffered from the tendency of churches to
The expulsion of LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY contribute disproportionately to overseas as op-
(LMS) missionaries from Tahiti (1798) greatly posed to domestic causes.
strengthened Marsdens hand, and the Hassall, The long boom of the 1870s and 1880s, the
Lawry, and Marsden families would become growth of population post1851, and increasing
closely related in developing Anglican and church organization enabled more aggressive
Methodist missions to the Pacific. Marsdens mission to commence in the 1870s. This is the
granddaughter, Eliza Hassall, started the first period (18801920) that Piggin has called the
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY (CMS) womens mis- high noon of Australian Protestantism. Relying
sionary training home in Sydney (1892), and at first on Scots and Canadian missionaries, the
worked closely with the British and Foreign Bible Presbyterians began work in the New Hebrides
Society (BFBS) and Scripture Union. Mary Has- (1863 for Presbyterian Church Victoria [PCV],
sall married Walter Lawry, and assisted him in 1867 for Presbyterian Church New South Wales
Tonga, New Zealand, and the Pacific for the Wes- [PCNSW]), slowly adopting total responsibility.
leyan Methodist Missionary Society (WMMS). The PCV sent its first missionary, J. H. Davies, to
Australian overseas missions were restricted Korea (1889) and the PCNSW its first missionary,
from large-scale development, however, by dis- Mary McLean, to India (with Madras Zenana
tance, small population, lack of wealth, and (until Mission) in 1891. Australian Baptists began send-
the 1860s) rudimentary church organization. ing women missionaries to India in 1882. Aus-
While Sydney became a major break of bulk tralians, beginning with MARY REED and Sophia
port for intentional missionaries routing through Sackville Newton (CHINA INLAND MISSION [CIM])
to Asia and the Pacific, both internal and foreign began to supply significant numbers to interna-
mission was inhibited by the flow of funds and tional mission agencies, a trend which continues
personnel from European churches to higher to the present. Three catalytic events in this sup-
profile destinations in Canada, Asia, and Africa. ply were the visits of HUDSON TAYLOR in 1890, the
The trickle of Australian-born missionaries missions led by Keswick speaker, George Grubb,
tended to join international agencies, such as the from 1892, and the ChapmanAlexander cam-
WMMS, which sent John Watsford to Fiji in 1841 paigns (1902). All three interacted with the rise of
and commenced Pacific missions in 1855. Em- student Christian groups, which fed powerfully
phasis on civilization before Christianization, into missions from 1890 onwards.
strongly held by Marsden, also restrained early In the same period, the first indigenous Aus-
missionary development. tralian missions were established, including the
Internally, missions to the indigenous peoples Queensland Kanaka Mission (1886, later South
of Australia also progressed slowly. The first mis- Seas Evangelical Mission, 1904), Borneo Evan-
sion, begun at Lake Macquarie (1825), was sus- gelical Mission (1928), and (internally) the Abo-
pended by the LMS after an argument between riginal Inland Mission (1905), Bush Church Aid
the missionary, Lancelot Threlkeld, and Marsden. Society (1919), Campaigners for Christ (1928),
Though resurrected on public subscriptions and United Aborigines Mission (which emerged out
state support, and despite success of translation, of the NSW Aboriginal Mission and Australian
it was closed in 1841 with the decimation of Abo- Aboriginal Mission, 1907, to obtain its name in
riginal populations by white squatting and dis- 1929). A variety of Church Missionary Associa-
96
Australian Evangelical Alliance
tions, local affiliates of the CMS which were later (Operation Mobilization ship Logos); James Duf-
renamed, emerged from Marsdens first attempt fecy (Open Air Campaigners); Edward Gault
in 1825. In many of these, people of Brethren (Christian Medical College, Vellore); Stacey
background, such as the Kitchens of Melbourne, Woods (International Fellowship of Evangelical
the Decks and Youngs of New Zealand and Syd- Students); and Vincent Craven (Inter-Varsity Fel-
ney, and philanthropists such as J. B. Nicholson, lowship). ALAN TIPPETTS missiology has also had
have had an influence disproportionate to their a significant impact, particularly through Fuller
numbers. Seminary.
In support of this upsurge of agencies, and fol- At the close of the twentieth century, Australias
lowing evangelical reactions against liberalization evangelical missionaries were working all around
of theological training in university colleges, dedi- the globe, and its missions were partaking in the
cated missionary training institutions arose global trends toward mission partnerships, short-
through the 191040 period. Based on an earlier term missions, growing numbers of Pentecostal
Training Home for Missionaries, Kew, in 1902 missionaries, and missionary exchange with for-
the tea merchants, the Griffith family, supported mer receiving cultures. Piggin and others have
the opening of the Hiawatha training college for demonstrated the extent of the reflex impacts
women (1902), almost at the same time as C. H. of missions on Australian society, seen in the im-
Nash opened St. Hildas deaconness training insti- portation of Solomon Islands spirituality, the
tute (1901), which went on to train for CMS and growth of ethnic churches (particularly Chinese,
CIM purposes. Nash and a key circle of Melbourne Korean, Vietnamese, Samoan, Fijian, etc.), an in-
evangelical businessmen were also fundamental to creasingly pluralistic Australian culture, the
the opening of Ridley College (1910), Melbourne training of leaders, and the development of an
Bible Institute (1920, later BCV), and a chain of Australian political and economic profile in the
missionary agencies. In Adelaide, Angas College Pacific. Missionary numbers continue to rise,
(1893) and Chapman-Alexander College (191326) suggesting a continuing influence in global evan-
trained for the CIM and interdenominational mis- gelical missions.
sions, a role filled in Sydney by the Sydney Mis- MARK HUTCHINSON
sionary and Bible College (1916). These prolifer-
ated with the spread of sectarianism and the Bibliography. B. Dickey, ed., Australian Dictionary of
relocation of population, such that by 1990 there Evangelical Biography; M. Hutchinson et al., This
were some 135 colleges (including theological col- Gospel Shall Be Preached: Essays on the Australian Con-
leges such as Whitley and Moore Colleges) serving tribution to World Mission; D. Paproth, Failure is not
Final: A Life of C. H. Nash; G. Treloar, ed., Furtherance
an Australian church-going population of no more of Religious Beliefs.
than 3 million. Many of these operate within the-
ological consortia, and numbers are being pressed
toward merger as such realities as the aging of the Australian Evangelical Alliance. A national
evangelical population, de-denominationalism, body designed to assist churches, associations,
and Pentecostalization bite into traditional and individuals to share Gods love for a suffering
arrangements. world, preach the gospel, and make disciples, the
With Canada and New Zealand, Australia has Australian Evangelical Alliance works at both na-
tended to be a high-level missionary sending tional and state levels. Most of the national min-
country (per capita), though depending on the fi- istries operate through four commissions: The
nance and organization flowing out of North Evangelical Alliance Response (TEAR) Fund,
America and Europe. Due to the dominance of Missions Interlink, the Theological Commission,
evangelical Anglicanism in Australia, the CMS and the Commission on Womens Concerns.
has been a particularly important agency, espe- Branches of the Alliance function in five states in
cially in East Africa, while Baptists have long- the form of volunteer committees. The Alliance is
running work in India, and Presbyterians in Asia a member of the WORLD EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP
and the Pacific. All agencies have maintained and regional fellowships in Asia and the Pacific.
work in New Guinea and Melanesia. Turnbull In 1959 a coalition of one hundred leading
suggests that by 1990 there were over 2,700 full- evangelicals formed the Evangelical Alliance of
time missionaries in the field, and many thou- Australia with the purpose of inviting BILLY GRA-
sands more active in TENT MAKING and SHORT- HAM. This organization was significant because it
TERM MISSIONS. Practical and down-to-earth, represented an attempt to work nationally in-
such missionaries have been particularly adapted stead of state by state. The Graham crusades
to FAITH MISSION work, around the indigenizing made an immediate impact on Australians. A
principles first put into practice by WILLIAM high profile was gained for evangelicals, and
CAREY. They have also shown an ability to inter- thousands of people were converted and joined
nationalize and rise to leadership, examples the churches. The clergy were encouraged to
being Kevin Dyer (International Teams); Colin preach the gospel within their churches, and so
Tilsley (Gospel Literature Outreach); Alan Adams the effects of the crusades continued for a pro-
97
Australian Evangelical Alliance
longed period of time. The Alliance fulfilled its denominational agencies were among the sixty
objectives and, with no major task on its agenda, member missions. Interlink records revealed that
decided to disband. another thirty smaller agencies held membership
However, some evangelicals perceived a need in state branches but not in the national body.
to work together in their home states. Ten years Member missions supported 1,850 missionaries
after the Graham visit, state evangelical alliances working overseas and 1,485 home staff. The
had been formed in New South Wales, South home staff included individuals working as mis-
Australia, Tasmania, and Victoria; and evangeli- sionaries to aboriginal people in Australia, work-
cal missionary alliances were formed in New ers among university students, and the employ-
South Wales and Tasmania. These state organi- ees of large Christian aid agencies. Since 1995,
zations met in Canberra, the national capital, in member missions have been cooperating to pro-
May 1972 and formed the Australian Evangelical vide training and educational resources to the
Alliance. The decision to form a national body to churches in an attempt to raise the level of mis-
represent evangelicals at a time when Australians sions awareness.
did not really possess a national mind-set either The two remaining commissions are in the
politically or ecclesiastically was both coura- early stages of their operation. The Theological
geous and significant for the future. No struc- Commission is cooperating with a Christian pub-
tural continuity existed between the old Evangel- lisher to produce materials that present a biblical
ical Alliance and the new, but many of the same viewpoint on contemporary issues. The Commis-
people were actively involved. Howard H. E. sion on Womens Concerns has drawn together
Knight was one of the mission leaders of the day women from various Christian organizations
who played a significant role in the inauguration with a view to enabling more women to become
of the Alliance and the launching of TEAR Fund. actively involved in kingdom ministry.
While the Alliance offers a variety of services to The evangelical movement within Australia is
its members and maintains a number of projects much wider than the Evangelical Alliance. It in-
and communications, its major contribution to cludes groups such as AD 2000, the Lausanne
the nation and the world is through its commis- Movement, the Awakening Movement, March for
sions. The activities of TEAR Fund in the United Jesus, Reclaim Easter, and significant prayer and
Kingdom inspired the establishment of a TEAR evangelism associations in all of the state capi-
Fund in the State of Victoria in 1970. When the tals. Dialogue between a number of these groups
national Alliance was formed in 1972, the state may result in a grand coalition of evangelicals on
quickly devolved the TEAR operation, recogniz- a national scale. What this will mean for the
ing that it properly belonged to the national body. Evangelical Alliance remains to be seen.
The existence and operations of TEAR demon-
The church and community are waiting to see
strate that evangelicals are concerned about the
a united effort. At present, the church in Aus-
welfare of the whole person. TEAR provides a
tralia is undergoing significant change as leaders
credible and Christian alternative for evangelicals
strive to make the church and its message rele-
to channel development and relief funds to areas
vant within the second most multicultural soci-
of great need. In recent years, TEAR has made a
ety on earth. A renewed church will emerge with
significant contribution by providing programs
fewer traditional and denominational restric-
designed to educate people concerning the bibli-
cal and practical issues involved in development tions. If the many evangelical groups can find a
ministries. common purpose and integrate their valuable re-
The Missions Commission, now known as Mis- sources to serve the church, then we may see a
sions Interlink, was not formed until January repeat of the harvest times experienced when
1986. Prior to that time, a missionary fellowship Billy Graham preached the gospel in 1959.
had been established in New South Wales and an JOHN TANNER
interdenominational missionary fellowship in
Victoria. These two bodies functioned reasonably Australian Mission Boards and Societies.
well at a state level for fifty years. However, na- Overview. Australian churches have been sending
tional mission leaders and other influential and supporting missionaries for more than a cen-
Christians perceived that national and interna- tury. Each of the ten evangelical denominations
tional needs were not being met. Ron Clough, the have mission boards and/or societies. In addition,
executive secretary of the Alliance, was a catalyst Australia has at least ninety interdenominational
in bringing the New South Wales and Victoria agencies. Thirty of these are either new or small
fellowships together with other mission leaders and are not registered as members of Missions In-
in a national forum, where the decision was terlink, the national missions association.
taken to form a national commission. In 1996, The Australian missions family is diverse.
the membership of Missions Interlink was com- Some missions have a long, rich heritage; others
posed of sixty national missions, seven training carry the zeal of a new vision. Some have strong
institutions, and five related organizations. Ten international linkages; others have only a small
98
Austria
local committee of volunteers. Some have more ers for ministry in creative access countries (see
than one hundred missionaries; others support TENTMAKING MISSION); and the urgent need to re-
indigenous church workers. In 1995, Australian cruit people under thirty years of age as career
missions who were members of Missions Inter- missionaries and board members.
link supported 1,850 overseas workers and 1,485 Contemporary Challenges. Underlying most of
home staff. These figures do not include overseas the contemporary challenges facing Australian
indigenous church workers who are also sup- mission boards and societies is the need to un-
ported by Australian churches and societies. derstand the thinking of young people under
The Path to the Present. Australia is an island thirty years of age, in order to recruit them as
nation. Before the days of relatively cheap and long-term career missionaries and board mem-
fast jet travel, most Australians did not venture bers. Missions Interlink has set a goal of identify-
out of the country. They lived in a country where ing one thousand young people who have de-
the churches exercised considerable influence cided to become missionaries in the future and to
and where every child was taught religion in nurture them toward meaningful involvement in
school. The Second World War ended the isola- the missionary movement.
tion. Young Australians fought in a war far from A second challenge relates directly to the need
home. While some returned home embittered to recruit young people. At least 20 percent of
and sad, others brought with them a new under- Australian societies cannot remain viable with
standing of the needs of the world and of other their current level of staff or finances. Some have
peoples and cultures. This awareness strength- reduced home staff in order to lessen expendi-
ened the missionary cause and resulted in a new ture. The way societies finance their operations
wave of voluntarism. In the fifty years since the is under review by those societies who have the
war, the advent of television, overseas travel, and expertise. The concept of team support will be
access to modern technology have further re- challenged and reviewed. Some larger churches
duced the insularity of many Australians. MODER- are challenging the concept now, by fully sup-
NITY has brought a negative side as well, which
porting their own workers but not allowing for
hinders the efforts of both churches and mission the societies costs. Some societies are in dia-
societies. logue with possible compatible partners with a
Along the path to the present, the mission soci- view to amalgamation. Unless the size of the re-
eties have been forced to change and adapt to en- source base can be enlarged, it seems inevitable
sure their long-term viability. Some changes have that some societies will soon cease to exist.
been of great significance. Formerly, missionar- One way of increasing the level of support for
ies received financial support by one of three the missionary task is to mount an effective edu-
methodsa salary from the mission, a share of
cation program in the churches about the bibli-
gifts made to the general fund of the mission, or
cal basis for the mission of the church and the
whatever the Lord supplied through churches
ways in which the church can be involved in
and friends. While some denominational boards
changing the world. Many pastors cannot under-
still pay salaries, most boards have introduced a
take this task, so the missions must. The small
system of team support for their missionaries.
number of missions who already have church ed-
The change has meant a better income for most
ucation programs cannot meet the demand.
missionaries, but it has negatively impacted their
time for rest during home assignment, as well as Proper care of the missionary family will be a
the general funds of their mission. prime responsibility, especially for the younger
A second bittersweet change has been the generations who demand this. Care begins with
change in relationships with emerging national proper candidate processing, orientation, and
churches. It has been satisfying to see the young training. Care continues to be a responsibility
churches come of age, but it has also been through a term of missionary service, and ex-
painful for the mission to deal with the transition tends through debriefing and reentry to the home
in relationships from parent to partner. Problems scene (see MEMBER CARE IN MISSIONS ).
have surfaced regularly around requests from the Finally, Australian boards and societies will
new church for workers and funding which ap- face the dual challenges of completing the task
pear to the society to be unwarranted. with the churches they have already started and
Other areas of change include the struggle to finding the keys to successful church planting in
keep up with available technology; the inroads of the more resistant Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic
modernity; the frustration of having to process cultures.
and prepare candidates who come from dysfunc- JOHN TANNER
tional families or immature churches; the real-
ization that the gospel has a holistic application Austria (Est. 2000 pop.: 8,148,000; 83,853 sq. km.
(see HOLISTIC MISSION); the need for CONTINGENCY [32,376 sq. mi.]). This small country in the heart
PLANS to safeguard missionaries in an increas- of Europe, roughly the size of Maine (32,368 sq.
ingly hostile world; the need to prepare tentmak- miles) and populated by about 8 million people,
99
Austria
has made a significant contribution to Western Austrian Constitution grants these religions the
culture out of proportion to its size. While most right to public worship, the right to administer
Americans know the country from the movie The their own internal affairs, and the entitlement to
Sound of Music, several Austrians, including religious instruction at public schools. Relations
S. Freud, the father of modern psychoanalysis, between the Roman Catholic Church and the
the artists E. Schiele and G. Klimt, the com- state were regulated by the Concordat of 193334
posers W. A. Mozart, J. Strauss, J. Haydn, and (renegotiated between 1957 and 1962). A similar
G. Mahler, and L. Wittgenstein, one of this cen- arrangement was enacted with the Protestant
turys greatest philosophers who is noted partic- Church in 1961. Evangelicals, numbering less
ularly for his work on language, excelled in their than one percent of the population, are not offi-
respective fields. cially recognized and are frequently considered
History. Austria consists of nine provinces and to be a cult, along with the Jehovahs Witnesses
shares borders with eight other countries: Ger- and the Mormons, both of whom maintain a
many, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slove- strong presence. The veneration of Mary contin-
nia, Italy, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. The na- ues at the many Marian shrines. A sizable num-
tive language is German. Vienna, the countrys ber of Austrians are also involved in the occult,
capital since 1156, is located at the crossroads of including white and black magic, witchcraft, for-
Eastern and Western Europe. A diplomatic hub, tune-telling, and other practices. The New Age
it has been one of the permanent seats of the movement and other esoteric involvements, like-
United Nations since 1979. The local university, wise, exercise considerable appeal.
one of the oldest in Europe, was founded in 1365. Mission. The gospel was first brought to the
Once the center of the large Austro-Hungarian territory occupied by Austria today by Roman le-
Empire (18671918), the city hosts cultural gionaires and merchants (Viennas name was Vin-
treasures in its many museums, churches, and dobona). Florian and forty others were the first
palaces. Politically, Austria was ruled by two Austrians to suffer Christian martyrdom in Lau-
major dynasties: the Bavarian house of the riacum (near Enns) during a period of persecu-
Babenbergs (9761282) and the Habsburgs tion under Diocletian. Severin (d. 482) worked as
(12821918). In 1919 Austria was constituted as a missionary in the Danube area during the time
a federal republic (First Republic), organized as of great migration. Later, population shifts erased
a parliamentary democracy with a bicameral leg- all traces of Christianity. After the migrations, the
islative body. The country was annexed by west of present-day Austria was christianized by
Hitlers German army in 1938 (Austrias role dur- the Bavarians. The diocese of Salzburg was
ing World War II remains ambiguous and the founded as early as the seventh century owing to
subject of debate). The territory was occupied by the initiative of Rupert (c. 650718). Irish mis-
the Allied forces from 1945 to 1955 and obtained sionaries and Bavarian monks reevangelized the
its status as an independent nation (Second Re-
region during the eighth century. Increasingly,
public) with the obligation of permanent neu-
the Christian faith in Austria was tied to the pope
trality on May 29, 1955. The fall of the Soviet
in Rome, but in the course of the sixteenth cen-
Empire in 1989 enabled Austria to join the Euro-
tury, the Reformation swept through Austria, and
pean Union (EU) on January 1, 1995. In 1996
by 1570 Austria had largely become Protestant.
Austria celebrates the millennium of its existence
The Habsburg Counter-Reformation, however,
(first extant reference to ostarrchi in 996).
Termed by its own inhabitants as an island of forcefully reconverted Austria to Roman Catholi-
the blessed, Austria is indeed privileged with cism. At the apex of persecution in the winter of
breathtaking scenic beauty, particularly the Alps, 1731, twenty thousand Protestants were driven
and a rich cultural heritage. On the dark side, out of the province of Salzburg. Only in 1781,
however, Austria has Europes highest per capita Joseph II, son of the famous Austrian Empress
consumption of alcohol, one of the highest abor- Maria Theresa, issued an Edict of Toleration,
tion rates, and high instances of suicides and il- ushering in a period of greater religious freedom.
legitimate births (26% in 1993). More recently, the Baptist church was founded in
Religion. The predominant religion of Austria 1869; the Methodist church followed in 1870.
is Roman Catholicism (78%), with a small con- The years following World War II witnessed a
tingent of Protestants of whom most are steady increase in evangelical missionary activity.
Lutheran (5%). Other legally recognized religions In 1981 an Austrian Conference of Evangelical
include various branches of the Orthodox Churches (ARGEG) was formed. However, this
Church, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, the Old association lacks government recognition, and
Catholic Church (which split from the Roman the Roman Catholic Church remains by far the
Catholic Church in 1871 over the doctrine of most visible religious body in Austrian public life.
papal infallibility), the Methodist Church, and While renewal (including charismatic) move-
the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day ments are found in parts of the Roman Catholic
Saints (Mormons). Among other privileges, the and Lutheran state churches, nominalism looms
100
Azariah, Vedanayakam Samuel
large, and the country is in urgent need of evan- Aylward, Gladys (190270). English missionary
gelization. to China. A mailmans daughter born near Lon-
ANDREAS J. KSTENBERGER don, she was converted at age eighteen while em-
ployed as a parlormaid, and set her heart on
Bibliography. Austria: Facts and Figures and Austria
Documentation: Religions in Austria; Austrian History China. Rejected by the CHINA INLAND MISSION be-
Yearbook; W. M. Johnston, The Austrian Mind. An Intel- cause of her lack of education, she slowly saved
lectual and Social History 18481938; J. J. Putman, Na- money, and in 1932 went east by the trans-Siber-
tional Geographic, April 1985, 41048. ian railroad when Russia and China were at war,
and finally joined Scottish missionary Jeannie
Authority (of the Bible). See INERRANCY. Lawson in remote Yangcheng. Opposing the foot-
binding of girls, she was officially appointed foot-
inspector, which gave her the opportunity to
Aviation Mission Work. Every four minutes a
preach the gospel to women. Jeannie died, but
small airplane takes off somewhere in the service
Gladys with little resources used the inn they had
of evangelical churches and missions. Two-thirds
opened to tell Bible stories to travelers and to
of these planes are operated by Mission Aviation
house unwanted children. To reach people more
Fellowship (MAF) and most of the rest by
effectively she became a naturalized Chinese citi-
Wycliffe, AIM, or New Tribes. From a peak of
zen. In 1940 the Japanese invasion sent her on a
nearly three hundred aircraft in 1985, the num-
month-long trek through the mountains, guiding
ber of mission aircraft has slowly declined.
nearly a hundred children to safety. From her in-
Two or three missionaries used airplanes
credible adventures Hollywood made the film
briefly before World War II. After the war, Chris-
The Inn of the Sixth Happiness. After a lengthy
tian military pilots came together with a vision to
stay in England (194757) she returned to open
use their skills in world evangelization. In 1945
an orphanage in Taiwan, where she died. Her ca-
former test pilot BETTY GREENE became the first
reer bristled with irregularities, but with Gladys
MAF field pilot, serving Wycliffe in Mexico. By
it was always Meand God.
the early 1950s airplanes were serving several
J. D. DOUGLAS
missions in Sudan, Central America, Amazonia,
and New Guinea. A few individual missionaries Bibliography. A. Burgess, The Small Woman;
flew their own planes. P. Thompson, A Transparent Woman: The Compelling
Airplanes saved travel time. A one-hour flight Story of Gladys Aylward.
replaced two or three weeks of land travel. Air-
planes helped locate unreached jungle peoples Azariah, Vedanayakam Samuel (18741945).
and supported missionaries in places where they Indian missions promoter. Born to an evangelical
could not otherwise survive. Medical emergen- Anglican pastor and his wife at Vellalanvillai in
cies and war and famine relief have also played the Tinnevelly district of Madras state, he gradu-
major roles. MAF cut costs by combining service ated from Madras Christian College and was ap-
to all the missions in a region, eventually provid- pointed secretary to the YMCA of South India. In
ing regular service to over 160 different mission 1902 Azariah had an encounter with an indige-
boards. At first airplanes primarily served West- nous mission society that convinced him that
ern missionaries but as the Third World church India had to take responsibility for its own evan-
grew, service increasingly shifted to indigenous gelization. He is credited with being founder of
leaders. the Indian Missionary Society of Tinnevelly in
Over half of all mission pilots and mechanics 1903 and the National Missionary Society of
have trained at Moody Aviation, a department of India in 1905.
Moody Bible Institute. Wild terrain, primitive Azariah was ordained as the first Indian bishop
airstrips, and lack of navigational aids make the in the Anglican Church in 1909 and attended the
work treacherous and over two dozen mission pi- WORLD MISSIONARY CONFERENCE at Edinburgh in
lots have died in crashes. 1910. There he made a plea for greater freedom
Most mission aircraft are simple four- or six- for Indian church leaders. In 1912 he was placed
passenger machines, but a few helicopters and in charge of the diocese of Dornakal. The six pas-
larger planes are also being used. AirServ Inter- tors under his care worked mainly with outcasts.
national, an MAF spinoff, has used huge Russian He promoted evangelism and Christian unity in
assault transports to fly thousands of tons of food India and was determined that Indian Christian-
to war and famine victims in Africa. ity should be indigenous. He lived to see a dio-
CHARLES BENNETT cese of over one hundred thousand members
Bibliography. G. Buss and A. F. Glasser, Giving
where forty years before there had been only
Wings to the Gospel; T. Hitt, Jungle Pilot: The Life and eight thousand.
Witness of Nate Saint; F. Robinson and J. Vincent, A Vi- Azariah participated in several international
sion With Wings: The Story of Missionary Aviation; ecumenical gatherings, including the TAMBARAM
L. Roddy, On Wings of Love. CONFERENCE of 1938, where he delivered one of
101
Azariah, Vedanayakam Samuel
the major addresses. He was one of the faithful as the Azeris, are a Turkic people, closely related
who paved the way for the formation of the to most of the major ethnic groups of ex-Soviet
United Church of South India and the WORLD Central Asia. At least 80 percent of the people are
COUNCIL OF CHURCHES. at least nominally Muslim (70 percent Shia; 30
KENNETH D. GILL percent Sunni), and although religious freedom
Bibliography. C. Graham, IBMR 9:1 (1985): 1619; is officially guaranteed, foreigners are barred
C. Graham, Azariah of Dornakal; B. Sundkler, Church of from engaging in religious propaganda. Evan-
South India. gelicals are extremely few, probably numbering
less than one thousand, most of whom are ethnic
Azerbaijan (Est. 2000 pop.: 7,969,000; 86,600 sq. Russians.
km. [33,436 sq. mi.]). Azerbaijan is an oil- and RAYMOND P. PRIGODICH
mineral-rich republic of the former Soviet Union
located in the southern Caucasus region on the SEE ALSO Commonwealth of Independent
Caspian Sea. The dominant ethnic group, known States.
102
Baba, Panya (1932 ). Nigerian missions organ-

izer and advocate. Born in Karu in north-central
Nigeria of converted animist parents, he came to
personal faith in Christ as an early teen. His ed-
ucation included study at Karu Bible Training
School, Kagoro (Nigeria) Bible College, All Na-
tions Christian College (U.K.), and Fuller School
of World Mission (U.S.). Babas many accom-
plishments were recognized in the rewarding of
an honorary doctorate by Igbaja Theological
Bb
cies in partnership, an important trend in evan-
gelical missions in the future.
RICHARD D. CALENBERG
Bibliography. P. Baba, EMQ 26:2 (1990): 13133.
Seminary (Nigeria).
Babas ministry experience has included pas-
toral service and church administrative office, Babel. Genesis 11:19 is a sharp polemic against
including two terms as president of Evangelical the pretensions of the collective human self-
Church of West Africa (ECWA) denomination sufficiency in rebellion against God. Its mission-
(198894). His primary contributions to mis- ary and missiological relevance can be seen from
sions have come as director of the Evangelical noting its place in the history of Gods redemp-
Mission Society of ECWA, Africas largest in- tive work and revelation.
digenous mission society (197088), and as mis- This is a representative episode of opposition
sion consultant and foreign missions director to the purpose of the Lord following the judg-
for ECWA (1994 ). He had a major role in es- ment of the flood. The nations descended from
tablishing the Nigeria Evangelical Missions As- Noah (Gen. 10) were implicitly required to dis-
sociation, a coordinating body for indigenous perse over the earth to fulfill the creation man-
Nigerian missions agencies, and served as its date (Gen. 1:28), reiterated in the covenant of
first chairman. Other international missions preservation (Gen. 8:159:17). This was with a
committee memberships have included the WEF view to the redemptive purpose encapsulated in
Missions Commission, Third World Missions the prophecy of Noah (Gen. 9:2527), to be ful-
Advance Steering Committee, and the Interna- filled by the coming of Christ. But the line of
tional Board of the AD 2000 Movement. As a re- Nimrod (Let us rebel), the descendant of Ham,
spected spokesman on all aspects of cross-cul- founds Babel (Babylon[ia]) (Gen. 10:810), which
tural missions, particularly African issues, he meant Gate of God in its Babylonian form (but,
has been a primary contributor at numerous mockingly, confusion in Hebrew).
missions consultations worldwide. The self-aggrandizing aim and motive of mak-
Baba is an outspoken advocate of cooperation ing a name for themselves and resisting disper-
and partnership between indigenous churches sion was not only disobedience; it also implied a
and indigenous mission agencies and between spurning of the promise given to Noah that the
Western and non-Western mission agencies. In true intent of Eden would be restored. Artificial
1996, as a direct result of his vision and initia- sacred mountains (ziggurats) in the Babel area,
tive, twelve SIM-related national church denom- according to the later versions of Babylonian
inations on three continents (Africa, South myths, aimed at idolizing humanity were the
America, Asia) formed the Evangelical Fellow- very antithesis of the goal of the city of God.
ship Missions Association for the purpose of Babel therefore epitomized the universal resist-
stimulating prayer and information sharing, the ance of fallen humanity to God. If unthwarted it
formation of national missionary movements, threatened to produce the demonic counterpart
and coordinating joint mission efforts. He has of the kingdom or rule of God. As by the eating
helped develop cooperative strategies for the of the tree of knowledge people became, in an
training, sending, and sponsorship of missionar- ironic sense, like God (Gen. 3:22), so now, with
ies by Western and non-Western mission agen- equal irony, humans are potentially omnipotent,
103
Babel
and (implicitly) evilly so (v. 6). Therefore the Lord Columbia Bible College (now Columbia Interna-
comes in judgment, but also in grace, to confuse tional University).
and disperse: he prevents any preempting tri- The emergence of the importance of the Bible
umph of self-sufficient, self-determining human College movement as a significant training arena
society, and so averts the necessity of destroying for missions coincided with the STUDENT VOLUN-
humankind. TEER MOVEMENT and the FAITH MISSION move-
This common-grace restraint of sin and its ef- ment. The Student Volunteer movement served as
fects preserves humankind for the redemption to the motivating force while the Faith Mission
come (v. 9). movement served as the receiving context for the
The immediately following focus on Shem ministries of the graduates. The Bible College
(Gen. 11:10), associated with blessing (9:2627), movement followed the rise of the Bible Institutes
and then on Terah, the father of Abraham and his of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth
kin (11:27), is not accidental: through Abraham century, providing four essential components of
all peoples will be blessed (12:3). their training. Kenneth Mulholland suggests that
The reversal of both the confusion-scattering of the biblical, practical, contextual, and spiritual de-
Babel and its sinful human assertion is Pente- velopment of these colleges served to well equip
cost. There the special redemptive grace, apply- the surge of North American missionaries. Simi-
ing the work of the risen Christ, is symbolically lar emphases were present in institutions in the
and representatively poured out on all the na- United Kingdom as well in such institutions as All
tions, through the Jews and proselytes present. Nations Bible College, London Bible College, and
They are gathered, not scattered now, and all Glasgow Bible College.
hear what God has done in Christ in the language The multiplication of missionary training pro-
of their own region; they repent and are baptized grams in the non-Western world parallels the
for the forgiveness of their sins. This prefigures growth of evangelical and Pentecostal churches
the purifying the lips of the peoples and the in the same regions. Now more missionaries are
gathering home of Gods people (Zeph. 3:9, 20), being sent from non-Western missions than from
of which the missionary task is the instrument. Western missions. They are being sent from a
JOHN A. MCINTOSH correspondingly larger non-Western Christian
community than is found in the West.
Bibliography. J. Blauw, The Missionary Nature of the This brief survey has not considered the scores
Church; H. Blocher, In the Beginning; J. Davies, JTS,
of postsecondary-level programs that do not nec-
new series 5 (1952): 22831; M. Kline, Kingdom Pro-
logue; R. DeRidder, Discipling the Nations; D. Senior essarily eventuate in a bachelors degree. This
and C. Stuhlmueller, The Biblical Foundation for Mis- survey similarly has not considered the many
sion; G. Wenham, Genesis 115. programs offered in many universities both
Christian and secular. Some secular universities
Bachelors Degrees in Mission. Bachelor-level have evangelical faculty who take initiatives to
educational programs served as one of the pri- assist in the training of missionaries at a bache-
mary training grounds for missionaries in the lors level. And some colleges still offer degrees
twentieth century. Bible colleges and to a smaller through national universities because of local
extent church-related Christian colleges and uni- governmental policies.
versities have contributed to the stream of missi- While other higher level educational programs
ological training. North Americans and Northern including masters and doctoral programs also
Europeans dominated this training for the first proliferated during the twentieth century, bache-
three-quarters of the century. However, in the last lors degrees served as the backbone of Western
quarter of the century the picture changed. missionary training through the period. It ap-
Raymond Windsor in the World Directory of pears that given the present proliferation of non-
Missionary Training Programs states that prior to Western bachelors degrees in mission the trend
1975 only thirty non-Western training programs will continue in the non-Western world in the
existed. However, since 1975 more than 125 new early part of the twenty-first century.
EDGAR J. ELLISTON
programs have emerged in the non-Western
world. In 1995 at least 117 bachelors programs in Bibliography. K. Mullholland, Missiological Educa-
thirty-six countries were catalogued. This listing, tional for the 21st Century, pp. 4350; R. Windsor, ed.,
however, while a substantial and representative World Directory of Missionary Training Programs.
sample, should not be seen as comprehensive.
Three institutions stand out among the North Baedeker, Friedrich Wilhelm (18231906). Ger-
American options during the first half of the cen- man-born English missionary to Russia. Baedeker
tury. Their alumni/ae accounted for about 40 per- was born in Witten in 1823 He lost his first wife in
cent of the North American missionary force dur- 1852 after a few months of married life, moved to
ing that era. These three institutions include: Britain, traveled to Tasmania, then settled in We-
Moody Bible Institute, Prairie Bible Institute, and ston Super Mare in 1859, and remarried there in
104
Bahamas
1862. The Baedeckers led a respected but worldly ceeded by a series of descendants, the last of
upper-class life. Their conversion through evan- whom disappeared in the ninth century A.D. It was
gelistic meetings led by Lord Radstock in 1866 believed that he would reappear someday as a
drastically changed their lives. messiah. In 1844 Ali Muhammad declared that he
His German background made Baedeker a was the promised imam or successor of Ali and
transmitter of the Holiness Revival message to called himself Bab ud Din (the gate of faith). He
his native country, where he became one of the became a reformer, advocating radical changes
leading figures in the annual Blankenburg Al- such as raising the status of women, which raised
liance Conference and also one of the founders of the ire of the political leaders in Persia. The Bab,
the Alliance Bible School in Berlin (1905). as he was called, was executed in 1850, but before
His main ministry was in the Russian Empire his death he predicted that another would come
(188789) and other Eastern European coun- and establish a universal religion.
tries. In St. Petersburg he was one of Gods in- One disciple of the Bab, Husayn Ali, was im-
struments in the revival among the Russian no- prisoned in Tehran and then exiled to Baghdad
bility. His initial intention was to reach the for ten years. During this time he came to the
millions of German Russians, but his evangelis- conclusion that he was the predicted founder of
tic vision expanded to include all the nationali- the new religion. He assumed the name Baha
ties of the vast empire. His most intensive min- Ullah (the glory of God), and surviving follow-
istry was among prisoners, whom he visited even ers of the Bab (called Babis) became known as
in the most remote locations of Siberia and Bahais. After years of being driven from one
Sachalin. He combined his evangelistic work with Middle Eastern city to another, the Bahais were
assistance to the needy, also looking after those imprisoned in a Turkish prison at Akko, in mod-
who were imprisoned for their faith and working ern Israel.
for religious freedom. He died in 1906 in Weston From this prison Baha Ullah sent out mission-
Super Mare. aries to spread his teachings and wrote many
KLAUS FIELDER books and letters before his death in 1892. His
Bibliography. R. S. Latimer, Dr. Baedeker and His son, Abdul Baha, carried on his program and in
Apostolic Work in Russia; J. Marchant, ed., Deeds Done 1908 was released from prison. He traveled
for Christ. widely in Europe and North America, spreading
his teachings of peace, for which he received the
Bahai. Although the Bahai religion emerged honor of knighthood of the British Empire. Upon
from the Shiite sect of ISLAM, it has suffered his death in 1921, his grandson Shoghi Effendi
more persecution from Shiites in Iranespe- continued the work. Although there are no
cially since the 1979 Islamic revolutionthan priests in Bahai, the community builds temples
from any other group. This persecution is due in various locations for worship. The principal
largely to the fact that Bahai believes in a later center is in Haifa, Israel, near the graves of Baha
divine revelation that supersedes the QURAN. Ba- Ullah and the Bab.
hai has an estimated 5 million adherents, most WILLIAM H. BAKER
of whom are located in Asia and Africa, and ap- Bibliography. W. S. Hatcher and J. D. Martin, The
pears to be growing worldwide. Bahai Faith: The Emerging Global Religion; W. M.
The fundamental teaching of Bahai, from Miller, The Bahai Faith: Its History and Teachings.
which other teachings stem, is the unity of the
human race. Bahai also teaches that, in spite of Bahamas (Est. 2000 pop.: 295,000; 13,878 sq.
minor differences among them, all religions km. [5,358 sq. mi.]). An archipelago of seven hun-
share a basic unity and have a common origin. dred coral islands, the Bahamas lie between
All of the major religions are regarded as partial Florida and Cuba. Although there is little agricul-
messengers of truth. Religion, science, and edu- tural potential, the groups proximity to the
cation should work together to produce a har- United States has made it a useful staging area
monious world in which the extremes of wealth for offshore economic activities, rum-running in
and poverty are abolished. Bahai is one of the the 1920s, and more recently banking, oil refin-
few religions apart from Christianity to teach the ing, tourism, and drug trafficking. More than
absolute equality of the sexes. Bahais believe two-thirds of the population is Protestant, about
that each person should search independently half of whom are evangelicals.
for truth, without influence from superstition or EVERETT A. WILSON
tradition. In addition, the emphasis upon world
unity in Bahai leads to concern for one common SEE ALSO Caribbean.
universal language and compulsory education Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer-
for all. ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His-
Shiite Islam had taught that Ali, Muhammads tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to
son-in-law and legitimate successor, was suc- the Present.
105
Bahrain
Bahrain (Est. 2000 pop.: 633,000; 678 sq. km. Baker, Amelia Dorothea (Kohlhoff) (180188).
[262 sq. mi.]). A group of islands twenty-five German missionary wife and widow in South
miles off the east coast of Saudi Arabia and re- India. Born in Tanjore, she was the granddaugh-
cently connected to the mainland by a causeway ter of a German Lutheran missionary, and mar-
comprise the country of Bahrain. The population ried the young CHURCH MISSION SOCIETY (CMS)
is composed of the original Bahraini, Iraqi, Pales- missionary, Henry Baker, in 1818. They served in
tinian, Egyptian, and Saudi Arabian Arabs. These Cottayam, in Travancore, where, in addition to
people make up 72 percent of the population. bearing and bringing up a large family she com-
The rest of the inhabitants have come from Iran, menced and managed a girls school. In 1866,
India, Korea, and Western countries. after her husbands death, she continued, now as
The discovery of oil changed the economy a widow and with acknowledgment, the work she
from pearl diving and fishing to one of refineries had already been carrying on for over forty years.
and a center for international banking. Bahrain She remained at Cottayam until her death. Her
has become the strategic center for all of Arabia. son (b. 1819) became a CMS missionary, and
Stewart, The Nestorian Enterprise, mentions three daughters married CMS missionaries. Five
that there was a bishopric in A.D. 225. In modern granddaughters and a grandson also worked for
times the first American missionaries secured an the Anglican Church, and female descendants
upper room near the pearl bazaar in 1892. Peo- were engaged in girls education well into the
ple were hostile at the time to all outsiders and twentieth century. In addition to the great contri-
unwilling to rent to Christians. They had no med- bution made by her family, Amelia Baker de-
ical or surgical help. There did not appear to be serves to be remembered as one of the many mis-
any desire for progress. Stagnation reigned and sionary widows who, continuing to work on after
their husbands deathin her case for eighteen
self-satisfaction with Islam quenched hopes of
yearsproved to the missionary society the
development.
worth of a womans contribution, and in fact
SAMUEL ZWEMER arrived in 1895 and began
opened the way for a greater use of single
medical missions. He reached out from Bahrain
women.
to other parts of Arabia. The Reformed Church of
JOCELYN MURRAY
America continued there, developing their
Bahrain station as one of their largest outposts. Bibliography. CMS, Register of Missionaries and Na-
It includes an excellent hospital, high standard tive Clergy, 1904; E. Dalton, The Baker Family in India;
schools, and the church founded by Zwemer. E. A. Kohlhoff, comp., Pastoral Symphony: The Family
and Descendants of Johann Baltasar Kohlhoff.
This church now hosts eight different congrega-
tions worshiping in as many languages. In the
whole of the country there are now more than Baldwin, Mary Briscoe (181179). American
forty-five groups or fellowships with the majority missionary to Greece and Palestine. Though she
of believers belonging to the Anglican and evan- felt that the lofty calling of becoming a mission-
gelical groups. ary was one too high for her and reserved for
Among the expatriate workforce are Christian only the most spiritual of people, God made it
believers from Iraq, India, Egypt, Korea, and distinctly clear to this Virginian teenager that he
had chosen her for such a task. While helping a
Western countries who make up the 7 percent
friend investigate possible missionary openings,
Christian minority. With the new causeway con-
Baldwin discovered that the only opening, an
necting the islands with the mainland many
overseas position, was one that she herself ar-
Saudis go over to shop and enjoy entertainment
dently desired. Having met the missionaries al-
in the less restrictive atmosphere of Bahrain.
ready working in Greece a year earlier while at-
Many Bibles have been distributed and a large
tending a conference, she applied and was
Christian bookstore affords a good selection of approved to go to Greece to help educate the
books in Arabic as well as other languages. Greek and Cretan refugee peoples. She became
Bahrain has become a center for tours into Ara- the first female overseas missionary to come
bia and the Gulf areas. With the large number of from Virginia.
believers in the country and the moderate out- In order to meet the physical and spiritual
look of the ruling family there is a possibility of needs of the people, the veteran Greek mission-
the church there being the staging area for fur- aries envisioned an education system that would
ther penetration of the peninsula. teach students both a skill and the message of
GEORGE E. KELSEY Christ. Baldwin facilitated this vision by teaching
Bibliography. R. B. Betts, Christians in the Arab a sewing classa novelty in itself, considering
East; S. Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia; W. H. there were no professional seamstresses in
Storm, Whither Arabia?; J. S. Trimingham, Christianity Athens at that time. Her enthusiasm and com-
Among The Arabs; S. M. Zwemer, Heirs to the Prophets. mitment to these women won her the title of
106
Baltic States
Good Lady Mary from her pupils as well as the tleground. Even so, a time of relative prosperity
community. known as the good old Swedish time was inau-
Baldwin became the legal guardian of her sis- gurated. Swedish law prevailed, limiting the
ters three children. This ignited her desire to power of the nobles and elevating the status of
open a boarding school, especially for Cretan the peasantry. Education was improved and ex-
upper-class girls. Because the mission was unable tended to the commoners. A major university
to support such a venture financially, Baldwin was founded in Tartu (1632).
used her own inheritance to start the school. The Treaty of Nystadt (1721) at the end of the
While realizing her students need for a good ed- Great Northern War ceded old Livonia to Russia.
ucation, an understanding of Christ took prece- Russians reestablished the German nobility,
dence. Together with the other missionaries in stripping the peasants of rights gained under
the area, she opened her home to serve as a Swedish rule. Although repressed, the Northern
church on Sunday mornings. Later, the boarding Baltics experienced a time of relative peace,
school idea expanded to establishing district while in the south the Lithuanians continued
schools as well. their alliance with Poland and Catholic Europe.
PENNY GUSHIKEN The Lithuanian alliance continued until the eigh-
teenth century, when it was divided between
Bibliography. E. R. Pitman, Mission Life in Greece Prussia and Russia.
and Palestine.
Around 1730 MORAVIAN Pietists arrived in Riga.
The movement grew among the peasants,
Baltic States. In the armed conflicts involving prompting a visit in 1736 by Herrnhut founder,
Orthodox, Catholic, and Lutheran Europe, few Count NIKOLAUS LUDWIG VON ZINZINDORF. By 1738
regions have suffered as have the Baltic states. revival had spread throughout the northern re-
Yet their strong commitment to ethnic identity gion and the movement flourished in spite of
and will to survive have allowed these peoples to Russian persecution. By 1748 MORAVIAN mission-
endure and flourish. Finno-Ugric peoples appar- aries from the Baltics were sent to the New
ently settled in Estonia and Finland in the third World, primarily to Pennsylvania. MORAVIAN
millennium B.C. Others of Indo-European lin- Pietism produced significant social reforms, in-
guistic origin settled in Latvia and Lithuania a cluding friendlier relationships between the peas-
thousand years later. Earliest accounts included ants and ruling Germans.
Tacituss reports of pagan Aestii living on the Recent history has seen a return to violence
eastern shore of the Baltic. Later reports indicate and repression, but not without hope. In 1918
formidable Baltic pirates during the early Middle Balts took advantage of a destabilized Bolshevik
Ages. Russia by declaring independence. After defeat-
During the later Middle Ages (11471500), Eu- ing the Soviet counterattack, the Northern
ropean military forces mounted unceasing at- Baltics gained independence for the first time in
tempts to establish control over the region, mak- nearly seven hundred years. By the late 1920s, all
ing the Baltics the scene of continuous armed three nations had constitutional democracies,
struggle. In 1343 the final peasant rebellion in membership in the League of Nations, and inde-
the Northern Baltics was crushed, leaving the ter- pendent currencies.
ritory under the control of German nobility. Far- Nineteen years of freedom and relative pros-
ther south pagan Lithuania successfully resisted perity ended in August 1939 with the Molotov
the Teutonic Knights in repeated engagements. Ribbentrop Pact. This agreement sparked the
By the mid-1300s, the well-organized and influ- German invasion of Poland and the Russian
ential Lithuania had become the largest Euro- takeover of the Baltics. In the 1941 attack on the
pean state. By 1400, however, Lithuania had been Soviet Union, German armies marched through
incorporated into Catholic Europe, allying with the Baltics, welcomed by many as liberators
Poland against the Knights. During this time, the from Stalinism. The Russian advance against the
Hanseatic League was also founded, Riga Germans in 194445 again brought war to the
(Latvia) and Tallinn (Estonia) becoming influen- region.
tial member ports. Fearful of reprisals, many Balts fled during
By the mid-1520s, Lutheranism was estab- World War II. Stalin later deported, displaced, or
lished among the ruling class in Latvia and Esto- murdered hundreds of thousands, leaving the pop-
nia (old Livonia). The pagan peasantry, however, ulation decimated. The Cold War years were
was largely unaffected. In 1558 internal weakness marked by persistent attempts to Russianize the
in the ruling Liv class sparked a conflict involv- region through deportation of ethnic Balts and im-
ing Russia, Sweden, and Poland (Livonian Wars). portation of Russians. The policy created a near
Livonian rule decimated, the region was divided majority Russian population in Latvia, where
between Protestant Sweden and Catholic Poland. some fear the eventual disappearance of ethnic
Hostilities continued as part of the Thirty Years Latvians. Estonia increased to about 40 percent
War, using the Northern Baltics as a primary bat- Russians (compared to 8 percent preWorld War
107
Baltic States
II), while in Lithuania, the population of Russians postcolonial world, to move from patterns of
remained less significant. missionary PATERNALISM to PARTNERSHIP in mis-
The Baltics declared independence from the sion. This new emphasis alarmed some conser-
Soviet Union in 1991 and received immediate vative evangelicals to the extent that they called
recognition by the international community. for withdrawal from ecumenical agencies. Ecu-
After years of repression and stagnation, Balts menical thinkers claimed that a new era of mis-
are eager to modernize and create healthy sion (not missions) was ushered into being at
economies. The church finds new possibilities Bangkok; evangelicals made the same claims for
within its grasp but often experiences difficulties Lausanne. Both, however, agreed that the hall-
coping with rapid change. In addition, signs of a mark of the new era would be a genuine part-
pagan revival provide cause for additional con- nership in world mission.
cern. The recent establishment of several theo- JOHN H. Y. BRIGGS
logical training centers gives hope for the future
Bibliography. P. Beyerhaus, Bangkok, 1973: The Be-
health and growth of the church throughout the
ginning or End of World Mission; E. Castro, Sent Free:
region. Mission and Unity in the Perspective of the Kingdom;
STEVEN J. PIERSON WCC, Bangkok Assembly, 1973; R. Winter, ed., The
Bibliography. E. Christiansen, The Northern Cru- Evangelical Response to Bangkok.
sades: The Baltic and the Catholic Frontier, 11001525;
P. Jones and N. Pennick, A History of Pagan Europe; A. Bangladesh (Est. 2000 pop.: 134,417,000;
Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithua- 143,998 sq. km. [55,598 sq. mi.]). December 16,
nia and the Path to Independence; V. Mezezers, The 1971, marked a new beginning for the people of
Herrnhuterian Pietism in the Baltic: And Its Outreach
into America and Elsewhere in the World; I. A. Smith
Bangladesh, who are ethnically referred to as
and M. V. Grunts, comp., The Baltic States: Estonia, Bengalis. They had suffered through the indigni-
Latvia, Lithuania; A. N. Tarulis, Soviet Policy Toward the ties of the colonial period which was followed by
Baltic States 19181940. West Pakistans domination. Only in 1971, after a
bloody civil war, did the Bengalis receive their in-
Bangkok Conference (1973). Taking the theme dependence. Political freedom has not meant in-
Salvation Today, the WCC met in Bangkok in ternal peace. Various intrigues have left two pres-
January of 1973. The three sections of the con- idents assassinated along with an economy
ference focused on (1) culture and identity, which is only marginally viable. Recurring
(2) salvation and social justice in a divided com- floods, cyclones, and tornadoes have contributed
munity, and (3) churches renewed in mission. In- to the ongoing sufferings of the people.
fluenced by theologians committed to exploring Approximately 134 million Bengalis are di-
the meaning of liberation, the conference as- vided into communities of 85 percent Muslim, 14
serted the indissolubility of the social and indi- percent Hindu, with less than one-half of one
vidual aspects of salvation. In its search for a ho- percent being Christian. The majority of these
listic understanding of salvation, Bangkok Christians are from a Hindu background. There-
opened itself to a charge of reductionism, sup- fore their cultural and linguistic preferences are
planting biblical concepts of salvation, as one more Hindu-influenced. This reality places a nat-
evangelical author put it, with a secularized this- ural barrier between Bengali Christians and the
worldly version of social action as the mission of majority Muslim community.
the church. The evangelical voices were not uni- Protestant missionary work among Bengalis
fied, however, as others found common ground was pioneered by WILLIAM CAREY in the early
between their thinking and that of the ecumeni- nineteenth century. The Bible translated by Carey
cally committed. Indeed, it has been widely aris still widely used today. Other Bible translations
gued that at Bangkok there was no real polariza- have followed, most notably the Simplified Ver-
tion between those who stressed the social sion, as well as the popular evangelistic New Tes-
dimensions of salvation and those who under- tament known as the Injil Sharif (Sacred Gospel).
lined the personal. These have been produced by the Association of
A second source of controversy at the confer- Baptists for World Evangelism (ABWE) in coop-
ence was its placing on the agenda of churches eration with the Bangladesh Bible Society.
and mission agencies the confessedly radical ABWEs Literature Center is the leading pro-
concept of M ORATORIUM , the suggestion that ducer of materials for Christians as well as for
mission agencies in the north, as a possible specialized tracts designed for the non-Christian.
strategy in certain situations, cease for a period Another ministry of ABWE that has served the
the sending of personnel and finances to the missionary and Bengali community is their well-
churches of the south. Though the language at equipped hospital in the south of the country.
Bangkok was measured and restrained, the tone Since 1971, many nongovernment organiza-
of the debate became overheated. Underlining tions have worked extensively throughout
the dramatic language was the need, in a largely Bangladesh. All mission societies are now re-
108
Baptism
quired to engage in development work. Foreign- Although reckoned by almost all branches of
ers are not allowed to be involved in direct evan- Christianity as a sacrament, its mode, subjects,
gelism among Muslims. There is, however, no and significance have historically been issues of
such restrictions placed on Bengali Christians. sharp doctrinal controversy.
In 1975, International Christian Fellowship While some practice affusion (pouring of
(now SIM) pioneered a contextualized approach water) or aspersion (sprinkling), the Baptist po-
to presenting the gospel to Muslims. This style of sition has generally called for immersion. This is
outreach has been followed by various groups in primarily defended on the grounds that (1) the
Bangladesh. Results have been encouraging, with Greek word transliterated baptize in the New
estimates of several thousands of Muslim back- Testament means to dip, immerse; (2) immer-
ground believers being formed into small wor- sion best illustrates the significance given to bap-
shiping cells. Most of these believers have re- tism by the apostle Paul (Rom. 6:111)the be-
mained within their communities (see MUSLIM lievers identification with the death, burial, and
MISSION WORK). resurrection of Christ; and (3) immersion was
The Bangladesh Baptist Fellowship in cooper- practiced by the Jews, John the Baptist, and the
ation with the American Southern Baptists, New early church.
Zealand Baptists, and Australian Baptists has sig- However, the primary dispute of the Anabap-
nificantly impacted Hindus with the gospel. tists with the other Reformation traditions con-
Other mission agencies have been successful in cerned who was to be baptized. Calvin and
evangelism among the small tribal minorities in Luther continued the Roman Catholic practice
Bangladesh. of infant baptism (although certainly with dif-
Since 1958, the major effort in literature distri- ferent theological justification), whereas the
bution to non-Christians has been spearheaded Anabaptists rejected this in favor of believers
by SIMs Bangladesh Bible Correspondence baptism, that is, that personal confession of
School. Hundreds of thousands of students have faith was a prerequisite for the one to be bap-
first heard the Christian message through receiv- tized. Thus the Baptist tradition has generally
ing these lessons. Much of the publicity of the reserved this rite for individuals old enough to
correspondence school has been done by young express conscious faith in Christ. The Reform-
Christian workers. ers argued that baptism is analogous to infants
Aid and development projects from the West receiving circumcision in the Old Testament. It
have been both a blessing and a curse to Chris- is a sign of Gods covenant promise and grace
tian Bengalis. All too often this assistance has administered to Abraham and climaxing in the
created a dependency syndrome which has hin- new covenant. It is not primarily a sign of
dered spiritual growth. Another problem has faith/repentance on the part of the believer (as
been a competitive spirit among foreign agencies the Baptist position); rather it is a seal of the
which has brought confusion and strife within work of God that precedes and makes possible
the small body of believers. the persons response.
In spite of all of the setbacks in Christian min- Protestants as a whole have disagreed with the
istry in Bangladesh, there are still encourage- sacramental significance assigned to baptism by
ments. More Bengalis are coming to faith in Roman Catholics. Protestants view baptism as
Christ than ever before in the history of this tur- being an outward, visible manifestation of in-
bulent land. ward spiritual reality. For Catholics, baptism
PHIL PARSHALL does not simply illustrate, but it actually effects
that spiritual reality through its very operation.
Bibliography. P. NcNee, Crucial Issues in Bangladesh; Thus, baptism infuses the grace of the new birth
R. F. Nyrop, Area Handbook for Bangladesh; V. B. Olsen, (hence, baptismal regeneration) even in infants.
Daktar/Diplomat in Bangladesh. The spiritual reality signified by baptism is it-
self variously interpreted and nuanced by Protes-
Baptism. Christian rite of initiation using water. tants. However, the following ideas are generally
The origin of its practice is usually traced specif- included: the cleansing from sin; union with
ically to John the Baptist and through him to Christ in death and resurrection and thus the
Jewish practices of ceremonial washings, Qum- death of the old self and its way of life and the
ran purification rites (initiates into the Essene rising to new life in Christ; and incorporation of
sect of Judaism underwent a ritual washing), and the Christian into the Body of Christ.
proselyte baptism (Gentile converts to Judaism). Missionaries often must deal not only with the
It is almost universally practiced by Christians spiritual dimensions of baptism but also the social
based on the precedent set by Christ in his own implications. In many societies where Christians
baptism (Matt. 3:11), his command to baptize are a distinct minority baptism is viewed with
(Matt. 28:19), and testimony in the Acts of the greater significance by Christians and non-Chris-
Apostles and the New Testament Epistles of its tians alike as it publicly marks the converts deci-
practice by the early Christian community. sion to associate with the Christian community.
109
Baptism
The practice of baptism has given rise to spe- Serampore missionaries and the society at home
cial difficulties in contexts where great value is deteriorated, so that from 1827 to 1837 the Ser-
given to family relationships and societal unity ampore mission operated independently from the
and where baptism by the established church has BMS. The BMS also began work in Sri Lanka
come to signify in practical terms the converts (1812) and the Caribbean, beginning with Ja-
repudiation of his or her previous social, politi- maica in 1814, where its missionaries, notably
cal, and cultural loyalties. This misconception of William Knibb (180345), were instrumental in
the spiritual significance of baptism, it is said, securing the abolition of slavery in 1834. The Bap-
has arisen from a perceived association of Chris- tist cause among the former slaves flourished as a
tianity with Western culture as well as misguided result, and black Jamaican Baptists played a key
efforts in winning individual converts even at the role in initiating the BMS mission in Cameroon
expense of separating them from their communi- in 1841. Following the German annexation of
ties. Some missiologists have therefore suggested Cameroon, this mission was handed over to the
in view of such a misunderstanding of the true BASEL MISSION in 1886. The Congo mission (1879)
meaning of baptism by the non-Christian society was maintained with lavish financial support
that the insistence of baptism by the new convert from the Leeds philanthropist, ROBERT ARTHING-
be dispensed with in order to minimize his or her TON (18231900), for whom the rapid Baptist ad-
cultural dislocation and to allow the Christian to vance up the Congo River was part of a wider vi-
remain within his or her community while con- sion for the evangelization of Central Africa. The
tinuing to discreetly share Christ by life and wit- BMS began work in China in 1859, where TIMO-
ness from within it. THY RICHARD (18451919) developed broadly con-
While recognizing the biblical mandate to bap- ceived mission strategies that challenged many of
tize but in view of the difficulties of baptism as it the evangelical orthodoxies of the day. In 1891,
is normally practiced, missionaries in Muslim the smaller General Baptist Missionary Society
fields have considered variations, such as the (formed in 1816), which worked mainly in Orissa,
delay of baptism until a number of converts can merged with the BMS as part of the coming to-
be baptized together; secret baptism with a lim- gether of the previously separate General (Ar-
ited audience; self-baptism; or the substitution of menian) and Particular (Calvinistic) strands of
a contextually appropriate initiation ceremony Baptist life in England. BMS missionary numbers
that would retain the biblical meaning of bap- reached their peak in 192122. As a result of the
tism but have a different form and thus reduce societys work, Baptist Christians are now partic-
offense to the onlooking Muslim community. ularly numerous in northeast India (Orissa and
SCOTT CUNNINGHAM Mizoram), Jamaica, Zare, and Angola. The BMS
also assists Baptist communities planted by other
Bibliography. G. R. Beasley-Murray, Baptism in the
New Testament; A. Gilmore, ed., Christian Baptism;
missions, as in Brazil, which it entered in 1953.
M. Green, Baptism: Its Purpose, Practice and Power; Since the late 1980s, the Society has been active
P. Parshall, New Paths in Muslim Evangelism: Evangeli- in a number of European countries, to the extent
cal Approaches to Contextualization. that Europe now accounts for 25 percent of the
mission force and budget. The BMS in the twen-
Baptist Missionary Society (BMS). The BMS tieth century combined participation in ecumeni-
was founded in Kettering, Northamptonshire, cal mission bodies with a firmer commitment to
England, on October 2, 1792, and was the first of evangelistic priorities than has been true of some
the missionary societies founded as a result of the of the historic Protestant mission agencies. This
Evangelical Revival. Formed by a group of Partic- commitment has strengthened in recent years in
ular Baptists including ANDREW FULLER (1754 response to the conservative evangelical resur-
1815), who was appointed secretary, and WILLIAM gence among British Baptists. The BMS remains
CAREY (17611834), its original name was The active as a voluntary society supported by Bap-
Particular-Baptist Society for Propagating the tists in England, Wales, and Scotland.
Gospel among the Heathen. The original base of BRIAN STANLEY
the society was in the Baptist churches of the East Bibliography. E. D. Potts, British Baptist Missionar-
Midlands. A London office was not opened until ies in India 17931837: The History of Serampore and its
1819. The BMS sent its first missionaries, John Missions; R. M. Slade, English-Speaking Missions in the
Thomas and William Carey, to Bengal in 1793. Congo Independent State (18781908); E. Stanley, The
With WILLIAM WARD (17691823) and JOSHUA History of the Baptist Missionary Society 17921992.
MARSHMAN (17681837), Carey developed church,
educational, and translation work based at Ser- Baptist Missions. Within the family of Christian
ampore, north of Calcutta, and expanded the mis- denominations, Baptists have been a missions
sion eastward into what is now Bangladesh and people. In spite of their theological controversies,
up the Ganges Valley to the northwest. After the ecclesiastical independence, and geographical
death of Andrew Fuller, relationships between the provincialism, world missions has been the inte-
110
Baptist Missions
grating center that has given them corporate life. action: Attempt great things; expect great
All of their major unions, conventions, and para- things. Four months later the Baptist Mission-
church entities have sprung from their commit- ary Society was formed, and the Baptist denom-
ment to world missions. Their cooperative efforts ination became truly missionary. In June 1793
for world missions have brought them to the Carey left for India with his family as the Soci-
forefront of the modern missionary movement. etys first missionary, arriving in the Hooghly
The missions story of the Baptist denominations River estuary in November. As STEPHEN NEILL
can be divided into five periods. comments, the day of the English-speaking peo-
Early English Beginnings (17921814). The ples in overseas missions had begun.
Baptists trace their denominational origins back The small Baptist beginning, with its modest,
to seventeenth-century English Separatism. The unwieldy Society, evoked an unexpected notori-
first Baptist congregations in England were no ety among the other English-speaking denomina-
doubt greatly influenced by the Anabaptists of tions. Careys dedicated example, coupled with
the sixteenth century on the Continent, but de- his prolific letter writing, stirred missions inter-
veloped an ecclesiology that featured a moderate est among the Anglicans, the Congregationalists,
Calvinistic theology, baptism of believers by im- and even some of the Continental Protestants.
mersion, and a congregational polity. Their free- The result was a proliferation of missionary soci-
church polity, reactionary attitude, dissident rep- eties after 1793, including the famous London
utation, and sometimes hyper-Calvinism caused Missionary Society of the Congregationalists and
them to be very provincial. Although they partic- the CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY of the Anglicans.
ipated in the transatlantic Concert of Prayer for The Baptists had unwittingly set in motion the
world evangelization promoted by pietistic Euro- modern missionary movement, and William
peans and Jonathan Edwards in the second half Carey had unconsciously earned the title of Fa-
of the eighteenth century, their participation in ther of Modern Missions.
world missions was unheard of until one of their The Baptist Missionary Society (BMS) focused
humble pastors, WILLIAM CAREY (17611834), on India as its principal mission field, but in
through study of the Bible and geography, de- 1812 sent missionaries to Ceylon (now Sri
rived a deep conviction for world evangelization. Lanka) and in 1814 to Jamaica. It was in Jamaica
Carey, an obscure pastor and sometime shoe- that the BMS missionaries, especially William
cobbler, came to the conclusion that the hyper- Knibb, became well known for their litigation,
Calvinism of his denomination, which frowned which eventually led to the abolition of slavery in
on human instrumentality in evangelism, was the British Empire. Since then, the BMS has in-
spurious. He discovered the missionary mandate creased its investment in India, Jamaica, and Sri
in the Bible and became aware of its necessity Lanka. Subsequently, it opened work in Pakistan,
through his study of geography and Captain the Congo, Angola, Trinidad, and Brazil. It cele-
Cooks explorations. brated its bicentennial in 1992.
Against the theological and practical thought North American Adherence (181445). At the
of his own denomination, he wrote his famous beginning of the nineteenth century, the saga of
treatise, An Enquiry into the Obligation of Chris- Carey was well-known among Baptists and Con-
tians to use Means for the Conversion of the Hea- gregationalists in the United States. Carey main-
thens (1792), which became the constitution of tained constant correspondence with Baptist
the modern missionary movement. The title indi- leaders such as William Staughton, a pastor in
cates one of the difficulties with which Carey had Philadelphia who had been a charter member of
to contend, namely, the hyper-Calvinism of the the BMS, and Thomas Baldwin, a pastor in
day had convinced many that the conversion of Boston. Careys letters were published in the de-
the heathen would be the Lords own work in his nominational bulletins. BMS missionaries fre-
own time, and that nothing could be done by quently spent time in New England on their way
human beings to hasten it. Careys answer is a to their respective fields. Female and student so-
patient, methodical survey of the world and of cieties were organized and began to pray and
the whole history of Christian efforts to bring the give to the SERAMPORE MISSION of Carey.
gospel to it. Christ, he held, has a kingdom that is From this seedbed, a group of outstanding
to be proclaimed in its power to the ends of the Congregationalist students at Williams College
earth; it is the duty of all Christians to engage in and Andover Seminary felt led to dedicate them-
the proclamation of this kingdom in spite of the selves to foreign missions. After many vicissi-
eschatological speculations of the day about tudes, they persuaded the Congregationalists to
Gods agenda. form the AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR
The appeal of his Enquiry was reinforced by FOREIGN MISSIONS in 1810 and to appoint them as
Careys sermon to a group of Baptist ministers at missionaries to India. Among them were
Nottingham in May 1792. Starting from Isaiah ADONIRAM JUDSON and Luther Rice. Realizing that
54:23, Lengthen thy cords, and strengthen thy they would have to debate the question of infant
stakes, he laid down his two great principles of baptism with Carey and his companions, they
111
Baptist Missions
studied their Greek New Testaments on the long to appoint southerners for home and foreign mis-
journey on separate ships. They both became sions. The already growing polarization over mis-
Baptists by conviction and were baptized upon sions polity in the United States was fueled by
their arrival in India. the ABOLITIONIST MOVEMENT, which later resulted
Luther Rice returned to America to break amin the Confederacy and the Civil War (1860). Sec-
icably with the Congregationalists and to seek tional estrangement had been growing in Baptist
support for the Judsons, who, due to visa prob- life since the 1830s. The Northern Baptists (prin-
lems, were forced to go to Burma (Myanmar) to cipally the middle states and New England) fa-
work with Careys son, Felix. Carey wrote letters vored the society basis for missions; the Southern
of recommendation to New England Baptists, Baptists (Virginia to the South and West) favored
and Rice rallied the scattered Baptist congrega- the more centralized convention basis modeled
tions of the Eastern seaboard. On May 18, 1814, by the South Carolina state convention.
at the First Baptist Church of Philadelphia, The occasion for the separation was the in-
thirty-three delegates met to form the General volvement of the majority of Southern Baptists
Missionary Convention of the Baptist Denomina- with slavery, which was the basis of the Souths
tion in the United States for Foreign Missions economy. When the Abolitionist Movement
(popularly known as the Triennial Convention). heated up and invaded the South, it added to the
Although called a convention, in constitution widening rift. In the early 1840s it permeated the
and function it was basically a society for foreign missions entities and became an issue in the ap-
missions modeled after the BMS. Judson and his pointment of missionaries. The Triennial Con-
wife, Anne Hasseltine, became its first mission- vention, now a foreign missions society, gradu-
aries. In this indirect way, Baptists in America ally fell under northern dominance along with
became a missionary denomination. the Home Missions Society. Southern churches,
It is significant that this missionary society was which still contributed heavily, felt they were
the first organization of national scope for Bap- being neglected and that their candidates were
tists in America. It was the missionary impulse being spurned. Leaders of the Baptist missions
that integrated the fiercely independent and societies sought to work together despite their
widely scattered congregations and brought into differences on slavery. In 1841 both home and
being the Baptist denomination of the United foreign societies pledged to remain neutral on
States. Practically all the present-day Baptist en- slavery in the interest of unity. These efforts to
tities in the United States trace their history back maintain neutrality proved fruitless.
to this original entity. Militant abolitionists in the North, and equally
From 1814 to 1845 Baptists in America were militant proslavery Baptists in South, drowned
united around the challenge of missions. A Home out the more moderate voices. As the rhetoric be-
Missions Society was formed in 1832 and began came more inflamed, cooperation became more
a profitable work among indigenous Americans difficult and, finally, schism became immanent.
and pioneers on the Southwestern frontiers. The In 1844 test cases were presented to both the
Triennial Convention continued to evolve into a Home and Foreign societies by Georgia and Al-
foreign missions society. Two bases for Baptist abama Baptists that confirmed the fears of the
missions organizations began to polarize: the so- South that their candidates were being rejected
ciety basis and the convention basis. Baptists in because of the slavery question. The Southern
the North generally favored missionary societies; brethren then called for a constitutional meeting
those in the South favored a more centralized in Augusta, Georgia, in May 1845, which resulted
convention of churches. All Baptists had no prob- in a new Southern Baptist Convention.
lem with the why of missions, but increasingly The Southern Baptist Convention justified its
debated the how of missions. existence on the basis of missions. Its churches felt
In the meantime, a remarkable increase in they were prohibited from being faithful to the
funds and personnel was noted after 1826. New GREAT COMMISSION because their candidates were
missions were opened in France, Germany, being rejected by the predominantly Northern so-
Greece, and China. By 1844 there were 111 mis- ciety. Therefore, they felt compelled to organize a
sionaries10 in Europe, 6 in West Africa, 63 in new missionary organization. This they did. The
Asia, and 32 in North America, mostly among naming of a Foreign Mission Board and a Home
ethnic groups that continued under the foreign Mission Board was the first order of business. At
society. the same time, they incorporated a new basis of
Southern Baptists Separation (18451945). missions organization. For some time they had
Another milestone in Baptist missions history been dissatisfied with the society method of the
was the separation between Northern and South- Northern churches, based on the voluntary coop-
ern Baptists in the United States in 1845. The eration of individuals; therefore they adopted the
missions question was one of the principal convention method, based on the voluntary coop-
causes of the separation. In fact, the new South- eration of local churches. Thus, a new, cooperative
ern Baptist Convention came into being in order way of missions was born.
112
Baptist Missions
In spite of the unseemly circumstances that oc- 1995 the number had increased to 4,066. As the
casioned the founding of the Southern Baptist largest Baptist group in the world, they are lead-
Convention (SBC), an effective missions organi- ing out in missionary effort and strategy.
zation resulted; over the years it has produced Other large Baptist conventions and unions are
one of the largest missions sending bodies in the found among ethnic Baptist churches in the
history of Christianity. The new Convention lan- United States. African Americans formed several
guished during the Civil War years and the Re- conventions after the Civil War. Three of these
construction period, but began to flourish near conventions count on a total of 10 million Bap-
the turn of the century. tists. They, along with some 90 other ethnic Bap-
The Northern Baptists continued their mis- tist groups in the United States, sponsor some
sions through the American Baptist Missionary modest missionary endeavors. Baptist Hispanics
Union and the American Baptist Home Mission in the United States have remained in the Anglo
Society. Although sectionally separated, Baptists conventions and have not formed their own mis-
in North America continued to grow in foreign sions. Fundamentalist and Conservative Baptist
and home missions through two World Wars and entities, results of Baptist controversies of the
an economic depression. Northern Baptists or- past, also sponsor some significant foreign and
ganized a Convention in 1908, which they re- home mission efforts.
named the American Baptist Convention in 1949. Two-Thirds World Missions (1980 ). The great
They have gradually moved away from the socie- new fact in world missions, and especially in the
tal methodology, but have not experienced Baptist world missionary enterprise, is the pres-
growth in number or in mission advance like the ence of a rapidly growing TWO-THIRDS WORLD
Southern Baptists. missionary movement. These are the countries of
PostWorld War II Growth (194580). Bap- the formerly called third world that were objects
tist mission efforts have universally burgeoned of the modern missionary movement from Eu-
since World War II. The BMS has expanded its rope and North America. Most are found in
program at home and abroad to include work in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. They
India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and the Republics are now called two-thirds world by many be-
of Zaire, Angola, Tanzania, Jamaica, Trinidad,
cause they approximate two-thirds of the worlds
Brazil, and Hong Kong. The majority of the mis-
territory and two-thirds of the worlds population.
sionaries are in Africa and Brazil. In addition to
The Christians in these countries are no longer
planting churches, the BMS has worked in the
content to be objects of world mission; they want
areas of Christian education, ministerial train-
to be participants in mission. Many of the pre-
ing, medical work, agricultural work, and other
mier mission fields of Baptists, including Brazil,
social ministries. The missionary motif spread
to British Commonwealth Baptists also, and Nigeria, Korea, Taiwan, Argentina, and many
strong Baptist missions have emanated from others, are forming missionary societies and
Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, and espe- boards and sending out their own cross-cultural
cially Canada. missionaries. They are targeting the unreached
American Baptist in the United States (formerly people groups found in the 1040 WINDOW of the
Northern), in spite of hurtful fundamentalist con- world, which spans North Africa, the Middle
troversies that brought divisions and new mis- East, Central Asia, the subcontinent of India, and
sions entities, continue effective missionary work China. The internationalization of Baptist mis-
through their International (BIM) and National sions is taking place rapidly. Brazil would be an
(BNM) Boards. However, a shift in emphasis to apt example. Several Baptist mission boards have
new ministries has brought a sharp decline in been working in Brazil for years, and continue to
their number of foreign and home missionaries. work there, but Brazilian Baptists have a Home
In contrast, Southern Baptists (SBC) have ex- Mission Board with more than 500 missionaries
perienced dramatic growth in missions involve- and a Foreign Mission Board with over 120 mis-
ment. In 1995 they had 4,000 foreign missionar- sionaries working in 19 countries. These entities
ies working in 131 countries and about 5,000 are growing so rapidly that missiologists are rec-
home missionaries working in the United States, ognizing that the base for world mission is mov-
which is considered to be the fourth largest mis- ing from the Northwest to the Southeast. The rise
sion field in the world! Although plagued by doc- of these two-thirds world missions is by far the
trinal controversy since 1979, this has not most exciting, encouraging fact in Baptist mis-
dimmed their dream of Bold Mission Thrust, sions today.
which is their program to cooperate with other In summary, Baptist missions, home and for-
Great Commission Christians in reaching the eign, have had, and do have, a prominent place in
unreached peoples of the world by the year 2000. the evangelical Christian missionary enterprise. If
In 1995 they joined the EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP united, they would easily constitute the largest
OF MISSION AGENCIES (EFMA). In 1950 they had sector of that enterprise. They join with other
711 foreign missionaries under appointment; by Christians who take seriously the Great Commis-
113
Baptist Missions
sion in the pursuit of that elusive goalthe evan- Bibliography. E. Band, Barclay of Formosa.
gelization of the world in this generation.
JUSTICE C. ANDERSON Barth, Christian Gottlob (17991862). Early
German mission thinker and promoter. A native
SEE ALSO Southern Baptist Convention, IMB.
of the city of Stuttgart from 1824, Barth acted as
Bibliography. B. J. Cauthen and F. K. Means, Ad- a Protestant pastor in the small village of Mtt-
vance to Bold Mission Thrust; W. R. Estep, Whole lingen in the Black Forest. In 1838 he moved
Gospel, Whole World: The FMB of the SBC 18451995; near Calw and worked as a writer, publicist, and
J. C. Fletcher, The Southern Baptist Convention: A leader of the Calwer Verlag, which he founded in
Sesquicentennial History; A. W. Hardin, ed., Baptists 1833. Versatile, talented, and energetic, Barth de-
Around the World; H. L. McBeth, The Baptist Heritage:
veloped a worldwide reputation and labored tire-
Four Centuries of Baptist Witness; R. G. Torbet, A His-
tory of the Baptists; D. C. Woolley, ed., Baptist Advance: lessly as a popular author (with no less than
The Achievements of the Baptists of North America for a twelve books for young people), an enthusiastic
Century and a Half. preacher, hymn writer, and promoter of mission.
He founded the widespread Calwer Missionsblatt
Barbados (Est. 2000 pop.: 268,000; 430 sq. km. (18281918) and also a missionary letter for chil-
[166 sq. mi.]). The most easterly of the Leeward dren (18421918). His work Barths Bible Stories
(southern) Islands of the Caribbean, Barbados (18321945) went through 483 German printings,
aquired its independence from Britain in 1966. Its numerous English editions, and approximately
90 translations as a worldwide best-seller. His
relatively rich resources have made the island more
books for adults include Bible commentaries and
prosperous than most. It has one of the more sta-
overviews, world and church histories, and mis-
ble economies and one of the larger proportions of
sions treatises. He was a distinguished collector
evangelical Protestants in the area (25 percent).
of natural history exhibits, by which he also pur-
EVERETT A. WILSON
sued missionary aims. Rooted in the Pietism of
SEE ALSO Caribbean. J. B. Bengel and F. C. Oetinger, Barths theology
is characterized as an apolyptic history of salva-
Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer- tion approach to Gods kingdom.
ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His-
WERNER RAUPP
tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to
the Present. Bibliography. C. G. Barth, Christian Missions;
K. Werner, Christian Gottlob Barth.
Barclay, Thomas (18491935). Scottish mission-
ary to Taiwan. He was born and grew up in Glas- Barth, Karl (18861968). See NEO-ORTHODOX
gow, Scotland, where he attended both the Uni- THEOLOGY.
versity of Glasgow and the Free Church Divinity
College. When sixteen years of age, he wrote a Basel Mission. With roots in early German
covenant of commitment to Christ, renewed an- pietism and revival movements, the Basel Mission
nually, which guided him throughout his life. He (Evangelische Missionsgesellschaft in Basel) was
was sent to Formosa (Taiwan) as a missionary by established in 1815 out of a desire to provide
the Foreign Mission Committee of the Free training for German-speaking missionaries going
Church in 1875 and served there until his death abroad. Christian Blumhardt provided early lead-
on October 5, 1935. His time in Formosa may be ership, opening a seminary for young missionar-
divided into three periods: 187592, when he ies in Basel in 1816, which continued until 1955.
learned the language, taught in the Presbyterian Initially missionaries with the Basel Mission (BM)
Theological College in Tainan, developed a ro- served under other agencies such as the Church
manized script for publishing literature in Tai- Missionary Society, but beginning in 1821 the BM
wanese, and helped establish a boys middle sent out its own missionaries, starting work in
school and girls school; 18951912, when he southern Russia (1822), which was soon discon-
continued his teaching and helped organize the tinued; Ghana (1825); India (1834); Hong Kong
first presbytery and synod for the Presbyterian and south China (1846); Cameroon (1886), where
Church; 191335, when he translated and later the BM took over work from the English Baptists;
helped revise both the New Testament and Old North Togo (1912); Borneo (Kalimantan) (1921);
Testament, the major work of his distinguished North Borneo (Sabah) (1952); and among hill
career. He also prepared a dictionary and litera- tribes in North Cameroon (Nigeria) (1959).
ture for use in the church. At the time of the By 1914 there were 450 missionaries in five
Japanese conquest in 1895 his peacemaking ef- countries, but World War I caused a temporary
forts saved the city of Tainan from being hiatus in the work. Karl Hartenstein served as di-
bombed. He was awarded a Doctor of Divinity rector of the BM from 1926 to 1939, when it was
degree in 1919 by the University of Glasgow. decided to make the Swiss home base alone re-
RALPH R. COVELL sponsible for the mission, in order to facilitate
114
Beaver, Robert Pierce
continued operation during World War II. In Bibliography: J. A. Jongeneel, BDCM, pp. 4849;
1954 a separate German branch was established, J. van den Berg, ML, pp. 42834; J. Verkuyl, Contempo-
with headquarters in Stuttgart. The BM is an in- rary Missiology: An Introduction.
tegral part of the Swiss Mission Council and co-
operates with the division of mission and evan- Bayne, Margaret (17951835). See WILSON,
gelism in the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES. MARGARET BAYNE.
Through the German branch the BM is also con-
nected with the German Mission Council. Beach, Harlan Page (18541933). American
From the beginning the BM has been nonmissionary, professor, and missions librarian.
denominational and ecumenical, drawing sup- Born into a deeply religious farming family of
port from churches of Lutheran, Reformed, and modest means, Harlan graduated from Yale in
Free Church traditions, and cooperating with 1878 and taught for two years at Phillips Andover
various other missions organizations. Its support before entering Andover Theological Seminary,
comes primarily from south Germany, German- from which he graduated in 1883. On June 29,
speaking parts of Switzerland, and Austria. BM 1883, he married Lucy L. Ward and later that
missionaries have been involved in a wide variety year went to North China under the AMERICAN
of ministriesfrom evangelism and church BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS.
planting to theological education, education and Harlan was associated with a school in Tung-
literacy work, translation, medical missions, es- chow, where he founded one of the first YMCAs
tablishing orphanages, development of voca- in China. He mastered five thousand Chinese
tional skills, and so on. characters and was assigned to a committee to
EDITORS revise the Mandarin Bible. The Beaches left
China in 1889 due to Lucys failing health.
SEE ALSO German Mission Boards and Societies. From 1892 to 1895 Harlan was in charge of the
Bibliography. H. Witschi, EMCM, pp. 27174; School for Christian Workers in Springfield,
W. Zumbrennen, CDCWM, p. 53. Massachusetts. He was then appointed educa-
tional secretary for the STUDENT VOLUNTEER
Bavinck, Johan Herman (18951964). Dutch MOVEMENT. He promoted mission classes in col-
missiologist and missionary to Indonesia. Born leges and seminaries, trained teachers, and wrote
to a ministers family in Rotterdam, Bavinck grew a series of simple yet accurate textbooks.
up in a deeply spiritual home. Studies at Free Harlan was the first incumbent of the profes-
University and University of Erlangen (Ph.D., sorship of missions at Yale Divinity School and
1919) developed his interest and skills in the psy- concurrently librarian of the Day Missions Li-
chology of religion, an orientation he maintained brary. A major accomplishment was the develop-
throughout his life. ment of the library into one of the two finest col-
Bavincks career involved pastoral duties in lections in the world on Protestant foreign
Sumatra (191921), Bandung, Java (192126), missions. Another accomplishment was his sta-
and Heemstede, Netherlands (192629). His pas- tistical study of foreign missions. He produced A
toral work in Indonesia prepared him for the call Geography and Atlas of Protestant Missions
to serve there as a missionary, which he did in (19013), and co-edited World Statistics of Chris-
Solo (192933) and at Jogjakarta (193539). For tian Missions (1910) and World Missionary Atlas
his final career phase he returned to the Nether- (1925). Beach was for years considered to be the
lands to serve as part-time professor at Kampen outstanding scholar in the United States on for-
Theological College and the Free University of eign missions. His primary concern in missions
Amsterdam (193955) and then full-time at the was world evangelization.
Free University until his death (195564). KENNETH D. GILL
Throughout his career Bavinck was a produc- Bibliography. R. H. Bainton, Yale and the Ministry;
tive scholar. His initial focus in psychology and D. N. Beach, Beach Family Reminiscences and Annals;
philosophy (e.g., An Introduction to Psychology, K. S. Latourette, Dictionary of National Biography,
1926) was augmented by a fascination with the 21:6263.
mystical orientation of the Javanese (Christ and
Eastern Mysticism, 1934) and a thorough ground- Beaver, Robert Pierce (190687). American mis-
ing in biblical scholarship (e.g., People around sions scholar and missionary to China. Born,
Jesus, 1936). In missiological circles, he is perhaps raised, and educated in Ohio, he went on to Cor-
best noted for his An Introduction to the Science of nell University and obtained a doctorate in history
Missions (1954). Though a product of its times in in 1933. After pastoring several Evangelical and
terms of the one-way orientation to missionary Reformed churches, he and his wife, the former
work, it is still a masterful blend of Bavincks psy- Wilma Manessier, went to China in 1938 under
chological, biblical, and religious interests. the Evangelical and Reformed Church, where he
A. SCOTT MOREAU taught at the Central China Union Theological
115
Beaver, Robert Pierce
Seminary in southern Hunan Province. This serv- tury John B. Watson proposed that psychologists
ice was cut short by the Japanese invasion of confine their study to observable behavior that
China; ultimately, Beaver was interned in Hong can be studied by objective procedures yielding
Kong for seven months. Following his repatria- statistically significant results. While not agree-
tion, he taught at the Lancaster Theological Sem- ing with Watsons reductionism, B. F. Skinner
inary until 1948. Beavers greatest contributions nevertheless focused on controlled experiments
to missiology came from his leadership of the and postulated a type of psychological condition-
Missionary Research Library in New York from ing called reinforcement. Skinners learning the-
1948 to 1955 and his teaching at the University of ory is reflected in certain aspects of THEOLOGICAL
Chicago from 1955 to 1973. From these two EDUCATION BY EXTENSION with its programmed
strategic posts he gathered important mission pa- textbooks and learning. Behaviorism as such,
pers and documents, created a mission research however, yielded center stage to the humanism of
center, taught future missionaries and mission Abraham Maslow and others in the 1950s, and
scholars, wrote on crucial mission topics, and Maslows hierarchy of needs has exerted a greater
motivated his own denomination and others to influence in mission theory.
implement Gods mission in the world. Following Of greater missiological importance has been
three years as director of the Overseas Ministries the influence of anthropologists such as Edward T.
Study Center in Ventnor, New Jersey, he retired in Hall and linguists such as EUGENE A. NIDA. Hall
1976 to Arizona, where he died in 1987. proposed that human behavior can be understood
RALPH R. COVELL in terms of ten primary message systems, only
one of which is verbal. Halls overall theory has not
Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, All Loves Excelling: Amer-
ican Protestant Women in World Mission; idem, ed.,
met with widespread understanding or approval,
American Missions in Bicentennial Perspective; F. D. but his ideas on the silent language and the com-
Lucking; ML, pp. 45258. municative aspects of such things as time and
space have captured the attention of American
Behavior Patterns. Christian missionaries have missionaries for over a generation.
always concerned themselves with the behavior Among missionary theorists, Nida has perhaps
of other peoples. Disobedience to even the most exerted the most influence in recent years. In ad-
basic of Gods laws constitutes evidence of their dition to his impact on the understanding of lan-
sinful condition. Prescribed behavioral change guage learning and translation, Nida has written
affords evidence of their conversion. However, insightfully on the relationship between belief
with the development of the social sciences, Ger- systems and behavior, the symbolic nature of re-
man missiology since the latter part of the nine- ligious behavior, social structure and commu-
teenth century and American missiology since nicative behavior, and more.
World War II have reflected increased under- As a result of studies such as the foregoing,
standing of human behavior. contemporary missionaries can be far better pre-
Most prominent in this matter have been the pared to deal with behavioral issues encountered
when working in another culture. CULTURE SHOCK
contributions of the behavioral sciencessociol-
can be ameliorated when the missionary is pre-
ogy, psychology, and cultural anthropology (in-
pared for the encounter with behavioral patterns
cluding linguistics and cross-cultural communi-
that have meanings entirely foreign to her or
cation). As part of a process termed socialization
him. Culture change is most readily initiated by
by the sociologist and enculturation by the an-
discovering what is happening at the informal
thropologist (see CULTURE LEARNING), people con-
imitation of models level of learning, bringing
sciously and unconsciously learn which behav-
it to the level of awareness, and introducing
ioral patterns are expected and which are not
change at that point. CONVERSION is best under-
acceptable in their respective cultures. It is these
stood, not first of all as change at the behavioral
learned action patterns, as opposed to reflexive
outer layer of culture, but at its basic belief sys-
and instinctive patterns, that are of special im-
tem or worldview inner core.
portance to missiologists. Taking many of their
DAVID J. HESSELGRAVE
clues from the sciences, missiologists have at-
tempted to integrate new understandings with Bibliography. E. T. Hall, The Silent Language; D. J.
Scripture and the missionary experience. These Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ Cross-Culturally;
attempts have not always been completely valid E. A. Nida, Message and Mission.
(indeed, social science theories themselves are in
flux), but on the whole this process has resulted Belarus (Est. 2000 pop.: 10,069,000; 207,600 sq.
in insights into human behavior that have greatly km. [80,154 sq. mi.]). Belarus is a landlocked, pre-
enhanced missionary theory and practice. dominantly agricultural republic in the western
Reacting to earlier psychological studies that region of the former Soviet Union. Its population
emphasized the study of inner experiences or is 98 percent Slavic, and most people speak Russ-
feelings by subjective methods, early in this cen- ian as their primary language. Belarus has suf-
116
Belief Systems
fered more than any other nation from the effects more liberties in 1713 by Emperor Joseph II.
of the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Although These liberties included the right to worship. The
religious freedom is officially guaranteed, the gov- country then experienced the French Revolution
ernment frequently employs legal and bureau- in 1789 and the reversion to Dutch control in
cratic measures to restrict both foreign mission- 1815. Belgium gained its independence in 1830,
ary activity and indigenous evangelistic efforts. and a constitutional monarchy began.
Nearly half the population is at least nominally Belgium has been through a tumultuous his-
Orthodox, while almost a quarter is Roman tory that has created spiritual apathy, thus lead-
Catholic. Evangelicals, while growing in number, ing to nominalism in religion. The political lead-
make up just over one percent of the population, ers forced Roman Catholic beliefs upon the
with Pentecostals slightly outnumbering Baptists. people to the point of cruelty. As a result, the peo-
RAYMOND P. PRIGODICH ple lost respect for their religion and turned to
atheism, fearing to be open to any other denomi-
See also COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES. nation. They may have kept their membership
with the Roman Catholic Church as a protective
Belgium (Est. 2000 pop.: 10,248,000; 30,519 sq. measure, but many did not practice it.
km. [11,783 sq. mi.]). Belgium, a highly industri- WILLIAM L. WAGNER
alized and wealthy country in Western Europe, is
the second most densely populated country in all Belief Systems. Belief systems are thought of in
of Europe and is made up of primarily the Flem- at least two different ways in missiological liter-
ish and Walloon people. The predominant reli- ature. First, as a level of mental construction they
gion is Roman Catholicism, with 87.3 percent are understood to determine the legitimacy of
membership. Of the overwhelming percentage of questions, generate conceptual problems, and
Roman Catholics, less than 10 percent attend perform a constraining, heuristic, and justifica-
Mass at least once a year. Therefore, religion is tory role. Second, and more commonly, systems
more cultural than it is a living faith in the lives of belief are understood as an integral part of
of Belgians, making Belgium one of the most dif- worldview. In this latter case, the study of reli-
ficult countries in Western Europe to evangelize. gious belief systems has generated considerable
Not only has the Roman Catholic Church seen interest among field missionaries.
little growth, the Protestant mission efforts have Anthropologists have described two types of
also been unsuccessful with little growth in beliefs: instrumental beliefs, which are related to
twenty years. Growth has been the greatest the concrete tasks necessary for survival, and
through the witness of BEM (the Belgium Evan- transcendental beliefs, which involve states and
gelical Mission)/OM teams, Baptist, Brethren, and elements of existence that cannot be learned di-
Pentecostals in certain areas. Charismatic groups rectly from human experience. These categories
have typically been a growing church in other are useful, but as yet anthropologists have not
parts of Europe, but they have had very little last- been able to agree on the meaning of some of the
ing effects in Belgium. Why is it that Belgium is most basic concepts they use to investigate tran-
such a spiritually dead country with resistance to scendental belief systemsconcepts such as reli-
mission efforts of other denominations? It is im- gion, the supernatural, magic, and witchcraft.
portant to look at its political and spiritual history Even though the transcendental-instrumental di-
for answers. chotomy seems to be derived more from the per-
Belgium has a long history of resistance by its spective of Western anthropologists than from
political leaders to any reforms to spiritual tra- categorical differences and distinctions made by
ditions established by the Roman Catholic people in actual cultural contexts, ethnographic
Church. Belgium and Holland in the sixteenth data have been useful in the study of religious be-
century formed seventeen provinces of the Span- lief systems in many societies.
ish Low Countries. In the beginning of the cen- Culture provides learned categories, called cog-
tury, Luthers new ideas came into the Spanish nitive categories, used to sort out perceptions.
provinces. Luthers theses were posted in Wit- Culturally molded cognition enables human be-
tenburg in 1517. Charles V, the reigning king, ings to apprehend order in the world of their
viewed Luthers ideas as heresy and ordered the existence. Thus, in the WORLDVIEW of a society,
death penalty in 1522 for those citizens who did culture furnishes people with beliefs regarding
not conform to Roman Catholic doctrinal be- the universe and a belief system through which
liefs. Calvinism began in the Low Countries in they give meanings to their experiences. Belief
1542 and many followers were martyred as a re- systems deal with very particular and detailed
sult of their nonconformity. items in the worldview of people in a given soci-
Philip II, Charles son, boasted of his execution ety. Religious belief systems deal with specific be-
of more than 18,000 Protestants between 1567 liefs about meaning and destiny of life. People in
and 1573. The Protestants were finally given various cultures accept the respective symbolic
117
A-B Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:39 AM Page 118
Belief Systems
interpretations of reality because of the authority culture. Protestantism was conceived as the reli-
of the supernatural being(s) or powers involved. gion of the white people in a country where 90
A belief system tends to make explicit the implicit percent of the population was black or colored.
assumptions of the worldview in which they are Independence in 1884 meant an increasing na-
found and in which they function, and to apply tionalization of the Christian testimony in Belize.
these assumptions to behavior. Spanish-speaking immigrants, with the arrival of
Each society, then, has a more or less system- the Jesuits in 1851, increased the numbers of
atically structured religious belief system that Roman Catholics. The Anglicans lost their privi-
can be studied and learned. MYTHS and RITUALS leged position as other Protestant groups were
have been key areas of culture studied by anthro- established. By 1990, the Protestant community
pologists, and such data have done much to en- of Belize totaled just over 25 percent of the pop-
hance missiological understanding of the deep ulation. Operation World reported in 1993 seven-
structures of religious belief systems in various teen missionaries from Belize in three agencies.
cultures. PABLO A. DEIROS
NORMAN E. ALLISON
Bibliography. C. L. Holland, ed., World Christianity,
Bibliography. C. Geertz, Reader in Comparative Reli- vol. 4, Central American and the Caribbean; W. R. John-
gion: An Anthropological Approach; P. G. Hiebert, An- son, A History of Christianity in Belize, 17761838.
thropological Reflections on Missiological Issues; D. E.
Hunter and P. Whitten, The Study of Anthropology. Bell, Lemuel Nelson (18941973). American
medical missionary to China. Born in Virginia,
Belize (Est. 2000 popl.: 245,000; 22,965 sq. km. he abandoned his first ambition to be a lawyer
[8,867 sq. mi.]). The country of Belize, independ- and committed himself to becoming a medical
ent since 1884, was known as British Honduras missionary. He took his training at the Medical
until 1973. Throughout its history, Belize has College of Virginia in Richmond. Nelson married
struggled with identity problems, developing Virginia Leftwich in June 1916, and, shortly after,
more ties to the British Caribbean than to the they were appointed missionaries with the
rest of Central America. Occupied by the Mayan Southern Presbyterian Foreign Mission Board,
Indians in pre-Columbian times and explored by arriving in China later that year. Most of Bells
the Spanish conquistadors, it became a shelter years as a medical missionary were spent in the
for the British buccaneers who preyed upon Presbyterian hospital at Tsingkiangpu, along the
Spanish shipping. European immigrants, Creoles Grand Canal in Jiangsu province. He expanded
of African origin, Black Caribs, and Indian and this facility by 1930 to be the largest Presbyterian
Spanish-speaking mestizos have melded to create hospital in the world. Beyond his medical duties,
a heterogeneous, multiethnic population. English he engaged in evangelism and many church ac-
is the primary language and Christianity is the tivities. Life in China was unsettled for the Bells
dominant faith. as civil war, Japanese invaders, and communist
Christianity arrived with the Spaniards in the guerrillas wracked China. This constant turmoil
sixteenth century. The first Catholic missionaries led to their return to America in 1941. During the
arrived in 1851. Catholic testimony prospered next thirty years Bell continued to practice medi-
chiefly among the Indian and mestizo population cine, founded the Southern Presbyterian Journal,
in rural areas. By the end of the nineteenth cen- was active in church and mission endeavors, and
tury (1893), the Roman Catholic Church consti- served for many years as both executive editor
tuted about two-thirds of the population. More re- and columnist of Christianity Today, a prestigious
cently, that has decreased to roughly 40 percent. journal he had helped to found in 1956.
Protestantism came to Belize in 1638, when a RALPH R. COVELL
group of shipwrecked English sailors (other
sources read buccaneers) settled. Under British Bibliography. J. C. Pollock, A Foreign Devil in China.
protection, Belize became a Protestant enclave in
Central America. In 1776, Robert Shaw intro- Bender, Carl Jacob (18691935). German-Amer-
duced the Anglican testimony that was later con- ican missionary to Cameroon. Born in Eschel-
tinued by William Stanford. Evangelical Angli- bach, Baden, Germany, in 1869, Bender emi-
cans became influential in religious education. grated with his family to the United States at age
The Baptists began their testimony in 1822 with twelve and located in Buffalo, New York. He was
James Bourn and, under Alexander Henderson in working in a dry goods store when he was con-
the late 1840s, became an autonomous body. verted in an evangelical church and later joined a
Methodists arrived in 1824 and grew in numbers German Baptist church. Compelled to share his
through difficulties. By 1838 Protestant denomi- faith with others, Bender often held street meet-
nations claimed approximately 16 percent of the ings. He felt called to full-time ministry and at
population. Church growth, however, was chal- age twenty-four entered the German Baptist
lenged by the prevailing differences of race and Seminary in Rochester, New York. Following his
118
Bermuda
graduation and ordination in 1899, Bender ac- Berlin Mission Society. The pietism and revivals
cepted a missionary assignment to Cameroon of early-nineteenth-century Switzerland and Ger-
under the German Baptist Missionary Society. He many produced a keen interest in missions, re-
married Hedwig Klber on May 7, 1904, during sulting in the formation of several new missions
his first furlough. Benders American citizenship organizations such as the BASEL MISSION (1815).
allowed him and his wife to continue their mis- Founded in 1824 initially as a supporting agency
sion work when all of the other German mission- of the Basel Mission, the Berlin Mission Society
aries were imprisoned during World War I. In ad- (Berliner Missionsgesellschaft) sent out its own
dition to successful evangelistic work, several missionaries beginning in 1833. In 1829 the
churches and schools were started during the Berlin Society established its own seminary. The
war years. The Benders left Cameroon after the
first missionaries were sent to South Africa, and
war in 1919 when the work was taken over by the
work in Africa has been the Societys principal
British and French. However, after many years of
lobbying by Bender, the German Baptists re- focus, although missionaries were also sent to
sumed their work in Cameroon and he was al- India (1842) and China (1882). The period from
lowed to return. On November 8, 1935, Carl Ben- 1913 to 1949 was very difficult for the Society, as
der died in Soppo, Cameroon, where he was two World Wars disrupted the work and mission-
buried. aries had to leave the fields or were interned.
KENNETH D. GILL From the beginning the Berlin Mission Society
has been an interdenominational agency empha-
Bibliography. C. F. H. Henry, Bender in the
sizing spirituality and piety, strong lay involve-
Cameroon; C. W. Weber, International Influences and
Baptist Mission in West Cameroon; F. H. Woyke, Heritage ment, and organizational independence from de-
and Ministry of the North American Baptist Conference. nominations. Although its support base includes
Reformed and Lutheran churches, Lutheran in-
Benin (Est. 2000 pop.: 6,266,000; 112,622 sq. km. fluences remain strong within the Society. The
[43,483 sq. mi.]). The Republic of Benin, whose Societys seminary has been closed since 1945,
population is comprised of fifty-seven ethnic with missionaries now receiving training in
groups, is a long, narrow country wedged be- church institutions. Missionaries with the Soci-
tween Nigeria and Togo in French-speaking west- ety have been involved in evangelism and church
ern Africa. It is one of Africas poorest nations planting as well as a variety of other ministries
and the worlds least developed countries. The such as education and medical ministries. The
majority of the people (55 percent) practice tribal Berlin Mission Society continues as one of the
religions, while some 17 percent embrace Islam. largest German missionary societies.
The Catholic Church built a chapel at Ouidah EDITORS
in 1680, which was served by Portuguese and
French priests during the 1700s. Not until 1860, SEE ALSO German Mission Boards and Societies
however, when the work in Dahomey was turned AND Basel Mission.
over to the African Missions of Lyon, did missions Bibliography. J. Althausen, EMCM, pp. 7677; H. W.
become active in the interior. The Methodist Gensichen, CDCWM, p. 55.
Church, still the largest Protestant denomination,
was the first Protestant church to enter Benin,
arriving in 1843. Historically, the Methodist Bermuda (Est. 2000 pop.: 65,000; 54 sq. km. [21
churches in the south have struggled, but since sq. mi.]). Unlike most of the Caribbean islands,
1987 both evangelicals and Catholics have seen the citizens of the Bermuda group, a British
rapid church growth. After gaining independence colony, enjoy prosperity. The economy is based
from France in 1960, and a brief affair with com- on tourism and offshore financial activities. The
munism, the people of Benin now enjoy religious per capita annual income compares favorably
freedom. (126%) with that of the United States. While two-
Opportunities for evangelization abound. thirds of the population is Afro-Caribbean, many
While translation teams are working in twelve residents are from Britain, the United States, or
languages, twenty-four languages still remain Canada. In fact, one in every four Bermudans is
without a New Testament. Audio recordings are foreign-born. The modest evangelical community
available in thirty-four languages for use in evan- (17%) is overwhelmingly Pentecostal.
gelism and teaching. There is one Christian radio EVERETT A. WILSON
station, Radio Parakou, which broadcasts the
gospel daily. SEE ALSO Caribbean.
GARY LAMB Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer-
ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His-
Berlin Congress 1966. See WORLD CONGRESS ON tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to
EVANGELISM. the Present.
119
Berntsen, Annie Skau
Berntsen, Annie Skau (191192). Norwegian produced numerous publications in German,

missionary in China. Born in Oslo in a secular many of which have been translated into English.
family, as a teen Berntsen was an active leader in KENNETH D. GILL
a Karl Marx club. Her grandmothers faith was
Bibliography. E. Rhoton, AFC, pp. 25861; P. Beyer-
an important element in Berntsens conversion; haus, Shaken Foundations: Theological Foundations for
she carried a vivid memory throughout her life of Mission; idem, Gods Kingdom and Utopian Error.
her grandmother praying with her for the con-
version of Annie and her parents when Annie was
Bhengu, Nicholas Bhekinkosi Hepworth
seven years old. The prayer that Annie would (190986). South African evangelist. Known as
come to faith was answered while she was in the black Billy Graham, Bhengu was born in
nursing school. the Zulu kingdom the son of a Lutheran evangel-
Following a call to missionary service, and hav- ist and grandson of a Zulu chief. He graduated in
ing received her missionary training through 1937 from South Africa General Mission Bible
CHINA INLAND MISSION, Berntsen traveled to China Training School in Dumisa, Natal. Called to the
in 1938 and worked as a nurse in the Shensi ministry, he became an evangelist and conducted
province until 1951. After the Communists took Back to God Crusades, having been inspired in
over China and the missionaries were expelled, a dream by a voice that said, Africa must get
she worked in Hong Kong at a refugee camp. In back to God. He later joined the Assemblies of
1955 she founded The Hope of Heaven hospital God in South Africa (AGSA).
which served the Chinese fleeing the mainland. Bhengu traveled extensively, preaching and
Berntsen was recognized widely for her sacri- raising funds for his evangelistic endeavors in
ficial faith and service. She received the Florence South Africa, which proved to be quite success-
Nightingale Medal and Norways Order of Saint ful. Preaching tours in 1954 and 1958 took him
Olaf and was named a member of the British to the United States, Canada, Scotland, and Nor-
Empire for her efforts in Hong Kong. She died in way, making him a prominent figure in the Pen-
peaceful anticipation of her union with Christ in tecostal World Conference. Eventually AGSA
1992. came to be governed by several apostles, in-
A. SCOTT MOREAU cluding Bhengu, who directed evangelism and
Bibliography. A. Mller and G. Mller, Ambassadors church planting. His ministry focused primarily
for Christ, pp. 19699. on individual conversion and strongly impacted
the spiritual and moral values of South Africans.
Beyerhaus, Peter (1929 ). German professor, In 1974 he served as a Fellow at Selly Oak Col-
evangelical spokesman, and missionary to South leges in England, and taught about evangelism.
Africa. Born into the home of a minister and his At his death, the nation mourned and over 20,000
wife in Berlin, Germany, he felt called to the min- people attended his internment.
istry and responded by studying theology at Up- GARY B. MCGEE
psala University. While completing his doctorate, Bibliography. N. B. H. Bhengu, Revival Fire in South
he married a Swedish woman who aspired to be Africa; idem, Decision (October 1974): 4, and (Novem-
a missionary. Together they worked for many ber 1974): 10; idem, Time (November 23, 1959): 6970.
years among the Black population of South
Africa. Forced to return to Germany in 1965 be- Bhutan (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,842,000; 47,000 sq. km.
cause of his oldest daughters ill health, Beyer- [18,147 sq. mi.]). A small Buddhist kingdom in
haus joined the theology faculty at Tbingen Uni- the eastern Himalayas between India and Tibet
versity as professor of missions and became (now part of China). The capital is Thimphu,
director of its Institute of Missiology and Ecu- where Jigme Singye Wangchuk has reigned as
menical Theology. Concerned about the liberal king since 1972. Education is free and all schools
environment of the university, he helped estab- are government-subsidized, but there is not ade-
lish the Albrecht Bengel House, a dormitory/lec- quate space for all the children and there are no
ture hall where Christian students could get spir- private schools. Consequently, the literacy rate is
itual help. He also mentored students by taking around 18 percent. English is taught in all
them with him on evangelistic preaching trips. schools, but Dzongkha is the official language.
Beyerhaus became an international spokesman There are eleven languages overall.
for evangelical Christianity, opposing the drift Lamaistic Buddhism was introduced in the
away from the biblical mandate for world evan- eighth century and is the state religion. All pub-
gelism that he detected at both Tbingen and the lic worship, evangelism, and proselytization by
World Council of Churches. In 1970 he was one other religions are illegal. Since 1965 that has not
of the chief architects of the FRANKFORT DECLARA- been as strictly enforced, allowing slow growth of
TION, a critical assessment of the situation, which the church. Seventy percent of the Bhutanese are
became the symbol of a worldwide evangelical Buddhist. The second largest religion is Hin-
thrust for world evangelization. Beyerhaus has duism (24%).
120
Bible
Christians comprise only 0.33 percent of the Those who fail to acknowledge this message are,
population. There are seventy-two Protestant says Paul, without excuse (Rom. 1:26).
missionaries representing eleven agencies and Special Revelation consists first of all in Gods
ten Roman Catholic missionaries to the nation. work through the nation Israel, her history and
Missionaries operating leprosy hospitals or in- prophets. Micah calls to remembrance events of
volved in health, agriculture, and education pro- the nations past that you may know the saving
grams are welcome, but evangelistic work is out- acts of the LORD (6:5). It should, however, be
lawed. Because of the evangelistic restrictions, noted that Gods special revelation to and work
several mission agencies have been working from through Israel had a missionary purpose. It is
just outside the country in India. through her that all the nations of the world
JAMIE FLOWERS shall be blessed (Gen. 12:3); as a priestly king-
dom (Exod. 19:6) she is to mediate between God
Bibliography. R. C. Dogra, Bhutan; P. Johnstone, OW. and others. In Exodus 34:10 God says, I will do
marvels, . . . and all the people among whom you
Bible. The ultimate task of all forms of Christian are shall see the work of the LORD. Isaiah affirms
missions is to tell of the Judeo-Christian God that Gods servant will be a light to the nations
(Yahweh-Jehovah) and to report the salvation (49:6; cf. Acts 13:4647). The supreme act of
made available by his grace through the life and Gods special revelation came in Jesus Christ
mission of Jesus Christ. This includes the through whom the Word became flesh and
proclamation of the call to repentance, faith for dwelt among us, full of grace and truth; we have
the forgiveness of sin, and life in fellowship with beheld his glory, glory as of the only Son from
him. Christs representatives also provide guid- the Father (John 1:14). In Jesus we become
ance for believers who seek to live worthy of and aware of the person, nature, and character of
pleasing to him. All this information comes, not God, see him at work, learn that God loved the
through human search or invention, but from world so much that he gave his Son that believ-
God himself. The word revelation, from the ers might have life (John 3:16). In Christ we hear
verb to reveal or make known, names the his invitation come to me (Matt. 11:28). God, in
doctrine that deals with Gods showing or dis- Jesus, shows himself as the holy and just judge of
closing himself, his works, expectations, and sin, the loving God, the dying-rising Savior, the
provisions. King whose kingdom will never end and who one
Theologians speak of both general and spe- day will reign supreme over all. Gods revelation
cial revelation. The former refers to that knowl- in Israel and in Jesus also involves the work of
edge of God available to all people, in all places, Gods close human associates, specially called,
at all times. The latter is the knowledge of God Spirit-filled persons, designated as prophets in
available to only some people, in some times, and the Old Testament and as apostles in the New.
These were sent, commissioned, and authorized
in some places.
to speak for him. Their task was to report the
G ENERAL R EVELATION consists of that which
facts of Gods revelation and also to explain and
can be known about God in creation, nature,
show how to apply Gods message in the affairs
and the affairs of humans as a whole. Psalm
of daily life.
19:14 speaks eloquently of the evidence of God
The doctrine of revelation must also include
in nature. Romans 1:2025 asserts that the cre- discussion of the Bible. The word Bible means
ated order demonstrates the fact of Gods exis- books; it is a book composed of a collection of
tence, power, and goodness. Humans, however, books. Together these comprise a religious book.
refused to pay heed to this evidence and did not Although it contains information on a number of
honor him as God; they worshiped that which topics and issues, its primary purpose, like that
was created rather than the Creator. Conse- of many religious books, is to relate facts about
quently, God gave them up to degrading pas- God, the universe, and especially human beings
sions (1:26) and almost unspeakable degrading in it, and their relationships. Christians believe
acts. Paul, before Athenian officials, says that that this is the only true religious book. All others
God made all nations from a single ancestor; speak of nonexistent deities and provide incor-
gives life, breath, and all things; allots the time rect and even dangerous information.
and boundaries of human habitation so that The Bible is, above all, the record of the vari-
they should seek God; . . . he is not far from ous forms of special revelation just described.
each one of us (Acts 17:27). Indeed, observa- Old Testament prophets and New Testament
tion of humanity itself, people created in the apostles wrote down virtually all we know of
IMAGE OF GOD, should be a persuasive argument Gods revealing work. This was not by human in-
for the existence and power of God. Hebrews stigation. From Exodus 17:14 on we are told of
11:6 affirms that to please God one must accept Gods command to write. Because it is the
his existence and knowability; this, by implica- usual source of information about God, this
tion, is available through general revelation. record is also revelation itself; it is the word of
121
Bible
God. As the word and Spirit work together, Gods group; the noncanonical books of Barnabas, Her-
revelation of himself in the past is his contempo- mas, Didache, Gospel of the Hebrews, and the
rary self-disclosure and message. It is just be- Revelation of Peter were regarded highly, if not
cause of its inclusion within Gods revelation that actually regarded as canonical, by some.
missionaries have given much time and effort to Evidence for the basis of canonicity is incon-
make the Bible available in the languages of the clusive. Traditionally much emphasis has been
peoples with whom they work. put upon the assumed author of a book. The
There are a number of terms used to describe word of an authentic spokesman for God,
some important facts about the origin, nature, prophet or apostle, or someone closely associated
and character of the Bible. Inspiration or the with such a person (Baruch in the Old Testa-
phrase inspired by God occurs in 2 Timothy ment, Mark and Luke in the New) is assumed to
3:16. Literally it means God-breathed, hence, it have been regarded as inspired whether it was is-
came out of God. Second Peter 1:21 describes the sued orally or in writing. Additional criteria have
communication and process of recording Scrip- been set forth on the basis of later examinations
ture even more explicitly by stating that holy of what the early church did rather than its own
men were moved, literally borne or carried statement of them. Evangelical Christians as-
along by the Holy Spirit. Inspiration, then, af- sume, primarily by faith, that the same God who
firms that Scripture originated with God, it was inspired Scripture remained as superintendent to
given to specially chosen individuals, and God, assure the reliability of the recognition of the
through his Spirit, remained active in the writing canon.
process. An important controversy centers upon the
Canon, meaning literally measuring rod, role of the church in the canonical process. It
refers to an authoritative standard against which asks whether the church authorized, gave author-
other things are measured. When referring to the ity to the New Testament canon, or recognized the
Bible, canon designates those individual docu- authority that is inherent within these writings
ments or books that are rightfully a part of Scrip- because of their divine inspiration. The answer to
ture, written authority. Protestant Christians tra- this question must come from historical re-
ditionally acknowledge a total of sixty-six search. The practical implication is whether the
booksthirty-nine in the Old Testament, twenty-
church sits in judgment upon the Scriptures or
seven in the New. Roman Catholics, Orthodox,
the Scriptures upon the church.
and Anglican Christians also include additional
The issue of canon is particularly important for
books, the Apocrypha or Deutero-canonical
missions, not only because of the claim that
books. These writings seem to have come largely
Scripture is the word of God, but because several
from the Intertestamental period (c. 400 B.C.A.D.
groups advocate that additional material must be
70) and were included in the Septuagint, the
Greek translation of the Old Testament, but ap- added to it. Islam, for example, makes this claim
parently were not in the Hebrew Bible used in for the QURAN and Mormonism for the Book of
Palestine and Hebrew-speaking synagogues. The Mormon. Christians insist that in showing him-
exact number of apocryphal books acknowledged self personally in human form and by actually
varies among Christian groups who include them providing for the greatest need of humans in the
in their canon. ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus, special
It is much easier to relate what the church did revelation reached its climax and conclusion;
with regard to the canon than the basis upon nothing more can be added.
which it acted. The Old Testament was taken Two additional words often used in discussions
over from Judaism. The three divisions of the He- of the Bible are infallible and inerrant. The
brew canon (Law, Prophets, and the Writings [in former designates the teachings of the Bible as
which division Psalms always stood first]) is im- absolutely authoritative and true. Inerrant means
plied in the words of Jesus in Luke 24:44. Early without error, but those who use the term often
Hebrew-speaking Christians seemed to have used disagree on whether they mean without error of
the shorter canon while those who read their Old any kind or in accomplishing Gods purpose (see
Testament in Greek used the longer. Early Chris- INERRANCY).
tian writers refer to three divisions of books One final comment must be made regarding
which were put forward for inclusion in the New the Bible. Of almost equal importance with what
Testament: those acknowledged by all, those re- one affirms about its nature is the question of
jected by all, and those which were disputed. how it is to be interpreted. Christendom, includ-
There seems to have been no question about ing its missionary endeavors, has all too often de-
twenty-two New Testament books. Hebrews, nied in practice the authority claims for Scrip-
2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, James, Jude, and possibly ture by interpreting it in ways which fail to seek
Revelation were among the books of the present to grasp what the original writers (divine and
New Testament canon about which questions human) intended and what the original readers
seem to have been asked by one or another understood. This must be a guide as one seeks to
122
Bible Translation
apply Scripture to the different geographical, cul- The United Bible Societies (UBS) was formed
tural, and temporal settings of the contemporary in 1946 with the aim of making the Bible avail-
world. Those concerned with HERMENEUTICS seek able in a form that all can understand and all can
those principles involved in the art and science of afford. Today UBS consists of 135 Bible societies
making meaningful and relevant in one time and covering more than 200 countries and territories.
place that which was originally communicated in Apart from printed Bibles, the societies produce
another time and place. This definition of Scripture material on audiocassettes, in videos,
hermeneutics is also a brief description of an- and in braille. A network of highly trained con-
other term much used by missiologists, CONTEX- sultants in the areas of translation, production,
TUALIZATION. media, and marketing is available to the individ-
Modern missionaries, following the apostle ual Bible societies. Translation is presently going
Paul, may properly begin with general revelation on in over 600 languages.
and then move to special revelation. It is through In 1995 a total of 564,436,267 items (including
these that God has made available the message, Bibles, New Testaments, and single books
the only legitimate message, about himself, the thereof) were distributed all over the world by
universe, and their relationship which is at the Bible societies related to the UBS. In cooperation
heart of the missionary endeavor. with the Amity Press in Nanjing, more than
J. JULIUS SCOTT JR. 2 million Bibles are now printed annually in
China. It is estimated that less than half the
Bibliography. G. C. Berkhouwer, General Revelation; worlds people are readers, so Bible societies are
C. F. H. Henry, God, Revelation and Authority; L. Mor- today making the Scriptures available on audio-
ris, I Believe in Revelation; J. I. Packer, Fundamentalism cassettes and in videos, and new developments
and the Word of God; B. B. Warfield, The Inspiration
are taking place with other electronic forms.
and Authority of the Bible.
Bible societies have traditionally been sup-
ported by the Protestant churches, but a move-
Bible and Medical Misssionary Fellowship. ment of biblical renewal in the Roman Catholic
See INTERSERVE. Church after the Second Vatican Council (1965)
resulted in increasing involvement by Catholics.
Bible Societies. Organizations with the primary Relations with the Orthodox Church have also
aim of making the Bible available to all people. grown, and some Bible societies have Orthodox
The activities that Bible societies carry out staff and board members.
todayTRANSLATION, production of Bibles, and Other Bible societies include the International
distribution of materialhave their prototypes in Bible Society, which sponsored the production
the ancient world. Old Testament portions were and distribution of the New International Ver-
copied, stored, and distributed to Jewish syna- sion. In response to the LAUSANNE CONGRESS II ON
gogue leaders. In New Testament times the WORLD EVANGELISM (MANILA 1989) fourteen di-
Gospels and the letters of the apostle Paul were verse organizations formed the Forum of Bible
copied and circulated. Through the early church Agencies. The aim of this new pooling of re-
ages, Christians painstakingly produced copies of sources is the traditional goal of Bible societies
the Scriptures for distribution. During the period worldwide, namely, making the Word more avail-
of the Reformation, the Bible was translated, able to the world.
printed, and distributed in numerous European VIGGO SGAARD
languages. Bibliography. E. H. Robertson, Taking the Word to
A forerunner of the Bible Society movement the World: 50 Years of the United Bible Societies; J. Roe,
was the von Canstein Bible Institute of Halle, or- History of the Britsh and Foreign Bible Society.
ganized in 1710 to supply inexpensive Scriptures
to the poor in Germany. By the end of the eigh- Bible Translation. The primary objective of
teenth century 3 million low-cost Bibles and New Bible translation is to make Gods Word available
Testaments had been circulated. to all the people of the world in the language they
The British and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS) know besttheir mother tongue. TRANSLATION
was formed in 1804 with the intention to serve has been central to communicating Gods Word
not only the churches in Britain, but all of Eu- from the beginning of time.
rope and the British colonies. As early as 1811, Translation Throughout History. In the be-
work was started in Calcutta, India. The Ameri- ginning God spoke, and what he said was mani-
can Bible Society, founded in 1816, worked in fest in the creationthe first translation (Gen. 1;
areas where American missionaries were serving. Rom. 1). Throughout the ages, whenever God in-
By the end of the nineteenth century, BFBS and teracted with human beings, he used their lan-
ABS spanned the world with a network of agen- guage within a particular cultural context. When
cies and associations. Many other Bible societies that language was not adequate for communica-
were founded in the nineteenth century. tion, the Word was translated so it would have
123
Bible Translation
maximum impact (Ezra, Nehemiah, and Acts 2). The Growing Number of Languages with
In the Greek-speaking world of the intertesta- Complete Translations
mental period it became evident that the Hebrew The Entire The New
Torah was not understood by the Jews of the Di- Year Bible Testament
aspora (nor by the Romans and barbarians), so
1950 105 229
the Septuagint (LXX) came into being. The ne-
1960 123 260
cessity of understanding what God had to say
was most evident in the Holy Spirits enabling the 1970 249 329
apostles to declare the wonders of God in the 1980 275 495
languages of those who heard (Acts 2:11). Fur- 1990 318 726
thermore, the apostle Paul and the other New 1995 349 841
Testament writers used the language of the day
not only to communicate their message to their The availability of the Scriptures has enabled
particular audiences, but also to clarify Old Tes- people to build the church on the foundation of
tament passages. Gods Word, to apply it to their own theological
In the first four hundred years of Christianity, development, and to guard against heresy in their
translations of the Scriptures into Syriac, Cop- particular context. While not a tool kit for church
tic, Gothic, and Latin contributed to reaching growth, vernacular translation does help to cre-
the peoples of the Near East, Egypt, northern ate an environment for church growth. Never be-
Europe, and the Roman Empire respectively. fore in the history of humankind have people had
More recently, the impact of the Reformation the freedom to search the Scriptures for them-
can be traced in part to the availability of Scrip- selves in their own language. A vernacular Scrip-
ture in the languages of the people (Old English, ture provides nurture and witness that impacts
German, French, and Italian). The concept of the way people liveit is a tool for conversion
the translatability of Scripture is central to un- and relevant Christian living, not a colonial for-
derstanding biblical history as well as modern mula for coercion.
missions. The Impact of Linguistics and Anthropology.
At the turn of the nineteenth century, WILLIAM During this same period, the science of LINGUIS-
TICS and the work of anthropologists brought
CAREY was instrumental in the translation of
Scripture into many of the languages of India. De- new insight to the translation effort. EUGENE
NIDAs landmark work Toward a Science of Trans-
spite incredible odds, ROBERT MORRISON was able
lation (1964) paved the way for the development
in sixteen years to translate the entire Bible into
of translation as an academic discipline in its
Chinese. Bible societies were formed at the begin-
own right. New understandings of COMMUNICA-
ning of the nineteenth century to provide funds for
TION theory and its applicability to translation
the printing of vernacular Scriptures. Their work
theory became evident. And just as translations
continued in the twentieth century under the must talk right to be understood, translators
WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS, an organization that came to realize that the people whose lives are
has been central to the story of mission expansion presented in the translations must also act
to unreached peoples throughout the world. In right. Therefore, studies of the social context
short, translation has been part of Gods commu- and cultural activity are important to translators
nication to human beings from the time of cre- as they seek to communicate in a particular lan-
ation. God wants all people (whom he created) to guage and culture. Studies indicate that the in-
know what he says and to understand his Word ferences people make about what is being said
within their particular context, wherever and come out of their cultural expectations. Unless
whenever that may be (see TRANSLATION THEORY). they are told otherwise, these basic assumptions
Translation as Mission Strategy. Bible trans- constrain them to associate the meaning of a text
lation as a mission strategy greatly impacted with the behavioral forms therein, thereby bias-
evangelization, church planting, and growth in ing their understanding of what God intended.
both numbers and maturity during the last half The basic problem in translation throughout
of the twentieth century. In 1950, the entire Bible the colonial period was that well-intentioned
was available in 105 languages and the New Tes- missionaries brought their own theological and
tament in 229. The decade of the 1960s saw the cultural biases to the interpretation of Scripture.
number of languages in which the whole Bible Often they inadvertently passed on their misun-
was available more than double, while the derstanding of the original linguistic and cultural
decades of the 1970s and 1980s saw a steady 50 setting. This resulted in a clash of worldviews be-
percent increase in the number of languages into tween the contexts of the Bible, the translator,
which the New Testament had been translated. and those who received the translation. In this
By 1995 the numbers had grown to 349 and 841 way people came to understand God from the
respectively, with at least one book of the Bible perspective of the missionary-translatorand
available in 2,092 different languages. Scripture, for them, was often foreign. Ironically,
124
Bible Translation
the majority of people around the world understand that God created all human beings for rela-
stand the cultural contexts in the Bible much bet- tionship with him and with each other. The Bible
ter than do Western missionaries. Their kinship empowers the powerless and forces the powerful
and social structures, as well as economic, politi- to recognize their own weakness before God.
cal, and religious concerns, are much more simi- Such knowledge enables people to exercise per-
lar to the biblical context than to the context of sonal freedom while at the same time recognizing
translators impacted by the ENLIGHTENMENT. The the plurality of contexts in which God interacts
growing awareness of the importance of both with all peoples. Hence vernacular Scripture pro-
language and culture raises the questions of who vides people with spiritual understanding and en-
should be translators and what is the role of con- courages harmony. It promotes a celebration of
sultants in this process. There has been a rising differences rather than a focus on difference
interest in training national translators. unity in plurality, not division based on contrast
Translation Training. People with expertise in (Gal. 3:2829). Thus no people group can be truly
their own cultural context are asking to be in- independent, but needs to recognize its interde-
volved in the translation process. For too long, pendence with others, even as they express mu-
translations have been viewed as the end product tual dependence on God. Through translated
of a highly technical process that can be mastered Scripture people are able to develop an awareness
only by linguistically and theologically trained ex- of God and understand their relationship to him.
perts. This perspective is changing to a focus on Because of the Word they are able to establish
translation as being the responsibility of the their own Christian priorities and responsibility
church and an ongoing work in the processa for nurture, growth, and witness. No longer
part of over four thousand years of biblical history. bound by what others say, they can develop their
With the increase in education, self-awareness, own theology and apply it to daily living.
and sophistication, nationals want to be involved Inasmuch as God speaks every language re-
in the translation process to ensure local aware- gardless of the number of its native speakers, we
ness of what God in fact said. On the other hand, must apply Gods message to each language and
the exegetical and linguistic skills necessary for culture. Translators must utilize the entire as-
understanding what God said in the original texts
semblage of communication style and genres
and contexts are not quickly learned and passed
necessary for people to appreciate Gods message
on. Accordingly, there is an increasing emphasis
to them. This suggests that translation must go
on making translation a team enterprise imple-
far beyond the print media utilized by translators
mented from within the church. The Bible soci-
from the West and employ a multiplicity of
eties have long encouraged utilizing national
media (audio, video, drama, mime, etc.) with a
translators, while missionaries supervise the
projects and international consultants ensure the plurality of formats (stories, comedy, art, musical
exegetical faithfulness of the translation. Wycliffe presentations and dance) recognized and used by
and other translation-oriented organizations are the people of the society. External experts must
developing aids that will facilitate the under- combine their skills with internal experts to pro-
standing of source texts. Programs are being de- duce a translation that effectively communicates
signed to train nationals to translate into their to a particular community. To this end transla-
own languages or into another language spoken tion organizations have established an interna-
in their country. This provides opportunity for all tional consortium with the express purpose of
segments of the church to contribute to the training translators and making Gods Word
process and to collaborate to benefit the entire available to every people group.
Christian and non-Christian community. Once a translation is available, it takes on in-
The Impact of Translation. With national incarnational identity within the target community.
dependence, a political phenomenon throughout Gods truth and the truth of the culture interact
the world in the latter half of the twentieth cen- to establish Christian truth for that particular
tury, has come a growing sense of religious inde- context. Vernacular Scripture both affirms local
pendence. Rather than do things the way the behavior and traditions and critiques other be-
colonialists did, people increasingly desire to ex- haviors and practices with which God would not
press themselves in ways appropriate to their be pleased in any human context. It also critiques
own values and beliefs. As they read Scripture in cultural practices that the people themselves
the major languages of the world, or a regional often recognize as going against their cultural
trade language, they may come to think of God conscience (Rom. 2:1416). Jesus affirmed that
as foreign to their vernacular context. However, he came to give abundant life (John 10:10),
when Gods communication to human beings is which is possible only as people live up to their
couched in their own language and culture, its own cultural expectations. Further, translated
power and authority come to them directly. Scripture provides authority for Christian doc-
Desmond Tutu maintains that the Bible is a rev- trine and the development of theology within the
olutionary text because it helps people under- church and the community. It also becomes the
125
Bible Translation
standard for both determining appropriate disci- message (literary criticism) and the interpreters
pline and avoiding heresy. response to the text (readerresponse criticism).
Gods Word, available in the cultures and lan- Two relatively recent methods (sociological and
guages of the world, has resulted in changed canonical criticism) focus on the community of
lifestyles and new allegiance to him who created, faith that produced Scripture. There are a num-
loves, sustains, and speaks to all human beings. ber of ways in which the indiscriminate use of
This provides the basis for that wonderful scene these techniques can affect mission theory and
described by the apostle John: a great multitude practice.
that no one could count, from every nation, tribe, First, historical criticism is most frequently ap-
people and language, standing before the throne plied to the Gospels. The result is often a reduced
and in front of the Lamb . . . And they cried out set of authentic traditions regarding the words
in a loud voice: salvation belongs to our God and works of Jesus. At the least, questions are
who sits on the throne and to the lamb (Rev. raised about the extent and purpose of Jesus
7:910). It takes the multiplicity of views ex- mission and about his instructions to the disci-
pressed in all the languages of the world to ade- ples regarding the continuation of that mission.
quately give honor and praise to God. To that end At the worst, Jesus is portrayed as having no
may we diligently seek to make the sparks of di- sense of mission and no expectation that his fol-
vine truth known to the nations through the lowers would be involved in mission.
availability of translated Scripture. Through the Second, source, form, redaction, and rhetorical
Word made known, through creation, church his- criticism tend to deflect the focus of interpreta-
tory, and the application of cultural, exegetical tion away from the central missionary message
and linguistic tools, people can grasp the signifi- of Scripture by focusing on the background of
cance of God in their midst and use that under- the text. Furthermore, the strong historical con-
standing to build his body, the church. sciousness reflected in these techniques tends to
R. DANIEL SHAW heighten the differences between then and
Bibliography. K. Barnwell, Introduction to Seman- now and, consequently, to reduce the incentive
tics and Translation; J. Beekman, J. J. Callow, and to apply the biblical teaching on mission to
M. Kopesec, The Semantic Structure of Written Com- todays historical setting.
munication; D. S. Gilliland, The Word among Us: Con- Third, literary and readerresponse criticism
textualizing Theology for Mission Today; M. L. Larson, often tend toward hermeneutical relativism, in
Meaning-Based Translation; P. Newmark, Approaches to which the authors original intent is deemed to be
Translation; E. A. Nida, Toward a Science of Translation;
irretrievable and the interpreters response to the
L. Sanneh, Translating the Message; R. D. Shaw, Trans-
culturation; idem, Notes on Translation 8 (1994): 4450; text becomes determinative. If any coherent in-
E. R. Wendland, The Cultural Factor in Bible Transla- terpretation of the text is acceptable, then ques-
tion; R. Winter, Reaching the Unreached, pp. 1744. tions about the appropriate application of the
text must follow. The potential result is uncer-
Biblical Anthropology. See HUMANKIND, DOC- tainty about how and when the biblical teaching
TRINE OF. on mission may be applied today.
Fourth, emphasis on the way in which the
early Christian community functioned (sociolog-
Biblical Criticism and Mission. The distinction
ical criticism) or the way in which its beliefs
between lower and higher biblical criticism offers
shaped the material that is included in Scripture
a useful starting point for discussion. The term
(canonical criticism) leads to a final product that
lower criticism is sometimes applied to the dis-
cipline of textual criticism. Textual criticism is primarily descriptive. Not only is the focus of
seeks to establish the text of Scripture by evalu- interpretation deflected away from the message
ating evidence supporting differences in wording of the text, but the extent of the authoritative
(textual variants) in order to reconstruct the most teaching on mission that can be retrieved from
likely original reading. It is higher criticism the biblical text is minimized.
which, potentially, has the more significant im- Each of the higher critical techniques sketched
pact on thinking about mission. out above can be used constructively to sharpen
Higher criticism is a comprehensive term the understanding of the biblical text and the fac-
designating multiple techniques used to analyze tors that brought it into existence. Yet they must
the text of Scripture. One type (historical criti- be brought under evangelical presuppositions re-
cism) tests the reliability of the historical witness garding inspiration and inerrancy if the authori-
of Scripture. Certain types (source and form crit- tative biblical mandate for mission is to be seen
icism) examine the background of the biblical clearly.
text. Other types (redaction and rhetorical criti- JOHN D. HARVEY
cism) focus on the author and the circumstances Bibliography. C. E. Armerding, The Old Testament
of the original audience. Still others emphasize and Criticism; D. A. Black and D. S. Dockery, eds., New
the literary techniques used to communicate the Testament Criticism and Interpretation; G. E. Ladd, The
126
Biblical Theology of Mission
New Testament and Criticism; G. Osborn, The Herme- which all of mission work revolves; one can al-
neutical Spiral; R. N. Soulen, Handbook of Biblical most speak of a consensus developing on this
Criticism. point (Verkuyl, 1978). In our day evangelicals
are finding that the biblical base for mission is
Biblical Education by Extension. Biblical Edu- far more complex than previous generations en-
cation by Extension (BEE) was organized in visioned. Gone is the single focus of an over-
1979 in Vienna, Austria, by a number of mission whelming concern for the spiritual condition of
organizations in Eastern Europe with the pur- the HEATHEN. Nor can credibility be gained by
pose of training church leaders in geographical supplementing this concern with appeals to the
areas where formal models of theological educa- GREAT COMMISSION (e.g., Matt. 28:1820; etc.), or
tion were disallowed or restricted by govern- by prooftexts supporting such related themes as
ments hostile to the growth and spread of the the sending character of God, the compassionate
Christian church. Joseph Dillow was appointed compulsion of the Spirit, the example of the
general director and Al Bridges as managing di- apostolic church, and the relation between mis-
rector. Fred Holland and Lois McKinney served sionary obedience and the second coming of
as educational advisors. Christ. These themes are important, but one can-
In 1989 the name BEE was changed to BEE not build a comprehensive biblical theology of
International to expand the BEE ministry to mission on them. The kingdom or rule of God
other countries. In 1996 BEE International be- must be the dominant motif since by it God
came Church Leadership International with a touches every aspect of the human condition:
focus exclusively on the former Soviet Union and past, present, and future (see KINGDOM OF GOD).
Eastern Europe. When we explore the relationship of the king-
BEE World was launched by Jody Dillow to ex- dom of God to world mission, we begin with the
tend the original BEE ministry to China, Viet- reminder that Gods kingship is both universal
nam, Korea, the United States, and eventually, and covenantal. When God created the heavens
worldwide. and the earth by his Word and created the first
Following Theological Education by Extension human couple in his own image and likeness, it
(TEE) methodology, programmed instruction was inevitable that he would exercise a loving
textbooks and workbooks were prepared over and preserving control over his creation and par-
the seventeen courses that comprised the cur- ticularly over the human race. This can be de-
riculum. Biblical subjects, evangelism, some scribed as his universal kingship. Both Old and
methods courses, and study of the church
New Testaments teach this universal kingship,
formed the core. Western philosophical and his-
but in the Old Testament we also find Gods
torical understandings were purposefully re-
kingly rule identified with Israel, a people with
placed with culturally sensitive and contextual-
whom he established a covenant relationship.
ized forms acceptable in the closed countries
The Old Testament Contribution (see also OLD
of the world.
TESTAMENT THEOLOGY OF MISSION). In the opening
BEE was interdenominational from the begin-
chapters of the Old Testament we find the first
ning. Students from a number of constituencies
reference to mission as defined above. God said
were invited to participate in the classeslaypas-
to the first man and woman: Be fruitful and in-
tors, teachers, elders, deacons, layleaders, and
university students. Instruction was offered at the crease in number; fill the earth and subdue it
university level. Program graduates received a (Gen. 1:2630; 2:15, 1825; Ps. 8:5, 6). This com-
diploma roughly comparable to a Master of Arts mand is frequently termed the CULTURAL MAN-
DATE. By it God called Adam and Eve to accept
in Biblical Studies.
TERRY READ responsibility for this world as his vice-regents,
to serve and control it under his direction and for
SEE ALSO Theological Education by Extension. his glory. Its details pertained to their social exis-
tence, and mark the beginning of a stream of ob-
Biblical Theology of Mission. The only rule of ligationa mandate for family and community,
faith and practice that God has given is the Bible. culture and civilizationthat widens and deep-
It has the force of law. Because mission embraces ens as it courses throughout Scripture. We are
the totality of the task he sent his church to do not surprised to find that in the messianic age
in the world (Bosch, 1978), we must select a that Christ will later inaugurate, these many ob-
theme that is prominent in both Testaments. ligations will be made even more explicit as part
That theme is the KINGDOM OF GOD. It domi- of his missionary mandate that the church pro-
nated the ministry of Jesus and provides linkage claim and demonstrate the good news of the
to all the many and various ways by which God Kingdom to the nations (Matt. 24:14). And such
had earlier spoken to his people by the prophets has proved to be the case. We might regard the
(Heb. 1:1). Missiology is more and more coming cultural mandate as the prelude to the Great
to see the Kingdom of God as the hub around Commission.
127
At the outset the expectation was that because in the life and worship of his people. The tragedy
God is sovereign, he will be obeyed. But this was is that in the end the various contending parties
not to be. Early on God imposed a moral test on within Judaism, though often at loggerheads
Adam and Eve (the trees2:16, 17). In granting with one another, united to participate in the
them freedom of choice, God was running a final tragedy of standing against the One who
great risk. Would they freely choose to remain came as the self-confessed Son of Man of
under Gods control or would they seek an exis- Daniel, the Suffering Servant of Isaiah, and the
tence separate from God? Sadly, they chose the Smitten Shepherd-King of Zechariah.
latter and their fall (3:17) brought them under Old Testament Axioms of Mission. Five major
the dominance of the tempter and forged link- axioms in the Old Testament are inherent in the
age with his hostile spirit-power and open oppo- New Testament unfolding of the kingdom of God
sition to the rule of God (see also FALL OF HU- in relation to the churchs mission to the nations.
MANKIND). More was involved. Although they They can be traced within this tragic history of
continued to carry out the cultural mandate, Israels experience with God.
their obedience was now shaped by selfish im-
pulses arising from their abdication of responsi- 1. God is sovereign in his kingship. His
bility for the world and their surrender to the one rule over individuals and nations is
who had now gained control of the world (the always righteous and just. He is the
god of this worldJohn 12:21 and 2 Cor. 4:4; see moral Governor of the universe (Ps.
also SATAN). Subsequent chapters (Gen. 411) 22:27, 28; Dan. 4:34, 35; see also
record the effects of the Fall, ranging from fatri- SOVEREIGNTY OF GOD).
cidal murder to worldwide violence; from Gods 2. God seeks the personal commitment of
judgment of all antedeluvians to the tragedy that his people. Gods HOLINESS demands
came to the one family that was delivered righteousness on the part of all
(Noahs); and from human arrogance attempting Israelites who would be in covenantal
to establish a universal kingdom with its defiant relationship with him (Isa. 55:6, 7).
tower to further judgment, the linguistic confu- 3. Gods people are to constitute a serving
sion and scattering of the people (BABEL). community among the nations by exam-
Since the cultural mandate was no longer ple and through personal outreach. They
being carried out under Gods direction, God are to oppose by word and deed all
then began via DIVINE ELECTION and covenant to that demeans people (Mic. 6:8).
unfold a redemptive purpose that would deal 4. Gods purpose through his people is
with the problem of human rebellion and alien- relentlessly opposed by the inveteracy
ation from his fellowship. He called a man of human evil and the implacable hos-
named Abram out of Ur within the complex of tility of Satan and his hosts (Job 1, 2;
Babel, and began to train him to live by faith that 2 Chron. 36:15, 16).
through his seed (Israel), all peoples on earth 5. Gods purpose for Israel and the nations
would be blessed (Gen. 12:13; see also ABRA- always moves beyond present matters,
HAMIC COVENANT). His gracious desire was via Is- and is invariably directed toward his
rael to bring fallen people by repentance and future and ultimate triumph in history
faith to break with Satans control (1 John 5:19; (Isa. 2:24; Zech. 14).
Acts 26:18, etc.) as co-laborers with their Mes-
siah, to regain control of the world and those Specific Old Testament Contributions. Within
within it who would respond to his love. the record of Israels long history the Old Testa-
But Old Testament history records repeated ment touches on themes that are relevant to mis-
failure on Israels part. Actually, over the years sion outreach today: the issue of slavery and polit-
only a remnant within Israel believed and obeyed ical liberation (Exodus and Ezra); the relation of
God. At the same time, however, their prophets Gods people to secular power and secular events
predicted that God would ultimately realize the (Genesis and the Prophets); the mystery of suffer-
covenant goal he had set for a believing remnant ing and redemption (Genesis, Exodus, and the
in the nation: to restore the tribes of Jacob and Servant Songs of Isaiah); the lifestyle of Gods peo-
to become a light for the gentiles so that his ple (Leviticus); the perils of religious pluralism
salvation might be taken to the ends of the (Hosea); the issue of racism and the disease of
earth (Isa. 49:5, 6). The key to this total restora- anti-Semitism (Esther); the basic problems en-
tion will be the Redeemer and Holy One of Is- countered in serving God (Haggai and Zechariah);
raelstrangely, the One who was despised and religious encounter and the non-negotiability of
abhorred by the nation (49:7). Despite this, Is- truth (Jeremiah); the pursuit of personal and na-
rael went ever deeper into spiritual infidelity, tional spiritual renewal (Nehemiah and Malachi);
open rebellion, and prolonged captivity, with only the role of the believing remnant within Israel
infrequent periods when through national repen- (Amos and Isaiah); the possibility of becoming
tance the blessing of God became partly evident useless to God through ethnocentrism (Jonah); the
128
function of wisdom literature as a bridge to the claim and demonstrate by word and deed the
nations that know not God (Job, Proverbs, and Ec- good news of the kingdom of God. Its details
clesiastes); and the missiological implications of strikingly endorse but significantly supplement
Israel as a diasporal people. the Old Testament injunction to do justice, and
Although the Old Testament is replete with in- to love kindness and to walk humbly with God
sightful material related to issues inherent in (Mic. 6:8). After he sent the Holy Spirit upon his
mission, on the one crucial issue it is silent. In disciples, they consciously began to sense that
the Old Testament God has not revealed the they possessed a universal faith for all nations
mystery hidden for ages and generations where- and began to go beyond the bounds of Israel to
by Gentiles through the gospel would become fel- Gentile peoples to proclaim this gospel. Missions
low heirs with the people of God. Biblically in- central and irreplaceable task is persuading peo-
formed Jewish people know that their future ple to become Christs disciples and gathering
Golden Age will not take place without a massive them into local congregations (see also MISSION-
ingathering of the nations to the worship of the ARY TASK).
God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. But how this Fifth, obedience to mission involves SUFFERING.
would come about remained a mystery until The New Testament is replete with the record of
Jesus Christ inaugurated the messianic age (Eph. conflict and suffering precipitated by the advent
3:39). and proclamation of gospel of the kingdom.
The New Testament Contribution (see also Jesus himself experienced the worlds rejection
NEW TESTMAENT THEOLOGY OF MISSION). The unity and the devils fury, and learned obedience
of the Bible is nowhere more clearly seen than in through what he suffered (Heb. 5:8). In much the
the way in which the Old Testament kingdom ax- same way the church, claiming the victory of
ioms mentioned above were amplified and in- Christ over the powers (Col. 2:15), will experience
creased in the New Testament. With the advent of the sifting of Satan (Luke 22:31) and fiery trials
Jesus Christ these axioms are directly related to (1 Peter 1:68) that it too might be perfected, the
world mission. better to perform its mission. This process will
First, Gods sovereignty focuses on Christs continue and even intensify as the age draws to
lordship. We preach Jesus Christ as Lord an end.
(2 Cor. 4:5). This is the heart of the good news of Sixth, the future remains bright with hope.
the kingdom (Rom. 10:9, 10). Through the cross Gods redemptive purpose will be fulfilled (Acts
he conquered all his foes and obtained salvation 1:8). What he initiated will be consummated.
for his people. His present rule over the re- Through the missionary obedience of his disci-
deemed adumbrates his coming rule when every ples God will call out a completed people from
knee bows to him and every tongue confesses the nations. Then he will judge the world in
his lordship (Phil. 2:611). The worship of other righteousness by a Man whom he has appointed,
gods is utterly abhorrent to him. and of this he has given assurance to all by rais-
Second, Christs lordship demands personal ing him from the dead (cf. Acts 17:30, 31 with
commitment. The New Testament stresses the ne- Matt. 25:31, 32). The climax of Christs redemp-
cessity of faith, the new birth, the inner witness of tive purpose will take place at his second coming
the Holy Spirit, and its outward expression in love when all things are subjected to God. Then the
and kingdom service. Only new creatures in Son will also be subjected to God who put all
Christ shall enter the kingdom of God (John 3:5). things under him that God may be everything to
Those who possess his lordship but whose lives everyone (1 Cor. 15:28; see also PAROUSIA).
do not reflect his values and perspectives are chal- Israel Confronts Her Messiah. In the Old Tes-
lenged to examine themselves to determine tament God frequently sent prophets to Israel to
whether they are truly his (2 Cor. 13:5). remind the people of their covenantal relation-
Third, the community of the King is the Body ship to him and the service he expected of them
of Christ. Kingdom people, whether Jews or Gen- (Jer. 7:25). And yet, Gods sending of Jesus was
tiles, are custodians of the kingdom and share unique. The fallen condition of humanity was so
oneness in the church. Their common life is ex- acute and the need for redemption so great that
pressed through corporate WORSHIP, mutual only the INCARNATION of God the Son and the
sharing, united confession, and outgoing service. ATONEMENT of the cross could avail to provide for
They live by PRAYER and the CONFESSION of sin. the redemption of Gods people. Previous send-
Although the CHURCH as Christs body is of divine ings set the stage for this final sending of the
creation, its visible, structured presence is a Messiah to Israel. This event marks the great
flawed mixture of Gods grace, human fallenness, hinge of salvation history: the end of the old
and demonic penetration. Its only glory is the and the beginning of the new.
presence of Christ in its midst, realized by faith. When Jesus came to Israel he almost immedi-
Fourth, the church is called to mission. Only ately began to question the traditional piety of
after Christ had completed his redemptive work the Pharisees. He also turned to the outcasts of
did he issue the call to world mission: to pro- society and set before them a quality of life dom-
129
inated by the love of God. In this connection 1:29) and rose from the dead the third day as Vic-
Bosch states: It is remarkable to note how these tor over sin and death, as the Old Testament had
people to whom Jesus turned are referred to in predicted (Luke 24:4449). In his post-resurrec-
the Gospels. They are called the poor, the blind, tion ministry Christ stressed four realities: (1) his
the lame, the lepers, the hungry, sinners, those bodily resurrection (Acts 1:3); (2) himself as the
who weep, the sick, the little ones, the widows, key to understanding the Old Testament (Luke
the captives, the persecuted, the downtrodden, 24:2527, 32); (3) his missionary mandate (lit.
the least, the last, those who are weary and heav- when you goof course, you will go) make
ily burdened, the lost sheep (1978). In other disciples of all nations, incorporating converts
words he embodied the kingdom of God as a into local congregations via baptism; and train-
countercultural presence in society and offended ing them in discipleship, as he had trained them
the Pharisees who could only sneer and scorn- (Matt. 28:1820); and (4) his order to remain in
fully comment: This mob that knows nothing of Jerusalem for the outpouring of the Holy Spirit,
the lawthere is a curse on them (John 7:49). without whose power their missionary task
They did not sense the significance of his re- would prove impossible to achieve (Luke 24:49
demptive purpose despite their study of the and Acts 1:8). He then ascended into heaven.
Scriptures (John 5:39). The Sadducees also op- This act was the final witness to his divine Son-
posed him because they knew neither the Scrip- ship (Acts 1:911).
tures nor the power of God (Mark 12:24). Mission Begins: Proclaiming the Kingdom.
This redemptive purpose began with John the The Holy Spirit on the Day of Pentecost trans-
Baptist, the Messiahs herald (Elijah has come!; formed mission from preoccupation with a par-
Mal. 4:5; Matt. 17:12) and Jesus incarnation, ticular people (the Jews, Matt. 10:5, 6; 15:24) to
baptism, and divine attestation by God as to his all peoples (Acts 2:17, 21, 39). But it took time for
true identity (Matt. 1:23; 3:7). Then followed his the early disciples to sense the full implications
confrontation and triumph over satanic tempta- of Jesus messianic Jewish movement being
tion. With the execution of John, their joint min- transformed into a universal faiththe begin-
istry of renewal came to an end. From that point ning of a new era under the NEW COVENANT. At
onward Jesus began to confront the Jewish peo- first, believers in Jesus were largely regarded as a
ple as their Messiah (Luke 4:1630), gathered a messianic sect within Judaism. Their evangelistic
community of disciples around himself (9:23), method was deeply rooted in the Old Testament
and inaugurated the kingdom of God in its initial (13:1443). But when Gentiles began to come to
hiddenness. He explained: The Law and the faith, the apostles did not feel that they should be
Prophets were proclaimed until John. Since that transformed into Jews by circumcision and Law
time, the good news of the Kingdom of God is observance, according to the older pattern of
being preached, and everyone is forcing his way Jewish proselytism. This produced a crisis that
into it (16:16). was partially resolved at a special council of
Jesus miracles should not be simply regarded apostles and leaders (ch. 15). This also influ-
as humanitarian acts of compassion. Actually, enced their evangelistic approach to non-Jewish
they were messianic signs which Isaiah had people (17:1634; 26:18). This provoked a grow-
predicted (chs. 35, 61) would precede the decisive ing consciousness, particularly among Jewish be-
act of God in redeeming his people. They pointed lievers, that a parting of the way was taking
to the reality of the kingdom of God as already place within Jewry between rabbinic Jews and
in the midst of Israel by virtue of who he was and those Jews who upon believing in Jesus were in-
what he did. On one occasion he said, If I drive creasingly finding spiritual oneness with the
out demons by the finger of God, then the King- growing number of Gentile believers.
dom of God has come to you (Luke 11:20). At This massive shift precipitated much theologi-
first the crowds were drawn by the expectations cal debate. Fortunately, Gods gift to the early
he kindled and by his messianic signs. When he church was his provision of a task theologian,
fed the multitudes they wanted to make him their through the conversion of the Apostle Paul (Acts
king (John 6:15). But when it became apparent 9; 22; 26, esp. 9:15). From that time onward
that his kingdom demanded moral transforma- Pauls missionary activities and the problem-solv-
tion, the crowds melted and opposition grew. ing letters they provoked greatly enlarged the
After a brief ministry of three years devoted to movements awareness of the complexity of the
preaching the kingdom by using parables loaded task of worldwide mission (see also PAUL AND
with mission insights, feeding the hungry, heal- MISSION). Notable is his letter to the vigorous,
ing the sick, and liberating the demonized, Jesus largely Gentile church in Rome that he sought to
was seized by the religious establishment, sub- transform into a missionary base for operations
jected to an unjust trial, condemned to death for in Spain, and throughout the western Mediter-
blasphemy, and then turned over to the Roman ranean world. He began with an appalling por-
authorities to be crucified. He died as a Re- trayal of the abounding sinfulness of all people,
deemer taking away the sin of the world (John whether Jews or Gentiles (1:183:20). He fol-
130
Biculturalism
lowed this with a comprehensive presentation of new earth constrains them to love and serve oth-
the abounding grace of God to all sinners ers on Christs behalf. Their concept of the gospel
through the righteousness of God, the Lord is not confined to proclamation, for it involves
Jesus Christ (3:215:21). Justification is by grace both word and deed. Their struggle is to make
through faith. But Paul could not stop. He had to sure that the good news of Jesus is not denied to
delineate the amazing grace of God to all who any human. This is what mission is all about!
had believed. Victorious living for Christians is ARTHUR F. GLASSER
gloriously possible through the Cross and the
Holy Spirit. These resources are such that al- SEE ALSO Theology of Mission.
though sin is always possible, it is not necessary Bibliography. D. Bosch, The Why and How of a True
(6:18:39)! Then, Paul reviewed the tragic record Biblical Foundation for Mission; F. Hahn, Mission in the
of Israels national experience. The nation was New Testament; G. W. Peters, A Biblical Theology of Mis-
never intended by God to be an end in itself. sions; D. Senior and C. Stuhlmueller, The Biblical Foun-
Rather, Israel was chosen for worldwide ministry, dations for Mission; H. A. Snyder, The Community of the
but through its failure had to be set asidenei- King; C. Van Engen, The Growth of the True Church;
J. Verkuyl, Contemporary Missiology.
ther totally nor permanentlyfor Israel shall yet
enter its Golden Age through repentance and
faith in her Messiah at his second coming Biculturalism. Ability to live comfortably in two
(9:111:36). The final sections of this letter fo- differing cultural perspectives, crossing freely
cused on practical matters related to Pauls con- from one to the other as occasion merits. How-
cern that the church at Rome be transformed ever, this ability may be conceived as ranging
into a missionary-sending community eager to across a scale measuring the depth of identifica-
participate in mission outreach, particularly in tion. On one end, it simply indicates the ability of
the evangelization of Spain (1216). a person to understand both cultures, which
The Kingdom of God: A Sign of Gods Tomor- might be termed cognitive biculturalism. At a sec-
row. The New Testament deals with many im- ond level, it refers to the ability to operate com-
portant mission matters such as insight into the fortably and without conscious consideration in
validity of mobile mission teams as well as fixed each cultural setting. This may be called functional
church structures; the essentiality, diversity, and biculturalism. At the deepest level is the ability of
exercise of GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT; the issue of the the person to truly and naturally identify at the
POWERS in relation to spiritual conflict; the phe- root level of both cultures emotionally and cogni-
nomena of ethnic religion and spiritual conver- tively, which may be called root biculturalism.
sion; the eternal separation between the saved While there is little doubt that short-term
and the lost (see HELL); and the end of the age: cross-cultural workers experience culture stress
the ultimate triumph of God. and some may experience changes in the way
But what should concern us particularly is to they view the world, only rarely if at all will they
see the full significance of making the kingdom progress beyond cognitive biculturalism. Even
of God the dominant hub about which all mis- though they may have many of the basic facts of
sion activities are related. Ours is an age in which the new culture, they simply do not have the time
people all over the world are losing all sense of and exposure to internalize those facts as natu-
hope touching the future. But the reality of the ral to themselves. Their biculturalism is gener-
kingdom means that God has a glorious future ally limited to cognitive awareness and emotional
for Israel and all the nations. There is going to be attachment to their idealizations of the new cul-
Gods tomorrow. And every Christian is called to ture, but only time and continuous exposure en-
be a sign of Gods tomorrow in the world of able progress beyond that.
today. Those who grow up in a single cultural envi-
It follows then that the Christian community is ronment but who sojourn in another culture for
to be countercultural, not captured by the status an extended period often reach the stage of func-
quo, by the privileged, the exploiters, the power- tional biculturalism. However, they can be said to
ful. Its members march to the beat of a different be bicultural only to the extent that the new cul-
drum, for they seek to embody all of the elements ture becomes a second home to them and they
of the kingdom of God in their lives. Like Christ, are able to identify with both cultures as natu-
their concern is the poor, the blind, the disadvan- ral. For those who do not leave their culture
taged, the despised, the captives, the persecuted, until adulthood, moving beyond the functional to
the imprisoned, the downtrodden, the bearers of the deepest level of root biculturalism is unat-
heavy burdens, indeed, all those unaware of tainable simply because, as recent brain research
Gods love. They proclaim Jesus Christ as Libera- indicates, the windows of opportunity to identify
tor, Savior, Friend, and the One who grants for- at the deepest levels linguistically, psychologi-
giveness, newness of life, unspeakable joy, and cally, socially, and emotionally with the new cul-
hope. Their God is the One who makes all things ture have passed. Their level of adaptation, which
new. Their yearning for his new heavens and may be truly remarkable and take decades to ac-
131
Biculturalism
complish, simply cannot match those of indi- OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS. He was
genes in the second culture. single, and the ABCFM insisted that missionaries
Simply growing up in a bicultural environment, to Hawaii be married. On September 19, the day
however, does not guarantee the development of of his ordination, he met Sybil Mosely, a woman
root biculturalism. Children who do not grow up who shared his call to missions. Within two
bilingual, for example, will miss an essential ele- weeks they were married and, with six other mis-
ment of the culture whose language they do not sionary couples, sailed to Hawaii.
speak, and will not be bicultural at the deepest Hawaiians traditionally worshiped spirits, but
level. The children of missionaries are often bi- in the providence of God a new king had recently
cultural at the functional level, but less often at outlawed idolatry and human sacrifice. Politi-
the root level. The same can be said of immigrant cally and socially, conditions seemed ripe for the
families, whose children likewise grow up in a introduction of Christianity. Bingham seized the
family of one culture but in an environment of opportunity, and great numbers began to em-
another. At times in searching for their own iden- brace Christianity. Schools and churches multi-
tity they struggle to amalgamate elements of both plied as Western civilization advanced together
cultures into a new third cultural framework with the gospel. Due to Sybils ill health, the Bing-
unique to them as individuals, giving rise to the hams left Hawaii after two decades of work, their
term THIRD CULTURE KIDS (TCKs). goals largely accomplished. Hostile forces, how-
A. SCOTT MOREAU ever, were already doing damage.
Back home, Hiram wrote a history of the mis-
SEE ALSO Culture Learning AND Extent of Mis- sion, entitled A Residence of Twenty-One Years in
sionary Identification. the Sandwich Islands (1847).
ROGER S. GREENWAY
Bill, Samuel Alexander (18641942). Irish mis-
sionary to Nigeria. Bill came to Christ as an Bibliography. C. Miller, Fathers and Sons: The Bing-
ham Family and the American Mission; idem, Selected
eighteen-year-old at a D. L. MOODY crusade in his
Writings of Hiram Bingham 18141869: To Raise the
native Belfast. He received missionary training at Lords Banner; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ.
Harley College and there, in June 1887, presented
himself in response to an appeal for a missionary
Bingham, Rowland Victory (18721942). En-
to work in Nigeria. Arriving in Nigeria in Sep-
glish-born Canadian missionary statesman and
tember, he settled along the Qua Iboe River and
co-founder of the Sudan Interior Mission (SIM).
began learning the language among the Efik-
Born in East Grinstead, Sussex, England, he em-
speaking Ibuno. Archie Bailie, a childhood friend
igrated to Canada at age sixteen. Early ministry
who remained at Harley and did the initial work
influences included work with the Salvation
of organizing the Qua Iboe Mission, arrived on
Army and a stint as pastoral assistant to Rev.
site in 1888. Over the next fifty-five years, Bill
John Salmon, pioneer of Christian and Mission-
worked faithfully in the delta area. His efforts re-
ary Alliance work in Canada.
sulted in a denomination of eight hundred
By 1893, sensing Gods call to missionary work,
churches and ninety thousand affiliated people
he linked up with Walter Gowans and Thomas
(1980). By the early 1990s, there were only four-
Kent in an ill-fated attempt to evangelize the in-
teen Qua Iboe Mission expatriate personnel
terior of the central Sudan (present-day Nigeria).
working in Nigeria, down from almost fifty in the
Gowans and Kent died of fever within a year and
late 1930s, the bulk of the work being in indige-
Bingham returned to Canada in broken health.
nous hands.
He then pastored a Baptist Church in Newburg,
A. SCOTT MOREAU
New York, and studied at A. B. Simpsons Mis-
Bibliography. J. S. Corbett, According to Plan; E. A. sionary Training College.
Udo, The History of Christianity in West Africa, pp. In 1898 the SIM was formally reconstituted
15981; E. S. Watt, The Quest of Souls in Qua Iboe. under a board and bylaws. Bingham was named
its director, and remained so until his death in
Bingham, Hiram (17891869). American mis- 1942. Under his leadership SIM (now SOCIETY
sionary to Hawaii. Born in Bennington, Vermont, FOR INTERNATIONAL MINISTRIES) became what was
he was raised by pious Calvinist parents. During arguably the largest Protestant presence in
a revival in 1811, he felt called to the ministry. Africa, with over four hundred mission members
From 1813 to 1816, he attended Middlebury Col- and hundreds of established churches.
lege, where he helped direct Middleburys Con- Binghams other areas of influence are no less
cert of Prayer, an intercollegiate expression of impressive. From 1904 until his death he edited
concern for missions. While at Andover Semi- the Evangelical Christian, Canadas only interde-
nary, he was challenged to become a missionary. nominational evangelical magazine. From this
In the spring of 1819, Bingham was appointed platform he not only spoke to the pressing theo-
to the Sandwich Islands by the AMERICAN BOARD logical issues of the day, but tirelessly promoted
132
Birinus
both foreign and domestic mission and outreach comes increasingly difficult to track. Whereas
organizations. To these ends he also established Western missionaries of earlier generations rou-
Evangelical Publishers (1912) and Canadian tinely produced extensive personal diaries and
Keswick Conference Center (1924). journals, as well as remarkably complete station
GARY R. CORWIN records and annual reports, this is no longer the
case, and would-be biographers will find it in-
Bibliography. R. V. Bingham, Seven Sevens of Years
and a Jubilee; J. H. Hunter, Flame of Fire: The Life and
creasingly difficult to do their work. Prayer let-
Work of R. V. Bingham. ters tend to be vetted to the point where they
contain little, if anything, of deep insight into the
missionary himself or herself, and scarcely any-
Biographies of Missionaries. For the past 140
one today journals or keeps a diary. Furthermore,
years, missionary biography has been a staple in since information is increasingly stored electron-
the diet of information nourishing, shaping, and ically, and rapidly becomes technologically inac-
conditioning Western perception and practice of cessible, sources for the writing of biography will
missions. For example, Appendix IV of the [1860] become increasingly problematic.
Conference on Missions held at Liverpool . . . con- Furthermore, given the fact that a majority of
sists of a 13-page bibliography of Modern Works successful missionaries during the second half of
on Christian Mission, a significant proportion of the twentieth century are often persons who
which are autobiographical or biographical in seem to leave scarcely any paper trail, it is safe to
nature. Likewise, the Missionary Bibliography conjecture that the future of conventional mis-
section in the first volume of the Report of the sionary biography looks dim, and the appearance
Centenary Conference on the Protestant Missions of new studies on old subjects is much more
of the World held in Exeter Hall (June 9th19th), likely than is the appearance of studies on new
London, 1888, runs to some 40 pages in length, subjects. At the very least, research methods of
37 of which are devoted to biographical or quasi- biographers will need to change if the genre is to
autobiographical travel literature. The 28page accurately reflect the key movers in this centurys
(double-column) bibliography prepared by Har- Christian expansion.
lan Beach for the New York Conference of 1900 is Ironically, while the names of many nine-
likewise strong in biography, while the 225-page teenth-century Western missionaries are house-
bibliography included in the Edinburgh 1910 hold words in Western Christian circles, scarcely
World Missionary Conference Report (vol. 6) lists anything is known about those persons most re-
some 400 biographies plus numerous works of sponsible for the twentieth-century expansion of
an autobiographical nature. Christianity in Africa, Asia, Latin Americana-
Within the continuum encompassing nine- tive evangelistsundeniably the most effective
teenth-century hagiography (in which missionar- missionaries of this century. Efforts to redress
ies could do no wrong) and late-twentieth-cen- this lack are evident in such emerging endeav-
tury pathography (in which missionaries could ors as the University of South Africas massive
do no right), there has been produced a signifi- Church History Database, and in the proposed
cant volume of healthily critical yet sensitively nonproprietary, electronic database of African
nuanced interpretations of missionary lives, as Christian Biography under the direction of
evidenced in the superb Mission Legacies series Jonathan Bonk.
regularly featured in the International Bulletin of JONATHAN J. BONK
Mission Research since 1977, and published in
the American Society of Missiology Series as a Bibliography. G. H. Anderson, ed., BDCM; J. D. Dou-
single volume, Mission Legacies. glas, ed., TCDCB; idem, WWCH; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ;
idem, GGC; J. D. Woodbridge, ed., AFC.
ELISABETH ELLIOTs Shadow of the Almighty: The
Life and Testament of Jim Elliot (1958)the story
of her husband who, along with four other young Birinus (d. c. 650). Early missionary to England.
missionaries, was martyred in attempting to con- Birinus, whose origin is apparently lost to his-
tact the Auca Indiansis arguably the single tory, was commissioned to work in England, hav-
most significant biography published in the lating promised Pope Honorius I that he would go
ter half of this century in terms of its impact on where no previous missionary had gone. In 634,
Western student mobilization for mission. Her he arrived in Wessex. Finding the West Saxon
book Who Shall Ascend: The Life of R. Kenneth population largely pagan, he did not follow his
Strachan of Costa Rica (1968) was likewise original intention to go to remote England and
ground-breaking, marking the beginning of more settled among them. Within one year he had won
realistic portrayals and assessments of mission- the West Saxon king, Cynegils, to Christ, with
ary subjects. many eventually following the kings lead.
Missionary biography as a genre will likely A. SCOTT MOREAU
continue to undergo substantial change as the Bibliography. J. E. Field, Saint Berin, The Apostle of
record of missionary private thought and life be- Wessex; E. John, NCE 2:57475; S. Neil, HCM; ODCC.
133
Bishop, Isabella Bird
Bishop, Isabella Bird (18311902). English trav- blacks, to be rid of the influence of evil whites.
eler and missions motivator. Born into a pastors Whites were devils by nature having been cre-
family, she knew pain as a constant companion ated by a black scientist named Yakub as part of
after removal of a spinal tumor when she was his rebellion against Allah. Consistent with the
only eighteen. However, she vividly recounted teaching of Fard, Message looked forward to the
medical trips to Canada and the United States in day when blacks would triumph over whites and
a style that established her reputation as a popu- take their rightful place in the theocracy of Allah.
lar writer and speaker. Other central tenets of the nation of Islam in-
Married in 1881 and then widowed after only cluded strict dietary laws forbidding the con-
five years, Bishop decided to travel throughout sumption of alcohol, drugs, and pork, and eco-
western Asia and India. During her travels she nomic self-reliance. Indeed, these two ideas came
came across a group of Syrian Christians who together in Nation cooperative efforts in farming,
were faithfully enduring harsh persecution. The the production and sale of fish and bean pies, and
leaders pleaded with Bishop to send them teach- owning and operating numerous stores, restau-
ers from England, and this call changed her atti- rants, and bakeries in the black community. Men
tude toward missions and missionaries. On her were known as diligent workers, always well
return to London, she reentered the speaking cir- dressed in dark suits and ties and often visible on
cuit with the purpose of challenging her audi- neighborhood thoroughfares selling copies of the
ences to take up the task of mission engagement. movements Muhammad Speaks newspaper.
Further travels in Asia beginning in 1894 led to The Nation saw a strong period of growth, par-
more challenges to her audiences. By the time a ticularly among inner-city black males during the
tumor finally took her life in 1902, her influence 1950s and 1960s. Much of this has been attrib-
was such that she was referred to as the Mother uted to the work of chief Muhammad aide Mal-
of Missions. colm X, who began working for the Nation sub-
PENNY GUSHIKEN sequent to his release from prison in 1952. His
conversion to the Nation was typical for his time;
Bibliography. F. E. Arnold-Foster, Heralds of the
Cross: or The Fulfilling of the Command; E. C. Dawson,
the Nation was especially adept at working with
Heroines of Missionary Adventure; idem, Missionary young men in inner-city neighborhoods and pris-
Heroines in Many Lands. ons, providing them with a message that spoke to
their disillusionment with society and American
Black Muslims. Popular designation used to race relations. As a symbol of the rejection of the
refer to the Nation of Islam during the years fol- legacy of white oppression Malcolm Little, like
lowing the 1961 publication of C. Eric Lincolns other converts, dropped his slavemaster sur-
The Black Muslims in America. Lincolns book name and had it replaced with an X.
chronicled the development of the Nation of Elijah Muhammad died in 1975 and was suc-
Islam from its beginnings in Detroit in the early ceeded by his son, Wallace Deen Muhammad.
Wallace soon changed his name to Warith Deen
1930s. The mysterious Farrad Mohammed, also
Muhammad and moved the movement closer to
referred to as Mr. W. D. Fard, began teaching a
orthodox Islam, dropping the whites as devils
group of black southern immigrants about the
doctrine and affirming the universal appeal of
true religion of the black man of Asia and
Islam. Three years later, Louis Farrakhan led a
Africa. Terming Christianity as the religion of the
sectarian faction out of the newly named World
white man, Fard taught his followers that whites
Community of Islam in the West to retain the
had come to power through trickery, evil, and co-
separatist views of the Nation of Islam.
ercion and were to be overcome by the black
The Nation of Islam still has a small, if steady
race. Through their discovery of their true selves
following in prisons and inner cities. Many mis-
in the Nation of Islam, blacks would be prepared
sionary organizations have followed their lead in
to take their rightful place in world history and
concentrating on prisoners in their outreach.
throw off white domination.
Similarly, organizations such as Project Joseph,
Subsequent to the mysterious disappearance of
led by Carl Ellis of Chattanooga, Tennessee, have
Fard in 1934, Elijah Muhammad, Fards chief
targeted the Nation of Islam and other more or-
minister, became the leader of the movement,
thodox forms of Islam in their own evangelistic
moving to Chicago in 1936. There he established
efforts.
the Temple of Islam No. 2 as a new headquarters
HAROLD DEAN TRULEAR
for the Nation of Islam. Muhammad taught the
tripartite doctrine that Fard was Allah himself, Bibliography. L. DeCaro, On the Side of My People;
that God is a black man, and that he, Muham- C. E. Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America; L. Mamiya,
mad, was his Messenger. In 1965 he published Journal for Scientific Study of Religion 21:2 (1982).
his Message to the Black Man as a principal doc-
ument outlining theological and political beliefs Black Theologies. The black theology movement
for the Nation. He called for a separate nation for gained ascendancy in the 1960s as African Ameri-
134
Blasphemy
can theological scholars and church leaders at- Williams called for a nonsexist, egalitarian view
tempted to respond to the growing black con- of the church in the black community. Church of
sciousness movement in the United States. While God theological ethicist Cheryl Sanders has ad-
African American theologians such as Benjamin vocated a theology for the black church that also
Mays, George Kelsey, Howard Thurman, and focuses on an egalitarian ethic, but is rooted in
William Stuart Nelson had written a variety of historic church orthodoxy and practice, includ-
theological texts that covered a wide range of the- ing the central role of women in church planting
ological options prior to and during the civil and development.
rights movement, the rise of Black Power gave oc- HAROLD DEAN TRULEAR
casion for a new group of theologians and church
Bibliography. W. Bentley, The Meaning of History to
leaders to interpret the gospel in light of the op-
Black Americans; M. Chapman, Christianity on Trial;
pression of black people in the United States. J. Cone and G. Wilmore, Black Theology: A Documen-
Early attempts, such as the Black Power and tary Witness; C. Sanders, Saints in Exile.
the Church statement crafted by the National
Council of Negro Churches in 1966, affirmed the
Blasphemy. Sin of reviling, slandering, or mock-
congruence between the militant call for Black
ing the name, character, and majestic glory of
Power and the power of Jesus Christ to set people
free from social oppression. Theologian James God. The concept of blasphemy is found in the
Cone produced the first full treatment of this new Bible and in societies where organized religion
development in his book Black Theology and Black exists, particularly in Islamic countries.
Power, which appeared in 1969. He developed his In the Old Testament blasphemy was always a
ideas further in A Black Theology of Liberation direct or indirect insult of God, including cursing
(1970) and God of the Oppressed (1975). the sacred name (YHWH) (Lev. 24:1016), delib-
Cone relied heavily on a liberationist hermeneu- erate disobedience of Gods Law (Num. 15:30),
tic, arguing for the blackness of Jesus Christ as a idolatry being the ultimate blasphemy (Neh. 9:18,
matter of his identification with the poor and op- 26; Ezek. 20:2729). Instead of fulfilling her mis-
pressed black people of the world. Conversation sion calling to be a light drawing the nations to
partners such as J. DeOtis Roberts and Major worship and honor the name of Yahweh (Isa. 9:6;
Jones attempted to work on issues of social justice Pss. 9:11; 96:3), Israel incurred Gods judgment
and race as representing a more orthodox per- (captivity) and as a result provided cause for the
spective, with Roberts focusing on the ideal of rec- name of Yahweh to be blasphemed by the pagans
onciliation and Jones building on the traditional (Isa. 52:5; cf. Rom. 2:24).
ideal of hope within downtrodden communities. The mission purpose of the church and the call
The movement did not escape the attention of to proclaim the message of Christ in cross-
black evangelicals, as theologians such as cultural settings (Matt. 28:1920) demand that
William Bentley, Anthony Evans, and Ronald Pot- the church, and missionaries in particular, live
ter began to wrestle with the issue of the CONTEX- with moral integrity and cultural sensitivity lest
TUALIZATION of the gospel. Bentley emphasized the a cause for blasphemy of the name of Christ arise
use of black history in black evangelical theology, for those being reached with the Christian gospel
while Potter pressed the issue of social oppres- today (1 Cor. 9:1927).
sion and black identity. Evans gave primary at- In the New Testament, blasphemy takes on a
tention to the need for an orthodox biblical base wider meaning including slandering a human
for theology in the black church. being (Matt. 15:19; Rom. 3:8; Eph. 4:31; Titus 3:2),
Such emphases created theological and philo- celestial beings (2 Peter 2:1012; Jude 810), and
sophical space for a renewed interest on the part the Word of God (Titus 2:5). Jesus taught that the
of black evangelicals in Africa and African mis- sin of blasphemy is forgivable but identified blas-
sions. Organizations such as the Destiny Move- phemy against the Holy Spirit as unforgivable
ment, founded by Elward Ellis in the late 1980s (Matt. 12:3032; Mark 3:2030). Much debate sur-
and the development of the Black Campus Min- rounds the nature of this sin and its commission
istries division of InterVarsity Christian Fellow- outside this context. Of note is the fact that Paul,
ship and Heres Life Black America in Campus a self-confessed blasphemer (1 Tim. 1:13) who
Crusade for Christ gave particular attention to sought to make Christians blaspheme (Acts 26:11),
the role of African Americans in missions both in was forgiven of this sin (Acts 22:1416).
the United States and overseas. Pauls three-year evangelistic and church plant-
Black theology was also challenged by women ing efforts in the religiously hostile environment
who accused black male theologians of replicat- of Ephesus had such an impact that mob vio-
ing patterns of exclusion by whites against blacks lence resulted and a charge of blasphemy was
by ignoring the oppression of black women in leveled against him (Acts 19:2341), a scenario
church and society. Borrowing the term Wom- repeated in mission history to the present.
anist from author Alice Walker, theologians such In Pauline teaching, blasphemy was a serious
as Jacquelyn Grant, Katie Cannon, and Delores offense involving rejection of the faith and viola-
135
Blasphemy
tion of conscience of which two professed con- Bibliography. D Bliss, The Reminiscences of Daniel
verts were guilty, demanding a severe apostolic Bliss; H. H. Jessup, Fifty-three Years in Syria; A. L.
censure and apostolic assignment of discipline at Tibawi, American Interest in Syria 18001901: A Study
of Educational, Literary and Religious Work.
the hands of Satan (1 Tim. 1:1920; 2 Tim. 2:17).
Generally, among all cultures where religion
plays a significant role, blasphemy is taboo and Blyden, Edward Wilmot (18321912). West In-
Christian mission activity will be affected corre- dies born African scholar, diplomat, and educa-
spondingly. For example, in countries where Is- tor. Blyden is considered to be one of the most
lamic law is influential, blasphemy is a serious significant African thinkers of the nineteenth
problem for Christianity. Generally defined as any century and the Father of West African Nation-
insult to God, the prophet Mohammed, or any alism. Although he was ordained in the Pres-
part of the divine revelation, the trend among Is- byterian Church in Liberia, he is best known for
lamic fundamentalist scholars has been to his work in the African political arena. His views
broaden the definition to include any statement on African unity were revolutionary for the pe-
contrary to sharia law or the Islamic religion it- riod. He advocated a pan-African nationalism,
self. In some cases verbal witness is all that is stressing the withdrawal of all forms of European
needed for arrest and potential execution, the colonial efforts, the creation of a large West
penalty for blasphemy. Several notorious and in- African nation, and the formation of an inde-
pendent African church. It is with the latter that
ternationally publicized cases in the 1990s wit-
Blyden had his influence on missions.
ness to the peril of this becoming a tool for reli-
He called for the Africanization of churches
gious persecution, a grave danger for missionaries
and indigenous-oriented worship. He was critical
and their converts in the Muslim world.
of European missionaries, accusing them of de-
RICHARD D. CALENBERG
stroying African societies and customs through
Bibliography. C. W. Ernst, ER, II:23845; L. W. Levy, insisting on Western forms and leadership. Al-
Blasphemy: Verbal Offense Against the Sacred from though he did not personally leave his Christian
Moses to Salmon Rushdie. religion and convert to Islam, he believed Islam
to be a better religion for Africa, at least in the
Bliss, Daniel (18231916). American missionary beginning stages of its development. The author
to Syria. Born in Georgia, Vermont, he was ap- of several books and pamphlets, his views are
pointed by the AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSION- summed up in the book Christianity, Islam, and
ERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS to service in Syria. the Negro Race (1887).
Bliss is remembered as the founder of the Syrian THOMAS L. AUSTIN
Protestant College, renowned in later years as the Bibliography. J. K. Ade Ajayi, Christian Mission in
American University of Beirut. Nigeria 18411891, The Making of a New Elite; M. R.
In the early 1860s there was a great demand Lipschultz and R. K. Rasmusen, Dictionary of African
for elementary education in Syria. Even more Historical Biography; G. O. M. Tasie, Christian Mission-
pressing was the need for Christian secondary ary Enterprise in the Niger Delta 18641918.
schools, because after completing their elemen-
tary education in the mission schools, Protestant Boarding Schools. See MISSION SCHOOLS.
children were going on to secular institutions or
in some cases to Jesuit schools. This led in 1862 Bolivia (Est. 2000 pop.: 8,329,000; 1,098,581 sq.
to a decision by the missionaries to seek ABCFM km. [424,162 sq. mi.]). Bolivia is a land-locked
approval to open a collegiate literary institution country nestled in west-central South America. It
in Beirut and to nominate Daniel Bliss to serve as shares borders with Chile, Peru, Argentina,
principal. Paraguay, and Brazil. Cultures with pre-
During the U.S. Civil War, interest in foreign Columbian roots comprise 59.4 percent of the
mission work declined and so did finances. This population, with the Andean Quechua (34.3%)
made it a bad time to ask the Board for funds for and Aymara (23.5%) dominating. It is estimated
a major new endeavor. In 1862, Bliss was sent to that as many as 1.35 million of the total popula-
America to collect money and make other tion are Protestant evangelicals. From 1976 to
arrangements for the proposed college. After rais- 1992 the Bolivian population grew at 2.1 percent
ing as much he could in America, he turned to per year, while the evangelical churches expanded
England for additional funds. At last, on Decem- at a rate of more than 8.5 percent per year.
ber 3, 1866, the Syrian Protestant College was The expansion of the evangelical Bolivian
opened in Beirut. churches related closely to both ethnic and social
Bliss served as active president of the college class response. The greatest response over one
for thirty-six years, followed by fourteen years as hundred years consistently came from Aymara
president emeritus. populations, though Quechua response began to
ROGER S. GREENWAY increase in the 1980s. These populations have
136
Bompas, William Carpenter
made up the traditional peasantry. The next ent Bolivian charismatic churches cooperated sig-
greatest response has come from the complex nificantly in the past two decades. But most evan-
middle classes of cholo and mestizo populations gelical organizations functioned independently.
of the cities. By the 1990s there were nearly equal Beyond formal cooperation, the vision and
numbers of rural and urban evangelicals. leadership of the evangelical churches was also
The First Period: Expatriate Mission. Protes- evident as Bolivians filled key positions in the in-
tant missionary presence in Bolivia began after creasing number of para-ecclesial organizations
the establishment of the Republic in 1825 with that stepped alongside or parallel to the churches.
British and American Bible Society COLPORTAGE. Their tasks included such things as Bible transla-
The leaders of independence reflected liberal EN- tion, literacy programs, university campus min-
LIGHTENMENT values (including individual rights, istries, literature, and response to social need.
separation of church and state, and universal ed- The second period of the Bolivian church and
ucation), limited the role of the Catholic Church its leadership took place in a difficult but epic
in government, and began national participation time in Bolivian national life. The Agrarian Re-
in the world economy. Together this meant grad- form of 1953 established the national vision of a
ually increasing toleration of Protestant missions multiethnic nation working together. Although it
as perceived carriers of these values.
continued to be among the poorest countries of
Expatriate mission which resulted in estab-
the Americas, its leadership produced an in-
lished congregations began at the turn of the
creasingly educated and globally aware citizenry.
twentieth century with five pioneer organiza-
tions: the Methodists, the Brethren Assemblies, The Third Period: The Bolivian Church in
the Canadian Baptists, the Andes Evangelical Mission. Bolivian evangelicals began to join the
Mission, and the Seventh-Day Adventists. Their expanding worldwide movement of the Christian
entrance to the conservative nation was facili- church in mission in the 1990s. Through denom-
tated by the reascendancy of liberal Bolivian pol- inational and interdenominational structures a
itics at the time the world market for tin began to growing number of Bolivian missionaries served
expand. But it was not until 1906 that the Boli- in Bolivia itself, in Latin America, and in Africa.
vian Constitution was changed to recognize reli- Denominational and cooperative programs for
gious liberty. More mission organizations entered missionary training were moving rapidly into
in the periods after World War I, the Chaco War place in response to growing Bolivian vision.
with Paraguay (193236), and World War II. By The Bolivian evangelical church moves into the
1960 thirty-seven Protestant church-planting twenty-first century with critical challenges. Its
missions registered 24,000 adherents. Along with increasing size means it must assume new re-
church planting and leadership training they car- sponsibility as it becomes one of the forces shap-
ried on diverse programs, especially health and ing Bolivia itself. Its increasing diversity means it
education, responding to social need. must purposefully discover and strengthen its es-
The Second Period: The Bolivian Church. sential unity and witness. Divine purpose must
The rise of the Bolivian evangelical churches guide it.
themselves, beginning in the 1960s, characterized HAROLD R. THOMAS
the second period. This was evident in the emer-
gence of mature Bolivian leadership and vision in Bibliography. D. B. Barrett; WCE; H. S. Klein, Bo-
livia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society; W. D.
the traditional denominations.
Smith Jr., Toward Continuous Mission: Strategizing for
It was also evident in growing interdenomina- the Evangelization of Bolivia; C. P. Wagner, The Protes-
tional and interchurch cooperation. Moves to- tant Movement in Bolivia.
ward citywide cooperation began in 1955 with the
formation of the United Churches of La Paz. Na-
tional cooperation began with the Evangelism in Bompas, William Carpenter (18341906).
Depth campaign of 1965. The year following, the British missionary to Canada. Bompas was born
more conservative missions and churches formed in London to Baptist parents and later decided
the National Association of Bolivian Evangelicals to pursue a career as a lawyer. But in 1958, after
(ANDEB). ANDEB came to relate most closely to suffering a stress-related breakdown, he chose
the Latin American Evangelical Co-Fraternity to enter pastoral ministry with the Church of
(CONELA, 1982), formed around the Lausanne England.
Covenant of 1974. In 1995 ANDEB represented In 1862 Bompas volunteered to work among
sixty-one organizations, about one-third of the the indigenous peoples in northwestern Canada
various evangelical groups. Twelve Bolivian de- under THE CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY, and he
nominations and missions partnered in establish- arrived at Fort Simpson on Christmas Day, 1865.
ing the Bolivian Evangelical University in Santa Until his death forty-one years later, Bompas
Cruz in 1982. Ecumenical cooperation (UNELAM started churches and schools, learned Indian lan-
1965; CLAI, 1982) did not receive wide support in guages, and translated Scriptures and portions of
Bolivia. Leaders of the rapidly growing independ- the Anglican Book of Common Prayer and other
137
Bompas, William Carpenter
Christian materials into Beaver, Chipewyan, ples perspective in order to draw them into a be-
Slavi, Tukudh, and three other dialects. longing relationship with God.
In 1874 he became the first bishop of Atha- Bonding is based on an earlier conceptiden-
basca, a post he held until 1884. In 1884 the dio- tificationin which the missionary was encour-
cese divided, and Bompas chose to oversee the aged to enter sympathetically into the lives of the
more difficult northern region, known as Macken- people in order to understand their way of think-
zie River. From 1891 until his death at Carcross ing, and discover ways in which the gospel could
Mission, Bompas was bishop of Selkirk (now enter in and transform their patterns of life. It is
Yukon). also rooted in a belief that the incarnation of
Bompas eschewed using formal ecclesiastical Christ (John 1:14) provides the model for mis-
titles for himself. He was a conservative evangel- sionary ministry.
ical opposed to both Roman Catholic missions Criticism of the bonding concept has centered
and ritualism. To maintain theological purity, he around three main areas: (1) questioning whether
closely controlled the missionary appointments it is necessary or even possible for the newcomer
to his dioceses. He produced several books, in- to attempt to bond with the new community;
cluding Bible translations and a book on the (2) dislike of the use of the term and of the anal-
Mackenzie River diocese. ogy with parent/infant bonding; and (3) disagree-
STANLEY M. GUTHRIE ment about the relative importance of living with
Bibliography. H. Cody, An Apostle of the North: Mem- a family in the early days in a new community.
oirs of the Right Reverend Bishop W. C. Bompas, D.D. ELIZABETH S. BREWSTER
Bibliography. E. T. and E. S. Brewster, Bonding and
Bonding. In order to minister effectively in an- the Missionary Task; M. C. Chao, PA 7:1 (1960): 1617;
other culture, one must learn to communicate S. Granberg, EMQ 24:4 (1988): 34450; D. N. Larson
well with the people of that culture. But mean- and W. A. Smalley, Becoming Bilingual; J. A. Loewen,
ingful communication requires more than simply PA 11:4 (1964): 14560; K. McElhanon, EMQ 27:4
being able to speak the language; it also implies (1991): 39093; W. F. Muldrow, PA 18:5 (1971): 20821;
developing meaningful personal relationships E. A. Nida, PA 2:4 (1955): 9095; L. E. Reed, Preparing
Missionaries for Intercultural Communication; W. D.
within that cultural context, and a willingness to
Reyburn, PA 7:1 (1960): 115; W. A. Smalley, PA 5:2
listen and to see life from the others point of (1958): 8384.
view.
The term bonding was coined by Thomas
and Elizabeth Brewster in 1979 to refer to a mis- Boniface (Winfrith) (680754). English mis-
sionarys deep sense of belonging in relationships sionary to Germany. Born in Devonshire, En-
in a second culture and the communitys accept- gland, in 680 and given the name Winfrith, he be-
ance of the newcomer as an accepted outsider. came the most famous of all missionaries of the
The term was developed by analogy to the bond- Dark Ages and one of the greatest of all times.
ing that takes place between an infant and its Ordained at the age of thirty, Boniface felt a
parents at the time of birth. strong compulsion to spread the gospel on the
Bonding with a new community can be facili- European Continent. Leaving England in 715, he
tated by the new missionarys immersion in the arrived in Frisia in Holland, where he made little
life of the new community and societyspending progress. After a temporary return to England,
as much time as possible with the local people the missionary call led him back to Europe in
upon arrival in the community, preferably living 718. After laboring in Holland and Germany,
with a local family for the first few weeks or Boniface traveled to Rome in 723, where Pope
months. In this way, the newcomer begins to Gregory II consecrated him a missionary bishop
enter the community and to enter into the peo- to Germany. In 732, Boniface was made an arch-
ples thought patterns, worldview, and values. It bishop.
also enables the community to begin to know Bonifaces style was vigorous and aggressive.
and understand the newcomer. He attacked paganism head-on. His chopping
Bonding is facilitated by entering with a down of the sacred oak tree of the Thundergod at
learner attitude. The one who is a learner is will- Geismar typified his approach. Wherever he
ing to be dependent on the people of the commu- went, Boniface tore down pagan shrines, estab-
nity and to be vulnerable with them. The learner lished monasteries, organized bishoprics, and
role implies the humility to make mistakes in laid the groundwork for training local clergy.
language and culture and to receive correction. Toward the close of his ministry Boniface
By developing relationships and gaining an longed to return to Frisia, where his mission had
empathetic understanding of the peoples feel- started and which was still largely pagan. Having
ings, desires, and fears, the new missionary can relinquished his administrative duties in Ger-
adopt habits of lifestyle and ministry that can en- many, he returned to Frisia in 753. There he and
able him or her to be good news from the peo- his companions were attacked and killed in 754
138
Booth, Joseph
by pagan Frisians, bringing to an end his brilliant created hostels for young single professional
missionary career. women who needed decent accommodation if
ROGER S. GREENWAY they were to pursue their careers. As general
Bibliography. E. S. Duckett, Anglo-Saxon Saints and (193438) she launched the International Torch-
Scholars; D. Keep, St. Boniface and His World: A Book- bearers and the International Youth Movement.
let to Commemorate the Thirteen Hundredth Anniversary This brought her full circle to her early teenage
of His Birth a Crediton in Devon; T. Reuter, ed., The efforts with Sunday school and a dolls hospital to
Greatest Englishman: Essays on St. Boniface and the mend the broken toys and unhappy lives of chil-
Church at Crediton; J. C. Sladden, Boniface of Devon: dren in the East End of London. An organizer
Apostle of Germany; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ.
rather than an innovator, her most spectacular
feat was to collect 1,200 alcoholics from New
Boone, William James (181164). American York bars and bus them to a service in the
missionary to China. Born in South Carolina, at Memorial Hall on Thanksgiving Day, 1909.
the time of his conversion he gave up the study of ELEANOR M. JACKSON
law and went on to obtain both seminary and
medical degrees. He was appointed as a mission- Bibliography. R. Collier, The General Next to God;
ary to China by the Board of Foreign Missions of F. Coutts, The History of the Salvation Army; P. W. Wil-
the Protestant Episcopal Church. He and his wife son, General Evangeline Booth.
sailed for China in 1836, but spent their first four
years in Java working with the Chinese there. In Booth, Joseph (18511932). English missionary
1841 he lived in Macao and aided in the school to Malawi. Born in Derby, England, in 1851,
started by the Morrison Education Society. The Booth was called to be a missionary later in his
remainder of his ministry in China was spent in life. His wife Mary shared the call, but died of
Amoy and Shanghai. After his appointment as a pneumonia three weeks before departure.
bishop in 1844, he represented Shanghai on the Booth worked in Malawi only from 1892 to
Committee of Delegates for Bible translation. He 1903, but strongly influenced its religious and po-
was known particularly for his vigorous advocacy litical history. He founded two interdenomina-
of the Chinese term shen for God, rather than tional faith missionsZambezi Industrial Mis-
shangdi, the preference of British missionaries. sion (1892) and Nyassa Industrial Mission
In addition to preaching, teaching, and translat- (1893)and he started three denominational
ing on the Delegates Version, he also wrote cate- missionsChurches of Christ (1896), Seventh-
chisms and books of prayer in Chinese and trans- Day Baptists (1898), and Seventh-Day Adventists
lated Matthew, Mark, John, and Romans into the (1902). Through his first convert, John Chilem-
Shanghai dialect. He emphasized classical edu-
bwe, he was instrumental in founding the Provi-
cation, and one of the schools he founded in
dence Industrial Mission of the [black] American
Shanghai later became St. Johns University.
National Baptist Convention, Inc., in 1900.
RALPH R. COVELL
Booth opposed colonialism on principle, and
Bibliography. M. Boone, The Seed of the Church in his conviction of human equality made him sup-
China; A. Wylie, Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to port the concept of Africa for the African. His
the Chinese. anticolonial attitudes made the Nyasaland gov-
ernment declare him a prohibited immigrant in
Booth, Evangeline Cory (18651950). Fourth 1907.
general of the SALVATION ARMY. She had precisely A pacifist, Booth rejected the use of force to
the charisma, convictions, organizational skills, achieve justice, but without him the only armed
and heart needed to take command of the Salva- uprising against colonialism in Malawi (the
tion Army in November 1904 and guide its rapid Chilembwe Rising in 1915) would not have been
expansion through persecution and controversy possible. Wrongly implicated in the Rising, Booth
until its value was recognized. Though one of her
and his second wife Anny were deported from
first tasks was organizing relief after the 1906
Basutoland and South Africa in 1915.
Los Angeles earthquake, it was the daily squalor
His general aim then was to reach the un-
of hundreds on the streets of New York that
reached masses of Africa by innovative means,
moved her more. In many ways her life is the his-
tory of the Salvation Army, since she was born with preference for self-supporting industrial
the year her father WILLIAM BOOTH began the missions and churches led by Africans with lim-
movement. In 1928 she came into bitter conflict ited African-American help.
with her brother Bramwell, general from 1912 to KLAUS FIELDER
1929, when she insisted the Armys constitution Bibliography. J. Booth, Africa for the African;
be modernized and democratized, having already G. Shepperson, Independent African: John Chilembwe
defied him when he tried to transfer her from and the Origins, Setting, and Significance of the Nyasa-
America in 1922. A thoroughgoing feminist, she land Native Rising of 1915.
139
Booth, William
Booth, William (18291912). English preacher, SHIP and the Lausanne Committee for World
social reformer, and founder of the Salvation Evangelization. His greatest influence and legacy
Army. Booth was born into poverty in Notting- in missiology came through his numerous publi-
ham, England. At age fifteen he became a cations, especially his A Spirituality of the Road
Methodist, and four years later he was ordained (1979) and Witness to the World (1980), as well as
a minister. He served a five hundred-member, his magisterial work Transforming Mission: Para-
middle-class church near the slums of London. digm Shifts in Theology of Mission (1991).
He converted numerous prostitutes and drunk- GERALD H. ANDERSON
ards. His congregation disapproved and Booth
Bibliography. W. A. Saayman and J. N. J. Kritzinger,
resigned. In 1865 he formed the Christian Mis-
eds., Mission in Bold Humility: A Dialogue with David
sion as an outreach to the downtrodden. He re- Bosch; Missionalia 18:1 (1990).
named it the Salvation Army in 1878.
According to Booth, people needed deliverance
from sin and the material degradation that so Bosnia-Hercegovina (Est. 2000 pop.: 4,330,000;
often accompanied it. He organized street-corner 51,129 sq. km. [19,741 sq. mi.]). Bosnia-Herce-
revival meetings accompanied by a Salvation govina is a microcosm of the ethnic, religious,
Army band. The early campaigns excited violent and cultural diversity found in the former Yu-
opposition. Many were fined and imprisoned. goslavia. Its name derives from the union of two
Others, including women, were brutally as- provinces, Hercegovina representing the smaller
saulted. Yet the operations of the Army were ex- region located in the south of the republic. After
tended to the United States in 1880, Australia in World War II it was established as one of the six
1881, and later to Europe, India, and elsewhere. constituent republics of former Yugoslavia and
In 1890 Booth published In Darkest England, became an internationally recognized independ-
and the Way Out suggesting remedies for vice and ent state in April 1992.
POVERTY. His proposals struck a responsive cord. In 1991 Bosnia-Hercegovinas population was
Money was liberally given and a large number of comprised of 43 percent Slavic Muslims, 31 per-
his ideas saw fruition. Opposition eventually gave cent Serbs (predominantly Orthodox Christians),
way to widespread sympathy. In 1904 Booth had and 17 percent Croats (mainly Catholic). These
an audience with King Edward VII and opened a figures were radically altered by the war
U.S. Senate session with prayer. In his waning (199295) which caused extensive displacements
years he became increasingly blind but continued and casualties.
his religious and social work until a few days be- The Romans occupied the area in the first cen-
fore his death. tury B.C. In A.D. 395 it became part of the West
EDWARD MATTHEWS Roman Empire, and since the Great Schism be-
tween Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern
Bibliography. R. Collier, The General Next to God. (Byzantine or Orthodox) Christianity in A.D. 1054
it has remained under the jurisdiction of the
Born Again. See CONVERSION. Roman Catholic Church. Yet due to its geo-
graphic isolation as a landlocked, mountainous
Bosch, David J(acobus) (192992). South region, the impact of Christianity on Bosnia was
African mission scholar. Born in South Africa, he minimal until the tenth century. In the twelfth
was a graduate of the universities of Pretoria and century the Bosnian sovereign Ban Kulin laid
Basel. He was ordained in the Dutch Reformed the foundation for an autonomous (independent
Church and served as a missionary and seminary of both Rome and Byzantium) Bosnian church
teacher in Transkei from 1957 to 1971. In 1972 whose adherents were known as the Bogomils.
he became professor of missiology at the Univer- Bogomils originated in Bulgaria as a medieval
sity of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria, where he dualistic sect, actually a semi-evangelical reac-
served until his death in an automobile accident tion against the hierarchy and religious formal-
in South Africa. He was general secretary of the ism of the Byzantine Christianity and ruling
Southern African Missiological Society from its classes. They became heavily concentrated and
founding in 1968 and editor of its journal Mis- very influential in Bosnia, which was ruled by a
sionalia from its inception in 1973. He also series of governors (bans) and kings until the Ot-
served as national chairman of the South African toman arrival in 1463.
Christian Leadership Assembly in 1979 and as In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the re-
chairman of the National Initiative for Reconcili- ligious history of Bosnia-Hercegovina took an-
ation from 1989, as part of his tireless effort to other turn following its occupation by the Ot-
bring about reconciliation among racial, denom- toman Turkish Empire. Widespread conversions
inational, and theological groups in South Africa to Islam followed, largely for economic and po-
and across the world. Bosch was a bridge per- litical reasons. In the late nineteenth century
son, respected as much in the WORLD COUNCIL OF when the Turks were defeated, tensions arose be-
CHURCHES as in the WORLD EVANGELICAL FELLOW- tween the Croats who welcomed the new Austro-
140
Braden, Charles Samuel
Hungarian administration in 1878 (formal an- tion ceremonies. Nevertheless, as eldest son he
nexation followed in 1908) and the Bosnian Mus- succeeded to the chieftainship in 1872, leading
lims who opposed it. Tensions exploded in the the Bamangwato people until his death in 1923.
Bosnian capital, Sarajevo, in 1914 when the Aus- During his long reign, Khama fought strongly
trian Archduke Ferdinand was assassinated by against alcohol, transformed fertility rites into
Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist supporting national prayers for rain, substituted prayer for
Bosnias union with Serbia. This event triggered charms to protect his army in battle, and astutely
the outbreak of World War I, after which (1918) preserved the land for his people despite the pres-
Bosnia and Hercegovina were incorporated into sures of COLONIALISM and expansion from neigh-
the newly constituted Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, boring South Africa.
and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Botswana is also the land of ROBERT MOFFAT,
Protestantism arrived in Bosnia with the Aus- DAVID LIVINGSTONE, and lesser-known missionary
trians who established the first Lutheran com- giants of the nineteenth century. The first church
munities in the country in the last part of the was established in 1829 at Kuruman, where
nineteenth century. Very few believers from these Robert and Mary Moffat worked for fifty years,
communities still exist. During that time the translating the Bible into Sechuana (published in
British and Foreign Bible Society operated a 1857). The people of Botswana were the first in
Bible shop in Sarajevo and its colporteurs were southern Africa to turn to Christ.
the first Protestant missionary workers in the re- The open support of the various tribes initially
gion. Bosnias Muslims are considered one of Eu- appeared to further the gospel, galvanizing broad
ropes least evangelized people groups. Prior to PEOPLE MOVEMENTS. But the emergence of a state
the recent war (199295) several evangelical mis- church stimulated loyalty to the government
sionaries from other parts of former Yugoslavia more than loyalty to Christ. Khana used Chris-
were active as church planters in Bosnia and tianity to legitimize the political structure. He re-
Hercegovina. Their labors were brought to a halt fused to allow the Jesuits to found a station in
with the outbreak of the war which resulted in 1879, for, as he claimed, they will cause division
major displacements of the population, with among my subjects. In 1890, at the expulsion of
about one-third of the population driven from an LMS missionary who had challenged his au-
their homes and over two hundred thousand thority, he is reported to have said, Now the
dead. church is mine. Let all discussion end. Decline of
During the war the Croatian evangelical hu- the Botswana church in the twentieth century ap-
manitarian organization Agape, along with sev- pears more the consequence of a state-controlled
eral other agencies and international partners, be- church than of missionary liberalism.
came intensely involved in the wholistic ministry Today, Botswana is a land of nominalism with
of alleviating human suffering and bringing the no more than 50 percent of the population pro-
message of hope and life to thousands of Bosnian fessing Christianity. Only half of those are affili-
refugees and other victims of the war. This minated with any church; less than 5 percent can be
istry of Christian relief workers and missionaries, considered evangelical.
mostly from Croatia and associated with the out- DONALD K. SMITH
reach of Agape and the Evangelical Theological Bibliography. R. Gray, Black Christians and White
Seminary from Osijek, led to the establishment of Missionaries.
more than a dozen evangelical congregations,
mostly Evangelical/Pentecostal and a few Baptist Braden, Charles Samuel (18871970). American
in various urban centers of Bosnia-Hercegovina. missionary in Bolivia and Chile. Born in Chanute,
In 1997 the first evangelical Bible School in the Kansas, Braden traveled to Bolivia in 1912 after
country opened its classes in Mostar. Evangelical studies at Baker University, Columbia, and Union
congregations are the only active interethnic com- Theological Seminary. Ordained in the Methodist
munities in the country and are recognized as Church in 1914, he moved to Chile the following
signs of hope and instruments of reconciliation in year. There he was professor and president of
a land marked by violence largely based on ethnic Union Theological Seminary (Santiago) and ed-
and religious animosities. ited El Heraldo Christiano. Returning to the
PETER KUZMIC United States in 1922, he worked for two years as
assistant secretary at the Methodist Board of For-
Botswana (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,718,000; 581,730 sq. eign Missions in Chicago. After completing his
km. [224,606 sq. mi.]). Botswana is the land of Ph.D. at the University of Chicago in 1926, he
Khama Boikano, considered among the greatest took a position in the Religion and Literature of
of all African Christian chiefs. Khama was bap- Religions Department at Northwestern University,
tized in 1862. Three years later his father Chief where he served until 1954. Throughout his
Sekhome drove him out from the tribe when teaching career he continued to stimulate interest
Khama refused to take part in traditional initia- in the worldwide scope of the church, seen
141
Braden, Charles Samuel
through such activities as founding World Chris- French Huguenots made their first effort to bring
tianityA Digest in 1937 and writing several the Protestant Reformation to Brazil in 1555. On
books of missiological interest, including Reli- March 10, 1557, the Calvinist admiral Gaspar of
gious Aspects of the Conquest of Mexico (1930), Coligny, with the support of John Calvin, organ-
Modern Tendencies in World Religions (1933), ized the first Reformed church in the Guanabara
These Also Believe: A Study of Modern American Bay, Rio de Janeiro.
Cults & Minority Religious Movements (1949), and In January 1558 the Roman Catholic French
War, Communism, and World Religions (1953). vice admiral Villegaignon, the new ruler of the
A. SCOTT MOREAU French colony, began persecuting the Huguenots
in Brazil. Villegaignon strangled three of them
Bibliography. N. B. Harmon, EWM, p. 314. after forcing them to confess their Protestant
faith. Jacques le Balleur escaped and preached
Brainerd, David (171847). American mission- among the Tamoios Indians for ten years. Later
ary to indigenous Americans. The influence of he was captured by the Portuguese army and
David Brainerds life far exceeded his brief mis- condemned to death with the approval of Jos de
sionary career among indigenous Americans. He Anchieta, a Roman Catholic Jesuit. In 1565 the
was born in 1718 in Haddam, Connecticut, and French were expelled from Brazil.
began his studies at Yale College in 1739. After The second attempt to establish the Protestant
three years he was expelled for his criticism of a Church occurred during the Dutch invasion of
tutor, which seemed to flow from the effects of northeast Brazil in 1630. The transplanted colo-
the GREAT AWAKENING on the campus. School au- nial Reformed Church was composed of employ-
thorities did not take kindly to the outbreaks of ees of the Dutch West India Company, former
prayer and Bible study groups. However, at Yale Dutch soldiers who remained in Brazil, refugees
Brainerd heard about missionary work among and adventurers who were attracted by adventure
the Indians and in 1742 he investigated work and commerce, Brazilian Indians, and the new
under The Society in Scotland for the Propaga- generation of Flemish Brazilians.
tion of Christian Knowledge. He was appointed The Dutch Protestants in Brazil worked espe-
and served in New York, Pennsylvania, and New cially among the Indians of Paraiba and Pernam-
Jersey. By 1746 he counted some 150 converts in buco. Between 1630 and 1654 they organized two
New Jersey. By that time his health had failed presbyteries with twelve churches and ten preach-
and he died of tuberculosis at age twenty-nine. ing outposts, and established the first synod.
Brainerd did not establish any landmarks in More than fifty Dutch predicantes (pastors) and
his work. In fact, some of his methods were criti- 105 consoladores (assistant pastors) ministered in
cized because he appeared to be unwilling to the northeast, but in 1654 the Dutch invaders
learn from others who had worked with the Indi- were expelled. No record exists of a successful
ans. However, his lasting influence on world mis- missionary attempt to plant Protestantism in
sions came through his deep devotional life, Brazil during the next two hundred years.
which inspired and motivated succeeding gener- 18501970. From 1850 until 1970 five main-
ations of missionaries until the mid-twentieth line Protestant denominations were established
century. His Life and Diary became a standard de- among the Brazilians: Congregational, Presbyter-
votional classic after it was published by Moody ian, Methodist, Baptist, and Assembly of God.
Press in 1949. Congregationalist. The Congregational move-
JIM REAPSOME ment started with ROBERT REID KALLEY and his
wife, Sarah, who traveled from England to Brazil
Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, ed., Pioneers in Mission; in 1855. Kalley was a medical doctor and an or-
P. E. Howard Jr., ed., The Life and Diary of David dained minister of the Free Church of Scotland.
Brainerd. He founded the Igreja Evanglica (Evangelical
Church) in Brazil, using the Sunday school ap-
Brazil (Est. 2000 pop.: 174,825,000; 8,511,965 sq. proach, installing the congregational system of
km. [3,286,470 sq. mi.]). The fifth largest country government, and excluding infant baptism.
of the world in area, Brazil occupies 47.7 percent Presbyterian. In 1859 the American missionary
of the land surface of South America. In its pop- ASHBEL GREEN SIMONTON arrived in the Guan-
ulation of aboriginal Indians, Europeans, and abara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, and organized the first
Africans, 21 percent are Protestants, 72 percent Presbyterian church in 1860. Jos Manoel de Con-
are Roman Catholics, and the remaining 7 per- ceio, a converted Brazilian Roman Catholic
cent are Spiritists and members of other reli- priest, brought great incentive to the new church.
gions. However, more than 60 percent of the In 1865 the first presbytery was organized and the
Roman Catholics are involved with African and first Brazilian Presbyterian minister was or-
European spiritist practices. dained; in 1867 the first seminary was estab-
15001850. Protestant missions were initially lished. The first synod, formed in 1888, developed
associated with the French and Dutch invasions. a plan for evangelizing the whole country, includ-
142
Brazilian Mission Boards and Societies
ing different ethnic groups. In 1911 the Presby- The Antioch Mission, founded in 1975 by a
terian Church of Brazil sent its first missionary to Presbyterian minister, established a mission-
Portugal. minded theological institution and began prepar-
Methodist. In 1837 the American missionary ing candidates to be sent by the mission itself, by
Daniel P. Kidder and his wife traveled through denominations or other missionary agencies. In-
So Paulo, Bahia, Pernambuco, and Par as digenous charismatic churches, such as Congre-
Bible colporteurs. The Methodist Church, how- gacaamo Cristam do Brasil, Brasil para Cristo,
ever, was not established until 1876, when J. J. God is Love, and The Kingdom of God Uni-
Ranson organized the first Methodist church in versal Church, have flourished until this day.
Brazil. Their missionaries are working in Latin America,
Baptist. The Baptist work began with the ar- Africa, Europe, and North America.
rival of the American Baptist missionaries The astonishing growth of evangelicals and
William and Anna Bagby in 1881 and Zachary their missionary vision among more than 250
and Kate Taylor in 1882. With the help of An- evangelical denominations in Brazil is difficult to
tnio Teixeira de Albuquerque, a converted explain apart from the work of the Holy Spirit.
Roman Catholic priest, they planted the first From less than 100,000 in 1900 to more than 30
Baptist churches and established the Baptist million affiliated members in 1995, Brazil has be-
work in Brazil. come the third largest evangelical community in
Assembly of God. By 1910 the first Assembly of the world (after the United States and China). Ac-
God missionaries had disembarked in Brazil. cording to the statistics presented at the First
Gunnar Vingren and Daniel Berg were Swedish, Brazilian National Missions Congress in 1993,
but had immigrated to the United States. They between 1988 and 1993 more than 5,400 Brazil-
settled in Belm, North Brazil. The Assembly of ian missionaries were sent out.
God Church became the strongest and fastest- Nevertheless, evangelicals in Brazil face several
growing evangelical denomination in Brazil. challenges. First is missionary attritionmore
The astonishing growth of the Assembly of than three thousand Brazilian missionaries re-
God and of the independent and indigenous turned home in less than two years, and 90 per-
charismatic churches was the most significant cent of them did not return to the field. Second is
spiritual movement in Brazil between 1900 and the need for continued interdependent coopera-
1970. The accelerated growth of the Assembly tion between denominational mission boards and
of God was particularly unusual. The charismatic independent mission agencies for recruitment,
churches comprise almost 90 percent of the total training, deployment, and financial support of
evangelical population of Brazil today. the missionaries. The third challenge is the inad-
The denominations involved in the Protestant equacy of cross-cultural missionary training. Fi-
missionary movement in Brazil between 1850 nally, there is an urgent need for evangelical
and 1970 had several elements in common: the unity to foster fellowship and prayerful coopera-
expatriate missionaries were theologically con- tion among evangelicals in Brazil.
servative; they used colportage, personal and itin- Five Brazilian associations have been deliberat-
ing on these missiological issues in Brazil: the
erant evangelism, discipleship, and church plant-
Cross-Cultural Brazilian Missions Association
ing as mission strategies; they established
(AMTB), the Association of Professors of Missions
educational schools and theological institutions
in Brazil (APMB), the Association of Church Mis-
for training nationals; and the expatriate mis-
sionary Committees (ACMI), the Ibero-American
sionaries and the national Protestant leaders
Missionary Commission (COMIBAM), and the
viewed the Roman Catholics as their main mis-
newly formed Evangelical Association of Brazil
sion field.
(AEYB).
Between 1900 and 1970 the old-line denomina-
ELIAS S. MEDEIROS
tions in Brazil struggled with the tensions be-
tween expatriate Protestant missionaries and the Bibliography. F. E. Edwards, The Role of the Faith
national leaders of the churches. A period of Mission: A Brazilian Case Study; A. G. Gordon, IBMR 8
schisms and independence began among the (1984): 1214, 1618; J. P. Hogan, Brazil; N. Itioka, In-
Presbyterians in 1903, followed by the Baptists in ternationalizing Missionary Training: A Global Perspec-
tive, pp. 11120; E. K. Long, CCen 84 (1967): 12981300;
1922 and the Methodists in 1930. R. E. Nelson, Missiology 17 (1989): 3951; P. E. Pierson,
From 1970 to Present. A renewal movement A Younger Church in Search of Maturity: Presbyterianism
during the 1960s blossomed within the old-line in Brazil from 19101959; W. L. Pitts, Baptist History and
denominations and led to the formation of several Heritage 17 (1982): 416; W. R. Read, New Patterns of
independent Baptist, Presbyterian, Methodist, Church Growth in Brazil; K. Yuasa, Reformed and Pres-
Lutheran, and charismatic communities. Their byterian World 29 (1966): 6372.
emphasis on prayer, spiritual gifts, evangelism,
and church planting led them to pray for the Brazilian Mission Boards and Societies.
needs of the whole world. Brazilian Protestants, established in the early
143
Brazilian Mission Boards and Societies
nineteenth century, were slow to undertake mis- percent of Brazils missionaries are serving under
sion work overseas. Brazil, with its vast territory, Brazilian leadership.
was seen as a mission field. There are numerous The interdenominational Brazilian agencies
historical reasons for the lack of indigenous mis- have been the fastest growing over recent years.
sionaries: churches were supported by foreign These agencies are most often simple structures;
mission boards; when money was available it was a board and an executive director. Office staffs
enough only to pay a local pastor; there was no are typically small and minimally resourced. The
knowledge of mission fields outside Brazil; the agencies see themselves as servants to the
missionaries failed to see the Brazilian churches church and seek to partner with local congrega-
as capable of participating in the missionary en- tions in training, deploying, and maintaining the
terprise; some denominations were directed by missionaries.
missionaries and they did not see the need for Although 80 percent of the Brazilian evangeli-
sending missionaries from Brazil since their mis- cal church identifies itself as Pentecostal or
sion board at home was doing exactly that; and charismatic, only 7 percent of the sending struc-
the thought that there were so much to be done tures (sending 22% of the missionaries) identify
in Brazil before venturing overseas was prevalent themselves as such. Most Brazilians serve under
(and to some extent still is) among Brazilian structures that identify themselves as either in-
church leaders. terdenominational (34%) or traditional/non-
The rise of indigenous missionary efforts Pentecostal (40%). Clearly the potential of the
started around 1911, when the Presbyterians sent Pentecostal wing of the Brazilian church has not
Mota Sobrinho as their first missionary to Portu- yet been realized in missions.
gal with the intent to revitalize the Portuguese A common meeting point for Brazils struc-
Presbyterian Church. This first effort was sup- tures has been the AMTB (Association of Brazil-
ported by Presbyterians from Brazil, Portugal, ian Cross-cultural Missions). This association is
and Scotland. The Baptists organized their Mis- Brazilian-led and seeks to assist Brazils missions
sions Board in 1907 and Chile and Portugal were by promoting consultations, missions publica-
among the first counties to receive their help. tions, and partnerships among its constituency.
The major indigenous boards and agencies With some regularity AMTB sponsors a Brazil-
among the denominations are the Assemblies of wide national missions congress.
God and the Baptist Convention. They are totally Preferred Fields of Service. There are Brazil-
supported by Brazilian funds. ians developing all kinds of missionary work on
FAITH MISSIONS started to appear in the late six continents, including evangelism, theological
1960s as a result of an awakening for missions, and secular education, planting churches, and
when many local churches started to have their medical services. As might be expected, Brazils
own missions conferences. Books, articles, and younger agencies tend to begin by sending their
many lectures were given, challenging the Brazil- missionaries to fields relatively close to Brazil.
ian churches to participate in mission. Kairs The great majority (64%) of Brazils missionaries
and Misso Antioquia are the major autochtho- are serving in Latin America, Spain, or Portugal.
nous agencies and support for their missionaries However, what is surprising to note is the signifi-
is raised in and out of Brazil. cant growth in the number and percentage of
The sending of Brazilians as missionaries into Brazilians serving in resistant countries and
cross-cultural ministry contexts (both inside and among peoples of the 10/40 WINDOW. In 1989
outside Brazil) has grown rapidly in recent years. only 5 percent of Brazils missions force served in
Figures from a 1998 missions census show some the 10/40 Window. By 1998 that percentage had
2,200 Brazilians deployed in 84 counties around grown to 13 percent.
the world. Most consider the 1987 Ibero-Ameri- Brazil is expected, with Korea, to be one of the
can missions congress held in So Paulo (see principal countries sending out missionaries over
COMIBAM) to be the watershed event. From that the next decade. Training for the missionary, his
date the number of Brazilians serving cross- or her character, loyalty in sending the promised
culturally has more than doubled, the number of support, and partnership with receiving churches
Brazilian boards and agencies has significantly are areas that need attention in the future if the
increased, and the Brazilian evangelical church Brazilian churches want to grow in their ability
has seen itself as a potential mission force to participate meaningfully in the missionary
rather than a missions field. task.
The Structures. Brazilians are being sent by ANTONIO C. BARRO AND TED LIMPIC
the following different types of missions struc-
tures: denominational boards (34%), interde- SEE ALSO Latin American Mission Boards and
nominational Brazilian agencies (33%), interna- Societies.
tional agencies with Brazilian leadership (19%),
international agencies with non-Brazilian leader- Brethren Missions. Arising in Central Germany
ship (12%), and local churches (1%). Nearly 90 in 1708, the Brethren movement was powerfully
144
Brethren Missions
influenced by the religious currents of Anabap- 1908 as the Church of the Brethren), concerned
tism and Pietism. Anabaptist principles were for church unity and moderation.
conveyed to its members by contacts with Swiss Both of the latter two bodies enthusiastically
and German Mennonites; Pietist principles, by adopted home and foreign missions. The German
traveling evangelists. Both currents stressed per- Baptist Brethren, through its General Mission
sonal commitment through conversion and ap- Board, created active mission programs in India
plication of faith convictions in daily life and (1894), China (1908), and Nigeria (1922), in ad-
conduct. This led to a striking level of evangelis- dition to supporting a district initiative in Den-
tic zeal by early Brethren witnessing to their new mark and Sweden begun in 1876, later termi-
beliefs, despite oppressive actions by authorities nated in 1947. The Board also began work in Asia
who found their actions to be disruptive of soci- Minor, France, and Switzerland without, how-
etal peace. ever, lasting significance. When the Board began
These pressures led to emigration from Europe its work in 1884 it had less than $200 in hand; by
to North America, in groups (1719, 1729) and as 1913 its assets totaled more than $1 million.
families. By the early 1740s virtually all of the Among the church leaders most responsible for
Brethren had transplanted themselves in the New the tremendous growth in support for missions
World, principally in Pennsylvania. During the during this period were Daniel L. Miller (1841
rest of the colonial period, they enlarged their 1921), Charles D. Bonsack (18701953), and
numbers to perhaps five thousand in congrega- Otho Winger (18771946). The most zealous pro-
tions stretching from New Jersey to Georgia. ponent of foreign missions at this time was
They were counted among the Plain People be- Wilbur B. Stover (18661930), who led the first
cause of their nonconformist and largely with- team of missionaries to India in 1894. Through
drawn lifestyle and the similarity in church prac- indefatigable speaking and writing he urged mis-
tice and belief with Mennonites and Quakers. sions as the great first work of the church. His
After the American Revolution, with its stressful namesake H. Stover Kulp (18941964), together
impact on the nonresistant (pacifist) Brethren, with Albert D. Helser (18971969), opened the
members streamed westward in the tide of in- mission field in Nigeria in 1922 and devoted his
land settlement. By 1850 Brethren had relocated life to that cause.
as far as the West Coast, in Oregon and Califor- Following World War II, a mission program
nia. Planting of new congregations during these was also created in Ecuador. The Indian, Chinese,
decades had primarily occurred by division of and Ecuador churches all merged into national,
growing churches and by colonization. ecumenical bodies. The Nigerian church (Ekklesi-
It was at midcentury that voices were first yar Yanuwa a Nigeria), which expanded rapidly
raised advocating organized mission efforts. This in numbers after 1950, became autonomous in
was originally designed to meet the religious 1973 and cooperates with other regional church
needs of members who had moved to the West. fellowships. It maintains a strong fraternal rela-
Somewhat later, articles appeared in church pe- tionship with the Church of the Brethren, deploy-
riodicals that called the Brethren to follow the ing expatriate church workers from the United
GREAT COMMISSION (Matt. 28:1920) in reaching States in its educational and church life. This re-
others. By the early 1870s congregations (organ- flected a shift in mission philosophy in the
ized after the 1866 into districts) set up district Church of the Brethren after 1955 that empha-
boards to pursue this activity. The first denomi- sized indigenization and mutual mission.
national-wide board (The Brethrens Church Ex- The Brethren Church began many home mis-
tension Union) was attempted in 1877 but was sions projects after the 1883 separation. A For-
soon disbanded under critical pressure. eign Missionary Society created in 1900 mounted
Conservative elements within the German Bap- a strong effort in 1909 in Argentina with
tist Brethren (as the church was then legally Charles F. Yoder (18731955) as the leading per-
known) objected strenuously to the mission pro- sonality, and in 1918 in French Equatorial Africa
gram. They contended that the Great Commission (later the Central African Republic). In the latter,
had been directed only to the apostles, who had hundreds of congregations were founded after
indeed met the mandate, and was not binding on 1921. Early attempts in Persia and China failed
Christs followers in later generations. The con- to flourish.
servatives feared that organized mission activity Theological tensions within the Brethren
(with boards, collections, and supported workers) Church led in 1939 to division and the inception
would lead inexorably to salaried pastors and ec- of the Fellowship of Grace Brethren Churches.
clesiastical machinery. This controversy was a The mission society, the mission in Central
precipitant of a three-way schism in 188183; the Africa, and most of the missionaries and congre-
result was the creation of the conservative Old gations in Argentina aligned themselves with the
German Baptist Brethren, the progressive Grace Brethren, under the aggressive leadership
Brethren Church, and the much larger middle of Louis S. Bauman (18751950) of California.
body, the German Baptist Brethren (known after Missionaries in Argentina remaining with the
145
Brethren Missions
Brethren Church under the guidance of C. F. Bribery. While there are eighty references to cor-
Yoder developed a new program near Buenos ruption and hundreds to various kinds of oppres-
Aires. Later Brethren Church mission work was sion and injustice in the Bible, there are few spe-
started in India, Colombia, Malaysia, and Mex- cific references to bribes, though the practice was
ico. Some of their personnel cooperated with the clearly known throughout the Old Testament pe-
Church of the Brethren mission in Nigeria. In the riod. Samuel could claim I took no bribes to dis-
meantime, by 1980 Grace Brethren had initiated tort justice (1 Sam. 12:3) but his sons did not
mission programs in Brazil, Mexico, France, follow his example (1 Sam. 8:3). Some of Davids
Chad, and Germany. Home and foreign missions contemporaries had their hands full of bribes
have been central to the life of the Fellowship of (Ps. 26:10), Amos castigated those who afflict
Grace Brethren Churches. the just, take a bribe and neglect the poor (5:12),
Church of the Brethren missions have always and Isaiah counsels the righteous man to shake
featured wholistic attention to amelioration of his hands lest they contain a bribe (33:15).
substandard material and social conditions as well Bribery is defined as the bestowing of money
as evangelism and conversion. They have been or favor upon a person who is in a position of
noted for creating orphanages, hospitals, schools, trust in order to pervert his judgement or corrupt
and vocational training. A missionary to India, his conduct. It intends to make a person act ille-
Ira W. Moomaw, became widely known for his gally, unjustly or immorally. It is condemned in
work with AGRICULTURAL MISSIONS. Courageous re- the law of Moses. You shall take no bribes, for a
sponse to famines, pandemics, and armed con- bribe blinds the officials, and subverts the cause
flicts in India and China brought numbers of con- of those who are in the right (Exod. 23:8; Deut.
verts. Work with lepers in Nigeria earned 16:19).
international attention, as did the preventive Sometimes, based on local custom where
health program there known as Lafiya (wellness). bribes may be tolerated, cross-cultural mission-
A characteristic of the programs of all three aries are tempted to offer bribes in order to
Brethren bodies active in missionsChurch of achieve their goals. This practice should be con-
the Brethren, Brethren Church, Fellowship of stantly monitored and evaluated.
Grace Brethren Churchhas been the significant Gifts of appreciation may be given by those en-
role of women. In many cases they found possi- gaged in Christian mission after a service is pro-
bilities for leadership and action in church work vided to maintain cordial relationships. Bribes,
not readily available in their home congrega- however, may facilitate Christian service but
tions. Their achievement was great in education, compromise Christian witness.
health care, and work with indigenous women. ROB BELLINGHAM
Among the foremost were Dr. Florence Newberry Bibliography. B. T. Adeney, Strange Virtues: Ethics in
Gribble (18791942) of Oubangui-Chari, Anna a Multicultural World.
Crumpacker (18821967) of China, and Ida Shu-
maker (18731946) of India. Bridges of God. The term is taken from The
Although relatively late in mission involvement Bridges of God, written by DONALD A. MCGAVRAN
for theological and sociological reasons, Brethren in 1955, and considered the Magna Carta of the
of several denominations have been active on CHURCH GROWTH MOVEMENT. Indeed, the most
several continents since the late nineteenth cen- common date used for the birth of the Church
tury. The total membership of Grace Brethren Growth Movement is 1955 because of the publi-
congregations in the Central African Republic far cation of The Bridges of God. The principal thesis
outnumbers that in the United States; partici- of this book is that the mission station methodol-
pants in worship services of the Church of the ogy of drawing converts from among those na-
Brethren in Nigeria already outnumbered by tionals who were attracted to the headquarters fa-
1995 those of the Church of the Brethren in the cilities of a foreign mission for any number of
United States and, if membership trends con- reasons was counterproductive. Converts in this
tinue, will soon outdo the membership of the approach were too frequently regarded by their
mother body in North America. This rapid in- peers as cultural traitors. McGavran desired to
crease has been presented as a case study in the replace it with what he termed PEOPLE MOVE-
CHURCH GROWTH MOVEMENT. MENTS, an indigenous missiological approach in
DONALD F. DURNBAUGH which converts would receive Christ and multiply
churches within their cultural context so that con-
Bibliography. D. F. Durnbaugh, Fruit of the Vine: A
History of the Brethren, 17081995; J. B. Grimley and version would take place without breaking or vio-
G. E. Robinson, Church Growth in Central and South- lating cultural ties in a kind of chain reaction. The
ern Nigeria; O. D. Jobson, Conquering Oubangui-Chari book precipitated a vigorous debate among mis-
for Christ; A. T. Ronk, History of Brethren Missionary sion leaders of the time, but McGavrans thesis
Movements. soon became the prevailing view of missiologists.
146
Brother Andrew
The Bridges of God was first published by After rapid growth on U.S. campuses, Campus
World Dominion Press in the United Kingdom Crusade started overseas work in South Korea in
and distributed in the United States by Friend- 1958. Bright added specialized evangelistic out-
ship Press of New York. A revised and enlarged reach to athletes, business executives, political
edition was published in 1981. leaders, and diplomats. Campus Crusade grew
C. PETER WAGNER rapidly to become one of the largest interdenom-
inational mission agencies in the world, with
Bridgman, Eliza Jane Gillett (180571). Amer- some 6,000 fully supported U.S. and national
ican missionary to China. She was one of the few workers in 152 countries.
missionary women to begin her career single, Brights most influential innovation in world
prosper in it as a married woman, and bring it to mission was his movie about the life of Christ
a climactic close as a widow. Each stage of her (the Jesus film, 1979). In his The Secret: How to
life reveals a maturing faith and a deepening love Live with Power and Purpose (1989) he codified
for her work in Christs name. his teaching about the Holy Spirit. For his con-
Gillett was born in Derby, Connecticut, and at- tributions to religion in America, Bright was hon-
tended school in New Haven. She began a teach- ored with the prestigious Templeton Award in
ing career there before moving to New York, 1996.
where she served for seventeen years as principal JIM REAPSOME
of a boarding school. Through the influence of Bibliography. R. Quebedeaux, I Found It! The Story
her pastor, she began to sense Gods call to the of Bill Bright and Campus Crusade.
mission field. When the China Mission of the
Episcopal Church was fully organized, Gillett British and Foreign Bible Society. See BIBLE
was one of the three single women teachers re- SOCIETIES.
cruited. In 1845 she became the first American
unmarried woman sent to China.
Shortly after she arrived in Hong Kong, she fell British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom Depen-
in love with Elijah Coleman Bridgman. They dent Area) (Est. 2000 pop. 19,000; 153 sq. km. [59
married, which brought Eliza into sharp dispute sq. mi.]). A group of some sixty islands, fifteen of
with her mission board. As a result, she switched which are populated. Local income is provided
her relation to the American Board, and opened largely through tourism and offshore company
a girls school at Wongka Moda in 1845. In 1850 registrations. In 1993 the population was esti-
it became a boarding school and was soon filled mated at 95.5 percent Christian (86.5% Protestant,
to its fifty-pupil capacity. Many girls were 6.3% Catholic, and 2.7% marginal). Seventeen de-
brought to Christ through her tireless work. nominations are present, and the Methodists, who
After her husbands death in 1861, she went to came in the late eighteenth century, have the
Peking, learned the Mandarin language, and, de- largest number of members and congregations.
spite strong government opposition, opened an- A. SCOTT MOREAU
other girls school. To further her work, she spent
most of her own income to buy land and erect Broadcasting. See RADIO MISSION WORK.
buildings. In her efforts to reach young girls for
Christ, she literally worked herself to death. Brother Andrew (1928 ). Dutch missionary to
KATHY MCREYNOLDS closed countries and founder of Open Doors.
Known only by his pseudonym, Brother Andrew
Bright, William (1921 ). American evangelist was born into a strong Protestant family in Witte,
and founder of Campus Crusade for Christ. Born Holland. German occupation during World
in Coweta, Oklahoma, he graduated from North- War II ended his formal education and initiated
eastern State University, Tahlequah, Oklahoma. his involvement in the Dutch resistance move-
After going to California in 1944 to pursue a ment. He joined the army as a teen and served as
business career, he became a Christian under the a commando in Indonesia. Wounded and disillu-
influence of Henrietta Mears at First Presbyter- sioned, he gave himself to God. Enlivened by a
ian Church, Hollywood. missionary concern for his co-workers in his
His vision for obeying the Great Commission hometown chocolate factory, he began formal
began with evangelizing college students. He had missionary training in 1953 at the Worldwide
begun seminary studies, but quit to launch Cam- Evangelization Crusade Missionary Training Col-
pus Crusade for Christ in 1951 at the University lege in Glasgow, Scotland.
of CaliforniaLos Angeles, focusing on student In 1955 he attended a communist youth festi-
leaders. He used a direct, aggressive approach to val in Warsaw, Poland. It was then that he real-
evangelism. His simple method later became his ized his life work was to be among the suffering
internationally circulated booklet, Have You church in many such countries. Known behind
Heard of the Four Spiritual Laws? the Iron Curtain as the evangelist of Eastern Eu-
147
Brother Andrew
rope, Gods Smuggler has become the most tanate on the northeast coast of Borneo facing
frequent description associated with him. His vi- the South China Sea. The Sultan of Brunei is one
sion to make Bibles available where the church is of the richest persons in the world, largely from
restricted has expanded to over forty countries, income derived from the oil industry. Forty per-
with efforts more recently concentrated on the cent of the population is Kedayan of whom less
Middle East. than .5 percent are Christians. Another 10 per-
Brother Andrew is motivated by the conviction cent is Chinese, who are about 10 percent Roman
that there are no closed doors for the gospel, re- Catholic. Evangelical Protestants have made the
flected in the name of his international mission greatest inroads among aboriginal peoples such
organization, Open Doors. Educational materials as the Kenyah but form less than 3 percent of
and training, preaching, encouraging Christian the total population.
believers, and providing material aid augment the TODD M. JOHNSON
principal objective of Bible distribution. Brother
Andrews approach to missions is aptly described Buchman, Frank Nathan Daniel (18781961).
as aggressive, experimental, and evangelical. American faith missionary and founder of Moral
FLORENCE R. SCOTT Rearmament. Born in Pennsburg, Pennsylvania,
Bibliography. B. Andrew with J. and E. Sherrill, he graduated from Muhlenberg College and
Gods Smuggler; B. Andrew with D. Wooding, Gods Mount Airy Lutheran Seminary. After ordination
Agent. and pastoral work he was converted at Keswick
in 1908, then returned to student ministry at
Brown, Edith (18641956). English medical mis- Penn State College. In 1921 he began a move-
sionary and evangelist to India. After a struggle to ment to change lives and enlist life-changers
qualify as a doctor at a time when English med- that in 1929 developed into the Oxford Group
ical colleges were closed to women, she sailed to with its four absolutes: purity, honesty, unselfish-
India on October 17, 1891, under the auspices of ness, and love. The name of the group changed in
the Baptist Zenana Mission. In her first year in 1938 to Moral Rearmament, designed to bring
Ludhiana, Punjab, she had a vision of a medical people of all faiths the next stage nearer God.
college and teaching hospital for women, but it Though he was often irascible, close colleagues
was not until 1893 that she was able to start im- worked with Buchman for years and for nothing.
plementing her plans with support from fourteen His crusade was run on FAITH-MISSION lines. After
missions and encouragement from the surgeon- divine guidance had been given, commitments
general of India. She began by persuading local might be made without resourcesand the funds
midwives to come for training and to call her to arrived on time. Admirers included Harry Tru-
difficult cases. The infant mortality rate plum- man and foreign heads of state, Henry Ford,
meted, earning her the trust of the local women. Bernard Shaw, and leading cardinals and arch-
A new hospital was begun in 1896, and the med- bishops. Detractors criticized this Salvation
ical school opened in 1898. Coping with bubonic Army for snobs, though Buchman never con-
plague outbreaks, earthquakes, and famine, the fined his outreach to the up-and-outs. After
institution went from strength to strength, the World War II he was tireless in reconciliation ef-
turning point coming when Indian Christian lady forts. Germans and Japanese were welcome at
doctors could be appointed. Brown was a dele- his Swiss center, when even some MRA person-
gate to the WORLD MISSIONARY CONFERENCE (Edin- nel demurred.
burgh, 1910) and gained an international reputa- MRA is said to have averted major strikes,
tion on the subject of Christian medical missions thwarted a planned massacre of the British in
and the needs of women. Nigeria, boosted the morale of dockers in Rio,
In 1943, two years after she reluctantly retired, helped Tunisian and Moroccan leaders avoid the
the hospital nearly closed because of wartime bloodshed that was to overtake Algeria, and me-
shortages of personnel. In 1947 Brown returned diated between warring Congolese tribes to ease
to assist in the aftermath of partition with a high- the path to independence. Buchman is still to
caste Hindu convert whose life she had saved. many an enigma, one who dealt in theological
The Christian Medical College and Hospital, Lud- generalities, but there is something disarming
hiana is now a premier institution in India and a about a leader who explained success in terms of
powerful ecumenical witness known throughout having been wonderfully led to those who were
the country. ready. Buchmans thinking is reflected in his Re-
ELEANOR M. JACKSON making the World (1947).
Bibliography. F. French, Miss Browns Hospital. J. D. DOUGLAS
Bibliography. P. Howard, Frank Buchmans Secret;
Brunei (Est. 2000 pop.: 312,000; 5,765 sq. km. G. Lean, On the Tail of a Comet: The Life of Frank
[2,226 sq. mi.]). Brunei is a small Muslim sul- Buchman.
148
Buddhist, Buddhism
Buddhist, Buddhism. A religion founded by a focusing on the universal wisdom of his teaching
man from Northeast India, Siddharta Gautama rather than social realities.
(c. 566486 B.C.), who, by virtue of his religious Indian culture was apparently ready for this re-
insight, came to be known as the Buddha (En- form. Emphasis on caste had created a top-heavy
lightened One). The Buddhas teachings (dharma) religion of privilege (Hinduism) that made access
were rooted in the Hindu metaphysical systems to ritual and practice the province of high caste
of his day: a belief in the essential oneness of all brahmins and kshatriyas. Lower caste Hindus
being (brahman-atman) and the contingent na- and those outside of caste altogether were at-
ture of a phenomenal world driven by the dy- tracted to the Buddhas no-nonsense, meditative-
namics of rebirth (samsara) (see REINCARNATION practice teaching. If the Buddhas sermons (sut-
AND TRANSMIGRATION) and ethical progression tas) are any indication, he also attracted his
(karma). What came to be called Buddhism, share of high caste Hindus. His movement grew
however, distinguished itself by calling into ques- rapidly during the Buddhas 45-year itinerant
tion two key Hindu beliefs/practices: the spiritual ministry.
value of the CASTE system and the divine charac- A result of this emphasis was a sharp lessening
ter of the Hindu pantheon. in importance of the elaborate Hindu pantheon
The Buddha himself was a member of the of gods and goddesses. Although most converts
caste known as kshatriya, the second highest to Buddhism probably did not give up their ven-
caste (second to the priestly caste, the brahmins) eration of local deities altogether, the Buddha
whose members formed what amounted to the made it clear that these were penultimate in im-
aristocracy of fifth-century B.C. India. His father portance when compared with the importance of
was king of an area called Lumbini on the mod- self-reliant spiritual searching. In the long term
ern border between India and Nepal. Gautama this change in the function of the gods and god-
was given all the privileges of royalty, but came to desses led to the shaping of different schools of
see the spiritual vacuity of wealth and power. In Buddhism as it spread throughout Southeast
reaction, he left home and family, and adopted a Asia, China, Japan, Korea, and Tibet. In each of
lifestyle outside of all caste, that of a wandering these situations, the Buddhas teachings proved
religious ascetic. Over time, however, diligent to be adaptable to local cultures without losing
practice of asceticism showed him that mortifi- their essential features. Southeast Asian THER-
cation was equally vacuous. The Buddhas En- AVADA, Chinese MAHAYANA, Japanese ZEN, and Ti-
lightenment consisted of recognizing the futility betan VAJRAYANA Buddhism, in all their varieties,
of relying on either self-aggrandizement or self- are distinctive and distinctively Buddhist.
denial as a path to freedom (nirvana). Instead he This cultural adaptability is one of the reasons
began to teach a Middle Way, a path that con- Buddhism has grown to be the worlds fourth
sisted of moral living (sila) even as one learned, largest religion with an estimated 300 million ad-
through mediative practice (samadhi), that the herents. Because the Buddha emphasized the
highest wisdom (panna) is beyond all cultural heavy and ultimately illusory role history and cul-
and social constructs, including caste. ture play in the way we view the self and the selfs
In order to register this implicit denial of the spiritual search, Buddhism has proven to be ef-
spiritual necessity of caste, the Buddha chose not fective in advocating itself to non-members. In
a frontal attack, but an emphasis on the tempo- Christian terms, Buddhism is a missionary reli-
rariness of all of life by characterizing all life as gion. The Buddha, near the end of his life, en-
suffering (dukkha). In Four Noble Truths he sum- couraged his followers, especially the members of
marized the character, origin, and ubiquitousness the order of monks (Sangha), to go and spread his
of suffering. In the fourth Noble Truth, the Bud- teachings to all sentient beings. This has made
dha taught a path made of moral and meditative Buddhism a major player on the worlds religious
injunctions designed to position the spiritual stage. It has now begun to spread rapidly in West-
seeker in a lifestyle more receptive to the ulti- ern countries, with significant Buddhist popula-
mate wisdom of Buddhist teaching. The effect of tions in Western Europe and North America.
this was to move the locus of religious practice This growth has also made Buddhism a major
away from Vedic ritual and temple sacrifice (the competitor to Christianity both in the West and
traditional loci of classic forms of Hinduism and around the world. The cross-cultural adaptability
indigenous Indian religion) to a much more per- of Buddhism is rivaled only by the ability of
sonal centered, interior based set of practices. Christianity and Islam to transcend national, eth-
Thus, in Buddhism caste moved from being the nic, and economic borders. This makes Bud-
determiner of religious life (as in Hinduism) to dhism an ideal religion in the increasingly global
being a temporary factor (in India, at least) of climate in which modern humanity finds itself.
conditioned existence. The Buddha encouraged a Buddhism has shown itself adept at addressing
movement already apparent in Indian religious the traditionally thorny issues that arise around
life in general from a socially constructed reli- the interfacing of science and religion, for exam-
gion to a readily adaptable cross-cultural religion ple. In some senses, the advantage here goes to
149
Buddhist, Buddhism
Buddhism (over Christianity and Islam) because meditative technique to the metaphysical under-
of its semi-theistic stance toward the gods and standings not far below the surface.
the divine in general. Although different branches At that metaphysical core, one finds a spiritual
of Buddhism take different postures toward di- conundrum between all forms of Buddhism and
vinities, gods and semidivine beings, in all forms all forms of orthodox, theistic Christianity: The
of Buddhism gods of whatever sort are stages on question of whether a single, personal, transcen-
the way, with final Enlightenment the task of the dent God exists in relationship with discrete,
human individual in the end. The effect of this is eternally real human souls. After all the analyses
that religion and science can be seen as fully com- are done, Buddhist religious traditions do not
patible human endeavors, both extending human recognize such a God, and Christian traditions
growth, both to eventually be transcended, as will cease being Christian if they fail to do so.
all of samsara or the phenomenal world. TERRY C. MUCK
This same compatibility, however, creates a
dilemma when it comes to ethical considerations. SEE ALSO Pure Land Buddhism.
If all of reality is conditioned and impermanent, Bibliography. K. Chen, Buddhism in China;
and the goal is to eventually supersede it with the E. Conze, trans., Buddhist Scriptures; H. Dumoulin, A
unconditioned emptiness of Nirvana, then both History of Zen Buddhism; N. Dutt, Aspects of Mahayana
the motivation and execution of ethical consider- Buddhism and Its Relation to Hinayana; R. Fields, How
ations can be problematic in a way that does not the Swans Came to the Lake: A Narrative History of Bud-
pertain for theistic religions with a supernatural dhism in America; J. Kitagawa, Religion in Japanese
mandate. Modern Buddhist scholars and practi- History; W. Rahula, What the Buddha Taught; F. Streng,
tioners, aware of the importance of this issue in Emptiness: A Study in Religious Meaning; G. Tucci, The
a world filled with cultural injustices and oppres- Religions of Tibet.
sion, are currently hard at work on developing a
concept of engaged Buddhism that addresses Bulgaria (Est. 2000 pop.: 8,576,000; 110,912 sq.
the problems of social injustice without giving up km. [42,823 sq. mi.]). Bulgaria, a Balkan country
on Buddhisms metaphysic. bordered by the Black Sea in southeastern Eu-
Buddhism is also ideally positioned to address rope, has a population that has been steadily de-
the essentially therapeutic emphases of modern clining since 1985 due to emigration. It was for-
life. Early Buddhist psychological analyses of the merly communist (one of the most consistently
human person, especially the mental states, are pro-Soviet), but is now a constitutional republic
perhaps the most sophisticated in all of human with a democratically elected government. Engi-
history. These analysesfound across the Bud- neering is the principal economic activity supple-
dhist traditions, all the way from Theravada Ab- mented by agricultural products such as wheat,
hidhamma analysis to Zen Buddhist suprara- corn, and barley. Bulgaria is the fourth largest ex-
tionalismall serve in the Buddhist systems to porter of tobacco in the world. About 80 percent
elaborate on the anatta or no-self teaching of of the population is Bulgar and 10 percent
Buddhism. This refers to the essential Buddhist Rumelian Turk. The remaining 10 percent is
understanding that the individual self is a con- made up of six different Gypsies nationalities and
struct of historical and cultural factors, a con- smaller communities of Macedonians, Pomaks,
struct that must be superseded in order to Poles, and Armenians.
achieve Enlightenment. This makes the goals of With most of the nonreligious and atheists re-
Buddhist psychology and associated spiritual turning to the church since 1989, the vast major-
practice very different from comparable Chris- ity of the Christians (over 80 percent of the pop-
tian and Muslim analyses and practice. ulation) are Orthodox. However, there are one
But the analyses themselves are profound million Muslims (12% of the countrys popula-
across religious traditions, and the resulting tion). Evangelicals have tripled since 1970
practices, particularly the meditative ones, ex- (40,000 to 125,000) and are mainly represented
tremely effective in helping achieve self-knowl- by the Pentecostal Union, Church of God, Bap-
edge. Indeed, most Westerners who become at- tists, Christian Brethren, and Seventh-Day Ad-
tracted to Buddhism do so because of their ventists. The most rapid church growth since
interest in the spiritual meditative practices 1990 has been among Pentecostals. Evangelicals
which form such a rich core of the Buddhist reli- have experienced exceptional success among
gious tradition. Theravada Buddhist vipassana Turks and Gypsies.
practice (insight meditation) has achieved a wide The major evangelistic strategies being imple-
following in the United States, as has Zen medi- mented are church planting, literature distribu-
tation and the Tibetan meditation practice of the tion, and radio/TV broadcasting. The churches
numerous dharmadhatu centers throughout the are also investing major resources in disciple-
Western world. Westerners searching for the ship, Bible teaching, and leadership training.
peaceful stress reduction that such practices ef- Competition between the many new evangelical
fectively engender are soon attracted beyond the agencies as well as conflict with marginal Chris-
150
Burnout
tian groups (Jehovahs Witnesses, Mormons, etc.) lowed evangelicals to occupy the land efficiently
is a looming problem. with the Assemblies of God working in the cen-
TODD M. JOHNSON tral region, the SIM in the east, the Christian and
Missionary Alliance in the west, the Worldwide
Bulu, Joeli (c. 181077). Tongan missionary in Evangelization Crusade and the Evangelical Pen-
Fiji. Born in Vavau, Tonga, he converted to tecostal Mission in the south. Such cooperation
Christ during the Great Tongan Awakening among the original evangelical missions is a
around 1833. Deeply burdened for Fiji at the major reason for the growth and vitality of Chris-
same time that a letter came from missionary tian communities throughout Burkina Faso in a
David Cargill requesting help, Bulu was sent in relatively short time.
1838. He first worked on learning the language, The participation of Burkinab in the spread-
and when the missionaries set up a mission ing of the gospel is an evidence of Christian vital-
printing press, he was assigned to work there ity in Burkina Faso. Del Tarr recounts how, dur-
under James Calvert. ing his time as an Assemblies of God missionary
Proving to be faithful in the ministry, he began in Burkina Faso, Jacques Kabor, a Bible school
two years of missionary probation work in 1848, student, was the human agent behind a three-
and in 1850 was the first South Pacific Islander to month on-campus revival that resulted in 3,500
be ordained to ministry in the Methodist Church. conversions to Christ (Tarr, p. 9). This is not an
In all, he toiled among the various islands of Fiji isolated case. The history of the other evangelical
for thirty-nine years, often working in places too missions provides examples of Burkinab Chris-
dangerous for Western missionaries. tians involvement in evangelization even in the
He bridged the work between two major eras: early years. They preached the gospel locally but
cannibalism and acculturation (Tippett and they also carried it beyond the borders of their
Kanailagi, p. 114). His responsibilities ranged ethnic groups. They took their evangelistic zeal
from assisting missionaries (e.g., LORIMER FISON) with them wherever migration led them.
to pioneer evangelism and church planting to Within Burkina Faso, migration and evangelis-
teaching and training local pastors to serving Fi- tic zeal altered the Christian religious landscape
jian royalty. He braved life-threatening attacks in the 1970s. The denominations planted by the
from traditional religionists, political tensions five original evangelical mission agencies became
and hostility, numerous hurricanes, and a less regional as their adherents established their
measles epidemic that wiped out over forty thou- own kinds of churches in areas where they set-
sand Fijians (a large proportion of the church tled. New Protestant missions such as the South-
this set the indigenization process back by ern Baptists and the Mennonites also arrived in
decades). Throughout, Bulus cultural sensitivity Burkina Faso at that time.
and unwavering ability to trust God qualified Migration to neighboring countries is an impor-
him as an exemplar in bearing testimony to tant factor in the life of Burkinab. It was through
Christ among the Fijians. migration that Burkinab Christians became par-
A. SCOTT MOREAU ticipants in cross-cultural missions. In Cte
dIvoire, for instance, Burkinab helped establish
Bibliography. C. W. Forman, BDCM, p. 101; R. Tip- the Assemblies of God denomination. They were
pett and T. Kanailagi, eds., The Autobiography of Joeli also active in Benin, Niger, Senegal, and Togo.
Bulu: Tongan Missionary to Fiji. Quite often they started by reaching Burkinab
immigrants in these countries. But they soon em-
Burial Rites. See DEATH RITES. barked on evangelizing other groups.
TITE TINOU
Burkina Faso (Est. 2000 pop.: 11,708,000; Bibliography. D. Tarr, Signs and Wonders in Ministry
274,000 sq. km. [105,791 sq. mi.]). Christianity is Today.
a new religion in Burkina Faso. Roman Catholic
missions began their work in the central part of
Burma. See MYANMAR.
the county at the end of the nineteenth century,
in the wake of the establishment of French colo-
nial rule over the Mossi Kingdom. The first evan- Burnout. The state of emotional, physical, and/or
gelical Protestant missionaries arrived in 1921 spiritual exhaustion that makes the missionary
with a vision to evangelize the Mossi. They were unable to carry out his or her work. While it is not
with the American Assemblies of God, and were normally terminal in life-and-death terms, it is
followed by the CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY AL- often fatal to missionary effectiveness.
LIANCE (1923), SIM (1930), the WORLDWIDE EVAN- Potential causes of burnout are many, but
GELIZATION CRUSADE (1937), and the Evangelical overwork, undersupport, and prolonged exposure
Pentecostal Mission (1945). to the pressures of living and working cross-
The first five evangelical missions settled in culturally are three of the most important. Learn-
specific areas of the country and evangelized the ing the language and becoming bicultural can be
ethnic groups in their regions of ministry. This al- particularly stressful to newcomers; living in the
151
Burnout
public view, facing unfulfilled expectations, and possible. He opposed the opium and coolie trade
issues of self-esteem may be more important and sought to raise consciences back home
burnout issues for longer-term veterans. against these evils.
Unfortunately, all these challenges are often ROGER S. GREENWAY
compounded by a lack of pastoral care or by mis-
Bibliography. A. Fulton, Through Earthquake, Wind
sion administrators insensitive to the psychologi- and Fire: Church and Mission in Manchuria 18671950;
cal pressures their missionaries face. Reliable fig- S. Neill, HCM.
ures are hard to come by, but some estimate that
between 20 percent and 50 percent of new mis-
Burundi (Est. 2000 pop.: 7,339,000; 27,834 sq.
sionaries fail to return for a second term. This at-
km. [10,747 sq. mi.]). It is difficult to discuss the
trition is seldom the result of theological difficul-
ties or problems in communicating the gospel. It central African nation of Burundi independently
is almost always attributable, at least in part, to of its northern neighbor, Rwanda. The two states,
an inability to adapt to the kinds of issues that precolonial kingdoms with similar ethnic popu-
lead to burnout. lations, who speak closely related Bantu lan-
Increasingly, mission agencies are seeking guages, became after 1885 part of German East
ways to address the causes of burnout before Africa. After World War I they were administered
they occur. Training seminars, mentoring pro- by Belgium as a League of Nations mandate, and
grams, team-building efforts, pastoral care min- after World War II as a United Nations Trust Ter-
istries, and more flexible schedules have all ritory, known as Ruanda-Urundi.
proven helpful. But the rigors of missionary life, Both nations achieved independence in 1962,
particularly among some of the least reached Burundi as a constitutional monarchy. It was the
peoples of the world, are still significant. And the second most densely populated territory in
limitations of human and material resources Africa, and had an extremely low per capita in-
available to the worldwide missionary enterprise come. Alongside this was a high rate of literacy
would seem to suggest that the issue of burnout and probably the highest percent of baptized
will not soon pass from the scene. Christians, both Catholic and Protestant, in
GARY R. CORWIN Africa.
The people of Burundibetween six and seven
SEE ALSO Attrition. millionall speak the same language, Kirundi;
Bibliography. M. F. Foyle, Overcoming Missionary
all share the same customs and all live side by
Stress; M. Jones, Psychology of Missionary Adjustment; side. They are divided, however (and this is true
K. ODonnell, ed., Missionary Care: Counting the Cost also of their northern neighbor, Rwanda), into a
for World Evangelization; E. Schubert, What Missionar- cattle-keeping aristocracy, the Tutsi (14%), the
ies Need to Know about Burnout and Depression. Hutu agriculturists (85%), and a tiny minority of
indigenous pygmies, the Twa (less than 1%). The
Burns, William Chalmers (181568). Scottish Tutsi warriors, who often appear physically dif-
missionary to China born in Dun, Scotland. His ferent, are descended from an immigrant group
father was one of Scotlands most respected min- coming from the north, probably about four hun-
isters and his mother was known for her piety. dred years ago, who subdued the peasant Hutu,
After a rebellious youth, Burns surprised his par- making them their clients. The German and then
ents by preparing for the ministry. While study- Belgian colonial officials, and in some cases the
ing theology at Glasgow he decided to become a missionaries also, favored the Tutsi as natural
missionary. He was accepted as a missionary to leaders and as more intelligent than the Hutu
India by the Church of Scotland. peasants. In fact, the divisions between Tutsi
Before Burns could leave for India he became and Hutu were originally flexible; there was in-
involved in the Scottish revival that began in termarriage, and it was possible for a Hutu who
1839. God used him for eight years as a preacher acquired enough cattle to become Tutsi. But in
and revivalist in Scotland, England, and Canada. 1933 the Belgian administration introduced
In 1846 Burns renewed his application to go to mandatory identity cards, which included the
India, but the Foreign Missions Committee of the ethnic identity of the bearer, Tutsi, Hutu, or
Free Church of Scotland was short of funds. At Twa. Legally, movement between groups was no
that time the Presbyterian Church of England longer possible. There was discrimination against
was looking for someone to pioneer a new mis- the Hutu in education, in recruitment to the civil
sion to China, and Burns applied. On April 22, service, and, in particular, in recruitment to the
1847, Burns was ordained the first missionary to army which, in Burundi, was almost totally Tutsi.
China of the Presbyterian Church of England. After independence (1962), the constitutional
Burns began his work in Canton; he later monarchy did not last long; it was overthrown by
moved to Amoy and other places, arriving even- an army-led coup in 1965. The countrys history
tually in Peking. His method was to wear Chinese since has been one of struggle between Tutsi and
clothing, itinerate widely, and preach wherever Hutu, with the almost exclusively Tutsi army giv-
152
Butler, Fanny Jane
ing that minority group the advantage, and with vival fellowship has not been enough to prevent
periods of ethnic genocide leading to the refugee the killings.
exodus of hundreds and thousands of civilians JOCELYN MURRAY
into its eastern and western neighbors, Tanzania
and Zaire. Parallel events in Rwanda have both Butler, Fanny Jane (185089). English pioneer
influenced and been influenced by Burundi. medical missionary to India. The eighth child of
There were military coups in Burundi in 1965, ten born to a museum curator, she grew up sur-
1976, 1983, and 1993. Particularly low points rounded by good books. Intensely musical, she
were the overthrow (and killing) of the royal fam- could read when she was three. She gave herself
ily in 1965, the assassination of the first popu- to Christ when she was thirteen. Meeting a CHINA
larly elected president (a Hutu) and many of his INLAND MISSION couple in Birmingham, she re-
ministers in October 1993, only four months solved to work in China. But then Dr. Elmslie of
after his election, and the death of his successor Srinagars dying appeal for women medical mis-
in a plane crash in Rwanda in April 1994. The sionaries directed her to the School of Medicine
plane, which also carried the Rwandan president, for Women in London, of which she was the first
was shot down by a rocket. student. When she qualified in Dublin in 1877,
Tragically, Hutu and Tutsi Christians, baptized she became the first fully qualified English
members of common congregationsfor there woman medical missionary. After study in Cal-
was never any ethnic segregationhave not been cutta and language training, in 1883 she moved
able to separate themselves from the general so- to Bhagalpur, where in four years she created an
cial breakdown. This is true for Roman Catholic effective outpatient system and developed con-
and all Protestant denominations, although of siderable pediatric skills. After a visit to see CMS
course there have been many individual acts of work in Amritsar in 1886, she was inspired to
heroism and Christian compassion. But it is volunteer to go to Kashmir, whence, after a short
sadly clear that many Christians, including clergy furlough, she arrived in December 1888. She or-
and pastors, have participated in the murder of ganized the start of a much longed for womens
fellow-believers, even of innocent children. hospital in Srinager but tragically died of com-
Where did missionaries and the church fail in plications from dysentery two weeks after the
their teaching? It will take many years for the foundation stone was laid. A simple gospel
churches to come to terms with what has hap- preacher, she is probably most significant for
pened, and rebuild a new foundation. For the showing what could be achieved through love in
Protestants there is a particular and bitter irony, the way of preventive medicine. In 1890 a Fanny
since Ruanda-Urundi, from about 1930, was the Butler Scholarship was created to train women
cradle of the East Africa Revival. Members of this medical missionary candidates in London.
movement have testified to the breaking down of ELEANOR M. JACKSON
racial and ethnic barriers where the Holy Spirits Bibliography. E. M. Tonge, Fanny Jane Butler, Pio-
healing power was experienced. But even the Re- neer Medical Missionary.
153
C-D Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/8/03 3:56 PM Page 154
Cable, (Alice) Mildred (18771952). English

missionary to China. Born in Surrey, England,
she qualified as a chemist, studied also in the
fields of surgery and midwifery, and in 1902 was
sent by the CHINA INLAND MISSION to Shansi
Province, where she joined Eva and Francesca
French in developing a girls school. At heart,
however, they were pioneers, and in 1923 the
three moved to Suchow, whence they made
many hazardous journeys through the Gobi
Cc
obeyed the request of Pope Leo XIII and ac-
cepted the invitation of Archbishop Michael Cor-
rigan in 1889 to care for impoverished Italian
immigrants in New York City. Her activities
Desert, Inner Mongolia, Sinkiang, and Chinese eventually expanded as she established more
Turkestan, and occasionally fell into the hands of schools, orphanages, and hospitals in the United
brigands or communist bands. They studied States, Latin America, and Europe. In 1909 she
manners and customs of the people, and evan- became a naturalized American citizen. Devoted
gelized in the oases; Mildred recounted their ex- to Christ and with an indomitable spirit, she tri-
periences in such books as Through Jade Gate umphed over enormous challenges in her min-
and Central Asia (with Eva French, 1927), Some-
istry to immigrants and other needy people, win-
thing Happened (with Francesca French, 1935),
ning widespread respect and inspiring other
and The Gobi Desert (1942). Worsening political
women to join her.
conditions compelled them to leave the area in
1936, and Mildred returned to England, where When she died from malaria in 1917, there
she continued to write while working for the were an estimated 1,500 daughters in 67 reli-
British and Foreign Bible Society. She also pro- gious houses. Mother Cabrini was canonized a
duced the life stories of Percy Mather (1935) and saint by Pope Pius XII on July 7, 1946, for her
George Hunter (1948). heroic faith and service to humankind. She was
J. D. DOUGLAS the first American to receive this honor; her feast
day is December 22. In 1950, the Catholic
Bibliography. W. C. Northcott, Star over Gobi: The
Church proclaimed her Patroness of Immigrants.
Story of Mildred Cable; E. M. Sawyer, Mildred Cable;
P. Thompson, Desert Pilgrim: The Story of Mildred GARY B. MCGEE
Cables Venture for God in Central Asia. Bibliography. P. Di Donato, Immigrant Saint: The
Life of Mother Cabrini; T. Maynard, Too Small a World:
Cabrini, Frances Xavier (18501917). Italian- The Life of Francesca Cabrini.
born missionary to the United States. Born
Maria Francesca Cabrini in Sant Angelo Lodi- Call, The. See THE MISSIONARY CALLING.
giano, Lombardy, Italy, she studied to become a
teacher. Her attempts to become a religious were
Calverley, Edwin Elliott (18821971). American
initially turned down due to frail health. Working
renowned Islamics scholar and missionary in the
at the House of Providence orphanage in
Codogno, she made her vows there in 1877. Middle East. Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
Three years later, Cabrini founded the Institute he received his education at The Citys College,
of the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart Princeton University, Princeton Theological Sem-
with seven orphan girls. After the establishment inary, and Hartford Seminary Foundation. At the
of several houses in northern Italy, the organiza- latter, he was mentored by Duncan Black Mac-
tion received papal approval in 1888. She served Donald and completed a Ph.D. in Arabic and Is-
as its mother-general until her death. lamics in 1923. The Philadelphia Presbytery of
Abandoning a desire from childhood to go as a the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) ordained him
missionary to China (anticipation of which led in 1908. In the same year, he married Eleanor
her to adopt the name Frances Xavier), Cabrini Jane Taylor, M.D., a recent graduate of the
154
Calvinism
Womans Medical College of Pennsylvania in Missionaries who take as their chief goal the
Philadelphia. glory of God enjoy theological underpinnings
Joining the Arabian Mission of the Reformed that help them persevere when from a human
Church in America in 1909, they went as mis- standpoint the mission is impossible. Calvinists
sionaries to the Persian Gulf and served in cling to the truth that whatever the immediate
Bahrain, Iraq, and Kuwait. An illness forced him and visible results of their work may be, God is
to return home with his family in 1930. After re- glorified when his servants carry out their as-
covery, Calverley then began a long and distin- signments humbly, faithfully, and in accord with
guished career on the faculty of the Kennedy his Word.
School of Missions at Hartford Seminary Foun- Second, Calvinism stresses the all-embracing
dation. His expertise in Arabic and Islamics doctrine of the KINGDOM OF GOD, which was the
gained recognition from several professional or- main theme of Jesus preaching. For Calvinists,
ganizations of which he was a member: Ameri- Christs lordship extends to every inch of the
can Council of Learned Societies, American Ori- globe and to every area of public and private life.
ental Society, Royal Asiatic Society, and Royal This claim is affirmed in the very preface to
Central Asian Society. In 1939, he was appointed Christs commission in Matthew 28:1819: All
to the Translations Committee of the American authority in heaven and earth has been given to
Bible Society. Calverleys books include Arabian me. Therefore go and make disciples of all na-
Primer, I and II (1920), Arabian Reader (1925), tions, baptizing them in the name of the Father
Worship in Islam (1925), and Islam, An Introduc- and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teach-
tion (1958). He served as co-editor of The Muslim ing them to obey everything I have commanded
World with Samuel M. Zwemer (193847), editor you. Christs claim to universal authority has
of The Muslim World (194852), and afterward as powerful implications for mission work and dis-
an associate editor. As a visiting professor, he cipleship.
taught at Columbia University, American Univer- Christ is Lord over all, Calvinists insist, and his
sity in Cairo, Johns Hopkins University, Ameri- Word speaks with authority to rich and poor,
can University in Washington, D.C., and Boston politicians and academicians, merchants and
University School of Theology. military, parents and children. The Word the
GARY B. MCGEE church proclaims turns the searchlight of divine
truth and righteousness upon every area of life
Bibliography. E. H. Douglas, The Muslim World 61 and every human relationship. Nothing lies out-
(July 1971): 15558; E. E. Calverley, The Muslim World side the boundaries of Christs reign.
61 (July 1971): 15960.
When Christian mission fails to teach and op-
erate from this perspective, a form of Christianity
Calvinism. A system of doctrine and an histori- develops that treats religious faith and morality as
cal phenomenon. As a doctrinal system, Calvin- individual matters and leaves the public square
ism stresses certain truths that have a clear bear- unaffected. Churches may grow in size and num-
ing on mission, three of which stand out. ber but if they fail to educate members to apply
First, Calvinism insists that the glory of God is kingdom values to society at large, they fail in
the primary goal of all thought and action, in- their role as lighthouses of the kingdom and they
cluding mission. The chief end of man, says the set the stage for suffering, violence, and revolu-
Westminister Shorter Catechism, is to glorify tion. The mission world is currently awakening to
God and to enjoy him forever. Therefore, Calvin- its failure to address the broader implications of
ism opposes the common tendency to regard Christs kingdom for the plight of the poor, sys-
human beings and their happiness as the central temic injustices, racial tensions, and misuse of the
concern of mission. While Calvinism clearly re- ENVIRONMENT (see HOLISTIC MISSION).
gards human well-being as important, and con- A third major emphasis of Calvinist theology
cern for the temporal and eternal welfare of hu- that has a bearing on mission is the doctrine of
mans motivates many kinds of mission activity, the SOVEREIGNTY OF GOD. Calvinism stresses the
the glory of God remains the primary goal. fact that mission work is first and foremost the
Calvinists find ample support for this in Scrip- Lords work, not ours. He calls and equips his
ture. Jesus summed up his work saying, I have servants to co-labor with him in gathering his
brought you (Father) glory on earth by complet- chosen ones from every corner of the earth.
ing the work you gave me to do (John 17:4). Recognition of the sovereignty of God has the
Since Christs mission on earth was to glorify the dual effect of keeping missionaries humble when
Father and he passed on his mission to his disci- their work goes especially well, and encouraging
ples, the primary goal of the churchs mission can them when the opposition seems overwhelming.
be none other than to glorify God. As you (Fa- The Bible tells us that when Paul and Barnabas
ther) sent me into the world, I have sent them returned to their sending church in Antioch,
into the world. As the Father has sent me, I am they gathered the church together and reported
sending you (John 17:18; 20:21). all that God had done through them and how he
155
Calvinism
had opened the door of faith to the Gentiles in politics, in public and religious education, as
(Acts 14:27). Their summary of what had taken well as concern over the role the church should
place is very instructive. They ascribed the glory play to enable it to meet the needs of the people.
to God by attributing the success they enjoyed to In 1952, shortly after his consecration as a
Gods working through them and opening doors bishop, he organized the National Conference of
they never could have opened. Paul and Barn- the bishops of Brazil and was its secretary for
abas did not ignore what they as missionaries twelve years. This became the leading force for
had done. They had preached, taken risks, faced social change in the country. Named auxiliary
opposition, gathered converts, and started bishop of Rio de Janero (1952), he helped in the
churches. But the bottom line was that the work formation of the Council of Latin American Bish-
was the Lords, not theirs. They made this plain ops (CELAM), serving as its vice president,
when they reported to the church. 195965. In 1965 he was named archbishop of
Besides humility, the truth of divine sover- Olinda and Recife, where he served until his re-
eignty offers encouragement to missionaries who tirement in 1985. During his tenure his stand for
tremble at the magnitude of the task before economic development and pacifism was se-
them. Calvinism reminds them that even the best verely opposed by the government and he was
preachers cannot reach farther than peoples ear eventually banned from speaking in public be-
drums and God alone can cause sinners to re- tween 1968 and 1977. He countered with a
spond to the gospels call. God acts in saving strong position on nonviolence, which he par-
power in accord with his sovereign and eternal layed in North America and Western Europe,
will. where he received honorary degrees and his writ-
Paul the missionary succinctly summarizes ings were in great demand. His simplicity and ac-
Gods sovereign activity in salvation and mission: claimed saintliness have won for him a place
Those he predestined, he also called; those he among the defenders of the poor of the world.
called, he also justified; those he justified, he also PABLO E. PREZ
glorified (Rom. 8:30). Clearly, God uses mission-
aries as his callers, his co-workers. His eternal Cambodia (Est. 2000 pop.: 11,637,000; 181,035
purpose and sovereign power make their mission sq. km. [69,898 sq. mi.]). Cambodia is bordered
possible and assure them that their work will not by Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos. It is estimated
be in vain (Isa. 55:1013). The open acknowledg- that less than 0.5 percent of its people are Chris-
ment of this comforting truth is something tians and less than 0.1 percent Protestants,
Calvinism offers mission. though recent growth rates have exceeded 20 per-
Historically, Calvinism has played a major role cent annually.
in the Protestant mission enterprise over the past The Khmer, the largest people group, devel-
two centuries. A large percentage, in some cases oped a sophisticated Hindu culture in the tenth
the majority, of missionaries serving in parts of century. By the twelfth century, the kings had cre-
Africa, Asia, and Latin America have been Calvin- ated Angkor Wat, a temple-like city that symbol-
ists. There are critics who argue that Calvinisms ized prosperity and invulnerability. The Angkor
emphasis on the sovereignty of God discourages Empire collapsed in the fifteenth century, and for
mission. And even among Calvinists there are a the next four hundred years Cambodia was em-
few who excuse their neglect of mission by argu- broiled in numerous wars with her neighbors. It
ing that divine predestination removes the need was a protectorate of France from 1863 to 1945.
for human efforts to win the lost. Calvinisms de- Cambodia became an unwilling participant in
fense lies in its submission to the Scriptures the Vietnam War when the king allowed the Viet
which clearly teach both divine sovereignty and Minh sanctuary. This resulted in U.S. bombing of
Christian duty to co-labor with God in mission. Cambodia, which in turn opened the door for the
ROGER S. GREENWAY Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, to seize control in
Bibliography. J. H. Bavinck, An Introduction to the April 1975. Pol Pot carried out one of the bloodi-
Science of Missions; C. E. Edwards, The Evangelical est socialist revolutions in history in which one to
Quarterly 8 (January 1936): 4851; J. D. Gort, OBMR 4 3 million lost their lives and hundreds of thou-
(October 1980): 15660; N. M. Steffens, The Presbyter- sands fled the country.
ian and Reformed Review 18 (April 1894): 24153; S. M. Mission History. Roman Catholics first en-
Zwemer, Theology Today 7 (July 1950): 20616. tered Cambodia in the sixteenth century with lit-
tle results. The rulers persecuted and expelled all
Cmara, Helder Pessao (1909 ). Brazilian missionaries. It was only in the second half of the
priest and theologian; champion of the poor. eighteenth century that mission work began to
Born in Fortaleza, the twelfth of thirteen chil- see some success among the Khmer.
dren, he was thoroughly acquainted with the rig- During the time of French rule, the Khmer
ors of poverty and its consequences. Ordained to were relatively open to Christianity. Even so,
the priesthood at twenty-two, he became active conversions were still few in number. By the
156
Camping
1960s, there were about sixty thousand Catholics, fesses to be Christian. However, few Christians are
of whom only three thousand were Khmer. in the north. There are over thirty denominations.
Protestant missionaries arrived in 1923 first In the years leading up to national independ-
under the Oriental Missionary Society (now OMS ence in 1960, the mission agencies handed power
INTERNATIONAL) and later under the CHRISTIAN AND to Cameroonian bodies, including oversight of
MISSIONARY ALLIANCE (CMA). The CMA missionar- agricultural, broadcasting, educational, medical,
ies initially made little progress due to the opposi- translation, and other ministries. With limited re-
tion of the French rulers. In 1965, King Sihanouk, sources, contemporary Cameroonian Christians
believing Christianity to be anti-nationalistic, pro- have struggled to maintain these ministries
hibited foreign missionaries. In 1970, when the through church planting, evangelism, and social
king was deposed, foreign missionaries returned outreach, especially in the areas of rural develop-
and experienced a new openness to Christ among ment and urban poverty. Cameroonian Christians
the Khmer. Before 1970, there were roughly six have been among leaders in Africa in formulating
hundred Protestant Christians. When the Khmer a contextual approach to theological education
Rouge took over the country in 1975, there were and a holistic approach to mission.
over nine thousand. During the Pol Pot regime At times, especially during the years immedi-
many of them died or fled the country. Today there ately before and after Cameroon became inde-
is no record of Khmer Christians in Cambodia, al- pendent in 1960 and in the early 1990s, church-
though one source reports twelve small congrega- state relations have been troubled. Conflict has
tions of less than one hundred each in Phnom arisen, in part, when Christian leaders have iden-
Penh. tified with political parties actively supporting a
From 1979 to 1991, the country was embroiled major political rival of the head of state. For ex-
in civil war. Three separate parties have tried to ample, in the early 1970s, the Catholic bishop of
overthrow the Vietnamese-backed regime led by Nkongsamba, Cameroons third largest city, was
Heng Samrin. With a semblance of peace due to implicated in a plot against former President Ah-
UN efforts, many mission and social organiza- madou Ahidjo. More generally, the exercise of the
tions are making inroads into Cambodia. churches prophetic ministry has engendered ten-
VIOLET JAMES sion as the churches have championed democra-
tization, defended human rights, and challenged
Bibliography. D. Chandler, A History of Cambodia;
the government to address problems of the poor
idem, Facing the Cambodian Past; F. Ponchaud, The
Cathedral of the Rice Paddy; idem, Cambodia Year Zero. and marginalized.
PAUL R. DEKAR
Cameroon, United Republic of (Est. 2000 pop.: Bibliography. L. E. Kwast, The Discipling of West
15,245,000; 475,442 sq. km. [183,568 sq. mi.]). In Cameroon: A Study of Baptist Growth.
1845 Jamaican and British Baptist missionaries
introduced Christianity in what is now Camping. Temporary community living designed
Cameroon, at Victoria and Douala. In 1850, the to enrich the Christian life. The customary focus
Board of Foreign Mission of the Presbyterian is a camp, conference, retreat, or outdoor center.
Church-USA established a mission on the island Although an urban environment is possible, a
of Corisco, forty miles north of the mouth of the natural setting connecting campers to the power-
Gabon River Estuary and just off the coast of Rio ful witness of Gods creation is the usual site of
Muni. This served as a point of departure for organized camping. The temporary community
evangelistic work along the coast, including what enables people to come apart from the social
is now Cameroon. Catholics began work in 1890, pressures of their permanent communities, pres-
while, two years later, Presbyterian missionaries sures that often hinder change, and to gain new
moved into the southern Cameroon interior. The perspectives on their lives and God. Camping is
Bulu were among the first to respond. By 1930 highly relational and introduces participants to a
the largely Bulu congregation at Elat (Ebolowa) compelling community of love, fellowship, and
was the largest Presbyterian Church in the world. shared experiences where Christian beliefs and
The overwhelming majority of Christians belong values can be seen and tried under supportive
to churches which owe their origins to these leadership. The continuous day-by-day guided
three traditions. Smaller numbers belong to process of growth and the expectations of taking
Lutheran or various Pentecostal and African Ini- risks, trying new activities, and meeting new
tiated Churches. people open the participants to taking new steps
While most of the population in southern and of faith in the development of a Christlike char-
western Cameroon, which was turning to Chris- acter. While many institutions focus on a certain
tianity, observed traditional religions, Islam dom- dimension of the person, camp is designed to
inated in the north. Evangelistic outreach there minister to the whole personphysically, men-
began later and proved more difficult. At present, tally, socially, and spiritually. Camping aims to
two-thirds of the population of Cameroon pro- provide powerful, memorable experiences that
157
Camping
point to specific spiritual and biblical truths. The Apart: Christian Leadership in the Temporary Commu-
daily regimen of an isolated camp community of- nity; B. Williams, Organizational History of Christian
fers a rich opportunity for development of Chris- Camping International.
tian leadership for the church and society.
Although outdoor living goes back to the cre- Campus Ministry. See STUDENT MISSION WORK.
ation of humankind, and the Bible recounts the
nomadic life of the patriarchs of the Jewish na- Canada (Est. 2000 pop.: 31,029,000; 9,970,610 sq.
tion, the forty-year wandering of the children of km. [3,849,653 sq. mi.]). Canada is the worlds
Israel, and Christs use of the out-of-doors for his second largest country in size, covering five time
ministry, historians view organized camping as a zones. Yet it has just over 30 million inhabitants,
North American innovation of the late nineteenth a mosaic of over one hundred nationalities, their
century. They acknowledge, however, that the religions ranging from Asian shamanism to
camp meetings of the Second Great Awakening African animism to European churchianity and
at the turn of the nineteenth century set the pat- secular humanism.
tern of future camping practices. Outdoor meet- However, Christian principles shaped this na-
ing sites drew people away from potentially tion even before the Confederation in 1867. Many
harmful pursuits in the cities to do business with of the million British loyalists who headed north
God as the frontier was being settled. The camp after the American War of Independence were
meeting was replaced by the Bible conference to- devout Anglicans, Baptists, Congregationalists,
ward the end of the nineteenth century as organ- Methodists, and Presbyterians. On the Prairies
ized camping grew. the subsequent influx of Anabaptists, reflecting
Many of the early leaders of the movement Pietist views, mixed with other immigrants. The
were devout Christians whose zeal not only led Quebec Act of 1774 gave the Roman Catholic
them to create their own camping ministries, but Church in that province the right to act as a
also helped others to do likewise. Examples of quasi-state.
this zeal are Luther Gulick and his wife Char- Ambivalence and Tolerance. Eighty percent of
lotte. The children of missionary parents, they Canadas inhabitants live within a hundred miles
started a camp for families at Gales Ferry, Con- of the southern border, where the climate is least
necticut, in 1887, taught at the School of Chris- inhospitable, and the land is most arable. Of the
tian Workers (which later became the Interna- worlds exportable grain, Canada provides 20 per-
tional YMCA College and eventually Springfield cent (80% of its own production). However, the
College), traveled to Europe on behalf of the in- narrow ribbon of population stretches nearly
ternational YMCA to spread ideas on camping four thousand miles from west to east, mostly
and creation, and recruited hundreds of men and along the southern border. There are only three
women to serve abroad as recreational workers cities of more than one million people: Vancou-
and camp leaders. Charlotte is credited with ver (west coast), Toronto (heartland), and Mon-
founding the Camp Fire Girls, and Luther along treal (east). Thus evangelism and missionary out-
with others founded the Boy Scouts of America. reach tend to be very regional.
Christian missionaries and missionary societies Many Canadians are ambivalent about their
along with organizations like the YMCA, the In- national identity, as, on the one hand, ethnic mi-
ternational Sunday School Association, the In- norities celebrate their traditions, and, on the
ternational Council on Religious Education, other hand, the culture and commerce of the
Scripture Union, and Inter-Varsity Fellowship United States flood across the worlds longest un-
have taken the camping movement throughout protected border. Canada has only one-tenth the
the world. population of the United States but is its chief
The need for mutual encouragement, fellow- trading partner. The percentage of evangelicals in
ship, and sharing of ideas and resources drew Canada (officially 7% but actually 14%, accord-
evangelical camp leaders together simultaneously ing to statistician George Rawlyk) is much lower
in California and New England in 1950 and in than in America (over 30%). Separation of
the Midwest and Canada shortly thereafter. These church and state has never been the issue it is in
groups merged in 1961 as the Christian Camp the United States, but then Canadians like to ap-
and Conference Association and then became pear moderate about most issues.
Christian Camping International (CCI) in 1963 as What has been characteristic of Canadians is a
international camps were added to the member- mind-set that is, for the most part, tolerant of plu-
ship. CCI is an alliance that aims to strengthen rality in culture, religion, and ideology. After all,
temporary community ministries worldwide. Canada became a nation only as a compromise
BUD WILLIAMS between the English and the French. Because of
Bibliography. E. Eells, Eleanor Eells History of Or- provincial representation, the benevolent pacifism
ganized Camping: The First 100 Years; D. Klopfenstein, of Mennonites and other refugees in the three
D. Klopfenstein, and B. Williams, Come Yourselves Prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Mani-
158
Canadian Mission Boards and Societies
toba) influenced politics and society out of pro- racists, and destroyers of culture, out to extend
portion to their numbers, and helped to sensitize the British Empire. Yet the very missionaries the
the young nation to world need. Per capita chari- Museum cited as examples were just the oppo-
table giving, including to missions, is among the site, as documented by their journals in the Mu-
highest in the world. The ratio of missionary seum archives!
sending to population has vied with New Zealand Native Canadians, or First Nations members
and Norway for top place. (terms preferred to Indians), continue to pre-
Revival and Missions. Revival movements, sent a special need, as the news media have pub-
such as The Great Awakening of the 1700s, licized abuses by several church boarding schools
made an impact on local communities and on earlier in the 1900s. Meanwhile New Age views
government (see GREAT AWAKENINGS). The 1800s romanticize native spiritualityrejected by
were dubbed The Evangelical Century. On the evangelical native churches.
official seal of the Dominion of Canada are Anglo-French tension, perpetuated by a minor-
words chosen from Psalm 72:8: He shall have ity of Quebec secessionists, also is part of the
dominion from sea to sea. Canadian mosaic. Up to the late 1950s, mission-
Up to the early 1800s, most missionary work aries from English-speaking Canada were pelted
was directed from denominational headquarters with stones and sometimes imprisoned for pub-
in Europe. Gradually Canadian churches awak- lic witness; the Martin Luther film was banned.
ened to their own responsibilities. In the late Now the power of the Roman Catholic Church is
1800s, the STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT moti- largely disregarded by Quebecois, and French-
vated many men and women to become mis- speaking evangelical churches multiply faster
sionaries. Canadas InterVarsity Christian Fel- than the availability of trained leaders.
lowship, founded in 1929, held its first student Canada constitutes a fertile mission field in it-
missions conference in Toronto in 1946. That self, and also has the potential, in personnel and
conference became the noted student missions financial support, to provide missionaries within
recruitment convention now held in Urbana, Illi- the nation and to other lands.
nois. Canadians participate in Urbana but also W. HAROLD FULLER
hold their own regional student missions events,
which motivate hundreds of young men and Bibliography. A. J. Austin, Evangelical Studies Bul-
women to consider missions (see also URBANA letin, Spring 1997; J. W. Grant, ed., The Churches and
MISSION CONFERENCES). the Canadian Experience; A. Motz, ed., Reclaiming a Na-
tion; G. A. Rawlyk and M. A. Noll, Amazing Grace; B. C.
Prairie Bible Institute and Toronto Bible Col-
Stiller, From the Tower of Babel to Parliament Hill.
lege (now Ontario Bible College and Theological
Seminary) were among dozens of Bible schools
initially established to prepare men and women Canadian Mission Boards and Societies.
for missionary service. Recruits from the vast Samuel de Champlain, who founded Quebec city
prairies, accustomed to simple, rugged living and (1608), declared, The salvation of a single soul is
resourcefulness, made successful pioneer mis- worth more than the conquest of an empire. He
sionaries in developing countries. As a result, a was sympathetic to the French Calvinistic
century ago some British-oriented missions Huguenots, several of whom accompanied him
would accept workers from Canada but hesitated and settled in Acadia/Novia Scotia (1605) and
over Americans! Quebec (1608). However, the early influence of
Religious Plurality. The ethnic mosaic has these Protestants was snuffed out by the Jesuits,
continued to expand, as the United Nations for who arrived in 1611, and gained control of New
several years named Canada the most desirable France by 1620, blocking further Huguenot im-
nation in which to live. The UN also lists Toronto migration.
as the most ethnically diverse city in North Amer- Jesuit, Franciscan, and other Roman Catholic
ica. The city hosts the largest Italian and Somali missionaries suffered much physical hardship
communities outside of their homelands. Van- and, in some cases, torture and death at the
couver has the second largest community of Sikh hands of those they sought to win to the Church.
expatriates in the world. Nationwide, the influx Outreach to the far West was carried on chiefly
of Chinese and Korean Christians has spurred by the Oblates of Mary Immaculate (OMI).
evangelical witness, particularly in churches that An early Protestant pioneer was Johann Chris-
had lost their missionary vision. tian Erhardt, a Moravian who visited Labrador in
Now far removed from its Christian roots, 1752 but was killed by the Inuit. Other Mora-
Canadas secularized society is scarred by overt vians arrived in 1764 and established self-sup-
immorality and radical humanism. The commu- porting Christian settlements (see also MORAVIAN
nications media enjoy casting churches either as MISSION). English medical missionary WILFRED T.
irrelevant or bigoted. In a major exhibit in 1990, GRENFELL drew world attention to the plight of
the Royal Ontario Museum stereotyped pioneer the native peoples of Labrador by his work 140
Canadian missionaries to Africa as adventurers, years later.
159
Canadian Mission Boards and Societies
JOHN ELIOTS 1661 translation of the New Tes- INATIONAL FOREIGN MISSIONS ASSOCIATION (Canada
tament for the Algonquins (who extended into Branch). Most evangelical denominational mis-
Upper Canada) was the forerunner of Bible sions are linked with the EVANGELICAL FELLOW-
translations that spurred Protestant mission in SHIP OF M ISSION A GENCIES (USA) through their
Canada. The first non-English publication of the member bodies in America. Other global evan-
British and Foreign Bible Society was the Gospel gelistic associations registered in Canada include
of Mark, translated by a Mohawk chief (pub- AD 2000, Lausanne Committee on World Evan-
lished 1804). The CHURCH MISSION SOCIETY un- gelism (LCWE; see LAUSANNE MOVEMENT), and
dertook the evangelization of the west and north. WORLD EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP.
A Methodist missionary invented a syllabic script As to media-related global outreach from
for a Cree translation. Presbyterians and others Canada, Bible Stories Alive (A Visit with Mrs.
joined in the outreach. By 1914 those efforts had G.) produces and records dramatized Bible sto-
resulted in an estimated three-quarters of native ries in 30 languages and ships tapes to 170 coun-
Canadians becoming Christian. However, since tries. These are also broadcast by international
then, native peoples have suffered the impact of missionary radio stations (ELWA, FEBC, HCJB,
social vices and face great spiritual and physical TWR) and are on 500 radio stations in America
problems. Today native churches and missions alone. A high-tech counterpart is Galcom Inc., a
continue pastoral and missionary outreach radionics mission which has developed solar-
among their own people. powered, pocket-sized, fix-tuned radio receivers
Increasingly, Canadians responded to the call and distributes them around the worldespe-
of missions overseas. Among the pioneers were cially significant in limited access countries.
Baptist Samuel Day (India 1835); Presbyterians In 1996 the Evangelical Fellowship of Canada
GEORGE L. MACKAY (China 1888); Salvationist revived the EFC Task Force on Missions, which
ROWLAND V. BINGHAM (Africa 1893); Baptists works with church and agency leaders seeking to
Archibald and Jean Reekie (Bolivia 1898). Pente- maximize the effectiveness of Canadian evangeli-
costal missions began developing early in the cals in global mission. As well, EFC has recom-
1900s, with four Canadians taking part in a proj- missioned Vision Canada 2000 to promote evan-
ect in Liberia (1908). gelization within the nation.
Two Canadians who launched global missions Acceptability of Canadian missionaries is en-
were close friends and fellow gospel entrepre- hanced in certain sensitive nations, because they
neurs. ALBERT B. SIMPSON began as a Canadian see it as a tolerant, conciliatory country that is
Presbyterian before moving to pulpits in the not a major world power. The countrys multicul-
United States. Trainer of missionaries, editor, and turalism and pluralism have led some non-Cana-
author, he founded the CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY dian missions to use its ethnic communities as a
ALLIANCE in 1897. Bingham, Simpsons friend, pi- base for orientating candidates headed for other
oneered the Sudan Interior Mission (see SOCIETY lands. Canadas missionary heritage and its
FOR INTERNATIONAL MINISTRIES) in 1893, opened human and financial resources position it to play
Canadas Keswick spiritual life conference as a an active part in the cause of world missions.
mission-sending base, and initiated a mission- W. HAROLD FULLER
focused magazine, a publishing house, and a
mission to the armed forces. Bibliography. A. J. Austin, Evangelical Studies Bul-
In 1928, another Presbyterian minister, Os- letin. Spring 1997; J. W. Grant, ed., The Churches and
wald J. Smith, started Peoples Church, a non- the Canadian Experience; A. Motz, ed., Reclaiming a Na-
tion; G. A. Rawlyk and M. A. Noll, Amazing Grace; B. C.
denominational work that gained international
Stiller, From the Tower of Babel to Parliament Hill.
missions fame. Traveling to 80 countries, Smith
contributed to missiology through slogans, the
faith pledge, many of his 1200 hymns, poems, Canberra Assembly (1991). See WORLD COUNCIL
and gospel songs, and his 35 books (six million OFCHURCHES ASSEMBLIES.
copies, 128 languages).
World War II exposed Christian members of Candidacy. That time in the missions realm that
Canadas armed forces to the spiritual and phys- parallels the engagement period in the realm of
ical needs of other lands. Reports influenced marriage. Before someone becomes part of a
groups such as the Mennonites to become active mission agency, both the agency and the individ-
in missions and development projects. By the ual must determine that compatibility exists. The
1960s, Canadian foreign missionaries numbered period in which that is being evaluated is known
over four thousand. The highest proportion of as candidacy. Both the individual and the agency
these came from Associated Gospel (AGC), have expressed real interest, but neither has
Brethren, and Fellowship of Evangelical Baptists made a formal or final commitment.
churches, although the majority served outside As in an engagement period before the wedding
their own denominational missionsmost takes place, there is a lot that happens during a
under missions are linked with the INTERDENOM- time of candidacy. If this does not include a grow-
160
Candidate Selection
ing sense of confidence, intimacy, and affection, cruit and qualify capable candidates, but also to
the engagement is usually broken off. The con- provide ministry-long maintenance.
text in which the candidacy takes place includes a Selection benchmarks should be specific to the
whole regimen of activities for the purpose of task anticipated. What qualifies a person for mis-
contact, communication, and examination. Some sionary CHURCH PLANTING does not automatically
of these are handled by correspondence, some by qualify the candidate for BIBLE TRANSLATION,
personal interviews, but the most significant ones dorm parenting, tentmaking, or camp ministries.
by spending time together during an orientation To assure sound selection benchmarks are in
or candidate school. Issues of character and min- place, wise selectors will attempt to determine
istry skills are much less often assumed than they the minimal skills required for effectiveness for a
once were, and are given careful scrutiny along particular position. Additionally, they must ask
with a candidates education and knowledge base. what commitment, competency, cultural, and
Besides better acquainting the mission with character benchmarks will be required to accom-
the character and qualifications of the candidate, plish these tasks effectively. Commitment bench-
these schools also expand the candidates under- marks would include a sense of Gods call to min-
standing of the policies, practices, and ethos of istry and staying power, a firm grasp of Scripture,
the mission. Because more and more candidates and appropriate ministry skills. Other minimal
come from broken homes or have suffered from qualifications may include flexibility and empa-
other emotional traumas, over the last couple of thetic contextual skills, servant-leadership and-
decades personality and psychological testing has followership, and moral purity.
become an important addition to the standard The use of multiple assessment tools can pro-
procedures. vide the selectors and the candidate with a com-
Strong candidacy programs include interaction prehensive evaluation. Many agencies use per-
with the home church of each candidate, reflect- sonal interviews, doctrinal statements, letters of
ing the fact that it really is the church that sends reference, and psychological testing. Some re-
the missionary. Many missions will not even con- quire additional participation in simulation exer-
sider a candidate who does not have an enthusias- cises or supervised ministry experience. Multiple
tic endorsement from their sending church base. assessment tools, when tied to specific future
GARY R. CORWIN ministry tasks, can provide all parties with a
Bibliography. R. W. Ferris, ed., Establishing Ministry comprehensive evaluation.
Training: A Manual for Programme Developers; A TTRITION (premature departures) carries a
D. Harley, Preparing to Serve: Training for Cross-Cultural heavy price tag: lost ministry opportunities, lost
Mission; L. E. Reed, Preparing Missionaries for Intercul- finances, family stress, and friction between in-
tural Communication: A Bicultural Approach; W. D. Tay- stitutions. While justifiable reasons for attrition
lor, ed., Internationalizing Missionary Training: A Global
Perspective.
exist (such as marriage, failing health, retire-
ment, and care of parents), unjustifiable reasons
also exist (such as peer conflict, moral prob-
Candidate Selection. Statisticians estimate that lems, and adjustment and training issues). It
there are over 144,000 missionaries worldwide therefore becomes incumbent on each agency
and that this number of cross-cultural Christian leader in every country to track and investigate
workers will continue to grow. They note that
the accuracy of the reasons given for attrition.
this burgeoning missionary force will come in-
Such research, when not inhibited by pride on
creasingly from non-Western countries.
the part of agency leadership or the involved
Principles of candidate selection for ministry
Christian worker, will assist selectors in the nec-
can be found in both the Old and New Testa-
essary adjustments of the selection and follow-
ments. Jethro advised Moses to select capable
up procedures.
men who met certain qualifications to serve as
Those involved as candidate selectors should
judges (Exod. 18:21). Those selected to work on
the tabernacle had to possess certain skills and represent the institutions who will provide the
abilities (Exod. 35:10, 3035). The same was true candidate future support in some manner. These
for replacement of an apostle (Acts 1:2122) or institutions may include the sending churches,
the institution of a new leadership role for dea- agencies, national churches, and training institu-
cons (Acts 6:3). tions. Institutional partnership in the selection
Candidate selection is most healthy when process will ensure ownership and accountabil-
viewed from a systems perspective. Effective se- ity. Such partnership in selection also demon-
lection procedures must work in tandem with the strates to the candidate the concern and credibil-
follow-up support scaffolding of continuous ity of each part.
training and mentoring, or approved candidates TOM A. STEFFAN
will be shortchanged in their total ministry effec- Bibliography. T. Graham, EMQ 23:1 (1987): 7079;
tiveness. Selection procedures should be consid- C. Ridley, How to Select Church Planters: A Self-Study
ered one step in a system designed not only to re- Manual for Recruiting, Screening, Interviewing and Eval-
161
Candidate Selection
uating Qualified Church Planters; B. Sawatsky, EMQ to evangelize the indigents. In an effort to pro-
27:4 (1991): 34247. mote mission work among the indigenous tribes,
Carey led in the establishment of the Monrovia
Candomble. See LATIN AMERICAN NEW RELIGIOUS Baptist Missionary Society and he was chosen its
MOVEMENTS. first president.
In spite of Careys untimely, accidental death,
Canon. See BIBLE. he left a legacy of godly leadership and ministry
etched in Baptist missions history in Africa and
Cape Verde (Est. 2000 pop.: 448,000; 4,033 sq. in the effort to bring both Christianity and West-
km. [1,557 sq. mi.]). Cape Verde consists of an ar- ern civilization to Africa by colonization with
chipelago of ten islands and five islets in the At- freed American slaves.
lantic Ocean off the coast of West Africa. It is a RICHARD D. CALENBERG
former Portuguese colony that gained independ- Bibliography. M. M. Fisher, Journal of Negro History
ence in 1975. Eighty percent of the population is 7 (1922): 380418; L. Fitts, Lott Carey, First Black Mis-
Caboverdian Mestico, of whom 98 percent are sionary to Africa; S. M. Jacobs, ed., Black Americans and
Christian, the vast majority being Roman the Missionary Movement in Africa; W. A. Poe, Church
Catholic. Evangelical Protestants represent less History 39 (1970): 4961; T. W. Shick, Behold the
than 4 percent of the population. The most suc- Promised Land: A History of the Afro-American Settlers
in Nineteenth Century Liberia.
cessful has been the Church of the Nazarene,
with over twenty congregations and nearly ten
thousand members. Carey, Maude. See CARY, MAUDE (18781967).
TODD M. JOHNSON
Carey, William (17611834). English missionary
Carey, Lott (17801828). African American pio- to India. William Careys nomination as the Fa-
neer missionary to Liberia. Lott was a Baptist ther of Modern Missions may not be chronolog-
missionary and a respected leader of the freed ically accurate (MORAVIAN missionaries criss-
African American slaves who colonized Liberia crossed the globe before he was born), but it is
on the west coast of Africa in the early nineteenth accurate in terms of what his life and ministry
century. After buying his freedom, Carey was spawned in the ensuing years of Protestant mis-
converted at the racially mixed First Baptist sions in Englandthat is, the so-called GREAT
Church of Richmond, Virginia, where he became CENTURY of missionary outreach. Carey was born
active in ministry and was licensed to preach. into a poor family near Northampton. He be-
Along with his mentor, William Crane, he helped came an apprentice shoemaker at age sixteen
form the Richmond African Missionary Society, and was married in 1781. Poverty stalked the
an auxiliary to the General Missionary Conven- family, but Carey studied hard and became a
tion of the Baptist Denomination in the United Baptist lay preacher in 1785. He combined his
States of America for Foreign Missions, known biblical and geographical knowledge and soon
as the Triennial Convention, which was organ- preached that the churchs primary responsibility
ized in 1814. was foreign missions. Fighting an uphill battle
Careys interest in Baptist mission endeavors against the religious establishment, in 1792 he
led to his personal desire to go to Africa as a mis- published his landmark study, An Enquiry Into
sionary. In 1821 he and a small group of Baptist the Obligation of Christians to Use Means for the
freed slaves sailed for Africa. Though they sailed Conversion of the Heathens. Under his influence,
under the auspices of the American Colonization some Baptist ministers organized a new mission
Society, established in 1816 to facilitate the re- board, the Baptist Missionary Society. In 1793
turn of freed slaves to Africa, Careys passion was Carey and John Thomas and their families sailed
missions and it was his distinction to be the first to India.
U.S. Baptist missionary to Africa. Despite family and economic hardships, Carey
Once in Liberia, Carey became a leader of the persisted in preaching, doing Bible translation
African American colony and actively engaged in work, and starting schools. However, for the first
a number of significant ministries, including the seven years at Malda there were no Indian con-
establishment of the first Baptist church in Mon- verts.
rovia (known as Providence Baptist Church), Carey moved his base to SERAMPORE, where he
which he served as pastor. His concern for edu- ministered thirty-four years until his death. He
cation led him to help establish schools in and completed translations of the Bible into Bengali,
around Monrovia for settlers and for indigent Sanskrit, and Marathi. He organized schools and
children and to establish a mission school in started a print shop. By 1818 there were some six
Grand Cape Mount among the Vai people. This hundred baptized converts. The following year he
school was an especially satisfying project for began Serampore College to train pastors. How-
Carey who, unlike other settlers, had a great zeal ever, as the mission grew, serious internal prob-
162
Cargo Cults
lems developed, which eventually caused a split male culture and that of the host people she
in the mission in 1826. loved so much.
Careys wife Dorothy died in 1807 and he re- ELEANOR M. JACKSON
married within a year, much to the consternation
Bibliography. D. Cargill, Memoir of Mrs. Margaret
of his fellow missionaries. His colleagues also felt Cargill; M. Dickson, The Inseparable Grief: Margaret
that Careys children suffered because of his Cargill of Fiji; E. R. Pitman, Lady Pioneers in Many
heavy workload and the lack of discipline. An- Lands; G. S. Rowe, ed., Fiji and the Fijans by Thomas
other grievous setback was the loss of his manu- Williams and Missionary Labours among the Cannibals
scripts in a fire in 1812, but he zealously plunged by James Calvert.
into his work again.
Careys fatherhood of modern Protestant mis- Cargo Cults. Cargo cults are distinctive manifes-
sions is seen in the fact that his basic strategies of tations of a cultural phenomenon indigenous to
work have been followed ever since: BIBLE TRANS- Melanesia. They share much in common with
LATION and production, EVANGELISM, CHURCH other revitalization movements and NEW RELI-
PLANTING, EDUCATION, and MEDICAL AND RELIEF GIOUS MOVEMENTS (NERMS). Such movements
WORK. Although Carey had a high regard for In- have often posed a threat to missions and INDIGE-
dian culture, he fought against widow burning NOUS CHURCHES.
and infanticide. He left his mark on India, while The term cargo cult focuses on the most no-
in both Europe and North America his zeal for table aspect, the expectation of acquiring large
world missions provided the impetus for a re- quantities of material goods. The Melanesian use
markable upsurge in missionary vision, the start- of the term kago refers to a restoration of a
ing of new mission societies, and the sending of primeval, idyllic order. The cult anticipates a so-
thousands of missionaries. cioeconomic and spiritual renewal that involves
JIM REAPSOME a radical change in the existing socioeconomic
Bibliography. M. Drewery, William Carey: A Biogra- order. There is an expectation of peace, health,
phy; T. George, Faithful Witness: The Life and Mission of social justice, and material prosperity that re-
William Carey. sembles the Jewish SHALOM but can also be cos-
mic in dimension.
Cargill, Margaret (180940). English pioneer Traditional MYTH provides the indigenous so-
missionary to Fiji. Born the second daughter of a cioreligious ideology for many of the known
naval captain, she was educated at home by her movements. The relevant myth frequently ex-
widowed mother. She proved to be an energetic, presses how there was an idyllic state in the
devoted, well-read Sunday school teacher. She primeval past that was destroyed or lost due to
and David Cargill were married in 1832 when he some failure on the part of the mythical ances-
was ordained a Wesleyan missionary to Tonga. tors. Arising from the myth there are aspirations
They sailed to Tonga, where he began his labors for the primeval idyllic state to be restored in the
to translate the New Testament into Tongan. present. Magical-literal understanding of the
Later, they were sent to Lakemba, Fijian, where process of cause and effect gives the movements
he began his work with Fijan dialects. Cargill their particular expression while the use of rituals
herself proved to be an adept linguist, a skilled of analogy and reenactment is thought to bring
nurse (nicknamed the lady with the gentle about the desired effect. The existence of cargo-
spirit), hospitable, and able to adapt to privation istic ideology alone, however, does not always re-
and the hostile monsoon climate. In each station sult in a cult movement. A situation of cultural
she organized educational classes for women and stress caused by a sense of deprivation, such as
girls, also becoming a class leader in the Rewan may occur in the presence of a superior culture,
congregation and a valued counselor of Christian is a common precursor to a movement. Then the
and nonbeliever alike. Her diplomatic skills availability of a charismatic or prophetic leader
helped ensure the survival of the precarious per- often catalyzes cargoistic ideology into a cargo
secuted Tongan congregations in Fiji. Though oc- movement.
casionally tormented by homesickness, her faith, The classical cargo movements have not been
trust, and joy, especially after the Tongan revival so common in recent years due to economic
of 1835, enabled her to support her melancholy progress and acculturation. Nevertheless, the ide-
and introspective husband. After transfer to ology and thinking processes behind them are
Rewa she succumbed to the effects of a hurri- still evident and are thought to provide the dy-
cane, fever, anxieties arising from witnessing con- namic for secessionist, nationalistic, and political
stant warfare and cannibalism, a sixth pregnancy movements as well as community development
in eight years, and dysentery. Cargill is an early enterprises. Under Christian influences cargoistic
example of the role independent-minded mis- ideology may provide the dynamic for people
sionary wives could play as evangelists and edu- movements to embrace the gospel. The ideology
cators in bridging the gulf between Victorian and thought processes may result in SYNCRETISM,
163
Cargo Cults
spirit-revival movements within the church, and history of social uprisings, progressive labor
independent churches. unions, and populist parties, the most recent led
Missions and national churches need to take by Maurice Bishop in Grenada and Michael
the spiritual-social aspects expressed in the Manley in Jamaica.
movements seriously because they reflect the As a consequence, the insular Caribbean, in-
concerns of the practitioners. Missions and na- cluding the Greater Antilles (Cuba, the island of
tional churches should seek to ameliorate cargo- Hispaniola [occupied by the Dominican Repub-
istic tendencies by preaching a holistic salvation lic and Haiti], Jamaica, and Puerto Rico) and the
and practicing the presence of the KINGDOM OF Lesser Antilles, the archipelago that extends from
GOD in power and lifestyle. Church and mission the Bahamas in the north to Trinidad off the
should also enable indigenous peoples to under- Venezuelan coast, offers a complex social profile.
stand economic processes and the concept of lin- While the islands are distinguished by their geo-
ear history as the context of Gods revelation. logic origins and their location (e.g., the northern
ALBERT F. TUCKER Lesser Antilles are known as the Leeward Islands
and the southern as the Windwards), more often
Bibliography. W. Flannery, ed., Religious Movements the islands are grouped according to their former
in Melanesia Today; E. Mantovani, ed., An Introduction
to Melanesian Religions; G. Strelan, Search for Salvation.
or actual colonial status: the former Spanish pos-
sessions of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and
Puerto Rico; the several British islands of Ja-
Caribbean. The nations of the Caribbean have a maica and the Lesser Antilles, the Bahamian and
diverse population of 40 million people who oc- Cayman clusters, and Trinidad and Tobago; the
cupy twenty-five major islands and hundreds of French possessions of Haiti, Guadeloupe, Mar-
smaller ones. The region has long been referred tinique, Saint Martin, and Saint Bathlemy; the
to as a Naboths vineyard, an unspoiled natural Dutch possessions of Aruba, Bonaire, Curaao,
paradise whose serenity, resources, and vulnera- Saint Martin, Saba, and Saint Eustatius; and the
bility have led frequently to political intervention, Virgin Islands, which the United States pur-
economic exploitation, and cultural intrusion. chased from Denmark in 1917.
Three hundred years of competition between the The Caribbean population is ethnically 35 per-
Spanish, French, Dutch, and British empires, a cent Afro-Caribbean, 31 percent Creole-mulatto,
later hegemony by the United States, interna- 30 percent European, and 4 percent Asian. The
tional commercial and tourist development, and few thousand Amerindians who survive are the
ideological tensionsthe most recent of which remnants of the native Carib and Arawak popu-
have been caused by Fidel Castros communist lations that probably numbered at least
Cubahave given the Caribbean a colorful but 300,000if not as many as one millionat the
often tragic history. The religious picture that fol- time of European intrusion. Linguistically, 60
lows from these conditions is a blurred mosaic of percent of the population speak Spanish, 20 per-
churches, social movements, and cults that to a cent French, 17 percent English, and 3 percent
large extent recapitulate the regions turbulent Dutch.
past. The Religious Profile. The religious prefer-
The nature of Christianity in the Caribbean ences of the Caribbean peoples correspond
follows from three basic facts of the regions so- roughly to their ethnic and national origins.
cial history. First, its ethnic composition is the Roman Catholics make up 60 percent of the pop-
result of the virtual elimination of the indige- ulation, Protestants 20 percent, spiritists 9 per-
nous peoples within decades of the discovery of cent, and members of Eastern religionsHINDUS,
the islands in the late fifteenth century and the BUDDHISTS, SIKHS, MUSLIMS, and BAHAISabout 3
introduction of perhaps as many as 5 million percent. An estimated 9 percent of the inhabi-
African slaves over a period of three centuries to tants are considered nonreligious. The JEHOVAHS
support production of sugar, the regions main WITNESSES, with some members in most of the is-
cash crop. Second, the Caribbean has a frag- lands, claim 50,000 in the French territories of
mented religious and cultural character as a re- Haiti, Martinique, and Guadeloupe.
sult of European imperial rivalry, its proximity The Roman Catholic traditions of the peoples
to mainland North and South America, and the of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto
importation of indentured workers, including Rico, who together account for more than half of
East Indian laborers in the nineteenth century. the total Caribbean population, are a product of
Third, notwithstanding the high mortality rates the early missionaries and a colonial administra-
in the region from endemic disease and unhy- tion that lasted in the case of Cuba and Puerto
gienic conditions, the Caribbean in the twentieth Rico for four hundred years, from 1492 to the
century had continuing appeal as a paradise, not Spanish-American War of 1898. Consequently,
only for tourism and commercial exploitation, the Roman Catholic Church in the region bene-
but for political and social experimentation. Be- fits from deep religious loyalties, even in Puerto
sides Cuban socialism, the region has had a long Rico, where an evangelical minority has assumed
164
Caribbean
an important role, and in Cuba, where ATHEISM cult or cultural relic, spiritism at times has given
prevails officially. rise to organized political-religious movements of
The picture is quite different in the colonies protest and rebellion (see LATIN AMERICAN NEW
and former dependencies of the British Empire, RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS). On a smaller but not
including Jamaica, the Bahamas, Bermuda, Bar- unimportant scale, indigenous Holiness, Pente-
bados, Trinidad, and several of the Lesser An- costal, and charismatic movements have emerged
tilles. There Anglicans and Methodists, dating in several of the islands; and some mainland mis-
from British colonial days, tend to predominate. sionary ventures, notably those of the Seventh-
On the island of Anguilla, for example, the Day Adventists, have established important reli-
Protestant population reaches 90 percent, and on gious beachheads.
several others, Antigua and Barbuda, the British The relative lack of spiritual inertia of the con-
Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, temporary Caribbean region stands in contrast to
Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the Turks and Caicos the vitality of evangelical Christians in the nine-
Islands, the proportion is above 80 percent. Nev- teenth and early twentieth centuries. In earlier
ertheless, observers sometimes conclude, nomi- decades the Caribbean Protestant churches ex-
nal adherence with little commitment character- hibited considerable vision for evangelizing their
izes the faith of many Caribbean Protestants. own peoples and sending missions to West Africa.
In contrast, Roman Catholic influence predom- Nowhere in the Caribbean except in Puerto Rico
inates in the island societies that formed under and Jamaica is there presently an island popula-
French cultural influenceeven those like Do- tion whose evangelical (as contrasted with nomi-
minica, Grenada, and Saint Lucia, which later nal Protestant) Christians demonstrate notable
came under British jurisdictionalthough with- evangelistic fervor. In only five of twenty-six juris-
out the status and public support that the Catholic dictions do evangelical Protestants account for
Church has enjoyed in the former Spanish posses- more than a quarter of the population. In twelve
sions. Although Haitis evangelical population is of these island units the proportion is less than 15
substantialas much as a quarter of that countrys percent. Nevertheless, on some islands the better-
7 millionprolonged and sometimes intensive ef- established churches and various Baptist, Holi-
fort at Protestant evangelization has not altered ness, and Pentecostal groups appear to be making
the essential character of Haitian culture, and the headway. In several of the islands the largest or
Protestant community in the other French areas is second largest Protestant group is the Seventh-
generally much smaller, as low as only 4.1 percent Day Adventists.
of the inhabitants of Guadeloupe. Pervasive Spiritism. The mainly Afro-
Two other patterns are observable in the Carib- Caribbean and Creole-mulatto character of the
beans religious configuration. In the Dutch is- island population has important religious and
lands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaao, nominally cultural overtones. While Europeans of Spanish
Catholic societies, the evangelical population is descent make up substantial proportions in Cuba
quite small, as it is also in the Virgin Islands of the and Puerto Rico, the other European populations
United States, the Cayman Islands, and the Ba- are but a small minority of their respective island
hamas, where also the process of SECULARIZATION societies. From the Afro-Caribbean cultural ma-
is well advanced. In contrast, in Trinidad, along jority have emerged strong religious influences,
with the mainland states of Guyana and Surinam, such as Afro-Cuban Santera, Jamaican Rastafar-
substantial numbers of East Indians form Hindu ianism, and Trinidadian Shango and Obeah.
and Muslim communities that retain distinctive Spiritists (Voodoo, Vodun) acquired political im-
religious practices and compete with the previ- portance in Haiti during the years of the dictator
ously established Afro-Caribbean communities for Franois Papa Doc Duvalier, and Rastafarian-
recognition and control. ism, which identified in the postWorld War II
These descriptive categories, however, indicate period with Emperor Haile Selassie, has gained
little about the human aspirations and the reli- support in Jamaica. These, however, are only the
gious dynamics of the area. The religious frame- more formalized traditions among the many folk
work must be understood within the context of an practices deeply embedded in the traditional cul-
exploitative slave and racial caste system, a strati- ture. Not atypically, half of the people of the Do-
fied white society, large numbers of white inden- minican Republic are believed to engage in oc-
tured (often Irish Catholic) servants, an imposed, cult practices. While spiritist cults may not
accommodating, dominant religion, whether always be a defiant obstacle to evangelical Chris-
Protestant or Catholic, a tradition of authoritar- tianity in the region, they fortify latent resistance
ian government, ongoing struggles for freedom to forms of Christianity that were once the reli-
and identity, and in more recent decades consid- gion of the colonial, slaveholding European mi-
erable overpopulation and consequent emigration nority. Only where evangelical Protestantism has
and, often, a sense of hopelessness and futility. accommodated popular cultural forms has it
The religious recourse has often been Afro- taken root and grown, such as in the case of the
Caribbean spiritism. More than merely a personal nineteenth-century revivalist movement in Ja-
165
Caribbean
maica and twentieth-century Pentecostalism in island societies these largely independent and
Puerto Rico. often socially marginal Pentecostal and Holiness
Scholars who have investigated spiritist move- churches have provided the only assertive evan-
ments throughout the region see them appealing gelical leadership.
not only to the Afro-Caribbean peasants and re- The North American missionary force in the
cent migrants to the cities, but to established Caribbean includes 1,128 career (four years or
urban residents as well. As survival mechanisms longer) Protestant missionaries, one missionary
that thrive in small underground groups, they for each 35,000 inhabitants. Europe has sent
satisfy the need for reassurance in an uncertain, fewer than 100 Protestant missionaries. The
often hostile world. Spiritism and Christianity North American denominations supporting the
are not mutually exclusive for many adherents. largest numbers of overseas personnel are the
The eclectic sponge-like quality of spiritism en- Christian Churches/Churches of Christ with 86
ables it to survive among the various competing missionaries (with the largest contingents in
religions, explains anthropologist Joan D. Koss. Puerto Rico and Haiti) and the Southern Baptist
In comparing Haitian Vodun and Pentecostalism, Convention with 96 missionaries (27 in the Do-
Luther P. Gerlach finds many structural similar- minican Republic and 17 in the Trinidad and To-
ities between the two. Both religions conceive of bago). By comparison, the Roman Catholic per-
a world of powerful supernatural forces and sonnel at work in the Caribbean total 5,210
practice spirit possession. Both are characterized religious, five times the number of Protestant
by tight-knit local cells linked together in poly- missionaries. Not to be overlooked, however, are
cephalous overlapping networks. This design, the many missionaries sent from one Caribbean
Gerlach argues, is eminently suited to survival. island to another, and, increasingly, the expatri-
These groups keep a low profile and are tolerated ate West Indians in the United Kingdom who are
by political authorities because, on the one hand, returning to evangelize their homelands.
they appear to be harmless and, on the other, An Assessment. The extremely diverse and
may be useful as a counterforce among the often opposing cultural and religious traditions
masses to the more powerful established reli- of the Caribbean preclude easy generalization
gions. But despite some similarities, the two con- about the spiritual needs. With the exception of
sider each other to be implacable enemies. Spiri- several of the larger islands, the evangelical
tists attempt to manipulate the spirit world, churches have not acquired the strength and au-
asserts Gerlach, while evangelical Protestants ex- tonomy that would permit them to radically in-
orcise evil spirits and submit to the Holy Spirit. fluence the lives of their own peoples or send
Anthropologist William Wedenoja has pointed missionaries abroad. In this respect Puerto Rico
out that the conditions that gave rise to evangeli- and Jamaica stand apart, having developed
cal groups in Jamaica, notably Pentecostalism, strong evangelical communities, benefiting origi-
have also produced a growth in Rastafarianism, nally from Holiness and Pentecostal missionary
with many of the same tendencies to individual- efforts but now entirely independent and contex-
ism and egalitarianism. But Rastafarianism ap- tualized. It is estimated that 30 percent of the
peals most to the chronically unemployed black total population of Puerto Rico considers itself
urban youth who appear to be the victims of evangelical, the majority identified with one or
MODERNIZATION. While the movement has height- another Pentecostal denomination. While 165
ened social consciousness and created pride in foreign Protestant missionaries serve in Puerto
Jamaican indigenous culture, unlike Pentecostal- Rico, the island churches send 65 missionaries
ism it does not cut across racial, class, and cul- and a number of effective short-term evangel-
tural lines. istsabroad. In contrast, Protestants account for
The Evangelical Presence. Most of the evan- only 5 percent of the Dominican Republics pop-
gelical missionary focus has been on the larger ulation of 8 million and 2.5 percent of Cubas 11
islands, where Protestant evangelicals remain in million people.
the minority. On a limited scale, elements within Protestant evangelicals on Jamaica, on the
the established Protestant denominations have other hand, make up an estimated 18 percent of
provided the mechanism for kindling evangelical the population, the Protestant churches are well
sentiments. Often overlooked in the discussion of established, and forty missionaries have been
the Caribbean evangelical picture have been the sent out to other countries. In the wake of Afro-
homegrown Pentecostal groups, many of them Christian revival cults that emerged among the
receiving at least token support from North Jamaican masses from the 1860s to World
American denominations such as the Church of War II, Pentecostalism has in the period of mod-
God (Cleveland, Tennessee) and the Church of ernization from a peasant to an urban society, be-
God in Christ, but others like the Iglesia de Dios come the most dynamic Protestant movement on
Pentecostal in Puerto Rico are essentially au- the island. William Wedenoja identifies several
tochthonous religious expressions with little re- contrasting features of these groups, despite their
lation to any mainland organization. In several many similarities. While for the revivalists God
166
Caribbean New Religious Movements
and the angels are key deities, the Pentecostals formity to colonial Christian norms served as a
are christocentric; while the revivalists concen- cover for inward nonconformity. Movements in-
trate on the Old Testament, the Pentecostals clude Voodoo (Haiti); Convince, Kumina, Myal,
focus on the New Testament; while revivalists and Rastafarianism (Jamaica); Shango and
tend to authoritarian structures, Pentecostals Obeah (Trinidad); Abakua and Santria (Cuba);
tend to be more congregational. Wedenoja found and Kele (St. Lucia). In this article we will de-
that the trends were away from large, formal, scribe some of the more significant groups (for a
cold congregations in favor of churches that are treatment of the factors involved in their devel-
fervent, smaller, and more intimate. opment seen in light of the whole Caribbean his-
In a time of modernization and political inde- torical experience, see CARIBBEAN). It should be
pendence, as the old values and ways of life are noted that the selected groups introduced below
disintegrating, the majority of the Caribbean peo- can be characterized by the general themes de-
ples are caught in a bewildering transition. The scribed here, but within each movement there
labor unions and populist movements that are also multiple folk-level variations maintained
formed after World War I and the political exper- at the local level.
iments like those of Cuba, Trinidad, Grenada, Descriptions of Selected Movements. Con-
and Jamaica have sometimes given island inhab- vince rituals in Jamaica combine Christian and
itants nominal control, but with little sense of spiritistic elements. The most utilized spirits are
power, given the islands spare resources, stag- those of departed members, but African spirits
nant economics, and growing populations. Self- are the most powerful. Believers, called bongo
governing nations of the size of Antigua (64,000), men, can be controlled by more than one spirit
Grenada (84,000), and Dominica (86,000) are far simultaneously. Their rituals (some held annu-
too small to deal with the burgeoning problems. ally, others as need arises) include Christian
With only Trinidad in the Caribbean producing prayers and Bible readings, veneration of the
substantial quantities of petroleum, and with spirits, dancing and possession, and sacrifice.
their single-export (mainly sugar) economics hav- Various Rastafarian groups emerged from the
ing collapsed, these countries have turned in- black population of Jamaica in the 1930s. Rasta-
creasingly to tourism and offshore bankingand farians venerate Haile Selassie I, the former em-
the laundering of drug moneyto support their peror of Ethiopia, envisioning him as a black
peoples. As a result many young people have em- messiah who will liberate them from white op-
igrated to mainland countries or, having resigned pression. The earlier emphasis on repatriation to
themselves to a life with little promise for the fu- Africa has waned in contemporary times. Rasta-
ture, are living simply for the present. The high farians typically follow vegetarian dietary regula-
numbers of unmarried mothers and alarming in- tions, smoke marijuana, and wear their hair and
creases in crime document as much. For the beards in dredlocks. Their most prominent musi-
Caribbean peoples who have embraced it, how- cian, Bob Marley, popularized reggae music as a
ever, evangelical Protestantism offers the spiritual Rastafarian style.
resources either to ease the transition to modern In Trinidad Shango groups honor various spir-
life or to provide consolation for the sectors that itual powers. Shango (the Yoruba god of thunder
the modern world has simply passed by. and lightning) is one of many powers which may
EVERETT A. WILSON possess adherents. These powers include other
Yoruba deities as well as Christian figures. Each
Bibliography. L. P. Gerlach, Religious Movements in Shango cult center holds an annual four-day rit-
Contemporary America, pp. 68696; S. D. Glazier, ed., ual for the particular spirit recognized at that
Perspectives on Pentecostalism: Case Studies from the
Caribbean and Latin America; P. E. James and C. W.
center involving nightly prayer (including Chris-
Minkel, Latin America, 5th ed.; J. D. Koss, Caribbean tian prayers), drumming and singing, possession,
Studies 16 (April 1976): 43; A. Lampe, The Church in and culminating with animal sacrifice.
Latin America, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Voodoo (or vodun or vodou) originated in Haiti
Brief History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the in the late 1700s. Separated from their home, the
Carib to the Present; W. Wedenoja, Perspectives on Pen- slave populations fused a variety of belief systems
tecostalism: Case Studies from the Caribbean and Latin and practices and developed a religion strong
America, p. 44. enough to withstand later French persecution.
Usually centered on a temple, the ceremonies are
Caribbean New Religious Movements. As with festivals in which spirit possession is prominent.
the LATIN AMERICAN NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS, In it the spirits (lwa), who range from African
many of the spiritistic groups in the Caribbean deities to stereotyped Christian saints, are
can trace their origination to the atrocities of the thought to ride the participants like horses. They
slave trade and the need for the populations who provide protection for the possessed, so long as
had been forcibly removed from their homes to the devotees maintain an appropriate schedule of
maintain some frame of religious identity. Often sacrifices and offerings. Popularized through
that identity was underground, and outward con- practices such as zombi (in which a living per-
167
Caribbean New Religious Movements
sons mind is altered so that he or she comes Bibliography. E. Elliot, A Chance to Die: The Life and
under the control of evil practitioners) and Legacy of Amy Carmichael; F. Houghton, Amy
voodoo dolls (which are magically linked to an Carmichael of Dohnavur: The Story of a Lover and Her
Beloved; E. Skoglund, Amma: The Life and Words of
intended victim whose pain parallels damage
Amy Carmichael.
done to the doll), voodoo is widely known outside
of the Caribbean.
Missionary Implications. The historical con- Carver, William Owen (18681954). American
early missiologist, theologian, and educator. A na-
nection of the spiritist religions to the trauma of
tive of Tennessee, Carver studied at Richmond
the slave trade, their ability to meet important felt
College in Virginia and Southern Baptist Theolog-
needs in their adherents whose lives are often
ical Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky. He joined
bound up in oppression and poverty, the emo-
the seminary faculty in the year of his graduation
tional ties of the followers to local leaders, the (1896) and served there until his retirement in
perception that Christianity and spiritistic prac- 1943. Although he had received his doctorate in
tices can be readily mixed, and the ingrained abil- New Testament, he followed in the steps of H. H.
ity to present one appearance on the surface and Harris in teaching missions and in 1899 became
keep deeply held values underneath make gen- the first professor in the newly created Depart-
uine conversion to Christianity a complex issue. ment of Comparative Religion and Missions. He
Missionaries working among these movements traveled to Europe in 1900 and 19078 to study
will need to consider all of these factors if they are missions there, and toured Baptist missions in
to enable the adherents to respond fruitfully to South America and Asia in 192223.
the claims of Christ as Lord over all of life. Through Carvers teaching, publications, and
EDITORS promotion of missions he profoundly influenced
SEE ALSO New Religious Movements. the Southern Baptist Convention. He wrote
twenty-one books in addition to many articles in
Bibliography. J. T. Houk, Spirits, Blood, and Drums: denominational periodicals and journals. Carver
The Orisha Religion in Trinidad; J. D. Koss, Caribbean contributed to the founding of the Womans Mis-
Studies 16 (April 1976); G. E. Simpson, Black Religions sionary Union Training School for Christian
in the New World; idem, ER 3:9098; L. E. Sullivan, Workers in Louisville (renamed the Carver
Icanchus Drum. School for Christian Work in 1953), the Southern
Baptist Historical Society, and the Historical
Carmichael, Amy Wilson (18671951). Irish Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention.
missionary to India. Born in Northern Ireland He was also a member of the American Theolog-
and converted in her teens, she was briefly a mis- ical Committee, a regional section of the World
sionary to Japan before going to South India in Conference on Faith and Order.
1895. She never returned home. Her Dohnavur GARY B. MCGEE
Fellowship at Tinnevelly was formed in 1901 to
Bibliography. H. G. Culpepper in ML, pp. 8592;
rescue little girls forced into temple prostitution. W. O. Carver, Out of His Treasure: Unfinished Memoirs.
The task called for unusual and often misunder-
stood sacrifice. Everything was subordinated to
Cary, Maude (18781967). American pioneer
the claims of the children, even evangelistic
missionary to Morocco. Born on a farm in
tours. In 1926 the Dohnavur Fellowship became Kansas, she was converted when a traveling
an independent society of some nine hundred en- evangelist preached in her deeply religious home.
dangered girls and boys. The work involved long, At age eighteen she enrolled at the Gospel Mis-
weary trips all over India, sometimes fruitless, in sionary Union Bible Institute in Kansas City,
search of children. Those who arrived were cared Missouri, and in 1901 sailed for Morocco. She
for, educated, and trained for lives of service. was to labor there for fifty years despite a disas-
Carmichael exposed what the Sunday School trous initial two years when colleagues accused
Chronicle called a wickedness and degradation her of frivolity and a lack of piety. Fortunately,
so colossal and so deep-seated that missionary the mission let her stay. Her fianc fled to the
efforts seemed powerless, yet it never lessened Sudan rather than admit she was not the meek
her faith. She set high spiritual standards for her- missionary wife he wanted, causing her much
self and a growing body of colleagues. Despite anguish. By now fluent in Arabic and Berber, she
crippling disability after a fall in 1931, she car- soldiered on, taking her first furlough in 1924. By
ried on, not least in producing remarkable prose, 1939 the three established stations were being
poetry, and letters that went worldwide. Among run by four women; the work miraculously sur-
them were Things As They Are (1903), Over- vived throughout World War II almost un-
weights of Joy (1906), Gold Cord (1932), If (1938), scathed. In 1948 there were eleven missionaries,
and Rose from Brier (1950). so Cary conducted the language school and at
J. D. DOUGLAS age seventy-one opened a new station at El Hajeb
168
Caste
and a Bible institute. She needed medical treat- form. No historical records exist for this period,
ment (195255) but returned as the mission blos- but from the hymns, legends, and other accounts,
somed in 1955 with the ending of French colo- it seems that the social system of the newcomers
nial occupation. In her final years she saw the was composed of four major divisions: the brah-
fruit of her patient labors teaching the Bible, but mana, a sacerdotal or priestly category; the ra-
in the year of her death the Moroccan govern- janya, a chiefly, noble, or warrior category; the
ment closed down all foreign missions lest they vaisya, who were variously perceived as common-
create political unrest. ers, farmers, or merchants; and the sudra, a cate-
ELEANOR M. JACKSON gory of servants or commoners of a lower status.
Social anthropologists suggest that the persist-
Bibliography. E. Stenbock, Miss Terri: The Story of
Maude Cary, Pioneer CMU Missionary in Morocco; R. A. ent feature of Indian society has been the exis-
Tucker, FJIJ. tence of endogamous descent groups (a system in
which people must marry within their own
Casalis, Eugene (181291). French pioneer mis- group). Over time such groups were integrated
sionary to Lesotho. At age twenty-one he was into local hierarchical systems of cooperation
sent out by the PARIS EVANGELICAL MISSIONARY SO- and interdependence. The caste system typically
CIETY. Lesotho was selected due to South Africas
includes the following components: (1) a local
mix of European settlers, including French population composed of the series of mutually
Huguenots as French Protestants were not wel- exclusive castes; (2) segments structured by caste
come in French colonies. After founding a station in endogamous descent groups, ideally related
at Morija in 1833, he established one in 1835 at unilineally; (3) a dominant caste with political
Thaba-Boisu, the residence of Moshoeshoe I, the and economic power over the others; (4) an oc-
chief of the Lesotho tribe. His accomplishments cupational specialty related to each caste; (5) a
over the following twenty years included transla- ritual system of exchange of food, goods, and
tion of the Gospels, ethnographic studies, and services concerned with purity and pollution as
serving as advisor to the chief in an important well as economics; (6) a ranking of each caste ac-
diplomatic role. cording to their respective degrees of pollution.
Furloughed over 184950, Casalis preached Various movements to reform the caste system
and rekindled a missionary passion across have made some impact on the traditional struc-
France. His success in motivating others resulted ture. Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity have all
in his appointment six years later to direct the made inroads into caste norms. It is significant,
mission. He established a training program and however, that most of the reform movements
oversaw the successful opening of new fields have resulted in castes of their own, evolving into
(Tahiti and Senegal in 1862, after unsuccessful exclusive, endogamous sects. Mahatma Gandhis
attempts in China and Mauritius in 1860). programs were aimed at the removal of the caste
Casalis retired in 1882 and died in 1891. He was system, but the divisions persist even under mod-
the first Protestant missionary honored by mem- ern pressures of Westernization. Since caste in
bership in the Legion dHonneur. India has always functioned as a powerful reli-
JOHN EASTERLING gious system of belief, movements to lessen the
influence or abolish the caste system have so far
Bibliography. E. Casalis, The Basutos, or Twenty- failed.
three Years in South Africa. Christian missions have for the most part ig-
nored caste distinctions. Those who join a Chris-
Caste. A hereditary division of any society into tian church are compelled to join a church com-
classes on the basis of occupation, color, wealth, munity outside the caste system, automatically
or religion. More specifically, in HINDUISM, caste forcing them downward from all their social and
(jati) is the permanent social group into which a family relationships. Indications are that people
person is born, with social and religious obliga- would become Christians more readily if they
tions determined for a lifetime by ones caste. were able to remain in their own social grouping.
The beginnings of the caste system in India are And yet many Christians maintain that the free-
thought to date back to the invasion of Indo- dom found in new life in Christ (Gal. 3:2629;
European Aryans (or Vedic peoples) who mi- Eph. 2) transcends the divisions of caste, and
grated into the Indus Valley about 1000 B.C. Varna that the gospel challenges injustices associated
refers to the social divisions believed to have been with caste.
characteristic of these people. One theory is that NORMAN E. ALLISON
the organization of castes was based on varna
(color). Aryans were light, while the invaded peo- SEE ALSO Association AND Kinship.
ples were dark. Others believe stratification re- Bibliography. P. Kolenda, Caste in Contemporary India:
sulted in castes developing from social classes or Beyond Organic Solidarity; W. Matthews, World Religions;
other types of differences. During this early pe- M. N. Srinivas, Caste in Modern India and Other Essays;
riod, groups and strata of Hindu society began to R. D. Winter and D. A. Fraser, PWCM, pp. B:193212.
169
Castro, Emilio
Castro, Emilio (1927). Uruguayan Methodist PATRICK, born about 389 in a Christian family in
pastor, missiologist, and ecumenical leader. He Britain, who was kidnapped as a teenager and
received his theological training at Union Theo- taken to Ireland, where he was a slave for six
logical Seminary in Bueno Aires, and the Univer- years. After his escape he studied, was ordained
sity of Basel, under Karl Barth. He has held pas- a priest, and in 432, in response to a vision, re-
torates in Argentina, Bolivia, and Uruguay and turned to Ireland as a missionary bishop, where
served as president of the Evangelical Methodist he remained until his death (c. 461). His ministry
Church of Uruguay. At the same time he held key led to the conversion of thousands, the ordina-
positions as vice president of CPC (Christian tion of priests, and the establishment of monas-
Peace Conference), executive secretary of ASIT teries, which became centers of evangelization,
(South American Association of Theological learning, and civilization.
Schools), and general secretary and coordinator Patricks theology was evangelical; he quoted
of UNELAM (Commission for Evangelical Unity the Bible frequently, especially Romans. A man of
in Latin America). He was director of the WCC deep spirituality and prayer, his greatest desire
COMMISSION ON WORLD MISSION AND EVANGELISM was to spread the gospel. The Irish monasteries
and editor of The International Review of Mission, became known as seminaries for the study of
and from 1985 to 1992 served as general secre- Scripture and for strict discipline, drawing stu-
tary of the WCC and editor of Ecumenical Re- dents from the Continent and England. Streams
view, residing in Geneva. In 1993 he returned to of dedicated men poured from them to go on pil-
his native Uruguay to continue ministry as a pas- grimages for Christ wherever they might feel led.
tor and evangelist. Many of his articles, reports, In 563 COLUMBA landed at Iona in Scotland with
and books, in both English and Spanish, have twelve companions and established monasteries
played a key role in the development of a genuine from which missionaries went to barbarian
Latin American pastoral theology, as well as tribes, north into Scotland and south into En-
made a significant contribution to the meaning gland. They were more effective in evangelizing
of mission from his unique perspective England than were the missionaries from Rome,
PABLO E. PREZ led by AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY.
Beginning in 590 COLUMBANUS established
monasteries that evangelized barbarian tribes in
Cayman Islands (Est. 2000 pop.: 36,000; 259 sq.
Burgundy while bringing a measure of renewal
km. [100 sq. mi.]). Consisting of three sparsely
to the Frankish church. Expelled by the corrupt
populated islands located just south of Cuba, the
court, he established other houses in Switzerland
Caymans are a British Crown colony. Thirty per-
and northern Italy.
cent of the population is from Britain, Canada, or
The Celtic movement differed from the Roman
the United States. Like the Bahamas and the church on several issues: the dating of Easter, the
neighboring Turks and Caicos groups, the thin- tonsure of the monks, and, most important, sub-
soiled, low-lying Cayman Islands were inhabited mission to the authority of Rome. But at the
mainly by fishermen until offshore financial Synod of Whitby in 664 the movement began to
companies and tourist hotels began to prolifer- come under the authority of Rome. Two of the
ate. Grand Cayman quickly became second only greatest Celtic missionaries were consecrated as
to the Bahamas as a financial center, registering missionary bishops by Rome. WILLIBRORD
500 banks and 18,000 other companies. The tiny (658739) evangelized the Frisians, and BONIFACE
islands had one-half million guests annually in became the apostle to central Germany. He was
the late 1980s. The population is 80 percent martyred in 753.
Protestant. The Celtic missionaries were characterized by
EVERETT A. WILSON spontaneity, a lack of traditionalism, and rugged
SEE ALSO Caribbean. individualism. They went where others would not
go, without credentials or material support, self-
Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer- reliant, trusting in God, and accomplished much
ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His- more than their numbers would warrant. Theirs
tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to was a type of monasticism that was ardently mis-
the Present.
sionary; thus the monastery was not a place of re-
treat from the world but a place of preparation
Cell Groups. See SMALL GROUPS. for mission. Women played an important role in
the Irish church, and Boniface used communities
The Celtic Missionary Movement. Ardently of women in mission, perhaps for the first time.
missionary, with a strong focus on Scripture and Many of the Celtic institutions and much of the
personal piety, the Celtic movement had a major movement were destroyed by the Viking invasions
impact on the evangelization of the British Isles, in the eighth and ninth centuries. Yet the vigor of
western Europe, and northern Europe in the fifth the tradition continued in England to some de-
through tenth centuries. The founder was gree. Missionaries from England coming from
170
Cheng, Ching-yi
Celtic roots were used to bring the Scandinavians Central African Republic (Est. 2000 pop.:
into the Christian faith in the tenth century. 3,731,000; 662,984 sq. km. [240,534 sq. mi.]). The
PAUL E. PIERSON Central African Republic is a landlocked state
and home to over fifty tribal languages. With a
SEE ALSO Monastic Movement. broad diversity of religious groups, the Central
Bibliography. R. P. C. Hanson, The Life and Writings African Republic enjoys freedom of religion with
of the Historical Saint Patrick; L. Hardinge, The Celtic remarkable success in evangelism.
Church in Britain; J. T. McNeill, The Celtic Churches, a Muslims, mostly Sunnis of the Malekite rite
History, A.D. 2001200. (3.3%), are strongest among non-Africans, con-
centrating among nomads in the north along the
Centenary Conference on the Protestant Mis- Sudanese border. Tribal religions (5%) are pro-
sions of the World (London, 1888). Meeting at fessed by a minority within each tribe, with the
Exeter Hall June 919, 1888, this was the largest, exception of the Binga Pygmies (99%) and Mbi-
most representative interdenominational, inter- mou (60%).
national missions assembly to that date. Meant Catholics arrived in 1894, opening the first
to celebrate the first 100 years of modern mis- mission at Bangui. Elevated to a vicariate in
sions advance, the centennial name marked no 1937, the church now consists of five dioceses
specific anniversary. Present were 1,579 delegates under an African archbishop. Christianity grew
from 139 denominations and societies represent- rapidly after territorial independence in 1959,
ing 10 countries, including a coterie of non-West- when professing Christians grew from 42 percent
erners. Great Britain and her colonies dominated Protestant to 47 percent in 1975. Catholicism saw
the roster; 219 from 67 societies represented a 4 percent rise from 28 percent, making this
North America and 41 from 18 societies came growth the most dramatic in Africa. The Baptist
from continental Europe. Most females attending Mid-Missions arrived in 1920, followed a year
were wives of male delegates, though a few later by the Church of the Brethren mission
women gave speeches. which sponsored a hospital, dispensaries, Bible
Sixteen public assemblies surveyed the worlds schools, and a school of theology. The Sudan
mission fields; more sensitive topics were ad- Mission, started by Lutherans in 1923, was later
dressed in twenty-two closed sessions, which dis- assisted by the American Lutheran Church and
cussed womens work, education, literature, med- the Church of Norway.
icine, native churches, polygamy, the opium and The Association of Central African Evangelical
liquor trades, inter-mission competition, and Churches was organized in 1974 to facilitate co-
other issues. Meeting at the zenith of the Euro- operation between Protestant denominations.
pean imperialist era, speakers assumed Western Two years later, the interdenominational Bangui
colonialism to be advantageous for missions and Evangelical School of Theology opened, offering
the gospel as civilizer. Procedural rules prohib- higher degrees in theology.
ited the adoption of formal positions, which GARY LAMB
aided a spirit of generic evangelical comity. An at- Bibliography. D. B. Barrett, WCE.
tempt to launch a permanent international com-
mittee to facilitate inter-mission cooperation was Cheng, Ching-yi (18811939). Chinese indige-
unsuccessful. A postconference caucus did vote nous church leader. Son of a pastor of a church
to petition governments to end the opium, liquor, of the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, Cheng be-
firearms, and slave trades. came pastor of the Mi Shih Street Church of
Though some delegates were disappointed at Christ in China. He assisted in translating the
the lack of specific results, outcomes of the Lon- Union Version of the Chinese Bible while in
don Conference included an overall raised con- Britain in 1903, and gave a memorable speech at
sciousness and support level for foreign missions; the WORLD MISSIONARY CONFERENCE in Scotland
America assuming more contribution and leader- in 1910. He declared that Chinese Christians
ship for world missions; the establishment of the were not interested in Western denominations. In
Worlds Missionary Committee of Christian 1912 and 1913 he was interpreter as JOHN R.
Women and what later became the Foreign Mis- MOTT visited China on behalf of the WMCs Con-
sions Conference of North America, important for tinuation Committee. Cheng served as the secre-
the later ecumenical movement. Additionally the tary of the China Continuation Committee
precedent was set for the decennial megaconfer- (191322), and was instrumental in organizing
ences in New York (1900) and Edinburgh (1910). the National Christian Conference in Shanghai
THOMAS A. ASKEW (1922). He served as the secretary of the National
Bibliography. T. A. Askew, IBMR 18 (1994): 11316; Christian Council (192434), and from 1934 as
W. R. Hogg, Ecumenical Foundations; J. E. Johnston, the secretary of the Church of Christ in China, a
ed., Report of the Centenary Conference on the Protestant union denomination made up of Presbyterian,
Missions of the World, 2 vols. Congregational, and Methodist congregations or-
171
Cheng, Ching-yi
ganized in 1927. Thus he embodied the move- gerous work: once Chalmers and his wife were
ment of Chinese churches to unite the works of threatened by the stark ultimatum, Presentsor
various missions, and to shape their own min- death. Slowly, however, they won the trust of the
istry and theology in the Chinese context. Cheng local peoples. As he furthered the work of evan-
was one of the organizers of the INTERNATIONAL gelization and education Chalmers wrote, It is
MISSIONARY COUNCIL (1921), and served as vice not the preaching of a sermon so much as living
president from 1928 to 1938. the life that tells on the native heart. An advo-
SAMUEL LING cate of INDIGENOUS CHURCHES who sought to pre-
serve what was good in local customs, Chalmers
Chad (Est. 2000 pop.: 7,307,000; 1,284,000 sq. set up a string of mission posts, established a
km. [495,752 sq. mi.]). Chad is a land-locked training college, and shared his geographical in-
country located in north-central Africa. The pop- terests in Pioneer Life and Work in New Guinea
ulation is comprised of some 181 ethnic groups (1895). While pressing on into territory unknown
speaking 127 languages. Johnstone reports that it to Europeans, Chalmers was killed on Goaribari
has more unreached people groups than any Island, Papua.
other African country. Under French rule and J. D. DOUGLAS
protection since 1900, Chad achieved independ- Bibliography. D. Langmore: Missionary Lives:
ence in 1960. A variety of wars resulting from po- Papua, 18741914.
litical infighting along religious and ethnic lines
over the past thirty years and regular periods of
Chamberlain, Jacob (18351908). American
severe drought have left the country economi-
medical missionary to India. Born in Sharon,
cally devastated.
Connecticut, he was educated at Western Reserve
The single largest religion is Islam (almost
College, the New Brunswick (N.J.) Theological
46%), followed by Christianity (35%) and tradi-
Seminary, and the College of Physicians and Sur-
tional religions (19%). Islam arrived in the
geons, New York. In 1859 he sailed for India as a
eleventh century, though until recently it has been
medical missionary to the Arcot mission in
confined largely to the desert-dominated north
Madras under the appointment of the Dutch Re-
and eastern parts of the country. Of the Chris-
formed Board. He initially worked among the
tians, roughly 20 percent are Catholic and 14 per-
Tamils and was involved in teaching and admin-
cent Protestant. The first Catholic missionaries
istration at the Theological Seminary. In 1863 he
arrived in the 1600s, though the first permanent
was transferred to a district among people who
station was not established until 1929 and exten-
spoke the Telugu language.
sive work did not commence until 1947.
Combining his medical expertise with his evan-
The first Protestant missionaries, Rev. and Mrs.
gelistic endeavors, he often took lengthy and ar-
Berge Revnes with the Church of Lutheran
duous missionary journeys to places where the
Brethren, arrived in Chad in 1920. It took them
name of Jesus had never been heard. For many
four years to secure permission from the French
years he was the only physician in an area as
to evangelize. Workers from Christian Missions
large as his home state.
in Many Lands arrived in 1921, Baptist Mid-
His literary labors included involvement in
Missions began their work in 1925, and the
tract societies and overseeing the committee for
Sudan United Mission in 1927. By 1993, 249
the translation of the Bible in the Telugu lan-
Protestant missionaries representing 28 agencies
guage. He translated the liturgy of the Dutch Re-
were present in Chad. The vast bulk of mission-
formed Church, and also produced devotional
ary work has been confined to the non-Muslim
south. Also by 1993 a reported 54 Chad nationals works and a version of a hymnbook into the Tel-
served as missionaries in other countries. ugu language. In 1900 he represented the Re-
A. SCOTT MOREAU
formed Church at the ECUMENICAL MISSIONARY
CONFERENCE in New York City. The following year
Bibliography. D. W. Barrett, ed., WCE; P. Johnstone, he became the first moderator of the South India
OW. United Church Synod.
Chamberlain effectively used his medical and
Chalmers, James (18411901). Scottish mis- surgical work to open the way for Christian
sionary to the South Pacific. Born into a Scottish teaching. Considered one of the most enterpris-
stonemasons home in Ardrishaig, and converted ing of modern missionaries, he is credited in
at age fourteen, he worked briefly with the Glas- large measure for the marked success and rapid
gow City Mission before studying for the Congre- growth of the Christian church in India. His
gational ministry at Cheshunt College, Cam- amazing experiences became the primary mate-
bridge. Ordained in 1865, he trained further rial for tracts and books. His works include Reli-
under the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, and in gions of the Orient, The Kingdom in India, The
1867 was sent first to Raratonga in the Cook Is- Cobras Den, and In the Tiger Jungle.
lands, then in 1877 to New Guinea. It was dan- FLORENCE R. SCOTT
172
Charismatic Missions
Bibliography. J. C. Lambert, Missionary Knights of Influenced by D. L. MOODY and influencing

the Cross. BILLY SUNDAY, Chapman was among those on the
forefront of the efforts at using CRUSADE EVANGE-
Chambers, Oswald (18741917). Scottish au- LISM to reach American cities for Christ in the
thor, poet, and missionary to troops in Egypt. late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. His
Born in Aberdeen, the eighth of nine children in own mark was the development of the use of si-
a poor family serving the Baptist Church in Scot- multaneous campaigns in which multiple events
land, he received Christ as a teen while walking using varied means were held at the same time as
home after hearing Spurgeon preach. the central crusade helping to ensure a metropol-
Chambers talents are seen in his poetic, musi- itan area was blanketed with the gospel. His cru-
cal, and artistic abilities. At the conclusion of his sades were characterized by extensive prepara-
studies at the National Art Training School, he tion, a method emulated by many crusade
declined the offer of a two-year scholarship to evangelists today.
study art in Europe, having observed the spiritual A. SCOTT MOREAU
decline of others who followed that path. Eigh- Bibliography. J. P. Cogdill, A Major Stream of Ameri-
teen months into a two-year art program at Ed- can Mass Evangelism: The Ministries of R. A. Torrey,
inburgh, he followed Gods call to pursue minis- J. W. Chapman and W. E. Biederwolf; F. C. Oltman,
terial training. J. Wilbur Chapman: A Biography; E. Reese, The Life and
Throughout the rest of his life, Chambers Ministry of Wilbur Chapman, 18591918; P. C. Wilt,
preached, taught, and traveled (including a short DCA, pp. 24041.
trip to Japan and regular tours to teach in the
United States). His last field of service was in Charismatic Missionaries. See INDEPENDENT
Egypt, where, under the auspices of the YMCA, CHARISMATIC MISSIONARIES.
he and his family served the troops stationed
there during World War I. There he died from Charismatic Missions. The charismatic move-
complications after an emergency appendectomy, ment, also known as the charismatic renewal and
leaving behind his wife Gertrude (Biddy) and his Neo-Pentecostalism, is a worldwide revival move-
daughter Kathleen. ment, an extension of the Pentecostal revival that
Chambers is not remembered as much for his began around the turn of the century (see PENTE-
missionary service as he is for the inspiration he COSTAL MOVEMENT). While charismatics tend to
provided to countless missionaries through his emphasize the gifts of healing, prophecy, and
book My Utmost for His Highest, a compilation of words of knowledge over tongues, the distinction
daily devotionals put together by Biddy after between the two movements remains blurred.
Chambers death. Though her name nowhere ap- Walter Hollenweger refers to the charismatic
pears on the book, it is to her that the body of movement as Pentecostalism within the
Christ owes a debt of gratitude that can never be churches, while his student, Arnold Bittlinger,
repaid. includes Pentecostalism within his definition of
A. SCOTT MOREAU charismatic. Pentecostal healing ministries active
in the 1950s, such as those led by Oral Roberts,
Bibliography. D. McCasland, Oswald Chambers:
T. L. Osborn, and Jack Coe, attracted public at-
Abandoned to God.
tention and developed their following independ-
ent of the Pentecostal denominations which
Channel Islands. See UNITED KINGDOM DEPEN- spawned them. They were influential along with
DENT AREA (Est. 2000 pop: 152,000; 195 sq. km.
the Full Gospel Business Mens Fellowship, Inter-
[75 sq. mi.]). national, founded by Demos Shakarian, and
David Du Plessis, an ecumenical Pentecostal
Chapman, J. Wilbur (18591918). American cru- leader from South Africa, in bringing Pente-
sade evangelist. Born in Richmond, Indiana, he costalism into mainline Protestant churches. By
studied at Oberlin College, Lake Forest Univer- 1975, a strong charismatic influence was present
sity, and Lane Seminary (in Cincinnati). After his in all mainline American Protestant denomina-
ordination in the Presbyterian Church in 1882, tions, and the renewal was well under way within
he served for twenty years in the American Mid- the Roman Catholic Church.
west, stirring congregations to revival and be- The charismatic movement grew dramatically
coming one of the founders of the Winona Lake in the 1980s and 1990s. Jimmy Swaggert, Jim and
Bible Conference in 1885. Appointed a full-time Tammy Bakker, Kenneth Copeland, Kenneth
evangelist in 1903, he traveled internationally, Hagen, and others were affiliated with Pentecostal
conducting successful campaigns in Great denominations but maintained independent min-
Britain (1910 and 1914) and Australia (1909 and istries which attracted charismatic audiences.
1912). In 1917 he was elected general moderator They were joined by independent charismatic
of the Presbyterian Church U.S.A. ministries such as the Christian Broadcasting Net-
173
work, started by Pat Robertson, and the Trinity Its founder, Loren Cunningham, began with a vi-
Broadcasting Network of Paul Crouch to domi- sion to send young people from North America
nate Christian media and claim the allegiance of a around the world but quickly expanded to include
large part of Christian America. Renewal move- young people from every country. Another organi-
ments are evangelistic by nature, and most of zation, Christ for the Nations, founded by Gordon
these mega-ministries sought international visibil- Lindsay, claims to have planted over 8,500 congre-
ity to extend their influence. A conservative esti- gations around the world.
mate of the number of charismatics worldwide The Association of International Mission Agen-
is 150 million, including more than 3,000 new cies (AIMS) provides a much-needed structure
denominations. for charismatic mission outreach. Established in
Charismatics who remained in their denomi- 1985 to link churches, mission agencies, and
national churches had the benefit of established training institutions, AIMS facilitates coopera-
mission boards. As the renewal gained strength tion among charismatic agencies. In addition to
within a given denomination, the number of bridging diversity ranging from church planters
charismatic missionaries and mission leaders in- to short-term professionals to tentmakers, the As-
creased. Independent charismatics, on the other sociation provides for the ongoing information
hand, lacked formal links to mission agencies. needs of its constituency. Under the direction of
They sometimes joined nondenominational mis- Howard Foltz, the Association has grown to
sion organizations but often met with suspicion nearly 200 member organizations.
due to their charismatic beliefs. There was a The Pentecostal World Conference, held
trend toward unity and evangelistic urgency in every four or five years since 1944, attempted
the 1980s and 1990s, with charismatic churches to unify Pentecostals/charismatics worldwide.
working together and forming associations of These meetings focused on self-identification.
churches. With the rise of the renewal within the Roman
The movement had a prolonged internal focus Catholic Church, separate charismatic confer-
due to the denominational structures it sought ences were held to allow for the participation of
to reform. This carried over into the independ- Roman Catholics in leadership roles. These
ent churches. When the leaders considered mis- large gatherings gradually took on the evangel-
sion outreach, they looked for new strategies istic priorities of evangelical Christianity but
and approaches rather than relying on estab- never attained the numerical strength or broad
lished agencies which were perceived as rigid representation of the movement that the lead-
and lifeless. They eschewed organizational struc- ers had envisioned.
ture yet lacked the internal structure to support The 1977 Kansas City Charismatic Confer-
missionaries. ence was an ecumenical North American con-
Independent charismatic churches want direct ference with an emphasis on the lordship of
involvement in missions. They become what are Christ. It was at this historic meeting that the
known as sending churches, with as many as three major streams of the North American Pen-
125 missionaries receiving the majority of their tecostal/charismatic movementclassical Pen-
support from one congregation. Effective con- tecostals, Protestant charismatics, and Roman
gregations are characterized by having a mis- Catholic charismaticsformed a coalition. To-
sions director or pastor, missions-minded senior gether they began to realize their responsibility
pastor, missions spending of over 10 percent of to fulfill the GREAT COMMISSION.
the budget, regular exposure of the congregation The first North American Congress on the Holy
to missions, relationship to missionary struc- Spirit and World Evangelization was held in 1986
tures, and contact with charismatic churches and in New Orleans. The second and largest of the
ministries on the field. two was held the next year, also in New Orleans.
The Vineyard Christian Fellowship, under the These conferences are credited with making
direction of John Wimber, introduced the con- world evangelization a central focus of the
cept of power evangelism in which a believer charismatic movement. The participants adopted
is instructed by the Holy Spirit to initiate con- the Lausanne Covenant and identified with the
tact with an unbeliever and SIGNS AND WONDERS evangelistic goals of evangelical Christianity.
accompany the encounter (see also POWER EN- The 1990 North American Congress on the
COUNTER). The Vineyard is an example of an as- Holy Spirit and World Evangelization at Indi-
sociation of churches that has recently devel- anapolis, the third in the series, was held to pre-
oped missions awareness and international pare North Americans for the international meet-
outreach. ing the following year. Enthusiasm was at a high
A few charismatic mission agencies were formed pitch but did not translate into significant partic-
that have experienced unusual success. Youth With ipation at Brighton the next year.
a Mission (YWAM), which gained its popularity as Brighton 91 was the International Charismatic
a short-term missionary venture, is the largest Consultation of World Evangelization. With the
sending agency, with 6,000 full-time missionaries. working title That the World Might Believe, this
174
consultation was designed to prepare the world- the transfer of control to national leadership
wide charismatic movement for the decade of spread rapidly throughout the countries of the
evangelism. Although the geographical repre- Third World. Western Christian denominations
sentation was uneven, this is thought to have realized the need to do the same within their mis-
been the first truly global meeting for world sion churches. As the transfer of power was in
evangelization held by the movement. Many progress, the influence of the charismatic move-
prominent American leaders were not in atten- ment was growing internationally. There was a
dance nor did they endorse the gathering. Thus new openness to the priorities of Third World
Brighton 91 symbolizes not only the lack of in- Christians and recognition that the result was
ternational unity but also the lack of cohesion rapid church growth.
among charismatics in North America. Orlando The renewal introduced the option for rhyth-
95, the fourth North American Congress, was mic clapping and dancing and vocal expressions
well attended but fell short of expectations. during the worship service. It encouraged the use
It is hard to judge the impact of these con- of local folk or popular music in church services.
gresses on the charismatic movement, yet they Charismatics recognized satanic forces at work
did serve as a visible demonstration of charis- in the world requiring prayer for Gods supernat-
matic interest in missions. They also provided a ural intervention. They also prayed for healing
means to inform large segments of the movement and miracles, expecting God to demonstrate his
that evangelism is a priority. The movement itself, power. The dramatic international growth of
however, remains fragmented in its approach to charismatic Christianity made a significant im-
world evangelization. By nature, the constituency pact on the Western world, as it became a force
is pulled in several directions. Ecclesiastical alle- too large to ignore.
giance, participation in larger ecumenical net- While global unity has yet to be realized, the
works, local priorities, special interests, and ex- charismatic renewal has had the effect of a
tensive diversity are just some of the factors grassroots ecumenism. The common spiritual
which account for the current fragmentation. experience became a catalyst for a broad-based
The theoretical framework of the charismatic Christian unity. It contained an evangelistic
movement includes a working theology or theol- thrust that assumed every Christian was a wit-
ogy of ministry. This in part led to an incomplete ness for Christ. Cooperative evangelistic efforts
THEOLOGY OF MISSION as it was viewed as a sim- include pentecostal, neo-fundamental, Roman
ple extension of the local witness of the church. Catholic, and mainline Protestant Christians.
Prompted by an awareness of what was happen- Charismatic interest in world evangelization ma-
ing within the rest of Christendom, charismatics tured in the 1980s although financial support for
wanted to join in CROSS-CULTURAL EVANGELISM. missions remains below the average for evangel-
Their Pentecostal heritage included an anti-intel- ical churches. Charismatic missiologists and
lectual bias often equating supernatural experi- agencies are emerging.
ence with sufficient preparation to be effective in Some feel the charismatic movement is Gods
a THIRD WORLD setting. Involvement of the laity is plan to energize the church for evangelistic out-
paramount as opposed to dependence on a reach. The belief that the gifts of the Spirit are
trained clergy. These factors delayed the develop- for evangelistic purposes is especially true for
ment of an effective mission strategy and, in the Third World charismatics. Protestant charismat-
early days of the movement, produced many mis- ics are active in creating new ministries and pro-
sionaries who lacked appropriate preparation for moting evangelistic concern. Roman Catholic
CROSS-CULTURAL MINISTRY. As with the Pente- charismatics have established programs to fur-
costal movement, this trend has been corrected, ther world evangelization including the Catholic
and charismatic missiologists are poised to make Evangelization Training Program at the Francis-
a significant contribution to world evangelization can University of Steubenville (Ohio) and Evan-
in the twenty-first century. gelization 2000.
While the actual number of charismatic Chris- KENNETH D. GILL
tians in the world is a source of constant debate,
SEE ALSO Pentecostal Missions.
the fact that together with the Pentecostals they
represent the largest segment of Christianity Bibliography. D. B. Barrett, IBMR, July 1988, pp.
today is well documented. The flexibility of 11921; A. Bittlinger, ed., The Church is Charismatic;
charismatic belief and practice facilitates its IN- W. Hollenweger, The Pentecostals; idem, OBMR, April
CULTURATION in Third World countries. The Holy 1980, pp. 6875; G. B. McGee, Toward the Twenty-first
Spirit is expected to directly guide the local lead- Century in Christian Mission, pp. 4153; idem, OPCM,
pp. 61025; L. G. McClung, Pneuma, 16 (1994): 1121;
ership as they establish local patterns of practice K. Poewe, ed., Charismatic Christianity as a Global
and APOLOGETICS. Culture; E. Pousson, Spreading the Flame: Charismatic
Missionary churches were strongly influenced Churches and Missions Today; D. Shibley, A Force on
by the renewal following the assumption of con- the Earth: The Charismatic Renewal and World Evan-
trol by natural leaders. Following World War II, gelization.
175
Charismatic Movement
Charismatic Movement. See CHARISMATIC MIS- Chi-Oang (18721946). Chinese evangelist in Tai-
SIONS and PENTECOSTAL MOVEMENT. wan. Chi-Oang did not come to Christ until she
was fifty-two years old. At that time her reputa-
Charles, Pierre (18831954). Belgian Catholic tion was that of one who had successfully recon-
missiologist. Charles joined the Society of Jesus ciled her fiercely independent mountain people,
(the Jesuits) at age sixteen. After studying philos- the Sediq, with the Japanese during their occu-
ophy in England and Germany, he was ordained pation of Taiwan. The occupation prevented mis-
in 1910. He became fluent in five languages be- sion work among any of the mountain tribes on
sides his native French, not counting Latin and Taiwan. As a result, at the age of fifty-eight, she
Greek. Charles traveled widely during his life- was encouraged by a Presbyterian missionary
time, visiting Catholic missions in Africa and couple, James and Lillian Dickson, to enter a
India, among other places. From 1914 until his two-year Bible training school and to work
death he was on the faculty of the Jesuit prepara- among her own people. Chi-Oang was uniquely
tory institute in Louvain, Belgium. There, influ- fitted for this, enjoying freedom of movement
enced by the work of Robert Streit, he began in and respect from both sides because of her previ-
1923 to develop a scientific theology of missions ous work.
that emphasized rational preparation, the plant- Finishing Bible school, she became a fearless
ing of the Christian church among all peoples, evangelist and discipler, and the Japanese sought
the adaptation of the gospel to individual cul- numerous times to stop her. Each time, however,
tures, and the need for indigenous clergy to take she was spared arrest through Gods providential
over leadership. He taught that Christians should oversight and the loyal help of her followers. As
approach evangelism with an understanding of result of her ministry, at the end of World War II
respect for the value of non-Christian cultures and the Japanese occupation, thousands of the
and religions. He helped create the missions pro- Sediq descended from the mountains to be bap-
gram at Gregorian University in Rome in 1932 tized. She died shortly after the churches gained
and taught there, in addition to Louvain, for sev- their freedom, her work complete of building,
eral years. Charles, through his instruction, stu- sustaining, and nurturing them through this time.
dents, writings, and conferences (the Semaines A. SCOTT MOREAU
de Missiologie was held annually at Louvain ex- Bibliography. E. Band, ed., He Brought Them Out:
cept during World War II), had a profound influ- The Story of the Christian Movement among the Moun-
ence on the theology and practice of missions tain Tribes of Formosa; L. M. Cheng, CDCWM, pp.
throughout the Catholic Church and other Chris- 9899; R. Winslow, The Mountains Sing: Gods Love Re-
tian denominations. The documents of the SEC- vealed to Taiwan Tribes.
OND VATICAN COUNCIL (196265) were heavily in-
fluenced by his doctrines. Child Evangelism. Both biblical and historical
ROBERT SHUSTER records document the priority among global cul-
tures of passing on a spiritual heritage to the next
Chastity. See SEXUAL MORES. generation. While we may observe concerted ef-
forts throughout church history to baptize, cate-
chize, and evangelize children and youth, until
Chestnut, Eleanor (18681905). American med-
recently there has been a dearth of global strate-
ical missionary and martyr in China. Having
gic planning to address children and youth as a
qualified as a doctor, she arrived in South China
particular focus of worldwide missionary efforts.
in 1893 as a missionary under the auspices of
The New Testament and records of the Apos-
the American Presbyterian Board of Missions. A
tolic Fathers are quite clear when they speak of
woman of independent means, she built her own
children and faith. The training of a child was a
hospital. Such was her dedication that on one
parental responsibility; failure by parents in car-
occasion she used skin from her own leg for a
rying out this responsibility brought sorrow to
skin graft for a patient with severe burns. During
child and parent alike. Second- and early-third-
the Boxer Rebellion she remained at her post century Christians baptized neither infants nor
longer than any other missionary before being young children, but by A.D. 250 infant baptism
evacuated. She returned only a year later. But was practiced, particularly in North African
the authorities were not yet in full control, and Christianity. Cyprian of Carthage and AUGUSTINE
after her hospital was stormed by a xenophobic OF HIPPO argued that original sin was the chief
mob, she sacrificed her life vainly trying to res- reason for the need to baptize infants and no
cue two newly arrived colleagues, who were also one, including children, should be refused Gods
murdered. mercy and grace. While the Reformation pro-
ELEANOR M. JACKSON duced groups with varying viewpoints on bap-
Bibliography. H. Montgomery, Western Women in tism of children, there did emerge a variety of
Eastern Lands; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ. catechetical approaches, which indicates the in-
176
Chile
tentionality of churches born out of the Refor- agencies in the future will no longer be able to
mation to instruct and nurture children to full avoid developing strategies for ministry to chil-
participation in Christian faith. dren and may even have to rethink the PEOPLE
Although its impact and significance has been GROUP concept with its priority on adults.
disputed, the Sunday school stands as a histori- BYRON D. KLAUS
cal representation of concern for children and
Bibliography. W. Barclay, Educational Ideals in the
Christian faith. Its origins in England in the Ancient World; L. Hunt, Handbook on Child Evangelism;
1780s stems from efforts by Robert Raikes and C. Ingle, ed., Children and Conversion; R. Lynn and
others to educate marginalized poor children E. Wright, The Big Little School: Two Hundred Years of
caught in massive changes brought about by the Sunday School; B. Myers, IBMR 18:3 (1994); D. C.
Industrial Revolution. The American version Wyckoff, ed., Renewing the Sunday School and the CCD;
emerged as a pioneering-missionary vehicle with UNICEF, Children of the Americas.
obvious shades of American revivalism. For ex-
ample, the American Sunday School Union Chile (Est. 2000 pop.: 15,311,000; 756,945 sq. km.
began in 1824 with the resolve to establish Sun- [292,256 sq. mi.]). Chile is a South American re-
day schools in every destitute place in the Valley public located along the western slope of the
of the Mississippi. Andes (2,600 miles long and averaging 110 miles
The last half of the nineteenth century saw the wide), bordered by Peru and Bolivia on the north,
Sunday school movement grow to international Argentina on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on
prominence as uniform lessons became a vehi- the west. Because of its length, climates vary from
cle of expansion. By 1900 3 million English- the hot, dry northern desert to the glaciers, stormy
speaking students used these lessons in New islands, and chilly Tierra del Fuego in the far
Zealand, Australia, Japan, Korea, China, Africa, south. Most of the population lives in a 600-mile
and wherever British or American missionaries stretch of the central valley, with the capital city,
served. The uniform lessons were also translated Santiago (over 5 million), as the focal point. Hy-
into scores of languages that increased the influ- droelectric plants along the short but rapidly
ence of the Sunday school worldwide. falling streams generate 75 percent of the nations
Evangelistic Sunday schools in the United power. Chiles population is relatively well-
States have gone through both growth and de-
educated, with a reported 94 percent literacy level.
cline patterns during the twentieth century, but
There are more than 230,000 enrolled in universi-
their evangelistic focus on children has remained
ties. Two of Chiles authors, Gabiela Mistral and
constant. Research indicates that 85 percent of
Pablo Neruda, have won Nobel prizes for litera-
people make decisions for Jesus Christ before
ture. Chile is a typical Latin American democracy
they reach fifteen years of age.
with a successful expanding economy and the bur-
Recent studies support the strategic significance
of evangelism to children. One-third of the worlds den of a large, although shrinking, number of per-
population is under fifteen years of age, with 85 sons living below the poverty level. With the help
percent of those under fifteen living in the Third of foreign investment, the economy has improved
World. The vast group of children existing in non- to the point where in 1995 the country became a
Western settings are increasingly living in urban candidate to join the North American Free Trade
slums. Forty thousand children under five die Act (NAFTA). The Spanish, who invaded in the six-
daily and some estimate that 100 million children teenth and seventeenth centuries, intermarried
live or work on city streets worldwide. Exploita- with the native Araucanians, which accounts for
tion of children as child laborers and sex objects is the mixed ancestry of 72 percent of the popula-
growing rapidly. Two-thirds of an estimated 130 tion. The total native American peoples account
million children worldwide with no access to basic for nearly 7 percent of the population. Some
education are girls. 928,000 are Mapuche, descendants of the original
This tragic present state of the worlds children, Araucanians. Prior to freedom from Spain in
particularly in non-Western settings, highlights a 1810, Chile was subservient to the government
number of missiological implications. While chil- and economic life of Lima, Peru. This led to a per-
dren need to hear the gospel of Jesus Christ in vasive illegal trade with contraband goods. With
contextualized forms that state clearly the for- intervals of conservative government controlled by
giveness present in the work of Christ, missions the established and wealthy landowners (latifun-
strategists increasingly plan and implement holis- dios) and intermissions of military dictatorship,
tic forms of ministry to children. The plight of the the country arrived at the middle of the twentieth
urban poor, where growing numbers of children century with unrealized expectations that the na-
can be found, requires a reevaluation of Christian tions riches in fertilizers and minerals would be
mission in urban contexts. Crucial to any mission shared by the disenfranchised masses. Increasing
strategy to children is the growing evidence that dissatisfaction with the deteriorating economic sit-
women are the key to societal change and have uation and strong leftist-Marxist influence on the
the most impact on the lives of children. Mission university level and in the national congress re-
177
Chile
sulted in the 1970 minority election of Salvador was first brought to China in A.D. 635 by Nesto-
Allende to the presidency. Unprepared for victory rian missionaries who followed the silk trade
and not knowing how to apply Marxist principles route from their well-established church base in
to an ailing economy, Allende added his own per- Syria and Persia. Their bishop, Alopen, was wel-
sonal confusion, and the national standard of liv- comed in Changan (now Xian) by the reigning
ing spiraled downward. Both Roman Catholic and emperor, Tang Tai Zung. The Nestorians trans-
Protestant churches became involved in the poli- lated parts of their Bible and other literature into
tics and added to the confusion. After three years Chinese, often using Taoist and Buddhist terms
of the Allende government, in a bloody coup, the to convey their meaning. Although the Nestorian
military installed Augusto Pinochet as president, faith spread to several major cities in China and
who eventually became convinced that he was in- boasted thousands of converts, its greatest
dispensable. Pinochets success with the economy growth may have been among the foreign trading
paralleled a growing unrest over his governments community. As a result of a severe persecution
dictatorial ways. Pinochet lost a plebiscite in 1988, under Emperor Wu Zung in A.D. 845, it lost its
which led to the installation of a civilian govern- foothold in China proper, but continued to exert
ment at the end of 1989 whose present adminis- a Christian influence among the Kerait, Ongut,
tration is based on seventeen political parties. and Uighurstribes on the northern frontier of
According to some statistics as few as 60 per- China.
cent or as many as 75 percent of Chileans claim At the end of the thirteenth century, the Khubi-
to be Roman Catholic although attendance at lai Khan, Mongol ruler of China, invited the pope
Mass on any given weekend is more likely 15 to send one hundred teachers of science and re-
percent. Liberation theology and the charismatic ligion to instruct the Chinese. A papal interreg-
movement have had significant impact in the life num, difficulty of travel, and uncertainty over the
of the Catholic Church. The key to understanding nature of this invitation meant that this request
present Protestant churches is the impact of the never received a response. However, in 1294 JOHN
1909 Pentecostal revival within the Methodist OF MONTECORVINO, a Franciscan, was sent to
Church, which presently has a membership esti- China. Within a short time he baptized six thou-
mated at over 500,000. Estimates of Protestant sand Chinese, established churches in several
church membership statistics vary widely from cities, and had the New Testament and Psalms
16 percent to 30 percent of the total population. translated into the language of the court (proba-
Pentecostal church membership is variously re- bly a Mongolian dialect). By the time the Yuan
ported to be from 80 percent to 95 percent of (Mongol) dynasty was replaced by the Ming dy-
Protestants. Having left behind the first genera- nasty in 1368, there may have been as many as
tions religious enthusiasm, now that the one hundred thousand Roman Catholic Chris-
churches are populated with second-, third-, and tians. From this period until the arrival of the Je-
even fourth-generation evangelicals, by 1993 it suits in China at the end of the sixteenth century,
was estimated that only 44 percent of Protestants no record exists of Christian churches in China.
regularly attended church. One major concern The Society of Jesus (Jesuits), with MATTEO
within evangelicalism is how to reach the middle- RICCI as its chief China representative, entered
class masses in the cities. Several church groups, China in 1582 from its base in the Portuguese
such as the Christian and Missionary Alliance, colony of Macao. First assuming a religious role,
Presbyterians, and the Baptist Convention are much like Buddhist monks, and then becoming
giving special attention to this need and have met more like Confucian scholars, Ricci and his Je-
with moderate success. Another concern is the suit colleagues identified with the Chinese elite.
training of workers for the huge indigenous Pen- They prepared maps, practiced astronomy, con-
tecostal churches. An attempt is being made to structed and repaired clocks that they gave to the
solve this problem through the Pentecostal Bible emperor, and wrote treatises on Christianity that
Institute. related to the Confucian worldview. By the be-
An equal challenge for the indigenous Pente- ginning of the eighteenth century the Christian
costal and other Protestant churches has to do church in China numbered two hundred thou-
with ministries outside the church. Social out- sand, including scholars, urban dwellers, and
reach is below what it could be given the size of rural peasants.
the Chilean church. The same can be said for the Unlike the later-arriving Franciscans and Do-
relatively small number of cross-cultural mis- minicans who disagreed sharply with them, most
sionaries sent out by Chilean churches. Jesuits were flexible about the Chinese culture.
DAVID SPRUANCE They viewed ancestral rites as civil deference, not
religious worship, described Confucius in semi-
Bibliography. P. E. Dostert, ed., Latin America 1995. sacred terms as holy, and used indigenous terms
for God. Their differences with the other orders
China (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,284,597,000; 9,560,961 and the Vatican over these issues resulted in the
sq. km. [3,691,487 sq. mi.]). The Christian faith rites controversy. This lasted from the early
178
China (Taiwan)
1600s until 1724, when the Yung Zheng emperor 60 million. These Protestant Christians worship
proscribed the Christian faith in China. This vio- and witness in three different contexts: in
lent ecclesiastical dispute contributed to the churches related to the China Christian Council;
popes disbanding the Jesuit order worldwide in in autonomous Christian communities (often
1773. Missionaries from other orders continued called house churches); and in student fellowship
to work secretly in China, and the church went groups on school campuses.
through difficult periods of persecution. Although under greater or lesser pressure from
ROBERT MORRISON, an Englishman, came to the government, the CCC and autonomous com-
Macao in 1807 as the first Protestant missionary munities conduct normal church life, produce
to China. At that time foreigners were not al- Christian literature, engage in witness, and es-
lowed to live in China, and Morrison and others tablish training programs to develop new leaders.
following him had to engage in trade in Canton RALPH R. COVELL
or live and witness in other cities where there
were Chinese, including Singapore, Penang, Bibliography. A. Hunter and K. K. Chan, Protes-
tantism in Contemporary China; K. S. Latourette, A His-
Malacca, Bangkok, and Batavia (Jakarta). The at- tory of Christian Missions in China; S. Moffett, A History
tempt of England to import opium into China re- of Christianity in Asia; B. Whyte, Unfinished Encounter:
sulted in the opium war of 1840. Chinas defeat China and Christianity.
led to a series of unequal treaties in 184244 and
185860 by the Western powers. These opened China Inland Mission. See OVERSEAS MISSIONARY
up China to trade, diplomacy, and missionary
FELLOWSHIP.
presence. Unfortunately, it put the stamp of for-
eign upon the Christian faith and caused some
Chinese to protest: You introduced two things to China (Taiwan). An island that was under
us by force, neither one of which we desired Japanese rule from 1895 to 1945, Taiwan is one
opium and Christianity. hundred miles east of the China coast. After the
The Protestant mission in China expanded fall of mainland China to the Communists in
from a trickle of missionaries in 1842 to a high of 1949, Taiwan became the refuge of the National-
nearly eight thousand by 1930. Over a period of ist Chinese government. More than 98% of the 21
150 years, they engaged in all of the traditional million population are Han Chinese. Most of the
types of ministry: production of grammars, dic- them (Taiwanese 74%, Hakka 11%) immigrated
tionaries, Bibles, booklets, and tracts; evangelism to Taiwan more than two hundred years ago. The
and church planting among the Han Chinese and others (13%) are Mandarin-speaking refugees
many minority groups; education, both general who came from mainland China after 1948. Al-
and theological, at all levels; establishment of though the majority speak Taiwanese, the official
hospitals and missions of mercy; opposition to language and the language of education is Man-
evils such as footbinding, infanticide, and opium. darin. The Malaya-Polynesian mountain peoples
Catholic missions, with their unique perspective, (1.7%) are divided into nine tribes.
expanded in much the same way. The most popular religion in Taiwan is folk re-
From 1840 to 1900 many missionary inci- ligion (70%), a combination of Buddhism and
dents occurred between the Chinese government Taoism with an animistic worldview. Less than
and missionaries. These culminated in the huge 4% of the population are Christians (1.4% Roman
antiforeign Boxer Rebellion of 1900, when many Catholic and 2.5% Protestant), with the Presby-
foreign missionaries and Chinese converts were terian Church of Taiwan the largest Protestant de-
killed. nomination (about 50% of the Protestants).
From the fall of the Ching dynasty (1911) until Between 1627 and 1664 the Dutch Reformed
the advent of the Peoples Republic of China Church sent thirty-seven missionaries to Taiwan
(1949), the control of churches and Christian ac- to minister to Dutch traders. They also made a
tivities increasingly was transferred from foreign major missionary outreach into the aboriginal
mission agencies to Chinese church bodies. By communities. However, the missionaries were
1949 there were about 750,000 Protestant Chris- driven out after the Manchu established their
tians and probably double that number of control over Taiwan in 1683. In 1859, several Do-
Catholicsnot very many for a country of 400 minican Catholic missionaries arrived. The
million people. Furthermore, Protestant churches Protestant missionary efforts, pioneered by the
were denominationally divided, generally small, English Presbyterian James Maxwell in the south
and struggling to escape the epithet of foreign. (1865) and the Canadian Presbyterian GEORGE
During the past fifty years under the Peoples LESLIE MACKAY in the north (1872), proved diffi-
Republic of China, foreign religious workers have cult and dangerous.
used nonmissionary roles to continue their Chris- Progress was slow in the early stages. Under the
tian witness in China. More important, Protes- occupation by Japan, the missionaries had con-
tant Chinese churches, now viewed as truly Chi- siderable freedom until 1940. The church grew
nese, have grown to numbers estimated at 20 to dramatically between 1950 and 1960 because of
179
China (Taiwan)
the influx and conversion of refugees from main- expression is not possible. The most important
land China. Roman Catholics soared from 13,000 feature of the house church movement is not a
in 1945 to 180,000 by 1960; the Protestant com- theological system, but a common stand defined
munity shot up from 51,000 in 1948 to 220,000 by by relationship to the TSPM and the Chinese gov-
1960. But stagnation has set in since then despite ernment. This having been said, there are, how-
major evangelistic outreaches. ever, certain common theological convictions
Protestants are unequally distributed among the among the house churches. One is obedience to
different linguistic groups. About 23% of the the Word of God even to the point of risking ones
mountain people are nominal Protestant as are life; another is the belief in the absolute separa-
4.6% of the Mandarin, 1% of the Taiwanese, and tion of church and state, as the movements ad-
0.5% of the Hakka. More than thirty seminaries herents are convinced in the light of Scripture
and Bible schools provide leadership training. The that government control is not acceptable.
lack of pastors has become a serious problem. CHE BIN TAN
The Year 2000 Gospel Movement set a specific
Bibliography. D. Adeney, China: The Churchs Long
and ambitious goal of 2 million believers, 10,000 March; R. Fung, Households of God on Chinas Soil;
churches, and 200 overseas missionaries sent out M. D. Wong, Spiritual Food.
from Taiwan by the year 2000. Progress has not
been very encouraging. In 1996 there were only
Chinese Mission Boards and Societies. Chi-
about 490,000 Protestants and 3,361 churches.
nese mission history on a wide scale began with
The revival of Buddhism and traditional Chinese
the founding of the Chinese Foreign Missionary
religions is the greatest challenge to Christianity
Union in 1928 by LELAND WANG. It represented an
in Taiwan.
outreach to the scattered Chinese in the South
TSU-KUNG CHUANG
Seas of Asia and to outposts including Borneo,
Bibliography. A. J. Swanson, The Church in Taiwan: Sarawak, Bali, Sumatra, and the Celebes. Later it
Profile 1980. expanded to include efforts in New Guinea, Fiji,
Tahiti, and New Zealand. It was an indigenous
Chinese House Church Movement. As a form faith effort focusing on church planting and
of ministry, the house church movement in China church growth.
is a contextual response to political pressure. In In 1947 Evangelize China Fellowship was es-
the 1950s, after the expulsion of missionaries tablished by ANDREW GIH. A faith mission with
from China, those who refused to join the Three- indigenous leadership, it labored in Hong Kong,
Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) were not al- Macao, and Taiwan, and later to the Chinese di-
lowed to worship in their churches; so they aspora in Southeast Asia. Primary schools for
started a movement that recaptured the worship girls and orphanages for the homeless demon-
of the early Christians at home (Acts 2:46; 5:42; strated Gihs concern for the marginalized. Over
1 Cor. 16:19). This form was viable because meet- fifty churches were planted as the mission re-
ings could be moved from one place to another at flected social and evangelistic concern.
any time and could not be easily detected by local Chinese mission activity on a broad scale
authorities. During the Cultural Revolution, shifted to the United States with the founding of
when all churches were closed down by the gov- the Chinese Christian Mission in October 1961,
ernment, all Christians could meet only in Chris- in Detroit, Michigan, under THOMAS WANG. Soon
tian homes. The movement grew tremendously after, the mission moved to its present site
despite the hostile environment because it pro- (Petaluma, California) continuing its effort to
vided a true Christian community of commit- reach both mainland and Chinese diaspora. Its
ment and love where many experienced the global dimension includes work in Hong Kong,
power of the Holy Spirit in miracles and radical Taiwan, Singapore, the Philippines, Australia,
life changes. Today the movement is massive in and Canada, plus new thrusts to Siberia, Latin
scope, with estimates ranging from 30 to 80 mil- America, and the Chinese mainland. A staff of
lion participants as compared to a total Christian thirty full- and part-time workers undergird the
population of less than 1 million before the com- work of twenty Chinese missionaries abroad. Its
munist takeover in 1949. publishing house and San Francisco book room
The term house church refers to those who reach out to both believers and nonbelievers,
refuse to join the TSPM and to register with the contextualizing the gospel within Chinese tradi-
government. The movement is not a denominational culture.
tion or ecclesiastical fellowship like what is Another U.S. founded mission is Ambassadors
found in the West. More accurately, it comprises for Christ. Established on May 6, 1963, by co-
individual house churches. There is no common founders Ted Choy and Moses Chow, its focus is
statement of faith, no formal fellowship or de- on the Chinese students. Its call was to reach
nominational structures. It is, simply, a model of our kinsmen for Christ, with the hope that these
Christian community for places where structural persons might someday return to China and be
180
Cho, (David) Paul Yonggi
a force for the kingdom. The campus ministry been disinherited by his family for converting to
centered around Bible study groups, where over- Christianity.
seas Chinese students were won to Christ. Such His early years of ministry were spent in the
students were then channeled into local Chinese academy. Two years after graduating from
churches for discipling. Methodist Theological Seminary in Bareilly he
Ambassadors for Christ undergirds its mission married Viola Singh. In 1906 Chitambar was
with a variety of publications to students, schol- named a professor at Lucknow Christian College,
ars, and believers in the Chinese churches. It pro- where he later was named principal.
vides leadership and resources for the growth of About this time Chitambars interest in mis-
Chinese Christian families and American-born sions became evident. Along with K. T. PAUL and
Chinese through seminars and conferences. It BISHOP AZARIAH, Chitambar founded the indige-
sponsors a triennial convention for North Amer- nous National Missionary Society in 1905. The
ica, calling Chinese Christians to engage in world society was one of the primary organizations ad-
evangelism. The five previous conventions have vocating the CONTEXTUALIZATION of Christianity in
seen attendees rise from an initial 300 to 1,800 in India, using ashrams and brotherhoods along
number, with hundreds having responded to the with the more traditional educational institutions
mission call. Unlike other Chinese mission efforts, and hospitals.
which emphasized going, Ambassadors for Chitambar put his knowledge to work as editor
Christ has responded to those who have come of the Hindustani Methodist periodical Kaukab-
to America. In this sense it has linked with the I-Hind, Star of India, and as a member of the
Chinese churches as a total mission force. committee revising The Standard Hindustani Dic-
The Chinese Overseas Christian Mission was tionary. A translator of hymns, he also wrote two
founded in 1950 by Stephen Y. T. Wang, then a biographies: John Wesley and Mahatma Gandhi.
student at Cambridge, England. His concern was In 1931, three-quarters of a century after the ad-
directed to the four thousand Chinese in England vent of the Methodists to India, he was the first
and Europe, the primary task being evangelism Indian to be elected bishop. Before India received
and church planting. With Wangs death in 1971, international prominence and its independence
Mary Wang and co-workers continued the misin 1947, Chitambar was a well known and popu-
sion. Today over thirty workers are based in the lar speaker for India in the United States and Eu-
United Kingdom and Europe in over one hun- rope. He died in Jubbulpore.
dred cities, ministering to over fifty churches and STANLEY M. GUTHRIE
many more fellowships. With the opening of
Eastern Europe and Russia, the mission ex- Bibliography. J. Kane, A Global View of Christian
Missions; S. Neill, A History of Christian Missions.
tended its pioneering efforts.
With a population of eight hundred thousand
Chinese in greater Europe today and only 2.5 Cho, (David) Paul Yonggi (1936 ). Korean pas-
percent of them reached for Christ, emphasis is tor-evangelist of worlds largest church. Cho was
directed to the huge numbers of Chinese restau- the oldest son of a farmer in Kyungnam province
rant workers. A new thrust now prevails among who had nine children. He graduated from the
Chinese scholars from mainland China, Taiwan, Full Gospel Theological Seminary and Kungmin
and Hong Kong. Correspondence courses, lay University. When he became seriously sick and
seminars, and Theological Education by Exten- was on the verge of death in 1956, his future
sion (TEE) undergird the mission. Literature in- mother-in-law assisted him spiritually to experi-
cludes Chinese and English journals along with ence divine healing. He also met an Assemblies of
videos and cassettes. God missionary in Pusan who taught him Pente-
Chinese mission history, as recounted, was in- costal doctrines and whose church he joined.
digenous and intracultural in nature, as first- Cho started his ministry with a handful of peo-
generation Chinese reached out to their own. ple who helped him plant a tent ministry in the
With over one thousand Chinese evangelical center of Seoul in 1961. This eventually resulted
churches in North America alone, it appears that in Yoido Full Gospel Central Church, with over
a steady supply of American-raised and Ameri- 700,000 members by 1993, including the mem-
can-born Chinese will bear the brunt of Chinese bers of the ten satellite churches scattered
mission in the twenty-first century. throughout Seoul. The Yoido Central Church
HOOVER WONG sanctuary holds 20,000 people with six services
on Sunday. The strength of his church is the well-
SEE ALSO Asian Mission Boards and Societies. organized 50,000 cell groups for Bible study and
prayer.
Chitambar, Jashwaut Rao (18791940). Indian Cho was elected to be the moderator of the Ko-
missions advocate. Chitambar was born in Alla- rean Assemblies of God in 1966, a position he
habad, United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh), held for over than ten years. In 1993 he was
the son of a Methodist minister father who had elected to be the president of the International
181
Cho, (David) Paul Yonggi
Assemblies of God. In 1994 he became the presi- HEATHEN, a term carrying sociocultural and po-
dent of the only Christian daily newspaper in litical connotations as weighty as theological
Korea. He has written numerous devotional ones.
books that have been translated into several ver- Again, there were notable modifications of such
nacular languages. Chos The Fourth Dimension attitudes. Bartolom de las Casas (14741566)
explains his theology and philosophy of expec- spent a lifetime protesting the colonialists treat-
tant visionary prayer, which he describes as the ment of the indigenous peoples of Latin America.
key to his success in ministry. Others were to press for more than compassion
BONG RIN RO and dignity. In China MATTEO RICCI (15521610)
Bibliography. S. Moffett, TCDCB, pp. 9899; B. R.
and his fellow Jesuit missionaries saw the culture
Ro and M. L. Nelson, Korean Church Growth Explosion. not as an obstacle but a door for Christian pene-
tration. His approval of the cult of Confucius and
of ancestral rituals represented new ways to ac-
Christ and Culture. The Early Churchs Interac-
commodate Christianity to the culture. Those ac-
tion. During its first sixteen centuries, the West-
commodations would help stir what came to be
ern churchs perception of cultures was borrowed
from the Roman imperial view of the world. Cul- called the Rites Controversy in the church (see
ture was seen as a single, normative universal, a ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS).
monocultural ideal to be stamped on the barbar- The founding of the Sacred Congregation de
ian world outside the empire. With the collapse Propaganda Fide in 1622 created a centralized
of Rome and the Western empire in the fifth cen- organ for Catholic missionary activity that pled
tury, the church became the custodian of that for evangelization by peaceful, not violent,
ideal. means. It tended to encourage respect for the cul-
In the Byzantine Empire of the East, and still tural way of life of other peoples and to oppose
today among the Orthodox family of churches, wholesale cultural domination. The Congregation
the pattern was different. The churches assimi- introduced a rule-of-thumb distinction between
lated into existing ethnicities and languages: the religious and secular aspects of culture. Sec-
Greek, Coptic, Armenian, or Slavic. ular culture was not to be touched, but whatever
By comparison, the Western church became did not conform to Catholic faith and morals was
the architect of a mono-ethnic church and im- to be uprooted (Shorter, 1992,144).
posed a single language (Latin) to promote it. The distinction opened the door for those like
Christendoms self-understanding as a superior the Jesuit missionary in south India, ROBERTO
world culture slowly grew to dominate Europe DE NOBILI (15771656). He sought a measure of
and beyond as the church expanded its reach. legitimacy for Hindu institutions and customs,
The CRUSADES against Islam, and later the brutal such as caste. Similar to Ricci, de Nobili could
conquests of Latin America and the slave trade of argue such customs were those of secular cul-
Africa, became partial expressions of this cultural ture. They were therefore as compatible with the
ethnocentrism. Catholic faith as those of ancient Rome.
In these earliest encounters with cultures, Ultimately, however, these experiments were
there were other responses. The abortive mission seen as dangerous, especially in view of the ear-
of the Nestorian Christians to China in the sev- lier COUNTER-REFORMATION decisions of the
enth and eighth centuries took a much more con- Catholic Churchs Council of Trent (154563). In
ciliatory approach in matters cultural and reli- opposing the growing Protestant threat and its
gious (see NESTORIAN MISSIONS). Minority voices commitments to national and cultural pluralism
like those of the Franciscan RAYMON LULL on a formal church level, the Council hardened
(c. 12351315) pled for compassion and educated its monocultural perspectives, tragically at the
understanding in dealing with Islam. From that very time when new cultures were being discov-
Muslim world Western Christendom even bor- ered. Sweeping and rigid standardization of
rowed ideas in philosophy, science, and mathe- liturgy and theology closed the door for some
matics. But these exceptions created no breaches time to future efforts like those of de Nobili and
in the prevailing and naive assumption that non- Ricci.
Western culture was largely an inventory of The Reformation Interlude. The beginnings of
pagan items. Protestantism in the sixteenth century did little
Iberian Expansion and the Counter-Refor- of a practical sort to shift perceptions of culture
mation. The colonial advances of Spain and Por- as a monolith. It lacked the stimulus of global in-
tugal in the New World (14501760) brought teraction and colonial power that the Catholic
Christendoms first large-scale contact with non- Church enjoyed until the end of the eighteenth
Western cultures. Secular power and coercion al- century. Protestantisms attention was fixed on
lied itself with persuasion. The combined moti- European Christendom as its mission field and
vations of God, gold, and guns reinforced its interests in culture were largely formed
earlier Western hostilities to other cultures as around institutional issues of church and state.
182
Christ and Culture
At the same time, theological paradigms and their cultural connections into Westernizing
practices were being formed that would play a praying towns. Fellow Puritan Cotton Mather
part in later modifications. Both Luther and (16631728) would add later, The best thing
Calvin rejected the Catholic view of ACCOMMODA- we can do for our Indians is to Anglicize them
TION to culture that saw grace building on nature (Bosch, 1991, 260).
by way of divine modification. They affirmed the With the expansion of Protestant missions,
radical and extensive impact of SIN on human so- doors opened for a wide variety of social services.
ciety while defending the exercise of the Chris- The formation of the China Medical Missionary
tians liberty in local political, cultural, or ecclesi- Society in 1838 gave medical missions a wide le-
astical customs. gitimacy. In India ALEXANDER DUFF (180678)
They parted company in their perceptions of touted the superiority of Western education as
how the tensions between these two realities of preparation for the gospel. His support for the
sin and liberty could be resolved. Luther viewed use of English as the medium of instruction
the tension as one of Christ and culture in para- flowed from his hopes for an intellectual Angli-
dox, enduring one kingdom in the expectation of cization to promote conversions.
another more trans-historical kingdom. Calvin Protestant Shifts in Understanding. Not every-
saw Christ as the transformer of humanity within one shared completely the simplistic views of
culture and society, not apart from it. And, unlike barbaric indigenous cultures that demanded
both, the Anabaptist movement saw the commu- Westernizing. German missiologist GUSTAV WAR-
nity of Gods people as more hostile to culture, to NECK (18341910), influenced by a national ro-
humanitys autonomous settings of values. manticism that glorified the Volk (the people),
The Protestant insistence on the translation of saw cultures as gifts of God to be affirmed and
the Bible would eventually help to break the preserved. And missionaries like BRUNO GUTTMANN
monolithic paradigm of culture. Though not al- (18761966) in Tanzania and CHRISTIAN KEYSSER
ways clearly recognized, the genie of cultures was (18771961) in Papua New Guinea created strate-
to spring out of its vernacular language bottle. gies to implement these convictions. Guttman re-
BIBLE TRANSLATION would divinely validate the sisted Western civilizing as an instrument that
cultures of later converts throughout the world. would destroy the peoplehood of traditional cul-
It would help to change culture from a singular tural patterns. Keysser supported tribal conver-
to a plural noun. sions and the building of the structures and lead-
Initial Protestant Encounters with Cultures. ership of the emerging church on clan and tribal
By the end of the eighteenth century, reversals foundations.
were taking place in mission history. Catholic Meanwhile, others were questioning the tradi-
mission interest and efforts, after a flourishing tional connections of civilizing and Christianiz-
century and a half, were in serious decline and ing as a growing native church demanded a
Protestant efforts were growing. Protestant En- shift in leadership from mission to national
gland and Holland replaced Catholic Spain and church. The old policies, built on skeptical disre-
Portugal as colonial powers. gard for human cultures, stood in the way of that
But Europes sense of racist superiority contin- transition.
ued to promote colonial expansion and its right Mission administrators HENRY VENN (1796
and duty to rule the inferior cultures it domi- 1873) of Englands CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY
nated. Even the United States, though a late- and RUFUS ANDERSON (17961880) of the AMERI-
comer to expansionist policies, was infected by CAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MIS-
its concept of Manifest Destiny. SIONS led the way in such a shift. They called for
Protestantisms newly found vigor did not al- indigenous churches of self-support, self-prop-
ways free itself from those homeland self-percep- agation, and self-government. And behind it lay
tions of cultural superiority. In relative inno- their relative confidence that churches built on
cence, it had few doubts about either the native culture could thrive with integrity and
wholesale depravity of cultural life in non-West- independence.
ern societies or Western culture as the culmina- To that end Venn supported the training of na-
tion of human development. tive clergy and opposed Duffs promotion of ed-
Humanitarian motives quickly linked evange- ucation in the English language. And Anderson
lization with civilizing (understood as Western- questioned repeatedly the legitimacy of civiliz-
ization). And the question, debated through ing or social transformation as an aim of mis-
much of the nineteenth century, became, Should sions. That would come, he argued, as a conse-
one precede the other or were the two processes quence of gospel impact and the native
simultaneous? churchs leavening of cultures.
Though disagreements were intense, either-or Dissenting views also began to appear as a
choices were rare in the early years (Hutchison, growing theological gulf sharply divided liberal
1987,12). In America J OHN E LIOT (160490) from conservative. The difference widened into
withdrew Native American Christians from the twentieth century, shaping attitudes on evan-
183
Christ and Culture
gelization and civilization into an almost either- Hiebert and Catholic scholars like LOUIS LUZBE-
or choice. TAK have wrestled deeply with the implications of
The earlier millennial optimism shared by anthropological insights for Christian missions.
British and American missions had seen the ex- Others like Robert Schreiter and Charles Taber
tension of Anglo-Saxon civilization as the exten- have joined them in the dialogue over the Chris-
sion of the KINGDOM OF GOD. Under the impact of tian faith, cultures, and the shaping of theology
liberalism, especially in its social gospel forms, (labeled CONTEXTUALIZATION among Protestants
millennialism took a revisionist shape. Civiliz- and INCULTURATION among Catholics).
ing and social service took priority over evange- The bulk of scholarship until now has focused
lization (see MILLENNIAL THOUGHT). on the missionary impact of Christianity on cul-
On the conservative side, the rise of the inter- tures. The impact of cultures on the formation of
denominational FAITH MISSIONS from the 1860s Christian theology and missions is still in its de-
and the growth of premillennialism shifted the velopmental stages.
focus to evangelization. Henry Frost of the CHINA A Summary Review of Historical Paradigms.
INLAND MISSION wrote, While it is always true Using the typology of H. Richard Niebuhr (1956),
that Christianity civilizes, it is never true that civ- five paradigms of the Christian attitude to cul-
ilization Christianizes. Medicine and education tures have appeared in the churchs history. On
were seen as supportive ministries. Cultural opposite ends of the alternatives are the para-
adaptations of a superficial sort were promoted digms of Christ Against Cultures and Christ of
for pragmatic reasons (Taber, 1991, 81). The Cultures.
American appearance of fundamentalism in the The paradigm of Christ-Against-Cultures has
early twentieth century sharpened the differences appeared when one sees culture only as a mono-
even more. lithic whole, without nuance or particulars. Cul-
From Culture to Cultures. Missionary opti- tures then become largely hostile threats to the
mism regarding the ultimate triumph of West- gospel, especially when the culture observed is
ern civilization dimmed severely with the par- not ones own. Mission dominated by Western
ticipation of the Christian West in World War I ethnocentrism has often moved in this orbit in
and the global aftermath of the Great Depression. the past.
The political breakup of the Western colonial em- The opposite paradigm of Christ of Cultures
pires following World War II reinforced a world- asks us not to fight cultures but to join them.
wide awareness that culture was plural, not a Theological liberalism has been comfortable
singular. here. The Laymens Inquiry, released in a one-
Advancing this weariness with culture as a volume version titled Rethinking Missions (1932),
monolith was the growing discovery of SOCIOL- typified this mood. It saw the missionary as an
OGY and CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY as tools for mis- ambassador more than a soldier and called not
sions. In earlier decades outstanding ethnogra- for evangelization but for social reconstruction.
phies had been written by missionaries like R. H. Within the Roman Catholic Church, the para-
CODRINGTON and Henri Junod. The research of digm of Christ Above Cultures remains secure.
Father Wilhelm Schmidt (18681954) in the Modifying the earlier view of grace supplement-
global spread of cultures was an early influence ing nature and the examples of Ricci and de No-
in Catholic circles. bili, it has called for building Christianity on the
But not until the mid-1930s and the co- incompleteness of cultures. Since the SECOND
creation of Wycliffe Bible Translators, Interna- VATICAN COUNCIL (196265), it has been more
tional and the Summer Institute of Linguistics aware of the deepening levels in human cultures
did the full usefulness of these fledgling disci- and of cultural pluralism. The traditional model
plines begin to impact the church both Protes- of ACCOMMODATION is now questioned as too su-
tant and Catholic. Through the early leadership perficial and haphazard, too limited to the insti-
of linguists like Kenneth Pike and Eugene Nida, tutional. Inculturation is heralded as recognizing
missions began to see slowly that culture was not more cultures integrative level, culture as a dy-
an abstract concept. namic, systematic whole (Luzbetak, 1988,
Under the impact of functionalism, the domi- 7683). But the two-tiered nature/grace paradigm
nant anthropological school of the day, cultures remains in place.
were seen as discrete, bounded units. In their di- The paradigm of Christ and Cultures in Paradox
verse forms, they became collective shapes of the continues to see a distinction between the two
ideas, values, and meanings of societies and peo- kingdoms of church and cultures, and views cul-
ples. They provided explanations, stability, and tures many forms and meanings as more neutral
adaptive skills to understand oneself, God, and items of adiaphora than of hostility. This has al-
the world. Missionary anthropology was born. lowed some like Warneck to commend a long pe-
In the last three decades, these insights have riod of toleration before abolishing the Indian
provoked new explorations. Evangelical authors caste system and polygamous marriages. For oth-
like ALAN TIPPETT, Charles Kraft, and Paul ers like Guttmann it has meant seeing Africas
184
Christian Church (Denominational) Missions
primordial ties of clan, neighborhood, and age overall goal: our chosen fields are the [by mis-
grouping as ties linked to the creation itself. sionaries] unoccupied portions of the heathen
Calvins view of Christ the Transformer of Cul- world. Economy and sacrifice were two impor-
tures has undergone modifications. But its basic tant themes as well; the expenses of the home ad-
thrust remains that of penetrating and taking ministration were kept to the lowest possible fig-
possession of cultures sin-infected meanings for ure and missionaries were promised allowances
Christs glory. Missions theorists like J. H. to cover their expenses instead of regular salaries.
Bavinck (18951964) plead for perceiving the ves- Throughout the twentieth century the Alliance
tiges of Gods presence in cultures many-layered progressively developed its overseas thrust. Hav-
diversity while avoiding the fabrication of some ing assumed denominational status in 1974, it
international super-culture. Culture is religion finds itself today in the somewhat unique posi-
made visible but not indivisible. Even under dition of having approximately three-quarters of its
vine judgment, its creational structures and val- church membership overseas. As a reflection of
ues must be renewed in Christ. this state of affairs, the Alliance World Fellow-
HARVIE M. CONN ship was established in May 1975, with seventy-
four representatives from thirty-four nations
SEE ALSO Gospel and Culture.
joining to produce an exemplary church-mission
Bibliography. J. H. Bavinck, An Introduction to the agreement emphasizing full partnership between
Science of Missions; H. Conn, Eternal Word and Chang- churches in North America and those abroad.
ing Worlds: Theology, Anthropology, and Mission in Tria- The regular meetings of the AWF are only one of
logue; W. Hutchison, Errand to the World: American many measures implemented to keep the denom-
Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions; C. Kraft, Chris- ination from succumbing to the dangers of an in-
tianity in Culture; R. H. Niebuhr, Christ and Culture;
L. Sanneh, Translating the Message; A. Shorter, Toward a
grown institutionalism.
Theology of Inculturation; C. Taber, The World is too Today 1,108 Alliance missionaries are currently
Much With Us: Culture in Modern Protestant Missions. active in forty-six different countries, while Al-
liance churches exist in an additional dozen
Christ. See JESUS; also CHRISTOLOGY. lands. The CMA is a strong proponent of the UN-
REACHED PEOPLES concept and conceives of itself
as an agency whose chief focus is evangelism, dis-
Christian and Missionary Alliance Missions. ciplemaking, and church planting. While a relief
The Christian and Missionary Alliance resulted and development arm (CAMA Services) and a
from the merger of the Christian Alliance, TENTMAKING arm (the International Fellowship of
founded in 1887 by ALBERT B. SIMPSON as a North Alliance Professionals) have been added in recent
American nondenominational fellowship, and years, the denominations missionary philosophy
the Evangelical Missionary Alliance, founded the shows unwavering commitment to full-time, ca-
same year as the missionary arm of the Christian reer-oriented missionary personnel involved in
Alliance. The year 1887 also saw the ordination the establishment of Gods church among those
and sending of William Cassidy, the new agencys peoples who have not yet had the opportunity to
first missionary, who tragically died en route to hear the Good News regarding salvation in Christ.
China. Between 1887 and 1890, a total of nine-
LARRY POSTON
teen missionaries were sent out, beginning a
movement that grew rapidly in both size and in- Bibliography. R. L. Niklaus, L. J. Sawin and S. J.
fluence. By 1893, 180 missionaries were at work Stoesz, All for Jesus: God at Work in the Christian and
on forty stations in twelve fields. As the EMA Missionary Alliance Over One Hundred Years.
grew to become larger than its parent, the two
were combined to form a single organization in Christian Church (Denominational) Missions.
April 1897, the same month that the cornerstone While claims of interest in world evangelism
was laid for the Missionary Training Institute were present among Christian Churches from
building in Nyack, New York (now Nyack Col- about 1800, the initial sending of missionaries
lege). Headquarters for the agency remained in did not actually begin until 1849. Significant
New York City until 1974, at which time they commitment was not seen until one-quarter of a
were transferred to suburban Nyack. In 1989, century later with the formation of the Foreign
they were moved to Colorado Springs, Colorado. Missionary Society and the Womens Christian
From the beginning, Alliance missions has em- Missionary Society. The mission history of the
phasized PIONEER MISSION activity. Simpson de- movement may be divided into two historic
veloped six guiding principles, which more than a streams: agency-based missions and direct sup-
century later still form the core of the organiza- port missions. The issues dividing these two
tions missionary philosophy. Included among streams have roots in the writings of Thomas and
these principles was the ethos of the missionary Alexander Campbell around the question of the
activity evangelistic and aggressive rather than application of biblical authority. The Restoration
educational and institutionalas well as the Movement has been significantly divided over
185
Christian Church (Denominational) Missions
these two approaches to mission activity. Com- Missions among the independent Christian
mitments to mission and the means of carrying Churches/Churches of Christ range across what
out mission have led to divisions in both the is found in other evangelical missions. When one
movement and local churches from the earliest looks at the principal commitments of various
days until the present. Christian Church missions, the following are
In his early writings Alexander Campbell advo- commonly found: evangelism and church plant-
cated the conversion of the world to Jesus Christ ing, relief and development, leadership develop-
and the use of appropriate means to do that. ment and theological education, benevolence,
However, he opposed some of the practices of Bible translation and literacy, short-term mis-
contemporary agencies and strongly maintained sions, and small-scale publishing.
that the local congregation is the only God-given Some agencies specialize to serve wide sectors
institution for world evangelism. Later, in 1849, of this fellowship of churches. For example,
apparently changing his attitude, he founded and Team Expansion, Amor Ministries, and Christ in
served as life-long president of the American Youth serve largely in short-term missions. IDES
Christian Missionary Society. This agency pro- and FAME serve in relief and development. Pio-
vided the first organized approach to world mis- neer Bible Translators serves in Bible translation.
sions of the Christian Churches. The formation Other missions serve a wider range of ministry
of this agency reflected some changes in the concerns such as Christian Missionary Fellow-
broader theological and political climate of the ship and African Christian Mission, whose focus
times. is in evangelism and church planting, but who
Campbell suggested four primary functions engage in medical work, education, theological
for a mission agency: (1) selecting and appoint- education, literacy, and other kinds of ministries.
ing evangelists, (2) preaching and making con- The majority of missionaries with the Christian
verts, (3) gathering converts into congregations, Churches, however, serve in small direct support
and (4) organizing these converts under the care agencies that may include only one or two fami-
and nurture of elders and deacons. Often not lies. These agencies have been formed in many
aware of the historic roots of mission in the cases in the context of a local congregation to
movement, both direct support and agency- provide legal status for the mission and supervi-
supported missionaries have continued to focus sion by people who are particularly interested in
on these functions. that ministry. In a number of cases these small
The contemporary picture of Christian Church missions cooperate in field operations, as seen in
missions includes both direct support missionar- Indonesia. In most cases they work independ-
ies and missionaries who are sent by mission ently on a given field. The National Missionary
agencies. By 1995 missionaries were listed as Convention meets annually and about every five
serving in more than seventy countries in at least years meets with the North American Christian
157 different incorporated Christian Church Convention as a joint convention. The National
agencies or under local congregational supervi- Missionary Convention provides an opportunity
sion. The actual number of missionaries sent by for churches, mission agency personnel, and in-
the Christian Churches is difficult to ascertain dividual missionaries to meet and informally ad-
because of differences in defining the term. Ques- dress missional issues of the Restoration Move-
tions of geography, nature of the ministry, and ment. Leaders from local congregations, direct
time commitment cloud the issue. Illustrating support missionaries, mission agencies, and
this, different denominational directories list dif- many other parachurch agencies set up booths,
fering numbers of missionaries, though it should conduct workshops, plan corporate worship, and
be noted that in both directories the listing is vol- meet informally for about three days. This con-
untary. With only a few exceptions these figures vention is normally attended by about five thou-
do not include the many people who are serving sand to seven thousand depending upon its loca-
cross-culturally with interdenominational mis- tion. When combined with the North American
sions, such as WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS, Cam- Christian Convention, the two conventions to-
pus Crusade, Food for the Hungry, World Vision, gether normally have registrations exceeding
and Missionary World. Only a few who have a forty thousand. Mission funding and supervision
significant support base in the United States are remain thorny issues for Christian Churches.
listed. Some bivocational missionaries are listed, Some churches will only support missionaries af-
but the majority remain unlisted. These figures filiated with agencies who have acceptable
do not include short-term missionaries. Many boards and regular supervision. Other churches
churches recruit, support, and supervise short- prefer to provide financial and ministry supervi-
term missionaries who may serve from a few sion from within their congregations or super-
weeks to two years. Since no centralized report- vised by local congregations. Local funding
ing structure exists among Christian Churches, it within congregations reflects the same kind of
is impossible to know how many missionaries ambiguity that is common to the broader de-
are actually serving at any given time. nomination. Some churches raise funds through
186
Christian Walk and Work in Mission
a unified budget while others depend on either Character-Based Missionary Problems and
designated giving or a separate mission budget. Proposed Solutions. Numerous surveys have
This approach to a separate mission budget is shown that the greatest problem among mis-
based on a faith commitment of an individual sionaries is relational breakdowns among them-
or family to give a certain amount for a specified selves (Elmer, 1993, 33). Two great needs, then,
time for missions. No unified denominational ap- are for missionaries to cultivate love for others
peals are made since the churches are congrega- and effective interpersonal skills. Without these
tionally governed and no official mission or characteristics missionaries forget the real enemy
other denominational structures exist. and turn on each other. SPIRITUAL WARFARE is sup-
EDGAR J. ELLISTON planted by petty infighting. Everyone is affected
and the whole work weakened. Jesus linked
Bibliography. Directory of the Ministry: A Yearbook of
Christian Churches and Churches of Christ 1995; D. Fil-
Christian love and unity with effective evangel-
beck, The First Fifty Years: A Brief History of the Direct- ism (John 17:2021). Especially when working in
Support Missionary Movement; L. Garrett, The Stone- other cultures the spirit of teamwork is essential
Campbell Movement: The Story of the American for missionary work (see TEAMS IN MISSION). Mis-
Restoration Movement; J. B. North, Union in Truth: An sionary agencies and churches would do well to
Interpretive History of the Restoration Movement; demand that all missionaries study conflict reso-
D. Priest Jr., ed., Unto the Uttermost: Missions in the lution before leaving their homelands (see CON-
Christian Churches/Churches of Christ. FLICT). Missionaries must also be reminded of the
indispensable quality of love for their lives and
Christian Walk and Work in Mission. The ten- work. Without love all service and sacrifice are
sion between what they are and what they have nothing (1 Cor. 13:13).
been called to do has frustrated missionaries of Many missionaries careers have been ruined by
all times and countries. This article addresses their inability to adapt to other cultures and other
two things: (1) the connection between character people (see ADJUSTMENT TO THE FIELD). The two
and work; and (2) some character-based prob- most valuable assets a missionary can possess are
lems that hinder missionary work with suggested versatility and adaptability (Kane, 1980, 93).
solutions. These characteristics are developed by the Spirit
Character-Ministry Relationship. A defini- in the soil of humility and servant-mindedness.
tive statement about true religion was made Missionaries need to ask God for the grace to be-
when God told Samuel, The LORD does not look come all things to all people so that by all possi-
at the things man looks at. Man looks at the out- ble means [they] might save some (1 Cor. 9:22).
ward appearance, but the L ORD looks at the They should also realize that studying cultural
heart (1 Sam. 16:7). The religion of the Bible ANTHROPOLOGY from a Christian perspective is an
stresses the danger of outward worship and effective way to learn of their own subtle ETHNO-
service apart from a devout heart (Prov. 15:8; CENTRISM and better prepare them for the life of
John 4:24). Solomon taught that character af- constant adaptation that constitutes missionary
fects life when he wrote, Above all else, guard living. Such study also leads to an understanding
your heart, for it is the wellspring of life (Prov. of WORLDVIEWS. Too few Christians have a well-
4:23). If this is true of Christianity in general it developed biblical worldview with the lordship of
is especially true of those who seek to spread Christ at its center. Not having thoroughly ana-
the faith around the world. Missionaries should lyzed their own culture by Scripture, they are
never allow themselves to minister as mere pro- poorly equipped to counsel people of other cul-
fessionals. Their character impacts their min- tures to follow Christ within that culture. Devo-
istry. What they are determines the level of their tion to Christ as Lord and courage to follow him
effectiveness (2 Chron. 16:9). whatever the cost within their own cultures are
It is of vital importance that missionaries re- important characteristics for missionaries.
member this. Ignored or unconfessed sin hinders Another problem that missionaries face is self-
their ministries and, therefore, impacts everyone ishness. This is especially true of many Western-
with whom they come in contact. Paul warned, ers who have not forsaken the idol of materialism
Watch your life and doctrine closely. Persevere as a part of their conversion to Christ. Missionar-
in them, because if you do, you will save both ies do not always leave their love of things behind
yourself and your hearers (1 Tim. 4:10). Truly, all when they go to serve abroad. No one has done a
the success that missionaries enjoy depends on better job analyzing this than missiologist Jon
the assisting work of the Holy Spirit (Acts 1:8). Bonk in his book Missions and Money (see also
Yet sin can grieve and put out the Spirits fire MISSIONARY AFFLUENCE). A propensity for selfish-
in their lives (Eph. 4:30; 1 Thess. 5:19). Mission- ness affects many missionaries approach to
aries cannot afford to have their work abandoned evangelism and discipleship. These have become
by the blessing and power of the Holy Spirit. things to be done rather than an integral part of
Carefully guarding and developing character is of their lives. A credibility gap often occurs when
utmost importance. missionaries share the gospel but do not share
187
Christian Walk and Work in Mission
themselves with their hearers. Then the flaw of spiring Stories about Overcoming Lopsided Christianity;
selfishness appears. R. Van Reken, Letters Never Sent.
Many missionaries have hurt their families and
testimonies by their lack of parenting skills and Christianization. See COLONIALISM.
their blind devotion to ministry (see FAMILY LIFE
OF THE MISSIONARY). Strong character is devel- Christlieb, Theodor (183389). Early German
oped through the daily responsibilities and trials missiologist and missions apologist. He is re-
of raising a Christian family (see Gross, 1995). A membered as the foremost promoter of the
missionarys credibility in public ministry is often reevangelization of Germany after industrializa-
lost by failure in the private ministry of his own tion. He became the father of the Westgerman
family (1 Tim. 3:45; Titus 1:6). Much can be Evangelical Alliance in 1880 and the Gnadauer
learned by reading the heartbreaking lament of a Fellowship Movement in 1888, the latter remain-
missionary child who was raised at the expense ing the largest evangelical lay movement in the
of the family (Van Reken, 1988; see MISSIONARY German Protestant state churches. Christlieb was
CHILDREN). one of the few Lutheran professors who favored
The Missionary Research Library in New York a pietistic outlook. He was also influenced by
has discovered another missionary problem. They British-American revivalism through his personal
report that ill health is the greatest single cause contacts during his pastoral work in London
of missionary dropouts. Physical health problems from 1858 to 1865.
account for 20.3% and mental health problems Christliebs missiological thinking paralleled
for 5.6%, making a total of 24.9% (Kane, 1980, that of his associate GUSTAV WARNECK. He was also
105). Missionaries need the determination to cul- influenced by RUFUS ANDERSON. He met the latter
tivate the mind and the body as well as the soul. in 1873 at the International Conference of the
Maintaining a hobby, reading interesting books Evangelical Alliance in which he was a major
and magazines, exercising, eating well, developing speaker. He then introduced Andersons thinking
recreational interests all help in preserving per- to the German-speaking world. In 1874 he and
sonal well-being (see MEMBER CARE). Warneck started and edited the first journal to ex-
As important as these areas are, Paul said, plore missiology as a science. In 1879 he produced
physical training is of some value, but godliness the first survey of Protestant world missions enti-
has value for all things (1 Tim. 4:8). Godliness is tled Protestant Foreign Missions: Their Present
indispensable for the Christian. To be godly is to State: A Universal Survey. This six hundred-page
be like God, to follow God. Missionaries must re- volume went through several editions and was
printed in all the major European languages, as
member that in making disciples they must not
were several of his works, including The Indo-
cease being disciplined followers of Christ every
British Opium Trade and Its Effect (ET 1879) and
day. Praying, Bible reading, praising God, and
Modern Doubt and Christian Belief (ET 1874).
sharing his Word should be as natural as eating
Christlieb served from 1869 until his death as an
and breathing. And of all the inner character to
outstanding professor of practical theology at
be developed, two traits should be constantly cul-
Bonn University. From his first year at the univer-
tivated: faith that works through love (Gal. 5:6; sity until his death on August 15, 1889, he incor-
1 Thess. 1:23). porated missiology within his work on practical
A personal walk with God determines the effec- theology, and was thus one of the earliest German
tiveness of work for God. Christlike character is professors to continually integrate missiology into
greatly needed. But the character needed comes his teaching at the highest academic level.
only by grace. It is the FRUIT OF THE SPIRIT, not the THOMAS SCHIRRMACHER
effect of human determination. It is best sought
by humble prayer to a heavenly Father who de-
Christmas Island (Australian States and Territo-
sires to give the best of his gifts to his children.
ries) (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,000; 135 sq km. [52 sq.
EDWARD N. GROSS
mi.]). Christmas Island is a territory of Australia
Bibliography. R. Bakke, The Urban Christian: Effec- in the Indian Ocean south of Java, Indonesia.
tive Ministry in Todays Urban World; J. Bonk, Missions Half of the population is Han Chinese and an-
and Money: Affluence as a Western Missionary Problem; other 35 percent is Malay. The predominant reli-
C. Bridges, The Christian Ministry; D. Elmer, Cross-Cul- gions are Chinese folk-religion and Islam. Only
tural Conflict: Building Relationships for Effective Min- 13.6 percent are Christians. Most of the Evangel-
istry; E. Gross, Will My Children Go To Heaven? Hope icals are Anglicans, Methodists, and a few other
and Help for Believing Parents; S. Grunlan and M. May- Protestants.
ers, Cultural Anthropology: A Christian Perspective, 2nd
TODD M. JOHNSON
ed.; J. H. Kane, Life and Work on the Mission Field;
idem, Wanted: World Christians; D. Palmer, Managing
Conflict Creatively: A Guide for Missionaries and Christ- Christo-Paganism. Christo-paganism is a kind of
ian Workers; R. Sider, Cup of Water, Bread of Life: In- SYNCRETISM that exists and persists where the
188
Christological Controversies
process of evangelization has been defective and submerged, not replaced. The indigenous pagan
incomplete, leaving the pre-Christian animistic culture has been suppressed by an external cul-
belief-system and practices virtually intact but tural power, not converted. The pagan worldview
fused with some Christian elements. has been neither adequately critiqued nor dis-
The Australian anthropologist-missiologist placed by a Christian one; the old associated
ALAN TIPPETT has vividly described his own care- practices have been neither converted to authen-
ful observation of the phenomenon in parts of tically Christian use nor supplanted by appropri-
Mexico and Guatemala. In these nominally ate functional substitutes.
Christian communities Tippett saw stark evi- JOHN MCINTOSH
dence of the old animistic belief-system and as- Bibliography. J. Bavinck, Introduction to the Science
sociated practices in the devotion of Catholic In- of Missions; D. Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ
dians of Mayan descent. He watched them on Cross-Culturally; P. Hiebert, Anthropological Insights for
their knees approaching shrines more Aztec Missionaries; L. Luzbetak, The Church and Cultures; W.
than Christian, and others putting paper or Madsen, Christopaganism: A Study of Mexican Syn-
cloth under their bloodstained [sic] knees get cretisms; A. Tippett, Christopaganism or Indigenous
charged with power for magical or healing pur- Christianity?, pp. 1334.
poses, all being done as Christian ceremony.
Tippett also discovered Christian strands of Christological Controversies. Owing to the cen-
thought in the dominantly animistic context, tral place of Christ in Christian thought (quite
which he found to be typically portrayed in the different from, say, the place of Buddha in Bud-
native Mexican autobiography, Juan the Chamula. dhist thought), there has always been controversy
Juan, who saw himself as a faithful Catholic, be- over his person and work. The early centuries
lieved, among other things, witnessed the rise and virtual demise of several
Christological heresies which in their day threat-
that the Savior watches over people on the ened the developing stream of orthodoxy. The
road. He died on a cross to save the wayfarer Ebionites thought of Jesus Christ as a human,
from the Jews, whom he equates with devils, Jewish Messiah, to the neglect of his divinity. The
and who were supposedly cannibalistic. Gnostics argued that the incarnation was a
Originally the sun was cold as the moon,
temporary donning of human flesh, for appear-
but it grew warmer when the Holy Child was
born. He was the son of a virgin among the ances sake, by some deity less than the high God.
Jews, who sent her away because they knew The Arians conceived of the Son of God as a
the child would bring light. St. Joseph took lesser deity. Denying the two natures, they argued
her to Bethlehem, where the Child was born. that the nature of the Son took the place of the
The sun grew warmer and the day brighter. human soul in the historical Jesus Christ. By
The demons ran away and hid in the moun- contrast, Apollinarius, while agreeing with the
tain ravines. (pp. 2122) Arians that Christ had but one nature, held that
nature to be thoroughly divine, displacing any
Christo-paganism may manifest a variety of el- human soul, such that the human properties of
ements: the survival of discrete cultural com- Christ were nothing more than the animal ele-
plexes; the persistence of the old mythical belief- ments found in human nature. Monarchianism,
system; the demand for a therapeutic system; in both its forms, preserved the unity of the God-
and a vivid notion of the living dead. Many cases head by embracing merely functional distinc-
could be cited from various parts of the world, tions between the Father and the Son, effectively
both Protestant and Catholic. Many Catholics are denying the Sons subsistence as God. The Nesto-
intensely aware of the problem; not all instances rians, eager to preserve Christs human experi-
are as extreme as those mentioned above, but re- ence, effectively divided his humanity and divin-
semble more what DAVID HESSELGRAVE calls mul- ity so sharply that it was difficult to see how they
tireligion. For example, some Batak Protestant avoided embracing two persons.
Christians in Indonesia visit the gravesites of im- Some of these heresies have resurfaced in new
portant ancestors at Easter; they make food and forms during the last one hundred years or so.
other offerings to them and seek their blessing on Arianism, for instance, lies at the heart of the
the temporal affairs of their descendants. Those Christological convictions of the Jehovahs Wit-
Bataks from the more profoundly converted re- nesses; some forms of New Age thought seem re-
gions shun such things. Tippett observed a vivid markably similar to some features of ancient
example of Christo-paganism in Australia: abo- Gnosticism. The reason for the chasms that di-
riginal dreamtime paintings displayed behind the vide people with one set of Christological convic-
Communion Table. tions from those with a quite different set is that
Such phenomena are the very antithesis of pos- all sides have insisted that Christology matters. It
sessio, which is the investing of an existing prac- matters, finally, for how one understands Chris-
tice with specifically and exclusively Christian tianity, and thus salvation itselfand therefore
significance. They represent an ANIMISM merely the churchs mission. The same sorts of things
189
Christological Controversies
could be said about the more radical of the as- Hick are not believing the Christian Christ at all.
sorted Christologies generated by skeptical appli- Some of the erroneous views are deeply rooted in
cation of the historical-critical method during the demonstrably false exegesis. More importantly,
last two centuries (cf. Henry; Runia). Christ is not a cipher or an abstract notion that
But the most recent Christological controver- can be dropped into any religious structure.
sies have been generated not so much by alterna- Jesus Christ belongs to the pattern of redemptive
tive interpretations of the sacred text, as by con- history that is reflected in the Bibles plot-line.
structions that simultaneously recognize the Within the meta-narrative of Scripture the bibli-
validity of many elements of orthodox Christol- cal Christ has a coherent place. Remove him
ogy while setting it in a framework that rela- from this plotline, and it is not the same Christ.
tivizes it. Thus Panikkar argues that, while Christ To put it another way, one cannot properly ap-
is incarnated in Jesus, Christ cannot be identified preciate the biblical Christ (whether to accept or
with Jesus: Christ is always more than Jesus. reject him) apart from a firm grasp of the Bibles
Christianity may have a monopoly on Jesus, but story-line in which he is embedded. In that case
not on Christ. God has disclosed himself in the urgency of mission is retained.
Christ, and doubtless for Christians the historical One must also say that many Christological
connection is Jesus. But for Hindus, Christ has controversies around the world at first glance
manifested himself in a different form appropri- seem less traumatic, since they have to do with
ate to that religious structure. Thus there is a the attempt to anchor gospel presentation of
cosmic Christ. Rahner would add that this Christ in the Scriptures while finding lines of
means there are anonymous Christians, people burning relevance to local hearers. If the appeal
who are Christians without ever having heard of for relevance is primary, however, the Christ we
Christ, or even in some cases who have repudi- present may become domesticated to the culture.
ated Christianity as they have experienced it On the other hand, every generation, every cul-
while accepting the (unrecognized) Christ in ture, needs to continually ask the foundational
their own religious heritage. questions regarding who Christ is, as the Bible
Something similar is done with some forms of portrays him. It is not surprising that poor be-
Logos-Christologies. If the Word is the light that lievers in forsaken barrios fasten on Jesus sensi-
enlightens every person (John 1:9), then it would tivity to the poor and his striking calls for justice.
be wrong to insist that Christianity has some de- It is not surprising that African believers note the
cisive advantage. In an alternative construction, emphasis on the corporate nature of the people
Hick argues that the only way genuine pluralism of God. It is not surprising that zealous believers
can prevail among the religions is to postulate in the Western tradition are struck by Jesus ur-
that there is an ultimate Reality (not even God, gent calls to active mission. This may be all to the
since some religions have more to do with ritual good. The test in every case is whether some ele-
and veneration of ancestors than with any deity) ments of biblical Christology are being blown out
that stands more or less equivalently behind all of proportion while others are ignored. The final
religions. Thus it is entirely appropriate for synthesis needs to be recognizably the Christ of
Christians to worship within the framework of the Bible. Alternatively, even if the emphases are
Christian theology; it is inappropriate for them to different, there must be a humble pursuit of bib-
tell others that they ought to do so too. lical balance in the efforts of every generation
In this way, some positions espoused in the and culture of believers to articulate who Jesus
most recent Christological controversies wipe out Christ is, as he is disclosed in Scripture. Christo-
the sense of mission, classically conceived, in logical controversy that is seeking to recover the
which Christian believers share and proclaim the holism of biblical Christology in a world that
good news that in Christ God is reconciling to constantly veers toward assorted reductionisms
himself a people from every tongue and people is a healthy thing.
and tribe and nation. That is now likely to be dis- DONALD A. CARSON
missed as cultural imposition or, worse, colonial
manipulation. The only Christological heresy left SEE ALSO Uniqueness of Christ.
is the view that there is such a thing as Christo- Bibliography. R. F. Berkey and S. A. Edwards, eds.,
logical heresy. You may believe what you will, but Christology in Dialogue; L. Boff, Jesus Christ Liberator;
you must never say that the eternal salvation of J. M. Bonino, ed., Faces of Jesus: Latin American Chris-
anyone is in any way tied to belief in a particular tologies; H. O. J. Brown, Heresies: The Image of Christ in
Jesus Christ. the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy From the Apostles to
The issues at stake are extraordinarily com- the Present; D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God; S. T.
Davis, ed., Encountering Jesus: A Debate on Christology;
plex. Here it is enough to say that the exclusive S. Escobar, Missiology 19 (1991): 31532; C. F. H.
claims advanced by and in behalf of Christ can- Henry, Scripture, Tradition, and Interpretation, pp.
not be so easily dismissed. Despite protests, 21633; J. Hick, The Metaphor of God Incarnate: Chris-
Christians who ostensibly believe in the Christian tology in a Pluralistic Age; P. Jones, The Gnostic Empire
Christ while adhering to the views of Panikkar or Strikes Back; K. Koyama, Missiology 12 (1984): 43547;
190
Christology
L. Newbigin, SJT 31:1 (1978): 122; R. Panikkar, The light, the many chapters of the canonical Gospels
Unknown Christ of Hinduism; J. Parratt, Reinventing that describe Jesus ministry during the days of
Christianity: African Theology Today; K. Runia, The Pres- his flesh betray a daunting concern for the whole
ent-Day Christological Debate; S. J. Samartha, One human being. Addressed are questions of health,
ChristMany Religions: Toward a Revised Christology;
justice, integrity, marriage, generosity, family,
E. B. Udo, Guest Christology: An Interpretative View of
the Christological Problem in Africa. priorities, humility, truth-telling, death, compas-
sion, and much more. Nor is this the exclusive
preserve of the Gospels. Elsewhere, for instance,
Christology . Every facet of biblical Christology Jesus identity with the human race not only
could be tied to mission, in that the biblical plot- qualifies him to be our priest and our substitute,
line that sets out Gods mission to redeem from a but ensures that his own strong cries and tears
lost race a vast number from every tongue and make him uniquely fitted to empathize with ours,
tribe and people and nation is focused on Jesus and thus also to save to the uttermost all who
Christ, without whom the missionary plotline come to God by him (Hebrews).
would be incoherent. Nevertheless, the wide embrace of Jesus con-
On the basis of John 20:21, a substantial cerns for broken human beings must never ob-
amount of contemporary mission literature con- scure the fact that such concerns are set within a
ceives of the task of mission in terms of incarna- plotline that takes him to the cross. His social
tion (see INCARNATIONAL MISSION). The Gospel of and humanitarian passions cannot legitimately
John is perhaps the clearest in enunciating the be given independent standing. They are tied to
doctrine of incarnation, and here too the resur- the dawning of the kingdom, whose consumma-
rected Jesus tells his disciples, As the Father has tion awaits his return, and entry into which is fi-
sent me, I am sending you. nally secured by the new birth (John 3:3, 5), itself
In general terms (i.e., apart from the meaning predicated on the cross. The Son of Man did not
of this verse), a link between the incarnation and come to be served, but to serve, and to give his
mission is valuable on two fronts. Christologi- life a ransom for many (Mark 10:45). Moreover,
cally, it focuses on the unique humility of the substantial elements in the ethics of Jesus turn
eternal Son in becoming a human being in order on the critical importance of living with eternitys
to perform his Fathers will, accomplish his mis- values in view. Thus Christian mission, while
sion, and rescue Gods guilty image bearers from properly being wholistic, must focus on the
sin and death. Metaphorically, it is a suggestive promulgation of the good news that men and
model of our mission: as the eternal Son entered women can be accepted by God, both now and
our world to accomplish his mission, so Christs forever, because of what God has done in Christ
disciples in mission must, as it were, incarnate Jesus.
themselves into the worlds they are called to Genuine Christian mission is impossible apart
serve and evangelize. from genuine Christian love, and genuine Chris-
On the other hand, it is doubtful that John tian love is both modeled and impelled by the Fa-
20:21 can responsibly be called on to support this thers sending of the Son out of love for this lost
emphasis. As Kstenberger has shown in exhaus- world, and by the Sons willing sacrifice on our
tive exegesis, the analogical argument in that behalf. If we are all by nature children of wrath
verse draws in a major theme in the Fourth (Eph. 2:3), Gods love for us is not a function of
Gospel: the sending of the Son, the sending of the how lovable we are, but of how loving he is. In-
disciples, with entailments in the authority of the sofar as Christians learn to receive that love, and
sender and the obedience of the one sent. learn to measure their poor love by his great love,
Johns Gospel does not set forth our going as an so also they begin to learn that the love that im-
incarnation. The observation is more than a pels Christian mission grows from within (cf.
narrow point of picky exegesis: under the guise of 2 Cor. 5:1415). That is precisely the reason why
the incarnation model of Christian mission Paul thought of himself as a debtor to all (Rom.
some now so focus on presence and identifica- 1:14): always there is the debt of love to be paid,
tion with those being served that the proclama- for Christ has paid it for us.
tory, kerygmatic, good news elements are This elementary but fundamental Christology
largely suppressed. has a direct bearing on Christian mission. This is
More broadly, the biblical Christology that de- not sentimentalism, as if the cross of Christ were
picts Christ as both divine and human develops a symbol of love and nothing more. If Jesus sac-
an awareness of the wholeness of Christian mis- rifice did not in fact aim to achieve something,
sion. This mission is Gods initiative; it is under- then far from being an effective example of self-
taken with Gods sovereign authority. Yet this sacrificial love, it reduces to sheer insanity. But in
mission signals more than divine presence, more fact it did achieve something: the reconciliation
than information graciously provided about this to God their Maker and Redeemer of a vast num-
God; it signals the Sons costly adoption of our ber of Gods image bearers, otherwise lost in pa-
nature, living our life and dying our death. In this thetic and evil rebellion. In that framework,
191
Christology
Christs self-sacrifice is the most staggering in- 8:46; 12:13). In the light of Septuagint usage of
stance of love conceivable, both the means of our Lord, it is also to confess the deity of Jesus
redemption and the model for our living. If that Christ. One cannot responsibly confess Jesus as
model increasingly constrains Jesus followers, Lord and then deny the uniqueness that he
mission is inevitable. claims for himself and that his earliest followers
One of the great Christological themes of the assigned him. Further, it is a public commitment
New Testament, especially strong in Hebrews 5:7, of covenantal allegiance and loyalty to Jesus and
pictures Jesus as the high priest par excellence. At to his teaching (for how can one responsibly call
one level this theme is associated with the story- him Lord! Lord! and fail to do what he says?),
line of redemptive history. The Levitical priest- and thus not only to enjoy the salvation he alone
hood is displaced by the Melchizedekian, and graciously gives but also to participate joyfully in
Jesus priesthood is of the latter order. But if the his final and GREAT COMMISSION.
Levitical priesthood is rendered obsolete, so also is DONALD A. CARSON
the law-covenant that bases itself upon this priest-
hood (Heb. 7:1112; cf. 8:13). Thus there is a for- SEE ALSO Uniqueness of Christ.
ward movement within the biblical narrative itself. Bibliography. D. M. Baillie, God Was in Christ; M. J.
Nevertheless, the structure of priestly service, Erickson, The Word Became Flesh; A. Fernando, The Su-
complete with tabernacle/temple, articulated in premacy of Christ; A. J. Kstenberger, Mission in the
the law-covenant is certainly not obsolete in every Fourth Gospel; P. Lewis, The Glory of Christ; G. Mar Os-
respect. It serves as a shadow, a model, a type of thathios, Mission Studies 12 (1995): 7994; R. J. Schre-
the heavenly reality (Heb. 10:1ff.). What is re- iter, Missiology 18 (1990): 42937; John R. W. Stott et
quired for a guilty people to be acceptable to and al., Christ the Liberator; D. F. Wells, The Person of Christ:
A Biblical and Historical Analysis of the Incarnation.
enter the presence of a holy God is depicted in
gripping, symbol-laden ritual, which in turn
prophetically announces the ultimate fulfillment Church. One way to define the church has been
of the reality to which it points. The priesthood of to do a word study of ekklemsia, the word used at
Jesus is pictured in these transcendent terms. Pre- least seventy-three times in the New Testament to
cisely because it is tied to Melchizedek and not to refer to the church. The word is derived from ek
Levi, however, its relevance is not limited to the and kaleom and (speaks of) the assembly of free cit-
people of the Mosaic covenant. It is also in prin- izens in the Greek city-states who through a her-
ciple open to people from every tribe and tongue. ald were called out of their homes to the mar-
One of the major strands of New Testament ketplace. In ordinary usage the word denoted the
Christology pictures Jesus as the One who emp- people as assembled, the public meeting (Berk-
tied himself, humbled himself, served obediently hof, 1986, 343). The term ekklemsia indicated the
all the way to the ignominy of the crossand self-consciousness of the early Christians, who
was triumphantly vindicated (e.g. Phil. 2:611). saw themselves as the continuation of what God
The ultimate vindication occurs when Jesus re- had begun in the wilderness with the nation of
turns at the end of the age. This schema provides Israel, called together by the proclamation of the
a goal, a philosophy of history (with Jesus at the gospel for the purpose of belonging to God
crucial midpoint and returning at the end), a through Christ by the power of the Holy Spirit
telos to which history rushes. Not only is it ap- (see, for example, Acts 19:39). Yet a word study
pointed to us to die and face judgment, but there of ekklemsia tells us little about the reason for
is a final and irrevocable judgment at the end of which the group is called, the purposes and goals
the age (Heb. 9:2728; Acts 17:31; Rev. 22:1011). of the group, or the parameters that determine
History is not simply spinning in circles, nor are who is part of the group.
we dipping in and out of it in successive cycles of A second way to describe the church is by
reincarnated existence. crafting a propositional definition. How we
These realities not only lend a certain urgency would love to have the confidence of Martin
to the task of mission, they also provide a model: Luther who said, Thank God a seven-year-old
self-denial and willing self-death now, final vindi- child knows what the church is, namely holy be-
cation later. Effective mission can only be sus- lievers and sheep who hear the voice of their
tained when both of these elements prevail. shepherd (John 10:3). So children pray, I believe
One of the core Christological confessions is in one holy Christian Church. Its holiness . . .
that Jesus is Lord. Regrettably, this may become consists of the Word of God and true faith
the merest clich, with no discernible content to (Luthers Works, vol. xi). Hendrik Kraemer came
Jesus and nothing more than religious senti- close to Luthers simple definition: Where there
mentalism connected with Lord. But in the is a group of baptized Christians, there is the
New Testament, heart-belief in this truth, cou- Church (The Missionary Obligation of the
pled with oral confession of it, are tied to salva- Church, 40). However, a purely propositional def-
tion (Rom. 10:9). To confess that Jesus is Lord is, inition is not enough to show us the churchs
implicitly, to deny lordship to all others (cf. 1 Cor. structure, purpose, destiny, or mission. In fact,
192
Church
the New Testament gives us no formal definition human, created by the Holy Spirit yet brought
of the church. about by gathering human beings. The tension
A third way to define the church was used by can be illustrated by mentioning five comple-
Jesus and the New Testament writers: metaphors mentary couplets. The church is not either one or
of the church. Paul Minear demonstrated that the other of theseit is both, simultaneously.
there are at least ninety-six different images of 1. The church is both form and essence. What
the church in the New Testament. We are famil- we believe to be the essence of the church is
iar with many of these, like body, temple, build- not seen in its forms. We believe the church to be
ing, household, family, saints, New Israel, new one, yet it is divided; to be holy, yet it is the com-
creation, and branches of the vine. These rich im- munion of sinners. We believe the essence of dis-
ages express what the church is and serve also to cipleship is love, yet we experience actions in the
show what the church should become. They call church that are far from loving.
the members of the church to see themselves in a 2. The church is both phenomenon and creed.
new light, challenging them to become more like The church is to be believed. But what is believed
the pictures offered. is not seen. That which is perceived as a phe-
These images are metaphors of the church in nomenon of the visible world does not present it-
mission. Almost all the images of the church in self as the object of our faith. The church is too
the New Testament are not still photographs but often not believable. We could also use the words
rather moving pictures, dynamic videos of the Real-Ideal or Relevance-Transcendence to
church living out its witness in the world. For ex- represent this seeming contradiction. We cannot
ample, the church is the salt of the earth. It is the be members of an ideal church apart from the
light of the world. As the Body of Christ, it is the real one. The real must always be challenged
physical presence of Jesus in the world. As a royal and called by the ideal; the ideal must be under-
priesthood (1 Peter 2) the church is a priest for stood and lived out in the real world.
the Gentiles, who see the good works of the 3. The church is both institution and commu-
church and glorify God. nity; organization and organism. During the Mid-
The church soon found that it needed a way to dle Ages, the exclusively institutional view of the
bring all the pictures together in a simple de- church took on its most extreme form. In reac-
scription. Shortly after the apostolic era, the tion, the sixteenth-century Reformers emphasized
church followed a fourth way to define itself by the church as fellowship and communion. Many
using three words that appeared in the Apostles people feel today that we need to seek to keep
Creed, with a fourth added soon thereafter and both elements in equal perspective, especially
institutionalized at Chalcedon. All the subsequent when it comes to missionary cooperation between
ecumenical creeds adopted these four marks or churches and mission agencies. The church is
notes (from the Latin notae) about the church. I both institution and community. The community
believe . . . the holy catholic church, the com- invariably, and necessarily, takes on institutional
munion of saints, is accepted by all major Chris- form; the institution only exists as the concrete
tian traditions, on all continents, in all the lan- expression of the communion of persons.
guages of the church. 4. The church is both visible and invisible. The
The four creedal marks of the church have visible-invisible distinction has been used as a
tended to be understood as static adjectives mod- way to get around some of the difficulties in-
ifying the church. As such, they have fostered involved in the first three paradoxes presented
stitutionalization, maintenance, and decline in the above. The visible-invisible distinction, though
church. Hans Kng and G. C. Berkouwer empha- not explicitly found in the New Testament, was
sized that the four marks are not only gifts but proposed in the early centuries of the churchs
also tasks facing the church. Moltmann saw the life. The visible-invisible distinction is with us be-
four as descriptive of the churchs solidarity with cause of the reality of the church as a mixture of
the poor. C. Van Engen and D. Guder have sug- holiness and sinfulness. (For example, see the
gested we think of the four marks as adverbs mod- parable of the tares in Matt. 13:2430, 3643.)
ifying the missionary action of the church. As The distinction is important, but perhaps it must
such, they call the church to be the unifying, sanc- be remembered that there is one church, not two.
tifying, reconciling, and proclaiming presence of The one church, in its essential nature and in its
Jesus Christ in the world, challenging local con- external forms alike, is always at once visible and
gregations to a transformed, purpose-driven life of invisible (Berkhof, 1986, 399).
mission in the world, locally and globally. 5. The church is both imperfect and perfect.
A fifth method of defining the church involves Luther spoke of the church as simul justus,
affirming a series of seemingly contradictory simul peccator, seeing it as simultaneously just
characteristics. When we try to describe the and sinful, holy and unrighteous, universal and
church we are immediately caught in a tension particular. But the church is not, therefore, justi-
between the sociological and theological views of fied to remain sinful, divided, and particular.
the church. The church is both divine and Faith in the holiness of the church, Moltmann
193
Church
said, can no more be a justification of its unholy 3. This tendency toward introversion of three-
condition than the justification of sinners means self churches fueled the search for what became
a justification of sin (Moltmann, 1977, 2223). a third major paradigm of the churchs self-
The local congregation derives its essential na- understanding: indigenous national churches in
ture only as it authentically exhibits the nature mission. Beginning with ROLAND ALLENs call for
and characteristics of the universal church. And, the spontaneous expansion of the church,
the universal church is experienced by women churches all around the globe began to see them-
and men, witnesses to the world who give ob- selves as equal partners whose essential purpose
servable shape to the church only as it is mani- was mission. In the 1920s the term daughter
fested in local churches. churches was used to refer to the churches in
Hendrikus Berkhof called for a special visibil- Asia, Africa, and Latin America. By 1938 at the
ity to see and recognize the church. The church, INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL (IMC) meet-
he said, has a threefold character, being related ing in Tambaram, Madras, India, the older
(1) to God as the new covenant community of the churches and younger ones stressed a mission-
Holy Spirit, (2) to the believers as the commun- oriented view of the church. The record of this
ion of saints, and (3) simultaneously as the apos- conference, The World Mission of the Church,
tolic church sent to the world (Berkhof, 1986, shows the delegates wrestling with the intimate
34445). The missionary movement has been the relationship of church and mission (see also TAM-
arena where this threefold character has been BARAM CONFERENCE [1938]). That same year HEN-
given concrete shape as the church has spread DRIK KRAEMER called for churches to move from
over the globe, comprising now around one-third missionfield to independent church. JOHN
of all humanity. NEVIUS, MEL HODGES, DONALD MCGAVRAN, and
A sixth way to define the church involves the others began calling for INDIGENOUS CHURCHES,
actual shape which the church has taken through- communions, organisms, and fellowships that
out its missionary expansion around the world. would be culturally appropriate to their contexts.
During the last five hundred years there have Along with indigeneity, the missionary nature
been four major paradigms of the church in mis- of the church was increasingly being empha-
sion: colonial expansion, three-self churches, in- sized. Those attending the 1952 IMC meeting in
digenous national churches, and partner churches Willingen, Germany, affirmed that there is no
in mission. participation in Christ without participation in
1. From the early 1500s to the middle of the his mission to the world (The Missionary Oblig-
1800s the principal paradigm of the church in ation of the Church, 3 [see also WILLINGEN CON-
mission involved the churches of Western Europe FERENCE (1952)]). The most complete develop-
and North America planting the church in ment of this view was Johannes Blauws The
Africa, Asia, and Latin America. With notable ex- Missionary Nature of the Church, published in
ceptions, this era could be described as a colonial 1962, one year before the newly formed COMMIS-
competition in church cloning by Western forms SION ON WORLD MISSION AND EVANGELISM of the
of Christendom. GISBERT VOETIUS (15891676) de- WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES met in Mexico City,
scribed this perspective well when he spoke of the emphasizing mission on six continents (see also
goal of mission being (1) the conversion of peo- MEXICO CITY CONFERENCE [1963]). The 1960s was
ple, (2) the planting of the church, and (3) the a time of the birth of nations, particularly in
glory of God. But Voetius was a child of his time. Africa, terminating colonial domination by Eu-
That which was planted was mostly carbon copies rope. These movements began to recognize that
of the Western forms of ecclesiastical structures, the national churches, the churches in each na-
Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant. tion, had a responsibility to evangelize their own
2. A second paradigm emerged around the nations. The church was missionary in its nature
middle of the 1800s when HENRY VENN and and local in its outreach.
RUFUS ANDERSON proposed the THREE-SELF FOR- 4. In the subsequent forty years, the world has
MULA as a way for the church in Africa, Asia, and changed as has the world church. The fourth par-
Latin America to become autonomous and inde- adigm reflects the fact that today over two-thirds
pendent. Dominating mission theory and prac- of all Christians live south of the equator. Chris-
tice for the next hundred years, the formula tianity can no longer be considered a Western re-
stated that churches were maturing when they ligion. Western Europe and North America are
became self-supporting economically, self-gov- increasingly seen as mission fields. Nominalism
erning structurally, and self-propagating locally. and secularization contributed to these formerly
With heavy stress on institution and organiza- mission-sending areas becoming mostly post-
tion, the formula unfortunately tended to pro- Christian. Meanwhile, mission-sending from the
duce self-centered, self-preoccupied national south has been increasing to such an extent that
churches that often turned in upon themselves today more cross-cultural missionaries are being
and demonstrated little commitment or vision sent and supported by the churches in Africa,
for world evangelization. Asia, and Latin America than from Europe and
194
Church and State
North America. Thus since the 1970s the mis- together with Alexanders legacy of the Koine
sionary nature of the church has meant that Greek language allowed the gospel to spread
churches and mission agencies are called to part- quickly over large areas. Formal missionary
ner together in a reciprocal flow of world evan- bands spontaneously spread the faith into Asia
gelization that crisscrosses the globe. Thus the Minor, Mesopotamia, India, Armenia, Rome,
churchs nature and forms of existence have been Gaul, Britain, and North Africa. These advances
radically reshaped by mission. were met by local and sporadic persecution by
Although we know that the ideas are distinct, it Decian (249251), Valerian (257), and Dioclet-
is impossible to understand church without mis- ian (303), who saw the church as politically
sion. Mission activity is supported by the church, subversive.
carried out by members of the church, and the It was not until Christianity became a state re-
fruits of mission are received by the church. On ligion in the fourth century that scholars began
the other hand, the church lives out its calling in to grapple with a clearer definition of the rela-
the world through mission, finds its essential tionship between church and state. In 313 Chris-
purpose in its participation in Gods mission, and tianity became an officially recognized religion
engages in a multitude of activities whose pur- and Emperor Constantine became responsible
pose is mission. Just as we must insist that a for directing the church. The temptation for the
church which has ceased to be a mission has lost church was to lose evangelistic fervor and con-
the essential character of a church, so we must form to culture rather than continuing to pene-
also say that a mission which is not at the same trate culture. In 330 with the division of the em-
time truly a church is not a true expression of the pire into East and West came also two different
divine apostolate. An unchurchly mission is as approaches to churchstate relations. In the
much a monstrosity as an unmissionary church Byzantine Empire the secular ruler held absolute
(Newbigin, 1954, 169). authority over both the church and the state
CHARLES VAN ENGEN whereas in the Western Empire the church had
more freedom to direct its own affairs. By the
Bibliography. R. Allen, The Spontaneous Expansion fifth century the Roman popes took responsibil-
of the Church; K. Barth, Church Dogmatics, vol. IV; ity for civil justice and military matters.
H. Berkhof, Christian Faith, 339422; G. C. Berkouwer,
The Church; J. Blauw, The Missionary Nature of the
During the Dark Ages the idea of a society with
Church; D. Bonhoeffer, The Communion of the Saints; two realms of responsibility, one over spiritual
S. Grenz, Theology for the Community of God, 601742; and the other over temporal matters, became
D. Guder, ed., Missional Church; H. Kng, The Church; clearer. God ordained the state to strengthen and
P. Minear, Images of the Church in the New Testament; propagate the faith, and to protect the church
J. Moltmann, The Church in the Power of the Spirit; against heretics. However, the tension over su-
S. Neill, CDCWM, pp. 10910; L. Newbigin, The House- premacy was always a struggle. It was during this
hold of God; A. Schmemann, Church, World, Mission; C. time that monasticism responded to the increas-
Van Engen, The Growth of the True Church; idem, Gods ing institutionalization and nominalism of the
Missionary People. church. By secluding themselves for prayer and
devotion lay people sought life consistent with
Church and State. The expression church and the gospel. Committed communities formed and
state refers to the relationship between two sets unintentionally produced the majority of mis-
of authority structures that have shaped human sionaries for the next thousand years (see MONAS-
existence. The concern of the state is temporal TIC MOVEMENT). Monks like Benedict of Nursia
life whereas the churchs concern is spiritual life. preserved ancient learning and raised the level of
The question as to what is the most desirable re- civilization and Christian understanding in West-
lationship between the two has been a persistent ern Europe. Beginning as peripheral renewal
theme throughout history. The following discus- movements many of these monastic orders even-
sion will present an overview of these historic tually became centers of power and lost sight of
tensions and their influence on the expansion of their original vision. Alongside the Western
Christianity. monastics were the Celtic missionaries. Persons
In Matthew 22:21 Jesus taught that the two like PATRICK, COLUMBA, COLUMBANUS, WILLIBRORD,
structures are separate. The statement render and BONIFACE evangelized Ireland, Great Britain,
therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesars and much of northwestern Europe and estab-
and to God the things that are Gods distin- lished important centers of biblical learning.
guishes the responsibilities between church and These two great missionary movements were
state, but does not detail the obligations. Paul largely independent of both the institutional
followed with instructions to Christians to be church and government.
subject to the governing authorities (Rom. After the sixth century the popes increased
13:1) unless the submission contradicted the their power in both the spiritual and temporal
Scriptures (Acts 5:29). The Pax Romana of the spheres. Then in 800 Pope Leo III crowned
Roman Empire with its peace and ease of travel Charlemagne as emperor and the event revived
195
Church and State
the centuries-old debate between church and and religious groups together with the erosion of
state. Did the emperors receive their crowns from Judeo-Christian values has amplified this call for
the papacy, or was it the emperors who approved a secularized society. On the other hand, most of
the election of the popes? the non-Western nations have not had to struggle
By the eleventh century the confrontation be- with the theory of separation of church and state.
tween the two structures reached a zenith. In For instance, Islam, Hinduism, and other reli-
1075 Pope Gregory VII decreed that he had the gions dominate many nations which desire to
divine power to depose Emperor Henry, thus de- protect their faith from secular contamination.
claring that secular authorities had no jurisdic- For modern missions the answer as to what is
tion to appoint ecclesiastical positions. Although the most desirable relationship between church
a compromise came in 1122, the issue faded only and state may be glimpsed in church history. The
with the gradual dominance of the papacy. By the institutional church has always had struggles be-
end of the reign of Pope Innocent III (11981216) tween itself and the state. Nonetheless, there is
the issue had arrived at a solutionroyal power the government of God and then that of the state
was under submission to the authority of the and the church. How that triad of tension plays
church. The thirteenth century saw papal power out in life is sometimes difficult to determine and
in supreme control over the state, but this was to will vary depending on the historical and cultural
change soon as the European monarchs strength- context. However, the growth of the KINGDOM OF
ened their national supremacy. GOD over the ages has largely been achieved
The REFORMATION brought fresh challenge to through a remnant of believers on the periphery
the authority of the papacy both spiritually and of power regardless of their political or ecclesias-
politically, and further diminished the churchs tical status. It is in this position of faithfulness
control. Martin Luther did not consider ecclesi- and obedience to the Lord of the church that fu-
astical administration important, so many of the ture missionary endeavors will continue to see
Lutheran states had rulers that controlled the the expansion of Christianity.
church. John Calvin clearly differentiated be- ROBERT GALLAGHER
tween church and state by declaring that govern-
ments were to protect the church and manage so- SEE ALSO Human Rights AND Ideologies.
ciety by following biblical principles. On the
Bibliography. S. Escobar and J. Driver, Christian
other hand, the Anabaptists believed that Scrip- Mission and Social Justice; E. L. Frizen and W. T. Cog-
ture indicated the need for a complete separation gins, Christ and Caesar in Christian Missions; K. S. La-
of church and state, and subsequently suffered tourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7
intense persecution. They believed that secular vols.; S. Neill, Colonialism and Christian Missions;
government had no authority over the religious P. Niles, Resisting the Threats to Life; L. Pfeffer, Church,
beliefs of people and therefore the church had no State and Freedom; L. Pfeffer, God, Caesar and the Con-
right to claim financial assistance from the state. stitution; A. P. Stokes, Church and State in the United
Their political views influenced other related States, 3 vols.; D. Tutu, Crying in the Wilderness; J. E.
movements in the seventeenth and eighteenth Wood, Religion and the State; A. J. Van der Bent, Be-
centuries, such as the Baptists and Quakers. tween Christ and Caesar; M. A. C. Warren, The Func-
tions of a National Church.
During the ENLIGHTENMENT of the eighteenth
century John Locke and others propagated the
concept that secular government was a matter Church Development. Evangelical missions
for society rather than God. Thus the institu- have always emphasized personal evangelism
tional church gradually became dominated by and starting churches (congregations) as their
rising national powers and lost much of its voice basic purpose. This dual purpose was formalized,
in political affairs. In the United States the and technically analyzed, in the 1960s by the ap-
founding government separated church and state pearance of what came to be known as the
to protect RELIGIOUS FREEDOM from state inter- CHURCH GROWTH MOVEMENT, initiated and pio-
vention and to protect the state from the domi- neered by DONALD ANDERSON MCGAVRAN. A sci-
nance of the church. Religion was a private mat- ence of church planting and church development
ter between an individual and God, yet religion resulted that has complemented the perennial
remained a part of national life. This strict sepa- emphasis of missions on personal evangelism.
ration of the two institutions was the commonly Church growth theory says that personal evan-
held view among Western nations of the nine- gelism is incomplete if it does not gather the con-
teenth century. verts in congregations which, in turn, know how
From the beginning of this century Western to multiply themselves. Therefore, the multipli-
countries have experienced increased social pres- cation of churches (local congregations) is the
sure to exclude anything religious from national best, and fastest, way to evangelize the world.
life. They have secularized governments that CHURCH PLANTING became the technical term
want to severely restrict the influence of religion used to describe this category of evangelism.
on political affairs. The influx of diverse ethnic Mission societies and boards began to appoint
196
Church Discipline
church planters and church developers. Mis- church. It will extend itself into other areas of its
sion statements incorporated the goal of planting field, and use its membership to start missions in
and developing churches in every socioeconomic sectors of its society unreachable by its normal
and ethno-linguistic group in the world. A program. It will even be willing to sacrifice some
church for every people became the motto. As of its own members to form a nucleus for a new
the missiological science developed, a concomi- congregation. A really growing church will not be
tant emphasis emerged. How do you develop the content to just grow larger; it will try to give birth
congregation once it is planted? How do you en- to other churches. This multiplication principle
sure its continuing growth? How do you prevent will many times prevent the customary plateau
a plateau after several years? Research, surveys, syndrome, experienced by so many congrega-
and study of these questions became a part of the tions after ten or twelve years of life.
church growth theory. Planting churches and de- Cross-cultural church development means that
veloping them were seen as interdependent disci- the church that tries to multiply itself in a plural-
plines in the study of missiology. istic world will inevitably confront the cross-
As the Church Growth Movement developed cultural challenge. A sector of the field of the
and tested its theory, the term church growth church will be the home of a different socioeco-
came to mean a process of planting, developing, nomic, or ethno-linguistic people group. The
and multiplying churches. This process has be- church will want to penetrate that group and try
come a unit of study in most missiological cur- to start a church within it. The pluralistic nature
riculums. The Church Growth Movement has had of most communities today guarantees this en-
a significant, and somewhat controversial, impact counter. The church will seek the means to evan-
on general missiology, especially in the evangeli- gelize within the other culture.
cal wing of the modern missionary movement. If there is no cross-cultural group in the area,
A perusal of the church growth literature on then the church will want to seek ways to create
this subject, written by both those who espouse world awareness among its members. Each local
the movement and those who oppose it, reveals congregation should be aware that it is a part of
five dimensions of genuine, integral church de- the universal church of Jesus Christ and his
velopment. world mission. It will initiate activities that will
Internal church development means that the or- involve it in the world mission of its denomina-
ganized church has body life. The members will tion. It will participate through missionary edu-
be growing in grace, in knowledge of the faith, in cation, prayer, sacrificial giving to missions
Bible study, and in Christian living. The church causes, and cooperation in world missions proj-
will be in a constant state of edification. Love, ects. In this way the church will avoid ETHNOCEN-
fellowship, and cooperation will be characteris- TRISM and see itself as a part of the universal
tics common to the church. The church will be a community of Christ.
warm center in the community that radiates Influential church development means that the
Christian love, service, and concern. Spiritual church growing in the four dimensions will be
gifts will be emphasized, discovered, and used for able to have a greater impact on the larger society
the collective edification of all. Spiritual growth
in which it operates. A loving, caring, growing
in discipleship will be evident. Worship and
church will demonstrate the characteristics of
praise will be fleshed out in sacrificial service and
Christs kingdom and will gain the favor of the
stewardship. This internal growth is a sine qua
community. In this way it, and its members, can
non for the other dimensions of development.
have a more positive influence on the political,
Centripetal church development means the
economic, and social aspects of its field of service.
church is reaching out to its community. The
In summary, authentic church development
members will be trained to witness as individu-
will be integral, involving simultaneous growth in
als, and collectively, to the nonchurched of the
community. Evangelistic activities will be peren- all five dimensions. Any church that continues to
nial. People will be added regularly to the mem- grow bigger without at the same time growing
bership not only by transfer, or by biological better by expanding its base to care for the nu-
growth, but by conversion. A constant numerical merical increase will face serious consequences.
growth will be expected and experienced. In Balance is basic for genuine church development.
other words, people will be attracted to the JUSTICE C. ANDERSON
church by its reputation of internal growth and Bibliography. V. Gerber, Gods Way to Keep a Church
by its intentional efforts to reach them with the Going and Growing; M. Hodges, Growing Young
gospel. The internal growth will not lead to spiri- Churches; D. A. McGavran, How Churches Grow; idem,
tual introversion, but will be a catalyst to numer- Understanding Church Growth; D. Miles, Church Growth:
ical growth. Nongrowth will be a curable disease. A Mighty River; E. C. Smith, Balanced Church Growth.
Centrifugal church development means that the
church will try to reproduce itself, or multiply it- Church Discipline. The practice of church disci-
self. It will try to become the mother of another pline is mandated in the New Testament teaching
197
Church Discipline
of Christ and modeled in Acts and the Epistles. rival fellowship which may have a very different
Inherent in the implications of the commission view of church discipline.
to make disciples of all nations, church disci- Teaching church discipline in a cultural con-
pline is the responsibility and ministry of the text in which well defined TABOOS exist can prove
local church body to its members. Whether the to be both a help and a hindrance in teaching
gentle admonition of an erring Christian brother biblical church discipline. While the idea of being
(Gal. 6:1) or the dramatic action of excommuni- responsible to the community for ones actions is
cation of a persistently unrepentant member understood, problems may arise in understand-
from the fellowship of a local church, the need ing the biblical concepts of SIN and the related
for the church to monitor and care for its own is purposes of church discipline.
clearly taught. While formal disciplinary proce- The punishment and payment demanded for
dures become the responsibility of the church breaking a taboo must be distinguished from the
gathered, church discipline begins with a direct restorative purpose of church discipline based on
and personal appeal of a Christian brother by an- the biblical doctrines of sin, atonement, justifica-
other who has been sinned against. Christs tion, and sanctification. Any prevailing notion of
teaching recorded in Matthew 18:1517 outlines payment of a penalty to restore harmony or work
the procedures to be followed in the process of of penance for an offense must be countered in
confronting a fellow believer. It should be noted teaching the biblical purpose and practice of
that this passage allows the use of a mediator for church discipline.
the private confrontation in cultures where me- In cultures where face saving is a high value,
diators are a necessity in conflict resolution. If a confrontation about sin becomes a serious
personal and private appeal goes unheeded, it is breach of cultural values and is often avoided at
to be followed by the direct confrontation by the all costs, especially in the case of another
personal testimony of one or two other witnesses. tribesman or a leader. In such cases cultural val-
In the case of continued refusal to acknowledge ues dictate that GUILT before God is not as im-
wrongdoing, a public exposure before the gath- portant as the potential of SHAME before people,
ered church is to culminate in exclusion from the even for leaders of the church who may have
worship and fellowship of the body. misused their authority and committed sins de-
Biblical examples of discipline are found in manding the imposition of church discipline. In
churches planted by Paul and in the exercise of many of these cultures, a hierarchical leadership
his apostolic authority. The specific offenses style is customary and the leader, including the
mentioned include blatant moral sin (1 Cor. pastor or church authority is to be highly hon-
5:113), idleness and disregard of apostolic in- ored and implicitly obeyed. Cases of the misuse
struction (2 Thess. 3:6), and doctrinal deviation of church discipline for the purpose of manipu-
(1 Tim. 1:19; 2 Tim. 2:1718). The purpose and lation, control, imposing authority, and forcing
goal is always the full restoration of the sinning submission on the flock are not uncommon in
member and the purity of the church (1 Cor. such situations. Abuses of ecclesiastical power,
5:68; 2 Cor. 2:68). especially in the use of church discipline, are not
Church discipline is a doctrine difficult to new, as a study of church history reveals. The
teach and practice, especially in cross-cultural or truth of the corporate nature of official church
multi-cultural mission contexts. Theological, cul- discipline usually is lost in such cases.
tural, and practical issues and problems must be For many churches in Africa, the problems of
considered when seeking to teach and implement adultery and polygamy are prevalent and yet are
the biblical principles and practice of discipline. extremely difficult to adjudicate in reference to
The problems of nominalism, SYNCRETISM, and church discipline. Cultural marriage customs
CHRISTO-PAGANISM which have plagued the Chris- (e.g., levirate marriage, see MARRIAGE; MARRIAGE
tian church wherever it has been planted, are di- PRACTICES) may create situations which demand
rectly addressed by the practice of church disci- wisdom and skill to determine a resolution which
pline. New converts who have been properly will maintain the integrity and purpose of the
taught and held accountable by other mature and practice of church discipline (as do divorce cases
consistent Christians and church leaders are gen- in other settings). The practice of some churches
erally more likely to make a break from past non- is to exclude from the rite of communion disci-
Christian practices. But the practical matter of plined members discovered to have sinned and
who should be considered a member of a local then restore them after one month of probation-
flock and thus subject to the privileges and re- ary observation and abstinence from the forbid-
sponsibilities of church fellowship, including den activity. The propensity of this procedure to
submission to church discipline, has proven to be lead to legalism has prompted one veteran mis-
problematic in many instances. An observed sionary in Africa to call the practice of church
trend in contexts where different denominational discipline the first really significant heresy
churches have been planted is for converts under which the African churches are in a position to
discipline in one church to escape to another produce (Trobisch).
198
Church Growth Movement
Some of the problems experienced in the im- sion of the United Christian Missionary Society
plementation of church discipline in mission (related to the Disciples of Christ), experienced a
contexts may be a result of the culturally condi- growing frustration with the progress of the mis-
tioned practices of sending churches, missionar- sionary enterprise as he was able to observe it.
ies, and sending agencies. A failure by sending He was appalled, for example, when he reviewed
churches to model church discipline at home or the records for his mission in the early 1950s and
with erring missionaries has caused confusion found that they had spent $125,000, but they had
for the younger churches. Reluctance of some added only a total of fifty-two members to the
early church planting missionaries to entrust the churches. He began to think that there must be a
function of church discipline to national leaders better way to do missionary work.
of the churches they planted has been misunder- After a vigorous process of research and analy-
stood and resented. Yet experience in places like sis, McGavran published The Bridges of God in
New Guinea has shown that biblically trained 1955 (see BRIDGES OF GOD), which became the
and spiritually mature leaders of the indigenous Magna Carta of the church growth movement. Its
church are often more discerning than the expa- empirical background had been initiated by
triate missionaries of the cultural, theological, Methodist Bishop Wascom Picketts research on
and practical issues in cases needing discipline what were called in those days Christian mass
and wisdom in the application of the biblical in- movements in India. McGavran was the person
junctions. Teaching biblical truths concerning
who used the label church growth to describe
church discipline is the function of the church,
the missiological paradigm he was developing.
not an individual. Understanding that church dis-
The accepted date for the beginning of the
cipline is a means of preserving and protecting
church growth movement is 1955, the year of the
the purity of the body can help ensure appropri-
ate application of this crucial doctrine, in every publication of The Bridges of God.
cultural context in which the Christian church is Over the next fifteen years (195570), Mc-
planted. Gavran took several very important steps to solid-
RICHARD D. CALENBERG ify the movement. (1) He entered into voluminous
correspondence with the leading missiologists of
Bibliography. J. R. Davis, PA 13:5 (SeptemberOcto- the day, dialoguing in depth on the cutting edge
ber, 1966): 19398; D. Elmer, Cross-Cultural Conflict; missiological issues of the day. (2) He continued
W. Trobisch, The Complete Works of Walter Trobisch.
his research and published the first edition of Un-
derstanding Church Growth with Eerdmans in
Church Growth Movement. Church growth is 1970. This remains an irreplaceable textbook for
that discipline which investigates the nature, ex- serious study in the field of church growth, and it
pansion, planting, multiplication, function, and is already acclaimed as a missions classic. Eerd-
health of Christian churches as they relate to the mans published a revised edition in 1980, and in
effective implementation of Gods commission to 1990 the current edition, revised and updated by
make disciples of all peoples (Matt. 28:1920). McGavrans disciple, C. PETER WAGNER, was pub-
Students of church growth strive to integrate the
lished. It has been in print for almost thirty years.
eternal theological principles of Gods Word con-
(3) McGavran relocated from India to the United
cerning the expansion of the church with the best
States and engaged in extensive itinerant teach-
insights of contemporary social and behavioral
ing, communicating the principles of church
sciences, employing as the initial frame of refer-
ence the foundational work done by DONALD MC- growth to thousands of leaders. (4) Recognizing
GAVRAN. that an educational institution would be neces-
This is the classical definition of church sary to solidify the movement, McGavran founded
growth, although it has been altered and adapted the Institute of Church Growth in 1961 at North-
by several leaders since it was first formulated west Christian College in Eugene, Oregon. By
and incorporated into the by-laws of the AMERI- 1965 McGavran and his church growth move-
CAN SOCIETY OF CHURCH GROWTH. It is important ment had been so widely recognized as a historic
to note that the defining focus of the church innovation in missiological principles and prac-
growth movement is evangelization. The most re- tice, that he was invited to become the founding
strictive clause, which separates the church dean of the Fuller Theological Seminary School
growth movement from other affinity groups, is of World Mission and Institute of Church Growth
the explicit recognition of the founder, Donald A. in Pasadena, California. Fuller Seminary, there-
McGavran. Not all church growth advocates ad- fore, became the institutional center of the move-
here to the entire corpus of McGavrans teaching, ment, with the missiological base being the
but all work out of the research paradigm that he School of World Mission and the application to
established. American churches in the church growth major
Donald McGavran, after spending thirty years of the Fuller Doctor of Ministry program initiated
as a field missionary to India with the India Mis- by Wagner in 1975.
199
Church Growth Movement
The major contributions of the church growth pendent conversions whereby members of fami-
movement to twentieth-century missiology can lies, extended families, clans, villages, and tribes
be summarized under four sets of principles. would often become Christian at the same time.
Theological Principles. McGavrans field expe- This process was labeled a people movement
rience came at a time when liberal Christianity (see MASS MOVEMENTS). An important corollary of
was in its heyday. Mission was seen as fulfilling McGavrans people movement theory is the HO-
the CULTURAL MANDATE, giving a cup of cold water MOGENEOUS UNIT PRINCIPLE.
in the name of Jesus, promoting social justice, Procedural Principles. The distinction be-
and helping Muslims and Buddhists to become tween what McGavran called discipling and
better citizens. Advocating CONVERSION to Chris- perfecting is his key procedural principle. He
tianity was widely frowned upon as being manip- observed that discipling is best seen methodolog-
ulative PROSELYTISM. McGavran countered this by ically as a distinct stage of Christianization as
advocating that the central purpose of missions over against perfecting. While the terminology
was to be seen as Gods will that lost men and has been updated by some, the principle remains
women be found, reconciled to himself, and intact. Discipling brings an unbelieving individ-
brought into responsible membership in Chris- ual or group to initial commitment to Christ and
tian churches. Evangelism was seen not just as
commitment to the body of Christ, which is the
proclaiming the gospel whether or not something
church. Perfecting is the lifelong process of spiri-
happened, but as making disciples for the Master.
tual and ethical development in the lives of be-
Ethical Principles. McGavrans results-oriented
lievers (called discipleship by some). McGavran
approach provided fodder for debate on a num-
ber of ethical issues, some of which continue warned that too many mission activities had
today. He became alarmed when he saw all too been diverted to perfecting when the original
many of Gods resourcespersonnel and fi- mission charter demanded discipling. He never
nancesbeing used without asking whether the tired in pointing out that a full 70 percent of the
KINGDOM OF GOD was being materially advanced worlds population had not been discipled, and he
by the programs they were supporting. McGavran constantly urged Christian churches worldwide
demanded more accountability in Christian stew- to get on with sending out more laborers into the
ardship. He wanted efforts evaluated by their re- harvest fields.
sults. His attitude reflects these words of Was- The church growth movement has spread
com Pickett: It is disturbing to read book after worldwide through McGavrans disciples and
book about modern missions without finding so through the graduates of the Fuller Seminary
much as a hint about either what helped or what School of World Mission where courses in
hindered church growth. In many books the au- church growth have been mandatory. Courses in
thor seems eager to prove that the missionaries church growth are now taught at major institu-
have done everything according to Gods leading tions where evangelistically oriented missiology
and that if no church has come into being it is a major component of the curriculum.
means only that Gods time for saving souls has C. PETER WAGNER
not come. The disciples duty is to sow the seed
Bibliography. D. A. McGavran, Understanding
and leave it to God to produce. How different
Church Growth, 3rd ed.; J. W. Pickett, Christian Mass
this is from the command of Jesus, Make disci- Movements in India; T. S. Rainer, The Book of Church
ples of the nations! Growth: History, Theology, and Principles; W. R. Shenk,
Missiological Principles. McGavrans major ed., Exploring Church Growth.; C. P. Wagner, Church
missiological principle is people movement the- Growth and the Whole Gospel.
ory (see also PEOPLES, PEOPLE GROUPS and PEOPLE
MOVEMENTS). Before the days of the conscious Church Leadership. See LEADERSHIP.
application of CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY to MISSI-
OLOGY, McGavran intuitively recognized the fact
that DECISION-MAKING processes are frequently Church Mission Society (CMS). Major evangel-
quite different from one culture to the next. ical Anglican missionary society. Founded under
Whereas most Western missionaries and their the name of the Society for Missions in Africa
converts were preaching an individualistic gospel and the East, it officially became the Church
and expecting unbelievers to come to Christ one Missionary Society in 1812, and took its present
by one against the social tide, McGavran con- name in 1995. Set up by members of the Estab-
cluded that this was not the way that multitudes lished Church of England (Anglican), its first
could or would come to Christ. Important deci- field was Sierra Leone and its first missionaries
sions, according to the WORLDVIEW of many non- German Lutherans, recruited through the Swiss
Westerners, were community decisions. There- BASEL MISSION (because no ordained Englishmen
fore, the best way to approach many of the offered) and sent there in 1804. In 1809 English
worlds people with the gospel had to be through laymen sailed to New Zealand. In 1814 German
the encouragement of multi-individual, interde- and English workers were sent to South India,
200
Church Missions Conferences
and the first ordained British missionary arrived the Church Missionary Society, 19101942; J. Murray,
in Malta. Proclaim the Good News: A Short History of the Church
By the 1850s CMS missionaries had gone to Missionary Society.
some fifteen territories, although in some (such
as Canada) this was for limited periods. In many Church Missionary Society. See CHURCH MIS-
cases British colonies were the chosen fields, and SION SOCIETY.
Sierra Leone and Nigeria in West Africa and
Uganda and Kenya in East Africa, with India and Church Missions Conferences. The widespread
Ceylon, became and have remained main areas sponsorship of mission conferences by local
of concentration. China, Japan, and Middle East churches reflects the significant role played by
nations also received CMS missionaries, and in the local church in world missions. Although the
New Zealand it provided most of the ordained primary purpose of church mission conferences
clergy for the Anglican Church that developed is educational, they are also used as a catalyst
there. In almost all these areas diocese were set for increasing prayer and financial support for
up and episcopalian churches established, their missionaries.
first bishops usually former CMS missionaries. The essential character of church mission con-
The first non-Western bishop in a CMS area was ferences has changed little since the nineteenth
SAMUEL ADJAI CROWTHER of Western Equatorial century. Although there is some variation among
Africa (Nigeria), consecrated in 1864. Unlike a denominations, most conferences feature (1) one
number of missionary societies, CMS had no
or more speakers, often furloughed missionaries;
founding figure among its overseas personnel; its
(2) meals that include an inspirational or educa-
general or clerical secretaries probably exercised
tional program focused on missions; (3) a mis-
the greatest influence, and the names of Rev-
sion-related childrens program; (4) a pledge
erend Josiah Pratt (180224), Reverend HENRY
drive for the churchs yearly missions budget; and
VENN (184672), and in this century Canon MAX
WARREN (194263), and Reverend JOHN V. TAYLOR (5) a motivational call to support missionaries
(196374) are especially remembered. through prayer or to volunteer for missionary
In 1921 a new venture, which became the CMS service.
Ruanda General and Medical Mission (now Mid- In the decades following the Second World
Africa Ministry), emerged as a daughter society, War, North American churches such as The Peo-
and in 1922 after long discussions and negotia- ples Church of Toronto and the Park Street Con-
tions a more theologically conservative group gregational Church of Boston were notable for
broke away and founded the Bible Churchmens sponsoring large-scale mission conferences last-
Missionary Society (now Crosslinks). CMS, how- ing a week or more and involving speakers and
ever, began and has continued as a specifically exhibits from a wide variety of missionary agen-
Evangelical Anglican sending society. cies. These influential conferences provided a
In the mid-1900s, as it approached its bicente- prototype for other evangelical churches. Also
nary, the British Church Mission Society had helpful was the establishment of the Association
more than two hundred men and women serving of Church Missions Committees (ACMC, now
abroad. There were daughter sending societies in Advancing Churches in Mission Commitment) in
Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand. The great- 1974, which led to the publication of materials
est areas of concentration have been Nigeria, that outlined a systematic approach to planning
East Africa, and Pakistan; newer work is in east- and implementing mission conferences. In recent
ern Zaire, Nepal, and Eastern Europe. Mid-Africa years, church-sponsored conferences have also
Ministry (CMS) has over forty personnel serving been influenced by innovations in electronic
in Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and Zaire. In re- media and communications technology. Contem-
cent years much emphasis has been placed on porary mission conferences may include feature-
bringing national workers to Britain for further length films, videotapes of missionaries at work,
education and training. computer-generated presentations, and live tele-
As a society CMS sent single women abroad phone or video links with missionaries on the
comparatively early; the first long-serving woman field.
went to Calcutta in 1822. By the end of its first Church mission conferences vary in size and
century, 1899, 550 women had gone abroad, duration, from the annual weekend conference in
compared with 1,556 men; this of course does a single church to larger conferences involving a
not take wives into account. The present general network of churches in a geographical area. In
secretary is a woman. the round-robin model, a group of churches al-
JOCELYN MURRAY ternate the leadership of the conference with the
Bibliography. E. Stock, The History of the Church site changing from year to year. The Concerts of
Missionary Society: Its Environment, Its Men and Their Prayer movement has stimulated interdenomina-
Work; G. Hewitt, The Problems of Success: A History of tional collaboration among churches, with em-
201
Church Missions Conferences
phasis on prayer for missionaries in particular ples, includes teaching on both the why and the
areas of the world. hows of church planting.
The manner in which financial support is Church planting also augments evangelism and
raised for missions also varies. In churches where church growth. Studies show that new congrega-
missions are included in the overall budget (or in tions evangelize more effectively than older con-
a larger denominational budget), the primary goal gregations, as new congregations put more en-
of the conference is often to educate the congre- ergy into growth and less into maintenance.
gation about how finances are spent and to stim- Additionally, church planting promotes geo-
ulate prayer for missionaries. In contrast, the graphical and PEOPLE GROUP expansion. New
faith-promise model of giving separates the churches are demanded to reach both geograph-
churchs missions budget from the regular ical regions and people groups. New housing
budget. Churches following the faith-promise areas and underchurched regions demand new
model often use an annual mission conference to churches. It becomes increasingly clear that the
challenge embers to give to missions in excess of churches of the fathers do not always reach the
their regular church pledge. A third approach is sons and daughters. The present diversity of peo-
the single offering, exemplified by the Southern ple (and peoples) demands a diversity of
Baptists annual Lottie Moon Offering, which churches; this diversity can only be provided by
raises support for the denominational mission the unlimited multiplication of churches.
budget. In some churches, the mission conference Church planting also satisfies critical needs.
may include a single offering for one or more mis- Some declare that we already have enough
sionaries serving with FAITH MISSIONS or for a spe- churches and rather than starting new congrega-
cific mission-related project. tions we should build up the existing groups. The
As the primary means of contact between mis- truth is that seldom are there enough churches to
sionary candidates or furloughed missionaries meet community needs. Most often, differing
and the average church attender, church mission groups of people cannot be adequately served by
conferences play an understated but critical role existing churches.
in contemporary world evangelization. Finally, church planting strengthens Christian
ALAN A. SEAMAN witness. Starting new churches not only helps
Christianity progress; the ministry contributes to
Bibliography. M. Collins and C. Blackburn, Missions the spiritual progress of existing Christians. Op-
on the Move in the Local Church; ACMC, Your Church:
portunities for spiritual ministry expand with the
Planning a Missions Conference.
starting of new congregations.
Obviously, church planting is an imperative ac-
Church of Jesus Christ Latter Day Saints. See tion for effective church or denominational
MORMONS. growth.
The Methods of Church Planting. Study of
Church Planting. Church planting has become church planting demands attention both to why
the most frequently used term for starting new and to howconsidering the types of and the di-
churches. By definition church planting can be rect steps to new churches.
described as the effort to bring men and women Church planting models can follow either the
to faith in Christ and incorporate them into modality type or the sodality type. Modality mod-
growing, reproducing Christian fellowships. Far els involve a local church giving birth to a new
from denominational aggrandizement, church congregation. The church plant might be accom-
planting seeks to extend Gods kingdom through plished by sending out a group of members to be-
starting multitudes of local congregations. come the nucleus of the new group. This model,
The Importance of Church Planting. Chris- sometimes called colonization, usually achieves
tian missions has no more productive method extension growth. Extension growth usually
than starting new churches. PETER WAGNER calls reaches the same type of people served by the
church planting the worlds single most effective parent church.
evangelistic method. DONALD A. MCGAVRAN con- Sodality models involve church starts by an
tends that the only way Christian missions can agency other than a local church. The planting
meet the expanding needs of the fantastically agency might be a parachurch organization, a
mounting populations of the world is by provid- church-planting team, or an individual church
ing fantastically multiplying churches. Church planter. Sodality models may produce a congre-
plantings importance rests on several founda- gation much like the founding entity, but might
tions. It reflects biblical patterns. Luke recorded result in bridging growth, which produces a con-
the amazing expansion of the New Testament gregation for a different kind of people, such as a
churches, moving from recounting the increase congregation for persons of different ethnic
in numbers of members to the fact that the num- groups or socioeconomic strata.
ber of congregations multiplied (Acts 9:31). The Church planting generally follows a pattern of
Bible, in both direct teaching and overall princi- persuading, preparing, and producing. The first
202
Church Polity
step of church planting, persuading, consists of SEE ALSO Church Growth Movement; Satura-
convincing churches and persons that planting is tion Church Planting.
called for. Persuading begins with spiritual dy- Bibliography. C. Brock, Indigenous Church Planting;
namics of prayer, Gods will and call. Church C. L. Chaney, Church Planting at the End of the Twenti-
planting, a spiritual undertaking, requires the eth Century; D. J. Hesselgrave, Planting Churches Cross-
power of the Holy Spirit. Culturally: A Guide for Home and Foreign Missions; P. B.
A second phase in persuading for church plant- Jones, Understanding Church Growth and Decline; J.
ing relates to creating a climate for church plant- Redford, Planting New Churches; D. W. Shenk, Creating
ing. Not every Christian or every church member Communities of the Kingdom: New Testament Models of
Church Planting; C. P. Wagner, Church Planting for a
is convinced of the need for or advisability of Greater Harvest.
new churches. Every church, denomination, or
other church-planting entity should have some
Church Polity. Missiologists have noted that in
group that will lead the entity in extension ef-
one way or another Christians in every genera-
forts. This group, which may be a missions com-
tion have debated the relationship of church gov-
mittee, a church-planting task force, or a plan- ernment structure and mission. As A. F. GLASSER
ning committee, guides the church-planting notes, the question at issue is, What is the rela-
entity in committing resources to starting new tion between the churchs structured congrega-
churches. tions, ruled by its ecclesiastical authorities, and
The second step of the church planting process, those mission structures within its life directed
preparing, begins the actual process of starting the by others, whether voluntary or authorized,
church. A first phase of the preparing step relates whereby the gospel is shared with non-Christians
to establishing goals. Goals relate not just to the and new congregations are planted?
determination to start churches, but include plans The three basic understandings of church
for specific kinds of churches. Goals also consider polity are the episcopal, presbyterian, and con-
the areas for new churches. These plans should be gregational forms. There are some shared as-
based, when available, on the soundest data from pects, or factors of overlap, among these three
demographic research materials. approaches. In addition, it should be realized
The study of the areas for the new church that there are hybrid understandings employed
seeks to ascertain the need for and possibilities of by some smaller groupings or individual congre-
a new church. The area must be cultivated, that gations.
is, contacts made with the people in the commu- From the standpoint of the practical imple-
nity to ascertain needs and make known the na- mentation of mission, the key issue is where the
ture of the new congregation. Meeting places authority resides. Is it concentrated in a central-
should be sought. ized agency, with final funding authority, or is the
The third step in church planting, producing, impetus with a local congregation or congrega-
relates to actually beginning the church. Bible tions, with local authority and financial support?
study groups and evangelistic efforts instigate the In the episcopal form of church government,
actual meetings of the church. the key office is the bishop (the traditional En-
The producing step must lead to establishing glish rendering of the Greek episkopos, though it
the church both in the eyes of the members has been translated overseer in several more re-
themselves and of the community. Eventually, the cent versions). Episcopal polity draws a distinc-
tion between the bishop and the New Testament
church will have to secure facilities. Care must be
office of elder or presbyter (presbuteros), even
taken, however, so that provision of facilities does
though certain passages appear to use the terms
not consume the time and energy of the new con-
interchangeably (Acts 20:17, 28; Titus 1:5, 7).
gregation that should be expended in continuing Adherents to the episcopal form of government
growth. The church-planting effort includes care primarily appeal for support to the tradition of
for achieving continuing growth. New churches distinguishing the offices of bishop and elder that
should continue to grow in number of members, developed during the earlier centuries of church
quality of life, and eventual reproduction. history. There is also no clear New Testament
Conclusion. Church planting remains a cen- basis for the position of archbishop (or, in the
tral interest and activity in missions. Almost polity of the Roman Catholic Church, cardinal or
every community in the world needs more pope).
churches. To remain faithful to the Lord of the In episcopal polity, all major authority is held
Harvest, churches must emphasize vast efforts by the bishopric. Hence, decisions on missionary
toward forming new congregations. The GREAT personnel and programs are ultimately under the
COMMISSION demands the constant provision of control of the church hierarchy. Financial support
churches into which disciples can be incorpo- is undertaken from a centralized fund. A notable
rated and developed. exception has been the CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCI-
EBBIE C. SMITH ETY, which has operated as a semiautonomous
203
Church Polity
mission agency within the purview of the Church founded near the end of the first missionary jour-
of England. ney (Acts 14:23). This same single-level approach
In the presbyterian form of church polity, the to church government in newer congregations is
focal office is the elder. In many churches with also in evidence in Titus 1:59, in the churches on
presbyterian polity, there is also the office of dea- the island of Crete (v. 5).
con (diakonos), with different service functions. On the other hand, older (and presumably
The group of elders (1 Tim. 4:14) is sometimes larger) churches in the New Testament appear to
called the presbytery (more commonly, the ses- have a two-level church polity. Both the Philip-
sion). Usually, though, the presbytery speaks of pian church and the church at Ephesus that Tim-
the meeting of a group of pastors and elders from othy ministered to had been in existence for a
churches within a limited region, a meaning that decade or more and were led by both overseers
is plausible in 1 Timothy 4:14. (elders; Acts 20:17, 28) and deacons (Phil. 1:1;
Presbyterian polity grants the major authority 1 Tim. 3:113).
to the church session and presbytery. Thus, even Thus, it seems that as the New Testament
though there is a hierarchical element in making churches grew from newer and smaller congrega-
decisions related to mission, the authority resides tions to much larger, more mature ones, there was
closer to the local church with presbyterian not one static, monolithic understanding of
churches. Support generally goes through a less church government. Rather, there was the flexibil-
centralized common funding agency than under ity in polity to accommodate such growth, as well
the episcopal structure. as to continue to stimulate further healthy growth.
In congregational churches, each local congre- The dynamic of EVANGELISM and CHURCH PLANT-
gation is ultimately only responsible for itself. ING and ensuing growth, which has emerged as a
Though congregations often cooperate in many strong missiological emphasis in the past
diverse programs, the overall program (or de- decades, is clearly at the very heart of mission.
nomination) does not have the final say. The key Therefore, questions related to church polity must
officials are usually the deacon (Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. never be divorced from carrying out Christs Com-
3:8, 12) and the pastor (who is often thought of mission (Matt. 16:18; 28:1920).
as a single elder or overseer). Based either on one A. BOYD LUTER
way of understanding 1 Timothy 3:8 and Romans
16:1 or instances in church history, many Bibliography. A. F. Glasser, Missiology 6:310; A. F.
churches also have the office of deaconness. Johnson and R. Webber, What Christians Believe: A Bib-
Under congregational polity, each local church lical and Historical Summary; A. B. Luter, BibSac 137
(1980): 26773; idem, ABD, II:109091; L. Morris, EDT,
appoints missionaries and provides direct (or
pp. 23841.
earmarked) support for the mission candidates.
Even though some congregational circles have
very large centralized candidating, training, and Church/Mission Relations. As old as the Acts of
funding agencies, such as the Southern Baptist the Apostles, relational issues between the
Foreign and Home Missions Boards, participa- church local and the church itinerant (missions)
tion is not mandatory for each local church body. have been an important focus in Christian his-
Perhaps the best way to gain insight regarding tory. Acts 1315 includes seminal passages de-
the relationship between church polity and mis- scribing the commissioning and ministry of Paul
sion, however, is to observe the unfolding of these and Barnabas as missionaries sent out by the
themes side by side in the New Testament. Foun- church at Antioch. The passage describes the
dationally, in Matthew 16:18 the Lord Jesus made supremely important Council at Jerusalem,
his epochal promise I will build my church. which set the pattern for addressing cultural is-
Then, the capstone of Matthews Gospel is the sues in the ever-increasing expansion of the
Lords missionary command to make disciples church. The key issues of Who sends the mis-
of all nations (28:19). sionary? and What kind of accountability of
At first glance, the nature of the relationship them is appropriate? find their answers in these
between the church and mission is not transpar- passages.
ent. However, in the Book of Acts, church and Paul and Barnabas, the archetypal first mis-
disciples become basically interchangable sionaries sent out by the postresurrection
terms. Also, the only New Testament use of church, provide a pattern that is most instructive.
make disciples (matheteuom) outside Matthews On the issue of sending, it is clear from Acts that
Gospel is in Acts 14:21, strongly implying that, they received both an internal and an external
for Paul and his missionary colleagues, making call to itinerant cross-cultural ministry to Gen-
disciples (v. 21), then organizing churches (v. 23), tiles. The elders in Acts 13 conclude It seemed
were two sides of the same coin. good both to the Holy Spirit and to us to com-
There is another sense in which this largely mission Paul and Barnabas for this ministry. And
overlooked passage is crucial. Elders are the only so they did. And as Paul and Barnabas went they
church officers mentioned in the new churches kept in mind the importance of their sending and
204
Clark, Charles Allen
prayer base, and the need to be accountable to it. agencies are working hard to genuinely serve the
Their return visits and reports (Acts 14 and 18) churches, recognizing that effective communica-
are clear testimony to this. At the same time, they tion has sometimes broken down and an un-
functioned quite independently under the Holy wholesome dichotomy has developed.
Spirits guidance in determining both the itiner- The turn of the twenty-first century will be an
ary and methods of their missionary work. interesting time for discerning how church and
The tensions that have existed in the modern mission relations in North America ultimately
period in churchmission relations have centered evolve. New models and hybrids of models are al-
primarily on these same ancient issues, Who most certain to emerge.
sends the missionary? and What constitutes an GARY R. CORWIN
appropriate system of accountability? For some,
Bibliography. R. Allen, The Spontaneous Expansion
the issue is described in strictly theological of the Church; B. K. Camp, Missiology 23:2 (1995):
terms: local churches ought to send missionaries, 197209; S. F. Metcalf, EMQ 29:2 (1993): 14249;
and the only reason mission agencies even exist C. Van Engen, Gods Missionary People: Rethinking the
is because the churches fell down on the job. For Purpose of the Local Church; R. D. Winter, PCWM, pp.
others, the issue is more complex. While agreeing B:4557.
with the principle that the local church is the
sender of missionaries, some point out that agen- Circumcision. See INITIATION RITES.
cies are the necessary bridge to doing that with
accountability and effectiveness. Were there no Clapham Sect. A group of wealthy Anglican
agencies, they argue, the churches would just evangelicals who lived in a suburb of London in
have to invent them again. Both logistics and ap- the late eighteenth and early nineteenth cen-
propriate accountability require it, they say. turies. Influenced by the evangelical revivals, they
Supporters of the agency model point out that worked for the extension of evangelical Chris-
Paul and Barnabas were their prototype, sent out tianity throughout the world and labored for so-
by the local church but self-governing under the cial reform in England. John Venn was their rec-
leadership of the Holy Spirit in both their strat- tor; their best known lay leader was William
egy and methodology. Accountability consisted in Wilberforce. They helped establish the CHURCH
reporting back, not in getting prior approval. MISSIONARY SOCIETY in 1799 and the British and
While faxes and the internet did not yet exist, it Foreign Bible Society in 1804.
seems unlikely that on-the-spot decision making The group cooperated with dissenting or non-
would have been overruled in any case. They Anglican evangelicals in establishing chapels in
seemed to operate on the assumption that the many parts of England and helped fund the
church itinerant is also part of the universal training of pastors. Wilberforce led the campaign
church, even if it is not everything that the in Parliament that abolished the slave trade in
church in its local manifestation encompasses. 1807 and ended slavery in the British Empire in
That it is, rather, a transcultural bridge, in sym- 1833. Their projects for social reform included
biotic relationship with the local church of the the regulation of factory conditions, the im-
present, but also with the local church of the fu- provement of treatment of the mentally ill,
ture. The fact that they appointed elders as they sailors, chimney sweeps, the unemployed, and
went certainly seems to indicate as much. individuals who had been imprisoned for small
Most notable among those advocating the debts. They promoted schools for the poor and
two-structure approach has been missiologist provided funds for Sunday schools. They in-
RALPH WINTER, whose 1974 modality/sodality spired a later generation of nineteenth-century
framework is the most extensive treatment of this reformers, including Lord Shaftesbury, WILLIAM
subject. Bruce Camp, writing in 1995, provides a BOOTH, and Florence Nightingale. They inte-
rare theoretical challenge to this view. grated their evangelical faith, their commitment
Our own day has seen a number of new enti- to mission, and their concern for social reform.
ties and models directly relevant to church and PAUL E. PIERSON
mission relations. The ministry of ACMC (Ad-
vancing Churches in Mission Commitment, orig- Bibliography. N. Scotland, Themelios 18 (1992):
inally the Association of Church Mission Com- 1620.
mittees) over the last two decades has been a
strategic attempt to help local churches take their Clark, Charles Allen (18781961). American
responsibility in the world mission enterprise missionary to Korea. Born in Spring Valley, Min-
more seriously. It has done much to enable them nesota, he was educated at the University of Min-
to become more than simply disbursers of nesota, Macalaster College, McCormick Theolog-
money. Other entities, such as the Antioch Net- ical Seminary, and the University of Chicago. He
work, have endeavored to link churches in mis- was sent to Korea by the Presbyterian Church
sion, particularly the plethora of burgeoning new U.S.A. after his ordination in 1902. With Seoul as
mega churches. At the same time, progressive the center of his labors until 1922, he studied Ko-
205
Clark, Charles Allen
rean, worked in a hospital, did bookkeeping, parture from India in 1910, the Baptist mission
wrote tracts, taught school, managed property, to the Telugus had 60,000 members.
and pastored the Central Church. Following the GARY B. MCGEE
principles laid out by JOHN NEVIUS, the church
Bibliography. J. E. Clough, Social Christianity in the
grew rapidly, and he opened several preaching Orient; H. W. Hines, Clough: Kingdom Builder in South
stations. He once had charge of forty-five coun- India; H. C. Mabie, MRW 24 (February 1911): 10310.
try churches as well as his city church. In 1908
he also began to teach homiletics and pastoral
Cocos Islands. (Australian States and Territories)
theology in the new Pyeongyang Seminary. He
(Est. 2000 pop.: 1,000; 14 sq. km. [5 sq. mi.]).
served as a pastor and continued to itinerate even
Cocos (Keeling) Islands is Australian territory
after moving to Pyeongyang in 1922. He was
comprised of a group of twenty-seven islands in
president of the seminary (193339) when it was
the Indian Ocean. Sixty-five percent of the inhab-
closed due to a Shinto shrine controversy. He
itants are Malay in origin and another 20 percent
continued to teach and to preach until he re-
are Anglo-Australian. The majority are Muslims
turned to the United States in 1941. Back home
he revitalized six churches in Oklahoma and be- and about 24 percent are Christians. Evangelicals
came pastor of three of them. He was a prolific are limited to a small number of Anglicans. No
writer and translator, producing seven of his own other Protestants work on the islands.
TODD M. JOHNSON
books in English and forty-two in Korean. An ex-
traordinarily effective missionary, he baptized
over three thousand persons, planted fifty-three Codrington, Robert Henry (18301922). En-
churches, and helped give the Korean church its glish missionary to Melanesia. Codrington was
constitution, conservative theology, and evangel- an outstanding example of the nineteenth-cen-
istic zeal. tury scholar missionary. Born in Wroughton,
ALBERT H. FREUNDT JR. Wiltshire, England, Codrington studied at Char-
terhouse and Wadham College, Oxford, graduat-
Bibliography. A. D. Clark, History of the Korean ing B.A. 1852, M.A. 1857, and Hon. D.D. 1885.
Church; C. A. Clark, The Korean Church and the Nevius
He was ordained an Anglican priest in 1857 and
Method, Religions of Old Korea.
worked in the diocese of Nelson, New Zealand
(186064). Bishop PATTESON encouraged him to
Clough, John Everett (18361910). American transfer to the Melanesian mission, and in 1867
missionary to India. Born near Frewsberg, N.Y., he became headmaster of St. Barnabass School
he spent his youth in Illinois and Iowa where he on Norfolk Island, which served as the central
graduated from Burlington Institute and Upper training institution for the mission. After Patte-
Iowa College. Converted to Christ while in sons death in 1871 Codrington declined the invi-
Burlington, he later received ordination as a Bap-
tation to become bishop, serving as acting head
tist minister in 1864. A year later, he arrived in
of the mission until 1877. Described as genial
south India as an ABFMS missionary to the Tel-
and erudite, Codrington won the friendship and
ugu people.
respect of the Melanesian students and learned a
Clough began his ministry at Ongole in pres-
great deal from them about their beliefs and cus-
ent-day Tamil Nadu. During his long tenure, the
toms. His pioneering linguistic and anthropolog-
Baptist mission, previously considered a failure,
ical writings, The Melanesian Languages (1885)
experienced remarkable growth. The conversion
and The Melanesians (1891), reflected his system-
of a low caste leather worker led to over 3,000
atic scholarship and his desire to understand
converts by 1867, mostly among the outcaste
Melanesian society from within. He expounded
Madigas. A major turning point for the mission
the classical concept of mana. Codrington was in-
came with the famine of 187678. Participating
fluenced by the High Church Anglican tradition
in a government relief project for the suffering,
and believed that all religions had some truth.
Clough gained permission from British authori-
While he was critical about aspects of Melane-
ties to oversee construction of four miles of the
sian customs, he adopted a sympathetic and re-
Buckingham Canal. Giving hiring preference to
Christians, they also helped supervise the more spectful approach to them. He produced A Dic-
than six thousand workers. During this time, he tionary of the Language of Mota (1896), and in
refused to baptize new believers lest their con- 1912 completed the translation of the Bible into
versions be for the wrong reasons. He changed Mota, which served as the missions lingua franca.
this policy in July 1878 and in a single day, 2,222 In 1887 he retired as a missionary and worked in
were baptized and received into church member- the diocese of Chichester in England.
ship. A MASS MOVEMENT had begun and within ALLAN K. DAVIDSON
months thousands of converts had been baptized; Bibliography. D. Hilliard, Gods Gentlemen: A History
the total reached 21,000 by 1883. At his final de- of the Melanesian Mission 18491942.
206
Colombia
Coillard, Francois (18341904). French pioneer trative and literary work and preaching. His mis-
missionary to southern Africa. His father died sionary vision stretched beyond western conti-
when Coillard was only five, but his resourceful nents to Africa and the Far East, and during the
mother became a housekeeper for several years final decade of his life new fields of missionary
to earn enough and keep the family together. At activity opened up in these areas. In 1814, while
the age of eight he entered a Protestant school in leading a missionary band on a voyage to India
preparation for ministry. Monsieur Ami Bost, his and Ceylon, he died and was buried at sea.
pastor, kindled Coillards two great passions Coke was not only a preacher of missions, but
church music and missions. After seven years of poured his own financial assets and very life into
formal education at Strasbourg University, fol- the endeavor. Long known as the father of mis-
lowed by seminary in Paris and eight months of sions within the Methodist movement, his influ-
training at La Maison de Missions in Paris, Coil- ence upon American Methodism is second only
lard became burdened to go where no one ever to that of FRANCIS ASBURY, with whom he co-
wished to go. Since French Protestants were un- founded the Methodist Episcopal Church of
welcome in French colonies, the PARIS EVANGELI- America. Next to John Wesley, he is considered
CAL MISSION SOCIETY had only one field in the yet the most significant and formative figure in
uncolonized Basutoland, where Coillard would Methodisms first hundred years.
serve for the next two decades (185777). FLORENCE R. SCOTT
Prior to his departure to Africa, he met a young
Bibliography. J. Vickers, Thomas Coke, Apostle of
woman from Scotland, Christina Mackintosh, Methodism; C. Davey, Mad About Mission: the Story of
who was instantly drawn to him and his deep Thomas Coke; W. C. Barclay, History of Methodist Mis-
calling to missions. She followed him to South sions, I: Missionary Motivation and Expansion.
Africa, where they were married on February 26,
1861, in Cape Town. Collectivism. See INDIVIDUALISM and COLLECTIVISM.
In 1866 the Boer wars forced the Coillards ex-
pulsion from Basutoland, but eventually they re-
turned. Inspired by Livingstone, he set out in Colombia (Est. 2000 pop.: 37,822,000; 1,138,914
1878 to explore and evangelize in the region of sq. km. [439,735 sq. mi.]). Colombia, the fourth
the Zambesi River. In 1889 the Coillards and their largest country in South America, is located in
entourage journeyed to Zambesi and established the northwest corner of the continent with coasts
several missionary stations. They encountered on both the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean
witchcraft, slave traders, and many other hard- Sea. It is bounded by the Andes Mountains in the
ships. Madame Coillard died on October 28, 1891, west; plains and forests in the east. Of its popula-
after thirty years of marriage. Coillard served in tion of 37.8 million, 98.6 percent speak Spanish.
the region of the Upper Zambesi until his death. The indigenous Amerindians, speaking some 65
JOHN EASTERLING
languages in 12 language groups, form .78 per-
cent of the general population. Urbanization is
Bibliography. C. W. Macintosh, Coillard of the over 70 percent.
Zambesi. The Roman Catholic Church. Following the
period of the Spanish military conquest (1500
Coke, Thomas (17471814). Welsh pioneer of 50), a series of papal pronouncements delegated
Methodist missions. Born in Brecon, Wales, into spiritual responsibilities to the Crown. Several
a well-respected family, he received a doctorate in Spanish clergy, including St. Luis Beltrn and St.
civil law from Oxford. A sincere Anglican church- Pedro Claver, attempted to protect both Indians
man, Coke came to realize that religion had to do and black slaves from cruel treatment. During the
with the heart as well as the mind. The new fer- colonial era (15501810), the Spanish established
vor that resulted brought about his dismissal, parishes, provided education for the upper
and he joined the Methodists, becoming JOHN classes, and founded universities and hospitals.
WESLEYs closest associate. Coke assisted Wesley Little attempt was made to translate the Bible
in preaching, visiting Methodist societies in En- into indigenous languages and, until recently, its
gland, Scotland, and Ireland, presiding over con- use among the laity was not encouraged by the
ferences, and giving legal assistance to the clergy. From 1610 the Inquisition effectively pre-
Methodist movement. As his focus upon the vented the development of non-Catholic religions.
world enlarged, so did his fire for missions. In Colombia established its independence from
1783 he helped draw up the first plan for organ- Spain in 1819. Internal political struggles be-
izing a missionary society in Britain. Set apart tween the anticlerical Liberals (who favored a
by Wesley, he was sent to America as cosuperin- more open society) and Conservatives (support-
tendent of the growing Methodist Church there. ers of the Catholic Church) spawned a period of
He continued his involvement in mission within civil wars between 1853 and 1866. They ended
the British Isles, oversaw personally the mission with a Conservative victory and the pro-clerical
work in the West Indies, and carried on adminis- Constitution of 1886. The Church signed a con-
207
Colombia
cordat between Colombia and the Vatican and dered by the ubiquitous presence of guerrillas.
enjoyed great political and spiritual advantage During the 1980s and 1990s, several missionaries
until 1930, when Liberals regained power. The were killed.
Catholic charismatic movement emerged and Bible institutes and nonformal training oppor-
peaked in the 1970s, with an emphasis on spiri- tunities are multiplying. The Biblical Seminary of
tual renewal and Bible study. The Church today Colombia (Medelln) and the Baptist Seminary
claims 93 percent of the population, though sta- (Cali) are the best known institutions that pro-
tistics reveal that 70 percent never attend Mass. vide theological education at the university level.
The Evangelical (Protestant) Churches. After The Pentecostal and charismatic movements
independence (1819), the Inquisition was abol- have grown notably and count among their num-
ished. Itinerant Bible sellers (colporters; see COL- bers the largest denominations and churches.
PORTAGE) entered, the most notable being JAMES Large independent congregations flourish, some
THOMSON who founded a chapter of the Bible So- attracting thousands. Increasingly churches are
ciety in Bogot in 1825. Formal Protestant min- found among the middle and even upper classes.
istry began with the arrival of a North American Almost exclusively national figures have replaced
Presbyterian missionary, Henry B. Pratt, in 1856. missionary leadership.
Early Protestant efforts faced great resistance From 1958 to the late 1990s evangelicals grew
from the dominant Catholic milieu. Strategies in- eightfold. Approximate calculations indicate an
cluded wide Bible distribution and the founding evangelical presence of about 5 percent in
of schools.
Colombia distributed among 150 denominations
After the turn of the century, the Presbyterians
and over 5,000 congregations. About 1,000 for-
were joined by new entities such as the Gospel
eign missionaries serve in the country. Some 600
Missionary Union (1908), The Bible Society
pastors meet in over 50 church associations.
(1912), the Christian Missionary Alliance (1923),
and the Cumberland Presbyterians (1927). In Colombian mission agencies have also merged,
1930 a Liberal government was elected and a including COMIBAM (Latin American Missionary
widely read publication described Colombia as Committee in Colombia). Together, they promote
the least evangelized South American country. Re- the involvement of nationals in cross-cultural mis-
sponse to both opportunity and challenge brought sionary efforts. At present evangelicals support
20 groups between 1930 and 1948, including the thirty-four missionaries outside of Colombia
Assemblies of God (1932), World Evangelization and eighteen cross-cultural workers within the
Crusade (1933), Plymouth Brethren (1933), the country.
Latin America Mission (1937), the Southern Bap- Colombia, at the turn of the century, finds itself
tists (1941), and the Interamerican Mission in the grip of violence, with guerrilla, para-mili-
(OMS; 1943). tary groups, and the army in frequent combat.
Continual Catholic opposition culminated in The drug trade continues. The government is
the terrible years of La Violencia (194858), in plagued with corruption. New Age ideas attract
which the evangelicals (as most Protestants are the middle class; Satanism and witchcraft is rife.
called) were identified with the Liberals and suf- While old traditions are fast falling, it is a time of
fered vast destruction of church and school prop- unprecedented openness to the gospel.
erty. Some 120 were killed, and many had to flee JACK VOELKEL
for their lives. The evangelical church was puri-
Bibliography. P. Johnstone, OW; R. Wheeler and
fied, strengthened in its resolve to evangelize, W. Browning, Modern Missions on the Spanish Main.
grew in numbers, and experienced deep unity. For
mutual support and protection, the evangelicals
formed the Evangelical Confederation of Colom- Colonialism and Missions. Some have accused
bia (CEDECnow known as CEDECOL), which the missionary movement of simply serving as
at present embraces over fifty denominations. the religious side of nineteenth-century colonial-
In 1968, 80 percent of the evangelicals united ism, as an attempt to impose Western religion
in a year-long outreach known as Evangelism-in- on Asia and Africa along with political and eco-
Depth, which combined evangelistic efforts in the nomic domination. But the truth is far more
local church plus large united campaigns. complex. At times missionaries arrived before the
Church planting in Colombia has included social, colonists, at times with them, and at times later.
medical, and educational ministries in both rural But it is clear that the missionary movement
and urban areas. Evangelicals sustain several lived in uneasy tension with colonialism, having
printing houses, indigenous publications, radio very different goals. Hence, at times missionaries
stations, and more recently, high quality profound themselves in conflict with European set-
grams on national television. tlers or colonial governments; at other times they
The Wycliffe Bible translators and New Tribes believed that European control brought the best
Mission have pioneered work among the Indian hope for peace, stability, and protection of the
communities, though their efforts are greatly hin- native populations.
208
Colonialism and Missions
The missionary movement had its roots in the ican missionaries to sign a pledge promising no
eighteenth- and nineteenth-century revivals. Con- involvement in Indian political affairs.
sequently, its primary concern was evangelism, The attitudes of colonial governments varied.
but it also had a powerful humanitarian focus, The British refused to allow missionaries to work
with especially strong opposition to slavery (see in northern Nigeria, fearing it would antagonize
ABOLITIONIST MOVEMENT). At the same time the the Muslim rulers. The Dutch encouraged mission
revivals affirmed the values of liberal democracy work among animists in parts of Indonesia (hop-
and Western culture, seeing them as basically ing it would aid in their control) but refused to
Christian, and believing with most Europeans allow work among Muslims in Java. On the other
and Americans that the tide of history was taking hand, the British gave grants for education in
Western institutions to the rest of the world. India and nearly every mission school benefited.
Thus most missionaries, even the most vocifer- The clash between colonialism and missions
ous critics of the abuses of colonialism, believed can be seen in the case of India. When Carey
the system to be consistent with the Christian campaigned against infanticide and suttee, the
faith. In this they shared the naivet of their con- Hindu practice of burning widows with the bod-
temporaries. ies of their husbands, the East India Company
The complexity of the relationship may be seen opposed him, believing that interference with
in the case of WILLIAM CAREY, ADONIRAM JUDSON, such customs would threaten stability and put
and the East India Company. The Company de- profits in peril. Other missionaries criticized the
nounced Careys venture in the British Parlia- British government for collecting taxes from
ment and refused him residence in Calcutta, forc- Hindu pilgrims, which were then used to support
ing him to live in Serampore, a Danish colony. Hindu temples. But the ambiguity of the rela-
When Judson was not allowed to remain in Cal- tionship is seen in the fact that Carey eventually
cutta he went to Burma, where after a few years accepted an appointment to lecture in Indian lan-
he was imprisoned during the Anglo-Burmese guages at the Companys college, using the in-
War as an English spy. Thus the missionary was come to support BIBLE TRANSLATION and distribu-
often caught between two opposite forces, dis- tion. When direct British control was substituted
trusted by both. for Company rule the Serampore missionaries
Two dominant motifs appear in this complex and others expressed their belief that it would
relationship. First, to the missionaries, evangel- bring great temporal benefits. The fact that it
ism was most important. This concern for the ad- opened India to evangelization and Western edu-
vance of the gospel determined varying political cation and ended certain inhumane practices
responses by the missionaries in widely different were no doubt factors in this evaluation.
contexts: sometimes they favored colonialism, Baptist missionaries to Jamaica were told to
sometimes they did not, depending on what have nothing to do with political affairs (i.e., slav-
seemed to be most advantageous for their misery) but their experience with the plantation sys-
sion. Second, most missionaries defended the in- tem led them to call it the offspring of the devil.
digenous peoples against the exploitation of Eu- Thus the planters perceived the evangelical mis-
ropean commercial and political forces. This, too, sionaries as a threat to the stability and power of
led them to a variety of attitudes in different situ- their society. Missionary Christianity was a chal-
ations. But it is clear that colonial governments lenge to colonial oppression. Some missionaries
and European settlers were interested in stability urged slaves to be obedient to their masters, be-
and profits, while the missionaries had different lieving that the progress of Christianity would
goals. To further complicate the picture, at times lead to the end of slavery. But after a slave revolt,
the European traders and settlers were at odds Baptist missionary John Smith was blamed and
with their own governments, which in some cases condemned to death on scanty evidence, dying in
attempted to curb the worst exploitation of in- prison before a pardon from the king arrived.
digenous populations. And often different mission The situation became worse and in 1832 fourteen
groups found themselves on opposing sides of is- Baptist and six Methodist chapels were destroyed
sues. For example, Anglicans, coming from the es- by enraged whites over the issue.
tablished church in England, were more apt to The ambiguity may be seen further in Central
favor imperialism than were English non- Africa, where missionaries encouraged British
conformists. American missionaries, espousing control, believing it was the greatest protection
the separation of church and state, were often against the slave trade by Arabs, Portuguese, and
naive in thinking they were nonpolitical. They others. LIVINGSTONEs belief in commerce and
usually supported American policies, especially in Christianity represented an antislavery ideology,
the Philippines after the Spanish American War, the hope that commerce would introduce pros-
despite the brutality against the Filipino inde- perity and thus end the slave trade. In the 1820s
pendence movement. But they often encouraged LMS missionary John Philip, working in a con-
the aspirations of nationals for independence in text of violence between settlers and native peo-
colonial lands. In India the British required Amer- ples, became an advocate of the Xhosas, his in-
209
Colonialism and Missions
fluence being decisive in a reform giving them could come to China was the gospel and soon
legal status. This incurred the rage of both En- sent large numbers of missionaries under the
glish and Boer settlers. The Wesleyans had dif- umbrella of the unequal treaties which had
ferent views at some points but both missionary been imposed on the Chinese.
groups wanted British rule because they believed Thus it is clear that most missionaries sup-
it would bring security and the benefits of British ported colonialism even as they fought against its
law to the native peoples. In midcentury another abuses. They recognized its achievements. One
LMS missionary, John Mckenzie, working farther wrote, Gone is the slave trade and intertribal
north, advocated British rule because he believed wars. A new era of civilization has dawned for
it to be better than either of the possible alterna- Africa. But if they often failed to see the negative
tives in that fluid and chaotic situation: white su- aspects of colonialism, they contributed to its de-
premacist Boer rule or the imperialism of Cecil struction by refusing to accept the idea that non-
Rhodes. Westerners were genetically inferior, believing
At times the missionaries expressed strong op- there was no obstacle to their reaching the stan-
position to colonial policies. At the turn of the dards of any other people if evangelical Chris-
century two American Presbyterians published tianity was accepted. And the liberal education
articles condemning the exploitation of African and new ideas introduced in mission schools
rubber workers in the Congo, calling it twenti- were an important factor in generating national-
eth century slavery. The case brought interna- istic movements in a number of Asian and
tional attention, the missionaries were sued for African countries, leading to their independence
libel, and the suit was finally dismissed. Some and thus, the end of colonialism.
improvement in the treatment of the African re- PAUL E. PIERSON
sulted, but the case created tension between the
Belgian and American governments. After World Bibliography. S. C. Neill, Colonialism and Christian
Missions; B. Stanley, The Bible and the Flag.
War I, with nearly all the land in Kenya in the
hands of English settlers, Africans were forced to
work two months each year on settler lands, leav- Colportage. The practice of selling or giving
ing their own crops unattended and families un- away small portions of Scripture or gospel tracts.
protected. While some missionaries believed the The idea (and word) comes from France, where
Africans should be compelled to work as part of col (neck) and porter (to carry) were combined to
the civilizing process, others disagreed. Strong refer to peddlers who carried packs of their
protests came from two Anglican bishops and the wares for sale around the countryside. According
Church of Scotland mission, reinforced by J. H. to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term was
OLDHAM, a leader in the INTERNATIONAL MISSION- used in English by 1796. Providing an alternative
ARY COUNCIL, who denounced the practice as im- to those who had no access to bookstores or
moral. As a result the government order on na- other outlets for religious literature, colporteurs
tive labor was withdrawn in 1921. Two years were employed by missionary agencies (espe-
later, Oldhams influence was decisive in a decla- cially Bible Societies) and traveled mostly rural
ration of the Colonial Office, that the interests of areas selling or trading for their products.
the African natives must be paramount, over In the United States, the main promoter of col-
against settler demands. Yet Oldham and others portage was the American Tract Society, which
were not opposed in principle to white rule or began colportage work in 1841 with two men in
settlement, but idealistically if naively believed Indiana and Kentucky. Just a decade later, over
the empire could be justified on the basis of a 500 were employed by the ATS in colportage
harmonious partnership between all groups. In work, most of it in the American west and south.
contrast, the Scottish mission in Malawi worked However, as towns and churches were developed,
for its independence, and was noted by an the need for colportage in the United States di-
African writer as perhaps the only case of pursuit minished, and the work dried up there shortly
of equity in a colonial cause by a group who were after the turn of the century.
members of the imperial power. While the need for colportage was diminishing
The case of the Opium Wars with China also in the United States, however, it was peaking in
illustrates the ambiguity. The opium trade and many other parts of the world, where access to
the two wars of economic aggression (183942 printed literature was limited. At its height, the
and 185860), were strongly criticized by the British and Foreign Bible Society listed some 55
missionary community as unjust. Yet when countries where colportage was used as a means
China was opened to Europeans, and thus mis- of Scripture distribution. Colportage was used
sionary residence, as a result, and Christians widely in Latin America, China, the Middle East.
were promised protection, nearly all missionaries Colporteurs, mostly males, were hard-working
saw this as a providential act of God, who had and firmly committed individuals who were will-
used the wrath of man for his purpose. They ing to walk seemingly endless miles and face se-
naturally believed that the greatest blessing that vere persecution in the hope of bringing the
210
COMIBAM
printed Scriptures to people who otherwise Columbanus (c. 543615). Irish monastic mis-
would never have access to them. While more sionary to Europe. Though little is known of his
technologically advanced means now enable early life, Columbanus was purportedly a strong,
greater distribution by one person in one day good-looking man who may have entered monas-
than was previously possible in a month by a tic life in part to escape the temptations of the
walking colporteur, Christian missions still owes flesh. He actually called himself Columba, but
a great debt of gratitude to those dedicated indi- historians often refer to him by the Latin spelling
viduals who took the Scriptures in printed form to avoid confusing him with the earlier Irish mis-
to literally millions of people around the world. sionary by the same name. He was one of the
A. SCOTT MOREAU most important missionaries in the CELTIC MIS-
SIONARY MOVEMENT. His efforts, coming after Ire-
Bibliography. H. K. Moulton, CDCWM, pp. 12223;
D. P. Nord, DCA, p. 300. land and Scotland had been reached and the
Anglo-Saxon work was well established, focused
on the areas that were to become France,
Columba of Iona (521597). Irish missionary to
Switzerland, and Italy. They had been reached
Scotland. Columba was born in Ireland of royal
for Christ once before, but had reverted to pa-
lineage through both parents. In accordance with
ganism. Though foundations of Christian influ-
his royal status, he benefited from the care of a
ence still survived, those foundations were in des-
priest and was brought up in the Christian faith.
perate need of shoring up.
As a young man he entered a monastery; he was
Columbanus is perhaps best remembered for
ordained a deacon and later a priest. Between
founding influential monasteries and developing
545 and 562 Columba founded numerous
a strict set of monastic rules that affected monas-
churches and monastic societies, the chief cen-
teries throughout France for centuries. The first
ters of education. Legends and traditions sur-
monastery he founded was in Luxeuil in the
round much of Columbas life, including his de-
northeast part of the country. He lived there from
parture from his homeland at the age of
the time of its founding (c. 590) until 610, when
forty-two. Whatever the actual precipitating cir-
he was expelled by political leaders whose goal
cumstances, he, with twelve Irish monks, settled
was to deport Columbanus and his twelve Irish
on the small island of Iona, where he established
companions back to Ireland. The boat that was
his headquarters for the missionary work to
to take them to Ireland, however, ran aground be-
which he devoted his remaining years. There he
fore they were picked up. Departing from
founded a monastic community, an Order not for
solitaries but one that provided training for evan- Luxeuil, the company traveled through northern
gelists sent to preach the gospel, build churches, France, then along the Rhine River, down
and establish other monasteries. Securing good through western Switzerland (where GALL parted
relations with King Brude enabled the Ionian from the company because of illness and later
community to work among pagans in the west- founded his own significant monastery), and fi-
ern highlands of Scotland. nally into northern Italy, where Columbanus es-
Of equal concern to the Ionian Christians was tablished another monastery at Bobbio that in
the copying of Scripture. Columba himself is said the Middle Ages became a center of scholarship.
A. SCOTT MOREAU
to have written out over three hundred copies of
the Vulgate and the Psalter. Only a few hours be- Bibliography. W. H. Marnell, Light from the West:
fore his death, at the age of seventy-six, he was The Irish Mission and the Emergence of Modern Europe.
engaged in copying the Psalter.
The influence of the founding abbot of Iona COMIBAM. This is the acronym for COOPERACIN
and his community spread beyond Scotland to MISIONERA IBEROAMERICANA (Ibero-American Mis-
many parts of the British Isles, Europe, and Ice- sionary Cooperation), a cooperative network
land. Columba, known as the Apostle of the among the various national missionary move-
Western Isles, has also been called the Moses of ments that exist in Latin America. Most of these
Iona because, like Moses, he refused to take his are integrated by Christians committed to the
place among royalty and chose rather the call of evangelization of unreached peoples. The objec-
service to a higher King. One biographer claims tive of COMIBAM is to glorify God in awakening
that one cannot truly understand the history of and developing the missionary vision and action
the Scots without knowing something of the man to all the nations in the local churches of Ibero-
Columba. Life of Columba, written by Adamnan, America [Latin America and Spain], and to serve
his eighth successor in the abbacy of Iona, is con- as a link of cooperation between the different
sidered more of a hagiography than a biography. missionary efforts.
FLORENCE R. SCOTT A significant element in COMIBAM is the goal
Bibliography. R. B. Hale, The Magnificent Gael; of having in each Spanish- or Portuguese-speak-
F. MacManus, Saint Columban; L. Menzies, St. ing country a contextualized missionary move-
Columba of Iona. ment with its own specific characteristics. The
211
COMIBAM
organization was the result of the First Ibero- fashion, with frequent chaos and overlap. The re-
American Missionary Congress, held in So sulting waste of limited resources was widely ab-
Paulo (Brazil), in November 1987. In the 1980s a horred, as was the confusion caused to those
growing number of evangelical churches began newly receiving the gospel. Because the good
to be more aware of and active in intercultural stewardship of personnel and money was a uni-
and transnational missions. The idea, however, versal ideal among the various societies, the prin-
was not to develop a mere extension of the work ciple of comity quickly gained broad acceptance.
that established denominations were already Verbal and personal agreements among mission-
doing around the world, but to promote the aries became the order of the day, with missions
Christian testimony to unreached countries and agreeing not to open up work in areas where an-
peoples. other mission was already established.
As an expression of this movement and as a While this approach led ultimately to what
way to promote its growth, a group of leaders mission historian R. PIERCE BEAVER called de-
met in Mexico City, summoned by CONELA nominationalism by geography, there was a gen-
(Latin American Evangelical Confraternity), with eral expectation that many emerging churches
the purpose of organizing the first Ibero-Ameri- would likely join together after the missionaries
can Misssionary Congress. From its beginning, moved on to other regions. This has, in fact,
COMIBAM was more than an event. It was a often happened. At the same time, the levels of
movement that fostered vision and challenge for cooperation comity required often spilled over
the involvement of Ibero-Americans in world into other mission spheres as well.
missions. About 3,300 persons registered in this On the whole, the system worked well as long as
Congress, coming from twenty-five Ibero-Ameri- people stayed where they were. However, as
can countries and thirty-five other countries in greater mobility for purposes of work and educa-
the world. The emphasis of COMIBAM is not so tion became the norm, the system increasingly
much on evangelization inside ones own culture, showed its limitations. Its chief legacy in evangeli-
as on intercultural evangelization. COMIBAM cal missions circles is in the courtesy and cooper-
has already produced an important amount of lit- ation shown among agencies in discussing future
erature on intercultural missions and has organ- plans and in not duplicating existing efforts.
ized several missionary congresses and confer- GARY R. CORWIN
ences at national, regional, and continental
Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, PWCM, pp. B:5872;
levels, particularly in Latin America.
S. Neill, HCM.
PABLO DEIROS
SEE ALSO Latin American Mission Boards and Commission on World Mission and Evange-
Societies. lism. At its ACCRA 1958 meeting the INTERNA-
TIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL voted for integration
Comity. A concept derived from the general prin- with the WCC. The hope was that this action
ciple that mission groups ought not to compete would put mission at the center of the WCC
with one another. The method used to promote agenda. A primary motivation for merger was
this concept was to make one agency responsible that many member organizations of the IMC,
for evangelism in a particular territory or among though founded as missions, were now free-
a particular people. Double occupancy of a re- standing church bodies in their own right that
gion, with the exception of big cities, was to be wished to relate to other churches as churches
avoided. and not through mission agencies. Moreover, in-
Historically the term owes its origin to the late- sofar as the original vision for unity was driven
nineteenth-century missionary conferences (for by a missionary imperative, it was logical that
and by missionaries, with some nationals partic- concerns for mission and unity be combined
ipating as guests) that took place first in Asia, within one body. The union of the two bodies
and then in a less extensive fashion in parts of took place at the NEW DELHI ASSEMBLY of the
Africa and Latin America. The first such confer- WCC in 1961.
ence, the General Conference of Bengal Protes- To further the work of mission, the Commis-
tant Missionaries, took place in Calcutta in sion on World Mission and Evangelism (CWME)
1855, and was followed by numerous regional was established. Its mandate was to further the
and national conferences over the next half cen- proclamation to the whole world of the Gospel of
tury, leading up to the great WORLD MISSIONARY Jesus Christ, to the end that all men may believe
CONFERENCE in Edinburgh (1910). The establish- in Him and be saved. There was particular em-
ment of the principle of comity in missions was phasis on the need for outreach evangelism by
one of the most outstanding results of these early the local church. The commission was to assist
conferences. churches throughout the world to bring the
The need for comity arose because missions Gospel to bear upon situations where there is no
entered many territories in a rather haphazard effective witness to Christ, and to secure coop-
212
Commitment
erative endeavor in evangelism by churches and Mission and evangelism, as envisioned by the
mission agencies. WCC, must be both holistic and relevant to the
The first three directors of CWME were local situation. This means that evangelism can
LESSLIE NEWBIGIN, PHILIP POTTER, and EMILIO CAS- never be divorced from issues of social responsi-
TRO, the latter two subsequently becoming gen- bility, and that the way in which the gospel mes-
eral secretaries of the WCC. These directors, each sage is both presented and lived out must always
one a major ecumenical thinker and missiologist, be related to the struggles of the poor, the op-
organized a series of world conferences. The pressed, and all who are in any way hurting.
First, the MEXICO CITY CONFERENCE (1963), with Attempts are also being made to distinguish
the theme Witness in Six Continents, sought to between true evangelism and PROSELYTISM, which
break down the division between sending and re- is regarded as unethical. The complaint here is
ceiving churches by emphasizing the universal against those groups that show little respect for
call to mission in every locality. The second, the the existing Christian witness in an area. Pro-
BANGKOK CONFERENCE (1973), which had the claiming and living out the gospel is of course be-
theme Salvation Today, posed the question of yond reproach. What is objected to is the deliber-
MORATORIUM: Would not true mission be fur- ate attempt to unsettle the faithful of historic
thered by being indigenized, with the prime re- churches who are diligent in their Christian life.
sponsibility resting with local Christian commu- When they are induced to change religious affili-
nities rather than with mission agencies many ation by offers of material betterment, including
thousands of miles away? The third, the MEL- technology, scholarships, and the like, the prac-
BOURNE CONFERENCE (1980), with the theme tice is even more objectionable. By contrast,
Your Kingdom Come, found some evangelicals there has recently been increasing response to
critical that while the conference displayed a pas- the demand for true evangelism, which is pre-
sionate concern for the poor, it was less con- ceded by serious study and evaluation of both
cerned about the lost. The fourth, the SAN ANTO- culture and context. A prime example is the mes-
NIO CONFERENCE (1989), with the theme Your sage of the SALVADOR CONFERENCE (1996) that the
Will Be Done: Mission in Christs Way, saw the gospel, to be most fruitful, needs to be both true
CWME still wrestling with an overlarge defini- to itself and incarnated or rooted in the culture of
tion of mission, with the criticism leveled that in- a people.
vesting the concept with so much content de- JOHN H. Y. BRIGGS
prived it of any precise cutting edge. The
Bibliography. T. F. Best, ed., Vancouver to Canberra,
SALVADOR CONFERENCE (1996), which met in
19831990; J. H. Y. Briggs, M. A. Oduyoye, and G. Tset-
Bahia, Brazil, considered the theme Called to sis, A History of the Ecumenical Movement, vol. 3;
One Hope: The Gospel in Diverse Cultures. E. Castro, DEM, pp. 396400; D. E. Johnson, ed., Upp-
As a means of discharging its mandate, CWME sala to Nairobi, 196875; L. Newbigin, in The Ecumeni-
has not only convened conferences, but has estab- cal Advance: A History of the Ecumenical Movement,
lished and continued to support a number of spe- 2:17198; P. A. Potter, DEM, pp. 69096; WCC Central
cialist agencies: the Program on Theological Edu- Committee, New Delhi to Uppsala, 196168; WCC,
cation (previously the Theological Education Nairobi to Vancouver, 197583.
Fund), which seeks to promote theological train-
ing in the Two-Thirds World; World Christian Commitment. Commitment, when used in the
Books; and the Christian Medical Commission, context of missions, evokes a picture of the last
since health and healing were important parts of session of a missions conference in which some-
Christs ministry of salvation. In the early 1990s one responds to the call for missionary volun-
the CWME was changed to the Conference on teers. But biblical commitment is much broader
World Mission and Evangelism and folded into and deeper than that. It is the mark of every true
Unit II: Churches in Mission: Health, Education, disciple: unconditional commitment to the lord-
Witness. In addition, CWME has programs to pro- ship of Jesus Christ. That means all of lifevoca-
mote and to coordinate urban and rural mission. tion, possessions, relationships, talk, playis
In the last twenty years the work of CWME has fully at Gods disposal. And since God loves the
become ever more inclusive, with the appoint- world, the true disciple will too. So every mem-
ment of a Roman Catholic consultant to the staff ber of the body is supposed to be a world Christ-
and increased participation by Orthodox ian. If not, someone is in rebellion or ignorant.
churches. Orthodox missiologists have placed But biblical commitment is not just passiveit is
emphasis upon witness through the daily lives of proactive, an eager listening for Gods call, a
believers. Conversations have been renewed with searching for Gods will, an involvement in Gods
conservative evangelicals and those of charis- cause of world evangelism whatever the location
matic persuasion. Missionary work is increas- or vocation.
ingly perceived as partnership in which all have The response at the end of the missions con-
resources to share rather than as a one-way ference, though, is also commitment. It is a
process from north to south. choice to obey Gods call to a very special voca-
213
C-D Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:41 AM Page 214
Commitment
tion that is at the cutting edge of Gods purposes ence of German Mennonites and Baptists and,
for world redemption. For some this call is an ex- especially in St. Petersburg, of the Plymouth
traordinary revelation of Gods will like Paul on Brethren. Two main denominations emerged,
the road to Damascus. For others it is the culmi- the Baptists and the Evangelical Christians; but
nation of following Gods ordinary leading in life, under the czars Protestants were allowed little
one step at a time, like Barnabas. For both, how- freedom. They actually experienced greater free-
ever, there comes a time when a verdict must be dom during the first twelve years of communist
rendered: Do I obey Gods call to missionary vo- rule, between 1917 and 1929, when their num-
cation? To say yes at that point is commitment. ber swelled to 500,000, including a growing
And such commitment is essential when the mis- number of Pentecostals. But then, under Stalin,
sionary hits the tough times, for only the one repression became intense, driving the church
who is confident of Gods call will stick it out. largely underground. In 1944, after being forced
Because we live in an era when commitment to to form a single church union, Protestants were
anything or anyone is not considered worthy of again given very limited permission to function.
an independent person in control of his or her They experienced no real freedom, however,
own destiny, bent on finding personal fulfillment, until the late 1980s, when communism began to
the ancient call to commitment may be more dif- crumble.
ficult to accept than in earlier days. Perhaps that After the Soviet Union finally collapsed in
is why the volunteers are so few and the dropouts 1991, changes of monumental proportions
so many. But God still expects commitment, un- emerged on the religious scene. At least on paper,
conditional and irrevocable, both for the one for the first time ever, most people in the CIS
whom he would call to special missionary service were granted religious liberty. National believers
and for every true disciple. organized hundreds of indigenous mission soci-
ROBERTSON MCQUILKIN eties. Although most are quite small and limited
in their geographical focus, a few, such as the
Rovno, Ukraine-based Light of the Gospel Asso-
The Commonwealth of Independent States.
ciation, regularly send evangelists and church
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
planters thousands of miles to initiate Christian
is a loose, fragile federation linking twelve of the witness in some of the least evangelized areas of
now-independent republics of the former Soviet the former Soviet Union. A wide variety of other
Unionall but the three Baltic republics. Mem- indigenous parachurch organizations has also
ber states include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, emerged, focusing on such areas as publishing,
Georgia, Kazakstan, Kyrgystan, Moldova, Rus- prison ministry, childrens work, and humanitar-
sia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and ian assistance.
Uzbekistan. Although people of Slavic stock Local evangelical congregations began to mul-
make up over 70 percent of the combined popu- tiply, increasing in number from about 3,000 in
lationconcentrated especially in Russia, 1990 to as many as 10,000 by the late 1990s. Dur-
Ukraine, and Belarusall together the CIS is ing the communist era, Moscow had only one
home to nearly 600 distinct people groups, ap- legally functioning evangelical congregation; by
proximately half of which have been only mini- the late 1990s there were more than 300. Evan-
mally reached with the gospel. While over half gelicals from other parts of the world launched
the CIS population is nominally Christian an unprecedented evangelistic blitz. Several hun-
mostly Russian Orthodoxactive believers are dred mission agencies and countless local
few, and, although estimates vary widely, evan- churches sent workers by the thousands to take
gelicals probably make up only between 1 and 2 advantage of the new freedoms and of peoples
percent of the population, half of them being in apparent spiritual hunger. By the late 1990s it
Ukraine alone. Most are either Baptist or Pente- was estimated that nearly 6,000 foreign mission-
costal. Approximately 20 percent of the people in aries were serving in the various republics of the
the CIS are nominally Muslim, the majority fol- CISthe majority on short-term assignments,
lowing a highly animistic variety of folk Islam. but nearly 2,000 serving longer term. And, signif-
And, of course, after more than 70 years of com- icantly, several hundred of these missionaries
munist suppression of religion, millions are were non-Westernersfrom South Korea.
atheists or agnostics. After decades with no evangelical institutions
It was in A.D. 988 that Eastern Orthodoxy was of higher learning, new schools proliferated,
first introduced into what eventually became numbering more than 100 by the late 1990s.
the Russian Empire, and it was long taken for While many of these Christian colleges and Bible
granted that to be Russian or Ukrainian was, by institutes are quite small and are struggling to
definition, to be Orthodox. Protestantism had maintain academic standards, several are having
little impact until the latter half of the nine- a significant impact on the entire CIS. Leading
teenth century, when increasing numbers of institutions include Donetsk Christian University
Slavs began coming to Christ through the influ- (specializing in the training of indigenous mis-
214
Communication
sionaries) and Odessa Theological Seminary in more consistent in Ukraine but is limited or non-
Ukraine and, in Russia, St. Petersburg Christian existent in most of the other CIS republics.
University and the Russian-American Christian RAYMOND P. PRIGODICH
University in Moscow (focusing on the prepara-
Bibliography. M. Bourdeaux, The Gospels Triumph
tion of Christians for involvement in secular over Communism; D. B. Clendenin, From the Coup to
society). the Commonwealth: An Inside Look at Life in Contem-
The Fragmentation of the Church. Until the porary Russia; K. R. Hill, The Soviet Union on the Brink:
1990s, divisions among evangelicals were rela- An Inside Look at Christianity and Glasnost; N. C.
tively few. Under communist oppression, they Nielsen Jr., Christianity After Communism: Social, Polit-
tended to preserve unity as much as possible. ical, and Cultural Struggle in Russia; W. Sawatsky, So-
Now, however, older denominations have begun viet Evangelicals Since World War II.
to experience a measure of fragmentation, while
both nationals and foreign missionaries have es- Communication. Communication is the mis-
tablished scores of new church bodies. There has sionary problem par excellence. The word comes
been considerable debate between those West- from the Latin word communis (common). In
erners who advocate coming alongside the exist- order to fulfill the GREAT COMMISSION a com-
ing churches and those who argue that because monality must be established with the various
the traditional churches are sometimes legalistic peoples of the worlda commonality that makes
and out of step with contemporary culture, new it possible for them to understand and embrace
wine should be poured into new wineskins. the gospel of Christ. Accordingly, when HENDRICK
Relations with Russian Orthodoxy. Western KRAEMER sought to place questions having to do
evangelicals working in the CIS are sharply di- with the missionary task in a wider and deeper
vided as to the appropriate stance to be taken to- setting than that afforded by alternative words,
ward Russian Orthodoxy. The majority eschew he chose the word communication.
any cooperation with the Orthodox Church, ar- From very early days the progress of the gospel
guing, among other things, that Russian Ortho- has been aided by the communication skills of its
doxy seems to teach salvation by works and that proponents. One thinks immediately of John the
it is dominated by ritualism and even supersti- Baptists preaching in Judea, Peters sermon on
tion. However, a sizable minority of evangelicals Pentecost, and Pauls ministry to the Gentiles.
working in the CIS argue that a renewed Ortho- Jesus was a master communicator. However, a
doxy is, in fact, the best hope for evangelizing tension is introduced at this point because the
that vast region. The Orthodox Church itself is New Testament makes it clear that human wis-
ambivalent about any sort of cooperation with dom and communication skills are not sufficient
evangelicals. Most Orthodox reject Protestant to draw people to Christ and advance his kingdom
Christianity out of hand as being heretical and (cf. 2 Cor. 2:16). Though the Lord Jesus commis-
incompatible with Slavic culture, but some Or- sioned the apostles to disciple the nations by
thodox leaders have been more open to evangeli- preaching and teaching, he commanded them to
cal offers of cooperation and assistance. stay in Jerusalem until empowered by the Holy
Cooperation with Westerners. National be- Spirit (Acts 1:8). ELENCTICS, the science of the
lievers tend to be quite ambivalent in their atti- conviction of sin (Herman Bavinck), deals with
tude toward Western missionaries serving in the this tension between human and divine compo-
CIS. While appreciating some of the resources nents in Christian communication and is a pivotal,
and new ideas Westerners bring, nationals un- though often neglected, concern in missiology.
derstandably resent the tendency of many West- AUGUSTINE was perhaps the first to introduce
erners to want to dominate the work in which secular communication theory to the church in a
they are involved. Nationals want partners, not systematic way. Called as a young man to be the
parents. And again and again national believers rhetor (legal orator) of Milan, Italy, he was pro-
have lamented the tendency of Westerners to stay foundly impressed by the eloquence of the
for too short a time, to be woefully ignorant of renowned preacher of Milan, Ambrose. Con-
the local language and culture, to fail to contex- verted and baptized in 387, he returned to Hippo
tualize their message, and to pay insufficient at- in North Africa where he became bishop in 396.
tention to existing national church structures and Augustine questioned the Christian use of the
leaders. rhetorical knowledge and skills he and various
Threats to Religious Liberty. Although the other church leaders of the time had mastered at
Russian Constitution guarantees religious liberty, the university. Taking his cue from the experience
Orthodox leaders have repeatedly called for se- of the Israelites who were commanded to take
vere restrictions on the activities of both foreign clothing, vases, and ornaments of silver and gold
and indigenous Protestant organizations, and in with them upon their exodus from Egypt, he con-
several regions of the Russian Federation local cluded that gold from Egypt is still gold. Pro-
governments have unilaterally begun to suppress fane knowledge and communication skills can be
evangelical activities. Religious liberty has been used in kingdom service. Augustine then pro-
215
Communication
ceeded to write On Christian Doctrine, Book IV, municated to the West Irian Sawi tribespeople
which has been called the first manual of Chris- has had a significant impact.
tian preaching. Most widely used to illustrate and examine the
Augustines work constituted an auspicious be- communication process are cybernetic models
ginning, but only a beginning. Down through the based on electronic media. Thus classical cate-
centuries and especially for post-Reformation gories (speaker, speech, audience) have largely
British and then American clergy, classical given way to new categories and nomenclature
rhetorical theory informed homiletical theory such as source, message, respondent, channel,
and preaching methodology. Influential pulpits encode, decode, noise, feedback, and the like.
have been occupied by great orators familiar One or another version of Nidas three-culture
with the likes of Plato, Aristotle, Quintilian, Ci- model of intercultural missionary communica-
cero, and Fenelon. Only recently has the sum- tion is widely used to introduce important cul-
mum bonum of ancient classical education, rhet- tural components and highlight the relationship
oric, been downplayed to the point that the very among cultures of Bible times, the missionary
word has lost its original meaning and connotes source, and target culture respondents.
flowery (and empty?) speech. Historically, both
For many years theorists and practitioners
church and mission have profited greatly from a
alike have discussed issues such as the best start-
knowledge of classical rhetoric.
ing point for gospel communication (the nature
It must be admitted, however, that Egyptian
gold came with a price. Ethnocentric rhetori- and attributes of God or the person and work of
cians of ancient times believed that if foreign au- Christ) and the establishment of common
diences did not think and respond as Athenians ground with the hearers. Current issues also
and Romans did, they at least should be taught have to do with the interanimation among lan-
to do so. Until comparatively recently, Western guage, cognition, and WORLDVIEW; the relation-
clergy and missionaries alike have tended to- ship among form, meaning, and function; the
ward the same provincialism. With global explo- role of culture in special revelation and B IBLE
ration and then the dawn of the electric age, TRANSLATION, interpretation, and application;
however, change became inevitable. In modern and the relative importance of respondent un-
times monoculturalism has been replaced by derstandings and preferences in CONTEXTUALIZ-
multiculturalism; new rhetoricians speak of ING the Christian message. The significance ac-
multiple rhetorics; speech theory has been corded to the findings of the various sciences in
eclipsed by communication theory; and commu- these discussions, as well as in missionary com-
nication theory takes into account not only face- munication theory and practice in general,
to-face or INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION, but serves to indicate that Augustines profane
MASS COMMUNICATION and cross-cultural, INTER- knowledge problem is a perennial one. That
CULTURAL COMMUNICATION as well. being the case, contemporary theorists stand to
As concerns the Christian mission, postWorld benefit not just from his insight that Egyptian
War II years especially have witnessed great gold is still gold, but also from his reminders
strides forward in this regard. First came the un- that biblical knowledge is to be considered supe-
paralleled number of cross-cultural contacts oc- rior both qualitatively and quantitatively, and
casioned by the war itself. This was attended by that secular approaches are to be used with
numerous writings on culture, language, and moderation.
communication. Among secular writings, The DAVID J. HESSELGRAVE
Silent Language and other works by Edward T.
Hall had the greatest impact. But earlier contri- Bibliography. J. F. Engel, Contemporary Christian
butions of Christian scholars such as HENDRICK Communications; E. T. Hall, The Silent Language; D. J.
KRAEMER and the postwar writings of Jacob Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ Cross-Culturally;
Loewen, William D. Reyburn, William Samarin, H. Kraft, Communication Theory for Christian Witness;
E. A. Nida, Message and Mission; D. Richardson, Peace
EUGENE A. NIDA, and others also bore fruit. Nidas
Child.
Message and Mission: The Communication of the
Christian Faith, first published in 1960 and then
revised, augmented, and republished in 1990, has Communism/Marxism. Any social system advo-
perhaps been most influential in shaping mis- cating common ownership of property rather
sionary theory and practice. Authors of widely than private property. However, the term is pri-
used texts such as Charles Kraft and David Hes- marily associated with the economic, social, and
selgrave readily acknowledge their debt to Nida. political views of Karl Marx (181883) and
Written from his perspective as a marketing spe- Friedrich Engels (182095) and their followers.
cialist, James F. Engel has contributed a compre- Just seventy years after the death of Marx,
hensive text highlighting audience analysis and roughly one-third of the world was dominated by
media communication. At a popular level, Don economic and political systems shaped by Marxs
Richardsons account of how the gospel was com- thought.
216
Comparative Religion
Marx understood history to be the product of much of its appeal throughout the world, al-
an ongoing dialectic of opposing material forces though it still retains considerable influence in
shaping the economic conditions of human so- some sectors.
cial existence. Ideas then are simply the mani- HAROLD A. NETLAND
festations of the material conditions at work in
the societies in which the ideas emerge. Marx is SEE ALSO Ideologies.
especially remembered for his critique of capi- Bibliography. K. Bockmuhl, The Challenge of Marx-
talism and his view that future societies would ism; J. A. Kirk, Theology Encounters Revolution; K. -
see the eventual abolition of classes and of pri- Korsch, Marxism and Philosophy; D. McLellan, Marx-
vate ownership of the means of production, and ism After Marx; D. McLellan, Marxism and Religion.
the development of a communist society in
which all of the systemic causes of social alien- Comoros (Est. 2000 pop.: 778,000; 1,862 sq. km.
ation and exploitation of humankind are elimi- [719 sq. mi.]). The Comoros are a group of three
nated. Marxism has tended to emphasize both volcanic islands in the northern entrance of the
the inevitability of social evolution toward a Mozambique Channel about halfway between
classless society and the necessity of violent rev- Madagascar and the African mainland. The
olution and class conflict in the transition from nearby island of Mayotte is geographically part of
one stage to another. Marx was an atheist and the group but administratively under France.
held that humankind tries to realize through the Over 90 percent of the population are ethnic Co-
illusions of religion what is denied them in real- morians who speak three distinct Swahili lan-
ity. Rather than positively working to change guages. Most are Muslims and the Christian pres-
contemporary problems, religion is a deluded at- ence is very small, representing just over one
tempt to escape the misery of the present world. percent of the population. Most of these are
Thus it is the opium of the people and must be Roman Catholics. Evangelicals are represented
opposed. by the AFRICAN INLAND MISSION, whose churches
Although Marxs thought has undergone sig- are growing at over 5 percent per year, and a few
nificant revisions by later thinkers, his views ex- other Protestants.
erted enormous influence upon twentieth-cen- TODD M. JOHNSON
tury societies worldwide. Such diverse revolu-
tionaries as V. Lenin and J. Stalin in the Soviet
Union, Mao Zedong in China, Fidel Castro in Comparative Religion. The comprehensive
Cuba, Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam, and Pol Pot in study of religions as phenomena using both his-
Cambodia, as well as a host of lesser figures, torical and systematic methodologies, as far as
have claimed the authority of Marx for their re- possible without dogmatic presuppositions, com-
pressive social and political agendas. Marxism, paring and contrasting both universal and par-
with its trenchant critique of Western capitalism, ticular features of these religions.
was especially attractive to many in the non- The study of religion as a Western academic
Western world during the 1960s and 1970s. subject is a relatively new discipline. Prior to the
Marxist themes, combined with the emerging mid-nineteenth century, when one studied reli-
nationalistic fervor of the postcolonial era and a gion, the subject matter was ones own religion
reaction against Western economic exploitation with occasional thoughts on how other religions
of non-Western nations, produced powerful rev- compared with my religion. The study of religion,
olutionary movements in Latin America, Africa, in other words, was synonymous with theology.
and Asia. Marxist themes have also been promi- In the mid-nineteenth century, several trends
nent in some of the leading Roman Catholic and gave these occasional and dogmatic thoughts
Protestant liberation theologians in Latin Amer- about other religions a new, distinctive character.
ica, although most were careful to distance One trend, ironically, was the Christian missions
themselves from the atheistic and deterministic movement, which was reaching the peak of sev-
assumption of Marxism (see LIBERATION THEOL- eral centuries of development and was supplying
OGY MISSIOLOGY). Western scholars with a wealth of material on
The Christian church has generally been tightly non-Christian religions. Second, at this same
controlled and persecuted in Marxist societies. time anthropologists and archaeologists were
Contrary to Marxs predictions, however, religion studying non-Western cultures and sending back
has not withered away; indeed the Christian an avalanche of data on cultural and religious
church remained strong in the former Soviet practices from Asia, Africa, and Micronesia.
Union and actually grew dramatically in commu- Third was the full flowering of a way of looking
nist China. With the dismantling of the Berlin at such data in a way that emphasized human ra-
Wall in 1989 and the collapse of the former So- tionality, as opposed to divine agency. This En-
viet Union, the most visible attempts to imple- lightenment viewpoint was tailor-made for at-
ment the agenda of Marxism have been exposed tempts to make some sense of this body of
as dismal failures. Marxism has consequently lost religious information.
217
Comparative Religion
This early science of religion produced schol- ologies designed specifically for the study of reli-
arly works of two types. One is typified by the gion. Objective histories of specific religious tra-
work of a man often called the father of religious ditions began to appear from the studies of schol-
studies, Max Mller (18321930). Mller, using ars like Nathan Soderblom (18861931) and
data obtained through his linguistic studies, William Brede Kristensen (18671953). Other
traced the history of religious systems and then scholars, in the cataloging tradition of Frazier,
wrote comparative studies that made religion adapted a methodology loosely related to Ed-
the underlying category of study rather than a mund Husserls philosophical phenomenology
specific religion. The second is typified by the and began to develop cross-religious categories in
work of James George Frazer (18541941), who order to better compare and contrast religious
took the catalog approach to making sense of this traditions. Gerardus van der Leeuw (18901950)
deluge of religious information. His twelve- and Rudolf Otto (18691937) published works in
volume Golden Bough is organized according to the PHENOMENOLOGY OF RELIGION tradition, which
cross-religious categories, such as MAGIC, TABOO, relied on a method that advocated a temporary
and TOTEMISM, with religious data from different suspension of ones own beliefs (epoche), in order
religious traditions filed under the appropriate to clearly identify the unique character of reli-
heading. gious phenomena (sui generis), with the goal of
One can see in this early work the influence of understanding only (verstehen). These two ap-
a positivistic approach to datain short, the sci- proaches to the data of religious studies, the lon-
entific model. The task of the scientist of religion gitudinal, historical study and the cross-sectional
was to gather as much data as possible, and then phenomenological study, have been dominant
do theory construction that attempted to explain methodologies in comparative religion.
the data in wider and wider circles of inclusivity, In other ways, Darwins theory of evolution
with the goal not of discovering metaphysical sent the discipline of religious studies down a
truth but of describing accurately and meaning- dead-end road. The search for a common origin
fully the religious phenomena of the world in and developmental pattern to all religion proved
which we live. Given this reliance on the scien- to be a remarkably contentious and ultimately
tific model (in an attempt to distinguish this frustrating enterprise. The data of religions from
study from theology), it is not surprising to find around the world proved to be elastic in the ex-
that when the prevailing scientific theory of the treme when it came to theory shaping. Some of
nineteenth century changed, the study of com- the developmental schemes posited all religions
parative religion began to change. coming from animistic roots where all being is
In some ways, Charles Darwins theory of evo- invested with spiritual power (see ANIMISM), mov-
lution was a godsend for comparative religion- ing toward a more well-defined POLYTHEISM and
ists. One effect of Darwins explanatory thesis finally the great monotheistic religious traditions
was to remove the need for periodic or constant (see MONOTHEISM). Others of the developmental
divine intervention in human affairs in order to schemes took roughly the same material and
explain why things happen as they do. Divine in- posited theories that taught exactly the opposite:
tervention, of course, was a staple of premodern that the original conceptions of God were of high
explanatory theses. By making it scientifically re- gods, monotheisms that over time devolved into
spectable to offer secular explanations for human polytheistic and then spiritist religions, with
phenomena, evolutionism opened up a whole more and more layers of gods between humans
new arena of activity for the fledgling science of and the high gods. And as more and more of the
religion. Sociologists, psychologists, and philoso- worlds religious systems were studied, they
phers quickly filled this new arena with huge ex- proved as a group to be less and less amenable to
planatory theses that attempted globally to de- step-by-step developmental patterns.
scribe the origins and development of all religion In most academic circles, the recognition that
in comprehensive schemata. these essentially Western-based universal cate-
This was the age of the great sociologists of re- gories and developmental patterns do not nec-
ligion, Emile Durkheim (18581917) and Max essarily fit other cultures led to a move toward
Weber (18641920). A uniquely American contri- cultural RELATIVISM, which argued that no gen-
bution to the discipline was offered by the psy- eralizations are possible from culture to culture
chologists of religion, typified by William James (see also PLURALISM). Each must be studied to-
(18421910) and his Varieties of Religious Experi- tally on its own terms. This move matched some
ence. Perhaps more than any other, the philoso- of the insights of phenomenologists regarding
phers of religion began to produce systematic the subjectivity of the religious scholar himself
philosophies of the development of religious con- or herself, but went beyond those insights by
sciousness, such as that produced by Teilhard de suggesting that suspension of ones own point of
Chardin (18811955). view might be a chimera, that relativity ex-
This ferment of scholarly activity in kindred tended not only to cultures but also to cultural
disciplines encouraged the carving out of method- observers. Many scholars began to see in cul-
218
Confession
tural relativism a dead end as pronounced as status, replacing propositional and ethical ab-
the one faced by evolutionistsin this case, a solutes with methodological ones.
dead end leading to an inability to have any TERRY C. MUCK
kind of cross-cultural (and cross-religious) com-
munication at all. This gave rise to two middle SEE ALSO Religion; World Religions.
roads between universalism and particularism. Bibliography. W. Capps, Religious Studies: The Mak-
The first came to be called functionalism, a view ing of a Discipline; T. Muck, The Mysterious Beyond: A
that did not find the core of religion in truth- Guide to Studying Religion; E. Sharpe, Comparative Re-
claims of the gods or the gods representatives, ligion: A History.
nor in the unconnected, conditioned realities of
discrete cultures, but in the function religion Computers. See TECHNOLOGY.
performed in addressing personal and societal
needs. The needs that functionalists identified Conference. See CHURCH MISSIONS CONFERENCE.
as religious varied. But for all functionalists,
religion is as religion does. Functionalist the-
Confession. In biblical usage, confession in both
ories of religion are among the most widely
Hebrew (yd) and Greek (homologeom ) has the
used in religious studies today, and in one sense
general sense of acknowledgment. While it is not
may be seen as extensions of Emile Durkheims
necessarily oral, it usually involves verbalization.
pioneering work. It is particularly useful to so-
Two complimentary orientations of confession
ciologists of religion such as Wach (18981955)
and Robert Bellah (b. 1927), and anthropolo- are found: acknowledging our faith in God and
gists Mary Douglas (b. 1921) and Clifford Geertz acknowledging our sin.
(b. 1926). Confessing Faith. In the Old Testament, Is-
A second middle road between universalism raels confession of faith is intimately tied to the
and particularism is structuralism. With roots in praise of God and acknowledgment of his great-
the work of linguist Ferdinand de Saussure ness. Solomon mentions the need of Gods people
(18571913), and given methodological form by to confess his name and turn from their sins in
social anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss his prayer of dedication of the Temple (1 Kings
(b. 1908), structuralists see the use of language 8:33, 35; 2 Chron. 6:24, 26), linking confessing
and language systems as the mediator between God and confession of sin together. Nehemiah
universals and particulars. Religions and cultures also shows the connection in leading the people
came to be viewed as analogous to languages. in admission of sin followed by confession and
Each language (or religion), is different with its worship of God (Neh. 9:2, 3).
own vocabulary and grammatical rules. Each In the New Testament the confession of faith in
language (or religion), however, also has struc- God is more prominent. John the Baptist admit-
tural features in common that seem to run across ted that he was not the Christ (John 1:20) and the
all languages or religions. Structuralists say these Pharisees were afraid to confess their faith pub-
features allow people of one religious tradition to licly (John 12:42). Positively, it is verbal confes-
recognize themselves in another persons reli- sion of Christ which identifies a Christian (Rom.
gious tradition, but to preserve the otherness of 10:910; 2 Tim. 2:19; Heb. 3:1). This confession,
that tradition because those features full mean- however, must be matched by a lifestyle which
ing resides more in the holistic pattern of that re- honors the one confessed (2 Cor. 9: 13; 1 Tim.
ligious tradition than in the content of a particu- 6:12). Though not all will become Christians,
lar belief. The recognition of these common Paul tells the Philippians that every tongue will
structural features allows empathy that may lead eventually confess that Jesus is Lord (Phil. 2:11).
to understanding, but not to understanding itself. In the historical development of the term two
Structuralism is on the cutting edge of ap- important nuances were added after the New
proaches to religion being explored by scholars Testament: confession as the testimony to Christ
today. History of religions and phenomenological given by a martyr at the time of his or her death
methodologies still provide much of the on-the- (see also MARTYRDOM and WITNESS), and a con-
ground content and data of religious studies, but fession as a summary statement of belief to
those data are increasingly filtered through the which a body of Christians subscribes. Such
lens of structuralist forms. statements have been seen throughout the his-
Evangelical Christians can make good use of tory of the church from the Apostles Creed to
these different approaches to the study of reli- the Lausanne Covenant. Traditionally, however,
gion so long as they are seen as useful tools in the term confession of faith refers to the types
gathering and handling data of a very specific na- of statements of doctrinal beliefs and distinctives
ture and not as normative methodologies over which were developed during and since the time
against theological and revelatory ones. They be- of the Reformation.
come problematic for evangelicals when these These statements are typically attempts to clar-
theories begin to claim for themselves absolute ify the Christian faith in light of cultural, social,
219
Confession
or religious circumstances. While there are uni- the confessions or statements of faith are seen as
versals inherent in confessing Christ (e.g., his human products and not replacements for Gods
Deity), there are also particulars of faith which Word, there will be a place for their development
may be confessed in one context without being in every culture. While all such statements must
addressed in another context. They thus have an conform to Scripture, their occasional nature will
occasional orientation and are seen as human necessitate different emphases and orientations
formulations of belief in contrast to the eternal in them.
truths conveyed in the Scriptures. Some, such as Confession of Sin. More prominent in the Old
the Apostles and Nicene Creeds, are almost uni- Testament than confessing faith in God is con-
versally acknowledged in the church. Creed is fessing sin. This is to be done individually (Lev.
usually used to refer to the statements of the 5:5; Ps. 32:5; Prov. 28:13) and corporately (Lev.
early centuries of the church now seen by the 26:40; Neh. 9:2). Leaders of Gods people confess
universal church to be essential for all Christians. both personal and corporate sins (Neh. 1:6; Dan.
Other confessions either were developed or have 9:20). In the New Testament, those who were
been used to give a sense of denominational baptized by John had to confess their sins (Matt.
identity (The Augsburg Confession for Lutherans 3:16). In response to a botched exorcism which
and The Westminster Confession for Presbyteri- generated the fear of God in the hearts of Eph-
ans), to declare the churchs stance in difficult so- esian Christians, they openly (publicly) confessed
cial circumstances (The Barmen Declaration in their sins (Acts 19:18). James commanded the
Nazi Germany) or to define particular biblical church to confess sins to one another (probably
and theological orientations (The Lausanne in private, though public confession cannot be
Covenant for evangelicals). The Lausanne ruled out; James. 5:16). John gives a promise
Covenant has been given a particularly important which many Christians through the centuries
place in contemporary evangelical missions, hav- have found comforting: if we confess our sins,
ing been translated into more than twenty lan- God is sure to forgive them (1 John 1:9).
guages and having many evangelical mission or- Confession in Cultures and Religions. Con-
ganizations and fellowships using it as their fessing sin is not limited to Western culture or to
statement of common faith (see also LAUSANNE
Christianity. Cultures and religions around the
MOVEMENT).
world recognize the need to find absolution for
Missiological Implications of Confessing
wrongs committed, and have appropriate rituals
Faith. The content of a personal confession of
which enable the confession of transgressions
faith will of necessity have certain universal ele-
(see also RITUAL AND CEREMONY). In collective cul-
ments (see also PROFESSION OF FAITH). Personal
tures, confessions are often heard publicly
acknowledgment of sin and submission to God
through Christ are two indispensable ones. Also among the collective of the transgressor. Since in-
seen often in church history is some type of re- dividual sin may bring SHAME or judgment not
nunciation of Satan and his works in the new just on the individual but on the entire ingroup,
converts life. In cross-cultural settings, the mis- the ingroup has a moral obligation to ensure the
sionary must be aware that other renunciations confession of wrongdoing and often participates
of importance to the local context are often in that confession in some way to demonstrate
added. The Kimbanguists in Zaire, for example, solidarity with the transgressor and agreement
ban eating monkey meat and dancing naked. over the impropriety of the violation (see also IN-
Some conservative evangelical institutions in the DIVIDUALISM AND COLLECTIVISM).
United States prohibit drinking or social dancing; Confession in other cultures and religions may
many churches in Japan do not allow participa- come as part of rituals of transition in which rit-
tion in ANCESTRAL PRACTICES. While none of these ual purity is a necessary precondition for suc-
prohibitions are universal or necessary for gen- cessful transition from one phase of life to an-
uine conversion, they do show the diversity of other (from singleness to marriage, from child to
cultural or subcultural emphases in the church adult, from neophyte to religious leader). They
and the need for missionary sensitivity to avoid may also come in times of crisis, whether already
taking prohibitions from the missionarys culture present (e.g., drought) or anticipated (e.g.,
and naively insisting on them as elements of gen- preparing to go to war or impending death). They
uine conversion in another (Priest 1994). typically involve admission of wrongs done and
Since its inception the church and its local may be accompanied by appropriate acknowl-
manifestations in cultures around the world has edgment symbols. For example, the Huichol of
been a confessing church. While these confes- Mexico tie a knot in a piece of string for each sin
sions may not always be written or explicit, they committed. Symbols of receiving absolution of
are still present in the essentials of Christian forgiveness may also accompany the confession,
practice adhered to by local assemblies and or- such as the Huichol practice of burning the knot-
ganizations. There is no reason to believe that ted string to demonstrate that the transgressions
this will not continue to be the case. As long as have been forgiven.
220
Confucianism
Missiological Implications of Confessing Sin. were collected in the Analects (Lun Y), probably
While certainly every confession of sin must ulti- compiled in the third century B.C. In addition to
mately be before God, no universally normative the Five Classics are the Four Bookswhich in-
commands or restrictions are given in Scripture clude the Anlects, the Great Learning (Ta Hseh),
as to the public extent of the confession or what the Doctrine of the Mean (Chung Yung), and the
rituals may be involved with it. Protestants in in- book of Menciuswhich form a smaller corpus
dividualistic cultures tend to emphasize private of authoritative texts.
confession before God rather than before a Traditionally the family has been the center of
priest. One of the hallmarks of the East African Chinese social life. This is reflected in the classi-
Revival, however, was the public confession of cal Confucian emphasis upon the Five Relation-
sins among believers. ships, namely, the relationships between father
Study and understanding of rituals of confes- and son, elder brother and younger brother, hus-
sion which already exist in cultures will provide band and wife, elders and juniors, and rulers and
missionaries with tools which may help them de- subjects. Hierarchical relationships, with care-
velop appropriate Christian rituals. However, fully defined reciprocal obligations for all parties,
care must be taken not to simply import tradi- provided for order and stability, not only in the
tional rituals wholesale into the church lest SYN- family but in society at large. Confucius empha-
CRETISM become a problem. sized the virtue of filial piety (hsiao), or respect
A recent development in mission circles is that and honor for ones parents. The duty of the son
of identificational repentance (see POWERS, THE) is to obey his father in all things while he lives
in which individuals or small groups of Chris- and to honor and continue to obey him after he
tians confess on behalf of larger groups of people is dead. Filial piety thus came to be closely iden-
(organizations, ethnic groups, nations). Justifica- tified with the ancient cult of ancestral venera-
tion for this practice is found in the example of tion, through which the continuity of familial ties
Nehemiah (1:6). were reinforced (see ANCESTRAL PRACTICES). In
Confession of sins is a mark of a Christian, but turn, the father has a great responsibility for the
the method used may legitimately borrow from well being of the family.
cultural values and symbols so that they remain Another central virtue for Confucius was jen,
relevant in their context. often translated as benevolence or humane-
A. SCOTT MOREAU ness. Jen might be regarded as the ideal embodi-
ment of moral virtue, combining both righteous-
Bibliography. U. Bianchi, ER, 4:17; D. J. Moo, ness (i) and propriety (li). Confucius developed the
BDET, 11114; M. Noll, EDT, pp. 26266; R. J. Priest, notion of li (often translated ritual, propriety,
Missiology 22:3 (July 1994): 291315.
principle, or order) into a moral and religious
concept. Li contains both an external and internal
Confucianism. A system of social, political, ethi- sense. Externally li refers to proper patterns of be-
cal, and religious thought based upon the teach- havior which, when performed correctly, express
ings of Confucius (c. 552479 B.C.) and his disci- and reinforce harmony among the various hierar-
ples. For over the past two thousand years chically ordered elements of the family, society,
Confucianism in its various forms has been in- and cosmos. Li also includes the idea of right
fluential in shaping the cultures of China, Tai- moral attitude and motivation in actions.
wan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Korea, Vietnam, Mencius (c. 371289 B.C.) and Hsn Tzu
and Japan. (c. 298238 B.C.), two of the most influential
Confucius (from Kung Fu-Tzu, Master Kung) teachers after Confucius, offered strikingly dif-
was born into a family of lower nobility. Accord- ferent analyses of human nature. Mencius held
ing to tradition, after serving in various minor that human nature is essentially good and that
posts in the state of Lu, at the age of fifty Confu- humanitys task is to uncover and cultivate this
cius attained a relatively high rank but became inherent goodness, thereby realizing the congru-
disillusioned with the lack of interest in his social ence of human nature with the way of Heaven
ideas. Retiring from public service, Confucius (Tien). Hsn Tzu, by contrast, while acknowledg-
spent some thirteen years traveling from state to ing the perfectability of humanity, stressed the
state in an effort to inspire social and political re- evil aspect in human nature. Strict controls in the
forms. He then returned to the state of Lu to conform of laws and education are necessary for an
centrate upon teaching his disciples and, accord- ordered and harmonious society.
ing to tradition, to edit the Confucian classics. During the Han dynasty (206 B.C.A.D. 220),
Confucianism looks to the Five Classicsthe Confucianism became recognized officially as
Book of Poetry (Shih Ching), the Book of Rites state orthodoxy, the Confucian canon was for-
(Li Ching), the Book of History (Shu Ching), the malized, and the beginnings of a religious cult of
Spring and Autumn Annals (Chun Chiu), and Confucius emerged. Although attempts to deify
the Book of Changes (I Ching)as authoritative. Confucius were initially rejected, sacrifices to
Following his death, the teachings of Confucius Confucius were practiced by the literati and
221
Confucianism
eventually such sacrifices were included among Congo (Est. 2000 pop.: 2,970,000; 342,000 sq.
the state sacrifices performed by the emperor. In km. [132,046 sq. mi.]). Located on the west coast
A.D. 630 an imperial decree called for establish- of Central Africa and sharing borders with Zaire,
ment of a state temple to Confucius in every pre- Central African Republic, Cameroon, and Gabon,
fecture, in which sacrifices to the sage could be the Republic of Congos population is comprised
regularly offered. In later centuries there were at- of some 75 ethnic groups. An estimated 85 per-
tempts to purify the increasingly elaborate cult of cent are Christians (50 percent are Catholic, 22
Confucius by restoring his image as The Per- percent are Protestant, and 14 percent are in-
fectly Holy Teacher of Antiquity as well as coun- digenous independent groups). Independence
termovements to recognize sacrifices to Confu- from France was achieved in 1960, with a Marx-
cius as equal in standing to those offered to ist-style government ruling from 1968 to 1991.
Heaven and Earth. However, with the revolution Disillusionment with a failing economy resulted
of 1911 the cult of Confucius languished in in constitutional reform and the adoption of
China, although it has continued to flourish democracy, with elections being held in 1992 and
among the Chinese diaspora in Hong Kong, Tai- 1993.
wan, and Singapore. Congo was initially exposed to the gospel
Is Confucianism primarily a social ethic or a through Portuguese missionaries who arrived in
religion? Scholars are divided on the question of 1491, nine years after Portuguese explorers
Confuciuss own views on religion. Some see him reached the coast. The king, Nzinga Nkuvu, and
as essentially agnostic, a social and ethical hu- his son Alfonso were baptized on May 3, 1491.
manist who was primarily concerned with this Alfonso ascended to the throne in 1506 and
worldly relationships. When asked about death moved to establish a Christian presence in every
Confucius replied that he knew nothing of life; locality in the kingdom. His son, Henrique, be-
how could he know about death (Analects, XI. came the first contemporary African-born
11)? When asked about the spirits he said one Catholic bishop. The Capuchins, an Italian order,
should respect them but keep them at a distance sent some 440 missionaries between 1645 and
(VI.20). On the other hand, Confucius placed 1835, but eventually the church deteriorated
great value on proper performance on the ances- through a combination of withdrawal of mis-
tral rites (III.12), an activity with clear religious sionaries by Portugal, syncretistic religiosity, and
overtones. He claimed the authority of Heaven the ravages of the slave trade. Catholic work was
(Tien) for his views: Heaven is the author of the renewed in 1883 when the Holy Ghost priests ar-
virtue that is in me (VII.23). rived, and continues strong today.
Christianity has had an ambivalent relation- Protestant missionary work began in 1909
ship with Confucianism. Some Christians, as for when the Swedish Evangelical Mission expanded
example MATTEO RICCI in the sixteenth century, their work from Zaire. Since its inception,
saw in classical Confucianism much which could Protestant work has been strongly affected by
be adopted and utilized in establishing Christian- several indigenous movements, most notably
ity in the Chinese context. Ricci saw commonal- Kimbanguism, from Zaire. The Evangelical
ity between Christianity and Confucianism par- Church, the largest Protestant denomination,
ticularly in ethical teachings and what Ricci saw achieved independent status in 1961. The Salva-
as a primitive monotheism in early Confucian- tion Army also has a strong presence.
ism. Others regard this as a misinterpretation of During the 23 years of Marxist rule missionary
Confucianism and stress the discontinuities be- activity was suppressed. After the constitutional
tween the systems. Given the enduring influence reform and elections, however, the doors opened
of Confucianism in many Asian societies, the to missionary work. In 1993 it was estimated that
church in Asia must continue to engage in a seri- there were almost 120 missionaries serving in
ous manner the themes and values of Confucian- Congo representing some 15 agencies, with Scan-
ism. Fundamental questions for Christian CON- dinavians and Americans the bulk of the workers.
TEXTUALIZATION concern the Confucian under-
A. SCOTT MOREAU
standings of the religious ultimate (Heaven, Lord
on High) and the spirits of the deceased, as- Bibliography. D. Barrett, WCE; J. Baur, 2000 Years of
sumptions about the inherent goodness of Christianity in Africa; A. Hastings, The Church in Africa
human nature, and the relation between Confu- 14501950; M. Shaw, The Kingdom of God in Africa.
cianism and ancestral veneration rites.
HAROLD A. NETLAND Congress on the Churchs Worldwide Mission
(Wheaton Congress, 1966). With the merger of
Bibliography. J. Ching, Confucianism and Christian-
the INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL into the
ity; R. Covell, Confucius, the Buddha, and Christ; H. G.
Creel, Confucius and the Chinese Way; H. Fingarette, WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES in 1961, conserva-
Confucianism: The Secular as Sacred; W. Liu, A Short tive American mission executives, missionaries,
History of Confucian Philosophy; L. G. Thompson, Chi- and missiologists perceived a need for a distinctly
nese Religion: An Introduction, 4th ed. evangelical congress to address ongoing issues of
222
Conscience
theological and practical concern. Jointly spon- of a covenant community, a more individualized
sored by the EFMA and IFMA, the congress was and autonomous perspective appears in the New
held in Wheaton, Illinois, in April of 1966. The Testament, where conscience is considered a
seven-day congress comprised five missions- foundational part of every human being. Paul
oriented biblical expositions, ten major study pa- sought to keep his conscience clear (Act 24:16;
pers (on topics like SYNCRETISM, UNIVERSALISM, 2 Cor. 1:12) and commended this as an example
evangelical unity, PROSELYTISM, changes in the to others (1 Tim. 1:5; 3:9) even though ultimately
Catholic Church), and area reports. The 938 reg- it is God who is Pauls judge and not only Pauls
istered delegates represented some 258 mission conscience (1 Cor. 4:4). Some people have weak
boards and agencies, interest groups, and educa- consciences and this must be recognized (1 Cor.
tional institutions from 71 countries in every part 8 and 10:2311:1). Others, however, have seared
of the world. (1 Tim. 4:2) or corrupted (Titus 1:15) their con-
The conference was framed to respond to the sciences through willful participation in sin (see
challenges of the conciliar movement by reaf- also Eph. 4:19).
firming fundamental convictions in an atmos- The well known idea that Gentiles have the law
phere of evangelical ecumenicity. The pre- of God written on their hearts (Rom. 2:1415)
congress statement noted that there was greater does not refer as much to content as to function.
missionary strength in the IFMA-EFMA affilia- Paul argues that the Gentiles pagan laws func-
tion than in the WCC. Thus it was felt that the tioned better (by both accusing and excusing
time had come for this segment of the total mis- them) than Gods own law did in the hearts of the
sion force to clearly state its own convictions. Jews (who only used it to excuse themselves). Here
Among the papers that emerged from the con- we see that conscience is not focused on content
gress was the Wheaton Declaration. Initially (what the rules are) as much as it is application of
drafted by ARTHUR GLASSER, it was revised in sev- value judgments on actions and attitudes (how the
eral committees and finally adopted by the dele- rules are applied). Conscience merely monitors
gates. The declaration begins by affirming the the worldview that exists in our internal conversa-
need for certainty, commitment, discernment, tion (Meadors, 114). Conscience, in this sense,
hope, and confidence in the midst of the harden- acts as a moral restraint among all peoples, hin-
ing social, religious, and political climates of the dering a movement toward pure lawlessness, pre-
times. It confesses the failures of evangelical mis- venting cultures, peopled by sinful and selfish hu-
sions in the light of scriptural standards, and mans, from self-destructing. While the form and
presents an evangelical consensus on the author- means of functioning of conscience will vary with
ity of the Bible and the central concern of evan- the WORLDVIEW of the people, the fact of the pres-
gelism in mission. Finally, it addresses selected ence of a conscience is a universal human quality.
crucial issues of the day (the issues studied in the What is the source of conscience in humanity?
major papers). Sharing the IMAGE OF GOD, we are all born with
The Wheaton Congress garnered enough atten- the need and capacity to develop a sense of right
tion to merit the publication of the declaration in and wrong. All humans, through the process of
IRM, though there was relatively little impact in ENCULTURATION, are given the rules their con-
ecumenical circles. Even so, the Wheaton Con- sciences require to distinguish right and wrong,
gress stands as an important evangelical mile- albeit within the framework of their own cultural
stone in that it was one of the definitive steps that constructs. Conscience is thus a natural gift from
eventually resulted in the LAUSANNE MOVEMENT. God in all people and does not require a special
A. SCOTT MOREAU work of the Spirit to be operative. Being part of
the human makeup, it can be studied in its per-
Bibliography. H. Lindsell, ed., The Churchs World- sonal, familial, and cultural contexts.
wide Mission. The conscience has the function of producing
GUILT or SHAME when we have violated cultural
Conscience. A term traditionally understood to norms. Though an oversimplification, it is not in-
refer to the part of a person which distinguishes appropriate to say that in an individualistic set-
right and wrong. Paul wrote about the reality of ting, guilt tends to be more operativethe con-
all humans having a conscience now accusing, science is internal, and produces guilt when one
now even defending them (Rom. 2:15). The Old violates a norm whether or not others know what
Testament has no specific references to con- has been done. In a collective setting, shame is
science. However, the foundation of the concept more operativeone shames the group and self
lies in Gods knowing judgment of our actions through transgressions of group norms.
and the consequent responsibility of the follower While no culture corresponds uniformly to
of God to be able to evaluate his or her actions Gods kingdom values, every culture has vestiges
and attitudes (e.g., 1 Sam. 24:5; 2 Sam. 24:10; Job of those values embedded within the rules, mores,
27:6; Jer. 17:910). While in the Old Testament and laws it maintains (see also ETHICS). Human
conscience is seen more in the collective context beings are not born with the values of God already
223
Conscience
in their hearts; they are born with a need for such Bibliography. B. Adeney, Strange Virtues: Ethics in a
values and the capacity to grow in appreciating Multi-Cultural World; M. Despland, ER, 4:4552; G. T.
them. As they grow, they are taught elements of Meadors, EDT, pp. 11315; R. J. Priest, Missiology 22:3
(July 1994): 291315.
Gods values, together with cultural rules and reg-
ulations (see also MORAL DEVELOPMENT). These be-
come the values which are applied by our con- Constantine. See CYRIL (826869).
sciences in evaluating our actions.
The concept of conscience appears in many of Consultation on the Church in Response to
the major religions of the world, but conscience Human Need. See WHEATON 83.
as an internal, universal human component ap-
pears to be unique to Christianity (Despland, 50). Consultation on the Relationship Between
During the early stages of the modern missionary Evangelism and Social Responsibility (CRESR
period, Christians observing other peoples and 82). CRESR 82 was a gathering of fifty evangel-
religions sometime disparaged them because of ists, mission leaders, theologians, and missiologists
the perceived lack of conformity to the Western at Reformed Bible College in Grand Rapids, Michi-
concept of an internal, individual conscience. gan, June 1926, 1982. It continued the debate
This was built on the assumption that the devel- within evangelical circles over the broadening of
opment of such a conscience conformed to the the traditional understanding of mission as evan-
biblical picture and was the hallmark of civiliza- gelism to include social responsibilities. There were
tion. Western missionaries tended to assume that five major sections in the discussion: (1) Church
their consciences were advanced beyond that of history and modern theology of salvation; (2) How
local peoples, who they felt had little if any sense broad is salvation in Scripture? (3) The kingdom in
of right and wrong. They took on themselves the relation to the church and the world; (4) History
task of teaching moral scruples, all too often im- and eschatology; and (5) Conclusions.
posing new cultural (rather than biblical) values Prompted by a shift in John Stotts thinking to
and belittling or trampling on local values in the include social responsibilities as an integral com-
process. ponent of mission between the BERLIN CONGRESS
(1966) and the LAUSANNE CONSULTATION (1974)
To understand the cultural forms of conscience
and Arthur Johnstons response to that shift in
is of critical importance in missionary work. It
The Battle for World Evangelism, the participants
carries implications for ELENCTICS (the conviction
at CRESR 82 also wrestled with the spectrum of
of sin) as well as cross-cultural ethics. When we
social responsibilities in which we might be in-
feel that another does not have a proper con- volved (from relief work to structural change).
science, we are tempted to develop one that The resulting consultation statement, Evangelism
matches ours. When we develop ethical systems, and Social Responsibility: An Evangelical Com-
they tend to blend our cultural values together mitment, has been well received over the years as
with biblical values, and may not make sense to an evangelical approach to the questions raised
our target population. In fact, in promulgating during the Consultation. While all agreed that
our ethical and moral systems rather than en- our Christian responsibilities include engage-
abling the development of contextualized ones ment in meeting social responsibilities, the ques-
based on the local cultures reading of the Word tion as to whether this is integral to mission was
of God, we develop a dependence mentality and not resolved to everyones satisfaction.
inhibit spiritual growth, as Robert Priest aptly A. SCOTT MOREAU
points out.
An approach to conscience which is biblical Bibliography. Consultation on the Relationship be-
tween Evangelism and Social Responsibility, Evange-
and culturally sensitive recognizes that (1) con- lism and Social Responsibility: An Evangelical Commit-
science is universal, (2) the indigenous con- ment; T. Sine, ed., The Church in Response to Human
science operates well, (3) it functions in its own Need; J. R. W. Stott, Transformation 1:1 (1984): 2122;
context and in light of indigenous values, and Trinity World Forum 8:2 (Winter 1983).
(4) part of the missionary task is not to attack
local value systems but to introduce people to the Consumerism. Consumerism is frequently asso-
Word of God in such a way that they can see for ciated with the movement sparked by Ralph
themselves Gods view of their culture through Nader aimed to inform and protect consumers.
the eyes of Scripture. It is built on trust that God The term is also used as a rough synonym for
is at work in any people who call on his name; American-style capitalism and materialism. Mod-
and that when they enter into a covenant rela- ern marketing, with its focus on consumers
tionship with him he is committed to enabling needs and the development of sophisticated ad-
their growth as a body of believers into the like- vertising techniques, has had a powerful impact
ness of Jesus (Eph. 4:716). on peoples purchasing patterns. The segmenta-
A. SCOTT MOREAU tion of markets into smaller units has enabled
224
Contextualization
companies to achieve greater distribution of their Contextualization. The term contextualization

products. Consumerism is also an American ex- first appeared in 1972 in a publication of the
port to many other parts of the world, where Theological Education Fund entitled Ministry in
marketing fosters the transition to capitalist, con- Context. This document laid out the principles
sumption-oriented economies. This phenomenon which would govern the distribution of funds for
frequently submerges local traditional beliefs and the Third Mandate of the TEF. The scholarships
customs in favor of American popular culture. were awarded for the graduate education of
Both marketing and consumerism are elements scholars in the international church. Contextual-
of a capitalist, materialistic system that is largely ization was described as the capacity to respond
humanistic and devoid of ethical or spiritual val- meaningfully to the gospel within the framework
ues. American popular culture, including televi- of ones own situation. A precedent for the new
sion, clothing fashions, movies, fast food, sports, term, contextual theology, resulted from a con-
and music, is thoroughly materialistic and consultation held in Bossey, Switzerland, in August
sumption-oriented. The spirit of consumerism 1971. The Ecumenical Institute of the WORLD
leads people to tie their identity and status to their COUNCIL OF CHURCHES had sponsored that earlier
spending. Moreover, the American economy is con- discussion under the theme Dogmatic or Con-
sumption-driven to the extent that any significant textual Theology.
decreases in spending would result in an immedi- The lament behind the Third Mandate of the
ate recession. In contrast to this materialistic TEF was that both the approach and content of
mind-set, Jesus taught that ones life does not con- theological reflection tend to move within the
sist of the multitude of ones possessions, caution- framework of Western questions and cultural
ing people against greed that causes them to accu- presuppositions, failing to vigorously address the
gospel of Jesus Christ to the particular situation.
mulate material possessions they cannot take with
Further, it was declared that Contextualization
them when they die (Luke 12:1521). Their treas-
is not simply a fad or catch-word but a theologi-
ure should be where their heart is (Matt. 6:21 par.
cal necessity demanded by the incarnational na-
Luke 12:34). Jesus expected his followers to be pre-
ture of the Word.
pared to renounce all their possessions, to give gen-
While the document had a limited purpose, the
erously to others (Matt. 19:21; Luke 14:33; 19:8), implications coming from it resulted in a move-
and to consider their belongings as resources enment which has had an impact on the theory and
trusted to them by God to further his kingdom practice of mission. The contextualization con-
(Matt. 24:4551; 25:1430; Luke 12:4148; 16:113, cept was a timely innovation. New nations were
1925). Paul, likewise, preached modesty and con- struggling for their own life. The mission enter-
tentment (Phil. 4:1013; 1 Tim. 6:78). prise needed new symbols to mark a needed sep-
Generally, consumerism has led to greater per- aration from the colonialistic, Western-domi-
sonal debt (see DEBT) and thus decreased mis- nated past (see COLONIALISM).
sionary giving and deployment in recent years. As There is no single or broadly accepted defini-
people are enculturated from childhood to expect tion of contextualization. The goal of contextual-
a high level of physical comfort, they are more ization perhaps best defines what it is. That goal
likely to give priority to meeting their own life- is to enable, insofar as it is humanly possible, an
style needs than to sacrificing a substantial por- understanding of what it means that Jesus Christ,
tion of their income for the cause of world evan- the Word, is authentically experienced in each
gelization. In response to changing patterns of and every human situation. Contextualization
giving, some groups have begun to accentuate means that the Word must dwell among all fami-
single-project over long-term giving. The high lies of humankind today as truly as Jesus lived
cost of Western-style missions also raises the among his own kin. The gospel is Good News
issue of efficiency in the way modern mission is when it provides answers for a particular people
conducted. In order to stem the pervasive influ- living in a particular place at a particular time.
ence of materialistic values in contemporary This means the WORLDVIEW of that people pro-
Western culture, it seems imperative to return to vides a framework for communication, the ques-
a rhythm of life that seeks to balance work with tions and needs of that people are a guide to the
worship, prayer, rest, and time for relationships emphasis of the message, and the cultural gifts of
and to emulate the attitudes toward material pos- that people become the medium of expression.
sessions urged by Paul and Jesus. Contextualization in mission is the effort made
ANDREAS J. KSTENBERGER by a particular church to experience the gospel
for its own life in light of the Word of God. In the
SEE ALSO Economics. process of contextualization the church, through
Bibliography. J. Bonk, Missions and Money: Afflu- the Holy Spirit, continually challenges, incorpo-
ence as a Western Missionary Problem; R. S. Greenway, rates, and transforms elements of the culture in
EMQ 28 (1992): 2632; K. P. Yohannan, Why the World order to bring them under the lordship of Christ.
Waits: Exposing the Reality of Modern Missions. As believers in a particular place reflect upon the
225
Contextualization
Word through their own thoughts, employing as an appropriate theology for their context. The
their own cultural gifts, they are better able to direction this new theology took alarmed many
understand the gospel as incarnation. evangelicals.
The term contextualization is most com- LIBERATION THEOLOGY became almost as a
monly associated with theology, yet given the household word in the 1970s and 1980s. Evan-
above definition, it is proper to speak of contex- gelicals felt it demonstrated an inadequate use of
tualization in a variety of ways encompassing all the Bible and relied too heavily on a Marxist ori-
the dimensions of religious life. For example, entation. This was difficult for North American
church architecture, worship, preaching, systems conservatives to accept. Even before his book,
of church governance, symbols, and rituals are Ministry in Context, GUSTAVO GUTIRREZ had al-
all areas where the contextualization principle ready written his Theology of Liberation (1971).
applies. Context, on which the term is based, is Soon afterward J. MIGUEZ BONINO followed with
not narrowly understood as the artifacts and cus- Doing Theology in a Revolutionary Situation
toms of culture only, but embraces the differ- (1978). These major innovations opened up fur-
ences of human realities and experience. These ther thinking on contextualization. They followed
differences are related to cultural histories, soci- closely the volatile 1960s in the United States.
etal situations, economics, politics, and ideolo- Ideas about contextualization in the United
gies. In this sense contextualization applies as States first became associated with the contro-
much to the church at home, with all its varia- versial issues raised by the Vietnam War and
tions, as it does to the church overseas. American racism. Black Power, as advocated by
In mission practice the more visible aspects of James Cone (1969), had become a popular appli-
contextualization were closely related to older cation of what contextualization is.
terms such as ACCOMMODATION, ADAPTION, INCUL- Because of this ferment HERMENEUTICS quickly
TURATION, and INDIGENIZATION. Issues such as became the central point of contention among
forms of communication, language, music, styles evangelicals. The question was asked whether
of dress, and so on had long been associated with truth is derived primarily from human experi-
the so-called three-self missionary philosophy ence or from REVELATION. At first there was little
which was built around the principle of indige- consensus among evangelicals about the role of
nization. Indigeneity often was understood as CULTURE and social issues, especially in theology.
nativization, in that the visible cultural forms The contextualization debate made serious new
of a given people would be used in expressing thinking possible, especially with regard to cul-
Christianity. In going beyond these more superfi- ture and the way in which it connects to the bib-
cial expressions, the new term contextualiza- lical record.
tion tended to raise the fear of SYNCRETISM. This Throughout the 1970s the writing and discus-
would mean the old religion would become sion on contextualization began to clarify direc-
mixed in with the new biblical faith and that cul- tions that evangelicals should take. A Lausanne-
ture would have more authority than revelation. sponsored gathering at Willowbank (Bermuda)
Some felt, therefore, that the older concept of in- in 1978 adopted the theme Gospel and Culture.
digenization should not be changed but, rather, The conference took seriously the role of the cul-
broadened to cover more adequately the field of tural context of the believer as well as the bibli-
theology. cal text in defining evangelization and church
In addition to giving greater attention to the development. The late 1970s also saw the rise
deeper levels of culture, the new term contextu- (and demise) of the quarterly, The Gospel in Con-
alization became distinguished from indigeniza- text. The journals brief life demonstrated how
tion in other ways. Indigenization always implied creative and stimulating worldwide contextual-
a comparison with the West, whereas contextualization could be.
ization focuses on the resources available from The decade of the 1970s also brought remark-
within the context itself. Indigenization was able progress in finding ways to carry out con-
static while contextualization is dynamic, as a textualization. Each of the ways, or models, as
still photograph might be compared to a motion they are called, carries certain epistemological
picture. The older indigenization was more iso- assumptions, as well as philosophical ideas about
lated while contextualization, though locally con- truth. While the models each have their differ-
structed, interacts with global realities. ences, they also have several features that they
The fact that the early documents about con- share in common. Some are more centered on
textualization were formulated in offices related human experience while others show a greater
to the World Council of Churches also made the dependence on widely accepted teachings of the
concept difficult to accept in the nonconciliar cir- church and the Bible. Thus, the assumptions un-
cles. The heavy emphasis on justice and social dergirding some of these models make them less
development left little, it seemed, for evangelism acceptable to evangelicals. Variations exist within
and conversion. Scholars in Latin America were a given model and certain features of more than
among the earliest to write about what they saw one model may be combined. A brief review of
226
Contextualization
the models will show how diverse the approaches authentic believer without objective context and
to contextualization are. why is such Western sophistication necessary?
Adaptation model: One of the earliest ap- Translation model: Based on translation sci-
proaches was to make historical-theological con- ence, the nearest possible meanings of the origi-
cepts fit into each cultural situation. Traditional nal text are sought out in the receiving culture.
Western ideas are the norm. These are brought to Exact forms may not be possible, but expressions
the local culture. What is irrelevant may be set and forms that are equivalent are introduced. At-
aside and what must be modified can be tempts were made to identify the kernel or core
changed. The faulty assumption here is that there of the gospel which then would apply to all cul-
is one philosophical framework within which all tures. The problem of subjectivity in selecting
cultures can communicate, assuming that other forms is a risk, as is separating the Word from
forms of knowledge are not legitimate. what is culturally negotiable.
Anthropological model: The beginning point In contextualization, evangelicals have a valu-
is to study the people concerned. The key to com- able tool with which to work out the meanings of
munication and pathways to the human heart Scripture in the varieties of mission contexts and
and spirit lies in the culture. The assumption is in conversations with the churches of the Two-
that people know best their own culture; world- Thirds World. A built-in risk of contextualization
view themes, symbols, myths are repositories of is that the human situation and the culture of
truth for all people. While this is true, unless dis- peoples so dominate the inquiry that Gods reve-
cernment about a culture is brought to the Word
lation through the Bible will be diminished. To
for affirmation or judgment the contextualization
be aware of this danger is a necessary step in
exercise can become distorted and misleading.
avoiding it. Contextualization cannot take place
Critical model: The critical aspect of this ap-
unless Scripture is read and obeyed by believers.
proach centers on how features of traditional cul-
turerituals, songs, stories, customs, musicare This means that believers will study the Scrip-
brought under the scrutiny of biblical teaching. tures carefully and respond to their cultural con-
Here the culture and the Scriptures are evaluated cerns in light of what is in the biblical text. Cul-
concurrently in the search for new ways to ex- ture is subject to the God of culture. Culture is
press belief and practice. One must ask who will important to God and for all its good and bad
carry out the process, and how accurate are the factors, culture is the framework within which
meanings derived from both customs and the God works out Gods purposes. Some indications
Scripture. of the gospels presence in the soil may be evi-
Semiotic model: Semiotics is the science of dent, but Scripture is something that is outside
reading a culture through signs (see SYMBOL, and must be brought into the cultural setting to
SYMBOLISM). This comprehensive view of culture more fully understand what God is doing in cul-
interprets symbols, myths, and the like that re- ture, and to find parallels between the culture
veal the past as well as studying signs that indi- and the Bible.
cate how the culture is changing. These realities The strength of contextualization is that if
are compared with church tradition in a process properly carried out, it brings ordinary Christian
of opening up both the local culture and Chris- believers into what is often called the theological
tian practice. To master the complicated method process. Contextualization is not primarily the
would tend to separate an indigenous researcher work of professionals, though they are needed. It
from the people and the context. is making the gospel real to the untrained lay
Synthetic model: Synthesis involves bringing person and the rank-and-file believer. They are
together four components: the gospel, Christian the people who know what biblical faith must do
tradition, culture, and social change. These ele- if it is to meet everyday problems. The term in-
ments are discussed together using insights of- carnational theology is another way of speaking
fered by the local people. Also there must be a about contextualization (see INCARNATIONAL MIS-
recognition of sharing insights with outsiders. SION). This means that Christian truth is to be un-
Each contributes to the other, while each main- derstood by Christians in the pews and on the
tains its own distinctives. The openness and le- streets. The objective of contextualization is to
gitimacy given to all views would tend toward bring data from the whole of life to real people
ambiguity and a kind of universalism. and to search the Scriptures for a meaningful ap-
Transcendental model: This model does not plication of the Word which dwelt among us
concentrate on the impersonal aspect of theology, (John 1:14). The missiological significance for
that is, to prove something out there, but is pri- contextualization is that all nations must under-
marily concerned with what any truth means to stand the Word as clearly and as accurately as
the subject and to members of the subjects com- did Jesus own people in his day.
munity. Likewise revelation is understood as the DEAN GILLILAND
active perception or encounter with Gods truth.
Much criticism can be raised. How can one be an SEE ALSO Gospel and Culture.
227
Contextualization
Bibliography. S. B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Controversies in Contemporary Evangelical

Theology; D. S. Gilliland, The Word Among Us: Contex- Mission Theory. In spite of the clarity of New Tes-
tualizing Theology for Mission Today; D. J. Hesselgrave tament teaching concerning the world mission of
and E. Rommen, Contextualization: Meaning and the church, controversies have marked the mod-
Methods; W. A. Dyrness, Learning About Theology from ern missions movement from its inception. Of the
the Third World; R. J. Schreiter, Constructing Local
many that could be discussed, this essay describes
Theologies.
five significant controversies that currently have
the attention of evangelical missiologists.
Contingency Plans. As commercial and govern- Some missiological controversies relate di-
mental communities protect themselves against rectly to biblical revelation and the history of the
TERRORISM, the evangelical mission community church, while others are procedural in nature as
has become a preferred target for terrorist mission is carried out today. While in this article
threats, kidnapping, and extortion demands. we present opposing perspectives, it should be
Contingency planning is a process by which these recognized that they represent positions on spec-
potential risks are identified and prioritized as to trums of views rather than the only alternatives
possibility and consequence. It is a technical seen in evangelical missiology.
term asking the question, What if? and then an- The Destiny of the Lost. Literal View of HELL.
swering it. Those who hold to explicit faith in Jesus Christ as
The objectives of a good contingency plan in- Savior as necessary for salvation appeal to the
clude identifying mitigation steps, incorporating teaching of Scripture, such as Acts 4:12; Romans
applicable policy guidelines, exploring alterna- 10:13, 14; 1 John 5:11, 12; John 14:6, and the
tives, and evaluating consequences and risks. The general tenor of Christological teaching through-
process begins with a risk assessment and then out the Bible.
identification of any actions that can be taken be- The traditional position gives credence to pro-
fore the crisis occurs to reduce its probability or gressive revelation throughout both Old and New
the consequences. While God is sovereign, there Testaments as related to the redemptive mandate.
is a human responsibility for practices that con- This position gives strong urgency to the churchs
tribute to safety. world mission, since the destiny of humankind is
The purpose of an effective contingency plan is dependent on their explicit faith in Christ. The
to provide step-by-step guidelines for managing argument is that people are lost because they are
a crisis. The plan should always be based on the sinners, not because they have not heard the
worst-case scenario and be as thorough as cir- gospel.
cumstances allow. The wording and organization Four major reasons given for this position are:
of the plan should be user-friendly. It should in- (1) the universal sinfulness and lostness of all hu-
clude the information that needs to be obtained, mankind, (2) the necessity of Christs redemptive
notifications that need to be made, and actions work for salvation, (3) the necessity of personal
that need to be taken. faith in Christ, and (4) the necessity of hearing
In the mission community contingency plan- the gospel in order to be saved. James A. Borland
ning falls into two broad categories. The first is summarizes the position: To hold out the possi-
planning for individuals and families, which bility of any other way of salvation does not add
to Gods greatness but depreciates his Word and
should include action plans specific to the local
the work of the church through the ages. To
situation. These are normally developed in the
teach any other way of salvation for the heathen
field. The second is organizational planning that
diminishes missionary zeal and leaves the help-
is done in conjunction with the development of
less hopeless (p. 11).
corporate-wide policies. Policies are not contin- Alternate Views of Hell. A number of theolo-
gency plans but broad guidelines that define the gians have objected to the teaching of the eternal
organizations specific direction and apply to all damnation of the lost. At least three other posi-
members of the organization. tions currently vie for attention. The first of these
Good contingency planning allows for time to views, prevalent in the Roman Catholic Church,
assimilate information from a variety of sources; understands purgatory to be the state, place, or
to evaluate, in a controlled environment, the condition in the next world between heaven and
benefits and risks of various response plans; and hell where purifying suffering takes place. Pur-
to provide a foundation and structure for crisis gatory is understood to continue in existence
response. until the last judgment, at which time there will
ROBERT J. HORAN be only heaven and hell (Hayes, 1992, 93).
Bibliography. F. Fink, Crisis Management: Planning Second, the metaphorical position holds that
for the Inevitable; R. Klamser, EMQ 24:1 (1988): 3037; the Bible does not support a literal view of a
K. N. Myers, Total Contingency Planning for Disasters: burning abyss. Hellfire and brimstone are not lit-
Managing Risk . . . Minimizing Loss . . . Ensuring Busi- eral depictions of hells furnishings, but figurative
ness Continuity. expressions warning the wicked of impending
228
Controversies in Contemporary Evangelical Mission Theory
doom (Crockett, 1992, 44). Those who hold to taken up residence (ibid.). A counseling process
the metaphorical view believe in a real hell that is then put in place to encounter and cast out the
is a place of judgment, but that we do not know demon(s).
precisely what that punishment will be like Third Wave Theology. Since the mid-1970s the
(Crockett, 1992, 49). present-day controversy is heightened with the
The third view of hell in opposition to the lit- advent of what some have called the Third Wave
eral position is the conditional immortality, or of the Holy Spirit, a term used to refer to the rise
annihilationism (see ANNIHILATION). Again this is of non-Pentecostal evangelicals who feel that the
not a denial of the reality of hell or suffering in it. whole range of spiritual gifts is still available in
Clark H. Pinnock states that it is more scrip- the church. This is commonly associated with the
tural, theologically coherent, and practical to in- Signs and Wonders movement, though the latter
terpret the nature of hell as the destruction also includes Pentecostals and charismatics. Ad-
rather than the endless torture of the wicked. He herents hold the view that our work in ministry
holds that the ultimate result of rejecting God is is a type of power encounter between Christs and
self-destruction, closure with God, and absolute Satans kingdoms, which center in healings and
death in body, soul, and spirit (Pinnock, 137). exorcisms of demons.
Spiritual Warfare. SPIRITUAL WARFARE is a bib- The Church Growth Movement. Church growth
lical concept derived from the fall of humankind. concepts find their origin in the New Testament.
The battle was intensified by Christs first coming The last four decades have seen an explosion of in-
that brought into focus the reality of demoniza- terest in church growth thinking initiated by the
tion and demon-deliverance. Today there are two work and writings of DONALD MCGAVRAN in the
major views of spiritual warfare (see also POWER 1950s.
ENCOUNTER and TERRITORIAL SPIRITS). Definition of Church Growth. Church growth is
The Classic View. Those who take this position that discipline which seeks to understand,
rely on the teachings of the Word of God (Eph. through biblical, sociological, historical, and be-
6:1020), the power of God, and believing prayer. havioral study, why churches grow or decline.
No biblical evidence can be found that believers True church growth takes place when Great
can be demonized or have a demon, terms re- Commission disciples are added and are evi-
served in Scripture for the unregenerate. Victory denced by responsible church membership
in spiritual warfare for the believer centers on (Rainer, 1993, 21; see also CHURCH GROWTH MOVE-
claiming Christs past victory on the cross over MENT). This perspective on church growth theory
Satan and demons (Col. 2:15; Heb. 2:14; 1 John was developed by McGavran in his writings, prin-
3:8; Rev. 12:11), claiming the believers union with cipally in his best-known work, Understanding
Christ (Rom. 6:14; Gal. 2:20), claiming the be- Church Growth.
lievers position as believer priests (1 Peter 2:9), Advocates of Church Growth Theory. Support-
claiming the present work of the Holy Spirit (John ers of church growth theory hold the following
16:13; Eph. 5:18), winning back influence from tenets: (1) that numerical church growth is cru-
Satan (Eph. 4:27), putting on the whole armor of cial, (2) that the church should concentrate on
God (Eph. 6:1317), praying when we are under responsive peoples groups, (3) that people move-
pressure (Phil. 4:77), presenting our whole being ment conversions should be encouraged, and
to God (Rom. 6:1113), and resisting the devil for (4) that anthropological factors should be recog-
daily victory (James 4:7; 1 Peter 5:89). nized in determining a peoples responsiveness
The Demon-Deliverance View. This approach to (McQuilkin, 1974, 1966).
spiritual warfare features actively and directly Advocates point out three sources of church
casting out demons by Christians who have the growth, namely, biological growth (children born
appropriate gifts for this ministry. It has been de- to church members), transfer growth (people
scribed as the ekballistic mode of ministry or moving from one church to another), and con-
EMM (ekballom , meaning to cast out; Powlison, version growth (when a person commits to Christ
1995, 28). Those who hold to EMM say that as Savior and Lord).
Christians and non-Christians often require an Opposition to Church Growth Theory. While ex-
ekballistic encounter to cast out inhabiting pressing appreciation for the contributions of
demons that enslave us in sexual lust, anger, low church growth thinking, some opponents warn of
self-esteem, fascination with the occult, unbelief, its shortcomings. Opponents of church growth
and other ungodly patterns (ibid., 29). Adher- object to the priority assigned by church growth
ents of demon-deliverance ministry hold that to numerical growth, resulting in weak support of
non-Christians and Christians alike can be de- other goals in mission. Opponents also point to
monized and require the ministry of exorcism. the alleged ecclesio-centrism of church growth, its
Powlison states, In sum, ekballistic spiritual results-orientation, and its over-emphasis on pri-
warfare envisions the warfare of Christians as a oritizing so-called responsive groups.
battle against invading demons, either to repel Again, since church growth theory emphasizes
them at the gates or eject them after they have a church-centered theology, some have expressed
229
Controversies in Contemporary Evangelical Mission Theory
that the centrality of Christ is eclipsed. Christ- cational preparation for Western missionaries is
centered theology is foundational to the churchs too time consuming and cost prohibitive.
mission. Holistic Mission. Holism as it relates to
The flash point of opposition, however, centers Christian mission means that the churchs mis-
on the HOMOGENEOUS UNIT PRINCIPLE advocated sion in the world includes not only gospel procla-
by many church growth theorists. McGavran first mation but also sociopolitical, economic, and
made the observation that people like to become health dimensions. Those who hold this position
Christians without crossing racial, linguistic, or believe that mending social ills and alleviating
class barriers and that social dislocation should political injustices are integral to Christian mis-
be held to a minimum (McGavran, 1990, 163). sion (see HOLISTIC MISSION).
In application, some call for the development of The Holistic View of Mission. A growing num-
ethnic churches so as to minimize the amount of ber of evangelicals defend holistic mission. JOHN
social dislocation experienced by people coming R. W. STOTT articulated this position in his book,
to Christ. Wagner states that this principle has Christian Mission in the Modern World. Stott
become the most controversial of all church holds that John 20:21 is the basic statement of
growth principles because critics have inter- the Great Commission: As the Father has sent
preted it as classist or racist (ibid., x). Wagner me, I am sending you.
explains, however, that the homogenous unit In addition to this position on the GREAT COM-
principle is an attempt to respect the dignity of MISSION, Stott also champions the GREAT COM-
individuals and allow their decisions for Christ to MANDMENT, namely, Christs instruction to love
be religious rather than social decisions (ibid.). your neighbor as yourself. According to this
Western Support of Third World Missions. view, these two commands constitute the Christ-
Should sending money replace sending mission- ian mission in the world. Stott explains that if
aries from the West? Will sending money rather we love our neighbor as God made him, we must
than missionaries strengthen INDIGENOUS inevitably be concerned for his total welfare, the
CHURCHES? Does the spread of the gospel depend good of his soul, his body, and his community
on money? Will Western support enhance the (Stott, 1975, 30). Also according to this view, the
Christian mission should include a political di-
missionary spirit of national churches? What is
mension in an effort to bring about structural so-
the testimony of history to outside support of na-
cial change.
tional churches? Did Paul take financial support
This concept of mission describes . . . every-
to the churches he planted? Discussion flows pro
thing the church is sent into the world to do.
and con along both sides of these questions (see
Mission embraces the churchs double vocation
also FOREIGN FINANCING OF INDIGENOUS WORKERS).
of service to be the salt of the earth and the light
Proponents of Traditional Missionary Presence. of the world. For Christ sends his people into the
Those who defend the cross-cultural sending of earth to be its salt, and sends his people into the
Western missionaries rather than money hold the world to be its light (Matt. 5:1316) (ibid.,
following positions: (1) that it is a fallacy to as- 3031, emphasis his). In Stotts expression of this
sume that the spread of the gospel can be accom- view, evangelism and social action are considered
plished only with money, that is, the Great Com- equal partners in mission and mutually integral
mission should not be held captive to fund to each other (see also EVANGELISM AND SOCIAL RE-
raising; (2) that outside funds can create DEPEN- SPONSIBILITY).
DENCY in national churches; (3) that a mercenary The Traditional View of Mission. Those who op-
spirit among national leaders can be created by pose the concepts of holistic mission distinguish
too strong an influx of Western funds; (4) that between the CULTURAL MANDATE and the redemp-
employing national workers will not necessarily tive or evangelistic mandate in Scripture. The
lead to more effective ministry; (5) that sending traditional view holds that the cultural mandate
money instead of missionaries compromises the is addressed to people as persons (Gen. 1:28;
Great Commission. 2:15; 9:1, 7), while the redemptive mandate is ad-
Proponents of Western Monetary Support. Those dressed to those who become members of the
in favor of Western financial support of Third people of God. The cultural mandate is fulfilled
World missions, rather than sending missionar- by qualitative and quantitative improvement in
ies, advance their reasoning with the following culture; it is preservative in a fallen world; and it
propositions: (1) Western missionaries are too exis nonredemptive. The redemptive mandate is
pensive; (2) Western believers should multiply fulfilled by obedience in proclaiming the gospel
the effectiveness of their earnings at home by to a lost world; it offers hope to a fallen race; and
supporting national missionaries in their own it is redemptive and transformational.
countries; (3) Western missionaries spend too Some question the use of John 20:21 as the
much time and money on social ministries; basic statement of the Great Commission. They
(4) the presence of Western missionaries has a contend that this violates the hermeneutical prin-
negative effect in poverty-stricken areas; (5) edu- ciple of using the more complete and less ob-
230
Conversion
scure passages to understand the less complete but we must also persuade persons to repent and
and more obscure passages, in this case Matthew believe in the gospel. Evangelicals have rightfully
28:1928; Luke 24:47 (Hesselgrave, 1990, 3). Also, stressed the importance of faith as a key compo-
they argue that the sociopolitical action advo- nent of conversion but have generally minimized
cated by proponents of holistic mission is con- the importance of REPENTANCE.
trary to the examples of Christ and the early The call to repentance, however, echoes
church. Opponents to the holistic mission posi- throughout the New Testament. John the Baptist,
tion believe that using the so-called Great Com- Jesus, Peter, and Paul all include repentance in
mandment as a part of Christian mission is un- their preaching (Mark 1:4, 15; Acts 2:38; 3:19;
merited. Loving ones neighbor is the duty of the 20:21; 26:20). Moreover, the church is commis-
individual believer (Gal. 6:10) and not a part of sioned to preach repentance for forgiveness of
Christian mission as such (ibid., 4). sins . . . to all nations (Luke 24:47; cf. Acts
In summarizing this position of the twofold 17:30). Consequently, repentance is a crucial di-
mandate, Peters stated, Only the second man- mension of good missions practice. Perhaps one
date [the redemptive mandate] is considered mis- reason many ministries struggle with ongoing sin
sions in the strict biblical sense. The first man- in the church is because repentance is not an im-
date [the cultural mandate] is philanthropic and portant element in the original proclamation of
humanitarian service rendered by man to man the gospel. An initial, watered-down presentation
on the human level and as from members of the of the Good News will ultimately lead to bad
same family (Gal. 6:10, Luke 10:2527) (Peters, newsunhealthy churches and unholy people.
1972, 170). Therefore, we must call sinners to repentance.
PAUL A. BEALS Conversion is thus both the duty of the evangel-
ist and the demand of the sinner. This is the hu-
SEE ALSO The Missionary Task manward aspect of conversion.
Bibliography. J. A. Borland, JETS (March 1990): But there is also a deeper, more fundamental
311; D. Hesselgrave, EMQ 35:3 (1999): 27884; idem, aspect of conversion. While we call men and
Trinity World Forum, Spring (1990), pp. 17; T. Ice and women to repentance, only God can bring about
R. Dean, A Holy Rebellion: Strategy for Spiritual Warfare; conversion. We preach the gospel to people who
D. McGavran, Understanding Church Growth; J. R. Mc- are dead in their sins (Eph. 2:13). Because of
Quilkin, Measuring the Church Growth Movement;
this, Gods Spirit must bring people to life. This
B. Myers, EMQ 35:3 (1999): 28487; C. Ott, EMQ
(1993): 28691; C. Pinnock, A Wideness in Gods Mercy;
is the Godward dimension of conversion, known
R. Powlison, Power Encounter: Reclaiming Spiritual as regeneration (Titus 3:5) or more popularly
Warfare; T. Rainer, The Book of Church Growth: History, known as being born again (John 3:18).
Theology, and Principles; J. Sanders, ed., What About Hence, conversion is not just a duty or a demand.
Those Who Have Never Heard?; J. Stott, Christian Mis- It is a gifta supernatural and instantaneous
sion in the Modern World; J. Walvoord, W. Crockett, work of God.
Z. Hayes, and C. Pinnock, Four Views of Hell. The Godward and humanward dimensions of
conversion are both taught in the New Testa-
Conversion. The relationship between conver- ment. But the Godward work of Gods grace in
sion and mission is foundational to missiology, the human heart through the Holy Spirit is pri-
because the conversion of sinners is central to mary. As Peter says in his report to the church in
the fulfillment of the Great Commission. In one Jerusalem, God has granted even the Gentiles
sense, the goal of the missionconversionis repentance unto life (Acts 11:18). Lukes de-
simple. But understanding the process of conver- scription of Lydias conversion also underscores
sion is a complex missiological subject. We must the priority of Gods gracious initiative in conver-
analyze the concept of conversion from three sion: The Lord opened her heart to respond to
perspectives: the biblical, the psychological, and Pauls message (Acts 16:14).
the sociological. The Psychological Dimension of Conversion.
The Biblical Dimension of Conversion. Bibli- The psychological dimensions of conversion
cally, the term conversion centers around a must be understood if we are to communicate
number of words. Epistrephom (turn) and metanoia Christ effectively. The ENGEL SCALE describes a
(repentance) are two of the most frequently used step-by-step process whereby a person who
terms to describe conversion. The Bible speaks knows nothing about God is led to a true knowl-
about conversion as turning away from wicked- edge of God. Engel highlights the fact that con-
ness (2 Tim. 2:19) turning to God from idols version is a process, not simply a crisis. While it
(1 Thess. 1:9), or turning from darkness to light leads to an event, a climactic turning to Christ, it
and from the dominion of Satan to God (Acts also usually involves a gradual change in the
26:18). thinking of the person being converted.
This call to conversion is an important part of While not a major theme, the psychological di-
gospel proclamation. We not only preach the mension of conversion is nevertheless implicit in
Good News of Christs death and resurrection, the Gospels. The conversion of the apostles takes
231
Conversion
place gradually as they live and interact with will make us more sensitive to culture and more
Jesus. First they understand him as an authorita- fruitful in ministry.
tive teacher, one who casts out demons with a RICHARD D. LOVE
mere command (Mark 1:27). Next, they see him
as a healer, as one who has authority over sick- SEE ALSO Sociological Barriers.
ness (Mark 2:112). Then, they wrestle with the Bibliography. H. M. Conn, The Gospel and Islam, pp.
fact that he has authority over creation. Who is 97111; J. Engel and H. W. Norton, Whats Gone Wrong
this? Even the wind and the waves obey him! with the Harvest?; P. Hiebert, The Gospel in Context;
(Mark 4:41). Finally, after considerable time, C. B. Johnson and H. Newton Malony, Christian Con-
Peter makes his famous confession: You are the version: Biblical and Psychological Perspectives; D. Mc-
Gavran, Bridges of God.
Christ (Mark 8:29).
People repent and believe in the gospel after
hearing and understanding crucial truths about Conviction of Sin. See ELENCTICS.
God, sin, and salvation. While the essence of the
gospel is unchanging, we proclaim Christ in rad- Cook Islands (Est. 2000 pop.: 20,000; 236 sq. km.
ically different contexts (see CONTEXTUALIZATION). [91 sq. mi.]). The Cook Islands consist of fifteen
Because of this, certain dimensions of the gospel Pacific islands located between Samoa in the
are more relevant in particular contexts and the west and French Polynesia in the east. They are
process of conversion varies with the people divided into the northern atolls and the southern
being converted. Muslims must know different group. A self-governing state since 1965, its pop-
things about God than Hindus. A secular Ameri- ulation hold citizenship rights in New Zealand
can needs to understand different aspects of nearly 1,900 miles to the southwest. Some 70
truth than an African animist. Because of this, percent belong to the Cook Island Christian
we must study the people we are called to reach, Church (formerly the LMS), and 15 percent are
so that we can speak to their unique needs and Roman Catholics.
address their particular problems. ALLAN K. DAVIDSON
The Sociological Dimension of Conversion.
SEE ALSO Polynesia.
The sociological (or cultural) components of con-
version must be addressed. Western culture and Bibliography. Richard Gilson, The Cook Islands
evangelicals in general have viewed conversion in 18201950.
individual terms. But the Bible describes both in-
dividual and group conversions. The baptisms of Coppin, Fanny Jackson (18371913). American
extended households in the New Testament high- educator, missionary leader, and missionary in
light the more community-oriented nature of Africa. Born a slave in Washington, D.C., and
Greco-Roman culture (Acts 10:4448; 16:15, 34; purchased by an aunt who freed her, Coppin was
18:8). Similar to Greco-Roman culture, people in sent to New Bedford, Massachusetts. At the age
many cultures today do not make decisions as in- of fourteen, she found employment as a domes-
dividuals; they make decisions as groups. tic worker in Newport, Rhode Island. In 1865 she
Therefore, as Harvie Conn wisely concludes, graduated from Oberlin College, at that time the
we must continue to stress the necessity for a only college to accept African American women.
personal relationship to Christ as an essential From 1865 until 1902 she worked at the Institute
part of conversion. But it must also be recog- for Colored Youth in Philadelphia, initially as a
nized that in the worlds cultures such personal teacher and later as principal. During this time
relationships are entered into not always by iso- she developed a reputation as a respected teacher
lated individual decisions in abstraction from and lecturer.
the group but more frequently, in multi-personal, Coppin was also active in missionary promo-
infra-group judgments. Personal cannot be tion. As president of the Womens Home and
equated with individual (Conn, 1979, 1034). Foreign Missionary Society of the AME Church
Missiologically this means that it is often wise (188392), she traveled to England to represent
to evangelize people in groups, in their natural the society and address the assembly at the CEN-
social networks rather than as individuals. We TENARY CONFERENCE ON THE PROTESTANT MISSIONS
should target families and friends in our evangel- OF THE WORLD (LONDON MISSIONARY CONFERENCE,
ism. Whenever possible, our goal should be on 1888).
reaching groups, that will lead ultimately to the It was not until 1902, after thirty-seven years in
establishment of new churches. education, that Coppin received her opportunity
This is especially important among unreached for overseas missionary service when her hus-
peoples where the conversion of an isolated indi- band, Levi J. Coppin, was assigned to South
vidual can lead to severe social ostracizing or Africa as a bishop of the AME Church. Together
even death in some cases. Understanding this so- he and Fanny served the region of southern
ciological (or cultural) dimension of conversion Africa until 1904, traveling as far as Bulawayo in
232
Corruption
their responsibilities. Throughout their stay, Fan- tion serves the interests of the rich and powerful
nie promoted the education and development of and disadvantages the poor for whom the Bible
women in Africa as she had done in the United declares God has a special concern. Second, it
States. breeds inefficiency. Where services are only ren-
After their return to Philadelphia in 1904, she dered after the payment of bribes or business can
devoted her remaining years to writing and pro- only be transacted with under the table pay-
moting missionary work by African Americans in ments, time is wasted, bureaucracies proliferate,
Africa. and costs escalate. Third, money gained by cor-
A. SCOTT MOREAU rupt means is not taxed, is often spent on osten-
tatious luxury items, may finance criminal activ-
Bibliography. F. J. Coppin, Reminiscences of School
Life, and Hints on Teaching; S. M. Jacobs, Women in ities, or may be diverted into foreign bank
New Worlds, 2:26880. accounts. The proceeds of corruption seldom
serve national interests or the social good and
often work directly against them.
Coppock, Grace Lydia (18821921). American
The Bible contains ten Hebrew words and nine
YWCA missionary in China. From the small farm-
Greek words and their derivatives in eighty refer-
ing community of Superior, Nebraska, Coppock
ences to describe corruption. Some refer specifi-
felt called by God to foreign missions during her
cally to decay of the body, usually after death,
last year at University of Nebraska. In October of
others to breaking Gods Law (Neh. 1:7) and lack
1906 she sailed for Shanghai to work with the
of social morality. In Genesis 6:11, 12, God sends
YWCA. From the very beginning, Coppock sought
the flood because, from his viewpoint, all were
to train nationals to lead the YWCA; she refused
corrupt or corrupted. In the Sermon on the
to begin work until a Chinese associate was found
Mount Jesus asserts that on earth a corrupt tree
for her. Coppock was appointed General Secre-
(person) cannot produce good fruit and moth
tary in 1913. By 1914, the Chinese YWCA Board
and rust corrupt earthly treasures (Matt. 6:19,
of Directors consisted entirely of Chinese women
who accepted full responsibility for the organiza- 43). God looks for an uncorrupted heart (1 Peter
tion, including finances. This was a time of politi- 3:4) and promises a time and kingdom, inaugu-
cal turmoil in China with famines and a revolu- rated by the resurrection, when there will be no
tion that ended Imperial rule in China. Along with more corruption of any kind (Matt. 6:20; 1 Cor.
political revolution came social revolution, par- 15:53, 54).
ticularly for women. National Association women Democracies are based on the utilitarian prin-
were already speaking out against the practices of ciple of the greatest good for the greatest num-
footbinding and the use of opium; Coppock also ber. Corruption and BRIBERY, motivated by greed
opposed these practices. Coppock was committed and self-interest, are a clear violation of this prin-
to a social gospel; just prior to her death in Octo- ciple. The dilemma faced in many underdevel-
ber of 1921, she deviated from usual YWCA work oped countries is that official wages are low, so
with university students to institute industrial government and private employees seek to sup-
programs in response to the emerging needs of plement their incomes. Honest means, even if
women in industry. Two years after Coppocks difficult, do exist, however, and corruption is not
death, the first Chinese General Secretary of the only option. The compounding issue is that
YWCA was appointed to replace her. the individual has little power to change systemic
GRACE L. KLEIN
corruption.
Missions face corruption in several ways. Some
Bibliography. M. C. Ponto, The Search for Grace in take an absolute stand and refuse to pay bribes of
China. any kind. The cost can be long delays and extra
expense waiting for services. Others engage local
Corruption. In 1996 a new ranking of all the agents to handle business where bribes are de-
countries of the world was produced by the manded and serve to pay the often unitemized or
United Nations Organization based on how cor- vaguely worded bill. In some cases mission per-
rupt their economies were. New Zealand achieved sonnel may accept or benefit from corruption.
the honor of being the most transparent economy The case for an absolutist stance is based on
in the world. In most countries corruption was the need for the means of mission to be consis-
considered to be a major problem, hindering eco- tent with the ends of mission. Maintenance of
nomic progress and slowing the move toward the personal integrity and avoidance of compromise
globalization of trade. Most mission activity takes create opportunities for the God of justice to
place in the context of corrupt economic and po- show his grace and power.
litical systems, which poses an ethical challenge ROB BELLINGHAM
to the presentation of the gospel and the expres-
sion of kingdom lifestyles. SEE ALSO Ethics.
There are three key reasons why corruption Bibliography. B. T. Adeney, Strange Virtues: Ethics in
must be challenged and reduced. First, corrup- a Multicultural World.
233
Cosmology
Cosmology. A term reserved primarily for the Many of the churches established by evangel-
scientific study of the universe considered as a icals were of an independent and foreign nature.
whole. Metaphysics is concerned with studies Fired with a desire to evangelize, missionaries
into the basic kinds of things and properties that involved with these endeavors invested heavily
make up the entire cosmos. Traditionally, meta- in support of pastors and auxiliary programs,
physics is subdivided into two branches: ontology but few traces of their efforts remain. Though
and cosmology. Ontology deals with questions fifty mission boards established some sense of
about the ultimate nature of things: whether a presence in Costa Rica, by 1960, the number of
thing is one or many, or of what kind. Cosmology communicant members numbered only a few
considers how the world is organized, and is also thousand.
related to the specific view of images concerning As in many other Latin American countries,
the universe held in a religion or cultural tradi- the emergence of Pentecostalism dramatically
tion. It is in this latter usage that cosmology is re- changed the religious landscape. From extremely
lated to religious BELIEF SYSTEMS. Christian an- humble beginnings prior to World War II, its
thropologists are concerned with cosmological rapid growthexceeding any correlation to the
issues both in the area of WORLDVIEW and reli- resources of the sending agenciesclearly indi-
gious belief systems. From this perspective cated that the new groups were essentially of a
worldview is understood as the term for a more grassroots nature. Pentecostalism is character-
general, less precisely delineated, set of ideas ized not only by specific beliefs and practices
concerning life and the world. Cosmology refers (glossolalia and faith healing), but by essentially
to more conscious images, doctrines, and views popular, self-sustaining churches. These churches
have nationally directed administrative systems
concerning the universe. In religious belief sys-
with legal constitutions, elected executive offi-
tems, the most common source of cosmology is
cers, and salaried members who oversee the op-
in the MYTHS of creation and the origin of the
eration and expansion of specialized educational
universe. SYMBOLISM and myths depict cosmology
and mission programs for women, youth, and
in the world of people, and nearly always imply
children. These national organizations are sup-
an ethical concern. The behavior required of peo- porting a myriad of personnel in a variety of mis-
ple in religious cosmologies is often described or sionary projects both within and beyond Latin
implied in the account of the worlds structure. America. Further, these groups, in large measure
An understanding of the cosmology implicit in having emerged from the marginalized sectors of
a particular worldview can be of great benefit to society (though recently they have encompassed
the missionary attempting to communicate the all economic segments of the country), have from
gospel to those within that worldview. the beginning implemented an impressive social
NORMAN E. ALLISON policy. With their emphasis on freedom of ex-
SEE ALSO Religious Ultimacy. pression in worship and affirmation of the indi-
viduals worth within the community, Pente-
Bibliography. M. Eliade, Myth and Reality. costals have easily adapted to Costa Ricas variety
of cultures and social classes.
Costa Rica (Est. 2000 pop.: 3,798,000; 51,100 sq. La Federacin Alianza Evanglica (the Evangeli-
km. [19,730 sq. mi.]). A Central American repub- cal Fellowship of Churches) lists 100 different or-
lic, Costa Rica, which is Iberian in heritage, has ganized church bodies among its membership.
enjoyed a long history of democratic govern- Research estimates 2,640 evangelical congrega-
ment. Evangelicalism began slowly in this traditions, a community of 396,000 people constituting
tionally Catholic nation, but in recent years has 12 percent of the population. If the evangelical
flourished at an astonishing rate. presence in Costa Rica is in some sense assured,
Protestant groups established themselves in it is also precarious. Unable to gather a large fol-
Costa Rica first by migration in the nineteenth lowing several decades ago, evangelicals must
century and only later by denominational and now demonstrate continuing leadership in resolv-
FAITH MISSIONS. Many of the first groups had lit- ing severe human problems. Only appropriate
tle interest in PROSELYTISM, focusing instead on and effective application of their energies and re-
the maintenance of their own religious commu- sources can sustain the dynamic structure forged
nities. Protestant missionaries intent on evangel- when they moved into the leadership vacuum.
ism did not arrive in Costa Rica until 1891. In DOUG PETERSEN
1894 a Baptist church was established in Puerto Bibliography. P. Johnstone, OW; D. Petersen, Not by
Limn, and Methodists and Anglicans had or- Might Nor by Fire: A Pentecostal Theology of Social
ganized churches in Costa Rica by 1894 and 1896 Concern.
respectively. The early Protestant missionaries in
Costa Rica, as in most of Latin America, basically Costas, Orlando E. (194287). Puerto Rican
targeted the lower middle class in urban settings. churchman, missiologist, and missionary to
234
Council for World Mission (CWM; formerly The London Missionary Society)
Costa Rica. Converted at the 1969 Billy Graham in terms of religious preference is guaranteed by
Crusade in New York City, Costas obtained his the Constitution. The first missionary visits were
doctorate in missiology under JOHANNES VERKUYL made by French Catholics in 1637, though they
at the Free University of Amsterdam. did not stay very long due to difficult circum-
Ordained by the American Baptist Convention, stances. It was not until 1843 that missionaries
Costas pastored congregations in Puerto Rico returned to Cte dIvoire. Not until the turn of
and Milwaukee prior to missionary service, first the twentieth century was the gospel proclaimed
with the Latin America Mission, and later with there with any consistency.
the United Church Board for World Ministries. WILLIAM HARRIS of Liberia, known as the black
Assigned to Costa Rica, he served with the Insti- prophet, felt called of God to preach along the
tute of In-Depth Evangelization and the Latin west coast of Africa, moving from the Gold Coast
American Biblical Seminary. He founded and di- (presently Ghana) to Cte dIvoire in the early
rected the Latin American Evangelical Center for twentieth century. People burned their fetishes
Pastoral Studies, and promoted the Latin Ameri- and were baptized in the name of the Trinity as
can Theological Fraternity. He returned to the Prophet Harris, as he was known, exhorted his
United States in 1979 to Eastern Baptist Theo- followers to believe the message of those who
logical Seminary. In 1984, he moved to Andover would be coming with the black Book. The
Newton Theological Seminary, occupying the Harris (or Harrist) Church Movement resulted
Adoniram Judson Chair of Missiology. from his ministry and many of his followers were
Active in denominational life and ecumenical found worshiping in Methodist churches on the
circles, Costas made significant contributions to coast and later in Christian and Missionary Al-
missiological literature. He wrote over a hundred liance churches in the interior (Baouk).
books and articles and contributed to more than Many evangelical groups that entered the
thirty volumes edited by others. A radical evan- country in the 1920s and 1930s profited from the
gelical, Costas advocated a holistic gospel of the preaching of Prophet Harris. The Assemblies of
kingdom, yet emphasized the unique role of the God, Mission Biblique, and World Evangelism
church. Although he moved beyond the sepa- Crusade entered the country during these
ratist fundamentalism of his youth, Costas re- decades followed by a host of other missions,
tained his evangelical identity as he interacted ex- many of them after 1960.
tensively with conciliar and liberation theologies. Most evangelical agencies have witnessed a
KEN MULHOLLAND positive response to the gospel though much of
this response was found among animistic and
Bibliography. O. E. Costas, The Church and Its Mis-
non-Muslim peoples. Two major trends have
sion: A Shattering Critique from the Third World; idem,
The Integrity of Mission; idem, Christ Outside the Gate: dominated the past decade: the evangelization of
Mission beyond Christendom; idem, Liberating News: A the major cities of Abidjan, Yamossoukro, and
Theology of Contextual Evangelization. Bouak, where churches and mission agencies
are seeking converts among Muslims using med-
Cte dIvoire (Ivory Coast) (Est. 2000 pop.: ical, educational, traditional, and nontraditional
16,761,000; 322,463 sq. km. [124,503 sq. mi.]). ministries; and efforts to reach UNREACHED PEO-
PLES in Cte dIvoire and beyond. The use of
Situated on the southern shore of the great
African bulge, the Republic of Cte dIvoire, West friendship evangelism, videotapes, drama, book-
Africa (popularly known as Ivory Coast in the stores/literature, cell groups, THEOLOGICAL EDUCA-
TION BY EXTENSION, MASS EVANGELISM, broadcast
United States) boasts a population of more than
16 million inhabitants. media, SIGNS AND WONDERS, and the JESUS FILM
The rain forests that once blanketed the coun- are some of the means and methods being used
try exist today only in the southern third of the to proclaim Christ.
republic. Much of the country, particularly in the DAVID P. HARVEY
north, is made up of savanna grasslands. More Bibliography. N. O. King, Christian and Muslim in
than sixty ethnic groups populate Cte dIvoire, West Africa; G. M. Haliburton, The Prophet Harris; W. J.
with the Baoul tribe being the largest people Platt, An African Prophet: The Ivory Coast and What
group and Dioula the most widely spoken lan- Came of It.
guage. French is the official language.
Followers of indigenous religions make up 25 Council for World Mission (CWM; formerly
percent of the population. Those calling them- The London Missionary Society). The Origin.
selves Christian now number more than 12 per- The modern missionary movement in Britain
cent, while the Muslim population is now had its foundations in the evangelical revival
placed at approximately 60 percent of the coun- of the late eighteenth century. A group of Chris-
trys inhabitants. tians met in Bakers Coffee House in central
The countrys president maintains an open phi- London, and with prayer and planning decided
losophy in regard to religion. Freedom of choice to form a missionary society to spread the
235
Council for World Mission (CWM; formerly The London Missionary Society)
knowledge of Christ among heathen and other to new territories within the same continent.
unenlightened nations. Thus, in 1795 one of For example, Tahitians and Samoans were used
the pioneering societies, the Missionary Society to spread the gospel in Tuvalu, Papua New
was born. In 1818 it was renamed London Mis- Guinea, and other islands. It adopted at an early
sionary Society (LMS) as numerous missionary stage the principle of the THREE-SELF FORMULA:
societies had come into existence. While the self-supporting, self-governing, and self-extend-
BMS (1792) and many other societies were ing (self-propagating). As early as 1915, local
formed strictly on a denominational basis, the churches in Samoa were paying the salary of all
LMS was founded on a nondenominational white missionaries working in Samoa as well as
principle. It was created, led, and supported by contributing to the central funds of the LMS.
the Episcopalians, Methodists, Presbyterians, The LMS encouraged women and lay persons to
and Independents (Congregationalists). be missionaries. The LMS reviewed its mission
Mission Expansion. The LMS expanded its at five-year intervals, which later helped it to
mission in the South Pacific, southern Africa, adapt to new changes. Christian missions gen-
Asia, and the Caribbean. The mission attempts of erally worked closely with colonial, imperial,
the first twenty-five years include many places and commercial authorities. However, there is
such as France, the United States, Canada, Rus- some evidence to show that the LMS missionar-
sia, Malta and Greek Islands, Mongolia, China, ies in many cases stood against them.
North and South India, Ceylon, Jamaica, Guyana, Mission in Partnership. Under the influence
Tobago, Trinidad, Java, Amboya, Malacca, Singa- of the ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT in the twentieth
pore, Madagascar, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, century, the LMS went through major changes in
Cook and Gilbert Islands. The first batch of thirty 1966 and again in 1977. The society became a
missionaries was sent to Tahiti in 1796. The first council of churches that were engaged in mission
missionaries to India arrived in Tranquabar soon as mission was perceived to be the responsibility
after the new Charter of 1813 permitted mission- of the whole church and not of mission enthusi-
aries to enter the British territories. WILLIAM MOR- asts alone. In 1966, it merged with the Common
RIS was the founding missionary of the LMS mis- Wealth Missionary Society, and became the Con-
sion in China. The well known church historian gregational Council for the World Mission
K. S. LATOURETTE also worked for LMS in China. (CCWM). The formation of the United Reform
Famous names like DAVID LIVINGSTONE and Church in the United Kingdom (1972) brought
ROBERT MOFFATT are linked with the LMS mission the overseas work of the Presbyterians into the
in southern Africa. The LMS enjoyed a high pro- fold of the LMS/CCWM. The radical shift came in
file in Britain and overseas for a long time. How- 1977, when the old LMS/CCWM was trans-
ever, after a hundred years of activity, the work formed and the new Council for World Mission
slowed down and decreased due to many factors (CWM) was inaugurated. The old divisions of
such as lack of personnel, lack of funds, and the younger and older, donor and recipient, North
changing political context in the world. and South, constituent and partner churches dis-
Principles and Characteristics. The LMS, appeared. The CWM consists of thirty-two
from its origin, had two principles at heart, the churches across Asia, southern Africa, the
Nondenominational and the Fundamental Princi- Caribbean, Europe, and the Pacific. All member
ples. Over the years various denominations cre- churches are represented on the Council as equal
ated their own missionary societies and the LMS partners and participate in decision making at all
was left to be supported by the Independent levels. All assets of the CWM are owned by all. All
(Congregational) churches. However, the LMS
partners together share responsibilities of the
constitutionally remained a nondenominational
mission work of the Council. The CWM believes
society. The fundamental principle stated that
in mutual sharing, support, and challenge to en-
its [LMS] design is not to send Presbyterianism,
able all to participate in Gods mission.
Independency, Episcopacy, or any form of
ANDREW PRASAD
Church Order and Government . . . but the glori-
ous Gospel of the blessed God, to the Heathen; Bibliography. N. Goodall, A History of the London
and that it shall be left . . . to the minds of the Missionary Society, 18951945; R. Lovett, The History of
persons whom God may call . . . to assume for the London Missionary Society, 17951895; B. Thoro-
themselves such form of Church Government as good (ed.), Gales of Changes, Responding to a Shifting
to them shall appear most agreeable to the Word Missionary Context. The Story of the London Missionary
Society 19451977.
of God. The LMS had recognized the impor-
tance of ecumenism and CONTEXTUALIZATION from
its early days. Counseling, Cross-Cultural. See CROSS-CULTURAL
Other characteristics of the society were that COUNSELING.
it tended to pioneer the mission work in new
territories. It developed indigenous leadership Counseling of Missionaries. Deliberate and in-
to be sent as missionary preachers and teachers tentional investment of resources by mission
236
Counseling of Missionaries
agencies, churches, and other mission organiza- solved before going to the field, the less the po-
tions for the nurture and development of mis- tential harm to the missionaries and families
sionary personnel comprises the essence of the themselves, their mission board, their supporters
facet of missions known as MEMBER CARE. One and home church, and their co-workersboth
vital aspect of member care is counseling of mis- expatriates and nationals.
sionaries and their families during the prefield, On-Field. Generally, counseling on the mission
on-field, and postfield stages of missionary life. field will look much like counseling anywhere,
Counseling may provide the missionary an av- especially in terms of the kinds of struggles that
enue of growth in areas important for effective people have. In particular, missionaries are not
CROSS-CULTURAL MINISTRY: working well with oth- immune to guilt, depression, grief, anger, moral
ers; giving and receiving forgiveness; trusting failure, and crises. Two special challenges on the
God in the face of disappointment and the ongo- field are separation and trauma.
ing presence of human pain; seeking accounta- The pain, grief, and anxiety that accompany
bility and personal growth; and availing oneself separation from important people, places, and
of supportive resources as needed. These crucial things are not uncommon to human experience.
areas of competence are developed and played- Understandably, missionaries and their children
out within the entire family unit. Awareness of are particularly vulnerable to separation and its
how one family member affects all other family accompanying anxiety and fear. Although all the
members is critical in understanding and helping incidences of mobility and transition of mission-
any family; however, it may be more so in the ary life (home assignments, new assignments,
missionary family. Unlike many types of life- etc.) involve separation, one of the most signifi-
work, missions inevitably involve all of the fam- cant experiences occurs when the children of mis-
ily, even if just one or both of the parents are the sionaries go to boarding schools. The manner in
identified missionaries (see also FAMILY LIFE OF which separation is handled by families, boarding
THE MISSIONARY). school personnel, and mission administrators will
Most counseling with missionaries and their make a pivotal impact on the child and the fam-
families is apt to be primarily short-term, and fo- ilys ability to minister effectively. Counselors at
cused on prevention or resolution of problems. MK schools can be of invaluable assistance to
As such, counseling within missions takes on families who are negotiating significant transi-
many forms, including seminary and retreat tions several times a year as children leave home
speakers, itinerant mission pastors and coun- and return to school (see also MISSION SCHOOLS).
selors, crisis teams, counselors-in-residence at Pain, grief, and anxiety also accompany trauma,
MK schools, and help offered at on-field counsel- which is almost a given for missionary life. The
ing centers. impact of trauma can go very deep, be very far-
Many of the challenges and struggles through- reaching, and last for a long time. When this im-
out the life stages of missionaries and their fami- pact is misunderstood and mismanaged, the per-
lies are not unique. However, there are aspects of son may be further harmed by ignoring the
counseling that are unique to missionaries dur- significance of the trauma or by attempting to deal
ing the prefield, on-field, and postfield stages of with the pain and sadness in a destructive manner.
their lives. Increasingly mission boards are establishing, en-
Prefield. Mission boards common use of coun- abling, and training crisis teams that can reach the
selors and psychological assessment tools to pro- victims within the crucial twenty-four to seventy-
vide feedback regarding a candidates strengths two-hour window after the traumatic event. Effec-
and potential problem areas (see CANDIDATE SE- tive debriefing involves discussions of the trau-
LECTION) can determine the prognosis for success matic events covering the facts of the crisis, the
in a cross-cultural situation and provide a basis thoughts and emotional reactions to it, and the
for matching personnel to field placements and symptoms experienced during and after the event.
job assignments. Placing individuals in an envi- Postfield. Two interrelated aspects of postfield
ronment in which they are apt to function well, life that are likely to be difficult for missionaries
or avoiding placement in situations that are likely and their families are reacculturation and retire-
to induce overwhelming distress both within the ment. When missionaries return to their sending
missionary and between the missionary and oth- countries, they are likely to grieve over the loss of
ers is good stewardship. the meaningfulness they had experienced in their
A good rule-of-thumb to follow in deciding work as missionaries and to experience stress as
missionary placement is the best predictor of fu- they adjust to a culture that was anticipated to be
ture behavior is past behavior. Issues that are familiar. Often missionary families experience a
troubling for missionaries in their home culture decline in family cohesiveness and greater emo-
will not only continue to be troubling in their tional dependence of the husband on the wife.
new culture, but are likely to be exacerbated due Tension is apt to be present between children and
to the added stresses of transition and cross- parents due to adjustments to new roles and ex-
cultural living. The more the struggles can be re- pectations. A growing number of missionary re-
237
Counseling of Missionaries
treat centers are offering counseling, often in an ciscans and Dominicans. After a period of intense
educational format, for those going through this spiritual conflict, Loyola formed the nucleus of
transition (see also REVERSE CULTURE SHOCK). the Society of Jesus at the University of Paris in
Sometimes counseling may be required as a 1534, and the order was officially recognized by
condition for a missionarys return to the field, or Rome in 1540. They took vows to obey the pope
may aid the missionary in moving on to mean- for the good of souls and the propagation of the
ingful work and ministry in the sending country. faith in whatever countries he might send them.
Counselors affiliated with the mission may pro- By 1556 they had one thousand members.
vide better help to the troubled member; however, The greatest of their early missionaries, FRAN-
in the case where the difficulty arose between the CIS XAVIER, planted the Catholic Church in India,
member and the mission, a non-mission-affiliated the East Indies, and Japan, and died seeking en-
counselor is apt to be preferred by the missionary. trance to China. Catholic missionaries accompa-
Counseling, as a pillar of member care, has be- nied the explorers to Latin America, where the
come an increasingly important aspect of obey- indigenous peoples were baptized en masse, often
ing Christs command to tell the nations the news thousands in one day, even as they were terribly
of the kingdom. As an important resource for the exploited and cruelly treated. By 1559 nine mil-
lives of missionaries and their families, counsel- lion had been baptized in Mexico alone. Some of
ing will hopefully become more accessible to the missionaries raised strong protest against
those serving in remote and hostile areas. such treatment. Among them were Antonio Mon-
NANCY A. CRAWFORD tesinos and Bartholomew de Las Casas, who ar-
SEE ALSO Psychology. gued that Indians should have the same rights as
any other Spanish citizens.
Bibliography. M. D. Bullock, JPT 21:1 (1993): 3744; ROBERT DE NOBILI went to India in 1605, mas-
K. F. Carr, Proceeding from the 17th Annual Mental tered Sanskrit, adopted Indian dress and cus-
Health and Missions Conference, 1996; K. S. ODonnell, toms, and won a number of Brahmins; and MAT-
JPT 25:1 (1997): 14354; J. Powell, Missionary Care, pp.
TEO RICCI went to Peking in 1600, adopted
12335; C. H. Rosik, JPT 21:1 (1993): 15964; E. M.
Stringham, JPT 21:1 (1993): 6673. Chinese customs, and won a number of converts
in the court and beyond.
While some priests and friars, especially in
The Counter-Reformation. More than an anti-
Latin America, were unworthy, others showed
Protestant movement, the Counter-Reformation
great dedication and courage, a number suffering
was a readjustment by the Catholic Church to
martyrdom. The major defects of early Roman
meet the changing conditions of the early mod-
Catholic missions lay in the long delay before or-
ern period, partially in reaction against the
Protestant Reformation. It also reflected a cry for daining indigenous priests and the high degree of
change, which began a century and a half earlier. SYNCRETISM with pagan customs. Such syn-
The primary vehicles were the Council of cretism and the shortage of priests still plague
Trent, which ran sporadically from 1545 to 1563, the church in Latin America.
PAUL E. PIERSON
and the monastic orders led by the Jesuits. Trent
cut off all possibility of reconciliation with SEE ALSO Roman Catholic Missions.
Protestants, stating Catholic dogma in a manner
that defined Protestant doctrines as heretical. Au- Bibliography. S. Neill, HCM; P. W. Searle, The Counter
thority in the Church was defined as tradition Reformation.
plus the Scriptures (including the Apocrypha),
but it was clear that no one could interpret the Cragg, Albert Kenneth (1913 ). English pastor,
Bible contrary to the Church. bishop, and scholar of the Middle East and
Justification by faith alone was rejected, and Islam. Ordained to the Church of England priest-
the PRIESTHOOD OF THE BELIEVER was denied. The hood in 1936, Kenneth Cragg served as Canon of
seven medieval sacraments were asserted to be St. Georges Cathedral, Jerusalem; Honorary
necessary for salvation, and through them grace Canon of Canterbury Cathedral; and assistant
was conferred by the act performed (ex opere op- bishop of the Anglican see of Jerusalem, residing
erato). There was a degree of moral and adminis- in Cairo. When Egypt gained diocesan status in
trative reform, the authority of the pope was the Anglican communion, he relinquished this
strengthened, corruption decreased greatly, and position in favor of an Egyptian bishop and re-
better training of the clergy and more preaching turned to Yorkshire, where he ministered to im-
were required. The Inquisition was strengthened, migrant Muslims. He taught at the American
especially in Spain, and was used against anyone University of Beirut in Lebanon during World
suspected of having Protestant ideas as well as War II; Hartford Seminary Foundation in Hart-
against Jews. ford, Connecticut; as faculty and subsequently
The Jesuit order led by IGNATIUS LOYOLA became Warden of St. Augustines College, Canterbury,
the primary vehicle of mission, along with Fran- where he developed two major missionary study
238
Creation
programs; Ibadan University, Nigeria; Sussex serve the Kiowas. Transferred to Saddle Moun-
University; and Oxford University. Since his retain after two years in Elk Creek, she caused a
tirement in 1981, he has lived in Oxfordshire, stir by assisting an unordained interpreter in
where he lectures and writes. Author of more serving communion. The controversy resulted in
than thirty books and many articles, Cragg was her resignation from Saddle Mountain in 1906.
editor of Muslim World. Cragg has sought to in- She began to lecture and teach, promoting In-
terpret Islam through insiders eyes, to bridge the dian rights and Baptist missions as a WABHMS
gap in understanding between Muslims and representative until 1918, when she moved to the
Christians, and to discern positive significance in Allegheny Indian Reservation in New York State.
Islam for Christian purposes. Again she was involved in a dispute, this time
PAUL R. DEKAR championing the Indian desire to stop the trans-
Bibliography. P. R. Dekar, Muslim World 83 (1993): fer of Red House Church from the Baptists to the
17791; G. W. Braswell, Jr., Perspectives in Religious Presbyterians.
Studies 8 (1981): 11727; R. J. Jones, IBMR 16, no. 3 She returned to the lecture circuit until her re-
(1992): 10510. tirement in 1930. Even in retirement she re-
mained active, still speaking and advocating.
Crawford, Daniel (18701926). Scottish mis- After her death at the age of ninety-six, she was
sionary to Zaire and Zambia. Born in Gourock, buried in the Saddle Mountain reservation, the
Renfrewshire, he was converted at seventeen in a epitaph on her tombstone reading, I dwell
Plymouth Brethren assembly. Though his early among mine own people.
education had been restricted he was selected for A. SCOTT MOREAU
the party that accompanied fellow countryman Bibliography. C. Blevins, DBA; S. Mondello, Foun-
F. S. ARNOT to Central Africa in 1889. Serving dations: A Baptist Journal of History and Theology 21
originally in Katanga (modern Zaire), he traveled (October 1978): 32239; idem, Foundations: A Baptist
extensively. He settled in 1895 at Luanza (now in Journal of History and Theology 22 (January 1979):
Zambia), and this was to be his base for the rest 2842; idem, Foundations: A Baptist Journal of History
of his life. His only furlough (191115) included and Theology 22 (April 1979): 99115.
visits to North America and Australia. Like his
mentor Arnot and his other exemplar DAVID LIV- Creation. The fact that biblical revelation begins
INGSTONE, Crawford was both pioneer and strong with the creation account demonstrates the foun-
individualist, but he never lost sight of mission- dational importance of the creation doctrine to
ary priorities: setting up a string of churches, all other biblical doctrines, including redemp-
preaching the need for conversion, and teaching tion. The divine design and majestic glory of the
and translating the Bible. The New Testament in created order witness to the character, sover-
Luba was published in 1904; the Old, in 1926. eignty, and lordship of the Creator (Ps. 19:16),
In a book that came to be recognized as a which are critical issues in the outworking and
Christian classic, Thinking Black (1913), Craw- understanding of his mission purpose (MISSIO
ford showed a remarkable understanding of the DEI). Humankind, as male and female, uniquely
mind and culture of Africans. They came to re- created in the image of the Creator, is seen to be
gard him with deep affection, and he encouraged the apex of creation and focus of this purpose. To
many of them as co-workers in ministry. Craw- humankind is given the right to rule over and
fords published work included Back to the Long subdue the earth and its creatures and to tend
Grass (1923). and take care of their natural environment, re-
J. D. DOUGLAS sponsibilities for which they are still accountable
Bibliography. J. J. Ellis, Dan Crawford of Luanza; (Gen. 1:2630; 2:15; Ps. 8:38).
A. R. Evans, Dan Crawford; G. E. Tilsley, Dan Crawford: The FALL OF HUMANKIND through the temptation
Missionary and Pioneer in Central Africa. of another created being (Satan) radically im-
pacted all of creation and defined the mission of
Crawford, Isabel Alice Hartley (18651961). God for human history. Redemption of elect hu-
Canadian-born missionary to indigenous Ameri- manity and the restoration of the Creators glory
cans. Born in Cheltenham (near Toronto) to the in them constitute the ultimate divine purposes,
family of a Baptist minister and teacher, Craw- as decreed before the creation itself (Eph. 1:414;
ford graduated from the Baptist Missionary Rev. 13:8). An age-long conflict with Satan, the
training school in Chicago in 1893, having served rebellious archenemy of his sovereign Creator, is
as a missionary in the slum districts of Chicago the context for missio Dei. In his passionate ef-
as a student. forts to steal glory from the Creator, including
Though she was interested in overseas work, Gods exclusive right to be worshiped, and to
Crawford was sent in 1883 as part of a team by usurp Gods place of authority over the created
the Womans American Baptist Home Mission order, the enemy seeks to seduce humankind to
Society (WABHMS) to Elk Creek, Oklahoma, to worship other beings and objects in the created
239
Creation
order. Such idolatry and the moral and spiritual the earth and its resources. But mission is not ul-
perversions which accompany it, are the ultimate timately informed by or subservient to the cre-
manifestation of humanitys depravity and need ation doctrine. Mission flows from a biblical un-
for the redemption and regeneration offered in derstanding of the Creators purposes for his
the gospel (Rom. 1:1832; 3:931). creation and proclaims his sovereign lordship
The redemptive purposes of God include not over his creation. The biblical mandate is to
only humankind but also the created order. preach the good news to all creation (Mark
Cursed as a result of the fall (Gen. 3:1718), yet 16:15), resulting in a body of regenerated human
still an object of his care and concern (Jon. 4:11), beings who are newborn creations in Jesus Christ
creation is described as groaning and eagerly ex- (Heb. 12:23; 2 Cor. 5:17) and who live in the ex-
pecting the final redemption of humankind. The pectation of a new creation to the glory of the
curse will be removed at the renewal of all Creator (Rev. 21:14).
things and creation itself will fulfill its divine RICHARD D. CALENBERG
purpose (Rom. 8:1825; Matt. 19:28). Ultimately,
Bibliography. W. A. Dyrness, Let the Earth Rejoice!:
the present created order will be cleansed, pro- A Biblical Theology of Holistic Mission; J. J. Kritzinger,
viding the perfect eternal abode for the redeemed Missionalia 19:1 (April 1991): 419; Choan-Seng Song,
to live in the presence of their Creator and re- Christian Mission in Reconstruction: An Asian Analysis;
deemer forever (Isa. 65:17; 66:22; 2 Peter P. M. Steyne, In Step With the God of the Nations: A Bib-
3:1013; Rev. 21:1). lical Theology of Missions; D. C. van Zyl, Missionalia
An understanding of the biblical doctrines of 19:3 (November 1991): 20314.
creation, man and woman, and missio Dei is es-
sential to the communication and reception of Creative Access Countries. Sovereign govern-
the gospel of redemption. However, the historical ments, regimes, or territories that deny, or se-
development of distinctive human cultures and verely limit, long-term presence for foreigners en-
worldviews has demonstrated the rejection of re- gaging in Christian missionary or evangelistic
vealed truth about God, including the revelation activities. Such countries have one or more large
in creation itself (Rom. 1:1825). The result is ev- population segments that are historically resistant
ident in a plethora of grossly inaccurate cos- to Christianity. Laws restraining Christian activi-
mogonies, from fanciful myths about capricious ties reflect the controlling influence of religio-
deities to atheistic dialectical materialism. social groups antagonistic to Christianity. Espe-
In some cultural contexts, a good starting point cially suspect are Christian endeavors done with
of contact for the gospel is the doctrine of cre- or by foreign mission agencies. The sociological
ation. Pauls address to the pagan philosophers in causes for such restrictive measures are numer-
Athens (Acts 17:2431) is a classic biblical case. ous. Yet perceived threats to historic religious
Contemporary missionaries working among ani- practices, distinct ethnic identities, or nationalis-
mistic tribal groups have demonstrated the effec- tic reactions to Western colonial encroachments
tiveness of starting with the creation account in help explain some of the prohibitions.
building a foundation for the gospel. The monis- At the dawn of the modern missions era, there
tic pantheism of the Hindu-Buddhistic worldview were few restrictions on missionary activities.
and the pantheistic naturalism and world con- Those that existed were usually because of Euro-
sciousness of the Chinese worldview, especially pean rivalries rather than indigenous religious
Taoism, demand a careful explanation and un- conflicts. Missionaries were often the first West-
derstanding of the nature and purpose of cre- erners in what are now Third World countries or
ation and humanitys role and relationship to it they entered later under the auspices of colonial
and to a personal Creator and Redeemer. governments. Since the end of World War II,
In the latter half of the twentieth century cer- Western colonial rule has given way to rising na-
tain exponents of liberation theology sought to tionalistic movements.
integrate creation and mission around an ecolog- At the end of the colonial era, the Western mis-
ical and political agenda leading to a radical re- sionarys role grew dubious in the minds of many
definition of the churchs mission. Rooted in the national leaders. Where a sizable or influential
premise that creation presupposes salvation, the Christian presence had developed, there usually
churchs task is to seek the liberation of the earth were provisions made by the emerging regimes
from the oppressive policies of Western industri- for continuation of Western missionary presence.
alization and the liberation of the poor from po- Where a weak Christian church existed, leaders
litical oppression and economic deprivation. Cre- of dominant religious groups influenced the
ation and salvation have been merged into a fledgling regimes to restrict Christianitys growth
struggle for political justice, economic equality, and development, particularly by diminishing its
and ecological responsibility. foreign sustenance. A simple way to enact such
A comprehensive, biblically informed mission restrictions was to deny visas and residence per-
theology will include a clearly defined doctrine of mits to those foreigners known to work with
creation, including a doctrine of stewardship of Christian elements in the country. Creative strate-
240
Croatia
gic initiatives, like the NONRESIDENTIAL MISSION- state with the Hungarians, another Catholic na-
ARY model, now enable Christian missions and tion. Over the following centuries Croatia was
missionaries to penetrate existing barriers in the ruled by Venetians, the Ottoman Empire, and the
traditional homelands of antagonistic blocs of Habsburgs. In the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, tribal, and more re- turies the Austrians created a military frontier
cently communist people groups located within against the Turks in southeast Croatia settled
the political boundaries of countries resistant to mostly by Orthodox Serbs who were fleeing the
Christian influence. Ottoman territories. Since that time Catholic
KEITH E. EITEL Croatia has had a large Orthodox minority.
Protestant efforts to extend influence in Croa-
Bibliography. D. B. Barrett and T. M. Johnston. Our
tia in the sixteenth century were initially very
Globe and How to Reach It: Seeing the World Evange-
lized by A.D. 2000 and Beyond; V. D. Garrison, The Non- successful although soon brutally eradicated
residential Missionary: A New Strategy and the People It through the COUNTER-REFORMATION. The most
Serves; idem, IJFM 9 (1992): 6769. prominent Croat Protestant theologian was
Matthias Flacius Illyricus (152075), a student of
Creed. See CONFESSION. Luther, prolific writer, and polemicist, considered
by many to be the father of modern biblical
HERMENEUTICS. Protestants Jurij Dalmatin and
CRESR 82. See CONSULTATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP Konzul Istranin worked on the first Croatian
BETWEEN EVANGELISM AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY.
translation of the Bible. With the forceful resur-
gence of Roman Catholicism, Protestantism was
Croatia (Est. 2000 pop.: 4,433,00; 56,538 sq. km. in subsequent centuries confined to minorities of
[21,829 sq. mi.]. Croatia (with provinces of Croa- Hungarians, Slovaks, and Germans.
tia proper, Dalmatia, Istria, and Slavonia) is a Croatia became part of Yugoslavia in 1918,
crescent-shaped country bounded by Slovenia, first named the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and
Hungary, Yugoslavia, and the Adriatic Sea. It de- Slovenes. During World War II the so-called In-
clared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991, dependent State of Croatia, which also included
which resulted in intense warfare between the Bosnia, operated as a Nazi puppet state. After the
two countries, creating a major humanitarian war, under the rule of Tito, Croatia became one
crisis and Serbian control of one-third of Croat- of the six republics of communist Yugoslavia.
ian lands. The country was internationally recog- Croatian struggles against foreign domination
nized in 1992 and regained full control over all through the centuries forced about 25 percent of
its territories by 1998. The ethnic composition of the population to leave for other countries. This
the country before the war in 1991 was 77.9 per- emigration was caused by a combination of eco-
cent Croats, 12.2 percent Serbs, and 9.9 percent nomic and political circumstances, including pe-
others. This has been seriously disrupted by the riods of Turkish rule, Hungarization attempts,
expulsion of more than one hundred thousand oppression by the Habsburgs, Serbian dictator-
Serbs in 1995 and due to the large influx of Bosn- ship in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and the com-
ian refugees, both Muslim and Croat. munist totalitarianism. Many of the more recent
The region was part of the Western Roman immigrants returned following the creation of
Empires province of Illyricum. Christianity was an independent Republic of Croatia in 1991.
introduced to this area as early as the first cen- The religious situation in todays Croatia is
tury through the missionary travels of the apos- characterized by a revival of traditional Roman
tle Paul and his co-workers (Illyricum is men- Catholicism, the influx of large numbers of Bosn-
tioned in Rom. 15:19, and Dalmatia in 2 Tim. ian Muslim refugees, and a sudden decrease of
4:10). Croats who are of South Slavic origin set- Serbian Orthodox Christians. All Protestants to-
tled in the areas of present-day Croatia and gether constitute only 0.6 percent of the popula-
Bosnia in the seventh century A.D. Their arrival tion, and evangelicals only 0.2 percent. After
was followed by conversion from the old Slavic years of stagnation Lutheran, Baptist, and Pente-
nature-god religions to Roman Catholicism. costal churches in particular have begun to expe-
Since that time and following the schism in 1054 rience growth. Despite their small numbers,
between Eastern and Western Christianity, Croa- evangelicals have during the recent wars in Croa-
tia has remained almost exclusively Roman tia and neighboring Bosnia made a significant ef-
Catholic. The peculiarity of Croatian Catholicism fort to assist refugees and displaced people, to
through the centuries has, however, been the rare maintain church unity across ethnic divides, and
permission to celebrate liturgy in its own ancient to participate in the peacemaking efforts within
language with the use of Glagolithic script. the country. The Evangelical Theological Semi-
Croatias statehood goes back to the year 925, nary (ETS) in Osijek (founded 1972) has trained
when under King Tomislav and with the blessing most of the younger Christian leaders of various
of the pope it became an independent kingdom. denominations and its graduates have pioneered
In the twelth century the Croats united in one in areas of university ministries, Christian pub-
241
Croatia
lishing, broadcasting, prison ministries, and will need to be given by those who have had ac-
cross-cultural evangelism. Dozens of young cess to a solid background in counseling.
Croats and other graduates of ETS have been The following guidelines are a summary of the
sent as church-planting missionaries to Bosnia salient emphases in the current Christian and
and to other post-communist nations. secular literature that apply to cross-cultural
PETER KUZMIC counseling and are particularly relevant to the
Bibliography. S. Gazi, A History of Croatia;
missionary-counselor. The assumption is that
I. Nizich, Civil and Political Rights in Croatia; S. P. general counseling principles, strategies, and
Ramet, Balkan Babel: Politics, Culture, and Religion; techniques are well understood.
R. Stakkaerts and J. Laurens, Historical Dictionary of Guidelines for the Cross Cultural Mission-
the Republic of Croatia; M. Tanner, Croatia: A Nation ary-Counselor. All the literature stresses the im-
Forged in War. perative for the counselor to become culturally
aware. Understanding ones own culture as well
Cross. See ATONEMENT. as the folkways, communication styles, tradi-
tions, belief systems, mores, and values of the
Cross-Cultural Communication. See INTERCUL- other culture allows missionary-counselors to
TURALCOMMUNICATION. maintain their own identity while interpreting
behavior and planning interventions in terms of
Cross-Cultural Competency. See INTERCULTURAL the other culture.
COMPETENCY. Counselors can offer the most extensive help
by training members of a particular culture to be
counselors to their own people. Introducing basic
Cross-Cultural Counseling. Cross-cultural coun-
pastoral counseling courses in seminaries and
seling, often referred to as multicultural, inter-
Bible schools, holding on-going seminars for
cultural, transcultural, or ethnic counseling, oc-
church leaders, and selecting a discerning na-
curs when the counselors basic background
differs from that of the counselees. Prior to the tional to work by their side to interpret cultural
1970s most counselor training programs, prima- issues could greatly reduce the chance of mis-
rily Western value-laden, paid little attention to sionaries making ethnocentric misjudgments.
cultural awareness, thereby increasing the risk of For example, the family therapy concept of indi-
culturally inappropriate interventions in the few viduation and enmeshment differs from culture
cases where such counseling took place. to culture, requiring a discerning nationals input
Interest in cross-cultural counseling in Amer- on what constitutes dysfunction. Meeting regu-
ica received its impetus from the vast demo- larly with national counselors for mutual help
graphic shifts brought about by the rising promi- whereby the counselor guides the trainee to em-
nence of ethnic groups, to a lesser extent by the ploy appropriate interventions and the national-
increasing number of university-level interna- counselor gives feedback on how a concept or
tional students, and the growing number of in- technique manifests itself in that milieu could al-
ternational government, UN, and business proj- leviate the missionary-counselors workload. At
ects. Missionaries further realized the need for the same time, the counselor has the opportunity
cross-cultural counseling skills because of the to reproduce skills in others.
growing refugee population, the fairly recent Missionary-counselors must listen and listen
multicultural composition of missionary person- again and again. They must hear the nationals
nel, and the struggles of citizens of changing de- stories and experience them both cognitively and
veloping countries who were struggling with the affectively from their framework without the in-
accompanying problems that exposure to a more terference of their own cultural assumptions. To
technological socioeconomic world brings. assume correctly that they are understanding
Rather suddenly missionaries were faced with from the other cultures perspective, the helper
the need for counseling skills to help fellow mis- constantly needs to clarify meanings in ways that
sionary personnel, displaced persons, and na- are acceptable for that culture (repetition, reflec-
tionals cope with the stresses that cultural tion, questions, etc.).
change tends to produce. The effective missionary-counselor gradually
Missionaries wanting counseling preparation learns to discriminate between normal situa-
can benefit by the (1) increasing number of tional responses in a given culture and responses
cross-cultural courses offered in training sites, that are pathological. For example, in cultures
(2) growing research on cross-cultural counseling where persecution or discrimination has existed
reported in journals, and (3) expanding number an individuals comments may seem somewhat
of books being written, all with the aim to im- paranoid. This could well be a learned response
prove the quality of help for culturally different to actual negative experiences. Rather than as-
populations. Although ideally each culture would sume a deeper problem the counselor might aim
be served by its own members, the initial training to enable the person to relinquish the hurt, hu-
242
Cross-Cultural Counseling
miliation, anger, or fear that the situation has emphasis between human universals and cultural
produced. uniqueness. An appreciation for the commonali-
Goals, strategies, and techniques need to be ties stemming from the human races God-relat-
congruent with the cultural norms, even if they edness can be a link to any culture. However,
are not part of the traditional repertoire of the overemphasis on similarities could reduce cul-
discipline. For example, members of most cultural sensitivity and detract from efforts to dif-
tures are sociocentric rather than egocentric (see ferentiate that which is different as a result of
INDIVIDUALISM AND COLLECTIVISM). They therefore their frame of reference and what is maladaptive
often respond better when extended families or in that particular culture. On the other hand, too
church leaders or even clan members are in- much emphasis on the uniqueness of a culture
cluded as part of problem resolution. Also, a can lead to stereotypes and blind counselors to
weekly fixed time in the missionarys office rather the individual differences. Cultural factors do not
than the village or church may seem artificial to provide all the answers to dilemmas that a per-
them. Or, counseling that too directly plunges the son faces. Foremost the uniqueness of the indi-
counselee into personal issues may increase re- vidual must be considered.
sistance. A tea time of small talk frees certain Conclusion. Counseling is a relatively new
cultural groups to relax and talk more freely. phenomenon in many countries. Yet throughout
Each culture has its own idiosyncratic ap- the world there is a global cry for help to deal
proaches and effective methods that maintain the with the emotionally painful effects of the undue
delicate balance between manipulative informal- stresses produced by the innumerable, often un-
ity and effective professionalism that has to be precedented, and many times unpredictable
reframed for each situation. changes taking place. Christians tend to seek
Although counseling may enable a national to support from their church leaders, more often
take a more active role in facilitating changes in than not, the pastors. Pastors are often in a
his or her milieu, the socioeconomic-political sit- quandary to know how to deal with the issues.
uations are not the foreigners domain per se. The need to develop counseling training pro-
One of the goals of missionary-counselors is to grams to impart the necessary skills to church
let the Lord work through them to empower the leaders has become an imperative. An increasing
counselee to function as healthily and comfort- number of seminaries and Bible schools are offer-
ably as possible regardless of the environmental ing at least basic counseling skills to pastors. How-
circumstances. The missionary is in a unique po- ever, the initial training must be done by those
sition to present the transcendent peace and who come from countries, generally the Western
hope of a sovereign God. Guiding what may well ones, where they have been able to avail them-
be victimized people to appropriate the imma-
selves of more in-depth training in counseling.
nent grace of the Lord, including the power to
Often they are missionaries who face the formida-
forgive, can superhumanly free them from the
ble challenge of acquiring cultural awareness pro-
inner chains of hurt, despair, and anxiety that
found enough to be able to develop strategies and
hinders healthy functioning.
techniques congruent with the given cultures way
Since the concept of the supernatural is
of functioning The above guidelines give a glimpse
prominent in many cultures, incorporating spir-
of the complexity of the task.
itual issues into the counseling process would
offer a more holistic and contextual approach. To Missionaries trained in counseling generally
do this sensitively, wisely, and biblically, coun- have some cross-cultural training and a degree of
selors must, first, clarify their own beliefs in this experience in another culture. They already have
area. Second, they must make every effort to un- a sense of call to deal in an in-depth fashion with
derstand the way the worldview of the culture in people in order to guide them to better glorify the
which they work perceives the supernatural. Lord. It seems fitting that they fill the need to ac-
Third, they need to grasp how it plays itself out quire the necessary skills to train nationals to
in the daily affairs of the people. Fourth, coun- counsel their own people.
selors must carefully observe how the cultures FRANCES J. WHITE
views contribute positively or negatively to the SEE ALSO Psychology.
health of the people. Nor can the role of the de-
monic, so real to many cultures, be ignored (see Bibliography. American Psychologist 48:1 (1993):
also POSSESSION PHENOMENA). In approaching the 4548; J. F. Aponte, R. Y. Rivers, S. J. Wohl, Psychologi-
more mystical aspects of a culture, diagnostic cal Interventions and Cultural Diversity; D. Augsberger,
Pastoral Counseling Across Cultures; D. J. Hesselgrave,
skill that distinguishes among psychological, so-
Counseling Cross-Culturally; K. Lloyd, T. D. Bhugra,
cial, and spiritual events is essential. The coun- Cross-Cultural Aspects of Psychotherapy 5 (1993):
selor must be prepared to use Gods Word with 291304; M. McGoldrick, J. K. Pearce, J. Giordano,
integrity, conviction, and trust in its power. Ethnicity and Family Therapy; P. P. Pedersen, J. G. Dra-
Most authors on cross-cultural counseling guns, W. J. Lonner, J. E. Trimble, Counseling Across
stress the importance of maintaining a balanced Cultures; P. P. Pedersen, Handbook of Cross-Cultural
243
Cross-Cultural Counseling
Counseling and Psychotherapy; D. W. Sue, Counseling tural boundaries to reach other cultural groups
the Culturally Different. laid the foundation for the unreached peoples
movement and the AD 2000 and Beyond Move-
Cross-Cultural Evangelism. In one sense any ment. Winter clearly distinguishes between evan-
EVANGELISM involves crossing a cultural divide, gelism (presenting the gospel to ones own peo-
since the evangelist must communicate spiritual ple) and missions (crossing cultural boundaries).
truth to spiritually dead people who in their nat- At the 1978 Lausanne Committee consultation
ural state are unable to comprehend it. Cross- on Gospel and Culture, thirty-three missions
cultural evangelism, however, has the added chal- leaders and theologians drafted The Willowbank
lenge of communication between people of Report, which set down a detailed acknowledg-
different WORLDVIEWS and BELIEF SYSTEMS. As ment of the critical role of culture in missionary
such, it is more often considered true missionary communication. Included in the document were
witness (whether geographical distance is in- evangelical understandings of culture, Scripture,
volved or not) than is evangelism between mem- the content and communication of the gospel,
bers of the same culture. witness among Muslims, a call for humility, and
CULTURE, of course, is generally seen as a soci- a look at conversion and culture. The authors as-
etys folkways, mores, language, art and architec- serted that conversion should not de-culturize
ture, and political and economic structures; it is a convert (see also CULTURAL CONVERSION). They
the expression of the societys worldview. World- also acknowledged the validity of group, as well
view has been described as the way a people as individual, conversions (see also PEOPLE MOVE-
looks outwardly upon itself and the universe, or MENTS). Participants noted the difference be-
the way it sees itself in relationship to all else. tween regeneration and conversion, the dangers
For the cross-cultural evangelist, WITNESS in- of SYNCRETISM, and the churchs influence on cul-
volves a thorough understanding of ones own ture (see also GOSPEL AND CULTURE).
culture, the biblical context in which Gods Word As evangelical understanding of culture has
was given, and the culture of those among whom progressed, a number of innovative evangelism
evangelism is being done. The message must be methods have been advanced. Noting that the
tailored or contextualized in such a way as to re- theology of the Bible is often encased in stories,
main faithful to the biblical text while under- Tom Steffen of Biola University and others argue
standable and relevant to the receptors context. that STORYTELLING can be more effective in oral
The late twentieth century has seen, along with cultures than the Western-style cognitive teach-
widespread acceptance of anthropological in- ing approach. Baptists working among the Mus-
sights, a flowering of respect for culture in mis- lim Kotokoli people of Togo have found that sto-
sions and evangelism. James Engel devised a rytelling can lower cultural barriers to the gospel.
scale to measure peoples understanding of the Use of Western forms of communication may
gospel and their movement toward Christ. It can stigmatize the gospel as alien in some cultures.
be used to gauge the spiritual knowledge and in- A cross-cultural approach advocated for SHAME
volvement of both individuals and groups. At one culturessome Islamic societies, for example
end of the ENGEL SCALE are those with no aware- is to emphasize the gospel as the answer for de-
ness of Christianity (-7), followed by those aware filement and uncleanness rather than sin and
of the existence of Christianity (-6), followed by guilt. J. Nathan Corbitt distinguishes between
those with some knowledge of the gospel (-5). hard media (media more concrete in format and
Conversion is numerically neutral on the Engel presentation, such as books and films) and soft
Scale. At its far end are incorporation of the be- media (media allowing flexibility during its cre-
liever into a Christian fellowship (+2) and active ation and use, such as storytelling, drama,
gospel propagation by the believer (+3). Bridging music, and conversation). Corbitt says that to
the knowledge gap often, but not always, involves communicate across cultures, evangelists must
cross-cultural evangelism. soften their mediausing local people and fo-
At the LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGE- cusing on the process of Christianity rather than
LISM (1974), RALPH WINTER argued that 2.7 billion its specific productsto spark the greatest
people cannot be won to Christ by near-neigh- amount of understanding and communication
bor evangelism since they have no Christian within a community.
neighbors. Winter said evangelists must cross Some critics have questioned the effectiveness
cultural, language, and geographical barriers, of popular evangelism tools such as the JESUS
learn the languages and cultures of these un- FILM and Evangelism Explosion when used apart
reached peoples, present the gospel to them, and from an adequate understanding of the culture.
plant culturally relevant churches among them. Steffen argues that before the Jesus film is
Winter delineated three kinds of evangelism: shown, the audiences worldview must be known,
same culture (E-1), culture closely related to the presenters must earn the right to be heard,
ones own (E-2), and culture different than ones the film must be seen first by the communitys in-
own (E-3). Winters emphasis on crossing cul- formation gatekeepers, the presenters must grasp
244
Cross-Cultural Ministry
how the community makes decisions and must munication has been an examination of culture
know how to incorporate converts into healthy itself from a Christian and biblical perspective. In
churches, and the audience must have a signifi- the New Testament we find that Pauls willing-
cant foundation for the gospel. Not to have these ness to lay aside personal freedoms and status for
cultural prerequisites in place, he and others the sake of the gospel (1 Cor. 8:913; 9:22; Phil.
argue, is to invite nominalism or syncretism with 3:8) illustrate the primacy of the gospel over the
our evangelism. messengers attitudes and behavior.
STANLEY M. GUTHRIE Bishop STEPHEN NEILL has asserted that there
Bibliography. J. N. Corbitt, EMQ 27:2 (April 1991):
are some customs which the gospel cannot toler-
16065; D. J. Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ Cross- ate, there are some customs which can be toler-
Culturally; T. Steffen, EMQ 32:2 (April 1996): 17885; ated for the time being, and there are customs
idem, EMQ 29:3 (July 1993): 27276; B. Thomas, EMQ which are fully acceptable to the gospel. The Lau-
30:3 (July 1994): 28490; R. D. Winter, and S. C. sanne Covenant affirmed that Culture must al-
Hawthorne, eds., Perspectives on the World Christian ways be tested and judged by Scripture. Because
Movement. man is Gods creature, some of his culture is rich
in beauty and goodness. Because he is fallen, all
Cross-Cultural Ministry. The theological basis of it is tainted with sin and some of it is de-
for cross-cultural ministry lies in its examples monic. Bishop David Gitari has welcomed this
within both Old and New Testaments, coupled emphasis that all cultures must always be tested
with the universal nature of the Christian faith by the scriptures.
and the Lords Commission to disciple the na- The relativization of the cultural expressions of
tions. It may be further argued that the incarna- the Christian faith has resulted in the popular ac-
tion of Christ demands that we take culture seri- ceptance within missions of the concept of CON-
ously in ministry, because it is in the realities of TEXTUALIZATION, which aims to be faithful to
the cultural context that the gospel is manifested Scripture and relevant to culture. Such an ap-
(see INCARNATIONAL MISSION ). Thus Gitari has proach intends to apply the absolutes to which
written, Jesus did not become a Jew as a con- Scripture refers within a plurality of culturally
venient illustration of general truths. He came appropriate forms. However, disquiet at the
into real problems, debates, issues struggles and prominence currently given to contextualization
conflicts which concerned the Jewish people. in missiology was expressed by Christians with a
The gospel requires specific cultural contexts in Reformed perspective at a Caucus on Mission to
which to be manifested. Muslims held at Four Brooks Conference Centre
The missionary expansion of the church from in 1985.
its earliest days is evidence of the seriousness The practical expression of the Christian faith
with which Christians have grasped and imple- in a culture is a pioneer venture which is liable to
mented cross-cultural ministry. In recent times the criticism that the true nature of the gospel
the SOCIAL SCIENCES have contributed to the con- may become distorted by SYNCRETISM or compro-
scious acknowledgment of the importance of cul- mise. In the West there has been a debate be-
ture in relation to this missionary endeavor. EU- tween evangelicals and liberal Christians over
GENE A. NIDAS Customs and Cultures stated that
how best to represent Christianity within a mod-
Good missionaries have always been good an- ern scientific culture. In the Muslim world, Phil
thropologists . . . on the other hand, some mis- Parshalls New Paths in Muslim Evangelism laid
sionaries have been only children of their gener- out the contextualization of Christian mission
ation and have carried to the field a distorted among Muslims (see MUSLIM MISSION WORK).
view of race and progress, culture and civiliza- This not only covered issues of COMMUNICATION,
tion, Christian and non-Christian ways of life.
theological bridges to salvation, but also the
The context for much nineteenth-century
forms and practices of a culturally relevant Mus-
Protestant missions was that of European colo-
lim-convert church. Others have argued that the
nial expansion and this resulted in examples of
creation of separate convert churches and the
the export of European culture and expressions
Christianization of Muslim devotional means in
of Christianity alongside the gospel (see COLO-
Jesus Mosques (such as the position of prayer
NIALISM). The twentieth century witnessed first
or putting the Bible on a special stand) fall short
the increasing American missionary endeavor
of the requirements for Christian unity in Mus-
and the rise of Two-Thirds World missions (see
lim lands where historic Christian communities
NON-WESTERN MISSION BOARDS AND SOCIETIES). As
a result of the internationalizing of missions and exist. This debate is a reminder that Christian
the GLOBALIZATION of communications (with its mission needs to be sensitive to a broader range
own consequences in terms of cultural change), of issues than the culture of the unevangelized.
PATRICK SOOKHDEO
the issues of CULTURE and mission are today even
more complex. Complementing the recognition Bibliography. D. Gitari, Proclaiming Christ in Christs
of the importance of culture in missionary com- WayStudies in Integral Evangelism, pp. 10121; C. H.
245
Cross-Cultural Ministry
Kraft, Christianity in Culture; Lausanne Committee for ther be unknown or mistrusted in another. Trust-
World Evangelisation, The Lausanne CovenantAn Ex- worthy methods often require a pilot test to iden-
position and Commentary by John Stott. idem, The Wil- tify what will produce valid and reliable results.
lowbank ReportGospel and Culture; H. Niebuhr, Christ The outsider will look from a different perspec-
and Culture; E. A. Nida, Customs and Cultures; P. Par-
tive (etic) from the insider (emic) to both de-
shall, New Paths in Muslim Evangelism.
scribe and explain what is observed in terms of
either experience or documents. An outsider may
Cross-Cultural Research. Cross-cultural re- observe phenomena that appear to be significant,
search forms an essential base in missiological but are not significant to the insider. For exam-
research. Whether one is researching a church ple, while using phonetics one may distinguish
context or a non-Christian context across cul- different sounds in the ways that different people
tural boundaries, several concerns apply: an ap- say the same words. The sounds may be consis-
propriate research design, valid and reliable tently different, but insignificant and meaning-
methods of data collection and analysis, and ap- less to the insider. Or, the outsider may simply
propriate application. miss what is considered significant by the insider.
The research design may depend on a single For example, in doing research into public health
disciplinary perspective such as anthropology or matters in northwest Kenya, a Western re-
cross-cultural communication. More often it will searcher may simply miss the issues of cursing.
depend on the integration of several different dis- What the people believe and practice about curs-
ciplines, such as theology, ANTHROPOLOGY, COM- ing deeply influences public health from the per-
MUNICATION, SOCIOLOGY, political science, and spective of the Turkana. The Western researcher,
LEADERSHIP THEORY. For the design to provide even if informed of its local significance, may dis-
trustworthy results the cultural perspectives of miss the issue as irrelevant superstition and fail
both the researchers and the community being to address issues considered to be very signifi-
studied must be brought in focus. Furthermore, cant among the Turkana. Traditional Turkana
one should review the WORLDVIEW assumptions people often ask who caused an illness rather
of the theory being used to structure the design than what caused it.
because every theory and its development come To apply research findings collected across cul-
out of a cultural context. No theory is culture- tural boundaries requires great care. Worldview
free. The theory undergirding the design must differences expressed in values, categories, per-
allow the explanations of the data to address cat- ceptual styles, assumptions, and local expres-
egories of thinking in the situation being studied. sions in both action and language all present se-
For example, if ones research assumptions pre- rious stumbling blocks to the normal constraints
clude the possibility of the miraculous, a study of of generalizability. Any well-designed research
the religious experience of new churches in Ar- project will have a defined scope and further con-
gentina would not produce trustworthy results straints imposed by the parameters of the spe-
from the perspective of Argentine Christians. cific methods of data collection and analysis.
Data collection and analysis methods often re- However, to apply the research across cultural
quire multiple perspectives to see clearly across barriers presents another set of applicational
cultural boundaries. Like looking into a house, it constraints. One cannot assume that what is per-
is helpful to look through several windows in ceived as true or believable in one culture, will
order to gain an understanding of what is inside. necessarily be perceived that way in another cul-
The view from a single window may help with ture. Nor can one assume that what would be an
one room, but will not provide access to other appropriate application in one setting will neces-
parts of a house. Similarly, when seeking to do sarily be appropriate in another.
cross-cultural research, the use of more than one Cross-cultural research, then, should always
perspective may not just be helpful; it may be es- take into account the cultures of the researcher,
sential. Even when researchers have used multi- the research subjects, and the theory that may be
ple perspectives, their own cultural biases will used in the research design.
tend to condition the processes of data collection, EDGAR J. ELLISTON
analysis, and application.
When crossing cultural boundaries the defini- SEE ALSO Ethnographic Research; Research.
tion of what is regarded as true and ethical may Bibliography. H. R. Bernard, Research Methods in
differ. In more oral-based traditions or strongly Cultural Anthropology; J. Kirk and M. L. Miller, Relia-
patriarchical settings what the older and re- bility and Validity in Qualitative Research.
spected authorities have said will take on a
larger significance. Whereas in one culture, what Crowther, Samuel Adjai (c. 180891). Nigerian
is in print may be seen as public domain, in an- explorer and missionary statesman. The son of a
other culture use of the same data may lead to royal Yoruba family in what is now Nigeria,
charges of plagiarism. What is accepted as a Crowther was taken as a slave when a youth.
method of data collection in one setting may ei- Freed by the British, he was settled in Sierra
246
Crusade Evangelism
Leone and learned Christianity from the mis- preaching grew, Wesley began to appoint laity to
sionaries there. preach. He soon developed routes for his circuit
After studies in England, Crowther was among preaching evangelists to travel. Wesley spent the
the first to enroll at and graduate from Fourah rest of his life organizing the converts into
Bay College in Freetown. He was ordained in the Methodist societies.
Anglican Church in 1843. The First Great Awakening set the stage for the
Crowthers name is intimately associated with planned revivalism of the nineteenth century.
the Niger River, first as an explorer and then as During the Second Great Awakening, frontier
leader of the mission efforts of the CHURCH MIS- camp meetings were held in which thousands of
SIONARY SOCIETY (CMS). He represented the CMS people, of many different denominations, would
on three expeditions up the Niger sponsored by come to hear gospel preaching. The camp meet-
the British. ings came to be held annually and took the form
It soon became clear that the Niger River was of protracted meetings. A starting date was
deadly for Europeans, who were not resistant to planned but no conclusion.
tropical diseases. Thus, HENRY VENN sponsored Many notable evangelists arose during the
the idea of an all-African team of missionaries to nineteenth century. The first evangelist of great
work in the Niger River area. significance was CHARLES FINNEY (17921875).
Crowther was installed as bishop of the Niger Finney instituted innovative methods called New
territories and sent on his way together with as- Measures, which encouraged persons under con-
sistants from Sierra Leone. The initial work was viction to come forward and seek salvation.
slow and difficult because of poor communica- Finneys New Measures included anxious meet-
tion, pagan persecution, incompetent assistants, ings in which the anxious could come to a re-
and the criticisms of ethnocentric missionaries served section and be led immediately to Christ.
from England. But Crowther was a man of ster- Finney is remembered as the Father of Modern
ling character who continued the work until he Evangelism.
died in his early eighties. His career is a lasting The year 1875 marked the last year of Finneys
reminder of what Africans accomplished for God ministry and the first major American evangelistic
during the nineteenth century. campaign of D. L. MOODY (183599). Moody and
TIMOTHY MONSMA his musician, Ira Sankey, led major crusades in
England and America. Moody concentrated his ef-
Bibliography. J. Du Plessis, The Evangelization of forts in the cities, believing that if he could reach
Pagan Africa; P. Falk, The Growth of the Church in the cities, he could better impact the country. He
Africa; S. C. Neill, HCM.
repeatedly filled the auditoriums of Americas
largest cities, regularly preaching to crowds up to
Crusade Evangelism. Modern crusade evangel- 15,000. Moody traveled over one million miles and
ism began in the eighteenth century when a spoke to over one hundred million people.
mighty movement of God was birthed in North A contemporary of Moody was Sam Jones
America and Europe. This movement in America, (18471906). Whereas Moody focused on regen-
known as the GREAT AWAKENING, was the catalyst eration, Jones focused on reformation. He main-
for thousands coming to a saving faith in Jesus tained a close connection between conversion
Christ. The major personalities of this time were and moral issues. He averaged nearly two thou-
GEORGE WHITEFIELD in North America and JOHN sand conversions per crusade, recorded over five
WESLEY in England. Their dynamic preaching at- hundred thousand professions of faith, and spoke
tracted some of the largest crowds ever to hear to well over twenty-five million people.
the gospel. R. A. TORREY (18561928) was one of the great
Whitefield developed the practice of preaching early evangelists of the twentieth century. Torrey
in the open fields in England when he was not al- and his music assistant Charles Alexander were
lowed to preach in many of the English pulpits. welcomed as Moody and Sankeys successors.
From this practice an evangelistic ministry sur- Torrey believed that he was the divinely ap-
faced that took Whitefield across the face of En- pointed successor to Moody and prayed that the
gland and up the Atlantic Coast in America. A Lord would send him around the world with the
process was begun in which masses of people message of salvation. He held crusades across the
would gather to hear the Bible preached and seek world with notable crusades in Australia, India,
spiritual renewal. This planned process of re- and a four-year campaign in Britain, which
vivalism became a major evangelistic tool for claimed over one hundred thousand converts.
reaching the lost. His American crusades were highly successful as
Wesley soon joined Whitefield in his practice he gained notoriety for challenging atheists and
of open-air preaching. Crowds of over thirty was successful in refuting prominent Universal-
thousand flocked to hear Wesley preach. Receiv- ists and Unitarians.
ing great opposition from the clergy, he declared D. L. Moody referred to J. WILBUR CHAPMAN
that the world was his parish. As the demand for (18591918) as the greatest evangelist in the
247
Crusade Evangelism
country. Chapman became widely known for his who might be tempted to move in such a direc-
use of the simultaneous crusade. He would dition. In any event, however, there is no doubt that
vide cities into districts; evangelists would hold the varied forms of crusade evangelism have
meetings that preceded the main crusade. He played, and will continue to play, a vital role in
also utilized various specialists whom he believed mission and world evangelization.
would appeal to specific groups. His specialists FRANK HARBER
included social activists, athletes, representatives
Bibliography. E. E. Cairns, An Endless Line of Splen-
of the various denominations, childrens special- dor: Revivals and Their Leaders from the Great Awaken-
ists, and reformed alcoholics and gamblers. ing to the Present; S. Huston, Crusade Evangelism and
Wilbur Chapman left evangelism in 1895 for the Local Church; B. R. Lacy, Jr., Revivals in the Midst of
the pastorate and was succeeded by his crusade the Years; W. L. Muncy, Jr., History of Evangelism in the
director BILLY SUNDAY (18621935). Sunday was United States; P. Scharff, History of Evangelism: Three
a former professional baseball player for the Hundred Years of Evangelism in Germany, Great Britain,
Chicago White Stockings. His preaching style and the United States of America; M. Taylor, Exploring
was dramatic and included acrobatics and the- Evangelism: History, Methods, Theology.
atrics. Sunday erected giant wooden tabernacles,
some holding up to twenty-five thousand, to ac- Crusades, The. Military expeditions against var-
commodate the crowds. Those who responded to ious enemies of the medieval church, especially
Sundays invitation were called trail hitters, re- the campaigns that tried to free the Holy Land
flecting Sundays key phrase in the invitation to from the Muslims. Christians had gone on pil-
hit the sawdust trail. In all, Sunday preached to grimages to the Holy Land during much of the
over one hundred million people and led over a medieval period, but with the arrival of the
million persons to faith in Christ. Seljuk Turks their travels were hampered. These
During the twentieth century many notable invaders also pressured the Eastern Empire to
crusade evangelists engaged successfully in cru- such an extent that the emperor contacted the
sade evangelistic efforts around the world. pope and other leaders of Western Europe to
Prominent Africa-American crusade evangelists send mercenaries to help defend the Byzantine
include Howard Jones and Ralph Bell. American Empire. Pope Urban II responded to this appeal
Pentecostals who conducted massive healing cru- by proclaiming the First Crusade in a sermon at
sades include Oral Roberts, Kathryn Kuhlman, Clermont (1095). The primary reason for the
and Benny Hinn. In Latin American contexts Crusades was religious, for they constituted a
LUIS PALAU and Carlos Anacondia stand out. In holy war, and following Urbans appeal there was
Africa, Nigerian Benson Idahosa, Ugandan FESTO an outpouring of religious enthusiasm. In addi-
KIVENGERE, and Zambian Nevers Mumba are well tion, the pope saw in the Crusades an outlet for
known. Additionally, Pentecostals such as Ameri- the energies of the warring nobles of Europe. The
can T. L. Osborne and German Reinhard Bonnke First Crusade, consisting of about five thousand
have conducted large-scale crusades across the fighting men, moved overland to Constantinople
continent. Prominent Asian crusade evangelists and proceeded to conquer territory in Asia Minor
include Indians Abdiyah Akbar Abdul-Haqq, and the Levant. The conquest of Jerusalem was
Robert Cunville, and Ravi Zacharias as well as accompanied by a frightful slaughter of the in-
Sri Lankan Ajith Fernando. In the South Pacific, habitants. The Crusaders did not drive the Turks
Australian Bill Newman is well known. from the Middle East, but they established sev-
Perhaps no evangelist of any century, however, eral states that resulted in a balance of power
has had the impact of BILLY GRAHAM. Born in among them, the Byzantines, and the Muslims.
1918, Graham was converted under the preach- When the Crusader states were endangered,
ing of Evangelist Mordecai Ham. As a young Bernard of Clairvaux organized the Second Cru-
minister, Graham received much notoriety as the sade (1147), which was defeated. A Third Cru-
key speaker for Youth for Christ in rallies across sade (118992) resulted in a three-year truce and
the country. However, it was his 1949 crusade in the granting of free access to Jerusalem for Chris-
Los Angeles that launched his ministry into the tian pilgrims. This arrangement collapsed and
greatest crusade ministry in revival history. Like further Crusades were necessary. The few knights
many great evangelists before him, Graham who answered Innocent IIIs call to the Fourth
preached numerous crusades overseas, including Crusade (12024) were unable to pay the passage
major efforts in Australia, England, China, East- charges demanded by the Venetians. This led the
ern Europe, and the former Soviet Union. two groups to strike a bargain and agree to attack
Over the years crusade evangelistic efforts have Constantinople. After conquering and sacking the
had their share of detractors. Controversies over city, the Crusaders set up the Latin Empire of
excessive lifestyles and integrity issues have ex- Constantinople and forgot about recovering the
posed those who have engaged in crusade min- Holy Land. During the thirteenth century there
istry for personal gain. They have also resulted in were more Crusades such as the Childrens Cru-
better accountability structures among those sade, the Sixth Crusade led by the excommuni-
248
Cults, Cultism
cated Frederick II, and the Seventh Crusade of Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer-
Louis IX. Each of these failed in its efforts to ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His-
shore up the Latin crusading kingdoms and in tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to
1291 Acre, the last stronghold of the Christians in the Present.
the Holy Land, fell to the Muslims. Despite the
loss of the Middle Eastern territories the Cru- Cults, Cultism. Cults and new religious move-
sades did not end. Along the Baltic the Teutonic ments tend to emerge during times of social
knights conquered the Prussians and the Balts change and cultural upheaval. Whether the locale
and fought the Poles and the Russians. The mili- is North America or in a developing nation, cults
tary orders of the Mediterranean fought several are most successful when people experience
crusades as did the rulers of the Balkans during alienation, rootlessness, and uncertainty as a re-
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. sult of rapid social change. When people experi-
The Crusades, although credited with reviving ence a dislocation from previously stable social
Europe economically and commercially, were ac- structures, they often question the efficacy and
tually a failure. They poisoned relations between relevance of traditional social institutions like the
the Eastern Orthodox and Western church and family, government, and conventional religion.
increased Islamic hatred of Christianity. The faith From the perspective of biblical Christianity, the
had been perverted by vicious knights and greedy new cultic movements are viewed as spiritual
merchants who inflicted terrible suffering on counterfeits and their leaders as false prophets.
thousands of Muslims, Jews, and Christians. It is imperative that Christians involved in mis-
ROBERT G. CLOUSE sions be aware of the intrusion of these groups
into mission fields around the globe. Cult mis-
Bibliography. E. Christiansen, The Northern Cru- sionaries can be found in virtually every country
sades: The Baltic and the Catholic Frontier; N. Housley,
where evangelicals are ministering. In those
The Later Crusades, 12741580; B. Z. Kedar, Crusade
and Mission: European Approaches Toward the Muslims; countries where Christianity is not the dominant
S. Runciman, A History of the Crusades; K. M. Setton, A religion, indigenous populations are often unable
History of the Crusades. to distinguish between legitimate Christian wit-
ness and the outreach of cultists because the lat-
Cuba (Est. 2000 pop.: 11,385,000; 110,861 sq. km. ter often claim to be Christian and invoke the
[42,803 sq. mi.]). Cubas religious disposition has Bible as a source of their authority. It is essential,
been strongly conditioned by its close ties with therefore, that Christian missionaries work to de-
Spain. With a large European population and its velop discernment skills among the people they
status as a Spanish dependency until 1898, the is- are attempting to disciple.
land had a well-entrenched Roman Catholic es- The need to guard the gospel is illustrated by
tablishment existing side by side with a well- an event experienced a few years ago by a young
developed tradition of SECULARISM. Neither of couple involved in missionary service in Mar-
these ideological orientations filtered down to the tinique, a French island in the West Indies. There
level of the typical rural Cuban, whose devotion they led a church-planting ministry that required
to the church was limited and whose personal heavy investment in personal evangelism and
beliefs were likely to be those of Afro-Caribbean community outreach. From their labors there
folk culture. Students of Cuban development rec- emerged a tiny church that gradually grew to the
ognize that institutional religion itself was weak. point of self-sufficiency. But while the missionar-
Protestant churches were largely urban in an ies were away on a leave of absence, the infant
agricultural society, and both the Protestant and church was invaded by JEHOVAHS WITNESSES.
Catholic churches were perceived as being for- When they returned, they discovered that many
eign-based institutions. The Protestant presence of the members, including some of the leaders,
was the result of the religious pluralism and an- had been influenced by the teachings of that cult
ticlericalism that were part of the struggle for and had joined with them.
Cuban independence prior to 1898, as well as the This scenario is repeated over and over world-
increased mainland influence from expatriate wide. New Christians, lacking a solid foundation
Cubans and Protestant missionaries. in the faith and knowing little about the strate-
Despite the current absence of a foreign mis- gies and hallmarks of cults and aberrational
sionary force, reports of religious revival in Cuba Christian groups, are caught in a snare of decep-
indicate that evangelical Christianity remains tion and false teaching. It has been said that be-
hardy. Presently there are a reported 150,000 ac- cause of the enormous recent increase of cultic
tive evangelicals in Cuba, representing dozens of missionary activity overseas, missionaries today
denominations, among them various Baptist and are often as likely to confront someone from an
Pentecostal bodies. American-based cult as they are someone from
EVERETT A. WILSON
another world religion. The missionary zeal of
the cults in many instances surpasses that of
SEE ALSO Caribbean. Christian denominations.
249
Cults, Cultism
There are several ways to define cultism and to faith and the person of Jesus Christ. All believers
understand how cults work. It is possible to ana- are necessarily engaged in the task of APOLOGET-
lyze cults from sociological, psychological, and ICS, or defending the Christian faith.
theological perspectives. For the Christian, it is Cultic movements gain most of their converts
important to consider the truth-claims of any re- not from other WORLD RELIGIONS but from the
ligious group. Gods objective truth, as revealed ranks of Christians who are lacking a solid bibli-
in Scripture, is the standard for evaluating all be- cal foundation for their faith and who are naive
lief and practice. Therefore, any group, move- regarding the recruitment tactics of cults. There-
ment, or teaching may be considered cultic to the fore, it is imperative that mission agencies and
degree that it deviates from the Holy Scriptures non-Western church leaders give priority to the
as interpreted by orthodox, biblical Christianity task of educating new Christians about the dan-
and as expressed in such statements as the Apos- gers of false teaching and demonstrating how to
tles Creed. effectively respond to the cultic challenge. In
The majority of people who join cults are con- short, while evangelizing cults and new religions
sciously or unconsciously embarked on a spiri- may be part of the missionarys opportunity to
tual search. Some converts to NEW RELIGIOUS share the gospel of Christ, more attention should
MOVEMENTS are vulnerable because they have no be given to the task of equipping local believers
formal religious affiliation whatsoever and there- to become grounded in the faith so that they can
fore lack the necessary discernment skills to eval- discern truth from error and therefore avoid cul-
uate the many religious groups that beckon. tic entrapment.
Someone has said that nature abhors a vac- Just as missionaries must be familiar with the
uum. It is especially during times of cultural up- culture and religion of the people they want to
heaval that people, uprooted from traditional reach, they must also attempt to learn as much
ways of thinking, are susceptible to the influx of as possible about the cult or new religious move-
new ideas. G. K. Chesterton once remarked that ment that is often seeking to proselytize nonbe-
when people cease to believe in God, they do not lievers and immature Christians. It is also impor-
believe in nothing. They believe in anything. tant to identify the reasons why people are
What is an appropriate response for the Chris- attracted to cults. It is easy to overlook the fact
tian missionary to the cultists who are engaged that theological and doctrinal attractions are
in real spiritual competition for the souls of often secondary to personal and social reasons.
searching individuals? First, we must recognize People find cults appealing because the groups
that to reject the cultic alternatives to Christian- meet basic human needs: the need to be af-
ity is not to suggest that there is no truth in them. firmed, the need for community and family, the
Error is always built on a foundation of half- need for purpose and commitment, and the need
truths. Spiritual counterfeits often contain an el- for spiritual fulfillment.
ement of the real thing. Until we identify the web The tragedy is that cults often exploit the sig-
of error that characterizes all groups which de- nificant human and spiritual needs that are going
part from the baseline of truth found in the unmet in todays world. As missionaries ap-
Bible, we have only partially understood the dy- proach the task of equipping local Christians,
namics of the cults and new religions. When mis- they must first examine their own commitment
sionaries encounter members of cults and new to the truth of the gospel and to the authority of
religious movements, they can affirm the cultists Gods Word. Once we understand that the gospel
spiritual search while at the same time refuse to is really true and stands up to the most difficult
accept the presuppositions they may hold. We scrutiny, our own faith is enlarged and we be-
should seek to establish a common ground rather come more eager to encourage the faith of oth-
than attempt to win an argument. Many cultists, ers. We all need to develop a firm framework of
for example, share the Christians concern for the truth by which to evaluate the claims of other
environment, world peace, and alleviating groups.
hunger. Seeking common ground with the cultist From that framework, the missionary can help
will provide an opportunity to introduce the young Christians to understand two core charac-
claims of Jesus Christ. teristics of all cultic teachings: (1) A false or inad-
It goes without saying that missionaries (or equate basis of salvation. The apostle Paul made
any serious Christian) attempting to reach a distinction that is basic to our understanding of
cultists for Christ must be sure of their own faith truth when he wrote, For it is by grace you have
and be able to give a reason for the hope that is been saved, through faithand this not from
in us. In the final analysis, the clash between yourselves, it is the gift of Godnot by works, so
Christianity and the cultic ways of understanding that no one can boast (Eph. 2:89). All cultic de-
reality results from differences in worldviews. viations tend to downplay or distort the finished
The Christian missionary must be prepared to work of Christ on the cross and emphasize the
present an alternative model of spirituality, an al- role of earning moral acceptance before God
ternative WORLDVIEW that is centered on biblical through our own righteous works as a basis of
250
The Cultural Mandate
salvation. (2) A false basis of authority. Biblical Such tactics led to the label rice Christians for
Christianity by definition takes the Bible as its those who converted merely for what they could
yardstick for determining truth, whether in mat- gain culturally.
ters of faith or in practice. Cults, on the other The missionary cry of the late nineteenth cen-
hand, commonly resort to extra-biblical revela- tury, civilize in order to evangelize, was one of
tion as the substantial basis of their theology the more blatant calls to cultural conversion,
(e.g., Unificationists rely on the Divine Principle making as it did at least a partial conversion to
of Rev. Moon, the MORMONS cite The Book of Western culture a requirement for entrance into
Mormon). Christianity. The assumption that people had to
Just as Christian believers in the West have his- become Westerners culturally in order to be truly
torically been involved in and supportive of over- Christian provided the motivation for approaches
seas or foreign missions, we must also be sen- to mission in non-Western societies that empha-
sitive to the fact that cults are expanding their sized the setting up of Western-style schools,
influence worldwide. The cults are coming, but churches, and other institutions.
equally important is the reality that the cults are The CONTEXTUALIZATION movement, as advo-
going. Are we prepared for the inevitable spiritual cated by evangelicals (in contrast to a liberal ap-
and human casualties that such movements leave proach), is an attempt to rectify this cultural and
in their wake? theological fallacy. Its aim is to enable the people
RONALD ENROTH of each society to experience a genuine and
growing relationship with Jesus Christ in a bibli-
Bibliography. R. Abanes, Cults, New Religious Move- cally sound yet culturally understandable and ap-
ments, and Your Family: A Guide to Ten Non-Christian
propriate manner.
Groups Out to Convert Your Loved Ones; R. Enroth, ed.,
A Guide to Cults & New Religions; R. Rhodes, Reason- CHARLES H. KRAFT
ing From the Scriptures With the Mormons; idem, Rea- Bibliography. C. H. Kraft, PA 10 (1963): 17987;
soning From the Scriptures With the Jehovahs Witnesses; idem, Christianity in Culture.
idem, The Heart of Christianity; M. T. Singer, Cults in
Our Midst.
The Cultural Mandate. The expression cultural
mandate refers to Gods command to Adam and
Cultural Anthropology. See ANTHROPOLOGY. Eve to rule over creation (Gen. 1:28), meaning
to share with God in the management of all that
Cultural Conversion. Conversion of a people he had made. This mandate was issued before
from one culture to another. It is contrasted by the Fall occurred (Gen. 3), and obviously it pre-
Charles Kraft with Christian conversion, de- dates the missionary mandate (the GREAT COM-
fined as the biblically advocated yet culturally ap- MISSION; Matt. 28:1820). The cultural mandate
propriate conversion of persons from their old al- remains in force and its implications for Chris-
legiance to an allegiance to Christ. tian mission are important.
Most of the early advocates of Christianity un- The cultural mandate has several parts. The
derstandably felt that true Christianity could only first is the command to be fruitful, increase in
be properly expressed in the cultural forms in number, and fill the earth (Gen. 1:28). This is the
which they had received it. They, therefore, basic command to build community with the
sought to convert Gentiles both to Christ and to building blocks of marriage and family (Gen.
Jewish culture. But God insisted on granting the 2:24). Here lies the foundation of human society.
Holy Spirit even to Gentiles on the basis of faith The second part has to do with the naming of
alone without the necessity of converting to Jew- the animals (Gen. 2:1920), where Adams mental
ish culture. In agreeing with Gods approach, the and aesthetic gifts along with his decision-making
early church strongly asserted in Acts 15 that capacity were called into action. Implied in the
Christian witnesses were not to require Gentiles command to name the animals is humankinds re-
to convert to Jewish culture in order to be ac- sponsibility to study the universe, unlock its se-
ceptable to God. They thus established the prin- crets, use judiciously its potential, and glorify God
ciple of faith-only in place of the faith-plus- for the beauty and variety of creation.
culture requirement for conversion. The third part of the cultural mandate appears
The church has, however, gone back on that in Genesis 2:15, where Adam and Eve are placed
agreement constantly throughout history when in a bountiful garden and told to work it and
taking the gospel to other societies. Both Roman take care of it. Properly tended, the garden
Catholics and Protestants have been guilty of re- would provide amply for their physical needs and
quiring conversion to the specific cultural forms those of their descendants. Implied in this com-
of their home denomination in order to be truly mand is our responsibility for the natural envi-
Christian. Sometimes missionaries have even re- ronment, the air, soil, water, plants, and minerals,
sorted to providing food, money, or political fa- which must be diligently cared for and never ex-
vors to win converts to their way of doing things. ploited or misused.
251
The Cultural Mandate
Fourth, the cultural mandate includes the ele- Second, the witness of Christian lives in which
ments of reflection and celebration. This is im- Christ is honored as Lord over all affairs is highly
plied by the fact that when he had finished creat- important for the advance of the gospel. Like-
ing, God evaluated what he had made, declared wise, deeds of mercy to the suffering and needy
it to be good (Gen. 1:31), and set aside a day to bear eloquent testimony to Gods mercy in Christ.
celebrate and enjoy the fruit of his work (Gen. But our best works are flawed by imperfections
2:1). So important to God was this element of and can never substitute for the word-proclama-
rest, reflection, and celebration that he explicitly tion of the gospel of Gods grace in Christ. The
set aside one day in seven in the Ten Command- Christian life may give flesh to the word, but
ments given to Israel (Exod. 20:8). the Word is always necessary because it points
The FALL OF HUMANKIND occurred (Gen. 3), and beyond human imperfections to the perfect Sav-
since that time members of the human race indi- ior Jesus Christ.
vidually and collectively have transgressed the Third, churches as institutions ought to focus
cultural mandate in every imaginable way. Yet its on the task of proclaiming the gospel and disci-
basic precepts remain intact, and the conse- pling believers. Church members, acting in con-
quences of disregarding them are visible every- junction with the broader Christian community,
where. To a bewildered and suffering world should be taught and encouraged to apply the
Christian mission points back to Genesis, to our teachings of the gospel to social, cultural, and po-
first parents rebellion and to the transgression of litical issues. Even when the Christian community
Gods original mandate, to explain the source of as a whole is derelict in its cultural obligations, it
the evils that now plague humanity. is unwise and inappropriate for organized
There is still more to the cultural mandate so churches to plunge into matters that are not their
far as mission is concerned. Serious reflection on primary responsibility, because the specific task
the cultural mandate enlarges the Christian mes- of churches is defined by the missionary mandate
sage so that it addresses everything that God rather than the cultural mandate.
made, sin corrupted, and Christ makes new. It Christian day schools and colleges play a vital
propels Christian activity into every area of role in educating succeeding generations of chil-
human life and every corner of the world to com- dren and youth to enter life with a conscious
bat evil and falsehood and promote mercy, right- recognition of their calling to be salt and light in
eousness, and truth. all spheres of life (Matt. 5:1216). Christian edu-
The cultural mandate calls for an approach to cations primary responsibility lies in the area of
education that begins with the presupposition the cultural mandate. Nevertheless, Christian ed-
that the world belongs to God and he has man- ucation takes place in the New Testament age
dated how humans should relate to one another which is dominated by the missionary mandate.
and treat his whole creation. Reflection on the For that reason, Christian teachers should im-
cultural mandate leads Christians to see that press upon students the missionary claims of the
their responsibilities before God are not limited gospel and the urgency of world evangelization.
to activities in the institutional church, nor to ROGER S. GREENWAY
personal and private spirituality. They include all
the arenas of life, the social, economic, political SEE ALSO Evangelism and Social Responsibility.
and scientific. In each of these arenas they honor Bibliography. J. H. Bavinck, An Introduction to the
God as they promote truth and mercy and apply Science of Missions; J. Bolt, Christian and Reformed
scriptural principles to the affairs of life. Today; D. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts
Tension has sometimes developed between in Theology of Mission; N. Carr, The Origins and Purpose
those who stress the cultural mandate with its of Life: Genesis 111; D. J. Hesselgrave, Communicating
broad implications for Christian involvement and the Gospel Cross-Culturally.
those who stress the missionary mandate (Matt.
28:1820) that emphasizes preaching, making Culture. The word culture may point to many
disciples, and establishing churches. The follow- thingsthe habits of the social elite; disciplined
ing clarifications and distinctions need to be tastes expressed in the arts, literature, and enter-
made. tainment; particular stages of historical and
First, in a fallen world, people need to hear the human development. We use the term culture
gospel of Jesus Christ more than they need any- to refer to the common ideas, feelings, and values
thing else. Therefore the missionary mandate that guide community and personal behavior,
takes precedence over the cultural mandate. But that organize and regulate what the group thinks,
this does not mean that the missionary mandate feels, and does about God, the world, and hu-
replaces or swallows up the cultural mandate. manity. It explains why the Sawi people of Irian
Christians are obliged to obey both mandates, Jaya regard betrayal as a virtue, while the Ameri-
though in the order of missionary activity the can sees it as a vice. It undergirds the Korean
proclamation of the gospel to the unsaved is horror at the idea of Westerners placing their
primary. elderly parents in retirement homes, and Western
252
Culture
horror at the idea of the Korean veneration of ism tended to assume that cultures were fully in-
their ancestors. It is the climate of opinion that tegrated and coherent bounded sets. Later schol-
encourages an Eskimo to share his wife with a arship, wary of the static coloring, admits that
guest and hides the wife of an Iranian funda- this is only more or less so. Cultures are neither
mentalist Muslim in a body-length veil. The clos- aggregates of accumulated traits nor seamless
est New Testament approximation for culture is garments. There is a dynamic to human cultures
kosmos (world), but only when it refers to lan- that makes full integration incomplete; gaps and
guage-bound, organized human life (1 Cor. 14:10) inconsistencies provide opportunities for change
or the sin-contaminated system of values, tradi- and modification, some rapid and some slow.
tions, and social structures of which we are a The Dimensions of Culture. All cultures shape
part (John 17:11). their models of reality around three dimensions:
Cultures are patterns shared by, and acquired the cognitive (What do we know?); the affective
in, a social group. Large enough to contain sub- (What do we feel?); the evaluative (Where are our
cultures within itself, a culture is shared by the values and allegiances?). The cognitive dimen-
society, the particular aggregate of persons who sion varies from culture to culture. Take, for ex-
participate in it. In that social group we learn ample, the view of time. In the West time is a lin-
and live out our values. ear unity of past, present, and infinite future; in
The social and kinship connections that shape Africa time is basically a two-dimensional phe-
a group of people vary from culture to culture. nomenon, with a long past, a present, and an im-
Americans in general promote strong individual- mediate future. Similarly, cultures differ in their
ism and nuclear families, usually limited tightly conceptions of space, that is what they consider
to grandparents, parents, and children. Individ- to be public, social, personal, and intimate zones.
ual initiative and decision making are encour- For an American, the personal zone extends from
aged by the belief in individual progress. By com- one foot to three feet away, the intimate zone
parison, Asians and Africans as a rule define from physical contact to a foot away. For Latin
personal identity in terms of the family, clan, or Americans the zones are smaller. Thus when an
kinship group. Families are extended units with Anglo engages a Latino in casual conversation,
wide connections. And decision making is a so- the Latino perceives the Anglo as distant and
cial, multipersonal choice reflecting those con- cold. Why? What for the Anglo is the social zone
nections: We think, therefore I am. is for the Latino the public zone.
Cultures are not haphazard collections of iso- Affective and evaluative dimensions also differ
lated themes. They are integrated, holistic pat- from culture to culture. Beauty in the eye of a
terns structured around the meeting of basic Japanese beholder is a garden of flowers and
human needs. Their all-embracing nature, in empty space carefully planned and arranged to
fact, is the assumption behind the divine calling heighten the deliberative experience. To the
to humankind to image Gods creative work by Westerner a gardens beauty is found in floral
taking up our own creative cultural work in the profusion and variety.
world (Gen. 1:2830; see CULTURAL MANDATE). Whom can we marry? In the West that is an in-
Eating and drinking and whatever cultural activ- dividual decision; in clan-oriented societies the
ities we engage in (1 Cor. 10:31)all show the kinship group or the family decides. Among the
mark of interrelationship as Gods property and Dogon a mans wife should be chosen from
ours (1 Cor. 3:21b23). Thus the Dogon people of among the daughters of a maternal uncle; the girl
central Mali build their homes, cultivate their becomes a symbolic substitute for her husbands
land, and plan their villages in the shape of an mother, a reenactment of mythical incest found
oval egg. This represents their creation myth of in the Dogon account of the creation of the uni-
the great placenta from which emerged all space, verse. Among the kings of Hawaii and the
all living beings, and everything in the world. pharaohs of Egypt, brother-sister marriage was
Among the ancient Chinese the cosmic pattern practiced to preserve lineal purity and family in-
of balance and harmony, the yin and the yang, heritance.
was to be re-created again and again in daily de- The Levels of Cultures. Cultures are also mul-
cisions. The yin was negative, passive, weak, and tilayered models of reality. Like a spiral, they
destructive. The yang was positive, active, strong, move from the surface level of what we call cus-
and constructive. Individuality came from these toms through the cognitive, affective, and evalu-
opposites. The yin was female, mother, soft, dark; ative dimensions to the deep level of WORLDVIEW.
the yang was male, father, hard, bright. The deci- To illustrate, the Confucian ethic of moral eti-
sions where to live and where to be buried were quette consists largely in making sure that rela-
made by choosing a site in harmony with these tionships properly reflect the hierarchical scale.
opposites. In China and Korea, where cultural backgrounds
The anthropological theory of functionalism are shaped deeply by the Confucian ethic, the
underlined this holism; subsequent studies, how- idea of Li (righteousness) makes specific de-
ever, have introduced modifications. Functional- mands at different cultural levels: different forms
253
Culture
of speech in addressing people on different levels uses the shaping of human cultures to check the
of the social scale; ritual practices; rules of pro- rampant violence of evil and preserve human
priety; observance of sharply defined under- continuity. They provide guidelines to restrain
standings of the relationships of king to subject, our worst impulses, sanctions of SHAME or GUILT
older brother to younger brother, husband to to keep us in line. Cultures and worldviews, then,
wife, father to son. And linking all these together are not simply neutral road maps. Created by
is the religious perception of their specific places, those who bear the IMAGE OF GOD (Gen. 1:2728),
in the Tao (the Way, the rule of heaven). they display, to greater or lesser degree, both the
In this process, cultural forms (e.g., language, wisdom of God and the flaws of sin.
gestures, relationships, money, clothing) are in- RELIGION, given this understanding, cannot be,
vested with symbolic meanings conventionally as functionalism argues, simply one of many
accepted by the community. They interpret the human needs demanding satisfaction. As the
forms and stamp them with meaning and value human response to the revelation of God, it per-
(see SYMBOL, SYMBOLISM). Each cultural form, meates the whole of life. It is the core in the
ambivalent by itself, thus becomes a hermeneuti- structuring of culture, the integrating and radical
cal carrier of values, attitudes, and connotations. response of humanity to the revelation of God.
Clothing can indicate social status, occupation, Life is religion.
level of education, ritual participation. Foot In the building of culture, worldview or reli-
washing in ancient Hebrew culture became an gion is the central controlling factor: (1) it ex-
expression of hospitality (Luke 7:44). In Christian plains how and why things came to be as they
ritual it became a symbol of humble service are, and how and why they continue or change;
(John 13:45). (2) it validates the basic institutions, values, and
This symbolic arbitrariness can either help or goals of a society; (3) it provides psychological re-
hinder communication between persons and inforcement for the group; (4) it integrates the
groups. Jesus reproof of hypocrites as a genera- society, systematizing and ordering the cultures
tion of vipers (Luke 3:7) would be a great compli- perceptions of reality into an overall design; (5) it
ment to the Balinese, who regard the viper as a provides, within its conservatism, opportunities
sacred animal of paradise. On the other hand, his for perceptual shifts and alterations in concep-
rebuke of the cunning Herod as that fox (Luke tual structuring. This fifth characteristic of
13:32) would make good sense to the same Bali- worldview, that is, susceptibility to change, opens
nese, in whose fables the jackal plays a treacher- the door for the transforming leaven of the
ous part. The Korean concept of Li (righteous- gospel. The coming of Christ as both Savior and
ness) can be a point of contact with the Bible, but judge takes every thought captive (2 Cor. 10:5).
also a point of confusion, as the Confucian focus When that divine work is initiated, people, under
on works confronts the Pauline focus on grace. the impulse of the Spirit, begin to change their
At the core of all cultures is the deep level worldview and, as a result, their culture.
where worldviews, the prescientific factories and In the language of CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY,
bank vaults of presuppositions, are generated the change wrought by the gospel is a threefold
and stored. Here the human heart (Prov. 4:23; Jer. process: reevaluation (a change of allegiance),
29:13; Matt. 12:34), the place where our most reinterpretation (a change of evaluative princi-
basic commitments exist, responds to those di- ples), and rehabituation (a series of changes in
vine constants or universals that are reshaped by behavior). With regard to the change in the indi-
every culture (Rom. 2:1415). Twisted by the im- vidual, the Bible speaks of repentance (Luke
pact of sin and shaped by time and history, those 5:32) and conversion (Acts 26:20). With regard to
internalizations produce cultures that both obey the wider social world, it speaks of the new cre-
and pervert Gods demands (Rom. 1:1827). In ation (2 Cor. 5:17); the age to come, which has al-
some cultures, for example, murder is con- ready begun in this present age (Eph. 1:21); and
demned, but becomes an act of bravery when the the eschatological renewal of all things (Matt.
person killed belongs to a different social group. 19:28), the beginnings of which we taste now in
Other peoples view theft as wrong, but only when changed behavior (Titus 3:5).
it involves the stealing of public property. Thus Peripheral changes run the risk of encouraging
Native Americans, who see the land as a common CULTURAL CONVERSION rather than conversion to
possession of all, as the mother of all life, view Christ. The goal of missions must be larger, to
the white intruders with their assumption of pri- bring our cultures into conformity to the KING-
vate ownership as thieves. When the Masai of DOM OF GOD and its fullness. The whole of cul-
Africa steal cattle, they do not regard the act as tural life ought to be subjected to the royal au-
theft, for they see all cattle as their natural pos- thority of him who has redeemed us by his blood
session by way of gift from God. (Matt. 28:1820).
Besides reflecting and reshaping Gods de- HARVIE M. CONN
mands, cultures are also the means of Gods com-
mon grace. Through his providential control God SEE ALSO Gospel and Culture.
254
Cultural Learning
Bibliography. E. Hall, Silent Language; P. Hiebert, best learned by participant observation in the
Anthropological Insights for Missionaries; C. Kraft, daily economic activities of people, and by inter-
Christianity in Culture; S. Lingenfelter, Transforming viewing the people, seeking their explanation of
Culture: A Challenge for Christian Mission; J. Loewen, how and why they do what they do. Participant
Culture and Human Values; L. Luzbetak, The Church
observation can be done while learning language.
and Cultures: New Perspectives in Missiological Anthro-
pology; E. Nida, Customs, Culture, and Christianity;
Inquiry into economic activities, which are daily
B. Ray, African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, and Commu- and ordinary, provides opportunity for develop-
nity; J. Stott and R. Coote, eds., Down to Earth: Studies ing ones vocabulary and deepening ones under-
in Christianity and Culture. standing of the daily life of people. Lingenfelter
(1996, 4396) provides a series of research ques-
Cultural Learning. The intercultural worker tions that are useful in the collection of data on
who desires to become competent in the culture property, labor, and exchange, and in the analysis
of ministry must commit to intentional activities and comparison of those data with ones home
and to a lifestyle that results in cultural learning culture.
(see also INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCY). The best Social Relations. Every community structures
time to engage in intentional cultural learning is its social relations in accord with principles of kin-
during the first two years of ministry (see BOND- ship, marriage, interest, and other kinds of associ-
ING). If the intercultural worker establishes good
ations (see ASSOCIATION, SOCIOANTHROPOLOGY OF).
Understanding the nature of authority in family
habits of intentional learning, those habits will
and community is crucial to framing ministry ac-
carry on throughout the life of ones ministry and
tivities and working in effective relationships with
make a person much more effective. This brief
leaders in the community. Several anthropological
essay highlights seven significant steps in the cul-
tools are very helpful in understanding the struc-
tural learning process. Each can be accomplished
ture of social relations. Making maps and doing a
within the first two years of living and working
census of a particular section of the community
interculturally.
will help one learn who is who in a community
Language Learning. (See SECOND LANGUAGE and how they are connected (or not) to one an-
ACQUISITION.) Language learning is essential to other. Doing genealogies of selected members in
the whole cultural learning process. Individuals the community provides a conceptual map of how
who choose to minister interculturally and do people think about their relationships with refer-
not learn language will always be excluded from ence to kinship ties. The map and the census be-
a deep understanding of the local culture. While come extremely useful to intercultural workers be-
some cultural practices can be picked up through cause it provides for them names and locations of
observation of behaviors, the meaning of those people with whom they are certain to interact dur-
practices can only be understood through the ing the ministry. Lingenfelter (1996, 97143) pro-
language of the local people. In many social set- vides questions on family and community author-
tings in the world people speak more than one ity that help the researcher understand the
language. Intercultural workers may be tempted structure of authority relationships and compare
to learn a national language and then presume them with ones home culture and commitments.
that this is enough to work among a local people. Childrearing. At first glance intercultural
While the national language is important, the workers might wonder if observing childrearing
deeper understanding of a local culture requires practices has any relationship to intercultural
learning the local language as well. The best way ministry. What they fail to realize is that the chil-
to learn a local language is to employ a local lan- dren are the most precious resource in any com-
guage speaker who has some training in teaching munity, and that the parents of children invest
that language and who is willing to teach on an much time and effort in transmitting their cul-
intensive daily basis for a period of at least six tural values and coaching the next generation to
months. If such a person is not available, then become mature and effective adults in the com-
Brewster and Brewster (1976) have provided a munity. Childrearing practices provide direct in-
handbook of activities that the learner can use to sight into the deeper values and commitments
pick up the local language. While some people that are crucial for acceptance and effectiveness
find this method very helpful and easy to use, in the wider society. It is helpful for the intercul-
others find it quite difficult. Whatever method tural worker to have intimate relationships with
you choose, learning the local language is central two or three families with children in which they
to deeper cultural understanding. may observe and with whom they may dialogue
Economic Relations. Since all intercultural about the process of raising children. Because
ministry involves working with people, under- children have unique and distinctive personali-
standing the organization of labor, cultural con- ties, the childrearing process also helps the inter-
ceptions of property, and social expectations for cultural worker learn how people in the culture
payment, borrowing, and exchange is essential to deal with distinctive personalities. This can be
effective ministry activities. These activities are most useful when one engages these distinctive
255
Cultural Learning
personalities as adults. Recording case studies of through analogy. One finds a particular structure
how parents deal with a particular child over a of authority and organization in a community,
period of time can be a very useful form of ob- and thinks about the analogy of that structure to
servation and learning. Interviewing the parents a growing body of believers. One observes pat-
about their intentions in the process can illumi- terns of learning among children and draws
nate further cultural values and understanding. analogies to learning among adults who are in-
Spradley (1979) provides very helpful insights on volved in community development or other min-
structuring interviews, and collecting and ana- istry programs. Learning to think analogically
lyzing interview data. about cultural learning and ministry is crucial for
Conflict and Conflict Resolution. The careful ministry effectiveness. Paul Hiebert and Eloise
study of CONFLICT is one of the most fruitful areas Meneses (1995) provide very helpful guidelines
for research on a culture. In situations of conflict for application in the ministries of church plant-
people engage in heated exchanges that focus ing. Marvin Mayers (1987) provides valuable in-
around issues that are of extreme importance to sight into the application of cultural learning for
them. An effective cultural learning program in- interpersonal relationships and other kinds of in-
cludes the careful recording of case studies of tercultural relationships.
conflict, and the interviewing of participants in SHERWOOD LINGENFELTER
the conflict to understand what people are feeling,
what they value, why they are contesting with SEE ALSO Extent of Missionary Adjustment.
each other, and what their hopes are with regard Bibliography. E. T. Brewster and E. Brewster, Lan-
to resolution. In addition, careful analysis of the guage Acquisition Made Practical; D. Elmer, Cross-
social processes that people employ for the re- Cultural Conflict; P. G. Hiebert and E. H. Meneses, In-
solving of conflict is very important. Inevitably carnational Ministry: Planning Churches in Band, Tribal,
each intercultural worker will experience inter- Peasant, and Urban Societies; S. G. Lingenfelter, Agents
personal conflict with national co-workers. Un- of Transformation: A Guide for Effective Cross-Cultural
derstanding local processes for conflict resolution Ministry; M. K. Mayers, Christianity Confronts Culture;
J. P. Spradley, The Ethnographic Interview.
will enable that person to proceed with wisdom
and with support in the local cultural setting (see
Lingenfelter, 1996, 14468, and Elmer). Culture Shock. The concept of culture shock
Ideas and Worldview. Because Christian in- was brought into prominence in missionary cir-
tercultural workers are interested in sharing the cles by the reprinting in the journal Practical An-
gospel with other peoples, they must seek to un- thropology of Kalervo Obergs pioneering articles
derstand the ideas and WORLDVIEW of the people entitled, Cultural Shock: Adjustment to New
with whom they work. These ideas are best un- Cultural Environments. In this article the condi-
derstood by careful research in the language, by tion is described as the result of losing all our fa-
recording and studying the stories, and by ob- miliar signs and symbols of social intercourse as
serving and understanding the significant life we interact in a foreign cultural environment.
cycle rituals of the local community. Research on Culture shock is the condition, experienced by
funerals is probably one of the most profitable nearly everyone at the start of life in a different
activities that the intercultural worker can do for culture, in which one feels off balance, unable to
an understanding of the ideas and deeper values predict what peoples reactions will be when one
of the local culture (see also DEATH RITES). Funer- does or says something. It is a real psychological
als engage the widest circle of family and friends response to very real perceptions and must be
of any particular individual. At these events peo- taken seriously.
ple discuss issues of life and death, and act to- Though the condition can be serious to the ex-
gether on the beliefs that they hold with regard to tent of debilitation, it is an overstatement to label
the causes of death and the transition from life to it shock (in the medical sense), as if every case
after life. Other life cycle activities such as mar- were crippling. Many prefer the term culture
riage, naming, and birth of children provide sim- stress with the recognition that serious cases
ilar fruitful insights into the belief system of a can approach a condition similar to that labeled
culture (see Lingenfelter, 1996, 165205, and shock by the medical profession. The good news
Elmer 1993). is that most people can survive long enough in
Application for Ministry. Cultural learning for another society to overcome at least the worst
its own sake is interesting and helpful, but for the features of culture stress if they are determined
intercultural worker it is important to practice enough and work hard at adapting to the new
the discipline of application. Each of the areas cultural world they have entered.
outlined above provides very useful information Four major stages have been identified as reac-
that the intercultural worker may apply to build tions to culture stress in the adjustment process.
more effective ministries. However, application The first of these may be labeled the honeymoon
must be learned and practiced. The application or I love everything about these people stage.
of cultural learning to ministry typically works This period may last from a few weeks to several
256
Curse, Curses
months if the person stays in the foreign envi- tion reasonably in most social situations, espe-
ronment. This is a good time to commit oneself cially those they can control, and having learned
to a rigorous program of language and culture to assert and maintain control regularly.
learning, before the realities of the new situation With developing facility in the language and
thrust one into the next stage. Unfortunately, culture, however, and an increasing sense of be-
many return home before this period is over and longing, one may move to the fourth or ad-
write and speak very positively about an experi- justed stage. Though many of the problems of
ence that was quite superficial. the third stage may remain, the determination to
If they stay, they are likely to enter the second succeed and to master the language and culture
stage which can last from months to years. This coupled with encouraging success enable one to
is the period in which the differences and the in- keep growing without giving in to discourage-
securities of living in an unpredictable environment. The key is to continue learning and grow-
ment get on their nerves, sometimes in a big ing, accepting the fact that you are attempting to
way. For some this is an I hate everything learn in a few years a whole way of life that has
stage. People in this second stage of culture taken the insiders many years to learn. Curiosity,
stress are often overly concerned about cleanli- a learning attitude, enjoyment of the process, and
ness, food, and contact with those around them. just plain determination are your best allies as
They often have feelings of helplessness and loss you give yourself to the task.
of control, may become absent-minded, and fre- Some (e.g., Dodd, 1995, 21316) have seen the
quently develop fears of being cheated, robbed, whole spread of reactions observed among hu-
or injured. Not infrequently physical and spiri- mans under stress in the way different people go
tual problems can accompany these psychologi- about the process of adapting to a new culture.
cal difficulties and the cross-cultural workers Especially in stage two, they note that some dis-
life becomes very difficult. solve in fright and never get over it. Others react
As Oberg points out, this second stage of cul- by flight and return home. Still others develop
ture shock is in a sense a crisis in the disease. If one or another filter approach by moving into
you overcome it, you stay; if not, you leave before the escapism posture in which they resort to un-
you reach the stage of a nervous breakdown. Or, healthy attitudes such as denying differences, liv-
as many have done, you stay but spend all your ing in exaggerated memories of their home cul-
time with your kind of people, effectively insulat- ture or going native. Others are determined to
ing yourself against the people that surround you fight and may do this constructively, conquering
and their culture. Unfortunately, many mission the obstacles, or destructively by developing a
compounds and institutions have provided just negative, belligerent attitude toward the new cul-
such a refuge for missionaries who never got be- ture. Those with constructive, fighting determi-
yond this stage of culture stress. To survive this nation, however, learn to flex by accepting, learn-
stage you need to feed your determination, force ing and growing into effective functionaries in
yourself to be outgoing, in spite of many embar- the new cultural world. These are the ones who
rassing situations, and plug away at your lan- succeed.
guage and culture learning even though nothing CHARLES H. KRAFT
seems to be coming together.
SEE ALSO Adjustment to the Field.
Those who survive the second stage begin to
level off, accepting that things are going to be Bibliography. C. H. Dodd, Dynamics of Intercultural
different and difficult to predict while they are Communication; A. Furnham and W. J. Lonner, Culture
beginning to be able to function in the language Shock; K. Oberg, PA 7 (1960): 17782.
and culture. They develop an ability to laugh at
themselves and to endure the frequent embar- Curse, Curses. A curse is an utterance in which
rassing situations in which they dont understand a person calls on supernatural power to bring
what is going on. They begin to recognize that harm to the one cursed. Curses are the opposite
the people they are living among and their way of of blessings, usually making use of satanic power
life are neither totally good nor totally bad but, rather than, as with blessings, employing the
like their own people and their way of life, some power of God. Though words are usually used,
of each. By this time a person has attained the power is not in the words but flows from the
enough facility in the language to function rea- supernatural being who empowers them.
sonable well in several situations so that some- The Bible takes curses and cursing seriously,
times, at least, things look hopeful. assuming that people have the authority to in-
Even with this improvement in attitude, how- voke supernatural power in this way. The words
ever, discouragement may take over and lead to a are used about 200 times in the Scriptures. The
kind of truce with the cross-cultural situation term anathema (1 Cor. 16:22), often seen as a
that issues in a plateauing or holding pattern powerful curse in Scripture, is instead a formula
rather than continuing growth and adaptation. of excommunication with which a person is
Many stop at this point, having learned to func- turned over to God for punishment.
257
Curse, Curses
The authority Christians have to curse is nei- John Mark simply continued the work begun
ther to be taken lightly (James 3:810) nor to be during the first visit of Barnabas and Paul to
abused. Indeed, both Jesus (Luke 6:28) and Paul Cyprus. It is possible that Barnabas spent the rest
(Rom. 12:14) admonish us to bless rather than to of his life there. The traditional site of his tomb
curse those who hurt us. The Jews who partici- is still marked by a small Greek Orthodox church
pated in the crucifixion called down on them- near the ruins of Salamis in the vicinity of Fam-
selves a very powerful curse when they said, Let agusta, a small Turkish town in eastern Cyprus.
the punishment for His death fall on us and our The modern Christian community of Cyprus
children! (Matt. 27:25 GNB). quite naturally still looks back to Barnabas and
Cursing seems to be very much alive today. Saul as its founders.
Missionaries from various parts of the world re- The culture of modern Cyprus was shaped by
port situations in which parcels of land, build- its Byzantine Christianity, conspicuously repre-
ings, artifacts, and missionaries themselves sented by the churches and monasteries dotting
and/or their family members have had negative its picturesque mountains and plains. Though
words directed at them that were followed by Cyprus was incorporated into the Muslim Ot-
strange occurrences. Several instances have been toman Empire, its strong Christian community
reported of illness or other misfortune affecting continued to dominate the local life of the island,
everyone who lived in mission homes built on and its British colonization in the dying years of
land the people consider cursed. In many cases, the Ottoman Empire assured that it was not
the situation has been alleviated through claim- merged into the new Turkish nation-state after
ing the authority of Christ to break the apparent World War I.
curses. In addition, those involved in praying As a result of its Ottoman period, however,
with people for inner healing report great change there remained a conglomerate of majority Greek
when certain negative emotional and spiritual and minority Turkish villages scattered across the
symptoms are dealt with by claiming the author- island landscape during the British colonial pe-
ity of Christ to break curses. riod, extending up until the early 1960s. Then as
CHARLES H. KRAFT the British gave Cyprus its sovereignty as a tiny
nation-state, they attempted to create a Constitu-
SEE ALSO Spiritual Warfare. tion that would honor the citizenship of both
Greeks and Turks with their vastly different cul-
Bibliography. H. Aust and D. Mller, NIDNTT
I:41315; W. Mundle, NIDNTT, I:41517; C. H. Kraft, tures and histories, one Byzantine Christian and
Defeating Dark Angels. the other Muslim.
This attempted political solution lasted for only
a decade. In 1974, amid increasing tensions be-
Customs. See CULTURE.
tween Greek and Turkish villages, the Turkish
army invaded Cyprus and stimulated a popula-
Cyprus (Est. 2000 pop.: 777,000; 9,251 sq. km. tion exchange that placed the vast majority of the
[3,572 sq. mi.]). No modern nation outside Israel Cypriot Turkish population in the northern third
holds a more ancient claim to the presence of its of the island while the Cypriot Greek population
sons and daughters among the early Christians was now placed in the southern two-thirds. In the
than does the little island of Cyprus in the north- years following, a United Nations peace-keeping
eastern Mediterranean. It was a Levite from force patrolled the green line between the Turk-
Cyprus named Joseph, but better known as Barn- ish north and the Greek south, with no commerce
abas, who distinguished himself in the earliest or communication between the two. This military
Christian community by selling a field and placing solution was undertaken against strong protests
the proceeds at the feet of the apostles (Acts 4:36). by the international community, but the Turkish
It was this same Barnabas who was sent by the army has made, and kept, its point.
Jerusalem apostles to nurture the new Gentile In the tiny northern state called the Turkish
outreach at Antioch (Acts 11:22) and who Republic of northern Cyprus, Cypriot Turks
promptly brought Saul from Tarsus to help him. maintain a universal, though largely secular, Is-
It was no accident that later when Barnabas, lamic culture. More recent immigrants from
Saul, and John Mark set off on their first apos- Turkey, bolstered by Arab Muslim oil wealth, are
tolic mission from Antioch, they went first to helping reintroduce a more orthodox strain of
Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:5), probably Barn- Islam. Stimulated by evangelical Christian tent-
abass home community. It is recorded that they makers, a small group or two of Cypriot Turkish
traveled through the whole island (Acts 13:6), believers struggle to take hold, and British rem-
no doubt preaching everywhere they went. nants of their colonial period still meet to wor-
Later, Barnabas took John Mark on a second ship as Anglicans in the coastal town of Kyrenia.
journey back to Cyprus (Acts 15:39). Though no In the Greek south, where the northern Turkish
additional information is given, it seems logical nation-state is not recognized, the nation of
to assume that on this occasion Barnabas and Cyprus continues its uneasy existence. Dozens of
258
Czech Republic
evangelical Christian off-shore companies fo- sq. mi.]). The modern state of Czechoslovakia was
cusing on mission to the Muslim world have created in 1918 out of the dismembered and de-
made southern Cyprus their headquarters. Here feated Austro-Hungarian Empire. Protestant
they are tolerated as long as they do not challenge churches, and the pre-Reformation Hussite
the dominant Greek orthodox culture of southern movement with its development in the Unitas
Cyprus itself. Very small groups of evangelical Fratrum, were always under pressure or at times
Cypriot Greek Christians, however, do exist. outright persecution at the hands of the favored
RICHARD SHOWALTER Roman Catholic Church. The Unitas Fratrum had
both an ecumenical as well as a missionary vi-
Cyril (826 or 827869). Greek missionary to the sion, especially with leaders such as Jan Amos
Slavic people. Christened Constantine, he was Comenius (15921620), although external cir-
born in Thessalonica (Saloniki), the youngest cumstances never made practical implementation
child of a Byzantine official. When he was four- of the vision possible. The Renewed Moravian
teen Constantine went to Constantinople to Church, comprising refugees from Moravia who
study. He excelled and soon was teaching philos- were given sanctuary in Herrnhut by the German
ophy at the university. After 855, he retired to live nobleman NICHOLAS VON ZINZENDORF, were the
and study at the Mount Olympus monastery trailblazers of the modern Protestant missionary
(where his brother METHODIUS was a monk). Be- movement (see also MORAVIAN MISSIONS). They
cause of his fame as a teacher, he and his brother
sent out hundreds of missionaries all over the
were made part of delegation sent in 860 to pre-
world, beginning in 1732. The Protestants who re-
sent Christianity to the Khazar people. They met
mained in the Habsburg domains concentrated
with little lasting success. The Slavic ruler,
Rastislav, asked the patriarch of Constantinople on survival rather than foreign mission. In 1918
for Greek priests in 862. Constantine and the Czech and Slovak peoples achieved their in-
Methodius were selected. In preparation, the dependence, which sadly lasted for only twenty
brothers translated the Gospels and prepared a years. Even after the Second World War, they
liturgy. In 863 they traveled to Rastislavs court soon became part of the Soviet bloc and only
and began preaching and started a seminary for achieved true national independence in 1989 with
Slavic priests. Opposition developed from the the Velvet Revolution. Some missionary interest
Frankish missionaries, and in 868, they went to and awareness were sustained over the years of
Rome to defend their work. Pope Hadrian II ap- foreign domination (a number of courageous
proved their liturgy and had Methodius and three Czech pastors smuggled Bibles and Christian lit-
of the Slavic priests ordained. The pope also in- erature into the Soviet Union even in the dark
tended to consecrate Constantine as archbishop days of communist domination), but it is only in
of Moravia. However, Constantine died in Rome the past ten years that there has been any real
on February 14, 869, after becoming a monk and possibility of Czech and Slovak Christians being
taking the name of Cyril. The ministry of Cyril involved in cross-cultural missionary activity. This
and Methodius is traditionally regarded as the is now taking place as individuals are feeling the
major means by which the gospel was brought to call of God. A few students from the Evangelical
the Slavic people. Seminary in Prague are already serving in Asia.
ROBERT SHUSTER With encouragement, the trickle could develop
Bibliography. F. Dvornik, Byzantine Missions Among into a flood.
the Slavs: SS. Constantine-Cyril and Methodius. RONALD DAVIES
The Czech Republic and Slovakia (Combined Czech Republic. See CZECH REPUBLIC AND SLO-
est. 2000 pop.: 15,814,000; 127,899 sq. km. [49,382 VAKIA.
259
Damnation. See JUDGMENT.
Danish Mission Boards and Societies. In 1706

the first missionaries from a Lutheran land ar-
rived in the Tranquebar region of southeast
India, sent out by what became known as the
DANISH-HALLE MISSION. The Danish king, Freder-
ick IV, had been especially eager to spread the
faith by sponsoring this initiative. But in fact the
first missionaries were Germans, as were most of
Dd
wake of the 1910 Edinburgh WORLD MISSIONARY
CONFERENCE. Initially it had twelve member soci-
eties, all Lutheran. Fifty years later the number
of agencies had doubled and included four non-
the several dozen sent to India throughout the Lutheran ones.
rest of the century. (However, the number of As in the rest of Scandinavia, the Danish free
Danes, six or so, who went probably was the churches are very small. The membership total
right proportion compared to the far more nu- for all of the congregations in each denomina-
merous German population.) A missionary col- tion is still only a few thousand. This has never-
lege was founded in Denmark in 1714 to further theless not kept them from concern for foreign
this and other ventures. By the beginning of the missions, and proportionately they send out far
nineteenth century, this early Danish-Halle thrust more than the societies within the national
had been overwhelmed by a rationalistic spirit. church. Their small size means that this yields
A new beginning occurred in 1821 with the only one or two dozen missionaries from each
founding of the Danish Missionary Society. It has denomination. They differ from the main body
always functioned as a voluntary society within also in that the denomination as a whole gener-
the framework of the national Lutheran Church, ally takes responsibility for the missions work.
to which almost all Danes nominally belong. Fi- The Danish free church missions have mostly
nancial support is provided by contributions worked in Africa. One example are the Baptists
rather than through the taxes that have provided who, beginning in 1928, served in the Central
for buildings and clergy salaries. This society, like African countries of Rwanda and Burundi.
many of the other early ones around Europe, ini- In the early 1970s there were about 330 Dan-
tially sent workers through the auspices of older ish Protestants serving abroad with twenty-eight
ones, such as the BASEL MISSION, before sending boards and societies in thirty countries, as well
missionaries on its own. Eventually the Danish as a dozen or so Roman Catholic and Jehovahs
society had up to seventy missionaries at a time Witness missionaries. Twenty years later the
in China. But by the 1960s there were only about number of Protestant missionaries had risen to
eighty-five missionaries total, two-fifths each in about 350, but mergers had reduced the agencies
Africa and India, the rest in Taiwan and Japan. to eighteen.
Meanwhile, many other societies emerged DONALD TINDER
within the national Lutheran Church, eventually
numbering sixteen or seventeen, mostly small and Danish-Halle Mission. King Frederick IV of
focusing on one or two fields. The only other one Denmark, unsuccessful in finding Danish mis-
with more than a score of workers is a Sudan sionaries to work at the outpost at Tranquebar
Mission, begun in 1911 for work in what is now on the south coast of India, turned to the Ger-
Nigeria, and which reported sixty-six missionaries man Pietists at Halle under August H. Francke.
by 1970. Among the smaller Lutheran ones are the In response, Francke sent BARTHOLOMAUS ZIEGEN-
Santal dating from 1867 for work in India and a BALG and Henry Pltschau as the first missionar-
Lutheran Missionary Association begun in 1868 ies to Tranquebar. They arrived as the first
with work in Tanzania and Surinam. Protestant missionaries in India on July 9, 1706.
In 1912 a national missionary council was Five principles characterized their work: (1) ed-
formed, as in so many other countries in the ucation and Christianity go together, as Chris-
260
Death
tians must be able to read Gods Word; (2) the Richard, ed., R. C. Das: Evangelical Prophet for Contex-
Word must be available in the local language tual Christianity.
(Tamil) as quickly as possible; (3) preaching and
teaching must be based on accurate insight into DAWN. See DISCIPLING A WHOLE NATION.
the WORLDVIEW of the local population; (4) the
goal of the missionary work is personal conver- de Nobili, Robert. See NOBILI, ROBERT DE.
sion; and (5) an INDIGENOUS CHURCH must be
started as quickly as possible. Death. Humans, like animals, die. Unlike ani-
The work at Tranquebar was a pioneer model
mals, humans know they will die. They confront
of cooperation on an international and intercon-
ahead of time the disturbing fact of mortality.
fessional scale in the missionary venture. The
They may do this through actually witnessing the
early missionaries came predominately from
death of others, or simply through hearing sto-
Germany, but also from Denmark and Sweden,
ries of such. People anticipate their own death in
with money and a printing press coming from
imagination when they experience presages of
England. The use of the printing press in mis-
death in illness, suffering, bodily aging and decay,
sionary work was pioneered by Ziegenbalg at
or in the malevolent sentiments or explicit
Tranquebar. After the first generation, the most
threats leveled against them by others.
famous of the Tranquebar missionaries was
People respond in diverse ways to conscious-
CHRISTIAN F. SCHWARTZ. Even though the work
ness of their mortality. Some embrace hedonism.
had all but collapsed by the turn of the nine-
The most obvious way of reconciling oneself to
teenth century, the mission methodology at
death is to make sure of enjoying life before
Tranquebar set the stage for much of the mis-
sionary work in India and still remains a model death snatches it from us (Toynbee, 69). Paul ac-
of solid philosophy undergirding quality practice knowledges the logic of this response: If death
and cooperation. ends all, let us eat, drink, and be merry for to-
A. SCOTT MOREAU
morrow we die (1 Cor. 15:32). Nonetheless the
purposeless pursuit of pleasure is essentially es-
Bibliography. H. W. Gensichen and M. Bauer, capistrepressing awareness of a problem that
EMCM, pp. 21415; A. Lehman, CDCWM, pp. 15960; will not go away.
S. C. Neill, HCM. Others embrace pessimism and stress that life
is so bad that death can be welcomed as a lesser
Das, Rajendra Chandra (18871976). Indian evil. The Buddha, for example, stressed that life
evangelist and indigenizer. Rajendra Chandra and suffering were synonymous. Not death, but
Das was born in East Bengal (now Bangladesh) rebirth, is the arch-ordeal for a human being
in 1887. After nearly embracing the Brahmo (Toynbee, 71). The goal is to extinguish desire
Samaj he was baptized in Dacca in 1908. After and thus extinguish the self in nirvana.
higher education in Calcutta, he taught in Chris- Others seek immortality by winning fameby
tian colleges for some years before becoming a attempting to ensure that at least their memory
full-time evangelist. will live on. Some pour themselves into their off-
Das was a critic of Western methods of ministry spring, attempting somehow to live on in and
among Hindus. From the time of his conversion through them. And of course many hold out
he experimented with indigenous methods of some kind of hope in a future joyous afterlife.
worship and service. In 1930 he left Bengal to join But ideas on this matter differ markedly and,
the newly born Benares United City Mission from the human standpoint, epistemological ob-
(192946) in holy Benares (Varanasi) on the stacles to mapping such an afterlife seem insur-
Ganges. This effort of seven Protestant mission mountable. While everyone crosses the river of
societies remains the only concerted mission death, the traffic is one-way.
focus on orthodox Hindus in the history of Death presents a fundamental problem for hu-
Protestant missions. The mission never amounted mansone might even say the fundamental
to much more than Das himself. The Christian problem. When Christian missionaries preach
Society for the Study of Hinduism (194057) ex- the gospel, it is a message of good news about
tended the missions influence across India. that fundamental problem. This message is not
Changing attitudes toward the fundamental the result of human speculations, or of humans
meaning of mission and evangelism, along with reaching out with their might to penetrate the
conservative reactions to Dass criticisms of tra- impenetrable. Rather God took the initiative in
ditional church and mission structures and pro- breaking into space-time history in the person of
grams undermined his influence and led to the his Son, providing answers that we could not
closure of the mission and society. provide for ourselves. Because Jesus Christ
H. L. RICHARD crossed the river of death and returned to tell
Bibliography. R. C. Das, How to Present Christ to a about it, we have a glorious gospel. We now
Hindu; idem, Convictions of an Indian Disciple; H. L. know what caused death, wherein lies life, and
261
Death
what comes after death. Missionaries must never prepare the body for burial. Decay may be re-
forget that their message, above all, is a message tarded as by the mummification practiced by the
of resurrection life. ancient Egyptians. In marked contrast, decay
But missionaries must not only attend to their may be accelerated as in the Indian tradition
message. They must attend to the psychological, where the corpse is cremated and the skull bro-
cultural, and religious responses to the aware- ken to release the soul (Atman) to be reborn. In
ness of death of the people to whom they minis- the ZOROASTRIAN tradition the corpse was consid-
ter. And this must inform the way in which they ered utterly impure and could not be allowed to
proclaim the gospel of resurrection life. The fol- pollute the earth, water, or fire. Placed in a spe-
lower of the Buddha will take little comfort in a cial enclosure called a tower of silence, the
message which stresses eternal life as life which corpse was thus exposed to birds of prey.
goes on and on and on. The hedonist and the pes- In many societies the corpse is openly dis-
simist cannot be approached in the same fashion. played, and people are expected to demonstrate
Finally, since funerals (see DEATH RITES) invari- their grief. Where wakes are the norm, the ex-
ably require rituals which affirm truths about life tended family and friends may stay with the rel-
and death, missionaries must give attention to atives of the deceased for several nights. This
helping fledgling churches develop meaningful contrasts with the practice of north Europe,
and appropriate Christian funeral liturgies. where the body is quickly removed from sight
In conclusion, it should be stressed that there and members of the family show only restrained
has been remarkably little missiological writing emotions. Mourning is expressed in various
and reflection on death, either in relation to com- ways, depending upon ones closeness to the de-
munication of the gospel message or in relation ceased. Traditional Chinese culture has a com-
to developing culturally and biblically appropri- plex system of mourning involving the extended
ate Christian funerals. More is needed. family. In the West, public mourning has almost
ROBERT J. PRIEST fallen into disuse except for the wearing of black
at the ceremony.
Bibliography. A. Toynbee, Mans Concern with Death.
Feasting is a common element based on the
practical necessity that those who have come on
Death Rites. Death is not only a biological event a long journey to honor the dead need to be fed.
that requires the disposal of a corpse, but also an The feast may be of such social importance that
occasion for questions about the meaning of life, it is deferred for days or weeks after the actual
social organization, and inheritance. All societies disposal of the corpse. The elaborateness of the
commemorate the event with ritual forms called ritual often depends upon social status. The cer-
RITES OF PASSAGE, symbolic acts that provide a emony for a newborn baby may be slight, or
bridge for the social transition from one status to there may be none at all, while for a respected
another. Death rites provide not only the means of leader there will be great ceremony. Sometimes
disposing of the corpse, but also channels for food and artifacts are placed with the corpse for
grief; they deal with questions about death and the journey to the next life. Among the Asante,
often with the social dislocation that has resulted. slaves were executed so that the king would not
Many traditional societies distinguish between lack for servants in the afterlife. Sometimes addi-
a good death and a bad death. Dying at an old tional rituals are performed long after the death.
age with many children and grandchildren This is notable in parts of Asia where ancestor
around is a good death. In contrast, dying vio- veneration is an important element in daily life.
lently, away from home, or unexpectedly as in DAVID BURNETT
childbirth is bad. A bad death raises questions of
its cause and in some traditional societies re- SEE ALSO Ancestral Practices.
quires interrogation of the deceased. Among the
Diola of Senegal, for example, the corpse is tied Debt. Personal debt, incurred through the rising
to a bier supported by four men. People take cost of education, consumer spending, or other
turns asking the body questions; a movement of means (see CONSUMERISM), has become a serious
forward or backward indicates an affirmative or obstacle to missionary recruitment and deploy-
negative response. This custom provides an opment in North America in recent years. While
portunity for confession, and sometimes punish- Scripture, contrary to the claims of some, does
ment, which allows the deceased to depart. not forbid entering into debt altogether, it does
Death rites must deal in an appropriate man- warn against the bondage that may result from
ner with biological decay. Burial in a wooden cof- debt (Prov. 22:7). Indeed, excessive debt presents
fin is common to the north European people, a major barrier, impeding peoples ability to serve
while Muslims use a cotton shroud to wrap the God and to do his work, including mission.
body. Within Islam, proper disposal of the body Christians have already been forgiven the ulti-
is a matter of divine obligation, so many mate debt they owesin against God (cf. esp.
mosques are equipped with facilities to wash and Matt. 6:12 par. Luke 11:4; also Luke 7:4143;
262
Decision-Making
16:113). Believers are called to wise stewardship 5. Assimilate and use new information or
of their financial and other resources. Their expert judgment.
faithfulness or negligence will result in heavenly 6. Reexamine all known alternatives
reward or loss (Matt. 16:27; Eph. 6:8). Moreover, before making a final decision.
Christians debts include obligations in mar- 7. Make careful provision for implement-
riage (1 Cor. 7:3; Eph. 5:28), as citizens (Rom. ing the chosen decision.
13:7), in the preaching of the gospel (Rom. 1:14),
and in love and service of other believers (John Personality and Decisions. Individuals have
13:14; Rom. 13:8; 1 John 3:16; 4:11). been categorized as sensors or intuitors in their
The rising level of monetary debt on the part of decision-making approaches. Sensors analyze
missionary candidates mirrors a general trend in isolated, concrete details while intuitors consider
the U.S. economy, which is characterized by es- overall relationships. Intuitors have been found
calating federal budget deficits, record credit to have better predictive accuracy in decisions.
card debts, and consumer spending increases Other studies have suggested four personality
without corresponding raises in salaries. Some styles in decision-making:
mission agencies currently allow a portion of Decisive, using minimal information to reach a
missionaries support to be devoted to the remis- firm opinion. Speed, efficiency, and consistency
sion of debt. Other groups permit their staff to are the concern. Flexible, using minimal informa-
remain on support while upgrading their education that is seen as having different meanings at
tion. Generally, the church should act redemp- different times. Speed, adaptability, and intuition
tively where significant debt has been incurred are emphasized. Hierarchic, using masses of care-
and preemptively wherever possible to prevent fully analyzed data to reach one conclusion. As-
prospective Christian workers from entering into sociation with great thoroughness, precision, and
excessive financial debt. perfectionism. Integrative, using large amounts of
ANDREAS J. KSTENBERGER data to generate many possible solutions. Deci-
sions are highly experimental and often creative.
Bibliography. J. Engel, Finances of Missions; J. E. It cannot be assumed, however, that individual
Hartley, ISBE, 1:9056.
decisions are the fundamental level of decision-
making. In most societies of Central and South
Decision-Making. A decision begins with an America, Africa, and Asia, no significant decision
unmet need, followed by the (1) awareness that (individual or group) is reached apart from a
there is an alternative to the situation, an (2) ingroup process to achieve consensus. In the more
terest in the alternative, and (3) consideration of individualistic orientation of North American
the alternative. This consideration reviews both and European societies, group decision is often
utilitarian and nonutilitarian issues involved. A achieved through a process of argumentation
(4) choice is made, and (5) action must follow to and verbosity, with the sum of individual deci-
implement the decision. Action will require sions expressed in a vote.
(6) readjustment. That, in turn, may create the Group Decisions. A group decision is reached
awareness of further necessary changes, and the by accumulating emotional and factual informa-
decision cycle is repeated. tion in a cyclical fashion. Beginning with a posi-
Decision-making in practice, however, seldom tion accepted by consensus, new possibilities are
happens in a simple, circular fashion. There are tested. If accepted, those ideas become the new
pauses and rapid skips forward and backward. anchored (consensus) position; if rejected, the
There is no clear beginning or end in the decision group returns to the original position, reaching
process. Each of the identified stages must be ex- out again as new possibilities emerge. The final
panded to gain a clear picture of the complexity stage of group decision is the members public
of decision-making. commitment to that decisionthe essence of
Improving Quality of Decisions. A Decisional consensus.
Balance Sheet lists all known alternatives with Group judgment is not better than individual
the anticipated positive and negative conse- judgment, unless the individuals are experts in
quences of each. The Decisional Balance Sheet the area under consideration. Ignorance cannot
will lead to improved decisions when seven crite- be averaged out, only made more consistent. A
ria for information processing are met: lack of disagreement in group discussion in-
creases the possibility of groupthink (an un-
1. Consider a wide range of alternatives. challenged acceptance of a position). A lack of
2. Examine all objectives to be fulfilled by disagreement may be construed as harmony, but
the decision. contribute to poorer-quality decisions.
3. Carefully weigh the negative and posi- Higher-quality decisions are made in groups
tive consequences of each alternative. where (1) disagreement is central to decision-
4. Search thoroughly for new information making, (2) leaders are highly communicative,
relevant to each alternative. and (3) group members are active participants.
263
Decision-Making
Clearly, achieving social interdependence in the his or her life in world evangelism should seek
group is prerequisite to quality decisions. How- adequate preparation, in many cases formal stud-
ever, mere quantity of communication is not suf- ies in an undergraduate or graduate program in
ficient; the content of intragroup communication mission(s)/missiology.
affects the quality of decision. The more time Theological Frameworks within which Mod-
spent on establishing operating procedures, the ern Missiological Training Takes Place. Missi-
lower the probability that a quality decision will ologists bring their own particular understand-
result. Gaining agreement on the criteria for the ings of mission and missiology to the purpose
final decision and then systematically consider- and content of their programs. Programs in mis-
ing all feasible solutions increases the probability sion(s) or missiology reflect the theological
of a good decision. commitments of those that teach and of their in-
Consensus decision-making groups show more stitutions, their understanding of the very nature
agreement, more objectivity, and fewer random of mission, and geographical and cultural ap-
or redundant statements than nonconsensus- proaches to education in general, and theological
seeking groups. Achievement of consensus is education in particular.
helped by using facts, clarifying issues, resolving Broadly speaking, missiological training takes
conflict, lessening tension, and making helpful place within the frameworks of Roman Catholic,
suggestions. Conciliar Protestant, Non-Conciliar Evangelical,
Cultural Effects on Decision-Making. A group Orthodox, or Third World theologies. James
must have decision rules, explicitly stated or im- Scherer suggests,
plicitly understood, to function. These rules vary
with culture; thus a decision model effective in It seems clear that conciliar missiologists
societies of an American or European tradition tend to place the emphasis in mission teach-
ing at the seminary level mainly on MISSIO
will probably not function well in Asian or DEI [the mission of God, Gods abiding out-
African groups. For example, probability is not reach to all] concerns and tasks of the ecu-
normally seen as related to uncertainty in some menical Christian community. Preparation
cultures. For these cultures, probabilistic deci- for specific cross-cultural ministries, by con-
sion analysis is not the best way of aiding deci- trast, seems to remain the preferred option
sion-making. among evangelical missiologists. Roman
Perception of the decision required by the de- Catholic missiologists, based on ecclesiologi-
cision-maker must be considered. What is per- cal positions taken at Vatican II, appear to
lean toward the ecumenical position while
ceived depends on cultural assumptions and pat-
still making room for cross-cultural prepara-
terns, previous experience and the context. The tion (1985, 45152).
problem as presented is seldom, if ever, the same
as the perception of the problem. The greater the Among the Orthodox, salvation is a communal
differences in culture, the greater the differences process of being in a right relationship with God,
in perception. neighbor, and the created order. Missionary
DONALD E. SMITH preparation includes study of the Scriptures,
Bibliography. R. Y. Hirokawa and M. S. Poole, Com- church history, patristics, and the language and
munication and Group Decision-Making; I. L. Janis and culture of target groups, with the goal that the
L. Mann, Decision Making: A Psychological Analysis of gospel be incarnated in each locality. Some Third
Conflict, Choice, and Commitment; D. K. Smith, Creat- World programs for missionary preparation put
ing Understanding; G. Wright, ed., Behavioral Decision considerable emphasis on contextualization of
Making. the Christian message in light of non-Christian
religious thinking, as well as on liberation.
Degrees in Mission and Missiology. Many mis- Geographical Dispersion of Missiological
sionaries never undertook formal studies in mis- Training and Levels of Degrees Available. Mis-
sion or missiology and yet were effective. Many, siological training takes place around the world
however, also proved ineffective and even de- and across the educational spectrum, from non-
structive to the life of the church. While formal formal missionary training centers offering cer-
preparation for cross-cultural ministry does not tificates to universities and seminaries offering
guarantee future effectiveness, it does provide an doctoral programs in mission(s)/missiology.
opportunity for growth in knowledge and experi- In the United States and Canada, in addition to
ence, hopefully to avoid the mistakes of the past nondegree training programs, Bible colleges, Chris-
and to prepare for the ever-changing future. The tian liberal arts colleges, and denominational or
sending church wants well-qualified and effective nondenominational universities offer undergradu-
representatives. The receiving church expects ex- ate majors related to missions, under various des-
patriates to contribute positively to its life. Fron- ignations. Some of the bachelors degree programs
tier missionary activity demands the highest of are entitled Missions, World Mission(s), Evan-
qualifications. The Christian who wants to invest gelism and Mission(s), Religion, Culture and Mis-
264
Degrees in Mission and Missiology
sion, Intercultural Studies, Cross-Cultural Stud- Areas to Look for in Programs. All programs
ies/Ministry, Global Studies/Ministry, and are not created equal, either theologically or in
Urban Studies/Ministries. Seminaries and uni- the depth and breadth of the preparation they
versity graduate schools offer various masters de- provide. The learning environment is a hidden
gree programs (Master of ArtsMA, Master of Arts curriculum that can prepare the missionary for
in ReligionMAR, Master of Theological Stud- effective ministry. Courses should be part of a
iesMTS, Master of Arts in EvangelismMAEv, well-integrated curriculum. Practical ministry is
Master of DivinityMDIV, Master of Theology essential. The wise student will look for as many
ThM) or doctoral degree programs (Doctor of Min- of the following features as possible in the pro-
istryDMin, Doctor of MissiologyDMiss, Doctor gram of choice.
of TheologyThD, Doctor of PhilosophyPhD) The Learning Environment. The global church
with concentrations or specializations related to is valued and modeled through learning with and
missions. Again, these programs are identified in from those of other cultures. In addition, the
various ways, such as Missions/Missiology, In- training center or school demonstrates partner-
tercultural Studies, Cross-Cultural Mission/Stud- ship with the church within and outside of the
ies, Mission(s) and Evangelism, World Mission United States, to provide educational opportuni-
and Evangelism, Evangelism, Church Growth, ties that minimize taking people out of their
and Mission, Religion and Culture, Urban Min- countries and fields of service. The leadership,
istry, Christianity and Culture, Mission, Ecu- teachers, and staff model a passion for God and
menics, and World Religions, and Religions of for the lost. The teachers demonstrate a desire to
the World/Comparative Religion. A few graduate learn from their colleagues and from the stu-
programs offer specializations for ministry with dents. The teachers attempt to integrate the study
particular ethnic or geographical groups, such as of theology, missions, and the social sciences.
Chinese Ministry and Mission or Muslim/Is- Leadership development and spiritual formation
lamic Studies or in a particular professional are integrated within the community life, class-
preparation, such as TESOL/TEFL/TESL. room, and field experiences. The community
In Europe much of the preparation for mis- models and fosters positive approaches to con-
sionary service is through nonformal or formal flict resolution. The learner learns how to be a
self-directed learner and how to learn in collabo-
missionary training institutes, evangelical Bible
ration with others. A counterculture response to
institutes/colleges, and state- or church-spon-
the prevailing society is present, to challenge the
sored universities. Academic degrees comparable
learner to live the simple lifestyle, for the sake of
to those offered in the United States and Canada
social action and world evangelism.
are available through some programs. Myklebust
Areas of Study. Adequate biblical and theologi-
indicated that in respect of efforts, at university
cal foundations are critical. A survey of missions
level, to promote missiological teaching and re- would include a broad and accurate awareness of
search, West Germany and Netherlands are lead- the present state of the churchs ministry around
ing the continent (1989, 92), though most other the world. Theology and history of missions seek
countries also have state- or church-related uni- to understand the present situation in light of
versities with a chair of missiology. biblical norms and past history. Cross-cultural
Asia, Central America, and South America are studies will include cultural anthropology and
growing centers for missionary training and cross-cultural communication. Comparative reli-
sending. Asia is comparable to the United States gion/folk religion/non-Christian religions will be
in the emphasis on missions in the theological in- studied to enable the missionary to understand
stitutions, especially in India and South Korea, the worldview of the people with whom the
according to Myklebust. In Latin America as a gospel is shared. Missions strategies would in-
result of the explosive growth of Protestant/Evan- clude conceptual and practical learning of evan-
gelical Christianity theological schools have in- gelism, church planting, urban ministry, and
creasingly interested themselves in mission, but church growth principles. Missions leadership
this interest has chiefly manifested itself at un- would enable knowing how to transmit the Chris-
dergraduate level (1989, 91). He concluded that tian faith to another generation through disciple-
there exist five Bible schools for every regular ship and leadership development of others.
theological school. Among the forty-one theolog- Ministry Experience. The student must demon-
ical schools he surveyed, thirty-six recognized strate minimal ministry experience prior to ac-
missiology as a separate subject, with an as- ceptance. Field-based experience as a learner in
signed professor of missiology. anothers culture is required, to permit practice
In general in Africa Bible institutes and colleges and reflection, under the guidance of more expe-
provide formal missionary training. Undergradu- rienced leaders. The local church is involved in
ate and graduate programs in missions are most the process of preparing the future missionary, in
abundant in South Africa with some in Kenya, partnership with the training center or school.
Nigeria, and the Central African Republic. W. KENNETH PHILLIPS
265
Degrees in Mission and Missiology
SEE ALSO Bachelors Degrees in Mission; Masters the Congo River in 1482, and established the first
Degrees in Mission; Doctoral Degrees in Mission. tenuous European contact with that part of the
African continent. Prior to this, the area now
Bibliography. W. R. Hogg, Missiology 15 (1987):
487506; H. Kasdorf, Reflection and Projection: Missiol-
known as D.R.C. had its own history of political
ogy at the Threshold of 2001, pp. 21938; L. J. Luzbetak, organization in powerful kingdoms (e.g., Luba,
The Church and Cultures: New Perspectives in Missio- Yaka, and Kongo) and innumerable small ethnic
logical Anthropology; O. G. Myklebust, Mission Studies groupings. Within ten years of Diego Caos expe-
6 (1989): 87107; J. Scherer, Missiology 13 (1985): dition, Catholic missionaries arrived and before
44580; idem, Missiology 15 (1987): 50722; W. R. long the king of the influential Kongo tribe had
Skenk, Missiology 24 (1996): 3145; T. Steffen, EMQ 29 been baptized along with many of his subjects.
(1993): 17883; N. E. Thomas, Missiology 18 (1990): The initially successful Catholic movement de-
1323. clined through compromise with the flourishing
Portuguese slave trade. It was only in the seven-
Deism. The word deism is derived from deus, the teenth century that there was a resurgence of
Latin word for god, and thus was originally Catholic missionary activity in the Kongo region.
equivalent to theism. In the seventeenth and eigh- Although this contact was to have a profound im-
teenth centuries, however, the term was identi- pact (Gray, 1990) it, in turn, was to pass, and by
fied with a kind of theism based upon reason and the early nineteenth century little trace of living
natural religion and which rejected divine special Christianity was to be found in the region.
revelation. Deists held that the universe was cre- Modern Missionary Period. By the time the
ated by God but that it operated according to im- Congo Free State had been created and granted
mutable natural laws with no significant divine personally to King Leopold II of Belgium by the
intervention. European powers at the Berlin Conference
Deism flourished in England during the seven- (188485), Holy Ghost priests were once again es-
teenth and eighteenth centuries, with leading tablished in the Boma area of the Lower River.
representatives including Lord Herbert of Cher- The earliest Protestant mission agencies to work
bury, John Toland, and Matthew Tindal, who in the Congo included the Livingstone Inland
wrote what became known as the deists bible, Mission (1878), the BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY
Christianity as Old as the Creation. Continental (1878), and the Garanganze Evangelical Mission
thinkers who were also deists included Jean- (1886). In the northeast the AFRICA INLAND MIS-
Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, and Immanuel Kant SION (1912) was one of the pioneer Protestant
(who rejected the label). Some founding fathers agencies. From the beginning of the colonial pe-
of the United States, such as Benjamin Franklin, riod (official control began in 1908) the Catholic
Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson, were also Church enjoyed special powers and privileges in
deists. the Congo. This began to lessen, at least officially,
Although there was some diversity among with the extension of school subsidies to Protes-
deists, many accepted belief in a supreme being; tant schools (1946) and the opening of state
the obligation to worship this being; the obliga- schools (1954). Although the mutual mistrust be-
tion of ethical conduct; belief in divine rewards tween Catholics and Protestants has abated, there
and punishments, in this life and beyond; a rais still relatively little cooperation between them.
tional approach to religion that denied miracles As early as the 1902 General Conference of
and traditional Christian beliefs such as the Trin- Missions in Leopoldville (Kinshasa), the need for
ity, the incarnation, and the atonement. cooperation was seen within the Protestant mis-
Although the term itself has fallen into disuse, sionary movement. The Congo Protestant Coun-
the fundamental worldview of deism is still very cil (CPC) was created in 1928, not only to facili-
much alive, especially within the more liberal tate COMITY between missions but also to have a
segment of Christianity, which has little place for single voice before the colonial government. Dur-
special revelation and the miraculous and which ing this period, the leadership of the church in
D.R.C. was largely still an expatriate missionary
regards Christianity largely in ethical categories.
affair, but in 1960 the CPC voted to transfer its
WILLIAM H. BAKER
administrative responsibility into national hands
Bibliography. J. Collins, God in Modern Philosophy; and for missionaries to assume the role of advi-
J. Leland, A View of the Principal Deistic Writers . . . , sors and technicians.
3 vols; E. G. Waring, Deism and Natural Religion: A Shortly after, the church in D.R.C. experienced
Source Book. traumatic years of independence (granted June 30,
1960) and the Rebellion (196365). In both, the
Democratic Republic of Congo (D.R.C.; for- church was targeted by antigovernment forces as
merly Zaire) (Est. 2000 pop.: 51,136,000; well as opportunist gangs. Many hundreds of na-
2,344,858 sq. km. [905,350 sq. mi.]). A decade be- tional believers were put to death, and dozens of
fore Columbus discovered the New World, Por- missionary personnel were brutally killed. Those
tuguese explorer Diego Cao located the mouth of dark years resulted in a deepening spiritual life
266
Demon, Demonization
and maturity of the national leaders who learned Bibliography. J. R. Crawford, Protestant Missions in
how to stand without missionary assistance. the Congo, 18781969; R. Gray, Black Christians and
Increasingly as the 1960s drew toward a close, White Missionaries; C. Irvine, The Church of Christ in
Zaire; A Handbook of Protestant Churches, Missions,
missions in D.R.C. recognized the maturity and
and Communities, 18781978; D. McGavran and
responsibility of the national church. This was N. Riddle, Zaire: Midday in Missions; L. D. Pate, From
accelerated by the governments refusal to recog- Every People: A Handbook of Two-Thirds World Missions
nize a church body unless its founding mission with Directory/Histories/Analysis.
had ceded to it autonomous legal standing. In
1970, the CPC (until then a group of separate Demon, Demonization. While Scripture does
churches) became the national Protestant not present a clear picture of their origin,
Church of Zaire (ECZ), with each former church demons are generally recognized by Christians as
body a member Communaute of the whole. The angels who fell with Satan and are now agents
government recognizes only four Christian seeking to work on his behalf on earth. In the Old
groups: the ECZ, the Catholic Church, the Greek Testament, demons (or evil spirits) do not receive
Orthodox Church, and the Kimbanguist Church a great deal of attention. Generally, they are por-
(an independent African church, revering the trayed as malicious spirit beings who are used to
founder SIMON KIMBANGU). Relations between the bring Gods judgment (e.g., 1 Sam. 16:14; Judg.
national government led (since 1965) by Presi- 9:2224) and are connected with idols and idola-
dent Mobutu Sese Seko and the church (espe- try (Deut. 32:17; Ps. 106:37, 38). While we get one
cially Roman Catholic) have often been strained, glimpse of some hierarchy of demonic powers
not least during the period of rigorous reaffirma- (Dan. 10:13, 20), that glimpse is left undeveloped
tion of traditional African cultural and religious (see TERRITORIAL SPIRITS).
values in the 1970s. The New Testament picture is clearer. At least
Challenges Facing the Church. D.R.C. is one five types of demonic activity can be seen. Under
of the worlds poorest nations. While famine does Satans control, they unsuccessfully resist Jesus
not threaten as in some areas, the struggle for and try to expose his identity during his ministry
survival affects the vast majority. The downward (Mark 1:2327), blind unbelievers (2 Cor. 4:34),
economic spiral in this potentially wealthy coun- engage believers in warfare (Eph. 6:1018),
try affects almost every part of the infrastructure. wreak great destruction on earth as part of the
The church has sought to do what it can, often end times (Rev. 9), and entice governments and
with little or no help from the government. The nations to rebel against God (Rev. 16:1216).
deteriorating economic situation sparked rioting The Gospels present seven encounters of Jesus
in the early 1990s, which in turn led to a with- with demons during his three years of public
drawal of expatriate mission personnel from ministry: the Gerasene demoniac (Mark 5:120
some parts of the country. In the east, some of and parallels); the boy with seizures (Matt.
17:1420 and parallels); three instances of people
the largest refugee camps result from the ethnic
being healed from specific demonic-caused dis-
strife in Rwanda. Mobutus government was over-
eases (Matt. 9:3233; Matt. 12:2223 and parallel;
thrown by Laurent Kabilas troops in 1997 and
Luke 13:1017), and two cases where Jesus si-
the countrys name was changed from Zaire to
lences the spirits (Mark 1:2327 and parallel;
the current Democratic Republic of Congo.
Matt. 8:16 and parallels). In every example we see
Despite these problems, the vitality of the Jesus direct engagement of demons to set people
church sets it within the top ten non-Western na- free. Their freedom came through the exercise of
tions sending out their own missionaries (Pate, his authority (Mark 1:2728), in contrast to the
1989) for cross-cultural ministry both within and rituals of the exorcists of his day.
beyond their borders. While the response to the In the thirty plus years covered in Acts, only
Christian message continues to be high, the five statements of distinct demonic encounters
greatest need is for training of national Chris- are found (Acts 5:1516; 8:67; 16:1618;
tians in order to deepen the knowledge and spiri- 19:1112; 19:1317). As with Jesus, the apostles
tual life of the numerically large church which exercise authority over demons to set people free.
has sometimes been criticized for not influencing The relative lack of examples from Acts appears
as it should such endemic evils as corruption. to underscore that demons are to be confronted
Time and again during its turbulent history in but are not to be given preeminent attention.
D.R.C., the church has ridden the storm. As the In the epistles we find important teachings on
church enters its second century, nominalism demons and their work. They are the powers be-
and formalism within the church and material- hind idols (1 Cor. 10:1921); we engage them in
ism, secularism, and proliferation of sects out- war (Eph. 6:1018), humbly submitting to God
side the church, will challenge again the vision and resisting Satan (James 4:7; 1 Peter 5:89; see
and vitality of the people of Christ in D.R.C. also SPIRITUAL WARFARE); they subvert people
GORDON R. MOLYNEUX through false doctrines (1 Tim. 4:14); and we are
267
Demon, Demonization
to test the spirits (1 John 4:14). Concerning their On a practical level, what can the missionary
character and tactics, they know the truth and expect? In the New Testament, a demon drove a
shudder (James 2:19), and, following Satan, they fortune teller to harass Paul and his missionary
masquerade as angels of light (2 Cor. 11:215). band so much that he had to deal with it (Acts
In Revelation we see demons characterized as 16:1618). Satan repeatedly thwarted Pauls mis-
Satans host encamped against God. They lead sionary plans (1 Thess. 2:1718), and he perse-
the nations astray (Rev. 16:1216) and bring de- vered in his missionary labors despite a Satanic-
struction on earth (Rev. 9). Though the final pic- given thorn in the flesh (literally angel of Satan)
ture is not one of battle but slaughter (Rev. by focusing on Gods power and grace (2 Cor.
19:1920), their power on earth over unbelievers, 12:19). The young churches Paul planted were
under Gods sovereignty, is mentioned through- in danger of falling prey to Satanic deception
out Revelation. (e.g., 2 Cor. 11:215) and had to put on spiritual
Demonic Attack. With more than thirty terms armor (Eph. 6:1018). Contemporary missionar-
used (many of them in the Gospels), the range of ies must be prepared to face all of these situa-
vocabulary of demonic attack against people is tions. We should also note that Satan is not lim-
rich. However, it all points in one direction: ited to the particular tactics employed in the
demons desire to destroy the host by deception Bible. Just as human society grows and changes,
and distortion of our very humanity (seen clearly so may demonic attacks (see POSSESSION PHENOM-
in the Gerasene demoniac; Mark 5:120). In ENA). However, the central core strategies of de-
terms of control, demons indwell people (Matt. ception, blinding, and movement toward de-
12:4345); people may have spirits in them (Mark struction are constant themes whatever the
1:23); be with a spirit (Mark 5:2); or have spirits culture. In light of this, a crucial missionary task
(Matt. 11:18). The strongest term of demonic involves working with the local community to de-
control is daimonizomai, often translated velop a clear biblical perspective on the demonic
demon-possessed. The English connotations of and to couple this with contextualized ministry
possession, however, cloud the meaning. Chris- methodologies which maintain biblical fidelity
tians cannot be possessed in the sense of own- and, as far as possible, cultural sensitivity.
ership, since they belong to Christ. The NRSV fre- A. SCOTT MOREAU
quently uses demoniac and the Amplified Bibliography. C. Arnold, Three Crucial Questions
renders it under the power of demons, both of about Spiritual Warfare; M. Kraft, Understanding Spiri-
which better express the idea of control than tual Power; A. S. Moreau, The World of the Spirits;
ownership. Though the term is not used after the S. Page, Powers of Evil; D. Powilson, Power Encounters;
Gospels, if this type of control over Christians G. Van Rheenen, Communicating Christ in Animistic
were not possible, the continual warnings against Contexts.
demonic infiltration in the epistles would serve
no purpose. Just as we can be controlled by Denmark (Est. 2000 pop.: 5,207,000; 43,077 sq.
false teachers, cult leaders, and so on, we can be km. [16,632 sq. mi.]). Denmark is the smallest of
controlled by demons, a fact that has long been the Scandinavian nations other than Iceland. It
acknowledged both by those who minister to the lies between the North Sea on the west and the
demonized and in non-Western contexts. Baltic Sea on the southeast. The Jutland, which
Missiological Issues. It is important for the is the long peninsula, comprises 70 percent of
missionary to understand the biblical teaching Denmarks land area. The rest consists of over
on demons as well as be effectively trained in five hundred nearby islands, only one hundred of
dealing with demons as they manifest them- them inhabited. The Faeroe Islands and Green-
selves. As is seen in Acts, however, our focus on land are self-governing units within the nation of
the demonic should be selective. Paying too Denmark. Denmark shares a border with Ger-
much attention to demonic activity can be just as many, thus being influenced in part by the Ger-
bad as ignoring it. Missionaries may face either mans. The population is made up of primarily
of two extremes: SECULARISM which denies Nordic Scandinavians with a minority of Ger-
demons and ANIMISM which sees demons as the mans in the south. Approximately 97 percent are
source of every problem. In many Western urban Danish and 3 percent foreigners. The literacy rate
settings influenced with NEW AGE thinking the is almost 100 percent due to a compulsory edu-
two opposites can be curiously intertwined in a cation system in place since 1814.
form of spiritistic SYNCRETISM. Many worldviews The economy of Denmark is largely driven by
acknowledge the spirit realm and contain a vari- agricultural and industrial exportation, giving the
ety of beliefs and rituals for handling spirits and country one of the highest standards of living in
their activities (see EXORCISM). The missionaries the world. Its government is considered to pro-
must come to grips not only with their own vide the worlds most advanced welfare and so-
WORLDVIEW, but also that of the Bible and the cial service system. However, in the 1980s, con-
host culture. cern about the costs making up 30 percent of the
268
Dependency
national budget forced the government to put re- existing resources and leading to imitative be-
strictions on the social benefits for individuals. havior that destroys cultural integrity. But de-
Currently, Denmark is a constitutional monarchy pendency also may build relationships and knit a
headed by Margaret I, queen since 1972. There society together, strengthening individual and
are four principal political parties. group security and sense of identity.
The religion of the people is evangelical One-way dependency is negative, ultimately
Lutheran. Christianity was first introduced in destroying healthy relationships. The person or
826 and became widespread during Canutes society depended upon feels exploited, and the
reign in the eleventh century. During the reign of dependent individual or group grows to resent
Christian III (153459), the Reformation brought the other.
the establishment of a national Lutheran Church. Such dependency reduces self-respect because
The state supports the church, which was estab- of an apparent inability to do anything other
lished in 1536, and 95 percent of the population than receive. Lacking self-respect, the receiver
today are members. However, it has been esti- may reject familiar cultural patterns and imitate
mated that only about 3 percent of those mem- the person or group that is the source of help.
bers attend church services. This signifies that re- The consequent change is often not appropriate,
ligion is more a part of the culture and heritage creating a need for more help. A downward spi-
than a personal faith. ral results that leads to psychological or social
Many people are turning to the Eastern reli- dysfunction. The group helped is crippled in their
gious movement and Christian sects to find spir- ability to care for their own affairs.
itual answers, thus implying further that the state One-way dependency is an addictive process in
church is not meeting the spiritual needs of the which participants become co-dependents who
Danes. The biggest problem is that the evangeli- are unable or unwilling to see people and things
cal witness within and outside of the state church realistically. The addictive process takes control
is very weak. A major reason for the external of participants, pushing participants to think and
problem is the difficulties foreign missionaries do things inconsistent with their values, includ-
face in obtaining visas. There was a decline in ing deceptive behavior, in the attempt to justify
missionaries since 1970 and today officially there dependency and yet maintain the illusion of in-
are only 31 present (the ratio of missionaries to dependence.
Danes is only 1:165,000). As long as there are visa As with any addiction, everything comes to
restrictions in Denmark, evangelism will have to center around satisfying a craving. More and
come primarily from the native Christians. For- more is needed to create the desired effect, and
eign missionaries just do not have access to the no amount is ever enough. Perception of infor-
people of Denmark as their own Christian organ- mation is distorted and relationships become
izations and churches do. Regarding the state subservient to the addiction. There is an aware-
churches, liberal theology has infiltrated many of ness that something is wrong, but addictive
them. However, there are two conservative thinking says that it is somebody elses fault. No
Lutheran free theological facilities in the country. responsibility is accepted. Addicts tend to be de-
pendent and to feel increasingly powerless. The
These facilities are expanding and enrolling more
idea that they can take responsibility for their
students. This, of course, is a positive develop-
lives is inconceivable to them.
ment for the future of Christianity in Denmark,
This pattern of thinking is equally applicable to
but unfortunately not enough to reach the ma-
individuals and groups. Either can be addicted to
jority of Danes. Revival in the Lutheran churches
dependency systems (economic, structural, and
or within other native Christian groups is des-
psychological) as strongly as to drugs.
perately needed.
Economic dependency has been shown to in-
WILLIAM L. WAGNER
hibit national development, yet economic de-
Bibliography. J. T. Addison, The Medieval Mission- pendency has been repeated in church-mission
ary: A Study of the Conversion of Northern Europe; E. H. relationships. Both national and church depend-
Dunkley, The Reformation in Denmark; P. Hartling, ed., ency are characterized by a very few sources in-
The Danish Church; C. H. Robinson, trans., Anskar, the vesting/giving heavily through an indigenous con-
Apostle of the North, 801865. trolling elite. Fundamental decision-making is
implicitly the prerogative of the donor not the re-
Dependency. Dependence is a necessary part of cipient. Foreign assistance is large relative to the
life, an inborn tendency which cultural, social, receiving economy. A large proportion of its uni-
and psychological conditions shape. The real versity students and leadership are trained in a
problem of dependence is not its existence or few foreign sites, and a considerable portion of
nonexistence, but the manner of being dependent. the aid is spent on purchases from abroad. The
Overdependency of any kind (financial, physi- economic top 20 percent receive most of the
cal, emotional, or intellectual) may result in ero- funds, which reinforces their position, and the
sion of self-respect, inhibiting initiative in using bottom 40 percent almost none.
269
Dependency
Christian ministries unwittingly perpetuate Gurian and Gurian provide a model that de-
economic dependency when they plead just send scribes destructive extremes and the desirable
money, separating funds from fellowship con- balance. They note that a one-way dependency
trary to the example and teaching of 2 Corinthi- may result in entrapment, enslavement, helpless-
ans 8 and 9. It continues to make the national ness, suppression, surrender, submission, and
church dependent. . . . It often robs the national submergence. Total independency, on the other
church of its natural potential. When easy money hand, can result in abandonment, estrangement,
. . . is available, very few want to explore indige- selfishness, narcissism, withdrawal, alienation,
nous ways of fund raising. and isolation. True interdependency, a position in
Dependency is also created by imported struc- tension between the two poles of dependency and
tures, methodologies, and institutions that are independency, can lead to continuity, bonding,
suitable for churches of one culture but not for reciprocity, mutual and healthy obligation, trust,
another area. By placing inappropriate and even commitment, and involvement.
impossible demands on the churches, those Scriptures teach the interdependence of believ-
churches become dependent on the guidance of ers within the Body of Christ, not crippling de-
outsiders who understand the imported system. pendency nor extreme individualism. Christian
A form of Christianity is created that cannot be workers from every cultural heritage are obli-
reproduced. Paternalism and its mate, depend- gated to build that interdependence within the
ence, thus may grow from the very structures of international church, avoiding patterns that lead
mission and church, not from some weakness in to either extreme.
either the new believers or the missionaries. DONALD F. SMITH
In cultures of North America and Europe inde-
pendence is considered an absolute good. A cen- SEE ALSO Foreign Financing of Indigenous Mis-
tral therapeutic assumption in Euro-American sions; Partnerships; Paternalism.
psychology is that healthy behavior is self-reliant, Bibliography. M. P. Gurian, and J. M. Gurian, The De-
self-sufficient, and independent. The in-born ten- pendency Tendency; W. Lustbader, Counting on Kindness:
dency to dependency, either individually or in the The Dilemmas of Dependency; A. W. Schaef, When Soci-
social structure, is to be removed as quickly as ety Becomes an Addict; G. Schwartz, EMQ 27:3 (1991):
possible. 23841; R. Wood, Mission Frontiers, 19:1 (1997): 7.
Very different assumptions are present in many
cultures of Asia, Africa, and South America con- Depravity of Humankind. Depravity refers to
cerning dependency. It is two-way, part of mutual the extensiveness, or depth dimension, of SIN.
support, obligation, and reciprocity that binds To the question, How far does the corrupting in-
the society by building relationships of interde- fluence of sin extend to a persons being? the doc-
pendency. Life requires cooperation at every trine of total depravity responds that such cor-
point. Dependency is not weakness but a part of ruption is all-pervasive, affecting every part of a
the natural order where help always moves in persons nature, including the body, mind/intel-
circles, not in a straight line. What is given will lect/reason, emotions, will, motivations, and so
return. on. Thus, there is no spiritual good in people at
In a basic way, most of the worlds people are all that could merit Gods grace nor any human
dependent. Peoples as widespread as the Japan- inclination to make a move toward God for sal-
ese, American Indians, Matabele (Zimbabwe), vation. Contrast this with other views (e.g., semi-
and the Malagasy (Madagascar) all accept de- Pelagianism) which deny that sins depravity is
pendency as necessary and positive. A reward is total and maintain that some aspect of a persons
expected for relying on another, because you being (e.g., the will or reason), while weakened
have given by receiving. Amae is a fundamental by the corrupting influence of sin, retains suffi-
concept in Japanese social psychology, an auto- cient ability to set in motion the pursuit after sal-
matic good expressed supremely in the role of vation through cooperation with divine grace.
the emperor who depends on others to rule and While depravity is pervasive, the IMAGE OF GOD
carry out every task yet is honored as the ulti- in humanity has not been completely effaced.
mate expression of the nation. Dependency is CONSCIENCE or an innate awareness of good and
pivotal in the WORLDVIEW that underlies Mala- evil remains, and corrupted people may still
gasy society, and the dependency systems of demonstrate a sensitivity for right and wrong.
India affect nearly every transaction. Will, the power to choose, continues, and sinful
Missions function within these two opposing people may still engage in natural, civil, and even
concepts of dependency. Euro-American mis- externally religious good. Thus, depraved people
sionaries tend to regard all dependency as bad, are not as evil as they possibly could be, con-
and Asian-African-South Americans regard it as stantly indulging in every kind of sin. They pos-
necessary and good. Failure to recognize these sess both depravity and dignity.
fundamental differences in attitudes to depend- Scriptural support for depravity includes both
ency leads to misunderstanding and alienation. general statements about the all-pervasive cor-
270
Devanandan, Paul David
rupting influence of sin on humanity (Gen. 6:5; task, just as the supporters choose to stand in
Rom. 3:918; 7:18; Eph. 2:13) as well as specific prayer and financial commitment to assist in the
statements of sins depraving impact on the vari- missionarys ministry.
ous aspects of human nature such as the mind The process of deputation has several draw-
(Eph. 4:1718; Rom. 8:67), the heart (Jer. 17:9), backs: different personalities can work for or
the conscience (Titus 1:15), the inner being against the candidate; ones personal network can
(Mark 7:2023), and the body (Rom. 6:1213; be well developed or very limited; the costs of
8:10). The biblical evidence points not only to missionary support have risen with inflation
deprivation (the absence of good) but to deprava- (often equivalent to public school teachers
tion (total corruption resulting in evil) as the salaries), and the time factor has steadily in-
thoroughgoing problem of humankind. creased from one to two years with certain high
The implications of depravity for missions are cost-of-living countries taking even three years of
several: (1) Personal awareness of our own this procedure; the constant displacement of a
human perversity propels us to seek out the di- missionarys family can create hardship; and there
vine solution in Jesus Christ. (2) The deeper the are often significantly different levels of personal-
sense of sin, the more thorough is the moral re- ized help in fundraising. The often overlooked as-
covery and the intenser the spiritual life (Miley). pect of deputation is the opportunity to share the
(3) As those rescued from miserable ruin, we ex- appointees passion and testimony with other po-
press our thankfulness by no longer living for tential missionaries. Historically deputation de-
ourselves, but for him who saved us. This entails veloped in the nineteenth century with the birth
commitment to the ministry of reconciliation as of interdenominational mission societies, but
ambassadors for Christ (2 Cor. 5:1421). (4) Be- today the majority of North American Protestant
cause of the universal all-pervasiveness of sin, missionaries are supported through this system.
God justly condemns the entire world to eternal JOHN EASTERLING
punishment (see also HELL). This desperate plight
of our fellow human beings challenges us to em- SEE ALSO Fund Raising; Furlough.
bark on the missionary enterprise. The message Bibliography. B. Barnett, Friend-Raising: Building a
of salvation which we carry worldwide is the pro- Missionary Support Team That Lasts; J. H. Kane, Under-
found answer corresponding to the depth dimen- standing Christian Mission.
sion of human sin. It renews the mind (Rom.
12:12), changes the heart (Ezek. 36:26), cleanses Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Missionwisenschaft.
the conscience (Heb. 9:14), transforms the inner See GERMAN SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF MISSIONS.
being (Eph. 3:16; Col. 3:10), and redeems the
body (Rom. 8:13; 1 Cor. 6:1220). The fullness of Devanandan, Paul David (190162). Indian
deliverance from our depravity awaits the return theologian, educator, and churchman. Born in
of Jesus Christ. Madras, India, the son of devoted Christians, he
GREGG R. ALLISON was greatly influenced by his mother, who stud-
Bibliography. J. Calvin, The Institutes of the Christ- ied the Bible in the Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu lan-
ian Religion, 2.1.811; J. Miley, Systematic Theology guages. After earning degrees from universities
I:441533; M. Erickson, Christian Theology, 62139. in India and the United States (Nizam College,
Madras University, Pacific School of Religion,
Deputation. In the deputation process initial and Yale Divinity School), he taught religion at
missionary appointees visit churches and other the Union Seminary of Bangalore for seventeen
gatherings of Christians to present their ministry years and served as director of the Christian In-
for the purpose of developing prayer and finan- stitute for the Study of Religion and Society
cial support to underwrite missionary endeavors. from 1956 until his death. He had a great im-
This procedure is found in independent missions pact in India through the books and articles he
and many evangelical denominations in contrast wrote and edited and as a teacher and a man.
to denomination mission boards that are usually He combined a personal faith in Christ as his
funded through a unified budget not requiring Savior and conservative theological beliefs with
missionaries to raise their own support. There an ability to encourage dialogue between people
are certain variations. The CHRISTIAN AND MIS- of different faiths. In his native India, over-
SIONARY ALLIANCE requires missionaries to minis- whelmingly Hindu, this was a major step in
ter in churches and district conferences to help equipping his students to minister outside the
raise funds for the mission, but not for personal rather clannish Christian community. One of his
support. OVERSEAS MISSIONARY FELLOWSHIP asks best-remembered addresses was on the Chris-
appointees to seek out prayer support but not to tian mission in the world, entitled Called to
ask for funds. The origin of this term is related to Witness, which he gave to the 1961 Assembly
the appointment of deputies (assistants) to stand of the World Council of Churches in NEW DELHI.
in with the sheriff and his posse to accomplish a Russell Chandran, principal of the United The-
271
Devanandan, Paul David
ological College, said of Devanandan, No one within contemporary church ministries and evan-
in the Indian church has had so many friends gelism in many places is development assistance.
among non-Christian scholars and thinkers and Development assistance has become an in-
few Indian Christians have been held in so high creasing emphasis within missions in recent
a regard by non-Christians. years. Although the concern for the well-being of
ROBERT SCHUSTER human beings has been a facet of deliberate
Christian missions all through the modern mis-
Development. In terms of missionary activity sionary era, conservative and narrow views of
and mission strategy, development usually de- missions took a toll during the middle of the
notes an inclusive process in which the physical twentieth century. Defining missions as verbal
proclamation of the gospel makes people more
and social needs of persons and groups are given
enthusiastic about building schools than about
attention alongside their spiritual needs.
building hospitals. Since development assistance
Development is a general word, commonly used
is usually a slow and rather costly investment in
with reference to such diverse matters as people, the threat to other missionary activity has
fundraising, improvement of property or re- created a substantial schism. For evangelicals
sources, increased effectiveness and profitability and conservatives, especially for fundamentalists,
of a business or social enterprise, expansion and meeting spiritual needs is arguably more impor-
fulfillment of complex mental capacities, physi- tant than attending to physical or socio-political
cal maturationespecially of children, and spiri- matters.
tual deepening across a lifetime. In missiological debates development assis-
Developmentalism, a closely related term in the tance often is seen as competing for resources
field of psychology and social psychology, em- that would otherwise be invested in spiritual
phasizes the built-in characteristics of the organ- matters, especially verbal evangelization. The ar-
ism, the person, or the social enterprise. A devel- gument usually springs from the fear that if re-
opmental viewpoint assumes that changes in the sources are committed to the purposes of social
maturing human being or in a developing society development the emphasis on verbal proclama-
represent an emergence of the patterns and char- tion of the gospel will suffer. Some have argued
acteristics that are psychogenetically predisposed that this position is based on the curious as-
and patternedbuilt into the organism or sys- sumption that Gods capacities and resources are
tem. The writings of Piaget and Kohlberg, for ex- limited.
ample, assume that development is not some- Another argument against expending Christian
thing that the parent or teacher causes but rather resources for physical, social, and economic de-
participates in. Developmentalism does not deny velopment is based upon the view that the pri-
the influences of environment, but it avoids as- mary task of Gods people is to act upon Christs
suming that the environment or any outside primary motive: to seek and to save . . . the lost.
agents are the singular explanation for all out- This position arises from the view that God is
comes in the development of a person or of a so- honored as his people use resources wisely and
ciety. From a developmental perspective, devel- in a manner disciplined to the priorities of the
opment is defined in terms of the processes KINGDOM OF GOD. The conclusion one reaches
through which maturing persons or emergent so- will depend on how these priorities are under-
cieties lose the limitations that have character- stood (see also MISSIONARY TASK).
Whatever the argument against the churchs
ized their previous condition.
participation in development assistance, the ex-
The major obstacles to social development in-
ample provided by Jesus Christs engagement in
clude (1) defeatism, in which people see no possi-
whole-person ministry stands clearly as the most
bilities beyond the conditions and restrictiveness valid precedent. Strategically, as well, current ev-
with which they are currently most familiar, idence in the field strongly suggests that large-
(2) dependency, an actual condition or a mental scale evangelization of communities and large ex-
state in which people assume that they are not ad- tended families often follows closely the offering
equate apart from significant help and resources of development assistance provided in the name
from the outside, and (3) pride, through which of Jesus Christ. This recognition has led to yet
people become self-sufficient and resistant to en- another view: legitimization of development as-
couragements and assistance from outsiders. sistance because of its pragmatic value as a tool
The role of the outsider, whether teacher, par- of evangelization.
ent, missionary, agriculturalist, or health worker, Although parachurch organizations such as
is a matter of assisting, stimulating, encouraging, Food for the Hungry and World Vision have
and providing access to the resources essential to emerged largely to balance the churchs mid-
development. Thus, such outsiders could be bet- century denial of the importance of the physical
ter described as development technicians. The ac- and social needs of people, especially the poor in
tivity in which outsiders provide valuable services underdeveloped regions, there is still no consen-
272
Deyneka, Peter, Sr.
sus on the place of development assistance cutta was persistently criticized for not address-
within Christian missions. ing the underlying socio-political problems that
The local church, as a community of faith, is produce Indias poverty. Instead, she defined her
an especially appropriate context for community mission in terms of treating symptoms, not
development. In regions where the church is causes. Arguments about how large to draw the
well-planted, participation of Christians in the target can cause development activities to bypass
social welfare of their communities often pro- the most basic of human needs: the need to be
vides the incentive and motivational core for sub- directly involved in the quest for change.
stantial development process. Thus the churches In recent years the emphasis on development
of the world are increasingly providing the lead- has waned, among missionary efforts and in re-
ership and community resource-centers for so- gard to international assistance in general. The
cial change. results of development activity have been uneven
Relief activities are substantially different from and often disappointing. Particularly among
development assistance (see also RELIEF WORK). those who describe themselves as doing devel-
Although relief is a more common response to opment and, worse yet, delivering develop-
human need and is widely supported by Chris- ment, effectiveness typically has been minimal.
tians as a reflection of Jesus teaching about the Human groups simply cannot be pushed into de-
contrast between sheep and goats in Matthew 25 velopment by outside efforts. Broad-scale com-
and his teaching about responsibilities to ones munity participation and altruistic local initia-
neighbor in the good Samaritan story, relief tives are essential, and they must arise out of
tends toward counter-developmental interven- what PAULO FREIRE called conscientization, more
tions and outcomes. Necessary as it is to save thoughtful awareness of the conditions in which
lives and to reduce suffering, delivering food and people find themselves, coupled with a height-
medical supplies can soon lead to a dependent ened sense of moral responsibility and initiative.
condition, especially if delivered overmuch or TED WARD
overlong. The tendency to think of development
as a sort of companion of relief often leads to SEE ALSO Evangelism and Social Responsibil-
confusion. Indeed, it is easier to solicit funds and ity, Holistic Mission, AND Transformational De-
elicit sympathy for relief needs, but relief rarely velopment.
leads to making the necessary changes in socio- Bibliography. E. J. Elliston, ed., Christian Relief and
political structure, productivity, lifestyle, and cul- Development; D. C. Korten, Getting to the 21st Century
ture. A Chinese proverb is used to sum up this Voluntary Action and the Global Agenda; J. M. Perkins,
problem: Give a man a fish and he eats today; Beyond Charity: The Call to Christian Community Devel-
teach a man to fish and he eats for a lifetime. opment; T. Yamamori, B. Myers, et al., Serving with the
Development assistance requires the participa- Poor in Asia; idem, Serving with the Poor in Africa;
idem, Serving with the Poor in Latin America.
tion of those being assisted. The one who assists
must first listen and learn, resisting the tempta-
tion to exert undue influence through ones ex- Devil. See SATAN.
pertise and outside leverage. Development assis-
tance requires great patience and appropriate Deyneka, Peter, Sr. (18971987). Russian-Amer-
creativity. The primary goal is to encourage peo- ican missionary evangelist and founder of the
ple to accept the possibility of bettering their Slavic Gospel Association. Born in the Russian
conditions through self-help. province of Grodno, he immigrated to the United
The major obstacle to effective development States at the age of sixteen to lift his family out of
assistance is the difficulty of bringing into har- debt. While working in Chicago, he drifted from
mony the motives of insiders and outsiders. his Russian Orthodox moorings and became an
Views of the appropriate conditions of life, de- activist and atheist. He came to Christ through
grees of willingness to accept change, personal contact with Moody Memorial Church and nu-
and community dignity and pride all must be merous Christian individuals. After attending
considered. Who decides what goals are worthy? classes at Moody Bible Institute, he continued his
Who decides how hard and how fast to work? education at St. Paul Bible School (Minnesota)
Who decides the best use of resources? Ordinar- and developed his gift for evangelism among
ily, the perverted golden rule prevails: Those who Russian immigrants in the region.
hold the gold make the rules. The influence of In 1925 Peter made his first of several trips
well-intentioned outsiders, while important in back to Russia and became the first person ever
the short-run, commonly becomes the under- to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ in his home
mining destructive force in many development village. Significant also was his marriage to Vera,
projects. a young Russian Christian woman. During the
Another common obstacle is disagreement on following decade Deyneka was associated with
the scope of the problem being addressed by the the All-Russian Evangelical Christian Union and
development effort. Even MOTHER TERESA of Cal- Worldwide Christian Couriers respectively. Ex-
273
Deyneka, Peter, Sr.
tensive evangelistic preaching tours in the Soviet ties to agree to the relativistic preconditions and
Union and around the world convinced him of the possibility that such dialogues become lim-
the need to organize missionary outreach among ited to other pluralists from various faiths. This
Slavic people. In 1934 The Russian Gospel Asso- position also evidences a lack of attention to
ciation, later expanded to The Slavic Gospel smaller religious movements in the pluralist lit-
Association (SGA), was founded. Radio pro- erature. Little space is given to dialogue between
gramming (see RADIO MISSION WORK) became one Christians (even liberal) and Satanists, to give an
of SGAs largest and most effective mediums of extreme example.
evangelism and theological education. Other The opposite view may be called the antidia-
major thrusts include distribution of Bibles and logue position; it is held by D. Martyn Lloyd-
Christian literature and relief work among Slavic Jones, among others. Drawing presuppositions
refugees. Deynekas booklet Much Prayer from conservative Christian tradition and nine-
Much Power illustrates his conviction that teenth-century positivism, this position assumes
prayer is the modus operandi of missionary out- an absolute, complete, and accurate comprehen-
reach. Deyneka remained SGAs general director sion of biblical truth as expressed in evangelical
until his retirement in 1975. orthodoxy, forming an exact correspondence be-
FLORENCE R. SCOTT tween theology and Scripture (Hiebert, 1985, 7).
Any dialogue that contains the possibility for the-
Bibliography. N. B. Rohrer and P. Deyneka, Jr., Peter ological change is often perceived as a threat. Ac-
Dynamite; P. Deyneka, When a Russian Found Christ.
cordingly, as JOHN STOTT points out, proclama-
tion commands the central element of this
Dialogue. The subject of vigorous discussion, di- position. Careful attention is given to the presen-
alogue seems to defy definition. Most agree, how- tation of the message in monologue form with
ever, that dialogue includes face-to-face conversa- less attention to surrounding beliefs or circum-
tions involving persons who have fundamentally stances. Dialogue with non-Christians is often
different religious convictions for the purpose of considered to involve compromise with anti-
understanding and growth. In the debate on reli- Christian forces, violating 2 John 711. Preaching
gious PLURALISM and dialogue, convictions on its in monologue style seeks to accurately commu-
nature and use appear to settle into three posi- nicate propositional truth, thus safeguarding the
tions. The position held by pluralists rejects tradi- purity and integrity of the biblical message.
tional views on biblical revelation, proclaiming in- Weaknesses include substantial evidence of
terreligious dialogue as a new epistemology; cultural and subjective bias in biblical interpre-
extreme conservatism calls for the rejection of di- tation, undermining the presupposition of exact
alogue in favor of proclamation; a more centrist correspondence. Accordingly, adherents may ex-
view affirms dialogue as a means of understand- perience difficulty discerning and respecting dif-
ing and communication without rejecting biblical ferences in conservative biblical interpretation
revelation. that stem from divergent worldviews. In addi-
Ontological and epistemological relativism tion, greater possibilities exist for insensitive pre-
form the basis for pluralist dialogue. Within this sentations that can hinder comprehension of
framework, dialogue is seen as a primary avenue central biblical issues. For example, cultures that
toward universal religious truth. Through inter- value relationships and conversation more than
faith discussion under an attitude of equal re- preaching may find difficulty in responding to
spect for person and faith, dialogue may reveal the message.
supreme truth that transcends various religious The third position seeks to affirm both the un-
traditions: the ultimate truth behind all cultural derstanding and communication aspects of dia-
expressions of religious experience, whether that logue without surrendering biblical absolutes,
experience finds expression through Hinduism, the latter being a crucial distinction from the plu-
Islam, Buddhism, or Christianity. Important as- ralist definition of dialogue. This position, com-
pects include entering dialogue with little or no bining critical realism with theological conser-
predetermined expectations, complete honesty, vatism, is held by (among others) Stott,
openness, and willingness to change, even con- E. STANLEY JONES, KENNETH CRAGG, Carl F. H.
cerning important theological issues. Thus, Henry, and Bishop STEPHEN NEILL. Through in-
through interfaith dialogue, the Christian may terpersonal dialogue, one listens and learns as
convert from Christianity, the non-Christian may well as shares scriptural truth. Biblical evidence
convert to Christianity, or both may become ag- for this position includes examples from the min-
nostic. Adherents to this position include John istry of Christ (John 34; Luke 18:1829), the
Hick, Paul F. Knitter, John R. Cobb, Raimundo ministry of Peter (Acts 10:2748), Paul (Acts
Panikkar, and Leonard Swidler. 13:818; 17:1634; 19:810; 20:67), and the com-
This position, however, views RELATIVISM as a mon sense of Proverbs 18:13. Stott summarizes
universally accepted paradigm, possibly creating his argument by stating that true biblical dia-
a naivet concerning the willingness of other par- logue reflects authenticity, humility, integrity, and
274
Dictionaries of Mission(s)
sensitivityall without relinquishing essential pean countries as well as North and South Amer-
biblical mandates for salvation. The position calls ica at first because of persecution by the state
for careful discernment between people who are churches and also in an attempt to preserve their
valued by Christ and religious systems that op- sense of community and their pacifism (see PACI-
pose him, and it is the position generally prac- FIST THEOLOGY). While in some cases their com-
ticed by evangelical missionaries. munities have turned inward, in others they have
The weaknesses of this position include possi- reached out in mission (see MENNONITE MIS-
ble difficulties in maintaining a balance among SIONS). Part of the evangelical movement in Rus-
interpersonal relationships, biblical truth, and re- sia has its roots in the Mennonites.
sulting psychological equilibrium. Additionally, The Puritans came to North America in dias-
losing biblical perspective may also lead toward pora and it was a latter-day Puritan, JONATHAN ED-
SYNCRETISM. However, the strengths of this ap- WARDS, who played a key role in the first GREAT
proach far outweigh the weaknesses. AWAKENING which laid the foundation of the Amer-
STEVEN J. PIERSON ican missionary movement. Swedish Baptists and
other free churches persecuted by state churches
Bibliography. P. J. Griffiths, An Apology for Apologet-
ics; J. Hick and P. F. Knitter, eds., The Myth of Christian in Europe came to the United States seeking reli-
Uniqueness; P. Hiebert, Theological Students Fellowship gious freedom and economic opportunity. Such
Bulletin 8 (1985): 510; P. F. Knitter, No Other Name?; groups have made a contribution to missions far
D. M. Lloyd-Jones, Preaching and Preachers; T. C. Muck, beyond the proportion of their numbers. For ex-
JETS 36 (1993): 51729; H. A. Netland, Dissonant ample, the Covenant Church, of Swedish origin,
Voices: Religious Pluralism and the Question of Truth; was originally the Mission Covenant Church.
E. Rommen and H. Netland, eds., Christianity and the In the twentieth century the Chinese have es-
Religions: A Biblical Theology of World Religions; tablished churches in at least thirty-three coun-
J. R. W. Stott, Christian Mission in the Modern World;
tries, probably more. Koreans began to flee from
L. Swidler, After the Absolute: The Dialogical Future of
Religious Reflection. their homeland after 1910 and established
churches in Siberia and China. It is estimated
that there are two million Koreans in China, and
Diaspora(s). The role of the Jewish diaspora is
that at least 12 percent are Christians. The more
seen clearly in the Acts of the Apostles. Stephen,
recent Korean diaspora has taken them to 170
Philip, Barnabas, and Paul were all Jews of the
countries, and they have established churches in
diaspora who were at home in both Jewish and
at least 150 nations. In some cases they are
Greek culture. And it is clear that the first to
reaching out to non-Koreans. That has no doubt
preach the gospel to Gentiles were such bicul-
been a factor in the growing Korean missionary
tural Jewish followers of Christ. The first specific
movement. Now many of the second-generation,
mission to the Gentiles was called out from the
bicultural youth are showing interest in missions.
Antioch church which included both Gentile and
Like the first cross-cultural Christian missionar-
diaspora Jewish believers. Acts tells us that the
ies who were Hellenistic Jews at home in two
nucleus of the churches planted in the Roman
languages and cultures, bicultural Christians
Empire came from diaspora Jews and God fear-
today, Koreans, and others, have great potential
ers. The Syriac-speaking church in the East
for missions.
which took the gospel to India and, through the
PAUL E. PIERSON
Nestorians, to China probably had its beginning
in synagogues of the diaspora in Mesopotamia. Bibliography. R. DeRidder, Discipling the Nations;
Through the centuries Christians have been F. Gibson, ed., You Are My Witnesses, The Waldensians
scattered in other diasporas because of religious across 800 Years; W. Shenk, ed., Anabaptists and Mission.
or political persecution or to seek economic op-
portunities and political freedom. The Walden- Dictionaries of Mission(s). Over the past two
sian movement arose in Lyon, France, in the centuries several significant dictionaries of mis-
twelfth century and spread across southern and sion(s) have been published as tools to assist in
central Europe, only to suffer PERSECUTION and the missionary task. This article will be limited to
MARTYRDOM. Some Waldensians joined remnants English-language resources. For the purposes of
of the Hussite movement which arose in Bo- organizing this discussion, we do not distinguish
hemia and Moravia in the fifteenth century to encyclopedias from dictionaries, and we divide
form the Unitas Fratrum. It was a few members the available resources into four separate cate-
of that group who became the nucleus of the gories: (1) general mission(s) dictionaries and en-
Moravian movement which became a major cat- cyclopedias, (2) biographical dictionaries, (3) the-
alyst of the modern Protestant missionary move- ological dictionaries, and (4) dictionaries which
ment (see MORAVIAN MISSIONS). are not directly on mission(s) but which are of
The Mennonites are the primary heirs of the mission-related significance (e.g., dictionaries of
sixteenth-century Anabaptist movement. They denominations, religions, etc.). Within each cat-
have been scattered through a number of Euro- egory we start by listing dictionaries specifically
275
Dictionaries of Mission(s)
limited to mission(s) and then give examples of The Blackwell Dictionary of Evangelical Biogra-
broader dictionaries which include mission(s) phy: 17301860 (ed. D. M. Lewis, 1995).
discussion. Within the categories each work is Theological Dictionaries. There are two recent
listed by first edition date. dictionaries which focus on theological and his-
General Mission(s) Dictionaries. Dictionaries torical perspectives and issues in mission: Philos-
which cover the broad scope of missions include ophy, Science, and Theology of Mission in the 19th
perhaps the earliest missionary dictionary to ap- and 20th Centuries (J. A. B. Jongeneel; 2 vols.;
pear: An Alphabetical Compendium of the Various 1995 and 1997) presents missiology in outline
Sects Which Have Appeared in the World form with extensive integrated bibliographies,
(H. Adams, 1784), later republished as A Dictio- and Dictionary of Mission. Theology, History, Per-
nary of all Religions and Religious Denominations, spectives (ed. K. Mller, SVD, T. Sundermeier,
Jewish, Heathen, Mahometan and Christian S. B. Bevans, SVD, R. H. Bliese, 1997), a transla-
(1817). Nineteenth century works included A Cy- tion and English adaptation of the 1987 German
clopedia of Missions (ed. H. Newcomb, 1854), En- dictionary Lexikon Missionstheologischer Grund-
cyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (ed. J. N. begriffe. General theological dictionaries which
Brown, 1858), The Missionary World (ed. A. D. F. contain significant missiological discussion in-
Randolph, 1872), and The Encyclopedia of Mis- clude Evangelical Dictionary of Theology (W. A. El-
sions (ed. E. Bliss, 1891 and revised by E. Bliss, well, 1984, rev. 1998), New Dictionary of Theology
H. A. Tupper and H. Dwight in 1904). The most (S. B. Ferguson and D. F. Wright, 1988) and Dic-
recent general dictionary of mission, before this tionary of Scottish Church History and Theology
volume, is Concise Dictionary of the Christian (N. M. de S. Cameron, D. F. Wright, D. C. Lach-
World Mission (ed. S. Neill, G. H. Anderson, and man, D. E. Meek, 1993).
J. Goodwin; 1971). In addition to these specific Other Missions-Related Dictionaries. There
mission(s) dictionaries, a number of general re- are numerous dictionaries which cover specific
sources contain articles on mission-related top- facets of missions-related topics, including dic-
ics. For example, these include the nineteenth- tionaries organized around denominations or ec-
century work Fessenden & Cos Encyclopedia of clesiastic organizations, agencies, geographic in-
Religious Knowledge (ed. B. B. Edwards, 1835)
formation, and world religions. Denominational
and the contemporary works Oxford Dictionary of
or ecclesiastically oriented dictionaries deal with
the Christian Church (3 editions: 1957, 1974, and
broader issues in denominations and theologi-
1997), New International Dictionary of the Chris-
cally oriented movements. The following have
tian Church (ed. J. D. Douglas, 1974, revised
significant articles on mission related topics and
1978), and New 20th-Century Encyclopedia of Re-
people: The Mennonite Encyclopedia (195559),
ligious Knowledge (ed. J. D. Douglas, 1991).
Biographical Dictionaries. Of the biographi- New Catholic Encyclopedia (196779), Encyclope-
cal dictionaries, several denominationally or ge- dia of World Methodism (N. B. Harmon, 1974),
ographically focused works have appeared, in- Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Move-
cluding Bibliographic Record of the Pastors, ments (S. M. Burgess and G. B. McGee, 1988),
Missionaries and Prominent Laymen of the United and Dictionary of the Ecumenical Movement (ed.
Lutheran Church Mission and the Andhra Evan- N. Lossky, J. Bonino, J. Pobee, T. Stransky,
gelical Lutheran Church (R. D. Augustus; 1938, re- G. Wainwright, P. Webb; 1991).
vised 1955), A Century of Missions of the African In addition to the recent DIRECTORIES OF MIS-
Methodist Episcopal Church, 18401940 (L. L. SIONS, The Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Mis-
Berry, 1942), Negro Baptists and Foreign Missions sions: The Agencies (B. L. Goddard, 1967) provides
(C. C. Adams, 1944), and Biographical Dictionary articles covering the history and development of
of Methodist Missionaries to Japan (ed. M. Ida, 1,400 Protestant mission organizations. The nine-
T. Kega, and J. W. Krummel; 1993). The most sig- teenth-century forerunner of todays geographi-
nificant mission biographical dictionary to date, cally-based dictionaries was The Missionary
however, is Biographical Dictionary of Christian Gazetteer (C. Williams, 1832).
Missions (ed. G. H. Anderson, 1997), which gives The recent massive World Christian Encyclope-
over 2,400 biographies ranging over the full spec- dia (ed. D. Barrett, 1982, revised 2000) provides
trum of ecclesiastical and geographic boundaries. detailed statistical analysis of the Christian
In addition to these dictionaries, many broader church in global context as well as historical
biographical works have significant numbers of summaries of mission and church history for
articles on missionaries and Third World people: every country of the world. Operation World (ed.
The Oxford Dictionary of Saints (2 editions: 1978 P. Johnstone), while not a dictionary, is updated
and 1987), A Dictionary of Women in Church His- regularly and provides statistical summaries as
tory (Mary L. Hammack, 1984), Whos Who in well as issues for prayer for each country. A dic-
Christian History (ed. J. D. Douglas and P. W. tionary which focuses on a specific aspect of
Comfort, 1992), Twentieth-Century Dictionary of mission is Evangelism and Church Growth: A
Christian Biography (ed. J. D. Douglas, 1995), and Practical Encyclopedia (ed. E. L. Towns, 1995). It
276
Directories of Mission
presents an evangelical perspective on contem- tion than would be found in directories pub-
porary thinking related to evangelism. lished for broader audiences.
Dictionaries of religion, while not directly fo- Many mission organizations publish a direc-
cusing on missionary issues, also provide invalu- tory with the names, addresses, and so on of
able introductory background of significance in their missionaries, usually in a country-by-coun-
missionary research. A few of the representative try order. Such directories are often designed to
titles include A Dictionary of Non-Christian Reli- facilitate prayer support.
gions (G. Parrinder, 1971 ), Abingdon Dictionary A more comprehensive directory is the type
of Living Religions (ed. K. Crim, 1981), The Ency- that includes all the mission boards and agencies
clopedia of Religion (M. Eliade, 1987), Concise based in a country. Besides the basic directory in-
Dictionary of Religion (I. Hexham, 1993), and formation, it may include expanded statistical in-
Dictionary of Cults, Sects, Religions and the Occult formation about the individual organizations,
(G. A. Mather and L. A. Nichols, 1993). In addi- various overall summary totals, indexes, and
tion to these, there are many dictionaries which other information. For the United States and
specialize on particular religions. Canada the most comprehensive directory is the
The most recent development in tools for mis- Mission Handbook: U.S. and Canadian Ministries
sionary research are electronic in nature, most Overseas, initiated in 1953 as an ongoing series
specifically CD-ROMs on which are stored mas- by the Missionary Research Library and pub-
sive amounts of data accessible through a com- lished since 1968 by the MARC Division of World
puter. Global Mappings 20:21 Library contains Vision International.
Bibles in six translations, nine commentaries, In the United Kingdom the UK Christian Hand-
Operation World, a language encyclopedia, sev- book, edited by Peter Brierley, has an overseas
eral bibliographies, three mission directories, missions section along with sections on other or-
and two major statistical databases on one disk. ganizations and services. Non-Western countries
A second disk has the Geographic Information such as Brazil, Korea, India, and Singapore have
System which incorporates the mapping of sta- produced mission or broader Christian directo-
tistical data in ways which enable mission agen- ries, with some available in multiple languages.
cies to plan and make decisions. Another Global Directory sections of non-Western cross-
Mapping tool, the African Proverbs: Collections, cultural sending missions have been included in
Studies, Bibliographies (ed. Stan Nussbaum), has some publications. From Every People: A Hand-
27,000 proverbs, 23 books, 42 maps, and two an- book of Two-Thirds World Missions with Direc-
notated bibliographies dealing with African tory/Histories/Analysis (1989) by Larry Pate fol-
proverbs on a single CD-ROM disk. Appearing allowed earlier publications of the same nature by
most daily on the World Wide Web, newer re- Marlin Nelson and Lawrence Keyes.
sources facilitate the development of missionary From time to time helpful specialized mission
research. directories have appeared. In conjunction with
Conclusion. Never before in history have so the LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGELIZA-
TION (1974), Edward Dayton led a team that pro-
many resources for missionary research been so
readily available to so many people. While the reduced the Unreached Peoples Directory, which in
ality of an information gap is an issue that per- turn stimulated further research and other publi-
sists and must be addressed, the availability and cations regarding unreached people groups. The
accessibility of such significant resources has put Missions Commission of the WORLD EVANGELICAL
us in the position as individuals and agencies of FELLOWSHIP sponsored the World Directory of
Missions Research and Information Centers
being without excuse when it comes to doing
(1989) and the World Directory of Missionary
basic research on topics, people, areas of the
Training Programs (1995).
world, theological issues, and trends.
Comprehensive world surveys initiated by the
A. SCOTT MOREAU
INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL in 1925 and
1936 provided directory information that ap-
Diffusion. See CULTURE. peared in related publications. In the following
decades, the World Christian Handbook (1949,
Directories of Mission. Mission directories help 1952, 1962, 1968), edited by Kenneth Grubb and
Christians understand the various mission others, included directory and statistical sections
boards, agencies, and other entities involved in for national churches and mission societies. The
world mission. A missions directory brings to- most comprehensive world mission directory
gether information about those who have been published to date is The Encyclopedia of Modern
sent to make disciples of all nations and infor- Christian Missions: The Agencies (1967), with
mation about the sending support bodies. Burton Goddard as editor. It includes historical,
Some local churches publish a directory of the descriptive, and statistical (including financial
supported missionaries and other mission proj- when available) data for more than 1,400 Protes-
ects. These usually have more personal informa- tant foreign missionary and related agencies.
277
Directories of Mission
A limited amount of mission directory materi- All disasters create concomitant needs for the
als have been placed on the World Wide Web. afflicted. They will need such items as food, shel-
This will most likely increase as the Web contin- ter, medicine, clothes, and blankets. In a disaster,
ues to develop as a publishing medium. we must do all we can to provide these basic
JOHN A. SIEWERT needs. In every case, food assistance is paramount.
Finally, we must remember that the most basic
Disaster Response. Disaster may be defined as human need is beyond the physicalto be recon-
a sudden turn of events (from natural or human ciled to God and to have fellowship with him
causes) which brings about or threatens injury or (2 Cor. 5:18). The Lord God says in Amos 8:11:
death to a great number of people, disrupting The time is surely coming . . . when I will send a
normal life and requiring immediate action. famine on the landnot a famine of bread or
Luke 21:911 (LB) predicts natural disasters water, but of hearing the words of the Lord.
such as earthquakes, famines, epidemics, and TETSUNAO YAMAMORI
terrifying things happening in the heavens, per- SEE ALSO Relief Work.
haps like cyclones and hurricanes. It also warns
of human-made disasters such as revolutions and
Disciple, Discipleship. During Jesus earthly
wars for nation shall rise against nation and ministry, and during the days of the early church,
kingdom against kingdom. Millions of people the term most frequently used to designate one of
are affected annually by natural disasters. People, Jesus followers was disciple. A central theme of
caught in war or civil strife, seek asylum as Jesus earthly ministry, discipleship likewise is a
refugees, and their number is on the rise. Studies central theme that is to occupy the mission of the
describe the world of tomorrow to be more sus- church throughout the ages as they make disci-
ceptible to all kinds of disturbances than the ples of all the nations (Matt. 28:1820) and then
world of today. Both biblical prophecy and the help new disciples advance in their discipleship
empirical data affirm the need to anticipate com- in following Jesus.
ing disasters. Disciple. In the ancient world the term disci-
Responding to disaster is not the responsibility ple was used generally to designate a follower
of Christians only. It is the responsibility of every who was committed to a recognized leader or
compassionate person. Yet, Christians have a teacher. In Jesus day several other types of indi-
good reason to be involved in disaster response. viduals were called disciples. These disciples
The GREAT COMMANDMENT (Matt. 22:3739) dic- were similar to, yet quite different from, Jesus
tates that the people of God love him and their disciples.
neighbors as themselves. All humans are created The Jews who questioned the parents of the
in the image of God and, therefore, each life is man born blind (John 9:18ff.) attempted to scorn
preciouseach person one for whom Christ died. the blind man by saying that, although he was a
All the victims of disaster, natural or human- disciple of Jesus, they were disciples of Moses
made, should be treated with dignity and respect. (John 9:28). They focused on their privilege to
The Book of Acts gives an example of how have been born Jews who had a special relation
Christians should act in response to a disaster. to God through Moses (cf. John 9:29). The disci-
One of the prophets named Agabus predicted a ples of the Pharisees (Mark 2:18; Matt.
great famine coming upon the land of Israel 22:1516) were adherents of the Pharisaic party,
(which later came to pass during the reign of possibly belonging to one of the academic insti-
Claudius). So the believers [in Antioch] decided tutions. The Pharisees centered their activities on
to send relief to the Christians in Judea, each giv- study and strict application of the Old Testament,
ing as much as he could. Their gifts were con- developing a complex system of oral interpreta-
signed to Barnabas and Paul, and they were de- tions of the Law. The disciples of John the Bap-
livered to the elders of the church in Jerusalem tist (John 1:35; Mark 2:18) were courageous
(Acts 11:2730). men and women who had left the status-quo of
In Capernaum Jesus, turning to his enemies, institutional Judaism to follow the prophet.
asked, Is it all right to do kind deeds on Sabbath What then is different about Jesus disciples?
days? . . . Is it a day to save lives or to destroy Jesus disciples were those who heard his invita-
them? No response! Jesus was deeply disturbed tion to begin a new kind of life, accepted his call
by their indifference to human need (Mark 3:15 to the new life, and became obedient to it. The
LB). Elsewhere we are admonished to stop just center of this new life was Jesus himself, because
saying we love people, but to really love them, his disciples gained new life through him (John
and show it by our actions (1 John 3:1718). In 10:710), they followed him (Mark 1:1620), they
implementing disaster relief, we must work were to hear and obey his teachings (Matt. 5:12),
closely, whenever and wherever possible, with ex- and they were to share in Jesus mission by going
isting churches and missions in order that we into all of the world, preaching the gospel of the
might help enhance their ministry. kingdom and calling all people to become Jesus
278
Disciple, Discipleship
disciples (Luke 24:47; Matt. 28:1920). In the mand to count the cost of discipleship meant ex-
Gospels the disciples are with Jesus, the religious changing the securities of this world for salvation
leaders are those who are against Jesus, and the and security in him. For some this meant sacri-
crowds or multitudes are those who are curious, ficing riches (Matt. 19:1626), for others it meant
but have not yet made a commitment to Jesus. sacrificing attachment to family (Matt. 8:1822;
The word disciple when referring to Jesus fol- Luke 14:2527), for still others it meant aban-
lowers is equivalent to believer (cf. Acts 4:32; doning nationalistic feelings of superiority (Luke
6:2) and Christian (Acts 11:26). 10:2537). For all disciples it means giving of
We should distinguish between the disciples in ones life for gospel proclamation in the world.
a narrow and broad sense. In the narrow sense Jesus declared that to be a disciple is to be-
we recognize especially those twelve who literally come like the master (Matt. 10:2425; Luke 6:40).
followed Jesus around and later became the apos- Becoming like Jesus includes going out with the
tles. We also recognize a broader group of Jesus same message, ministry, and compassion (Matt.
disciples which was composed, among others, of 10:5ff.), practicing the same religious and social
the large group of people who had become Jesus traditions (Mark 2:1822; Matt. 12:18), belong-
followers (Luke 6:13), a variety of individual men ing to the same family of obedience (Matt.
and women (Luke 8:23; 23:49, 55; 24:13, 18, 33), 12:4649), exercising the same servanthood
tax-collectors (Luke 19:110), scribes (Matt. (Mark 10:4245; Matt. 20:2628; John 13:1217),
8:1821), and religious leaders (John 19:3842; experiencing the same suffering (Matt. 10:1625;
Matt. 27:57). The term disciple designates one Mark 10:3839), and being sent in the same way
as a believer in Jesus; all true believers are disci- to the same world (John 20:21). The true disciple
ples (cf. Acts 4:32 with 6:2). The Twelve were dis- was to know Jesus so well, was to have followed
tinguished from the larger group by a calling to him so closely, that he or she would become like
become apostles (Luke 6:13). The Twelve were him. The ultimate goal was to be conformed to
both disciples (i.e., believers) and apostles (i.e., Jesus image (cf. Luke 6:40; Rom. 8:2829; 2 Cor.
commissioned leaders) (Matt. 10:12). 3:18; Gal. 4:19) and then live out a life of witness
Discipleship. The initiative of discipleship with in word and deed to the world that Jesus is Lord.
Jesus lies with his call (Mark 1:17; 2:14; Matt. Johns Gospel carries three challenges of Jesus
4:19; 9:9; cf. Luke 5:1011, 2728) and his choice to his disciples. These challenges offer the means
(John 15:16) of those who would be his disciples. by which a disciple grows in discipleship to be-
The response to the call involves recognition and come like Jesus. First, true discipleship means
belief in Jesus identity (John 2:11; 6:6869), obe- abiding in Jesus words as the truth for every area
dience to his summons (Mark 1:18, 20), counting of life (cf. John 8:3132). Abiding in Jesus words
the cost of full allegiance to him (Luke 14:2528; means to know and to live in what Jesus says
Matt. 19:2330), and participating in his mission about life. Instead of listening to the worlds val-
of being a light to the Gentiles (Acts 13). His call ues, disciples must listen to what Jesus says. This
is the beginning of something new; it means leav- begins with salvation (cf. Peters example in John
ing behind ones old life (Matt. 8:3437; Luke 6:6669), but involves every other area of life as
9:2325), finding new life in the family of God well (Matt. 28:1920). Second, true discipleship
through obeying the will of the Father (Matt. also means loving one another as Jesus loved his
12:4650), and being sent by him to the world as disciples (John 13:3435). Love is a distinguish-
the Father had sent Jesus (John 20:21). ing mark of all disciples of Jesus, made possible
When Jesus called men and women to follow because of regenerationwhere a change has
him, he offered a personal relationship with him- been made in the heart of the believer by Gods
self, not simply an alternative lifestyle or differ- loveand because of an endless supply of love
ent religious practices or a new social organiza- from God, who is love (cf. 1 John 4:1221). Third,
tion. While some of the sectarians within Jesus also said that the true disciple will bear
Judaism created separations between the right- fruit: the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:2226), new
eous and the unrighteous by their regulations converts (John 4:338; 15:16), righteousness and
and traditions, Jesus broke through those barri- good works (Phil. 1:11; Col. 1:10), and proclama-
ers by calling to himself those who, in the eyes of tion witness to the world (John 20:21).
sectarians, did not seem to enjoy the necessary No matter how advanced Jesus disciples
qualifications for fellowship with him (Matt. would become, they would always be disciples of
9:913; Mark 2:1317). Discipleship means the Jesus. In other master-disciple relationships in
beginning of a new life in intimate fellowship Judaism the goal of discipleship was one day to
with a living Master and Savior. Thus disciple- become the master. But disciples of Jesus are not
ship also involves a commitment to call others to simply involved in an education or vocational
such a relationship with Jesus Christ. form of discipleship. Disciples of Jesus have en-
Jesus gracious call to discipleship was accom- tered into a relationship with the Son of God,
panied by an intense demand to count the cost of which means that Jesus is always Master and
discipleship (cf. Luke 9:5762; 14:2533). The de- Lord (Matt. 23:812). Therefore, this relationship
279
Disciple, Discipleship
with Jesus is a wholistic processinvolving every ples of all the nations is to make more of what
area of life as the disciple grows to become like Jesus made of them.
Jesusand it lasts throughout the disciples life. A person becomes a disciple of Jesus when he
The church therefore is a community of disci- or she confesses Jesus as Savior and God and is
ples, the family of God (cf. Matt. 12:4650), com- regenerated by the Holy Spirit (cf. John 3:38;
posed of all those who have believed on Jesus for Titus 3:5). The participles baptizing and teach-
salvation. In our day we have lost that perspec- ing in Matthew 28:18 describe activities through
tive. Often people of the church feel as though which the new disciple grows in discipleship.
discipleship is optional, that perhaps it is only Growth includes both identification with Jesus
for those who are extremely committed, or else death and resurrection (baptism) and obedience
it is for those who have been called to leadership to all that Jesus had commanded the disciples in
or ministry. We must regain the biblical perspec- his earthly ministry (teaching). Baptism im-
tive: to believe on Jesus draws a person into merses and surrounds the new believers with the
community, a community which defines its ex- reality and presence of the Triune God as they
pectations, responsibilities, and privileges in dwell within the church. Obedience to Jesus
terms of discipleship. teaching brings about full Christian formation
Mission and Discipleship. We have seen for disciples.
above that a primary goal of discipleship is be- Jesus concludes the Commission with the cru-
coming like Jesus (Luke 6:40). This is also under- cial element of discipleship: the presence of the
stood by Paul to be the final goal of eternal elec- Master I am with you always, to the very end
tion (Rom. 8:29). The process of becoming like of the age (Matt. 28:20). Both those obeying the
Jesus brings the disciple into intimate relation- command and those responding are comforted
ship with the Lord Jesus Christ, and, as such, is by the awareness that the risen Jesus will con-
the goal of individual discipleship. But disciple- tinue to form all his disciples. The Master is al-
ship is not simply self-centered. In a classic in- ways present for his disciples to follow in their
teraction with two of his disciples who were seek- mission to the world throughout the ages.
ing positions of prominence, Jesus declares that MICHAEL J. WILKINS
servanthood is to be the goal of disciples in rela- Bibliography. D. Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Disciple-
tionship to one another (Mark 10:3545). The ship; A. B. Bruce, The Training of the Twelve; J. D. G.
reason that this kind of servanthood is possible is Dunn, Jesus Call to Discipleship; M. Hengel, The Charis-
because of Jesus work of servanthood in ran- matic Leader and His Followers; R. N. Longenecker, ed.,
soming disciples. He paid the price of release Patterns of Discipleship in the New Testament; D. Mller,
from the penalty for sin (cf. Rom. 6:23), and from NIDNTT, 1:48390; K. H. Rengstorf, TDNT, 4:41561;
F. F. Segovia, ed., Discipleship in the New Testament;
the power of sin over pride and self-centered mo-
G. Theissen, Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity;
tivation. The motivation of self-serving greatness M. J. Wilkins, The Concept of Disciple in Matthews
is broken through redemption, and disciples are Gospel: As Reflected in the Use of the Term Mathetes;
thus enabled to focus upon others in servanthood idem, Following the Master: A Biblical Theology of Dis-
both in the church and, with other Christians, cipleship; idem, Reflecting Jesus.
servanthood in the world. This is very similar to
Pauls emphasis when he points to Jesus empty- Discipling a Whole Nation (DAWN). Discussed
ing himself to become a servant: Jesus provides as an effective evangelistic method since the
the example of the way the Philippian believers mid-1960s, the first major attempt to systemati-
are to act toward one another (Phil. 2:18). cally implement this strategy on a nationwide
Through his final GREAT COMMISSION Jesus fo- level occurred in the Philippines in the early
cuses his followers on the ongoing importance of 1970s. Jim Montgomery, one of the early propo-
discipleship through the ages, and declares the nents, founded Dawn Ministries to sharpen and
responsibility of disciples toward the world: they to communicate the DAWN vision for reaching
are to make disciples of all peoples (Matt. the world.
28:1620). To make disciples is to proclaim the DAWN seeks to mobilize the whole body of
gospel message among those who have not yet Christ (local churches, denominations, para-
heard the gospel of forgiveness of sins (cf. Luke church organizations) in a nation in a deter-
24:4647; John 20:21). The command finds ver- mined effort to complete the Great Commission
bal fulfillment in the activities of the early church in that country. The goal is to provide an evan-
(e.g. Acts 14:21), where they went from gelical congregation for every rural village and
Jerusalem to Judea, to Samaria, to the ends of urban neighborhood in the country. This ap-
the earth proclaiming the gospel of the kingdom proach is based on the conviction that the GREAT
and calling the peoples of the world to become COMMISSION is not merely about people coming to
disciples of Jesus Christ. In the early church, to faith in Christ. Rather, it is about the establishing
believe in the gospel message was to become a of local congregations where evangelism and re-
disciple (cf. Acts 4:32 with 6:2). To make disci- sponsible discipleship can occur.
280
Dispensationalism
The DAWN strategy presupposes that the local tional Bible colleges have also sent many gradu-
church, as Jesus Christ incarnate in a geographi- ates into missions. But the missionary impact of
cal area, plays the key role in evangelizing peo- dispensational Bible colleges can be seen in the
ples and nations. Subsequently, DAWN works for fact that Moody Bible Institute, founded in 1886,
the multiplication of local churches (see SATURA- alone, has sent out over 6,600 missionaries, of
TION CHURCH PLANTING) as the penultimate step whom almost 3,500 are serving cross-culturally
to world evangelization. Finally, it presupposes today.
that a geo-political nation with an evangelical A number of dispensational missiologists have
church for approximately every 300 people (in contributed to missions thinking. Among them
rural areas) to 1000 people (in urban areas) can are George W. Peters, J. HERBERT KANE, DAVID
be considered reached in that every person has HESSELGRAVE, and Edward Pentecost. What are
geographic and cultural access to a church. the distinctives of a dispensational approach to
RICHARD CRUSE missions?
The Urgency of Missions. George Peters em-
Bibliography. J. H. Montgomery, DAWN.
phasized that missions is a response to an emer-
gency (1972, 15). The crisis is the sinfulness of
Dispensationalism. An approach to Holy Scrip- humanity, which, apart from an intervention of
ture which sees Gods revelation unfolding God, will be visited with judgment. God provided
through various stages. Throughout Scripture, Jesus Christ who offered himself on the cross for
God reveals his missionary purpose. GEORGE PE- the sin of the world (John 3:1617; 2 Cor. 5:19;
TERS showed that this purpose was generally 1 John 2:2). In Christ, God was offering Israel
centripetal in the Old Testament, that is, na- their Messiah and the beginning of the millennial
tions learned of God by coming to Israel. In the kingdom. But in their rejection and crucifixion of
New Testament, mission is predominantly cen- Christ, God provided for the salvation of the
trifugal, that is, the church moves out to all na- world (John 1:12; 3:16). This should not have
tions with the gospel (1972, 21). been surprising; Jesus said that his Father had al-
The modern missionary movement parallels ways been concerned for the Gentiles (Luke
the emergence of dispensationalism. WILLIAM 4:2427). But there was a new dimension to this
CAREY, who went to India in 1793, is often men- era. The saved of all nations would be united in
tioned as the father of modern evangelical mis- one body, the church. Paul called it a mystery not
sions, although there were earlier groups, such as previously revealed as it was through his ministry
the Moravians (see MORAVIAN MISSIONS). (Eph. 3:113). This Good News directed to all the
Around the same time, John Nelson Darby world is critically urgent to share.
(18001882) founded both the Plymouth Brethren Missions also derives urgency from the fact
and dispensationalism. It is clear from the begin- that Christ is the unique solution to humanitys
ning that personal piety, church purity, and mis- dilemma (Acts 4:12). Dispensationalists are
sions, together with a dispensational orientation, Christocentric with an evangelistic priority. Peo-
were the ongoing marks of the Brethren move- ple who die without conscious faith in Christ
ment. Darby, Groves, Mueller, and a host of oth- have no hope of salvation (Heb. 9:27). Christ may
ers testify to this union of biblical method and return at any moment (Matt. 25:3644). Believers
missions (Coad, 1968, 16, 28, 37). stand instructed by Scripture (2 Peter 3:815) to
Nondispensational pietists, Reformed, Armini- pay attention to personal holiness, understanding
ans, postmillennialists, and amillennialists have that time goes on because of Gods concern for
all had an honored part in the expansion of the the lost. Time, then, is missionary in purpose.
gospel during the modern missions era. Yet This sense of urgency coupled with the belief
George Ladd, himself not a dispensationalist, af- in a future postponed millennial reign of Christ
firmed the following about dispensational leaders: on earth could diminish a dispensationalists in-
terest in working toward present social improve-
It is doubtful if there has been any other cir-
ment (see also MILLENNIAL THOUGHT AND MISSION).
cle of men who have done more by their in-
fluence in preaching, teaching, and writing to But this is denied by more progressive dispensa-
promote a love for Bible study, a hunger for tionalists (Blaising and Bock, 1992, 14), as well
the deeper Christian life, a passion for evan- as by many who are more traditional. Hundreds
gelism, and zeal for missions in the history of of hospitals, community development projects,
American Christianity (1952, 49). and literacy endeavors conducted by both dis-
pensational and nondispensational missionaries
Dispensationalists, especially in North Amer- testify to an equal interest in HOLISTIC MISSION.
ica, have had a great impact on missions through Closure Strategy. Linked to the matter of ur-
the Bible College movement. Graduate schools of gency is that of actually finishing the task of
theology like Dallas Theological Seminary have world evangelism. Late-twentieth-century mis-
also played a key role in the development and sion leaders emphasized finishing world evangel-
teaching of dispensationalism. Nondispensa- ism by the year 2000. This is similar to what oc-
281
Dispensationalism
curred at the close of the last century in the STU- usually practice divination in addition to what-
DENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT. ever else they do.
Focus on closure has had a tremendous effect Among the techniques used are dreams, horo-
on mission. The great evangelical advances in scopes, and astrological tables, water witching,
Latin America, Korea, and the Philippines oc- examination of entrails or tea leaves, observing
curred almost entirely in this century. Many cite the activities of birds or other animals, the posi-
Matthew 24:14 as the basis for their concern to tions of coals or stones, cards, dice, crystals, and
finish the work of missions: This gospel of the palmistry. In Scripture we find reference to div-
kingdom will be preached in all the world as a ination through examining a dead animals liver
testimony to all nations, and then the end will (Ezek. 21:21), throwing down arrows (Ezek.
come. Perhaps believers today can facilitate the 21:21), using a cup (Gen. 44:5), casting lots
return of Christ. (Jonah 1:7), astrology (Isa. 47:13), and consulting
Dispensationalists agree that all peoples will, in the dead (Lev. 19:31; Isa. 8:19). Gods disapproval
fact, be evangelized (though not all saved) before of the use of such techniques to gain information
the end of time, but they consider the end as from evil spirits (Lev. 20:6) is to be carefully dis-
the end of the great tribulation period referred to tinguished from his willingness to use casting
in both Daniel 9:2527 and Revelation 7:917. lots under his guidance to discern his will (Josh.
Most dispensationalists believe that Christ will 18:6, 8, 10; Acts 1:26).
come for his saints prior to The Great Tribula- A specialized form of divination, trial by or-
tion and they do not believe they will be in- deal, is used in many societies to discover secret
volved in the final consummation of the mission- information regarding the guilt or innocence of a
ary task. A final and comprehensive job of world person accused of a crime. Ordeals may involve
evangelization will be done during the tribula- such things as forcing accused persons to dip
tion, possibly by witnesses who are Jewish peo- their hands in hot oil, swallow poison, have a hot
ple converted during those days (Rev. 7:48). knife pressed against their bodies, or some other
Dispensationalism and missions have had a act with the understanding that if they are
long and rich connection. As a movement com- harmed they are guilty. In Numbers 5:1131,
mitted to the Word of God, the presence and Moses is commanded to instruct the Israelites to
power of Christ and his Spirit, and preaching the use an ordeal involving an oath and the drinking
riches of Gods incomparable grace, dispensa- of bitter water to discern the guilt or innocence
tionalists are motivated to engage in the work of of a wife suspected of adultery.
missions until he comes! Divination remains common today. The tech-
MICHAEL POCOCK
niques used are empowered by demons with very
Bibliography. C. A. Blaising and D. F. Bock, eds., Dis- real results. Diviners are able to use Satans com-
pensationalism, Israel and the Church; F. R. Coad, A His- munication system to find things that have been
tory of the Brethren Movement; J. N. Darby, Synopsis of lost, make predictions concerning the future that,
the Books of the Bible, 5 vols.; G. E. Ladd, Crucial Ques- if believed, bear startling fruit, and to thoroughly
tions About the Kingdom of God; E. C. Pentecost, Issues
impress those who know no greater power. Those
in Missiology; G. W. Peters, A Biblical Theology of Mis-
sions; C. C. Ryrie, Dispensationalism; R. D. Winters, Per- who would present Christianity in a way that is
spectives on the World Christian Movement, pp. B33B44. attractive to the majority of the peoples of the
world need to take such manifestations of satanic
Divination, Diviner. Divination is the practice of power seriously. Jesus came into a power-oriented
seeking secret knowledge, usually of the future, world (like ours) and showed us how to use Gods
by occult means. A wide variety of techniques are power and passed on his authority and power to
used, with the expectation that insight will be us (Luke 9:1; John 14:12) to enable us to confront
provided by supernatural beings or power. Div- and defeat the enemy in contexts where he is in-
ination is and has always been a widespread fluencing people through divination.
practice among non-Christian peoples and, un- CHARLES H. KRAFT
fortunately, among many who call themselves SEE ALSO Shaman, Shamanism.
Christians.
Diviners are specialists in using the techniques Bibliography. D. Burnett, Unearthly Powers; A. C.
of divination to discover the information sought Lehmann and J. E. Myers, Magic, Witchcraft and Religion.
by their clients. The power to gain such informa-
tion is assumed to be obtained by either directly Divine Attributes of God. Throughout the cen-
petitioning a spirit or magically through the cor- turies the Christian world mission has been seen
rect performance of given rituals. Most of those as an enterprise arising from the nature of God
who specialize in working with satanic power himself. On the basis of what evidence is this
combine divination with their other activities. claim made? Which aspects of divinity are seen
SHAMANS, spirit mediums, priests of various cults, in the biblical plan for missions? In his System-
witches, sorcerers, witch doctors, and the like atic Theology, Louis Berkhof divides the attrib-
282
Divine Attributes of God
utes of God into the incommunicable aspects of is immaterial. He is not limited by flesh and
his nature, which emphasize the absolute Being blood, and consequently is above the foibles of
of God, and the communicable attributes, which humanity (John 4:2324). Missionary agents can
stress the fact that he enters into relationships be assured that they are participants in a pro-
with his creatures. While at first glance the latter gram whose Designer is not subject to human
category would appear to be more essential to frailty. He makes no mistakes due to physical ex-
the missionary program, it is the incommunica- haustion or emotional imbalance, and he is com-
ble attributes that form a foundation on which pletely capable of carrying out all his intentions,
the communicable aspects rest. Therefore we even when his co-laborers succumb to human
begin with Gods incommunicable qualities. weaknesses (2 Cor. 12:10).
First, God is self-existent. He does not need His intellectual qualities are three: knowledge,
human companionship, and rather than being wisdom, and veracity. His knowledge, or omnis-
obligated to his creation in any way, he would ac- cience, indicates that he knows all things both ac-
tually be justified in extinguishing the human tual and possible (see OMNISCIENCE OF GOD). Thus
race for its collective rejection of him. The plan his strategies and methodologies for mission are
of redemption, then, arises out of a free choice by efficacious and his timing without flaw. While
God to dispense his grace to individuals (John missionary theologians have always had to wres-
1:13; Rom. 9:1622), and, in imitation of his ex- tle with difficult issues such as the fate of those
ample, the biblical motivation for missions is just who have never heard the gospel, we can be as-
such a free choice on the part of missionary sured that God is cognizant of these issues and
agents (1 Cor. 9:1923). deals with them in accordance with his perfect
God is also immutablehe cannot change (see knowledge (Rom. 8:2930; 1 Peter 1:12). Since
IMMUTABILITY OF GOD). This means that his choice God also possesses wisdom, he does not simply
to dispense grace to humankind cannot be re- know about things in a theoretical sense. He acts
versed, since this choice is rooted in his un- on his knowledge, and his actions produce the
changing nature. His acceptance of Christs gracious ends he intends (Eph. 1:78). Therefore
atonement for sin, his election and calling, his missionaries go forth in full confidence that their
provision of regeneration for those who respond participation in the GREAT COMMISSION is not in
to the gospel, his work of sanctification, and his vain but is a wise pursuit (Prov. 11:30).
provision of an eternal home for the redeemed God is also characterized by veracity; he has
are all assured (Eph. 1:314). The missionary of- spoken the truth concerning all that he has cho-
fers to unbelievers a plan for salvation that is sen to reveal to humankind. The Good News is re-
guaranteed by an unchanging God, and those liable: Christs death has been accepted as a sub-
who have been regenerated can rely on Gods stitutionary atonement for sin and humans may
power to preserve them throughout their mortal attain justification through submission to Jesus as
lives (Phil. 1:6). Lord of their lives and belief in his resurrection
The fact that God is infinite, or omnipresent, (Rom. 10:910). Thus the missionary can pro-
gives assurance that since he inhabits all times claim the gospel boldly, assured that it accurately
and places simultaneously, he is able to carry out reflects the way things really are (1 John 5:20).
effectively all of the operations connected with The moral attributes of God are also three.
salvation, and is able to do so for all persons with First, there is Gods goodness, which includes his
whom he chooses to deal (Eph. 3:11) (see OMNI- love, grace, mercy, and longsufferingness. The
PRESENCE OF GOD). Thus the gospel may be LOVE OF GOD empowers missionary agents to
preached in full confidence that God will be pres- overcome their innate selfishness and reach out
ent to hear any sinners prayer of repentance. to others across cultural barriers (John 3:16;
The fact of Gods unity implies that there is no Rom. 5:8). The GRACE OF GODhis unmerited
sundering of purpose within the Godhead. There favorextends salvation to those whom he
are no conflicting desires with regard to Gods in- chooses (Eph. 2:89), and the MERCY OF GOD per-
tent to offer salvation to humans. Each of the mits him to accept Christs substitutionary atone-
members of the Trinity is involved in the mis- ment for the sins of humankind (Titus 3:45). His
sionary enterprise: the Father has chosen indi- longsufferingness allows him to tolerate even for
viduals for salvation and provides for their re- a short period of time the sins of humankind,
generation by a free act of his grace (Eph. 2:89; and this enables the missionary enterprise to go
2 Thess. 2:13); the Son has provided the substitu- forward, for otherwise his wrath would blot out
tionary atonement for sin and has delegated to all sin by erasing humankind from the earth
his church the task of missions (Matt. 28:1820; (2 Peter 3:9).
Heb. 10:10); and the Holy Spirit convicts the The HOLINESS of Godhis separateness from
world of sin and accomplishes the work of regen- sinmakes the Christian world mission neces-
eration (John 3:38; 16:711). sary, for his holiness stands as an impenetrable
Secondly, with regard to Gods communicable barrier to a relationship of either temporal or
attributes, the first is spirituality, meaning that he eternal duration with sinful creatures (Heb.
283
Divine Attributes of God
12:14). Only through submission to the gospel In the writings of Paul, we see that it is cen-
message can salvation from sin be attained and trally through the cross that Christ brings deliv-
the way opened to enter into fellowship with God erance. The cross was propitiationa sacrificial
(1 John 1:59). guilt-offering. In the cross was manifested the
Gods righteousnesshis absolute justicealso reconciling love of God. But the cross was also
makes mission necessary (see JUSTICE OF GOD). the triumph through which Christ brought deliv-
Unless one can fully satisfy the absolute legal erance. Christians think of the resurrection as a
standards and expectations imposed by the jus- great victory, and it was. But Scripture portrays
tice of God on his creatures, he remains unap- the cross as the actual point of encounter be-
proachable. But missionary agents proclaim the tween Christ and evil, when the powers of dark-
Good News that these legal requirements have ness were defeated and humanity, indeed the
been met through Christs sinless life and sacrifi- whole cosmos, was delivered from sin, the law,
cial death and that one may appropriate a new and death (see ATONEMENT).
legal standing in order to enter into the presence Christ demonstrated Gods justice, giving him-
of God (Rom. 8:14). self as a ransomnot to Satan, but to the Father.
Finally, Gods sovereignty, or omnipotence, im- Thereby, Christ triumphed over the powers of
plies that he has both the authority and the darkness (Col. 2:1315; Heb. 2:1415). It was not
power to do what he has said he will do (see SOV- an encounter of power with power so much as it
EREIGNTY OF GOD). He authorized Christs atoning was a freedom to let sin meet judgment. Christ
death, accepted its substitutionary efficacy, will triumphed by submitting to death. He defeated
apply its effects to those whom he chooses, will death by his own death.
regenerate them, will sustain them throughout The missionary task announces and partici-
their mortal lives, and will establish them in an pates in the triumph of God and divine deliver-
eternal residence with him. Gods sovereignty as- ance. The announcement points to the triumph
sures that the activity of the missionary will suc- of Christ on the cross; the participation comes
ceed in the measure that he allows (Gal. 6:78). not by the triumph of Christians or the church,
His authority has been delegated to Christ, who but by suffering (as identification with the cross).
in turn delegates it to his disciples, empowering For some, the primary manifestation of Gods
them for the work of the Great Commission deliverance is freedom from oppressive social and
economic systems. LIBERATION THEOLOGY contends
(Matt. 28:1920). Thus we conclude that there is
that God brings deliverance through sociopolitical
no aspect of God that is not in some way in-
upheaval that leads to justice. Missions is partici-
volved in the outworking of the Christian world
pation in this process. But while all Christians are
mission, and it is our privilege to participate as
called to be catalysts of justice, a true social trans-
co-laborers with him (1 Cor. 3:9).
formation will only come when the human heart
LARRY POSTON
is liberated from sin. The fundamental human
SEE ALSO Immanence of God; Providence of problem is bondage, yes, but it is a bondage to sin
God; Transcendence of God; Wrath of God. of which the social and economic inequity in
human systems is but a symptom.
Bibliography. J. H. Kane, Christian Missions in Bib- For others, divine deliverance speaks of SPIRI-
lical Perspective; G. W. Peters, A Biblical Theology of
TUAL WARFARE, Gods power confronting invisible
Missions.
forces of evil and darkness, an encounter fueled
by focused intercessory prayer. Behind this lies
Divine Deliverance. Christ sets captives free. the recognition that spiritual forces are at work
Missions is proclaiming Christwho liberates in every aspect of human life and society and that
from darkness and ignorance, from oppression divine deliverance will only come when these
and injustice, from sin and its vicious hold on spiritual forces are defeated.
every aspect of human life, and from death. But a cautionary note must be raised. It is pos-
The deliverance motif runs throughout the sible to overspiritualize the forms of bondage or
whole story of Gods redemptive work. The exo- to overstate the extent to which Satan is himself
dus is the defining event of the Old Testament. actively involved in holding people and human
The people of Israel were a people set free systems in bondage. Often the work Christians
through the merciful intervention of God; this is are called to do includes both prayer and acts of
a recurring theme in the Psalms. kindness, mercy, and justiceto do what is right
We also see deliverance in the ministry of in the midst of wrong. If we overspiritualize the
Jesus. He announced a kingdom and viewed his bondage, it is easy to assume that if there is suf-
mission as one of liberation, through word and ficient prayer or faith the bondage will be elimi-
deed, from the forces, spiritual and otherwise, nated. In fact, however sincere our faith and
that oppressed his hearers. And he called his fol- well-intentioned our prayers, the full and final
lowers to participate, in word and deed, in this deliverance of God will not come until the con-
cosmic agenda. summation of Christs kingdom.
284
Divine Election
And then also, for others, the divine deliver- called double predestination, holds that God not
ance is fundamentally for emotional and physical only chooses some for eternal salvation, but also
wellness. Sin has left a profound mark of dislo- passes over others, in sorrow deciding not to save
cation and inner pain on individuals who have them but to allow the sentence of eternal death to
experienced the horrifying effects of wrongdoing. fall upon them. These people are vessels of wrath
Perhaps they are the children of alcoholic par- made for destruction (Rom. 9:1423); the stum-
ents; perhaps they experienced physical and emo- bling of the disobedient is the tragic end to which
tional abuse. Freedom for them is deliverance they were appointed (1 Peter 2:610; Jude 4).
that includes physical and emotional healing. A compatibilist approach underscores the
From every angle, we must remember that ul- causal differences between election and reproba-
timately the whole creation is in bondage (Rom. tion. In the former case, God causes the salvation
8:1920) and looks forward to the day of its re- of the elect, mercifully giving to them what they
demption. This reminds us that bondage is cos- do not deserve: grace leading to salvation. This is
mic, not merely individual, and further that ulti- not without genuine human response, however:
mate deliverance awaits Christs return. divine election is ordained by God and comes
Consequently, we maintain a biblical perspec- about through the willing appropriation of the
tive on divine deliverance when we affirm gospel by faith (2 Thess. 2:1314). In the latter
(1) that it is both individual and cosmic; (2) that case, God does not cause the damnation of the
it has present manifestations, but will only be reprobate, but justly gives to them what they de-
complete at the return of Christ; (3) that it is fun- serve: condemnation due to sin and willful dis-
damentally a spiritual matter, but one that has obedience to the gospel (2 Thess. 1:610).
visible manifestations in every aspect of human Pelagianism denies both election and reproba-
life and society; and (4) that deliverance comes tion. Divinely gifted with freedom of choice and
not so much through a show of force but by suf- the ability to respond to God without a work of
fering in Jesus name. grace upon their souls, people do not have a pen-
GORDON T. SMITH chant for sin. Thus, there is no need to be pre-
destined in any way, but people are capable of
SEE ALSO Miracles in Mission. fulfilling Gods purposes and are held fully re-
sponsible to do so.
Bibliography. T. Oden, The Word of Life; E. Rommen,
ed., Spiritual Power and Missions: Raising the Issues. Arminianism/Wesleyanism affirms divine elec-
tion and specifies that such election is condi-
tional. Since God does not wish for any to per-
Divine Election. Divine election is part of Gods ish but for all to come to repentance (2 Peter
work of predestination, his decree regarding the 3:9; 1 Tim. 2:34) and makes universal appeals
eternal destiny of human beings. The issue of for all to embrace his offer of salvation (Matt.
election is: Does God choose certain individuals 11:28; Isa. 55:1), then all people must be able to
out of the entirety of humanity to be recipients of meet the terms of salvation. This is made possi-
his gift of salvation in Jesus Christ, thereby as- ble by prevenient grace, a divine work in all peo-
suring that they will enjoy eternal life? If so, by ple everywhere which overcomes the corruption
what manner? A corollary issue, called reproba- due to sin and which restores the ability to re-
tion, is this: Does God also pass over certain in- spond positively to the gospel. Election is based
dividuals, in sorrow leaving them in their sins on Gods foreknowledge of this positive response
and to their eternal condemnation? If so, by what (Rom. 8:2830; 1 Peter 1:12); thus, it is condi-
manner? tioned upon foreseen faith in Jesus Christ. Dou-
Various responses to these questions have been ble predestination is denied.
offered and are summarized here in six general Karl Barths doctrine of election focuses atten-
categories. tion on Jesus Christ, who is both the elected man
Calvinism affirms divine election and specifies and the electing God (this, for Barth, is double
that Gods choice of some for eternal life is un- predestination). As the elected man, Jesus is cen-
conditional, not based on any human merit or a tral to the work of salvation and demonstrates
positive response of faith to the gospel as fore- that God is for humankind in election and not
seen by God. Rather, election was Gods sovereign against humankind in reprobation. Gods will
will and good pleasure purposed before the cre- from all eternity is the election of Jesus Christ. As
ation of the world (Eph. 1:314; Rom. 9:1418) the electing God, Jesus willingly elected to be-
and is immutable, necessary (given the utter sin- come man and to undergo reprobation for him-
fulness of people), and efficacious. The elect will self so that the entire world would be elect in
certainly embrace the salvation offered them in him. The elect communitythe church
Jesus Christ and continue in that faith until the preaches to the world, proclaiming to all this uni-
end (Acts 13:48; Rom. 8:2830). versal election by God in Jesus Christ.
Some Calvinists, in addition to embracing elec- A Calvinistic perspective is often seen as a de-
tion, also affirm divine reprobation. This view, terrent to missions, for the following reasons. If
285
Divine Election
God has already elected certain individuals to sal- which the human race would be placed. This is
vation, then why engage in missionary work the import of Genesis 1:1, which says, In the be-
praying, going, giving, and preaching the ginning God created the heavens and the earth
gospelsince those individuals will be saved any- and all of this speaks to the question of Gods ini-
way? This objection overlooks the fact that God tiative. If God had not taken the initiative there
not only ordains the salvation of the elect, but would have been no reality external to himself.
also ordains that their salvation will come only He conceived, developed, and executed the plan
through hearing the gospel and appropriating that gave reality to what we now experience as
this provision of forgiveness by faith and repen- our universe and our place in it.
tance (2 Thess. 2:1314). Thus, a human re- The initiative of God did not end when he had
sponse to the Good News is essential and the accomplished the initial creation of all things. By
MISSIONARY TASK is imperative, being the divinely a continuous act of his power God sustains
commanded means of linking the elect with the everything in existence. Created, contingent
gospel (Rom.10:515). Another key to consider is being has no power to keep itself in existence;
the fact that divine election is a secret decree and were it not for the sustaining word and will of
thus not revealed to us; thus, we must engage in God, all that is would lapse back into its primal
missions without the knowledge of whether the nonexistence and be no more. In addition to this
individuals to whom we minister are elect or not. God has retained his right to intervene creatively
Finally, since Gods election is efficacious, misin his universe for the governance and good of
sionaries may be encouraged that their labors in his creation. He does this by sometimes working
preaching and teaching Christ will be fruitful through the orderly structures he has established
(Acts 18:910). and sometimes by contravening them for a
From an Arminian/Wesleyan perspective, if higher good (see MIRACLES). After all, the orderly
election is conditioned upon the response of in- structures (the so-called natural laws) are all part
dividuals to the gospel, then it is imperative to of a larger moral order and subserve those higher
engage in the missionary enterprise. Again, God purposes. So Gods intervention in his own uni-
alone foreknows who will respond positively to verse is not a violation of independently func-
the Good News, so the gospel must be indiscrim- tioning laws but rather a rearranging of those or-
inately preached to all who will listen. derly structures to serve a higher end. The Deists
Karl Barth does not distinguish between the of the eighteenth century down to and including
elect and the reprobate, since all people have the liberal theologians of our own day deny that
been elected. However, not all people live as elect; God (if there is a personal God) would do this
rather, many live as reprobate. The Christian mis- sort of thing. They assert that after the world was
sion, therefore, consists of proclaiming to all peo- established, God left it to work out its own pur-
ple that they are elected by God in Jesus Christ, poses, especially the purposes of human beings,
enabling those who do not realize this fact to be who now have the ultimate initiative. Scripture
aware of their election so as to live in the light of does not teach this. It allows that human beings
this magnificent work. do exercise initiative and may genuinely act as
Whether we are elected unconditionally responsible beings, but it is all within the matrix
(Calvinism), conditionally (Arminianism), or uni- of Gods overall sustenance and management
versally (Barth), all who are the elect of God have (providence). We may exercise initiative, but not
the responsibility of praying, going, giving and ultimately.
proclaiming Jesus Christ as part of the mission- Scripture is replete with examples of Gods tak-
ary enterprise. ing the initiative. God made the world; God said
GREGG R. ALLISON Let the land produce vegetation (Gen. 1:11) and
Bibliography. J. Calvin, The Institutes of the Chris-
it obeyed him. God created the human pair and
tian Religion, 3.2124; J. Arminius, Examination of established his relationship with them, setting
Perkins Pamphlet and Declaration of Sentiments; limits upon them. God judged them when they
K. Barth, Church Dogmatics II/2; C. Pinnock, ed., Grace failed. The overwhelming number of times Gods
Unlimited and The Grace of God, the Will of Man: A Case initiative is spoken of in Scripture has caused
for Arminianism; T. Schreiner and B. Ware, The Grace some modern theologians actually to define God
of God, the Bondage of the Will: A Case for Calvinism. as a God who acts (as opposed to the pagan
gods who could do nothing) and the Bible as the
Divine Initiative. The Scriptures present God as Book of the Acts of God (G. Ernest Wright;
the one ultimate and Supreme Being in the uni- R. H. Fuller).
verse. Before anything else existed, God eternally From a missiological point of view, the concept
was. It was within the depths of his Being that of the divine initiative most directly relates to
the idea of what would exist arose and when it Gods self-disclosure with a view to bringing
pleased him those ideas took concrete external fallen humans into a redemptive relation with
shape at the word of his command. God created himself. God has called his people to share this
the supernatural world and the physical world in good news of redemption with every living soul.
286
Divorce
God took the initiative in seeking out the lost upon wrongdoing (Rom. 1:2125, 32). Finally,
progenitors of our race and all of their descen- Gods will to save is also made known, although,
dants. He established a plan of salvation that we rather obviously, the facts of salvation are not.
may enter into, he commissions people to pro- They may only be known through special revela-
claim this message, he works on the hearts of the tion (Acts 17:27; Rom. 2:511; Titus 2:11; 2 Peter
unredeemed to awaken a sense of need, and he 3:3; 5:4, 8, 9).
regenerates those who believe. The apostle Paul The command to proclaim the gospel is a uni-
worked out an entire philosophy of history based versal one (Matt. 28:19, 20; Acts 1:8) and we may
on this conception of God, as he explained to the confidently build upon what we know God has
Athenian philosophers in Acts 17. God made the been doing before our arrival. Sometimes it is
world and everything in it (17:24); he needs noth- just a general work that God has been doing and
ing, because he himself gives all men life and we must labor hard in the face of ridicule and re-
breath and everything else (17:25); he made all jection, as Paul did in Athens (Acts 17:32, 33).
nations from one person and determined the Sometimes God has been preparing the ground
times set for them and the exact places where very specifically and our call may be to a specific
they should live (17:26); and he did this so that area (Macedonia, Acts 16:10) or a specific indi-
men would seek him and perhaps reach out for vidual (Cornelius, Acts 19:1922). Either way the
him and find him, though he is not far from each divine initiative precedes ours and assures us
one of us (17:27). Paul sees the redemptive pur- that our labors will not be in vain.
poses of God at work everywhere and himself as WALTER A. ELWELL
an AMBASSADOR OF GOD calling everyone, every-
where to repentance and conscious faith in Jesus Bibliography. A. D. Clarke and B. W. Winter, eds.,
Christ. He also sees it as the task of the church to One God, One Lord; B. Demarest, General Revelation;
share in this ministry and proclaim the saving C. S. Lewis, The Abolition of Man; L. Newbigin, The
Gospel in a Pluralist Society; B. G. Nicholls, ed., The
message of the gospel to those who are lost (see Unique Christ in Our Pluralist World; G. E. Wright and
MISSIONARY TASK). R. H. Fuller, The Book of the Acts of God.
Those who proclaim the gospel may be sure
that God has gone before them. He who made
and sustains this universe and who initiated the Divorce. Gods ideal for marriage remains one
plan of salvation for lost humanity did not sud- man and one woman for life in a one-flesh rela-
denly stop working and leave it all up to human tionship. Divorce, for whatever reason, violates
efforts. He certainly includes those efforts, but, this intended union both for marriage in general
thankfully, they are within the context of his own and for each affected marriage in particular
creative involvement and activity. In the end, it is (Gen. 2:1824; Mark 10:212). Though a violation
not he who plants nor he who waters [who] is of Gods will and therefore sinful, divorce, like
anything, but only God who made it grow other sins, can be forgiven and persons involved
(1 Cor. 3:7). We are fellow-workers with God cleansed from all unrighteousness (1 John 1:9).
(1 Cor. 3:9). Divorce impacts missions in at least three
God has gone before us in at least four ways ways. Cross-cultural ministry must address the
and those who go out to labor in Gods field may place in the churches of persons divorced either
be certain that God has been there firstand is before or after conversion. Are divorced persons
still there at work (1 Cor. 3:9; Matt. 9:38). First, to be admitted fully into church membership?
God has preceded us by making a knowledge of Each church group will of necessity decide and
himself available to everyone (Pss. 19:14; 22:27, make clear its convictions. In no way should di-
28; 48:10; John 1:15, 9; Rom. 1:18, 19, 28). Sec- vorced persons be made to feel that they are sec-
ond, God has revealed significant aspects of his ond-class members in the church. Remembering
nature through GENERAL REVELATION, such as his that divorce can be forgiven and repentant sin-
righteousness (Rom. 1:32), his kindness (Matt. ners cleansed, perhaps missionaries should con-
5:45; Acts 14:17), his power (Ps. 29:310; Rom. sider that those whom God has brought into the
1:20), his majesty and glory (Ps. 8:14; 19:1), and kingdom should likewise be admitted to the
his truth (Rom. 1:21, 25). Third, God has written churches.
his moral requirements into the human heart A second impact of divorce on missions relates
and no matter how badly they may be distorted to the place of divorced persons (national and
by sin, they are still there and may be appealed missionary) in church leadership. Many mission-
to. C. S. Lewis called these the Tao in The Abo- ary agencies do not appoint divorced persons as
lition of Man and finds the basis for all natural missionaries and some churches do not allow di-
forms of religion in them. These moral require- vorced persons to serve in church leadership.
ments include the need to worship (Acts 17:22, This conviction is often based on 1 Timothy 3:2
23), the need to seek God (Acts 17:27), funda- and 12. A grammatical parallel is found in 1 Tim-
mental moral principles (Matt. 5:47; Rom. othy 5:9, where a widow can be put on the list
2:1316), and a sense of impending judgment or cared for only if she is sixty years of age and
287
Divorce
the wife of one husband. It is possible that the Zinzendorfs co-workers, Dober traveled inces-
phrase husband of one wife and wife of one santly around Europe to maintain contacts
husband focus on marital fidelity rather than among the scattered Moravian churches. He died
continuing status. If so, these verses, of them- in Herrnhut.
selves, do not prohibit divorced persons from RICHARD V. PIERARD
church leadership.
A third impact of divorce on mission relates to Doctoral Degrees in Missiology. Seminaries
the need for strengthening marriagesboth mis- and universities are granting a wide range of doc-
sionary and national. Marriage counseling to pre- toral degrees related to missiology. Such areas as
vent divorce often comes too late. Churches must the history of mission, contextualization, theol-
extend every effort to help couples reach toward ogy of mission, mission strategies, Bible transla-
Gods ideal for marriage and maintain God- tion, Christian leadership development for mis-
intended relationships. sion, ethnographic studies that serve as bases for
Divorce wrecks Gods intent for marriage and missiological strategy planning, and studies of
affects Gods work in every country. Missionary Christian relief and development illustrate the
and church leadership must address and seek to breadth of the range of missiological studies. The
correct the problems associated with divorce. lines that delimit missiological studies from
EBBIE C. SMITH church history, ethics, theology, evangelism and
other topics of the theological curriculum focus
Djibouti (Est. 2000 pop.: 645,000; 23,200 sq. km. on the issue of crossing boundaries. However,
[8,958 sq. mi.]). Djibouti is a small nation on the they remain fuzzy.
Red Sea coast of the Horn of Africa. Nearly half Missiological studies are being conducted at
of the people are Somalis with an additional 35 doctoral levels from a variety of academic disci-
percent of Afar background. Ninety-three percent plinary perspectives, including missiology, theol-
of the countrys population are Muslim, with a ogy, ethics, church history, anthropology, sociol-
small Christian population of about 5.6 percent. ogy, leadership, political science, economics,
The vast majority of the Christian community are education, communications, community devel-
French-speaking Roman Catholics and Orthodox opment, comparative religion, linguistics, and
from Greece and Ethiopia. Evangelical Protes- music. Very often missiological studies are multi-
tants are found among Ethiopian Protestants and disciplinary, drawing on two or more academic
the Red Sea Mission Team. disciplines. Multidisciplinary approaches in mis-
TODD M. JOHNSON siology allow researchers to gain multiple per-
spectives on complex issues.
Dober, (Johann) Leonhard (170666). First The range of doctoral degrees in missiology is
Moravian missionary and mission promoter. also wide and complex. In a search of titles and
Born in Mnchsroth, Wttemberg, Germany, and abstracts listed with University Microfilms, Inc.
a potter by trade, he arrived at Herrnhut in the from 1988 to 1996, sixteen doctoral degree
late 1720s and rapidly became a leading figure in names can be found. The most common related
the newly reconstituted Unity of the Brethren to missiology include the Ph.D., D.Min., D.Miss.,
or Moravian church. When in 1731 Count Th.D., and Ed.D. Each of these degrees has a re-
ZINZENDORF returned to Herrnhut from Copen- lated set of names depending on the degree-
hagen with the vision of a mission to the Danish granting university or seminary. All four types of
West Indies, Dober volunteered to go. He left on degrees are commonly granted by seminaries and
August 21, 1732, with the carpenter DAVID university divinity schools. However, the Ph.D.
NITSCHMANN to travel to St. Thomas, Virgin Is- and Ed.D. are the most common.
lands, to evangelize African slaves. This marked Doctoral degrees related to missiology differ in
the beginning of the famous Moravian foreign purpose and content. The Doctor of Ministry de-
mission enterprise. He worked alone as a lay gree assumes a prerequisite M.Div. plus three
preacher, as Nitschmann returned home after years of post-M.Div. ministry experience. The de-
five months to take up another assignment. After gree is a ministry-focused degree with the person
a year and a half of labor Dober had made only studying while in service. The 1996 Association
one convert, an orphan boy named Carmel Oly, of Theological Schools in the USA (ATS) stan-
whom he took to Herrnhut in 1734 when eight- dards describes the purpose of the D.Min. as to
een new missionaries arrived and he was recalled enhance the practice of ministry for persons who
to become chief elder of the community. In Eu- hold the M.Div. degree and have engaged in min-
rope he performed administrative functions and isterial leadership. The D.Min. degree requires
engaged in evangelistic activities, including work one year of academic work beyond the M.Div. in-
among the Jews of Amsterdam. He gave up the cluding significant peer learning, integrative and
chief elder position in 1741 but was ordained interdisciplinary activities, personal and spiritual
bishop in 1747. The most distinguished of growth, and a doctoral level project or disserta-
288
Dominica
tion. It is designed to take between three and six state universities, private secular universities,
years to complete. and royal chartered universities. The faculties
The 1996 ATS Bulletin of Procedures, Stan- within these universities who grant missiologi-
dards, and Criteria for Membership states that the cally related degrees range across a broad spec-
Doctor of Missiology is a professional degree trum of disciplines as mentioned above. The
which is designed to prepare persons for denom- search of UMI documentation identified 130 in-
inational/interdenominational leadership roles in stitutions which have granted more than 550
specialized cross-cultural ministries both in doctoral degrees related to mission over the past
North America and around the world, as well as six years. Ten institutions accounted for approx-
for teaching. While the primary thrust of the pro- imately two-thirds of the doctoral degrees.
gram is professional, it should include theologi- EDGAR J. ELLISTON
cal and theoretical foundations as well as train-
ing in research skills. The D.Miss. has an M.Div. SEE ALSO Degrees in Mission and Missiology.
as a prerequisite and two years of ministry expe-
rience. Language requirements normally include Doing Theology. See THEOLOGICAL METHOD.
a field language other than English and such
other languages as would be needed to complete Doke, Clement Martyn (18931980). South
the research. The requirements of the degree nor- African educator, scholar, and missionary. He
mally include at least two years of full-time study came from a distinguished missionary lineage.
in missiology beyond the M.Div. plus a disserta- WILLIAM CAREY was an ancestor through his
tion. The D.Miss. is normally an interdisciplinary mother Agnes. His father, Joseph J. Doke, had
degree with significant studies in the social sci- been a Baptist pastor, missionary, social activist,
ences to supplement the theological component. and church leader in many countries, including
Neither a Ph.D. nor Ed.D requires a prerequi- South Africa, where he had been a friend of M. K.
site theology degree and so both are granted not Gandhi. In 1913 Clement accompanied his father
only by seminaries, but universities as well. The on a mission to the Lamba people at Kafulafuta,
requirements for a Ph.D. or Ed.D. with a focus in in what is now Zambia. J. J. Doke died before the
a missiological topic vary widely. Normally, one end of the year, but the work he started was con-
would expect at least three years of post-bache- tinued by the South African Baptist missionary
lors study plus a research-based dissertation. society, including his daughter Olive, Clement,
However, in some seminaries, the Ph.D. follows and Clements wife Hilda. They went on preach-
an M.Div. equivalence with three years of study ing treks throughout the area and helped lay the
and research. A Ph.D. is seen as a degree based foundations of a church. In 1919 malaria brought
on research and aimed at equipping a person for the treks of Doke and his wife to a close. He com-
teaching in a specialized area. An Ed.D. will nor- pleted degrees in languages at universities in the
mally require a significant focus in education. Transvaal and England and began lecturing on
The difference between the D.Miss. and the Bantu studies at the University of Witwatersrand
Ph.D. may be seen by an analogy from medicine. in 1932. Soon he was acknowledged as an au-
The D.Miss. is to missiology what the M.D. is to thority on Bantu and other southern African lan-
medicine or an Ed.D. is to education. It is de- guages. Perhaps his crowning scholarly achieve-
signed for the professional practitioner who can ment was the preparation, with assistance from
apply the theory to a concrete situation. Simi- other scholars, of Zulu and Lamba dictionaries
larly, the Ph.D. is to missiology what the Ph.D. is and grammars. But much of his effort went into a
to medicine. Both are related to theory develop- translation of the Bible in Lamba, which he com-
ment and application. A person with a Ph.D. in pleted, with his sisters help, in 1959. He was also
biochemistry will instruct the person seeking the a leader in the Baptist church. Posts he held in-
M.D. A person with a Ph.D. related to missiology cluded editor of South African Baptist from 1923
may be a practitioner, but will be expected to de- to 1932, president from 1949 to 1950 of the Bap-
velop the theory for the person with the D.Miss. tist Union of South Africa (as his father had
to use in field practice. been), and the first principal of the Baptist Theo-
Other related doctoral degrees such as the logical College in Johannesburg in 1951.
Th.D. focus on their primary theological purpose ROBERT SHUSTER
while incorporating missiological studies. The
Ph.D. in missiology, for example, requires an Bibliography. C. M. Doke, Trekking in South-Central
M.Div. plus at least one additional year of theo- Africa, 19131919; P. C. Stine, BDCM, p. 181.
logical study as part of the doctoral program.
The D.Min. may relate to missiology, but has no Dominica (Est. 2000 pop. 71,000; 751 sq. km.
specific accreditation related requirements in [290 sq. mi.]). A former French colony, Dominica
missiology. was acquired by Britain in 1759 and gained its in-
Universities granting missiologically related dependence in 1978. The rugged, mountainous is-
degrees include private Christian universities, land is set between the French islands of Guade-
289
Dominica
loupe and Martinique. The population is almost Union Missionary Society of America, in Febru-
entirely Afro-Caribbean, with a tiny minority of ary 1861. Having long supported foreign mis-
Caribs, a remnant of the indigenous peoples. Al- sions, it was no surprise that she was called on to
though English is the official language, the is- organize an interdenominational society geared
lands cultural heritage is reflected in the French specifically for sending single women missionar-
Creole commonly spoken by most citizens and ies. Although subjugated at the hands of strong
their adherence to Roman Catholicism (75 per- male opposition in the 1830s, when it was first
cent of the population). Evangelical Protestants suggested, it took off under Sarahs leadership
make up fewer than 10 percent of the residents. thirty years later when the opposition had de-
EVERETT A. WILSON creased. The organization thrived under her pres-
idency and continued on as an inspiration to
SEE ALSO Caribbean.
other denominational womens organizations
Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer- long after her death. Her entire consecration to
ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His- the Lords service truly makes her one of the
tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to most significant women of nineteenth-century
the Present. American Protestantism and a true pioneer of
urban mission efforts to help women, children,
Dominican Republic (Est. 2000 pop.: 8,495,000; and the poor.
48,734 sq. km. [18,816 sq. mi.]). Occupying the WENDY S. LARSON
eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, the
Dominican Republic is more than 90 percent Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, American Protestant
Roman Catholic. Less than 5 percent of the peo- Women in World Mission; P. R. Hill, The World Their
Household; R. A. Tucker, GGC; N. Hardesty, Women
ple are evangelical. The mainline denominations Called to Witness; A. Brouwer, Reformed Church Roots.
have had less success here than in several other
Caribbean societies, with Seventh-Day Adventists
constituting the largest non-Catholic church. Do- Doubt. The mission Christ has given to his
minican Pentecostals are also a significant mi- church is to disciple the nations (Matt. 28:1820).
nority. Other Protestant bodies with some repre- This commissioning involves evangelizing the
sentation are the Church of the Nazarene and the world (Luke 24:47), equipping the saints (Eph.
Free Methodists. 4:1216), and training qualified leaders (2 Tim.
EVERETT A. WILSON 2:21). It is to be done in loving obedience to
Christ and in faith.
SEE ALSO Caribbean. Doubt may be defined as a state of uncertainty
Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer- regarding God, his Word, and his works. The
ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His- mission of the church demands faith in Gods
tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to ability to guide, provide, and protect. It demands
the Present. faith in his Word that is displayed by obedience
to his commissioning command. It also demands
Doremus, Sarah (180277). American urban faith in his accomplished work of salvation and
missionary and mission activist. Born into a his continual works of convicting, regenerating,
wealthy New York City family, she spent the ma- and empowering. There is clearly a distinction
jority of her life building on the benevolent Chris- between permanent unbelief as illustrated by
tian foundation she had been given. In 1828, Judas and doubts that find resolution in lives
seven years after marrying a man of substantial such as Job, John the Baptist, Peter, and Thomas.
wealth, Thomas Doremus, and becoming the However, since faith involves ones mind, emo-
mother of nine children, she began her first or- tions, and will, one may intellectually believe and
ganized benevolent work among Greek women. still be characterized by unbelief (James 2:19).
In the early 1830s, she instigated church services The lexical basis for the scriptural understand-
in the New York City prison and later formed the ing of doubt revolves around the various nega-
Womens Prison Association for discharged pris- tions of aman and batah in the Old Testament
oners. Her other efforts include manager of the and pisteuom in the New Testament. Apistos refers
New York City and Tract Mission; manager of the to the faithless and unbelieving. Apisteom has the
City Bible Society; founder of the House and nuance of to be unfaithful and to refuse to be-
School of Industry, the Nursery and Childs Hos- lieve. Apistia means unfaithfulness and is
pital, and the Womens Hospital; and organizer of closely related to disobedience. Oligopistos refers
the Presbyterian Home for Aged Women. Al- to the lack of faith and occurs exclusively in the
though she was an active member of the South Gospels.
Reformed Church, this denominational affilia- Throughout Scripture Satans warfare tactics
tion was no barrier to her breadth of service nor are waged against faith (see SPIRITUAL WARFARE).
did it prevent her from launching the effort for In the temptation of Eve, the serpent raises doubt
which she is most remembered, the Womens in Gods character and his Word (Gen. 3:15). In
290
Dreams and Visions
Jesus interpretation of the parable of the sower, knowing what to believe and are contrasted with
he stated that the devil seeks to hinder belief in the prudent (Prov. 14:15). Since the shield of
Gods Word (Luke 8:12). He also told the Phar- faith is an important protective piece of the
isees that their unbelief in his Word demon- Christians armor, unbelief makes one vulnerable
strated that the devil was their spiritual father in spiritual battles (Eph. 6:16).
(John 8:4447). The Apostle Paul related Satans Unbelief never catches God by surprise (John
temptation as being aimed at his converts faith 6:64); and it cannot and does not alter or change
(1 Thess. 3:5). For example, pride is the root his perfect faithfulness (Rom. 3:3; 2 Tim. 2:13). It
cause of sin and was the sin of the devil (1 Tim. is the Holy Spirits role to convict the world of
3:6) and Jesus clearly taught that pride hinders sin, but the unbelief of the church grieves or
faith (John 5:44; 12:4243). Likewise, Jesus called quenches this convicting work and invites the
the devil the father of lies (John 8:44), and it is Lords loving discipline (John 16:9). The Scrip-
the acceptance of wrong doctrine that upsets tures are full of examples of objects of Gods dis-
faith (2 Tim. 2:18). cipline such as the nation of Israel (Num.
Faith is the means by which one becomes 14:1123; Ps. 106:2427; Jude 5), Moses (Num.
Gods child, whereas permanent unbelief results 20:12), and Zechariah (Luke 1:20).
in Gods condemnation (John 3:18; 8:24). The un- God desires merciful support to be shown to
believing find their place in the lake of fire (Rev. the doubting (Jude 22). He also desires that his
21:8), but the one who has placed his faith in people encourage each others faith (Rom. 1:12).
Christ has been delivered from this consequence. He uses his servants and trials to strengthen our
However, Scripture is clear on the effects of un- faith (Acts 16:5; Jon. 11:15). He does not belittle
belief even in the life of a Christian. Since a lack cries for help in our unbelief (Mark 9:24) and
of trust is seen as the root of sin and rebellion gives enabling grace to believe (Acts 18:27; Phil.
(Deut. 9:23; 2 Kings 17:14), an unbelieving heart 1:29). Thomas (John 20:27) and Abraham (Rom.
is also called a sinful or evil heart (Heb. 3:12). 4:20) are examples of those who received Gods
Unbelief is evidenced in Gods people as a hesi- aid to believe. As Jesus prayed that Peters faith
tancy to act in obedience to God and a lack of con- would not fail (Luke 22:32), he lives today to in-
viction (Deut. 1:2633). Unbelief does not please tercede for the faith of his church (Heb. 7:25).
God (Heb. 11:6); it is sin (Rom. 14:23). It hinders While God rebukes unbelief (Mark 16:14), he in-
the prayer life of Gods people (James 1:68; cf.
vites the repentant to return to him (Jer. 3:12) and
Matt. 21:21; Mark 11:2324). Whereas faith leads
let him heal their unfaithfulness. In light of the
to worship (John 9:38), doubt hinders worship
churchs large measure of unresponsiveness to its
(Matt. 28:17).
mission this provision needs to be taken seriously.
The character of unbelief is to turn away from
WILLIAM D. THRASHER
God (Heb. 3:12) and look to something else. To re-
fuse to trust the true God is to commit spiritual SEE ALSO Assurance of Salvation.
adultery (Jer. 3:6, 8) and opens one up to false-
hood and deception (2 Thess. 2:1112). No other Bibliography. R. Bultmann, TDNT, VI:174228;
O. Becker, NIDNTT, I:58793; O. Michel, NIDNTT,
object of faith puts one on stable ground whether
I:593606.
it be possessions (Prov. 11:28), another person
(Jer. 17:5), or oneself (Prov. 28:26). A refusal to be-
lieve God dishonors his trustworthy name (1 John Dreams and Visions. Dreams and visions are
5:10). Unbelief grieves the heart of Christ (Matt. common universal phenomena, neither restricted
17:17), who longs to satisfy the thirsts of all who to particular peoples nor historical eras. Techni-
continually look to him (John 6:35; 7:3739). cally, dreams are related to the state of sleep,
God graciously works in response to faith in while visions occur in trance-like states when peo-
his truth (Gal. 3:5). While faith opens the door to ple are awake. However, because of their often ec-
the release of Gods power (Matt. 17:20; Mark static nature and revelatory character, dreams and
9:23; John 14:12), unbelief hinders the working visions function in much the same manner. They
of God (Matt. 13:58) and quenches Gods Spirit. are both important mediums of divine revelation
The individual Christian and the life of the in Scripture. In fact, they are explicitly mentioned
church are greatly affected by the sin of unbelief. or alluded to almost two hundred times in the
It opens the door to anxiety (John 14:1; Matt. Bible. Thus, dreams and visions play an impor-
6:30) and fear (Matt. 8:26; 14:3031). It makes tant role in the drama of redemption.
one unstable (James 1:68) and fails to deliver Dreams and visions were prevalent throughout
one from dismay (Isa. 28:16), disappointment antiquity. For example, the royal courts of both
(Rom. 9:33), and corruption (Titus 1:15). Mesopotamia and Egypt had wise men who were
Since it is faith in Gods revelation that opens professional interpreters of dreams. In the Greek
the door to true understanding (Heb. 11:3), a lack world, sophisticated systems of interpretation
of faith hinders spiritual discernment (Matt. were developed as well. Overall, there was an ex-
16:8). The naive or simple lack discretion in cessive preoccupation with dreams and visions in
291
Dreams and Visions
the Ancient Near East and the Greco-Roman thus he meets people where they are. Because
world. many of the unreached are beyond the reach of
This is the not the case in Scripture, however. the gospel and because much of the world is illit-
The elements that dominated the dream world of erate, dreams and visions are particularly rele-
antiquitythe riotous superstition, perversion, vant. Moreover, similar to the case of Cornelius,
curiosity, and obsession with ones fateare lack- dreams or visions about Jesus often prepare the
ing in the Bible. When viewed in this light, the way for the message of the evangelist.
biblical description of dreams and visions, while God is sovereign and never limited to human
pervasive, is restrained and sober. agency. He uses and will continue to use dreams
The Bible emphasizes that dreams and visions and visions to fulfill his GREAT COMMISSION. Nev-
are typical mediums of divine revelation: When ertheless, his use of dreams and visions in mis-
a prophet of the LORD is among you, I reveal my- sion in no way minimizes the role of missionar-
self to him in visions, I speak to him in dreams ies. Visions and missionaries were involved in the
(Num. 12:6; cf. 1 Sam. 3:1; 28:6, 15; Hos. 12:10). conversion of both Paul and Cornelius (Ananias
The prophets usually received their messages and Peter). Whether God communicates super-
through dreams or visions (Isa. 1:1; Ezek. 1:1;
naturally through dreams and visions or not,
Daniel).
missionaries are always needed.
In the New Testament, dreams and visions are
To affirm the reality and even need of dreams
described as characteristic of the age of the Spirit.
The apostle Peter, quoting the fulfillment of Joels and visions to help fulfill the Great Commission
prophecy of the outpouring of the Spirit, notes in no way deprecates the priority and centrality
that the church is to be a prophetic community, a of the Word of God. The Bible is the exclusive
community where young men will see visions . . . medium of special revelation, whereas dreams
old men will dream dreams (Acts 2:17). and visions are at best only supplementary and
This emphasis on dreams and visions is out- secondary.
lined in Acts. Luke gives numerous illustrations Moreover, dreams or visions are not always di-
of visions in the early church. Ananias receives a vinely inspired. They can also be psychologically
vision regarding Paul (9:10). Paul is converted or satanically inspired. Because of this, new con-
through a vision (26:19). Through visions, God verts must be taught discernment. They must
prepares the Gentile Cornelius to receive the learn to examine their dreams and visions in
gospel and prepares the Jew, Peter, to preach the light of Scripture. They also need to submit their
gospel (chaps. 1011). The famous Macedonian dreams and visions to the leaders of their
call comes through a vision (16:9). And at churches who will help them determine if God is
Corinth, Paul is encouraged by God to keep speaking.
preaching the gospel through a vision (18:910). The Bible is Gods full and final revelation in
What do these data suggest? What are the mis- written form, our highest objective authority. We
siological implications of the Bibles teaching on must examine all things by the Word of God.
dreams and visions? While not a normal part of Moreover, Jesus primarily speaks to us through
the Western evangelical experience, dreams and the Bible. However, he is not bound to the Bible
visions are biblical and play an important part of alone. He also speaks to and guides his church
life for people in the Two-Thirds World. Only through dreams and visions. To deny this supple-
someone with an extreme anti-supernatural bias mentary and secondary form of revelation
would deny their relevance to missions. (dreams and visions), is to deny teaching of our
Second, dreams and visions are mediums of primary medium of revelation, the Bible!
revelation. God speaks through dreams and vi- RICHARD D. LOVE
sions to convert sinners (Paul and Cornelius) as
well as to encourage and guide his people (Ana- Bibliography. D. E. Aune, ISBE Revised, IV:99394;
nias, Peter, Paul). He does the same today. Even R. J. Budd, NIDNTT, I:51112; M. Kelsey, God, Dreams,
the most conservative branches of Christianity and Revelation; A. Oepke, TDNT, V:22038; J. H. Stek,
are reporting the use of dreams and visions in the ISBE Revised, I:99192; J. G. S. S. Thompson, NBD,
conversion of the unreached. Just as God used a p. 1239; J. G. S. S. Thompson and J. S. Wright, NBD,
pp. 28990.
vision to convert Paul, in like manner he is re-
vealing himself to Muslims, Hindus, and Bud-
dhists. Just as God prepared Cornelius to hear Dropout. Typically used of an unnecessary pre-
the gospel through dreams, so too is God prepar- mature departure from a missionary assignment.
ing a multitude of unreached peoples to respond The terms roots can be found in an earlier time
to his Good News. and mind-set, a time in which ministry calling
As a missionary God, Gods method of commu- had a profound and almost eternal ring to it.
nication is incarnational. He enters into our Originally, the concept of calling was an impor-
world to communicate his message. His revela- tant Reformation insight that affirmed the worth
tion is contextual (see CONTEXTUALIZATION) and of all ethical vocations as reflections of Gods
292
Duff, Alexander
providential plan to bring himself glory through rives from the first. Zoroastrianism from the
the unique giftedness of individuals. Middle Ages is an example of the radical form,
In later adaptations of the concept of calling, and some forms of ancient gnosticism, with their
however, all spiritual vocations, and the mission- supreme God and the created devil who in turn
ary vocation in particular, were viewed differently creates the material world, are examples of mod-
from other vocations. They were generally un- erate dualism.
derstood as life-long commitments of the self for Among living religions, Zoroastrianism is dual-
service. Missionary candidates were not normally istic with its good god, Ahura Mazda, who is op-
accepted without reference to a divine call in posed by the evil god, Angra Mainyu. Ahura
their life, a proper standard that should have Mazda is said to have created the world as a bat-
been, but seldom was, equally applied to other tleground in which to overcome Angra Mainyu
vocations as well. Those who entered vocational and eventually thus to destroy all evil. From a
ministry and later departed, therefore, generally very different tradition, the notion of Yin and
bore alone the stigma of those who had put their Yang in Chinese thought, with the idea of oppos-
hands to the plow and then looked back. ing forces producing harmony when in proper
A shifting of generational perspectives, how- balance and evil when not in proper alignment, is
ever, has diminished both the popularity and another form of cosmic dualism. Among ANI-
usage of the term dropout. Younger baby MISTS, the Pueblo Indians of the southwestern
boomers and the generations that have followed United States define the cosmos as a dualistic sa-
them tend to see Gods calling more in terms of a cred world, with the more profane world being
progressive revelation that may require different the one into which people have emerged. Also,
responses at various points in ones life. They are the Navajos hold that the totality of phenomena
much less likely than earlier generations to fall into two partsthe good and bad, positive
equate Gods calling with any particular job, lo- and negative, male and femaleall of which
cation, or organizational affiliation. complement each other in a fashion not unlike
All of the above is not to minimize issues of AT- the Yin and Yang in Chinese thought.
TRITION (the loss of active missionaries from an From a Christian perspective, while there are
agencys ranks), which are being examined more certainly aspects of dualistic thought that can be
thoroughly and with a greater sense of urgency embraced, Christians must challenge any form of
than perhaps at any other time in history. If in a cosmic dualism that compromises the biblical
previous day attrition was almost automatically understanding of God as the supreme power and
assumed to be the result of spiritual or character authority over all that exists or which limits
weakness (hence dropouts), the more recent Gods control over the forces of evil.
trend has been to recognize the myriad of per- WILLIAM H. BAKER
sonal, organizational, and contextual reasons that
keep missionaries from returning to their fields of
service and to address those that are preventable. Duff, Alexander (180678). Scottish missionary to
GARY R. CORWIN India. Born in Scotlands Perthshire Highlands, he
studied at St. Andrews under Thomas Chalmers,
SEE ALSO Adjustment to the Field; Attrition. whose strong educational policies he espoused. Or-
Bibliography. M. F. Foyle, Overcoming Missionary
dained in 1829, Duff sailed for Calcutta (surviving
Stress; K. ODonnell, ed., Missionary Care: Counting the two shipwrecks), and opened a school where the
Cost for World Evangelization; E. Schubert, What Mis- higher classes studied the Bible and all true knowl-
sionaries Need to Know about Burnout and Depression; edge. A general government decree ordained that
M. Jones, Psychology of Missionary Adjustment. higher education teaching should be in English
and should promote European literature and sci-
Dualism. Dualism can be understood in at least ence. Soon Duffs College (as it came to be known)
two distinct senses: (1) views that see the cosmos was the largest mission school in India, causing
as a battleground between opposing (and more anxiety among Hindu leaders. Poor health forced
or less equal) forces of good and evil; and Duff to temporarily return home (183539); then,
(2) views that see a sharp division of human na- in 1843, Chalmers led evangelicals in forming the
ture into spirit and matter. There are, of course, Free Church, and Duff (who approved) had to va-
many varieties within each category. An example cate the Church of Scotlands Indian property and
of an influential dualistic perspective from the seek new accommodations.
second category would be R. Descartes di- Duff co-founded and edited (184549) the Cal-
chotomy between the mind and the body. cutta Review before returning to Scotland, where
Dualism of the first category can be divided he was his churchs moderator in 1851. A mis-
into radical and moderate dualisms. Radical du- sions-promotion tour of North America followed
alism postulates two original coequal and coeter- in 1845. In a gripping address to the British
nal principles, while moderate dualism holds to Evangelical Alliance in 1855 Duff condemned
only one original principle with a second that de- worldliness in the churches and called on Chris-
293
Duff, Alexander
tendom to remember the perishing nations. ulated South American Dutch possession which
SYNCRETISM to Duff was anathema; HINDUISM was did not gain independence as Suriname until
a stupendous system of error. His colleges en- 1975. However, by the early 1990s, the number of
rollment rose to over 1,700. Duff had provided Catholic missionaries had continued to fall to
the role model that led to the establishment of less than five thousand.
other colleges for the training of Indian evangel- The trend for Protestantism is quite different.
ists, and was a prime mover in founding the Uni- Their percentage of the population in the home-
versity of Calcutta. When ill health finally com- land has dropped sharply, so that by 1970 slightly
pelled him to leave India in 1867, he became fewer Dutch people identified themselves as
professor of theology at New College, Edinburgh, Protestants than as Catholics, and by the 1990s
but remained a tireless promoter of missions. they comprise even nominally only about one-
Among his numerous works was Missions the fourth of this Protestant-founded nation. That
Chief End of the Christian Church (1839). makes the recent significant increase in Protes-
J. D. DOUGLAS tant missionaries even more interesting, showing
Bibliography. A. A. Millar, Alexander Duff of India; that there is no simple correlation between over-
W. Paton, Alexander Duff: Pioneer of Missionary Educa- all church attendance and missionary effort.
tion; G. Smith, The Life of Alexander Duff, D.D., L.L.D. Dutch ministers had been working abroad
since the early 1600s, when the small Dutch na-
Dutch Mission Boards and Societies. Though tion started becoming a major global trading and
Dutch Protestants initially took the lead in mis- colonizing power. Though they lost what became
sions work, by the twentieth century the contri- New York in 1664, various waves of Dutch immi-
bution had become overwhelmingly from the gration to North America before and since, and
Catholic portion of the population despite the the corresponding effort to minister to the immi-
large Protestant presence at home and in com- grants and their descendants, have probably di-
merce. The Catholic population has remained verted overseas efforts that might otherwise have
comparatively large and stable, being almost 40 gone to non-Christian areas. On the other hand,
percent in 1830 and the same 40 percent in 1970. as the Dutch integrated into North America soci-
By the 1990s, Catholics had dropped to about a ety, they became major participants, not just in
third of the population, and the proportion of ethnic churches, but in church life generally, in-
those who attended Mass regularly had plum- cluding the missionary effort from North Amer-
meted. But in the early 1970s, even though the ica. The colonial Great Awakening began among
number had started declining, it is noteworthy the Dutch before leaping to English-speaking set-
that of some 12,300 Dutch priests, fully 30 per- tlers. In the twentieth century, Dutch entrepre-
cent of them were still serving as missionaries neurs led the evangelical book publishing indus-
overseas. They were joined by many more broth- try.
ers, sisters, and lay workers, so that in total there The first major Dutch Protestant mission soci-
were over 7,600 missionaries. At the same time ety was founded in 1797, alongside of, but not
there were only some 350 Dutch Protestant mis- controlled by or limited to, the Reformed
sionaries, less than 5 percent as many missionar- Church. It understandably concentrated its ef-
ies as the Catholics were sending. forts in Indonesia, where the Netherlands had al-
In the 1970s, this declining but still formidable ready replaced Portugal as the leading commer-
Catholic missionary force of 7,600 was widely cial power and gradually extended its political
dispersed. There were no significant indigenous control outward from Java. Theological contro-
Dutch sending agencies, so instead some three versies in the homeland were also reflected in
dozen international agencies or orders were new mission societies (within the main church)
used, the largest number being with the Mill Hill and new denominations (generally with their
Fathers, the White Fathers, the Spiritans, and the small mission efforts being part of their official
Franciscans. However, those four still comprised church structure) being formed throughout the
less than one-fifth of the total force. As to area of nineteenth century. These new agencies generally
service, roughly one-third were in Africa. They occupied different areas of the vast East Indies.
were scattered, with Congos 450 being the In the twentieth century most began cooperating
largest contingent. Another third were in Asia, of more closely, and the societies (except one) of the
whom four-fifths were quite understandably in main church finally in 1951 united as an official
Indonesia, the former Dutch East Indies. The arm of it. Most of the older mission efforts, in-
final third served in the Americas, the Pacific Is- cluding those of the older (and very small) non-
lands, and even some in Europe, chiefly Scandi- Reformed churches, are represented in a Mis-
navia. Brazil, the largest Catholic country, re- sions Council, are more theologically diverse, and
ceived more than one thousand Dutch their missionaries are decreasing and have dis-
missionaries. But about 630 were serving in the bursed from their original concentration in In-
small Netherlands Antilles or in the sparsely pop- donesia. From about 350 in the early 1960s, their
294
Dynamic Equivalence
numbers had decreased more than 60 percent to guage that may differ markedly from the corre-
under 140 by the early 1980s. sponding forms in the source language in order
By contrast, the newer non-Reformed churches, to get across to receptors in a different concep-
though still relatively small at home, and joined tual and linguistic world the meanings intended
by some of the Reformed, are sending forth an in- by the original authors. English translations pro-
creasing number of missionaries, often through duced according to this approach are JBP, GNB,
small Dutch branches of the denominational and CEV, and NLT.
interdenominational societies that have become This concept of translation has created a revo-
such a key part of the evangelical movement in lution in the way Bible translation is carried out
the twentieth century. The Evangelical Missionary (see TRANSLATION THEORY). Translation organiza-
Alliance included forty such agencies with almost tions such as The United (including American)
180 missionaries in the early 1980s, but by the Bible Societies and WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS
mid-1990s there were about eighty agencies in the have long since converted to this approach.
Alliance (none very large) and they comprise the Though biblical scholars often hold out for more
great majority of the approximately 1,200 Dutch literal renderings, those with actual expertise in
Protestant missionaries. translating virtually all subscribe to a dynamic
DONALD TINDER equivalence approach, though they sometimes
use other names for it (e.g., thought for thought,
Dynamic Equivalence. Label for meaning-based meaning based).
or thought-based (as opposed to word-based) Charles Kraft, in Christianity in Culture (1979),
Bible translations. Though this kind of transla- broadened the application of dynamic equiva-
tion was first done (and theorized) in English by lence to apply to a series of missiological topics
J. B. Phillips (1958), the label dynamic equiva- in addition to translation. He advocates dy-
lence was coined by EUGENE A. NIDA to contrast namic equivalence churches as the contextual-
with the term formal correspondence, Nidas ization model we should strive for. An appropri-
term for literal translations. A literal translation ate church, he suggests, should express itself,
attempts to move from the word forms and including its theology, preaching and approach to
grammatical structures of the original language conversion in ways that look just as much a part
as directly as possible into the corresponding of their culture as a dynamic equivalence Bible
words and structures of the receiving language, translation looks and sounds in its language.
often without adequate concern for the impact Whenever a church (or a theology or a Bible
such awkwardness of language will have on the translation) looks like literal Bible translations,
receptors as they strive to determine the mean- they are not true to the aims of the God who
ing. English examples of formal correspondence seeks to be known by every people in terms they
translations are KJV, ASV, RSV, and NIV. can understand. In order to be properly biblical,
A dynamic equivalence translation, however, Kraft contends, churches need to be both appro-
seeks to live up to Phillips ideal that a translation priate in cultural form and equivalent to apos-
should not sound like a translation but an origi- tolic ideals in function and dynamic within their
nal work in the language. The translator(s) thus own culture. Just as the early church decided in
seek to recreate in the receptor language the Acts 15 to refrain from imposing Jewish cultural
closest natural equivalent to the source-language forms on Gentiles, encouraging them to develop
message with a view toward stimulating recep- their own cultural expressions of Christianity, so
tors to understand the original meanings and to we should aim at churches that grow from bibli-
respond to those meanings as the original hear- cal seed in ways appropriate to their culture.
ers would have (Nida and Taber 1969). This ap- CHARLES H. KRAFT
proach takes seriously, in a way impossible for
literal translations, the large differences between SEE ALSO Bible Translation.
the conceptual worlds languages represent and Bibliography. C. H. Kraft, Christianity in Culture;
the structures by which they represent them. The E. A. Nida, and C. R. Taber, The Theory and Practice of
translator employing this approach, then, will Translation; J. B. Phillips, The New Testament in Modern
choose words and structures in the receiving lan- English.
295
E-F Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/8/03 3:57 PM Page 296
Ecology, Ecological Movement. Clearly a crisis

of degradation is enveloping Gods earth. Envi-
ronmental destruction includes the transforma-
tion of forest and field into concrete and pave-
ment, the extinction of entire species, the
alteration of earths energy exchange systems,
and the toxification of the atmosphere, land, and
water systems of the world. Industrial develop-
ment and consumerism exploit whole cultures.
Advanced nations work violence against nature
Ee
commandment. We bless and keep Gods creation
as he blesses and keeps us. The capability and re-
sponsibility to affect, modify, and control many
aspects of the ecosphere is called STEWARDSHIP.
and all its forms of life for economic profit, wor- If we are responsible caretakers of Gods cre-
shiping the god Mammon rather than the God ation, then we must use the earth, the atmos-
who created all things. phere, the land, the water so as to maintain their
That Christianity is the main source of envi- purity and to conserve and renew their systems
ronmental ruin seems axiomatic to many envi- as intended by God. The earth is not a commod-
ronmentalists, who feel that the command to ity to be bought and sold to fulfill sinful greed
subdue and have dominion over the earth (Gen. and exploitation.
1:28; Ps. 8:56) gave Christians a theological There is much commonality between humans
sanction for destroying both earth and ENVIRON- and other living beings. God filled the seas and
MENT. Indeed, evangelicals appear guilty as the land with living souls, the common designa-
charged when they describe creation as the late, tion for both the living beings of the seas (Gen.
great planet earth that God will destroy with fire 1:20) and the land (1:24) as well as humans (Gen.
and dismiss attempts to redeem it as futile efforts 2:7). The commonality as creatures has been ob-
to do Gods work by human means. We unwit- scured in most English versions because these
tingly appear to believe the chief value of the terms are translated with different words (e. g.,
earth is to fuel human industry. living creature vs. living beings, NIV). God formed
The Biblical-Theological Foundation. The Adams body out of the dust (Gen. 2:7) in a way
reasons for environmental involvement are similar to how he formed animals out of the
strong. We who bring the good news of Gods earth (1:24). Creation was subjected to frustra-
love for the cosmos (John 3:16) and of Jesus tion and decay, and groans as a result of human
Christs work as Creator, Sustainer and Recon- sin (Gen. 3:1719; Rom. 8:20). Human sin con-
ciler (John 1; Col. 1; Heb. 1) cannot be complicit tinues to impact the land (Num. 26:1922; Lev.
bystanders or participants in the degradation 18:28; Deut. 11:17; 28:168). We share a com-
and defilement of the world God loves, sustains mon, interlinked creatureliness.
and reconciles (DeWitt and Prance, 1992, viii). But humans are also different from the other
Meeting human needs without caring for the animals and the rest of creation, being created in
earth is not only impossible, but unbiblical. But Gods image and given dominion over the rest of
the focus cannot be nature or resources or creation (Gen. 1:28; Ps. 8:56) and the command
the environment, but Gods creation. Earth- to till and care for the garden (2:15). Only humans
keeping must be a worshipful activity, an act of dwell in communion with God and live responsi-
praise to the Creator. Reverence for God must in- bly under his command. Only we can sin in the
clude appreciation of all his creation. proper sense of the term. This SIN impacted all of
Both humans and the earth are part of Gods creation; stewardship continues, but it will be ac-
creation. They are deeply interlinked realities. complished only with toil and struggle.
God placed humans in the garden and told them It is important to notice that the mandate for
to till and care for it (Gen. 2:15; see also CULTURAL earth-keeping stems from CREATION, not from
MANDATE). Stewardship of Gods creation is im- ATONEMENT. Jesus did not die for the earth. But it
plicit in the IMAGE OF GOD and explicit in this will be liberated from that bondage and share
296
Economics
the glorious redemption of humanity (Rom. predicament is solved by the Cross, not by biol-
8:1923) when Christ, the Lord of all creation, re- ogy or environmental engineering.
stores the whole cosmos. Ultimately, salvation is Evangelicals must reject the claim that any at-
cosmological in scope, leading to fellowship with tempt to deem humans more valuable than any
God, community with other humans, and unity other animal or plant is a form of bigotry. We
with all of creation (Eph. 1:22; Col. 1:1820). must maintain a unique role for human beings as
Currently we experience only the firstfruits of made in Gods image and the focus of creation,
this salvation, an inheritance that extends to sin, and redemption. Humans have a unique spir-
Christs lordship over all creation (Eph. 1:22; Col. itual nature, a personal relatedness and responsi-
1:1820). The people of God, as a part of their obe- bility to God that is found nowhere else in cre-
dience to the Lord of the earth, must restore earth- ation. Of course this does not mean affirming
keeping as a part of the stewardship of his cre- sinful human nature with its greed and selfishness
ation. The church should be the salt of the earth, and insensitivity, but the human as responsible
calling all humans to righteousness, including steward as image and likeness of the living God.
faith in Jesus Christ, justice in a deteriorating so- Conclusion. If we really believe the environ-
ciety, and caretaking of an ailing environment. ment we inhabit is the handiwork of God and that
Dangers to Be Avoided. We must be aware of we have been given responsible stewardship for it,
potential dangers involved in environmental in- then we will be zealous to protect and preserve
volvement. Missions could fall prey to a compro- what the Creator has put in our trust. We will see
mise of priority. EVANGELISM and CHURCH PLANT- ourselves as Gods stewards rather than owners.
ING are the substance of the GREAT COMMISSION. We will proclaim a theology that includes per-
Environmental and social concerns are always sonal justification by grace alone through faith
secondary to the priority of bringing people into alone, but also includes a corporate life of pro-
relationship with God (see also EVANGELISM AND moting obedient living in every part of our life.
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY). To reverse these would be Because we believe both justification and sanc-
to deny the heart of the gospel, which is reconcil- tification, we will proclaim a gospel of personal
iation with God, justification by grace alone salvation leading to a God-honoring life that in-
through faith alone. But to refuse to speak to en- cludes environmental righteousness. We will for-
vironmental issues flowing out of obedience to sake selfishness in favor of the benefit of fellow
our Creator and Redeemer out of fear of com- humans and the environment because we care
promise is a grave danger as well. for the creation out of our love for the Creator.
One can be drawn into the kind of PANTHEISM Mission that includes care for creation is not a
found in New Age religions or idolatry such as Is- new emphasis. WILLIAM CAREY was not only the
rael wrestled with in the ancient pagan religions. father of modern missions, but also founded the
New Age philosophies err by locating the funda- agricultural and horticultural society of India
mental problems of humanity in ignorance or the and was a conservationist, calling for forest con-
dichotomy between material and spiritual rather servation in 1811. Many missionaries have fol-
than in sin that separates us from God, other hu- lowed his example; may we also follow him in
mans, as well as creation (see also NEW AGE recognizing our God-given responsibilities as
MOVEMENT). Our beliefs, ceremonies, and prac- stewards of his creation.
tices must honor God (YHWH) rather than a GERRY BRESHEARS
god who is the living force behind the universe. Bibliography. C. DeWitt and G. Prance, Missionary
This earth is not Gods body in which he is incar- Earthkeeping; W. Granberg-Michaelson, Ecology and
nate, but Gods creation in which he manifests Life; B. R. Reichenbach and V. E. Anderson, On Behalf
himself. Neither is it a divine being nor identified of God: A Christian Ethic for Biology; F. Schaeffer, Pol-
directly with Gods power. The living triune per- lution and the Death of Man; L. Wilkenson, ed., Earth-
sonal God is distinct and transcendent as well as keeping in the 90s.
involved by choice in his creation.
We affirm that the earth is the Lords, not that Economics. Economics deals with the allocation
the earth is the Lord. We must never reduce the of limited resources. Mission, in a Christian con-
distinction between God and humans. Christians text, entails the churchs modeling and propaga-
cannot be involved with those who believe cre- tion of the gospel message. Economics and mis-
ated humans can create a utopian world through sion intersect at many crucial junctures. We first
our own power. While the church is the primary look at mission-economic highlights in biblical
means through with God works his redemption history before discussing the contemporary eco-
today, salvation is Gods work. nomic implications for mission.
We must proclaim Jesus Christ and never move Scriptural Foundation. From the earliest days
toward a Christ who is little more than the prin- of Gods dealings with his people, it is clear that
ciple of interconnectedness within all of nature. Gods call ought to take priority over an individ-
He alone is the way to salvation. The real human uals loyalties. Abraham, the father of believers,
297
Economics
was called to leave his home, even to sacrifice his the problem of INDIGENOUS CHURCHES dependence
son; the other patriarchs, likewise, were enjoined on foreign funds.
to live by faith (Heb. 11:822). Moses, too, chose Of contemporary movements, it is particularly
to renounce his earthly possessions (Heb. LIBERATION THEOLOGY that focuses on economic
11:2428), and the abandonment of self-pursuits issues, usually in terms of Marxist economic
was required of the Old Testament prophets. The analysis. The following factors, however, appear
same principle is reflected in the New Testament to contradict this approach (France): first, Jesus
in Christs own self-emptying (Phil. 2:7), his self- conceived of his own role not in terms of politi-
less service (Mark 10:45; John 13:115), and his cal or national liberation but of the restoration of
becoming poor to make believers rich (2 Cor. an individuals personal relationship with God;
8:9). Such sacrifice also became the requirement he explicitly rejected a political role, stressing
for discipleship (Luke 9:5762; Jesus steward- rather love and forgiveness even of ones enemies,
ship parables). an element frequently missing in radical move-
Of the four Evangelists, it is Luke who shows ments; second, liberation in the New Testament
the greatest interest in economic issues. Lukes almost always pertains to liberation from sin;
account of the life of the early church in Acts third, Jesus does not present a program for
provides an eschatological foretaste of kingdom achieving the redistribution of wealth or other
living (Acts 2:4445; 4:3237). Paul, likewise, em- socioeconomic reforms; liberation theology con-
ulated self-sacrifice in his own life and ministry, centrates on the symptom of socioeconomic jus-
calling believers to the sharing of resources with tice while neglecting to deal with the root cause,
those in need (esp. the collection for the the fallenness of human nature, which produces
Jerusalem church: Rom. 15:2527; 1 Cor. 16:14; the twisted values of selfish materialism.
2 Cor. 89), contentment with lifes necessities A sensitivity to economic issues is vital for the
(Phil. 4:1112; 1 Tim. 6:68), a disinterested atti- churchs effective ministry. The worlds rapid UR-
tude toward worldly possessions (1 Cor. 7:3031), BANIZATION, the evolution of modern technologies
and hospitality (Rom. 12:13). creating a new information elite, the increasing
Believers were to extend hospitality to mis- gap between rich and poor countries, and many
sionaries and itinerant preachers of the gospel other factors affect the churchs ministry at home
(Matt. 10:1015; Heb. 13:2; 2 John 1011; 3 John and abroad in many ways. Evangelical spokesmen
58). Fundamental to missions is the acknowl- such as R. Sider and T. Campolo have called for a
edgment that Christians are merely resident more simple, radical life-style on the part of Chris-
aliens and that this world is not their permanent tians for the sake of missions. It has been the sub-
abode (Phil. 3:20; 1 Peter 1:1, 17; 2:11). The love ject of considerable debate in evangelical circles
of money is the root of all types of evil (1 Tim. over the past decades to what extent social and
6:10; cf. Mark 4:1819; 1 Tim. 3:3; 2 Tim. 3:2), no economic concerns are to be part of the mission-
one can serve two masters, God and Money ary enterprise (see GREAT COMMANDMENT). Some
(Matt. 6:24), and rich persons will enter the king- advocate the priority of evangelism and church
dom only with great difficulty (Mark 10:2331; planting, while others favor a holistic approach
Luke 12:1621; 16:1931; 19:110; 1 Tim. that also incorporates social and economic issues.
6:1719; James 5:16). In the seers apocalyptic Many favor an approach that is patterned after the
vision, Babylon the Great, with its excessive re- model of Christs incarnation and service.
liance on her own wealth, has fallen (Rev. 1718). The following implications for modern mis-
Contemporary Relevance. Economics and missions emerge from these considerations: (1) bib-
sion interface at several crucial junctions. Relevant lical discipleship, the prerequisite for missions,
issues include: (1) the general economic environ- entails a disinterested attitude toward worldly
ment for mission (Bonk) and the question of possessions; (2) material resources are to be used
which economic system is most compatible with for the spreading of Gods kingdom (Jesus king-
biblical principles (Chewning, Smith); (2) the eco- dom and stewardship parables); (3) solidarity is
nomic situation of missionaries, including the called for between believers of different means in
raising of funds, tentmaking, the problem of local churches and across cultures, leading to a
fluctuating currency exchange rates, the problem sharing of resources; (4) the ultimate issues in
of financial indebtedness of missionary candidates missions are spiritual, but economic and social
(see DEBT), and the issue of greater cost efficiency factors may provide barriers to effective evange-
of national missionaries (Yohannan); (3) the eco- lization (Bonk); (5) all missions work takes place
nomic circumstances of the target cultures of misin a political, economic, and social environment,
sion, raising issues such as the need for commu- and these factors influence the accomplishment
nity DEVELOPMENT AND RELIEF WORK, sociological of the missionary task (Clouse).
barriers between the missionary and nationals, the ANDREAS KSTENBERGER
need for economic support of new converts ostra- Bibliography. J. J. Bonk, Missions and Money: Afflu-
cized from their socioeconomic community, and ence as a Western Missionary Problem; R. C. Chewning,
298
Ecuador
ed., Biblical Principles and Economics: The Founda- In 1902, Julia Anderson Woodward (GMU) ini-
tions; R. G. Clouse, ed., Wealth and Poverty: Four Chris- tiated work with the Quichuas in Caliata, Chimb-
tian Views; P. H. Davids, DJG, pp. 70110; R. T. France, orazo. The Adventists entered in 1904 to develop
Evangelical Quarterly 58 (1986): 323; I. Smith, God and their ministry of evangelism and to establish
Culture, pp. 16279; K. P. Yohannan, Why the World
schools and clinics.
Waits: Exposing the Reality of Modern Missions.
In 1931 Clarence Jones and Reuben Larson of
World Missionary Fellowship founded HCJB,
Ecuador (Est. 2000 pop.: 12,646,000; 283,561 sq. The Voice of the Andes, in Quito. HCJBs pro-
km. [109,483 sq. mi.]). Ecuador, so named be- gramming now includes educational and non-
cause it straddles the equator, is located in the polemic religious broadcasting 900 hours weekly
northwest corner of the South American conti- in 17 languages and 23 Quichua dialects interna-
nent with the Amazon jungle in the east, the high tionally, as well as extensive national transmis-
Andean Sierra in the center, and a fertile coastal sion including a color television station.
plain on the Pacific Coast. The Galapagos Islands The Lutherans entered Ecuador in 1942, fol-
lie 1,000 kilometers to the west. Just under 57 lowed by the Andean Indians Mission (1945), the
percent of the 12.6 million people speak Spanish. Plymouth Brethren (1946), and the Covenant
The indigenous Amerindians, speaking 22 differ- Church (1947). In 1956, five missionaries were
ent languages, form 42 percent of the population. martyred while attempting to reach the Auca
Urbanization is over 50 percent. (Waorani) Indians on the Curaray River. Their
The Roman Catholic Church. What is now deaths challenged many young people, especially
Ecuador at one time formed part of the ancient in the United States, to foreign missionary service.
Inca Empire with its capital in Cuzco (Peru). The By 1993 over 83 agencies fielding more than
Spanish invaded and conquered the native peo- 1,000 missionaries were in Ecuador. Unity
ples in 1534. During the colonial era the Spanish among evangelicals has been promoted by the
established parishes, provided education for the Ecuadorian Evangelical Fellowship (1964), the
upper classes, and founded universities and hos- Union of Evangelical Ecuadorian Women (1968),
pitals. Little attempt was made to translate the and the Ecuadorian Evangelical Missionary As-
Bible into indigenous languages and, until re- sociation (1968). In 1969 the program of Evange-
cently, its use among the laity was not encour- lism-in-Depth united almost all the evangelicals
aged by the clergy. in a year-long evangelistic effort.
After gaining independence from Spain in In 1960, the percentage of evangelicals in
1822, the Conservatives signed a Concordat with Ecuador was Latin Americas smallest; during the
the Vatican (1863). Its provision included the es- last 30 years there has been a twentyfold in-
tablishment of the Catholic religion as the only crease. The reasons are varied, including physi-
one of the state, the prohibition of other faiths, cal disasters and the breakdown of the old feudal
placed the church as responsible to supervise structures, both of which have made the Ecuado-
public education, and required the state to pay rians more receptive. In the 1960s, Pentecostal
for the propagation of the Catholic faith. groups entered the country. Following widely
Today Roman Catholics represent 93.3 percent publicized miraculous healings in a Foursquare
of the population. In recent years a small charis- Gospel church in 1964, 2,300 converts were re-
matic movement has offered opportunities for ported and 15 new churches opened. As in all of
more personal spiritual experience and Bible Latin America, the Pentecostal phenomenon has
study. positively influenced the numerical growth of the
The Evangelical (Protestant) Churches. The evangelical churches. At the present time evan-
first evangelical (Protestant) efforts in Ecuador gelicals and Pentecostals represent about 8 per-
were pioneered by agents of the Bible Society, cent of the population.
JAMES THOMSON (1824) and FRANCISCO PENZOTTI, Indian work progressed very slowly at first but
whose religious activities were limited to the sale by 1993, 10 percent of the 3 million native peo-
of the Scriptures. ples in Chimborazo Province had become evan-
In 1895, the liberal general, Eloy Alfaro, led a gelicals. The publication of a Quichua New Tes-
political insurrection. In 1896, three young Amer- tament (1954), increasing participation of lay
icans of the Gospel Missionary Union, George leaders, and the establishment of two Quichua
Fisher, J. A. Strain, and F. W. Farnol, arrived in language radio stations influenced this growth.
Ecuador, had an audience with General Alfaro, Another factor was land reform which during
and received his support. In the same year, the this period gave Indians new experience in the
CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY ALLIANCE sent Charles freedom of personal choice. In spite of intense
Chapman and Charles Polk (from the United anti-missionary propaganda from some anthro-
States) and Zebulun Yates (from Jamaica). In pologists, traders, and agitators, the WYCLIFFE
1897 Alfaro revoked the Concordat and estab- BIBLE TRANSLATORS have nearly reached their goal
lished freedom of worship, which enabled the en- of making the New Testament available in all the
trance of Protestant missions. Indian languages of Ecuador.
299
Ecuador
Four agencies have recently sent out from dations: A History of the International Missionary Coun-
Ecuador three foreign workers; three cross- cil and Its Nineteenth Century Background.
cultural missionaries serve within the country.
Goals for national evangelism are being pro- Ecumenical Movement. The word ecumenical
jected. In 1996, the Ecuadorian Evangelical Con- comes from the New Testament word oikoumene,m
fraternity, which brings together the majority of which meant either the whole world or the
Ecuadors Protestant churches, launched an out- Roman Empire. In the fourth century the term
reach called 100 towns, 100 churches. Their was used to describe the whole church, and re-
goal: to take the gospel to previously untouched ferred to those church councils recognized as au-
cities and communities by the year 2000. thoritative by the undivided church. Thus the
JACK VOELKEL first seven councils, called to resolve doctrinal is-
sues mainly concerning Christology (see also
Bibliography. E. Elliot, Through Gates of Splendor;
P. Johnstone, Operation World; J. Maust, New Song in
CHRISTOLOGICAL CONTROVERSIES), are called the
the Andes. ecumenical councils. They took place before the
division of the Eastern and Western churches
and so included all Christians. The final division
Ecumenical Missionary Conference (New
of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox
York, 1900). Though not widely known, the Ec-
churches in 1054 created the ecumenical prob-
umenical Missionary Conference held in New
lem for all churches, which, up to that point, had
York City, April 21May 1, 1900, may be the
understood the church as one.
largest 10-day event in American religious his-
The Protestant Reformation exacerbated the
tory; 170,000 to 200,000 persons gathered at its
problem. Even though Luther wished only to re-
numerous sessions in various churches. Head-
form the Western church with no thought of es-
quarters and principal speeches were located at
tablishing a different church, the sixteenth cen-
the 4,000-seat Carnegie Hall. The word ecu-
tury saw massive fragmentation of the Body of
menical in its title indicated global coverage
Christ in the West, leaving groups ranging from
rather than representation from all Christian tra-
Roman Catholic to Anglican, Lutheran, Re-
ditions. Accorded extensive press coverage, the
formed, and various Anabaptist communities.
conference featured former President Benjamin
Despite the ecumenism of Calvin, Bucer, and oth-
Harrison as honorary chair and addresses by
ers, who longed for the unity of Protestants, most
President William McKinley and governor of
were denouncing each other as apostates by the
New York, Theodore Roosevelt.
seventeenth century.
The New York conference demonstrates the While it is clear in the New Testament that
impact the foreign missions movement had on there is only one church and that the unity of all
the popular imagination. Invitations were sent to believers is an objective fact based on the work of
all known missionaries, but only 2,500 served as Christ, the modern ecumenical movement finds
official members, with delegations from 162 its major biblical basis in John 17, where Jesus
mission boards apportioned by the size of their prayed that all who believed in him would be one
budgets. Like the CENTENARY CONFERENCE ON THE so that the world might believe. Thus unity
PROTESTANT MISSIONS OF THE WORLD (London, would be linked to mission. And in fact the his-
1888), New York 1900 was inspirational and in- torical roots of ecumenism are found in move-
formative rather than a working conference to ments of renewal and mission beginning with
legislate policy priorities. A vast agenda was cov- PIETISM and Moravianism in the eighteenth cen-
ered, including medicine, evangelism, education, tury (see MORAVIAN MISSIONS). An example was
native churches, non-Christian religions, and a the correspondence among Francke, the
country-by-country survey. Women in missions Lutheran Pietist in Germany; Mather, the Con-
were highlighted, and a scattering of non-West- gregationalist in New England; Chamberlyne and
erners addressed sessions. Newman, the secretaries of the Society for the
Prominent participants included J. HUDSON TAY- Propagation of Christian Knowledge; Boehm, the
LOR, Bishop JAMES M. THOBURN, JOHN G. PATON,
court chaplain at St. James Chapel; and ZIEGEN-
JOHN R. MOTT, A. T. PIERSON, and ROBERT E. SPEER. BALG, the Lutheran missionary in India in which
A postconference caucus called for the forma- they sought greater unity in order to carry out
tion of a permanent international missions coor- the missionary task. Later, Anglicans cooperated
dinating committee, but the project never mate- with Lutherans in the mission in India. And be-
rialized. The Ecumenical Missionary Conference cause of his desire to work for renewal, unity,
did, however, pave the way for the WORLD MIS- and mission together, ZINDZENDORF would be
SIONARY CONFERENCE (Edinburgh, 1910) with its
called an ecumenical pioneer.
more significant outcomes. The revivals on both sides of the Atlantic
THOMAS A. ASKEW brought other manifestations of ecumenism. In
Bibliography. Ecumenical Missionary Conference North America, GEORGE WHITEFIELD, an Anglican;
New York, 1900, 2 vols.; W. R. Hogg, Ecumenical Foun- JONATHAN EDWARDS, a Congregationalist; and
300
Ecumenical Missionary Conference (New York, 1900)
Gilbert Tennent, a Presbyterian, cooperated in unite in fellowship all who believed in the full au-
the first GREAT AWAKENING. And in England the thority of the Bible, the incarnation, atonement,
revival saw cooperation among Anglicans and salvation by faith, and the work of the Holy
dissenters. Members of different denominations Spirit. Its monthly journal, Evangelical Christen-
corresponded, encouraged each other, and read dom, brought news of missionary work all over
each others works. Carey would be partly moti- the world, and was avidly read by missionaries as
vated in his missionary vocation through reading well as those at home. This strengthened the vi-
DAVID BRAINERD and the Moravians. The modern sion of missionary cooperation.
Protestant missionary movement, which Missionary conferences overseas had their
stemmed from the revivals, saw further steps in counterparts in Europe and North America. In
cooperation. Most of the early missionaries of the 1854 ALEXANDER DUFF spoke in New York at a
Anglican CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY were Ger- meeting open to friends of mission from all
man Lutherans, influenced by pietism. The LON- evangelical denominations, to consider eight key
DON MISSIONARY SOCIETY included Congregation- questions about world evangelization. Many sim-
alists, Presbyterians, and Anglicans, while the ilar meetings were held during the last half of the
British and Foreign Bible Society and the Reli- century in various parts of Europe as well as the
gious Tract Society found support among all United States. A new and important step was EC-
evangelical groups. In an early and visionary at- UMENICAL MISSIONARY CONFERENCE held in New
tempt at greater unity, Carey proposed a general York in 1900. Nearly two hundred thousand peo-
association of all denominations of Christians, ple attended its various sessions, and it was
from the four quarters of the world, to be held opened with an address by President William
in Capetown in 1810 or 1812, to enter into one McKinley. The word ecumenical was used in its
anothers views. title because the plan of campaign which it pro-
While Careys dream would not become a real- poses covers the whole area of the inhabited
ity until a century later, missionaries of various globe. Thus the original dimension was brought
denominations began to meet in 1825 in Bombay again to the meaning of the term. Now it re-
to promote Christian fellowship and exchange ferred, not only to the whole church and thus to
ideas. At a similar meeting in 1858 an Anglican unity and cooperation, but to the worldwide
stated that while denominational controversies scope of the missionary task.
may elicit truth in the West, elsewhere they pro- Along with the revivals and the missionary
duce nothing but evil, adding his hope that God movement the nineteenth-century student move-
would produce a church in India different in ments formed a third stream contributing to the
many aspects from those in Europe or America. ecumenical movement. The Intercollegiate
Western denominational divisions seemed to YMCA existed on 181 campuses by 1884, empha-
make no sense in Asia or Africa and were often a sizing Bible study, worship, and personal evan-
scandal. They seemed to deny a basic aspect of gelism. In 1880 the Interseminary Missionary Al-
the faith. In December 1862, another conference liance was formed by students from thirty-two
prefaced its report with the prayer, that they all seminaries to encourage focus on the missionary
may be one, and discerned a pattern of the task. Through these two organizations mission
united action of Christian men who pray, confer, became the primary feature of the student move-
and work together, in order to advance the inter- ment. The STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT,
ests of their Masters kingdom. In the same formed in 1886, carried the emphasis further.
meeting, Anglicans, Presbyterians, Methodists, Student Christian movements were organized in
and Baptists took Communion together. Similar a number of countries, and these were brought
conferences took place in Japan, China, Africa, together in the World Student Christian Federa-
Latin America, and the Muslim world. tion in 1895 under the leadership of JOHN R.
The most prominent focus in these conferences MOTT. Its founders saw the need for greater unity
was UNITY, which was a result of both the com- at home if their goal of world evangelization was
mon commitment to mission and the experience to be realized. In England, for example, it
of working and praying together. Many recog- brought together Free Church, Evangelical, and
nized that their unity was much deeper than dif- Anglo Catholic students to promote missionary
ferences in CHURCH POLITY or style of worship, zeal. The Federation sought to promote the spirit
and was based on a common devotion to Christ of unity for which the Lord longed, and to em-
and his mission. But not all took part. The High phasize the efficacy of prayer, the saving work of
Church Anglicans at one extreme, and some Christ, and the energizing power of the Spirit
FAITH MISSIONS on the other, stayed away. But at and the Word of God.
this point there was still a broad consensus These powerful streams came together in the
among the great majority about the nature and Edinburgh MISSIONARY CONFERENCE in 1910.
purpose of mission. Many of those who planned it came from the
An additional and related factor was the Evan- Student Christian movement. A number of them
gelical Alliance, formed in 1846. It sought to would become leaders in the formation of the
301
Ecumenical Missionary Conference (New York, 1900)
WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES in midcentury. bers of the WCC today. In 1966, only 6% of Amer-
John R. Mott, the chairman, was the most visible ican missionaries served under those boards.
leader of the SVM and probably the most impor- Other manifestations of ecumenism are coun-
tant symbol of the growing ecumenical move- cils of churches in many countries and mergers
ment. Three topics of the conference were Car- of various denominational traditions in some na-
rying the Gospel to all the World, The Church tions. The United Church of Canada was formed
on the Mission Field, and Cooperation and the in 1925 by Methodists, Congregationalists, and
Promotion of Unity. However, in order to ensure some Presbyterians with the hope of more effec-
the participation of the High Church Anglicans tive outreach in the West. However, the result has
and continental Lutherans, the conference lim- been disappointing and decline rather than
ited participants to those involved in mission to growth has been the result. The Church of Christ
non-Christians. Consequently those involved in in China was formed in 1927 by Presbyterians,
mission to traditionally Roman Catholic Latin United Brethren, the United Church of Canada,
America were excluded. This would create barri- and some Baptists and Congregationalists. Under
ers between Latin American evangelicals and the the communist regime it became the parent body
conciliar ecumenical movement later on. On the of the current Three-Self Church, sanctioned by
other hand, neither Roman Catholics nor Ortho- the government. The Church of South India was
dox were invited. formed in 1947 and included Anglicans, the first
Edinburghs most important achievement was time they had been drawn into communion with
the formation, in 1921, of the INTERNATIONAL MIS- Presbyterians, Methodists, and others. In 1941
SIONARY COUNCIL (IMC) which promoted interna-
most Protestants in Japan, under government
tional missionary cooperation. However, it was pressure, formed the Church of Christ in Japan,
also uniquely responsible for the formation of the but Anglicans, Lutherans, and some others with-
World Council of Churches. It did so by bringing drew from it after the war. In 1948 the United
the younger churches into the thinking of the Church of Christ in the Philippines was estab-
older churches, helping to recognize them as an lished. It appears that most of these united
essential part of the world Christian community. churches, with the exception of the Church in
Even though the organizers had agreed not to
China, are not growing as rapidly as many of the
discuss matters of theology and polity, some in
newer groups.
attendance saw the need to do so and, as a result,
The early ecumenical movement was based on
the Faith and Order Movement was initiated in
a theological consensus which was solidly evan-
1927. The influence of the Student Movement
gelical and breathed missionary passion. To the
and Edinburgh was also important in the forma-
extent that agencies lost either or both of these,
tion of the Universal Christian Council for Life
and Work, established in 1925. Bishop Soder- they declined. But after midcentury a new evan-
blom of Sweden who had been influenced by gelical ecumenism arose. This is probably the
D. L. MOODY and Mott, established the council to most important manifestation of the ecumenical
seek cooperative action on common problems. movement today. In the first half of this century
Faith and Order and Life and Work would be- fundamentalists and evangelicals tended to focus
come the parent movements of the World Coun- more on the issues which separated them from
cil of Churches (WCC), organized in 1948 (see each other than on their common faith and task.
AMSTERDAM ASSEMBLY). For the older denomina- But in 1966 the CONGRESS ON THE CHURCHS
tions it has been the primary institutional ex- WORLDWIDE MISSION at Wheaton and the WORLD
pression of the ecumenical movement. CONGRESS ON EVANGELISM in Berlin began to over-
When the IMC became a part of the WCC in come the separatism. Those meetings were suc-
1961 some hoped it would place mission at the ceeded by the INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON WORLD
heart of the Council. Others feared the move EVANGELISM, held at Lausanne in 1974. The stature
would result in a decline in mission. The latter of BILLY GRAHAM helped greatly in bringing to-
proved to be right as a combination of theologi- gether men and women from diverse traditions
cal liberalism, which seemed to doubt the impor- and many nations, while the theological insights
tance of evangelism and maintained a primary of JOHN STOTT contributed to the formulation of a
focus on social issues, led to a great decrease in statement of faith that laid the foundation for a
missionary activity by most conciliar churches in more adequate understanding of mission. The for-
Europe and North America. Thus the WCC has mation of the Lausanne Committee on World
not succeeded in fulfilling the goal of its early Evangelization (LCWE) worked to bring about
proponents, unity so that the world might be- greater cooperation in the evangelistic task in a
lieve. Its member churches seem to be playing an number of areas. Those involved included a wider
ever decreasing role in world evangelism. This spectrum than ever before, ranging from Angli-
can be seen in statistics from the United States. cans to Pentecostals. At the same time the insights
In 1918, 82% of the missionary force came from and concerns of Christians from Asia, Africa, and
the mainline churches, most likely to be mem- Latin America contributed to deeper understand-
302
Educational Mission Work
ing of the Gospel and the missionary task by those educational. Home Bible studies and one-on-
in the West (see EVANGELICAL MOVEMENT). one encounters are the stock in trade of mission-
The second congress of the LCWE, held in ary evangelists and church planters the world
Manila in 1989, was probably the most inclusive over; in each case the method is to witness to and
Christian gathering in history up to that time (see nurture understanding of biblical truth. Bible cor-
LAUSANNE CONGRESS II). Four thousand evangeli- respondence courses (see BIBLE EDUCATION BY EX-
cal Christians from 150 countries gathered for a TENSION), explicitly educational in their design,
week. They included over sixty from the former have been effectively used as evangelistic tools in
Soviet Union, while others came from obscure many cultures, especially in Muslim lands.
countries like Chad in Central Africa. The goal Among resistant people groups and in CRE-
was that half the delegates come from Asia, ATIVE-ACCESS COUNTRIES, educational services can
Africa, and Latin America. Pentecostals were in- afford an entree that does not otherwise exist.
cluded among the speakers. So were women. The twentieth-century emergence of English as
Thus the whole church was represented to an ex- the language of international commerce has cre-
tent not previously seen. The focus recaptured ated an enormous demand for teachers of En-
the ecumenical ideal: the whole church, taking glish as a second language, many of whom are
the whole gospel, to the whole world. And while Christians who serve with explicitly missionary
Manila did not contribute the kind of significant intent (see TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF
theological reformulation done at Lausanne, it OTHER LANGUAGES). DEVELOPMENT workers and
seemed to provide additional impetus to the AGRICULTURAL MISSIONS also offer educational
goals of cooperation in mission. services as a means of incarnating Christian com-
While the LCWE has been the most visible passion and winning a hearing for the gospel.
symbol of the new evangelical ecumenism, there Radio, television, and literature ministries are
are many others. The AD 2000 Movement, led, likewise intentionally educational (see MASS
not by a European or North American, but by an MEDIA). It is COMMUNICATION of (i.e., instruction
Argentine, the GLOBAL CONSULTATION on WORLD in) Christian truth that renders any ministry
EVANGELIZATION held in Korea (95) and South missionary.
Africa (97), the Latin American mission confer- Educational ministries are also prevalent in the
ences (see COMIBAM) held in 1987 and 1997, church. Discipleship programs are designed to
and the internationalization of the missionary cultivate Christian understanding and habits
movement, are all aspects of ecumenism. While among the recently converted, and catechism or
there is still much to be done, the evangelical baptismal classes are common in most tradi-
movement is now more genuinely ecumenical tions. In addition to teaching that occurs in reg-
than ever before, as men and women from many ular preaching services, church education pro-
races, languages, cultures, and nations seek to grams, such as Sunday school and neighborhood
discover how they can demonstrate our unity in or SMALL GROUP Bible studies provide important
Christ so that the world might believe. stimulus for growth in grace. Nonformal evening,
PAUL E. PIERSON weekend, or seasonal training programs provide
Bibliography. J. Hoekstra, The World Council of additional instruction for believers, including for-
Churches and the Demise of Evangelism; W. R. Hogg, mal and informal church leaders.
Ecumenical Foundations; LCWE; The Lausanne Theological education entails training for Chris-
Covenant; K. S. Latourette, A History of Christianity; tian ministry. Bible schools, seminaries, and THE-
S. Neill and R. Rouse, A History of the Ecumenical OLOGICAL EDUCATION BY EXTENSION (TEE) receive
Movement. high priority in the work of missions. In several re-
gions of the world, pastors conferences offer a
Educational Mission Work. Mission work is in- unique opportunity for both trained and untrained
herently educational. The GREAT COMMISSION, the church leaders to receive stimulus and instruction
mandate and charter of Christian missions, is a aimed at developing their ministries.
command to make disciples and to teach Educational mission work also includes training
both explicitly educational activities. Despite the missionaries and their children. Schools for MIS-
misguided efforts of some in church history, Chris- SIONARY CHILDREN exist in every region of the
tian ETHICS (and the biblical view of persons that world, enabling parents to provide quality educa-
underlies it) preclude any attempt to make con- tion for their families in proximity to their area of
verts by force or deception. Informing others of service. Although missionary training schools in
gospel truth, clarifying their understanding of the the West may not be considered part of the global
truth and its implications, and calling for decision missionary endeavor, training missionaries called
is the task of missions (see MISSIONARY TASK). and sent from churches in the non-Western world
Modern missionaries pursue that task through is an urgent and strategic aspect of educational
a wide variety of educational means. Preaching mission work. Likewise, on-field professional de-
may have a persuasive intent, but its method is velopment of the missionary force is a responsi-
303
Educational Mission Work
bility of mission leadership critical to each mis- knowledge that the evangelistic effect of mission
sionarys continuing vitality and effectiveness. schools is minimal. Sometimes (as in Japan and
Schools have held a central role in the modern the Middle East) educational work has provided
Protestant missionary enterprise from its very in- access to populations otherwise inaccessible, but
ception. The case of missions in India is instruc- the close linkage between mission schools and
tive. After arriving in India in 1793, WILLIAM CAREY colonial powers also proved problematic as na-
set immediately to learning and to translating the tionalism grew in Africa and Asia (see NATION,
Bible into several Indian languages, but he also es- NATION-BUILDING, NATIONALISM, and COLONIALISM).
tablished schools for instruction in these lan- Nationalism of mission schools has greatly di-
guages. In 1819, Carey founded Serampore Col- minished their missionary role and significance
lege. Just eleven years later, in 1830, ALEXANDER today. With respect to social transformation, few
DUFF arrived in Calcutta with a vision of reaching (if any) societies are congenial to the church or to
Indias upper castes through European secondary Christian values. Nevertheless, it can be argued
schools and universities using the English lan- that mission schools and colleges have helped
guage. Briefly, the debate between vernacular- shape the world on which the twenty-first cen-
ists and Anglicists raged, but Duffs vision won tury dawns. How the benefits of mission school-
the day and mission-founded English-language ing square with the task and goal of Christian
schools spread across the subcontinent. In 1859, missions is an issue on which all Christians
when the English colonial government addressed should prayerfully reflect.
the education of its Indian subjects, the decision ROBERT W. FERRIS
was taken to provide grants-in-aid to agencies op-
Bibliography. R. Allen, Education in the Native
erating schools and colleges that would agree to Church; W. H. T. Gairdner, Edinburgh 1910; IMC, The
adhere to government standards, to include spec- Life of The Church; J. H. Kane, Life and Work on the
ified courses in their curriculum, and to submit to Mission Field; S. C. Neill, Colonialism and Christian
government inspection. This came as an enor- Missions; World Missionary Conference, Report of Com-
mous boon to the founding missions. With the in- mission III: Education in Relation to the Christianiza-
creasing influx of missionary personnel, the gov- tion of National Life.
ernments policy led to a rapid multiplication of
mission schools, which remained strong until a Edwards, Jonathan (170358). Prominent
national education program was established fol- American philosopher-theologian and missionary
lowing independence in 1947. to indigenous Americans. Gifted with one of the
Mission schools were similarly significant in best theological minds in America (graduating
China during the nineteenth and early twentieth from Yale at the age of seventeen), his reflections
centuries. In Japan, education was the only type of on the nature of genuine religion and advocacy
mission work permitted prior to 1873. In the Mid- for experiential Calvinism influenced generations
dle East, mission-founded universities won high of Christians. An intellectually vigorous preacher
regard. In sub-Sahara Africa, bush schools (led who aroused deep emotional response in his au-
by indigenous pastors or catechists) and mission dience, his sermons were pivotal in the outbreak
schools (nearly all at the primary level) were the of the first GREAT AWAKENING beginning in 1739.
principal sources of education well into the 1960s. In 1741 he preached Sinners in the Hands of an
Three factors account for the commitment of Angry God, perhaps the best known sermon in
mission personnel and financial resources to American history.
schooling. As a religion of the Book, LITERACY is Accepting a position in 1727 at the First Con-
vitally important to the Christian mission. A gregational Church in Northampton, Massachu-
somewhat fuller understanding of Christian setts, under his grandfather Solomon Stoddard,
truth, furthermore, is important to the develop- Edwards took over the pastorate after Stoddards
ment and exercise of LEADERSHIP within the death in 1729. Ousted from the church in 1750
Christian community. Finally, at least since after controversy over his strict Communion
Alexander Duff, Christian missionaries have standards, he accepted an invitation to work with
sought through schooling to engender a social the Mohawk and Housatonnoc Indians in Stock-
transformation which, even among non-Chris- bridge, Massachusetts, a mission he had helped
tians, is congenial to Christianity and its values. to found in 1734. He served there from 1751 until
Constitutional government, legal assurance of 1758, during which time he produced his most
egalitarian human rights, capitalistic economies, mature reflections (for example, Freedom of the
and modern technologies were viewed as fruits of Will, 1754; The Great Christian Doctrine of Origi-
Christianity in the West, which were to be shared nal Sin, 1758). In 1758, he reluctantly accepted a
through mission schools. call to the presidency of the College of New Jer-
In light of the immense investment of mission sey (now Princeton), dying several weeks later
resources in schoolingperhaps more than any from the effects of a smallpox inoculation.
other kind of mission workit is appropriate to His legacy of advocacy in missionary efforts, in-
review the benefits realized. Most observers ac- cluding leadership in the Great Awakening, the
304
Egypt
work of putting into publishable form the diary of place in both secular and biblical history, pre-
DAVID BRAINERD, and his influential arguments that senting the longest-lasting civilization and one of
the GREAT COMMISSION was still relevant (in con- Christianitys most enduring churches. Recorded
trast to the Reformed theology of the time) as well history dates back to the twenty-third century
as efforts in preaching the gospel across cultural B.C. and leaves an impressive record of both di-
barriers make him one of the most significant vine and human activity. In the fourth century
forerunners of the modern missionary movement. B.C. Alexander the Great captured the Nile Valley
A. SCOTT MOREAU and established the city of Alexandria, which
continues today as the second largest city in
Bibliography. R. E. Davies, IBMR 21:2 (1997): Egypt. Macedonian Ptolemy rule maintained
6066; C. Mitchell, WWCH, pp. 22426; I. Murray,
Jonathan Edwards: A New Biography; H. S. Stout,
control from 306 B.C. to 30 B.C., when Augustus
BDCM, p. 195. Caesar made Egypt a province, which lasted until
A.D. 395. At that time the Byzantines took control.
By A.D. 639 the Arab Muslim invasions led to
EFMA. See EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP OF MISSION the decline and entrenchment of the Coptic Or-
AGENCIES. thodox Church. The establishment of a series of
Arab dynasties then followed until Egypt became
Egede, Hans Povelsn (16861758). Norwegian part of the Ottoman Empire in A.D. 1517. The
missionary to Greenland. Egede was born in eventual decline of the Ottoman Empire led to
northeastern Norway. After graduating from the the establishment of British control in A.D. 1801
University of Copenhagen in 1705, he was or- and then to a protectorate status in A.D. 1914.
dained a Lutheran minister and became a pastor. Eight years later independence was declared and
Egede learned about the old Norse Christian set- a constitutional monarchy established. By 1953
tlements in Greenland that had been out of con- Egypt became a republic and continues as such.
tact with Europe since 1410. He tried to interest The history of Christianity in Egypt is equally
bishops and the Danish king in a mission to impressive, tracing its roots to the preaching of
Greenland, but received only lukewarm support. Mark in A.D. 50, as recorded by Eusebius. The
Eventually he helped found a company to start Coptic Church is one of the autocephalous (self-
trading posts on Greenland and support mission- governing) Oriental Orthodox Churches (non-
ary endeavors. He sailed for Greenland in 1722, Chalcedonian) and represents the largest single
with his family and a small group to start a Dan- Christian population in the Middle East. Though
ish colony. strongly affected today by emigration trends, re-
Egede found no Norse communities but rather flecting Middle Eastern political instability, Egypt-
the Eskimo people, who were the sole inhabi- ian Copts still represent 11 percent to 15 percent
tants. He attempted to learn their language and of the population. Desert monasticism, following
present the gospel to the people, but had limited the rules of St. Anthony and St. Pachomeus, es-
success. He became a great believer in training tablished Coptic Christian predominance in Egypt
indigenous preachers. In 1733 a smallpox epi- and enhanced African missionary successes in
demic killed thousands. Egedes care of the sick Nubia, Sudan, and Ethiopia. Pope Shenouda III,
won him great respect among the Greenlanders. current patriarch of the Copts, has led the church
His son Paul, who had grown up among the Es- in significant social programs and spiritual re-
kimos and spoke their language, began preaching newal in recent years.
and won many to Christ. MORAVIAN missionaries The Coptic Church has persevered through the
arrived in 1733 and also experienced great suc- centuries in spite of its minority environment,
cess, although they were in frequent conflict with demonstrating Christian stability in a predomi-
Egede. In 1736 he left, returned to Denmark, nantly Muslim society. The church is marked by
where he became superintendent of a missionary the competing values of a remnant of the faith-
school for Greenland and wrote books on the is- ful mind-set, ecumenical objectives for remov-
lands history, folklore, geography, and language. ing schism within the worldwide Christian
He and Paul translated the New Testament and church, and a commitment to spiritual renewal.
other works into the Eskimo language. Thanks Though smaller in numbers, the evangelical
largely to his efforts and those of the Moravians, churches and the Roman Catholic Church are
all the inhabitants of Greenland became mem- also present in Egypt. Among the 46 denomina-
bers of Christian churches. tions present in Egypt, the Presbyterians and An-
ROBERT SHUSTER glicans are the largest. Christian witness is most
commonly provided through Bible and Christian
Bibliography. L. Bobe, Hans Egede: Colonizer and literature distribution and more recently through
Missionary of Greenland. Christian broadcasts on satellite television. Chris-
tian outreach to Muslims is severely restricted.
Egypt (Est. 2000 pop.: 69,146,000; 1,001,449 sq. The distribution of ethno-linguistic groups in
km. [386,660 sq. mi.]). Egypt holds a prominent Egypt is represented by Egyptians (86.4%), Arabs
305
Egypt
(6.%), Nubians (3%), Gypsies (2%), and Berbers El Salvador (Est. 2000 pop.: 6,425,000; 21,041
(2%). The predominant religions represented are sq. km. [8,124 sq. mi.]). Bordering Guatemala
Islam (85.4%) and Christianity (14.2% with Cop- and Honduras and facing the Pacific Ocean, El
tic Orthodox representing 13%). The literacy rate Salvador is the smallest of the five Central Amer-
is 49%. Two world-class cities, Cairo (14,000,000) ican republics. The language is Spanish, with
and Alexandria (4,034,000), are notable centers only 5 percent of the people of Indian descent.
of Egyptian life and influence. The capital city is San Salvador (metropolitan
The situation for Christian mission is seriously area of 1.5 million). Both nation and capital are
affected by two issues. First is the issue of reli- globally unique for they are named after Christ
gious tolerance. Jewish tolerance has been mod- the Savior.
erate, with Egypt being the first Arab state to give El Salvador elects a head of state for a five-year
official recognition to Israel. This occurred in term. The economy is focused on agricultural ex-
1979 by the courageous act of Egypts president ports (coffee, cotton, sugarutilizing 40% of the
labor force) and other industries (textiles for ex-
Anwar Sadat, who signed a peace treaty with Is-
port and chemicals).
rael. This alienated the majority of Arab coun-
It gained its independence from Spain in 1821,
tries who had less tolerance for a Jewish state
and in 1839 it withdrew from the Central Ameri-
and eventually led to the expulsion of Egypt from can Federation. Historically, the absence of a
the League of Arab States and Sadats assassina- democratic social foundation generated a series
tion in 1981 by extremists. This also provided im- of strong political/military leaders, and a number
petus to developing Islamic fundamentalism ac- of internal revolutions and regional struggles. Its
companied by cries of Jihad. power structure has been dominated by a small
Tolerance for the Christian minority in Egypt land-owning oligarchy. Inevitable social inequities
and freedom for Christian expression has also in this century have led to clashes and violent mil-
been severely limited. Accounts of numerous itary encounters, including the 193435 massacre
HUMAN RIGHTS abuses continue to be recorded in by the military of some 30,000 peasants accused
Egypt. The second and related issue is the rise of of communism. The 1969 battle with Honduras
Islamic fundamentalism, which originates from over the presence of some 300,000 Salvadoran
Egypt in association with the rise of Muslim workers in Honduras left some 2,000 dead.
Brotherhoods. Latin American Marxist guerrilla movements,
Egypt is considered the intellectual center of supported by Russia and Cuba, during the 1960s
Islam with its history rooted in the ancient and and 1970s encouraged a full-scale insurrection
still influential Al Ahzar University. This promi- which fractured the nation. The United States
nent center has spawned many religious and po- countered with countless millions of dollars in
litical parties, among which are several of funda- military and economic assistance. During the
mentalist orientation. Though Quranic law conflict at least 75,000 people lost their lives
(Shariah) is not the political framework of the with violence by both extreme right and left.
Republic, there is considerable pressure to make Catholic priests and nuns, as well as some evan-
it so. Both of these issues make the climate for gelical leaders were martyred. The twelve-year
Christian witness by nationals and expatriates a civil war ended with the UN-brokered January
difficult endeavor. 1992 formal peace treaty. The expected peace
Nevertheless, some of the most significant dividend has not yet generated economic pros-
growth of the church in the Middle East is found perity due to the political and financial cost of re-
forms and national infrastructure, the problem of
in Egypt and it is recognized that Egypt is strate-
retraining thousands of demobilized soldiers and
gically important to the mission of the church.
guerrillas, the challenge of an 80 percent poor
The future of Christian witness, though sensitive,
population.
is of high priority. The biblical promise of bless- Historically and culturally, El Salvador is a
ing to all nations through the seed of Abraham Roman Catholic nation, and hence 97.5 percent
must eventually return to the household of call themselves Christian: Catholic 75 percent,
Hagar, the Egyptian slave, and her descendants. growing at an annual rate of 0.8 percent; Protes-
Egypt retains an important place in biblical his- tant/Evangelicals (with some 64 denominations),
tory and prophecy, intricately situated in relation 20.6 percent, (2.3% in 1960) of which 80 percent
to the GREAT COMMISSION. are Pentecostal/charismatic, growing at an annual
J. RAY TALLMAN rate of 5.9 percent; the remaining 4.4 percent cov-
Bibliography. Turning Over a New Leaf: Protestant ers other religious groups and the non-religious.
Missions and the Orthodox Churches of the Middle East: Protestantism arrived in El Salvador in 1896
The Final Report of a Multi-mission Study Group on Or- through Samuel A. Purdie (Central American
thodoxy; B. Lewis, The Middle East; I. Nafi, The Religious Mission) and his family, influenced by the great
Situation in Egypt: A Report, 1996; N. Jabbour, The Rum- colporteur, FRANCISCO PENZOTTI. In 1996 the Cen-
bling Volcano: Islamic Fundamentalism in Egypt. tennial of the Gospel was celebrated through the
306
Elenctics
efforts of an interdenominational evangelical it directs the listener to repent and to believe

coalition, involving Pentecostal and non-Pente- Christ as the only hope for salvation and eternal
costal leadership as well as national mission life with God.
agencies and parachurch organizations. Bavinck explains that the basis of elenctics is
Evangelical spiritual harvest has impacted all Gods revelation in Jesus Christ and a strong trust
strata of society, in spite of violence, poverty, and in the work of the Holy Spirit, who alone con-
structural injustice. Church leaders now face the victs of sin and brings to faith in Christ. He gives
challenge of a fluid postmodern world as they several considerations to support this. God man-
disciple young believers, and create new church ifests himself through his GENERAL REVELATION in
and leadership training models. Significantly, culture and in individuals even before the mis-
Salvadoran evangelicals are committed to their sionary makes any contact. He also points out
own global missionary responsibility and have that there may appear to be similarities between
sent out scores of missionaries through their own Christianity and other religions but that these
agencies. perceptions fail to plumb the depths of either re-
WILLIAM DAVID TAYLOR ligion and may lead one to make serious errors in
faith. Again, the Holy Spirit is the only agent of
Bibliography. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country
elenctics, and he alone convicts of sin and calls to
Profile: Guatemala, El Salvador (4th Quarter, 199697);
O. Johnson, ed., 1997 Almanac: Atlas and Yearbook; repentance. The missionary is only the means by
P. Johnstone, OW; E. A. Nez, and W. D. Taylor, Crisis which the Spirit works. Finally, our philosophical
and Hope in Latin America: An Evangelical Perspective. reasoning and argument may cause an adherent
to renounce his or her non-Christian faith, but
Election, Divine. See DIVINE ELECTION. that is useless unless the person puts his or her
faith in Jesus Christ as Lord and God.
Therefore elenctics is seen as an approach the-
Elections. See POLITICAL ELECTIONS. ory in missions. It refuses to accept that there is
Gods special revelatory truth in non-Christian re-
Elenctics. J. H. BAVINCK refers to elenctics as a ligions and, in appropriate ways, confronts these
missionary science which asks the question, religions in order to call their adherents to re-
What have you done with God? The term pentance. Thus it is important that missionaries
comes from the Greek word elenchom , which have knowledge of religions, but even more im-
means to reprove, to rebuke, to convince, to con- portant that they have a deep knowledge of the
vict. Most specifically, it refers to the work of the Word of God and a strong faith in Jesus Christ.
Holy Spirit in convicting people of SIN as seen in For it is only through Gods truth that error can
John 16:8. Thus the Holy Spirit is the agent of be discerned and true faith built.
elenctics in that he is the one who convicts of sin. Harvie Conn provides five characteristics of
According to Bavinck, elenctics is the science elenctics: (1) It is personal in that it approaches
which is concerned with the conviction of sin. It individuals in relationship. (2) It is holistic in
is the science which unmasks to heathendom all that it approaches in deeds as well as words. This
false religions as sin against God, and it calls hea- means that the missionary becomes a part of the
thendom to acknowledge the only true God. community and deals with people in community.
Thus it presumes the falsehood of all other reli- (3) It is contextual in that it approaches people
gions against the truth of Christianity. It does not where they are in their culture, in their belief sys-
compare religions or enter into DIALOGUE as if tem. This means that the missionary must be
all religions including Christianity were neutral knowledgeable about the culture and sensitive to
and contained necessary religious truths to be the needs of people within that culture and belief
discovered and believed. Rather, it is apologetic system. (4) It is verdict-oriented in that its goal is
in nature in that it defends the Christian faith as to bring a person to a personal relationship with
the only true faith and accuses all other religions Jesus Christ as Lord and God. This of course re-
as rebellion against God (see APOLOGETICS). quires that a person be confronted with the
Elenctics takes humankind back to the Fall of claims and demands of Jesus Christ and be called
Genesis 3, to our original sin, and calls us to re- to repentance. Finally, (5), it is God-centered in
pentance, to turn away from our sin to faith in that it seeks primarily to convince people to be
Christ and to serve the only true God. Therefore, reconciled to God. It does not seek to improve
elenctics takes sin very seriously, as well as the systems or lifestyles but to fill the earth with wor-
need for repentance. Thus it is of necessity evan- shipers for God.
gelistic, confrontational, and directive. It evan- It is crucial for missionaries involved in elenc-
gelizes by proclaiming the whole counsel of God, tics to be correctly informed of the context of
the gospel, as it is presented in Scripture, Gods their ministrythe culture in which they seek to
revelation to us. It confronts the non-Christian do elenctics, that is, the receptor culture. They
with his or her sin and the resulting separation not only must understand and believe their own
from God and warns of the wrath to come. And faith, but also understand the beliefs and faith of
307
Elenctics
the receptor culture so as to facilitate true com- Eliot, John (160490). English missionary to In-
munication of the meaning of the gospel using digenous Americans. Eliot was born in 1604 in
the proper cultural language, forms, values, and Widford, England. After receiving an A.B. from
symbols. Without this there will be misunder- Jesus College at Cambridge in 1622, he worked at
standing and SYNCRETISM among those hearing a school headed by Thomas Hooker, who influ-
the message. enced him to adopt Puritan beliefs. Because of
Because elenctics seeks primarily to convict of the anti-Puritan policies of the Church of En-
sin (i.e., to awaken and charge the conscience gland, Eliot emigrated to Massachusetts Bay in
with the seriousness and guilt of sin), it is most 1631. The Puritans had done little to evangelize
important that missionaries understand what sin the Indigenous Americans and there was little
is in their own culture, in the biblical culture, support for such work. But Eliot felt a call to
and in the receptor culture. With this under- reach these neighbors with the gospel. He learned
standing missionaries are enabled to engage as some Algonquin from a neighbors servant and, in
Gods instruments in the conviction of sin and 1646, began preaching in Algonquin in tribal vil-
the call to repentance for offenses which are con- lages. Slowly he made converts. Opposition came
sidered sin in the receptor culture and which are not only from tribal sachems, but also from
truly sin, because they are declared sin in Scrip- colonists. But Eliot persisted and his reports led
ture. Robert Priest explains that unless people in 1649 to the founding in England of the Society
are convinced of their sin from their own cultural for the Propagation of the Gospel in New En-
understanding and definitions, there will be no gland. Eliot believed converts should be separated
conviction or repentance of sin. Therefore, as he from the associations of tribal life, so he organ-
explains, in the initial stages of evangelism, mis- ized the settlement of towns, where the Praying
sionaries should concentrate the proclamation of Indians could live close to English communities
sinfulness, guilt, and repentance on the common and adopt the English lifestyle. The first of four-
agreement of these between the receptor culture teen such settlements was in 1651 at Natick. Eliot
and the biblical definitions. As missionaries prepared a catechism in 1653 as part of his con-
preach sin in the forms and behaviors of the cul- tinuing effort to train indigenous American lay
ture, which are also in agreement with the bibli- leaders and ministers. He published in 1663 his
cal view of sin, the Holy Spirit will convict of sin, translation of the entire Bible in Algonquin, one
and the people will hear and understand the call of the first achievements of American scholarship.
to repentance. In 1671 he distributed dialogues in English that
As the Holy Spirit begins to work on persons in provided vivid pictures of the means he and his
the elenctic process, the missionary will need to Indian associates used to communicate the gospel
know how sensitively and correctly to proclaim in meaningful terms. By 1674 there were almost
the gospel and to counsel the persons in terms of 4,000 Praying Indians, led by twenty-four indige-
GUILT, in terms of fear as they are confronted nous ministers, about 1,100 in Eliots settlements.
with a just God who judges sin, and in terms of Disaster came in 1675. As a result of the so-called
SHAME as they are confronted with a holy God King Philips War in 1675, the Praying Indians
whom they have greatly offended. Then as the were rounded up and eventually sent to a small is-
Holy Spirit completes his saving work through land, where harsh conditions and the shock of be-
convicting of sin, repentance, and effectual call, trayal killed some and broke the spirit of more.
missionaries must be able to counsel the person Eliot tried to protect them, but was largely inef-
regarding Gods forgiveness and eternal love. fectual. After the war ended in 1676, the remain-
Elenctics as practical theology and as an ap- ing Praying Indians could return home, but only
proach theory in missions has become more sig- enough for four small settlements came back.
nificant in recent years due to the problems of Eliot continued to labor among them, but few
syncretism in missions and to issues related to other English or Algonquin-speaking people took
the CONTEXTUALIZATION of theology. The church is up his work. He died on May 21, 1690, but his ex-
growing rapidly in many parts of the world, but ample was a strong influence on future American
in some cases the fruits of repentance and holi- missionary efforts.
ness of life are not evident. Elenctics refuses to ROBERT SHUSTER
allow syncretism and its related errors and de- Bibliography. H. W. Bowden and J. P. Ronda, John
mands repentance of sin as explained in Scrip- Eliots Indian Dialogues: A Study in Cultural Interaction;
ture and turning to Christ as Lord and God. O. E. Winslow, John Eliot: Apostle to the Indians.
THOMAS L. AUSTIN
Bibliography. J. H. Bavinck, An Introduction to the Elliot, Elisabeth Howard (1926 ). American
Science of Missions; D. J. Hesselgrave, Missiology 11:4 lecturer, author, and missionary to Ecuador. El-
(October 1983): 46183; R. J. Priest, Missiology 22:3 liot was born of missionary parents in Brussels,
(July 1994): 291315; F. Turretin, Institutes of Elenctic Belgium. Her father, Philip E. Howard Jr., later
Theology, vol. 1. became the editor of the Sunday School Times.
308
Enculturation
She and her five siblings, all of whom entered Emde, Johannes (17741859). German pietist
Christian ministry, were exposed regularly to missionary in Indonesia. A naval officer with the
missionary guests in their home. Dutch East India Company, Emde is regarded as
After graduating from Wheaton College in a cofounder (along with C. L. Coolen) of the
1948, Elliot went to Ecuador in 1952, working Protestant church in East Java. Retiring from his
initially among the Colorado Indians. In 1953 she naval career, Emde settled in Surabaya, East
married JIM ELLIOT and joined him among the Java, and married a Javanese woman. In spite of
Quichua Indians. In 1956 Jim and four compan- two centuries of Dutch presence in Java, the Ja-
ions were speared to death in an attempt to reach vanese were still unreached with the gospel.
Auca Indians. Working as a watchmaker, Emde established
In 1958 Elisabeth and her three-year-old contacts with the Javanese, preaching the gospel
daughter, Valerie, with Rachael Saint, went by in- to them and distributing portions of Scripture in
vitation to live among the Aucas, where she their language.
learned the language and began translation work. Eventually two Christian groups arose among
In 1963 she returned to the United States. the Javanese in Surabayaone around Emde
She was married in 1969 to Addison Leitch, and his friends and the other around Coolen, a
who died of cancer in 1973. She married again in Christian working for the Dutch government. In
1977 to Lars Gren. A popular speaker to students, 1837 under Coolens leadership a group of Ja-
women, and others, she produces a daily radio vanese Muslims responded positively to the
broadcast, Gateway to Joy, heard nationwide and gospel of Jesus Christ. After guiding the new con-
a bimonthly newsletter. She has written more verts for several years, Coolen sent them on to
than two dozen books, many of which have been Emde, where they joined his growing commu-
best-sellers and have stimulated great interest in nity. Out of the Emde and Coolen groups came
missions. Christian communities with membership eventu-
DAVID M. HOWARD ally numbering about 19,000. Emde and Coolen
had rather different views on how the Christian
Bibliography. E. Elliot, The Savage, My Kinsman; converts should relate to Javanese culture.
idem, Passion and Purity; idem, The Shaping of a Chris-
Coolen was more accepting of Javanese customs
tian Family.
whereas Emde expected the people to make a
clean break with the culture, adopting Western
Elliot, Philip James (192756). American mis- dress and ways. Later, under the leadership of the
sionary martyr in Ecuador. Elliot was born to Dutch missionary Jelle Jellesma, the Javanese
godly parents in Portland, Oregon. He graduated Christians adopted a more balanced perspective
from Wheaton College in 1949, having been a toward indigenous cultural ways.
champion wrestler and campus leader as presi- HAROLD NETLAND
dent of the Student Foreign Missions Fellowship.
He began keeping a personal journal in 1948,
Enculturation. Learning of a culture through
parts of which have been widely quoted because growing up in it. Enculturation is the process
of his keen spiritual insights. that begins from the moment of birth in which
Elliot went to Ecuador in 1952 to work among the cultural rules and pathways, values and
the Quichua Indians. In 1953 he married Elisa- dreams, and patterns and regulations of life are
beth Howard in Quito. passed on from one generation to the next. Every
Burdened for unreached tribes, he and com- human being is born without culture but with
panions Nate Saint and Ed McCully searched for the innate need to learn how to live as a member
the Aucas, which they discovered in September of a culture. Learning how to communicate, the
1955. For three months they dropped gifts weekly rules and regulations of social behavior, evaluat-
from the air to the Aucas. In January 1956, with ing events and values as positive or negative, as
two more companions, Roger Youderian and well as connecting to God (or the transcendent)
Peter Fleming, the five established a beachhead are all part of the enculturation process.
on the Curaray River near the Auca territory. One The chief means of enculturation are the nor-
friendly contact with three Aucas took place at mal everyday patterns of life, which every person
their river encampment. Then on January 8, 1956, observes, interprets, and internalizes while grow-
they were attacked and speared to death by the ing up. The way our parents raise us, the way sib-
Aucas. The story of Jim Elliot and his compan- lings respond to us, our spiritual and physical en-
ions has continued to motivate Christians all over vironments, the values we see in relationships
the world for commitment to missionary service. and social institutions, and the media to which
DAVID M. HOWARD we were exposed were all factors in our own en-
Bibliography. E. Elisabeth, Through Gates of Splen- culturation processes.
dor; idem Shadow of the Almighty, idem (ed.), The Jour- Missionaries have the tendency to forget their
nals of Jim Elliot. own enculturation and how deeply their own cul-
309
Enculturation
tural values are embedded in them, and they are a blameless lifestyle that will be a crucial aspect
tempted to criticize inappropriately the process of attracting unbelievers to salvation (vv. 1415).
of enculturation as they observe it in a new cul- Unfortunately, to this point, evangelicals have
ture, often because what they see does not feel not sufficiently probed the Book of Revelation for
right to them. Understanding the enculturation specifics with regard to the completion of the
process is important for successful CONTEXTUAL- Great Commission. Recently, however, R. Bauck-
IZATION, for it provides crucial insights needed for hams programmatic discussion of the conversion
success in the process of helping people of a new of the nations in regard to the Apocalypse has
culture understand the message of the gospel. served to stimulate fresh discussion in this area.
A. SCOTT MOREAU For example, it is quite likely that a great mul-
titude that no one could count, from every na-
Bibliography. S. Grunlan and M. K. Mayers, Cultural
tion, tribe, people and language (Rev. 7:9) stand-
Anthropology: A Christian Perspective; L. J. Luzbetak,
The Church and Cultures.
ing before the heavenly throne is to be linked to
the Matthean Commission. This vast throng from
all the nations (Matt. 28:19), whether martyrs
End Times. A primary scriptural impetus for the or not, are the end times fruit of the Great Com-
global missionary enterprise is the GREAT COM- mission.
MISSION statement crowning the First Gospel: go
Also, the references to the eternal gospel to
and make disciples of all nations. . . . I am with proclaim to those who live on the earth, to every
you to the very end of the age (Matt. 28:1920). nation, tribe, language and people (Rev. 14:67)
Jesus makes it clear that the urgent emphasis of and the group of martyrs standing on the glassy
mission must not be simply to disciple the sea (15:2) apparently are the fulfillment of the
world, but to continue to do so until the culmi- promise of the age-concluding preaching of the
nation of the end times events. gospel described in Matthew 24:14. That under-
Relatedly, the Savior had already spoken to the standing becomes even more likely when one
heart of the issue in the Olivet Discourse, Jesus sees that this use of gospel in 14:6 is its lone in-
sermon on the end of the age. Assurance that the clusion in the Book of Revelation.
global evangelistic task will be completed can be Further, the two-sided harvest of Revelation
drawn from Matthew 24:14: And this gospel of 14:1419 reflects strikingly similar imagery and
the kingdom will be preached in the whole world terminology to Christs parable of the wheat and
as a testimony to all nations, and then the end the weeds (Matt. 13:2430, 3643). Since it
will come. Unfortunately, this passage does not speaks of the judgment at the end of the age
elaborate on how this climactic proclamation (vv. 3940), in which the children of the kingdom
will come about or who will accomplish it, nor and the children of the evil one are separated to
does it address other questions that divide evan- their ultimate destinies, there are important mis-
gelical Bible scholars and missiologists. siological implications.
Nor are these the only key passages that relate So, if nothing else, recent study of the Book of
mission to the end times. For example, in Acts Revelation has located several passages that seem
2:17 the apostle Peter relates the phenomena to detail the completion of the Great Commission
going on around him on the Day of Pentecost to in the end times. It remains for further exegetical
the last days, citing Joel 2:2832, which is there and theological study to clarify important details
linked to the day of the Lord (Acts 2:20), a great that will inform the theory and practice of the
theme of Old Testament eschatology. These refer- evangelical missionary enterprise in the crucial
ences added urgency to Peters appeal to his hear- time ahead.
ers: Call on the name of the Lord and be saved With the new millennium, there is great cu-
(v. 21) before it is too late for you to do so (v. 20)! riosity about the possible arrival of the end
This passage also reveals the balancing perspec- times. From the standpoint of mission, there has
tive that the last days actually began in earnest been much creative strategizing and sending, in-
with the inbreaking of the new age of the Spirit at cluding hundreds of strategies aimed toward the
Pentecost. This understanding is shared by the de- goal of completing the global imperative by the
scription of Christ being revealed in these last turn of the century.
days in Hebrews 1:2. Relatedly, Paul speaks of un- Since there is still much uncertainty attached
godly behavior characterizing later times, which to the specific impact of these efforts with re-
seems to include his own day (1 Tim. 4:1). spect to Gods plan and timing, encouragement
On the other hand, Paul also looks ahead to ab- should be drawn from joyfully remembering the
solutely terrible times in the last days (2 Tim. promise of the risen Lord, in the context of the
3:1), though still times in which the God- carrying out of the Great Commission: I am
breathed Scriptures will bring hearers to salva- with you always, to the very end of the age
tion (3:154:5). Of that latter-day period, Peter (Matt. 28:20).
reminds his readers that the Lord wants every- On the other hand, Gods sovereignty must
one to come to repentance (2 Peter 3:9), urging never be an excuse for irresponsibility or com-
310
English Mission Boards and Societies
placency. Employing imagery with overtones of with information and knowledge, but for others
the end times, the apostle Paul laid out the prac- it may start through a power encounter which
tical urgency of understanding the present time. has caused attitude change. For most people
The hour has come for you to wake up from your there will be concurrent processes of cognitive
slumber, because our salvation is nearer now and affective changes toward spiritual maturity.
than when we first believed. The night is nearly A revised version, utilizing a two-dimensional
over; the day is almost here (Rom. 13:1112). model, separating cognitive and affective pro-
A. BOYD LUTER cesses, was published by Viggo Sgaard in 1986
(Applying Christian Communication). Based on
SEE ALSO Millennial Thought and Mission.
the conviction that conversion is not an entirely
Bibliography. R. Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy, cognitive process, the affective dimension has
The Theology of the Book of Revelation, BEB, been added. The affective dimension will prima-
II:131011; A. Johnson and R. Webber, What Christians rily be a persons feelings toward the gospel, the
Believe: A Biblical and Historical Summary; A. B. Luter church, and Christ.
and K. McReynolds, Disciplined Living: What the New
Cognitive changes are illustrated as an upward
Testament Teaches about Recovery and Discipleship.
move, while affective responses can fluctuate be-
tween positive and negative attitudes. The model
Engel Scale. A model that illustrates the spiri- (or scale) provides a grid for illustrating and eval-
tual decision process has become known as the uating strategies, and as such provides a way to
Engel Scale. The idea behind the model or scale analyze evangelistic and nurture ministries in the
is to indicate that a decision for Christ is not just light of a decision-making process. Questions
one event, but a journey or series of events that needing research include: Are we aiming where
will lead toward spiritual maturity. the audience is? Do the translated materials re-
The scale was developed through cooperation ally fit? How does this ministry relate to that
between James F. Engel and Viggo Sgaard. A which was done before? How does it relate to
rudimentary model was first published by Viggo that which follows?
Sgaard (Everything You Need to Know for a Cas- VIGGO B. SGAARD
sette Ministry). The model was titled Total Pro-
gram Principles, indicating the total program Bibliography. J. F. Engel and W. H. Norton, Whats
needed to carry out the GREAT COMMISSION. It was Gone Wrong With the Harvest?; J. F. Engel, Contempo-
designed for strategic application and to assist in rary Christian Communication, Its Theory and Practice;
comparative media decisions. Biblical back- E. M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 3rd ed.; V. B.
Sgaard, Everything You Need to Know for a Cassette
ground was seen from the parable of the sower, Ministry; idem, Applying Christian Communications.
and from Pauls illustration of one who planted
and another who watered (1 Cor. 3:6).
Engel refined the model, adding significant England. See UNITED KINGDOM.
thinking from secular behavioral science. To a
large extent, Engel follows the paradigm of a English Mission Boards and Societies. The two
linear approach to DECISION MAKING as seen in a oldest English mission agencies predate the
consumer behavior model: knowledge-belief- Evangelical Revival. The Society for Promoting
attitude-intention-behavior. On such a model, Christian Knowledge was established in 1698 to
both cognitive and affective dimensions are provide schooling and Christian literature in
united on one linear dimension. A similar ap- both Britain and North America. Connections
proach has been followed by Rogers in Diffusion with German Pietists also led the Society in 1710
of Innovations. to adopt the Danish Lutheran mission at Tran-
In Contemporary Christian Communication, quebar, the first Protestant missionary venture in
Engel gives a full description of the scale and its India. The Society for the Propagation of the
implications for the church and its mission. The Gospel in Foreign Parts was founded in 1701 pri-
scale shows the various stages in the decision- marily to provide Anglican pastoral ministry to
making process, starting from initial exposure for settlers in the British North American colonies.
those who have no awareness of the Christian Although the Societys royal charter made im-
faith, through conversion, and a lifelong pattern plicit reference to the needs of the indigenous
of growth and maturity. Everyone is somewhere American peoples, the SPG remained almost en-
on this scale. tirely a colonial church society until the 1830s.
The model was quickly adopted by teachers These two religious societies were not dedi-
and became a primary model for many organiza- cated exclusively to overseas mission. The first
tions, with significant adaptations. English society founded specifically for this pur-
One drawback of the scale is the fixed linear pose was the Particular Baptist Society for Prop-
approach. The sequence of elements needs to be agating the Gospel among the Heathen, founded
flexible, allowing for different ordering of the in 1792 by the Particular (Calvinistic) Baptists.
events. For some the spiritual journey begins The Baptist Missionary Society (BMS), as the
311
English Mission Boards and Societies
Society became known, sent WILLIAM CAREY to nondenominational faith mission, directed on
Bengal in 1793. Other denominations similarly the field by a spiritually gifted leader, with the
touched by the Evangelical Revival soon followed domestic emphasis falling less on fundraising
suit. In 1795 evangelicals from various churches than on prayer. This ideal became international
formed The Missionary Society in an united in scope during the 1880s and 1890s, but also
endeavor to send the gospel to the heathen, spawned other faith missions in England such
leaving the converts to decide their own form of as the Regions Beyond Missionary Union
church government. This dream of evangelical (whose origins go back to 1878) or the Sudan
ecumenism proved hard to sustain once different United Mission (1904). Third, in the final years
denominations had their own missionary bodies. of the century strains began to appear within
The name was changed to the LONDON MISSION- English missions over theological issues, partic-
ARY SOCIETY in 1818. The LMS became chiefly ularly in relation to biblical criticism and atti-
identified with the Congregational denomination. tudes to Indian religions. By the early 1920s
Among its missionaries were ROBERT MORRISON, these strains had become acute, issuing, for ex-
ROBERT MOFFAT, and DAVID LIVINGSTONE. Evangel- ample, in the secession of some conservatives
icals in the established Church of England from the CMS in 1922 to form the Bible
formed their own missionary society in 1799: the Churchmens Missionary Society (now known as
Society for Missions to Africa and the East or Crosslinks).
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY. The CMS grew In terms of size of missionary force and levels
over the course of the nineteenth century into the of popular support the older denominational so-
largest of the English societies. From the ranks of cieties reached their peak between the World
its secretaries came two of the most influential Wars. After 1945 these societies, under the lead-
missionary thinkers in recent Christian history: ership of mission statesmen such as Max Warren,
HENRY VENN and MAX WARREN. JOHN WESLEYs began to revise their policies in response to the
new Methodist movement within the Church of growth of nationalism in the non-Western world
England was also actively involved in foreign and the beginnings of decolonization. Their ap-
mission from 1786, when the first Methodist proaches were also affected in varying measure
missionary arrived in the West Indies. However, by the increasing theological doubts about the
the formal organization of the Wesleyan appropriateness of seeking to convert people of
Methodist Missionary Society took place only other faiths to Christianity. Some of the older so-
after 1813, when different Methodist districts es- cieties changed their names or even dissolved
tablished their own missionary societies, which themselves in favor of new bodies that expressed
came together in one national body in 1818. Un- ideals of global Christian partnership rather than
like the BMS, LMS, or CMS, the WMMS was not mission in the traditional sense of a one-way flow
a voluntary society separate from denomina- of personnel and funds from the West. Between
tional structures, but an integral part of the 1966 and 1977 the LMS was transformed into a
Methodist connectional machinery. global partnership body, the Council for World
Nevertheless, the English mission agencies in Mission. Less radically, the CMS in 1995 changed
the nineteenth century shared an essentially its name to the Church Mission Society, reflect-
common evangelical theology and similar ap- ing an understanding that mission is a broader
proaches to fundraising at home and policy on process than the sending of missionaries. In 1965
the field. As the century proceeded, three devel- the SPG and the UMCA had merged to form the
opments occurred that diversified this picture. United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
First, the revival of High Churchmanship within (USPG).
the Anglican Church expressed in the Oxford In England, as elsewhere, the newer faith mis-
Movement first transformed the SPG into an ef- sions have continued to stress the priority of ini-
fective missionary agency, and then, in 1857, led tiating evangelistic expansion to unreached pop-
to the formation of a new mission, the Universi- ulations. However, by the 1990s they too were
ties Mission to Central Africa. Although owing struggling to maintain their levels of support, as
much to the ideas of Livingstone, the new mis- the younger generation of English evangelicals
sion also embodied the distinctively Anglo- appeared less acutely concerned than their fore-
Catholic principle that missionary ventures bears about the spiritual condition of non-West-
should be pioneered by missionary bishops. ern peoples. To some extent evangelicals in En-
The focus was shifting from voluntary society to gland have followed the more liberal sections of
church. Second, JAMES HUDSON TAYLORs forma- the English churches in focusing their overseas
tion of the C HINA I NLAND M ISSION in 1865 concerns on Christian relief agencies such as
marked an alternative and distinctively evangel- TEAR Fund, set up by the Evangelical Alliance in
ical departure from the voluntary society ideal. 1968. Young people in England have nonetheless
The CIM repudiated the idea of a society run by been attracted to a third generation of mission
an elected committee and responsible to its sub- agencies, such as Operation Mobilisation (1957)
scribers, and introduced instead the model of or Youth With a Mission (1960), which have en-
312
Enlightenment
couraged short-term service and vacation mis- of Religion (1736) was apparently intended as a
sion opportunities for students. point-by-point refutation of the writings of the
BRIAN STANLEY noted Deist Matthew Tindal; it became the most
widely used theological work of the eighteenth
SEE ALSO Scottish Mission Boards and Societies. century. Although Butler is usually remembered
Bibliography. J. Murray, Proclaim the Good News: A as a philosophical theologian, one of his printed
Short History of the Church Missionary Society; B. Stan- sermons supported the cause of foreign missions.
ley, The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Missions and On a practical level, evangelists such as JOHN
British Imperialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Cen- WESLEY and GEORGE WHITEFIELD crisscrossed the
turies; idem, The History of the Baptist Missionary Soci- British Isles (and in Whitefields case the American
ety 17921992; H. P. Thompson, Into All Lands: The His- colonies) proclaiming the Bibles message to large
tory of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in crowds. Most of their hearers were ordinary peo-
Foreign Parts 17011950; B. Thorogood, ed., Gales of
Change: Responding to a Shifting Missionary Context.
ple, but Whitefields Journals are sprinkled with
The Story of the London Missionary Society 19451977; accounts of encounters with Deist intellectuals. I
A. F. Walls, DSCHT, pp. 56794. fear Deism has spread much in these parts, he
wrote during a 1739 trip through Maryland.
When WILLIAM CAREY, the father of modern for-
Enlightenment. Surely one of church historys
eign missions, catalogued the religious state of
more intriguing ironies is the fact that the mod-
the nations of the world in his influential tract An
ern Protestant missionary movement, which
Enquiry into the Obligation of Christians to use
began in the late eighteenth century, came out of
Means for the Conversion of the Heathen (1792),
an environment that was strongly influenced by
he noted that France consisted of Catholics,
the philosophy of the Enlightenment.
Deists, and Protestants and added that Various
Often explicitly anti-Christian in outlook, En- baneful, and pernicious errors appear to gain
lightenment philosophers not only attacked tradi- ground, in almost every part of Christendom; the
tional Christian beliefs but propounded ideas that truths of the gospel, and even the gospel itself,
called into question the need for evangelism and are attacked. Although urging the cause of for-
missions. In its own way, however, the Enlighten- eign missions, Carey realized that so-called
ment both prepared the way for the new mission- Christian countries could not be excluded from
ary initiatives and influenced their direction. missionary activity.
Building on the humanistic foundations of the Nevertheless the Enlightenment significantly
Renaissance and seventeenth-century rational- influenced the spirit of eighteenth-century soci-
ism, eighteenth-century Enlightenment philoso- ety, and as such had an indirect but definite im-
phers as diverse as Rousseau, Voltaire, Lessing, pact on the beginnings of modern Protestant for-
Kant, Paine, and Hume asserted the autonomy of eign missions, particularly in England.
the individual and the ability of unaided human Enlightenment thinkers unintentionally en-
reason to discover truth. They therefore rejected couraged foreign missions, for example, through
reliance on any external source of truth in phi- their attempt to find a common natural religion
losophy and religion, including divine revelation throughout the world. The age of exploration had
and the authority of religious institutions. The at- opened up new vistas for studying diverse human
titude of many Enlightenment philosophers to- societies, and as they looked beyond superficial
ward religion is well summarized in the title of cultural differences Enlightenment scholars con-
Immanuel Kants 1793 essay Religion Within the cluded that human nature was basically the same
Bounds of Reason Alone. everywhere. As David Hume declared in 1748, It
Most Enlightenment philosophers did not deny is universally acknowledged, that there is a great
Gods existence, but were Deists who believed uniformity among the acts of men, in all nations
that God was distant and uninvolved in human and ages, and that human nature remains still
affairs, and had left it to human reason to dis- the same. In Christian eyes this reinforced the
cover the path to happiness, morality, and truth. conviction that the gospel was equally valid for
Their focus, therefore, was on nature and on all humanity, and that no culture should be ex-
human experience, and by exalting human rea- cluded from its message.
son as the arbiter of what was ethical or true they The scientific and experimental methodology
affirmed the innate goodness and potential of the of the Enlightenment also influenced the growth
individual. They therefore rejected the Christian of missions. As eighteenth-century evangelicals
belief in the DEPRAVITY OF HUMANKIND or the need moved away from Puritanism, with its preoccu-
for spiritual conversionand thus evangelical pation with inward-looking piety as the test of
missionary activity. conversion, they embraced immediate religious
Christians who retained their orthodox convic- experience as the basis of their assurance of sal-
tions reacted sharply against Deism and other as- vation. In so doing they were mirroring the En-
pects of Enlightenment philosophy. On a theo- lightenments method of seeking truth through
logical level, Bishop Joseph Butlers The Analogy immediate experience. This in turn encouraged a
313
Enlightenment
new activism in evangelism and missions, since enterprise, ignorance, and greed, which lead to
CONVERSION could be immediately experienced. environmental degradation.
In other ways the Enlightenment spurred the Christians can no longer avoid seeing that the
growth of an activist spirit in Western society as environmental damage brought by war, multina-
a whole, which in turn influenced evangelical tional companies, and modern technology con-
Christianity. Enlightenment ideas gave impetus flicts with human survival needs and the long-
to a new spirit of optimism and progress in soci- term intentions of a compassionate God who
ety, for example, and a determination not to be created a world in which every part waits for its
bound by the past. While at times this could take redemption (Rom. 8:21). An organic or holistic
radical directions (as indeed happened in the view of life will bring many insights to challenge
French Revolution), in a more general way this Christians (see also HOLISM, BIBLICAL); for exam-
progressive attitude encouraged the development ple, the links between population growth, envi-
of new approaches to old problems and new ronmental destruction, and social conflict; the ir-
ways of looking at the world. This in turn made responsibility of powerful groups accumulating
Christians more open to new directions in their wealth through mining and industry without tak-
ing thought for the associated environmental
workincluding foreign missions.
damage or the suffering of disadvantaged people
In a similar way the Enlightenment opened the
(the loss of land in order to build factories, the
door to a new wave of pragmatism and a willing-
industrial pollution of rivers); the rise of Gaia-
ness to experiment with new methodologies. consciousness in the New Age movement.
Evangelicals embraced this attitude with enthu- Such challenges, when contrasted with king-
siasm. The field preaching of Wesley and White- dom insights about the rule of God over all cre-
field is one example of this; another is the growth ation (Isa. 11:9; 65:25), have led some missions to
in lay witness and work. The explosion in evan- think about environmental issues. For Gods mis-
gelical foreign mission societies (as well as vol- sion in redemption cannot be separated from his
untary societies devoted to a host of other reli- mission in creation. While limits of time, energy,
gious and social causes) in the late eighteenth skill, and finance must confine the scope of mis-
and early nineteenth centuries owed far more to sionary concern about nature, environmental
lay activists than to ordained clergy. degradation so affects people that caring for their
The Enlightenment unquestionably laid the spiritual welfare cannot be separated from caring
foundations for much modern secular thinking, for creation. This in effect reinterprets the bibli-
and as such continues to challenge contemporary cal concept of stewardshipnot dominion and
Christians. Even in modern missions its continu- control, but responsibility and accountability to
ing influence can be detected among those who the Lord of creation.
deny the need for overt evangelism and reduce The gospel has environmental, as well as eter-
missions solely to humanitarianism. Neverthe- nal, imperatives (Eph. 1:10; Col. 1:1920). You
less, without the Enlightenment the emergence have placed humankind in charge of everything
of the modern missionary impulse would have you made; everything is put under their author-
been seriously hampered. ity (Ps. 8:6). Part of the image of God is the re-
JOHN N. AKERS sponsibility of stewardship over the earth. But
many Christians have misunderstood steward-
Environment. While various social structures, ship as ownership or exploitation rather than
trusteeship, and live in such a way that their cen-
including business and government, are increas-
tral purpose seems to be consumption.
ingly concerned about environmental problems
The Christian ethic is the worlds only hope
pollution, exploding population, famine, vanish-
of averting environmental disaster. This re-
ing resourcesevangelical missions often reflect quires a transformation of attitudes, which is
the general evangelical trend to leave such con- most effectively achieved by the regeneration of
cerns to secular groups. This attitude comes from human hearts. Evangelism is, then, an essential
a hierarchical, Platonic view of life, which makes part of ECOLOGY, a fact that few missions have
caring for the physical world less urgent than the realized. Balance will be recovered only as we
salvation of souls. The fear that faith in God study and adopt the integrated view of life re-
might be taken over by the concern for nature is flected in Hebrew thought, the theology of
ever present. As a consequence, lamented FRAN- F RANCIS OF A SSISI , and Eastern Orthodoxy
CIS SCHAEFFER, an evangelistic opportunity is rather than the Western individualism that has
being lost; for while modern young people have a held sway since the Reformation.
real sensitivity to nature, most Christians do not When we seek the KINGDOM OF GOD, environ-
care about the beauty of nature or nature as mental issues will assume their full significance
such. Another consequence of the evangelical as part of a larger structure of rightness and in-
perspective and activities on the mission field is tegrity. We will take note that most of the growth
that they often pave the way for self-interested in world POPULATION is concentrated in the poor-
314
Eschatology
est and most environmentally degraded countries, Church began on the island of Corisco in 1850,
and that there is a global increase in environmen- reaching the mainland in 1865. Five years later
tal refugees who are being displaced because of the first African pastor was ordained and within
drought, soil erosion, and flooding. The perspec- ten years an African missionary had been sent to
tive of many of these people is such that organic Cameroon. WEC INTERNATIONAL entered Rio Muni
and ecological models and metaphors can be used in 1933, merging its work with that of the Pres-
to explore with them the deep issues of life. byterians to form the Evangelical church in 1970.
Environmental issues suggest various ways in President Macias Nguema came to power at
which mission in the twenty-first century can be independence in 1968 and subjected the country
made more effective. We should study biblical to a reign of terror until he was overthrown and
holism and the role of stewardship in Gods plan executed in 1979. Protestant buildings were con-
for both urban and rural situations. Courses in fiscated, foreign missionaries expelled, and local
the THEOLOGY OF MISSION should incorporate en- clergy suffered imprisonment and torture. Dur-
vironmental concerns. We can analyze case stud- ing his despotic reign tens of thousands of
ies of how mission grows out of the work of Guineans were victims of political assassinations.
Christians with a holistic worldview (e.g., Peter GARY LAMB
Harris in Portugal). We can make the good news
real for powerless people by challenging evil Eritrea (Est. 2000 pop.: 4,025,000; 124,000 sq.
structures and working to reverse the pollution of km. [47,876 sq. mi.]). Eritrea, until 1993 a north-
their air, water, and soil. Organic metaphors and ern province of Ethiopia, is an independent state
models of appropriate lifestyles can be used to on the Red Sea. Seventy-five percent of the pop-
communicate the gospel. Missions can involve ulation are Tigrai and Tigre. Eritrea is 41 percent
themselves in environmental issues that relate to Christian and the Orthodox represent 75 percent
human survivalpopulation, land ownership of the total number of Christians. Lutheran
and use, relationships between the powerful and Evangelicals number more than 20,000 and are
the marginalized. Mission work must take these active in evangelization.
issues seriously as part of the challenge of the TODD M. JOHNSON
whole gospel for the whole world.
JOHN STEWARD
Eschatology. One of the striking characteristics
Bibliography. W. D. Roberts, Patching Gods Gar- of the evangelical missionary enterprise is the op-
ment; C. DeWitt, The Environment and the Christian; timism with which it is being pursued. There ap-
P. Harris, Under the Bright Wings; H. Snyder, Earthcur- pears to be little, if anything, that can shake its
rents; L. Wilkinson, Earthkeeping in the Nineties; advocates belief that the GREAT COMMISSION can
F. Schaeffer, Pollution and the Death of Man. and soon will be fulfilled. It has been suggested
that the worldwide church is on the threshold of
Episcopalian Mission. See ANGLICAN MISSION. unprecedented growth. It is said that this will in-
volve a near universal hearing of the gospel ac-
Equatorial Guinea (Est. 2000 pop.: 452,000; companied by successful CHURCH PLANTING
28,071 sq. km. [10,838 sq. mi.]). The people of Re- among every ethnic group. This success will sig-
public of Equatorial Guinea speak seventeen lan- nal the final epoch of missions and inaugurate
guages. Tribal religionists account for less than 5 the end of this age.
percent of the population, in large part due to the This confident outlook is based on an eschato-
countrys long-standing association with Catholi- logical orientation, in which the inexorable im-
cism. Catholicism arrived in the fifteenth century plementation of Gods salvific plan is followed
and existed under European colonial administra- from his promise to Abraham (Gen. 12:13),
tion prior to independence in 1968. through the sending of the Son (Gal. 4:4), and on
Baptist missionaries first arrived from the West to the yet outstanding parade of the nations to
Indies in 1841 but were expelled by the Spanish Zion (Zech. 8:2022). This air of anticipation is
administration in 1858. In 1870 the English not generated by the calamitous state of the
Methodist Church sent missionaries in response world, but by the present state of missionary ad-
to an appeal from the Fernando Poo Protestant vance. Jesus said (Matt. 24:14) that before he
community. The Methodists were allowed to re- would return the gospel would have to be
main in 1870 only through the British consuls in- preached to the whole world, to every nation,
tervention. Methodism remains the largest tribe, and language. For the first time in history
Protestant body on the island. this appears to be a real possibility. In light of the
The principal evangelical body on the main- progress that has been made and technological
land of Rio Muni is the Evangelical Church, advances at our disposal, it is reasonable to be-
which receives support from the United Presby- lieve that every people can hear the gospel and
terian Church and since 1970, the Worldwide have the church planted in it. We just might be
Evangelization Crusade of UK. The Presbyterian able to complete the task within this generation.
315
Eschatology
Of course, few dare to suggest particular dates. the missionary movement the confidence needed
Neither is there agreement on the details of the for bold and aggressive world evangelization.
eschatological timetable. But that our Lord will Third, the text speaks of a specific commission
return, of that there is little evangelical doubt. or task, that is, proclaiming this message to all
This, more than anything, has contributed to an peoples. Since this is given in the context of the
atmosphere of heightened eschatological antici- eventual completion of salvation history, this part
pation. There seems to be a general consensus of it also takes on eschatological significance. The
that we are not only in or near the final stage of messengers, those converted, and the concrete
history, but that we are also close to reaching the structures that result, the ever expanding people
ultimate goal of salvation history, the full rein- of God, are a sure sign of the coming kingdom.
statement of the KINGDOM OF GOD. Fourth, this text provides a powerful motiva-
The key biblical text in this regard is Matthew tion for missions. God has commissioned his
24:14. To the degree that this text is accepted as people with the implementation of the decisive
a promise of Christs return, it yields several con- and final stage of salvation history. Although this
sequences of decisive import for the missionary does not necessarily mean that the missionary
enterprise. work will hasten the return of Christ, some evan-
First, it states the content of the missionary gelicals do believe that the timing of Christs re-
message in terms of the gospel of the kingdom of turn depends on the pace of our work; the sooner
God. The purpose of Jesus ministry is to an- we complete our commission, the sooner he can
nounce and offer Gods salvation to all of hu- return.
manity. He does not speak of vengeance, but The most important thing in this text is not the
rather salvation, especially for sinners. It is a controverted specifics of chronological sequence
message of salvation, peace, and hope, which is but rather the motivational value of the delay in
offered even to publicans and prostitutes (Mark Christs return. How close are we to completing
2:15ff.). Of course, the availability of salvation our missionary task? When will Christ return?
both now and in the future depends on an indi- God alone knows (Acts 1:7). But we do know that
viduals present attitudes (Luke 19:42). Since he he has not yet returned and until he does, our
offers immediate forgiveness of sin (Mark work is not finished. This should cause us to view
21:112) it is an announcement of salvation as missionary work with sobriety, realism, and con-
something already present and operative. How- fidence. We will not be spared opposition and
ever, the reign of which Christ speaks, although disappointment. The last days will be character-
inaugurated in the present, will not be completed ized by heightened activity on the part of the
until the parousia. It will not be fully and per- forces of darkness. But the end will come. The
fectly realized until Christ returns. Yet, it does missionary task will be completed and therein
provide the missionary with a message of present lies the actual motivation, our confidence. The
significance. We really do have something of im- hope of Jesus return is an essential element in an
mediate benefit to proclaim. evangelical theology of mission.
Second, this passage is an eschatologically ir- EDWARD ROMMEN
revocable announcement of divine intent. Jesus SEE ALSO Millennial Thought and Mission.
does make reference to human responsibility. We
are to pray for it (Matt. 6:10), implore God for it Bibliography. H. Berkhof, Christian Faith; D. G.
Bloesch, A Theology of Word and Spirit; G. D. Fee, Gods
(Luke 18:7), strive to get in (Luke 12:31), hold
Empowering Presence; T. N. Finger, Christian Theology:
ourselves ready for it (Matt. 25:44). But human An Eschatological Approach; S. J. Grenz, Revisioning
agency cannot bring it into existence. No more Evangelical Theology; idem, Theology for the Community
than it can hasten, delay, or hinder it. God alone of God; P. K. Jewett, God, Creation, and Revelation; G. R.
gives it (Luke 12:32) and disposes it (Luke 22:29). Lewis and B. A. Demarest, Integrative Theology; A. E.
Jesus promises it (Matt. 5:3) and grants or denies McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction.
admittance (Matt. 8:11). What the kingdom is, is
necessarily linked to the person of Christ, who Estonia (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,495,000; 45,100 sq.
determines its contents in terms of his own send- km. [17,413 sq. mi.]). Pagan Finno-Ugric peoples
ing. He is Savior and Victor. He will bring ulti- from Western Asia arrived on the Baltic in the
mate victory of truth over all contradicting third millennium B.C. Christian forces conquered
human ideologies, of justice in the struggle be- the region in the early 1200s, beginning a seven
tween right and wrong, of healing of all wounds, hundred-year period of foreign occupation. Ger-
and love and reconciliation over all revengeful man nobility ruled until the early 1500s. Refor-
justice. These images portray a kingdom which mation Swedish control brought educational and
God alone can and will institute. From this it be- social improvements. Russian domination
comes clear that history is indeed moving toward (17211920) reversed many reforms but saw sig-
its God-appointed end. Christ will be victorious nificant revival among the commoners. After 50
over death, sin, and Satan. Knowing that gives years of Soviet repression (194091), new reli-
316
Eternal Life
gious freedoms introduced significant challenges physical resurrection, developed most fully in
to the church as well as in economy and industry. 1 Corinthians 15.
STEVEN J. PIERSON Because the biblical teaching regarding eternal
life stands in stark contrast with the teaching of
SEE ALSO Baltic States. other major world religions regarding life after
Bibliography. A. Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Esto- death, it has received great emphasis in mission-
nia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence; ary proclamation, particularly among Muslims,
V. Mezezers, The Herrnhuterian Pietism in the Baltic: Hindus, and Buddhists.
And its Outreach into America and Elsewhere in the Like the Bible, Islam teaches eternal personal
World. existence (Sura 3:103; 9:21; 15:48; 18:2; 56:31, 32)
in heaven (Sura 55:2627) or hell (Sura 37:2223;
Eternal Life. The Apostles Creed closes with the 55:44; 67:710). Hell is the abode of the wicked
words I believe . . . in the resurrection of the (Sura 70:15). Allah will fill Gehenna with men
body and the life everlasting. Although antici- and jinn (Sura 11:120).
pated in the Old Testament (Isa. 26:19; Dan. Islam views death not as a punishment for sin,
12:2), the concept of eternal or everlasting but the natural termination of life. It is to be fol-
(KJV) life is more fully developed in the New Tes- lowed on the Day of Resurrection by judgment
tament, particularly in the Johannine literature. resulting in admission to Paradise or assignment
Eternal life is more than mere continuing exis- to hell based upon the works done in this life
tence. It is qualitative in nature as well as unend- (Sura 3:185). However, ultimately, it is Allahs will
ing in duration (John 10:10). It is the divine life which determines ones eternal destiny. Muslims
which is present in God and Christ and bestowed have no assurance of ultimate salvation (see also
as a gift upon the believer through the Holy SOTERIOLOGY IN NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS).
Spirit (John 1:4; 1 John 1:12; 5:11). The life of Although the primary purpose of life is to walk
the Christian is not his or her own life; it is the in Gods path, abide by his laws, and secure his
life of Christ who lives in his followers (Gal. 2:20; pleasure, Islam is devoid of the concept of eter-
Phil. 1:21). nal life as a present reality during this life. Rather
Although unending existence is encompassed the Quran contrasts sharply this life with the life
within the concept, eternal life is essentially rela- to come (Sura 4:77).
tional. In his high priestly prayer, Jesus describes In its description of heaven, the Quran says lit-
it as knowing God and having fellowship with tle about the worship of God or relationship with
him. Rather, heaven is depicted as physical and
him through his Son, Jesus Christ (John 17:3).
sensual, as a beautiful garden filled with tasty
Christianity is unique among the worlds reli-
fruits (Sura 55:4860). Men are promised unend-
gions in the nature of the claims it makes about
ing opportunity to consort with multiple beauti-
its founder, claims derived from the words and
ful, wide-eyed maidens. Little is said about the
actions of Jesus himself (John 11:25; 14:6; see
women apart from those who serve in the role of
also UNIQUENESS OF CHRIST). physical partners for men. This stands in sharp
Because it is imparted at the moment of regen- contradiction to Jesus teaching that men and
eration, eternal life begins in the present life and women will neither marry nor be given in mar-
is not affected by physical death. Those possess- riage in the hereafter (Matt. 22:30).
ing eternal life are declared to be saved and are Christian proclamation to Muslims with regard
promised that they shall never perish (John to eternal life, while affirming the continuity of
3:1516, 18, 36; 5:24; 10:9). To be absent from the personality beyond the grave and the reality of
body is to be present with the Lord (2 Cor. 5:8). heaven and hell, stresses the present reality of eter-
The gift of eternal life is received by faith so that nal life, the assurance of salvation, the relational
those who believe have already passed from and spiritual character of heaven, and the equal
death to life (John 5:24; 1 John 3:14) and have status of men and women before God.
the life which is in the Son (1 John 5:12), a life Since Hinduism does not distinguish between
which expresses itself in victory (1 John 3:89), the Creator and the creation, the concept of ab-
love (John 15:917), and joy (John 16:2024). sorption into the Divine implies the ultimate loss
The New Testament uses the figures of new of personal identity. The self is viewed as uncre-
birth and spiritual resurrection to describe eter- ated and distinct from the physical body. Salva-
nal life. First, the new birth (John 1:12, 13; 3:3) tion, likened to a drop of water merging into the
relates the believer to the family of God. Second, sea, comes at the conclusion of a long series of
the reception of eternal life is described as spiri- reincarnations, sometimes referred to as the
tual resurrection. Having been raised together wheel of existence (see also REINCARNATION AND
with Christ (Col. 3:1), the believer now enjoys TRANSMIGRATION). This cycle of multiple births
being alive from the dead (Rom. 6:13). The con- and deaths continues until a true understanding
cept of spiritual resurrection, however, does not of the self brings it to an end. Inherently con-
negate the New Testament teaching regarding nected to the belief in reincarnation is the doc-
317
Eternal Life
trine of karma, the accumulation of merit and Beloved, effectually called, and sanctified by his
demerit, whereby each person experiences the Spirit, can neither totally nor finally fall away
consequences of his or her past and present lives. from the state of grace, but shall certainly perse-
With reference to eternal life, Christian procla- vere therein to the end, and be eternally saved.
mation in Hindu contexts has emphasized the Key points include: (1) This does not apply to
continuing personal identity of the believer in re- everyone who professes faith, but only to those
lationship with a truly compassionate personal whom God has elected and saved. (2) These true
God, the assured hope of salvation, the reality of believers, though they may fall into sin tem-
a qualitatively superior life in the present, and porarily, will certainly persist in exercising faith
the experience of forgiveness that brings freedom and engaging in good works in the midst of
from bad karma and escape from the wheel of temptations and attacks. This refutes a common
existence. Christians, referring to Hebrews 9:27, caricature of this doctrine which describes it as
testify with assurance that this is their first and teaching that believers are certain to be saved no
last earthly lifetime! matter how they live (Hoekema). (3) Persever-
The Buddhist understanding of eternal life is ance is a continuing work of God and hence the
conditioned by the experience of Buddha Gau- security of these true believers does not ulti-
tama, who set out on a spiritual journey for the mately rest on their ability to withstand assaults
purpose of overcoming and transcending the old and maintain themselves in Christ. But this per-
age and sickness that lead to the agony of dying. severing power does not operate apart from the
Although Buddhism adopted many of the Hindu believers faith which is the means by which God
views regarding karma and reincarnation, it de- preserves them. (4) This faith includes persever-
veloped many of its own unique concepts as ance as a constitutive element: genuine faith, by
found in the four noble truths, the eightfold path, definition, perseveres; where there is no perse-
and the twelve steps of interdependency. Since verance, by definition the faith cannot be gen-
suffering is caused by desire, freedom from de- uine (Carson).
sire leads to Nirvana, a state which is in essence Scriptural support for the Calvinist position in-
nonbeing. Buddhists do not hold to the perma- cludes promises stressing divine power and faith-
nence of the self. fulness to protect believers (1 Peter 1:39; Phil.
The concept of karma leads to the desire to ac- 1:6; Rom. 8:3139; 1 Cor. 1:89; 1 Thess. 5:2324),
quire merit in order to improve ones position in passages presenting Gods purposes for believers
future lives. The fatalism implicit in the Buddhist as being all of a piece (Rom. 8:2830), Christs
concept of karma leaves no room for the possi- own pledges to guard believers (John 6:3740;
bility of divine forgiveness. 10:2730), and assurances of eternal life (John
Christian proclamation in Buddhist contexts 3:36; 5:24; 1 John 5:13). The Spirits ministry of
emphasizes continuing personal identity that regenerating and sealing people (John 3:38; Eph.
transcends death, the legitimate desire for and 1:1314; 4:30) is the guarantee of their ultimate
reality of eternal fellowship with a personal God, salvation. The intercessory work of Christ ensures
eternal life as a gift from a loving and gracious complete salvation (Heb. 7:2325; John 17:24).
Heavenly Father to be received by faith, and a The reality of being part of the New Covenant
lifestyle of love as a response to Gods forgiveness providing believers with a new heart (Ezek.
and his gift of the Holy Spirit through Jesus 36:2527), transforming power (2 Cor. 3), and
Christ. union with Christ (1 Cor. 1:30; Eph. 1:112)en-
KENNETH B. MULHOLLAND ables them to persevere in faith and holiness. Per-
severance is also linked with divine election and
Bibliography: H. Cower, ed., Life after Death in World irresistible grace. This theological outlook has
Religions. meant that Calvinist missions have tended to em-
phasize personal conversion, the organization
Eternal Security. Eternal security, also known as and structure/development of the church, and the
the perseverance of the saints, refers to the con- transformation of society, especially through edu-
tinuation of the work of God in the life of a true cation, health, and agriculture. Once people come
believer. To the question Will the operation of di- to faith, since their salvation is secure, they are to
vine grace begun in a true believers life certainly live in ways that contribute positively to changing
continue and be brought to completion such that their context.
a genuine Christian can never completely fall Contrast this with Arminian theology. While
away from Christ and fail to obtain eternal salva- stressing that provision of persevering grace has
tion?, two different answersone positive, one been made for the church, it considers this grace
negativehave historically been offered, by to be conditional with respect to each individual
Calvinism and Arminianism respectively. Christian. The believer is protected by Gods
The Calvinist doctrine of perseverance is ex- power, but this grace can be resisted. Ultimate
pressed by the Westminster Confession of Faith salvation is thus contingent on the believer per-
(17.1): They, whom God has accepted in his severing in the faith. Thus, there is no way of
318
Ethics
telling whether a given person in the Church will Bibliography. J. Calvin, The Institutes of the Christian
persevere to the end; the fact of his perseverance Religion, 3.24.611; G. C. Berkouwer, Faith and Perse-
at any given moment is shown in the fact that he verance; D. Carson, WmTJ54 (1992): 129; A. Hoekema,
Saved by Grace, pp. 23456; W. Pope, A Compendium of
is persevering (Marshall). Although some Christian Theology, 3.13147; I. H. Marshall, Kept By the
Arminians consider apostasy by true believers Power of God.
only a possibility, others affirm that falling away
does occur.
Ethics. Christians can all agree, at least in a gen-
Scriptural support for the conditionality of in- eral sense, to the notion that ethics are in some
dividual salvation includes warnings against way important for theological reflection and mis-
apostasy (Heb. 2: 13; 3:12; 10:2631; 2 Peter sion. Confusion can arise, however, as to what
3:17) and exhortations to remain firm in the faith some key fundamental terms mean and to how
until the end (Col. 1:2123; Heb. 3:1415; John discussions on ethics should be articulated. A
15:17; Matt. 10:22) Such instructions would ap- brief introduction to the nature of ethical dis-
pear superfluous if true believers could not fall course, therefore, can provide a framework for a
away but are guaranteed eternal salvation. Also, more informed exploration into the relationship
cases of actual apostasy are presented as evi- of ethics to both Christian mission in general and
dence that falling away does indeed occur (Heb. cross-cultural missionaries in particular.
6:46; 1 John 2:1819; 2 Peter 2:12; Judas; Acts Basic Definitions and General Orientation.
5:111; 1 Tim. 1:1920; 2 Tim. 2:1618; 4:10). Ob- In popular parlance, often no distinction is
jecting to the Calvinist viewpoint, Arminianism drawn between morality and ethics. Within the
finds eternal security to be inconsistent with academic discipline of ethics, however, these two
human free will and claims that it leads to com- terms are not synonymous, although they are re-
placency and moral laxity. lated. The first concerns the concrete manner in
This outlook has generally worked itself out in which people act and order their lives; the sec-
Arminian missions through an emphasis on per- ond, on the other hand, refers to articulating the
sonal conversion followed by Christian disciple- explanations and justifications of why and how
ship, growth in spiritual maturity, and continual people do what they do. To speak of ethics in
need for revival and increased holiness of the mission is to deal with both of these aspects
converts. Education, health, agriculture, and that is, with the mundane realities of human ex-
other social emphases have tended to be down- istence and the theoretical foundations of behav-
played, compared with the importance of growth ior and values. This opening part of the
in the personal and corporate holiness, worship, discussion will focus on the insights that philo-
spirituality, and devotion of the churches and sophical and theological ethics can offer into the
their leaders. nature of ethical reasoning. These might serve
A compatibalist approach to this doctrine en- missiological reflection and missionaries facing
courages responsible integration of the passages complex ethical quandaries by helping to specify
stressing Gods continuing work of preservation the nature of the issues at stake and by identify-
with those emphasizing the believers responsi- ing at what point dialogue (or disagreement) and
resolution (or confrontation) can be expected.
bility to persevere in the faith. Acknowledging the
They can also aid ethical discussions through fo-
difficulty of knowing if some people are genuine
menting more careful analysis of different points
believers, it admits that some non-believers give
of view and solutions.
startling evidence of conversion (Heb. 6:46;
To begin with, ethicists differentiate among
Mark 4:120; 1 John 2:1819; Matt. 7:2123) yet four levels of ethical discourse. These range from
turn away, not from saving faith, but from the re- the spontaneous human responses to given situ-
ligious position they once held. True believers, ations (level one) to accepted cultural mores and
however, always continue in grace until ultimate unquestioned socialized patterns (level two), and
salvation, and the ground of this perseverance is on to more reflective debate on ethical principles
Gods sustaining power which works through (level three). Lastly, there is the meta-ethical
their persistent faith. One means of encouraging level, which posits an answer to the ultimate
such abiding faith is the above-mentioned scrip- question Why be ethical? Christians, for in-
tural warnings and exhortations. stance, in certain situations might react in simi-
ASSURANCE OF SALVATION is the legitimate and lar patterns to others within their context (levels
comforting result of this doctrine. This subjective one and two). They may or may not hold to
confidence paves the way for believers to face dif- broadly held views of justice or compassion and
ficulties, persecutions, and even threats of death make common cause on individual issues (e.g.,
without fear of being separated from God. This abortion, POVERTY), even though the principles
engenders boldness and dedication to the cause underlying their opinions and actions would be
of Christ worldwide. grounded in their faith (level three). Christians
GREGG R. ALLISON will necessarily part with others over the most
319
Ethics
fundamental grounding of ethical behavior (level proposed views which have determined how
four). For them, the person of God and the de- Christians have perceived their identity and their
mands of the gospel provide unique motivations mission in the world. The positions developed
for individual and corporate life. Ethical interac- vis--vis, for instance, the responsibility of the
tion with those of different commitments be- Christian and the church to the state, the essence
comes increasingly difficult as one moves up of Christs work on the cross, the relevance of the
these four levels. theme of the KINGDOM OF GOD today, and the use
Philosophical ethics traditionally has catego- of violence, all inevitably help shape how missi-
rized ethical reasoning according to a few classi- ology and individual missionaries comprehend
cal approaches (Fairweather and McDonald). De- ethical problems, conceive of what sources to ap-
ontology (from the Greek dei, it is necessary) peal to in their ethical thinking, and decide
focuses on duty and making correct decisions in among possible courses of action (see also CHRIST
accordance with transcendent principles. Teleo- AND CULTURE). More recently, LIBERATION THEOL-
logical (from the Greek telos, the end) ethics fo- OGY has proffered a new paradigm of reflection
cuses on consequences and desires to seek the and PRAXIS: the partial realization of the kingdom
greatest good. In contrast, virtue ethics centers not in the achievement of justice in oppressive situa-
so much on the decision-making process, but on tions. This theological construct, that begins
the character of the person or community; it high- from the perspective of the preferential OPTION
lights the nurture and formation of moral people. FOR THE POOR, is now suggesting different slants
Each of these ways of formulating ethics finds to those crucial theological issues that must oc-
echoes in the Bible and defenders among Chris- cupy any serious ethical reflection (Schubeck).
tian ethicists. A comprehensive ethic would need Missionary Cross-Cultural Ethics. In addition
to incorporate the contributions of each emphasis. to the aforementioned philosophical and theolog-
What is more, all ethical persuasions utilize a ical topics that demand thoughtful consideration,
variety of sources (Verhey, 1984, 15997; Wright, missionaries working in a cross-cultural setting
1995, 11178). All usually appeal in some fashion can face the additional obstacles of having to deal
to human reason, conscience, and experience. not only with ethical issues alien to their own ex-
Christian ethics do also, although the under- perience, but also with a context that might de-
standing and evaluation of these potential fine and solve problems from another vantage
sources for ethics is influenced by belief in the point. A sort of cultural-ethical shock can result.
CREATION, the FALL OF HUMANKIND, and REDEMP- Hence, the need for greater missionary self-
TION. Ethical stances can be linked as well to tra- awareness of cultural makeup and differences.
ditions of particular communities, which attempt Missionaries should be cognizant of how their
to train their members to conform to certain val- background and the host culture in which they
ues and lifestyle models. The church, of course, labor compare concerning items such as the sig-
would be the locus for a specific set of traditions nificance of time, the importance of social STATUS
and provide the communities for the Christian. AND ROLE, GENDER ROLE differences, the role of
The conviction that God has revealed himself in GUILT AND SHAME, and the meaning of success.
word and deed argues for two other sources for Each culture has its own orientation to life and
ethical direction: the Bible and the Holy Spirit of structures the many institutions of its society ac-
God. These general affirmations, however, in no cordingly. Missionaries can reject, substitute for
way should minimize the fact that Christians dif- their own, add to or synthesize with their own,
fer over the viability and use of these multiple the new ethical values and positions they en-
sources. For example, disagreements surface over counter. The descriptive task of properly under-
the ability of the CONSCIENCE to discern right standing this different ethical world, when joined
from wrong, the nature of biblical authority, the with the virtue of humility, is the solid first step
relationship between the two Testaments, and the before any missionary attempt at prescriptive
means by which the Spirit guides believers. A words or actions. The subsequent challenges are
Christian ethic must be conscious of the breadth multiple. Legal implications for those missionar-
of theological formulations that would comprise ies who are foreigners are unavoidable, and
a coherent and comprehensive ethical stance. wrestling with the possibilities and the right to
This list of theological issues, and the options act within the limits set for those from outside
taken on each one, are inseparable from a final can be a source of tension. Missionaries must
factor to take into account: the impact of theo- strive to be true to their faith and the biblical wit-
logical frameworks on ethical discussion. The ness; they must be willing to listen and learn, to
three major theological streams that flow out admit to inappropriate behavior and change bib-
from the REFORMATIONLutheranism, Calvinism, lical interpretations if warranted, and to have the
Anabaptismhave developed different ethical vi- courage and wisdom sometimes to take uncom-
sions. Over the centuries and around the world fortable ethical stands. In sum, missionaries are
each has generated different kinds of societies called to cultural sensitivity and realism and
and Christian communities. Each as well has Christian integrity, even as they try to avoid slip-
320
Ethics
ping into ethical relativism (Adeney, 1995; Car- Another understanding of social ethics would
roll R., 1986, 1994; Mayers, 1987, 24163). relate the phrase to issues of social structures
An orientation to cross-cultural ethics that and processes. The focus is now on more global
adds another dimension to the thrust of these items, like how societies are put together and
comments is suggested by the science of ELENC- function economically and socially (see ECONOM-
TICS (Priest). This term (from the Greek elenchom , ICS). Interest is no longer limited to individuals
to convict, rebuke), coined by the missiologist how they should respond to different social pres-
J. H. BAVINCK, points to the issues of human con- sures or certain demands. Rather, concern is
science and guilt. The conscience is operative in directed especially at identifying, analyzing, and
all human beings (e.g., Rom. 2:115; 2 Cor. 4:2), evaluating the policies and practices of institu-
but is greatly influenced by cultural norms, val- tions, then proposing alternative schemes that
ues, and ideals. The variability of conscience might better conform to certain ethical stan-
holds true for the believer and non-believer alike. dards. Topics include justice, equity, and HUMAN
Therefore, missionaries should be careful not to RIGHTS. Each touches the gamut of human com-
uncritically identify the content of their con- munities, from the family to governments bound
science with the divine will and to quickly con- together by treaties in the international arena.
demn others whose conscience does not respond Regarding justice, debates revolve around
in the same way to similar situations. Once more, whether it should be distributive (so that all get
the necessity of self-awareness and the priority of an equal sharean ideal of socialism) or produc-
the descriptive task over the prescriptive are ap- tive (all have equal opportunityan ideal of cap-
parent. The New Testament teaches that God ap- italism); whether the achievement of justice
peals to the conscience to convict humans of (however defined) for the whole can legitimate
their sin; after salvation, the Scriptures and the the possible deprivation of justice of particular
Spirit of God work together to correct and renew individuals or groups; and whether and to what
the conscience of all who believe. Missionaries, degree the state can intervene in the life of citi-
then, should partner with God in touching the zens to attain greater justice for everyone or for
conscience of those who need to respond to the particular groups. Equity raises questions, at one
gospel message and endeavor to help believers to level, of how the government carries out its du-
mature in their faith so that they might live with ties and apportions benefits; it also concerns the
a sanctified conscience. call to the individual not take unfair advantage of
Social Ethics in Context. The distinction be- others in, for example, work and judicial settings.
tween individual ethics and social ethics for mis- The concept of human rights posits certain in-
siology and missionaries can frequently be a false alienable and irrevocable rights possessed by all
one, even though the differentiation might prove human beings, regardless of the rulings and prac-
to be theoretically helpful. Personal experience tices of any government. These rights have been
can bring one in touch with dangers of wider im- inscribed in international agreements and are
port. Good examples are the problems of used to evaluate states which are thought to be
BRIBERY, the experiences of women, and PEACE. suspect in their observance.
Attempts to seek resolution and redress can lead The scope and the obvious complexity of these
into the labyrinth of government corruption, the social issues are indeed daunting. They require
ugliness of some manifestations of gender in- an informed and interdisciplinary approach: a
equality, and the abuse of political power. All of sagacious and educated utilization of the social
these items demand not only theological clarity, sciences and a thoroughly biblical and theologi-
but also wisdom and valor in the meeting of the cal orientation. The SOCIAL SCIENCES stand as an
pragmatic challenges that they force on those de- unexplored and untapped source for ethics for
siring to obey the will of God (Adeney, 1995, many evangelicals. On the other hand, the Refor-
14262, 192250). mation traditions alluded to earlier, from the
The phrase social ethics many times is asso- pens of their founders to the present day, have
ciated with certain kinds of issues that impact striven in different times and places to respond
the broader body politic. If the phrase, though, is theologically to human realities. At least in many
defined simply as the shared moral values and North American evangelical circles, a related
behavior of a specific context, then it ties back quality of missiological reflection to meet the
into the earlier part of the discussion. For believ- larger crises of modern life has not emerged. For
ers, identity and duty are linked with Christian several decades, some evangelicals have mani-
faith, tradition, and community, even as they are fested a reluctance to entertain issues of systemic
inseparable from the life of other human beings and global justice and human rights for fear of
around them. The continual struggle for Chris- diverting attention away from evangelism and
tians and the church is to balance being faithful church planting (see JUSTICE OF GOD). Some also
to their particularity and sensitive to the realities would warn of the possible danger of an interest
of their cultural setting and environment (Car- in the social sciences replacing a commitment to
roll R., 1994). the Bible as the final authority in ethical think-
321
Ethics
ing. However one might appraise liberation the- This nationalistic mythology served Ethiopia well
ologies, that theological current has seriously during its brief conquest by Muslim forces in the
dealt with these problems at a communal, na- sixteenth century. With the help of the Por-
tional, and international level and places the tuguese, the Solomonic leadership was restored.
theme of justice as the foundational criterion for Ethiopia in the nineteenth century reached a
all ethical reflection and PRAXIS. low point under Tewodros II, whose rash impris-
Any evangelical missiological entrance into onment of English missionaries led to a British
these sometimes explosive issues will require a invasion and a humiliating defeat in 1868 at
mature evaluation and acceptance of pertinent Maqdala. In a sharp reversal of fortune the next
elements of the Reformation heritage, as well as emperor, Menelik II, renewed Ethiopian self-
interaction with the insights from philosophical confidence and won the admiration of the world
ethics. Contextual awareness and sensitivity must for his victory over Italian invaders at Adowa in
also not be forgotten, as missiologists and mis- 1896. In an Africa cruelly partitioned by Euro-
sionaries attempt to grapple with specific prob- pean rivals, the picture of an independent Chris-
lems in the warp and woof of daily life in other tian kingdom conquering a colonial power was
socio-cultural settings. not forgotten by African leaders. The concept of
M. DANIEL CARROLL R. Ethiopianism helped transform missionary
Bibliography. B. T. Adeney, Strange Virtues: Ethics in
Christianity into something more connected with
a Multicultural World; M. D. Carroll R., JETS 29:3 the African past.
(1986): 30715; idem, Themelios 19:3 (1994): 915; Ethiopia lumbered into the twentieth century
I. C. M. Fairweather and J. I. H. McDonald, The Quest as a largely feudal kingdom ill-equipped to face
for Christian Ethics: An Inquiry into Ethics and Chris- the modern world. In 1930 Haile Selassie as-
tians Ethics; M. K. Mayers, Christianity Confronts Cul- cended to the throne and slowly moved his na-
ture: A Strategy for Cross-cultural Evangelism; R. J. tion forward. His successful defense of Ethiopia
Priest, Missiology 22:3 (1994): 291315; T. L. Schubeck, during its war with Italy (193541) furthered his
Liberation Ethics: Sources, Models, and Norms; A. Ver- program of reform. His impact on the church
hey, The Great Reversal: Ethics and the New Testament;
Christopher J. H. Wright, Walking in the Ways of the
was profound, leading ultimately to the inde-
Lord: The Ethical Authority of the Old Testament. pendence of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
from the Coptic Church of Egypt in 1959, ending
a dependency that began in 340.
Ethiopia (Est. 2000 pop.: 63,785,000; 1,221,900
In 1974 Haile Selassie was overthrown by a
sq. km. [471,776 sq. mi.]). Christianity in Ethiopia
military coup. In 1984 Colonel Haile Mengistu
began in the fourth century with the coming of
Miriam seized power from the ruling military
two Syrian Christians, FRUMENTIUS and AEDESIUS,
council. His ideological Marxism meant the
to the ancient capital of Ethiopia at Aksum. Fru-
seizure of church property and the imprisonment
mentius was responsible for the conversion of the
of many church leaders. In 1991, Mengistu was
future emperor Ezana in 328, thus marking the
beginning of Ethiopian Christianity. Frumentius, overthrown and religious freedom restored under
though granted his freedom, returned to Ethiopia Prime Minister Meles Zenawi. On April 27, 1993,
in A.D. 340 newly consecrated by Athanasius of Eritrea declared independence after a referen-
Alexandria as the first bishop of Ethiopia. The dum was passed by a landslide vote, ending years
coming of the nine saints, monks from Syria, in of bitter conflict with Ethiopia.
the fifth century transformed Christianity from a The decade of the 1990s saw Christianity in all
court religion to a grassroots faith. its wide variety expand in Ethiopia. Though
The rise of Islam in the seventh century was Muslims composed 35 percent of Ethiopias 56
the beginning of over a millennium of isolation million citizens, Christianity remained the dom-
for Ethiopia. A strong nationalistic Christianity inant faith. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church
emerged during these centuries that enabled the (Tewahido) had upwards of 25 million members.
kingdom to survive a long series of challenges Roman Catholicism (both Latin and Alezandrian
from within and from without. At the heart of rites) remained under one million. Protestant
this nationalism was the legend of Solomon and groups composed 14 percent of the population.
Sheba. As recorded in the thirteenth-century Fastest growing were the evangelical churches,
Kebra-Negast (Book of Kings), the Solomonic dy- with the Kale Heywet Church (SIM related)
nasty begins with Menelik I, son of Solomon and numbering approximately two million members
Sheba, who returned to Ethiopia with the ark of and the Mekane Yesu Church (Evangelical
the covenant and turned Ethiopia into a new Is- Lutheran) estimated at 400,000.
rael. With the acceptance of Christ as Lord in the MARK R. SHAW
fourth century, Ethiopia became even more the Bibliography. J. Bonk, An Annotated and Classified
true Israel and its capital the new Jerusalem. The Bibliography of English Literature Pertaining to the
fifteenth century emperor Zara-Yaqob used this Ethiopian Orthodox Church; D. Crummey, Priests and
civil religion to lead the nation to new heights. Politicians: Protestant and Catholic Missions in Ortho-
322
Ethnicity
dox Ethiopia, 18301868; T. Tamrat, Church and State nicity was treated as a thing of the past or as an
in Ethiopia: 12701527. ornament which could be worn on occasion if it
did not interfere with the march of the totalitar-
Ethnicity. Classification of a person or persons ian state.
into a particular group based on factors such as Two of those factors are almost gonestruc-
physical characteristics (e.g., skin color, facial tural colonialism is no more and ideological to-
characteristics, body shape); cultural identity talitarianism is in shreds. Under the facades of
(e.g., language or dialect, religion), or geographic these two systems ethnicity not only survived but
origin. Since the founding of the church, ethnic- flourished, awaiting the moment when once
ity has been a fundamental reality of missions. again ethnicity could be claimed, admired, and
For example, wherever intercultural evangel- expressed. That is the case today. Where these
ists have gone they sought to translate the gospel two systems reigned, now ethnicity has emerged
into the local language. They knew that the as a major factor. As the breakup of the former
gospel had to be understood in local terms, they Yugoslavia shows, however, this is not always a
also knew that the gospel had to be lived in the positive thing.
local milieu. Jesus was the model. Even though The Role of Ethnicity in Society. Ethnicity has
he was God, he took upon himself a human body a positive and a negative side. Through genetics
and was shaped in a particular cultural context we inherit many things, but we do not inherit
he was a Galilean Jew. That is the way God en- culture; that we learn. Our cultures give us spe-
ters cultures and saves people. God takes CUL- cific ways of viewing the world, as well as how to
TURE very seriously. So should intercultural interact with other persons, how to survive and
evangelists. The gospel affirms culture in general prosper. Cultures provide identity and a place to
terms. As the gospel enters culture as salt and belong. The process of ENCULTURATION which be-
light it actually enhances culture. gins at birth provides the individual with a way
Needed: A Theology of Ethnicity. Missiologists to be human. Alone, newly born human beings
have developed theologies of ethnic evangelism, have no hope of survival. Culture shapes the per-
but few missiologists are developing a theology of son. The formative role of culture or ethnicity is
ethnicity itself. This task is becoming increas- profound and pervasive. This is the positive side.
ingly urgent because the demands of ethnicity The harmful effects of ethnicity appear when eth-
will probably dominate the worlds agenda at least nocentrism takes the upper hand in cases where
in the opening decades of the new millennium. one group imposes its will on another or when a
Lessons might be learned from the history of group fears this will happen.
northern Europe, which was torn apart by ethnic So much interethnic hostility exists in the
struggles for centuries. In the process of time the world today that the word itself has begun to
problem was sorted out to some degree by simply take on a negative meaning. This bodes ill for the
drawing national boundaries around ethnic real- opening decades of the twentieth century be-
itiesGermany for the Germans, Holland for the cause ethnicity is on the rise.
Dutch, France for the French, Italy for the Ital- The Gospel and Ethnicity. The gospel is very
ians, and so forth. This did not solve all the prob- clear with regard to ethnicity. The KINGDOM OF
lems as recent events in the Balkans have shown. GOD is not a new generic culture, but a family
But it did have a salutary effect of stressing na- which includes people from a great variety of cul-
tion over tribe (ethnic entity). It seemed a bit tures. The unity of the Christian church has noth-
more civil to be a nationalist than a tribalist. ing to do with culture, yet it affirms all cultures.
But history has shown that the two are essen- Believers are one because they love the same
tially the same. Lord and are redeemed by the one Lamb of God.
Ethnicity and the State Today. Several factors Their unity is the result of the love which they re-
have served to mitigate the impact of ethnicity on ceive as a fruit of the Holy Spirit. In the Body no
world history in recent years. First is the phe- one culture dominates nor dictates to another.
nomenon of COLONIALISM. By exerting powerful Everyone stands humbly before God, in their cul-
influence the colonial powers sought to suppress ture but not of that culture. The culmination of
ethnic feelings so that the rule of colonial law world history will be when the followers of Christ
could be upheld. Second, strong nations have will join the multiethnic choirout of every tribe
emerged where the aboriginal population was ei- and nation and tongue, praising God forever and
ther displaced or suppressed by immigrant peo- ever (Rev. 7).
ples from a variety of cultures. This was the case DONALD R. JACOBS
in much of South, Central, and North America
along with Australia and New Zealand. Third, SEE ALSO Minority, Minority Populations.
ideological hegemony was exercised by some Bibliography. J. Hutchinson and A. D. Smith, eds.,
states such as totalitarian socialism or commu- Ethnicity; D. Kecmamovic, The Mass Psychology of Eth-
nism. In these systems there was simply no op- nonationalism; M. E. Marty and R. S. Appleby, eds., Re-
portunity for authentic ethnic expression. Eth- ligion, Ethnicity, and Self Identify: Nations in Turmoil;
323
Ethnicity
D. McGavran, Understanding Church Growth; D. P. they persisted in evangelizing only their own
Moynihan, Pandemonium, Ethnicity in International kind (Acts 11:19).
Politics; W. Pfaff, The Wrath of Nations; L. O. Sanneh, The detailed description of the Holy Spirits di-
Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Cul- recting Peter toward the Roman official Cor-
ture; W. A. Van Horne, ed., Global Convulsions: Race,
nelius in Acts 10 is very telling regarding ethno-
Ethnicity and Nationalism at the End of the Twentieth
Century. centrism and mission. The Holy Spirit prepared
Peter personally by leading him to lodge at
Simons house (cf. the Jewish ceremonial law of
Ethnocentrism. The term ethnocentrism may Lev. 11) prior to giving visions and directions to
simply be defined as the belief that ones own peo- both Peter and Cornelius. Later Peter came to a
ple group or cultural ways are superior to others. new understanding: I now realize how true it is
An ethnocentric person generally has an atti- that God does not show favoritism and accepts
tude/opinion of prejudice (prejudging others as men from every nation (Acts 19:3435). When
inferior). This internal orientation may be mani- witnessing the Gentile pentecost, the Jewish
fested in individual action or institutionalized pol- Christians were astonished that the gift of the
icy toward others as in the case of anti-Semitism, Holy Spirit had been poured out even on the
apartheid, bigotry, fascism, and racism. Gentiles (10:4445).
Prejudice or discrimination in a scientific Ethnocentrism is Counterproductive in Mis-
sense can be both positive and negative. How- sions. Missions are the ways and means
ever, in the social sciences, including missiology, whereby the Christian church fulfills its mission
the terms are generally used with a negative con- of world evangelization. INTERCULTURAL COMMU-
notation. It is necessary to distinguish between NICATION, CROSS-CULTURAL MINISTRY, and CHURCH
the two: prejudice is an attitude; discrimination PLANTING are parts of the process of world evan-
is action or social interaction unfavorable to oth- gelization. At any of these points ethnocentrism
ers on the basis of their religious, ethnic, or racial can curtail or cripple efforts in missions.
membership. Persons with an ethnocentric orientation have
Prejudice is the subjective prejudgment of oth- difficulty developing a genuine social relation-
ers to be inferior, whereas ethnocentrism is the ship with members outside their group. While we
subjective presumption that ones own people- must recognize that no one is entirely without
group or cultural ways are superior. Bigotry (i.e., prejudice or ethnocentrism of some kind, ethno-
narrow-mindedness or intolerance due to differ- centrism in the Christian inhibits obedience to
ences between self and others) and racism (i.e., the GREAT COMMANDMENT (love your neighbor as
the presumed cultural superiority or inferiority yourself) and the Great Commission. Ethnocen-
as caused by genetically inherited physical char- trism is a significant obstacle to missionaries
acteristics such as facial feature, skin color, etc.) serving as messengers of the gospel of reconcili-
are two general forms of prejudice. ation (2 Cor. 5).
Institutionalized manifestation of ethnocen- The ethnocentric Western Christian has the
trism and prejudice can be found in specific tendency to presuppose a guilt feeling in the
cases historically. Fascism (i.e., authoritarian na- audience in talking about justification, atone-
tionalism) of Benito Mussolini, which emerged in ment, and so on. People from a shame culture
the 1920s in Italy, and Adolf Hitlers control of (see SHAME; avoid embarrassment and losing
Germany in the 1930s are cases in point. Hitlers face at all cost and acquire honor and save
belief in the superiority and purity of his own face by all means) may be more ready to appre-
kind gave impetus to anti-Semitic measures that ciate and accept Christ as the Mediator, Shame-
led to the holocaust of the Jews. The black and bearer, Reconcilor (Rom. 5; 2 Cor. 5; Eph. 2;
white racial conflicts in the United States and Heb. 9; etc.)
South Africa are examples of institutionalized Some Western Christians are predisposed to
manifestation of ethnocentrism and prejudice. the use of informational/impersonal evangelistic
Ethnocentrism is Contrabiblical to Mission. means of the technological society as compared
Mission is the divine design of bringing spiritual to oral and mostly relational cultures of the tar-
blessings to all nations, reflected in Gods get group. The understanding of limited cultural
covenant with Abraham (Gen. 12) and Christs relativism (viewing cultural ways as relative, an
GREAT COMMISSION to bring the gospel to all na- antidote to ethnocentrism) will enable Chris-
tions. Gods desire is that none should perish but tians to adapt to new cultural contexts with the
all should come to repentance (2 Peter 3:9). relevant gospel message and flexible evangelistic
Ethnocentric pride of many Jews prevented methods.
them from performing their duties as Gods Ethnocentrism Still Inhibits Missions. Martin
choice instruments of grace to the nations (Rom. Luther despised the Book of James as the straw
79). The apostles had difficulty in following the epistle and preferred Romans and Galatians.
resurrected Christs command to bear witness to This is a historical example showing the power of
the nations (Acts 1:9) Even during persecution prejudice. His pattern of preferential treatment of
324
Ethnographic Research
different books of the Bible can still be found in Participant observation, a cognate term for
modern missions in prioritizing Bible books for ethnography, is the process of identifying with
translation. In a similar manner, cross-cultural the people through participation in their activi-
church planters may disregard the cultural con- ties, events, and conversations while observing
text of the target ethnic groups and persist in im- the interactions. The degree of participant obser-
posing their own Christian tradition on new con- vation may range from a person who is com-
verts in terms of worship and preaching style, pletely involved in the process to a person who is
discipleship programs, and church policy. primarily an observer. The initial work of the
At a personal level, missionaries may not be ethnographer is to make observations of the
completely free from ethnocentrism in their atti- place, activities, and actors in a given social situ-
tude, etiquette, and action. All missionaries must ation in an effort to describe the setting. Early
be willing to ask themselves on a regular basis if observations should include a record of (1) the
they are displaying ethnocentric attitudes in what use of space and time, (2) artifacts that are pres-
they communicate by the very way they live. ent in the social situations, (3) descriptions of the
ENOCH WAN people including their physical characteristics
and the language(s) used, and (4) structural ob-
Bibliography. W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice;
J. D. Dovidio and S. L. Gaertner, Prejudice, Discrimina-
servations of both the material objects and the
tion, and Racism; P. Jackson, ed., Race and Racism: Es- social relationships.
says in Social Geography; D. Kitagawa, Race Relations As the participant observation process contin-
and Christian Mission; R. A. LeVine and D. T. Campbell, ues, the ethnographer moves beyond initial ob-
Ethnocentrism: Theories of Conflict, Ethnic Attitudes, servations to more focused observations and spe-
and Group Behavior; V. Reynolds, et al., eds., The So- cific observing and informal conversations of
ciobiology of Ethnocentrism. interviews, the most productive ethnographic
technique. Interviews may be structured (such as
Ethnographic Research. Ethnography is the questionnaires or surveys), informal (which ap-
task of describing a culture from the perspective pear to be natural conversations), or retrospec-
of the people for whom it is a way of life. The tive (which asks an informant to reconstruct the
ethnographer learns from people by participating past by recalling information about a person or
in their lives and observing their world while event). Interview quality is dependent on the
carefully recording his or her observations. preparation and mental alertness of the inter-
Ethnographic research is the systematic study of viewer and the willingness and ability of the in-
culture using the methodology of ethnography. formant. The ethnographer must develop the
The Ethnographic Method. The ethnographic skill of interviewing both to ensure a culturally
method begins with an ethnographer choosing a acceptable form and to exercise a degree of con-
cultural context in which to study. In selecting a trol over the direction of the interview. In the
context, careful consideration should be given to case of ethnographers who are learning the lan-
the accessibility of the activities and people who guage, interviews provide useful exercises for
form the basis of the study. The ethnographer both data collection and language practice, but
must balance the issues of personal interest with are hard to direct. At the heart of the interview is
the needs of others who are working in the area. respect for the person(s) being interviewed and a
The overall concern is protecting the integrity of willingness on the part of the ethnographer to ex-
the work while avoiding spoiling the field. Missi- plore the world through the eyes of the inform-
ological concerns will inevitably guide the selec- ant. Central to the entire observational process is
tion process. the written record.
Another aspect of the selection criteria is the Observational data are recorded in a written
central focus or research problem that deter- account known as fieldnotes. Types of fieldnotes
mines the direction of the study. The research include the condensed account, the expanded ac-
problem may be chosen prior to entering the count, and the fieldwork journal. The purpose of
context through a survey of the literature or in di- the condensed account is to record exact state-
alogue with others who have similar research in- ments, words, and observations as they are heard
terests. The research problem may also arise out to ensure accuracy and exactness. The expanded
of the preliminary work done in the context of account is the record that is kept in its complete
the study. In either case, the research problem ar- form, including the transcription and expansion
ticulates the focus of the study as a manageable of the notes from the condensed account. The
unit and provides the basis for the critical ques- third form is the journal, in which the ethnogra-
tions that the ethnographer seeks to answer. pher keeps a record of feelings, personal obser-
Ethnographic research is most useful when the vations, and activities that help provide insight
ethnographer has a good working knowledge of into the process and account for the attitudes of
the local language. the individual.
After selecting the context, the ethnographer The usefulness of fieldnotes depends on the ob-
begins the process of participant observation. jectivity of the record. Although there is debate
325
Ethnographic Research
over the issue of objectivity, there are a number search nears completion, the analysis will pro-
of methodological conventions that reduce ob- duce a number of cultural categories that are fur-
server bias. The first area deals with three princi- ther compared, leading eventually to the discov-
ples for language recording. The language identi- ery of typologies, models, themes, or theories
fication principle requires the ethnographer to that are grounded in the data.
clearly identify the language for each fieldnote The final phase of the ethnographic research
entry. The verbatim principle addresses the need process is the writing of the description as a doc-
to make an accurate verbatim record of the con- ument known as an ethnography. While it ap-
tent of interaction and conversations. The last pears tedious, the formal writing provides an ir-
principle is that of using concrete language to en- replaceable opportunity to synthesize the data
sure that as much detail as possible is recorded into a systematic description that becomes a use-
without the inevitable condensing and summa- ful document to the community at large.
rization that characterize the majority of formal Missiological Implications. The potential con-
note taking. tribution of ethnographic research to our under-
Another area of concern for objectivity involves standing raises the following issues: (1) an in-
the issues of reliability and validity of the meas- creasing number of missionaries must be
urement. The ethnographer must develop a pro- competent in ethnographic research methodol-
cedure for data collection that employs different ogy; (2) ethnographies should be included in the
techniques. Reliability is the extent to which these preparation of missionary candidates; (3) ethno-
techniques or the measurement procedures pro- graphic research is crucial to the ongoing process
vides the same answer every time it is used. If a of CONTEXTUALIZATION, especially with the prob-
measure is reliable, another person may use the lem of nominalism; (4) ethnographic research
method and come up with comparable results. should be encouraged to provide comparative
The second issue is that of validity, which deter- data for the development of strategies employed
mines the extent to which the procedure gives the by missions; and (5) mission leaders should in-
correct answer. Validity may be approached in corporate ethnographic research as a useful
two ways: respondent validation and triangula- method of gaining understanding as the interna-
tion. Respondent validation seeks to check the ac- tionalization of missions continues both at the
curacy of the accounts of the attitudes and beliefs level of field ministries and in developing multi-
with the key respondents from whom the account cultural leadership.
was taken. Triangulation is the process of check- C. DOUGLAS MCCONNELL
ing all sources of data with a minimum of two
other sources to ensure that it is not idiosyncratic SEE ALSO Qualitative Research.
in nature. The ethnographer triangulates all of the Bibliography. M. H. Agar, Speaking of Ethnography;
significant input to ensure that inaccuracies, ei- H. R. Bernard, Research Methods in Cultural Anthropol-
ther through misunderstandings or intentional ogy; D. M. Fetterman, Ethnography Step by Step;
misleading, are removed from the record. B. Glaser and A. Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded
Analyzing the data is an ongoing element of Theory; M. Hammersley and P. Atkinson, Ethnography:
the research from preentry through each phase Principles and Practice; J. Kirk and M. L. Miller, Relia-
of the observational process. The ethnographer bility and Validity in Qualitative Research; M. Punch,
begins to explore hunches and assumptions in The Politics and Ethics of Fieldwork; J. P. Spradley, Par-
the early phase moving on to a more formal level ticipant Observation.
of analysis as the data are recorded in the field-
notes. In addition to the components of objectiv- Ethnography. A methodology that looks for sig-
ity, the ethnographer analyzes phenomena ob- nificant patterns of behavior in social contexts
served in the research and recorded in the and seeks to interpret them according to the in-
fieldnotes to discover key terms and concepts siders perspective. This type of QUALITATIVE RE-
that provide insights into the cultural context. SEARCH, involving participant observation, was
The ethnographer must be thoroughly familiar brought to popular consciousness by Margaret
with the data in order to compare the terms and Mead (1928) and Oscar Lewis (1963). The re-
concepts in a move toward categories of meaning searchers immerse themselves in a given social
that can be further triangulated to ensure valid- context as participants, making detailed observa-
ity. This process requires both analysis and fur- tions that they convert to written data for analy-
ther observations at an increasing level of speci- sis. Some researchers attempt to become one with
ficity. Due to the cyclical nature of the analysis the social group and make their observations
and observational process, the ethnographer is from the inside (the emic perspective); others join
directed by the questions emerging from the the social group as outsiders (the etic perspective)
analysis. It is essential that the ethnographer and seek to confirm their findings through open-
maintain a constant interaction among observa- ended interviews with its members.
tion, recording, and analysis in order to ensure Ethnography is particularly useful for mission-
that the research remains focused. As the re- aries because it provides them with the tools they
326
Ethnomusicology
need to study any given cultural situation within adage, Music is a universal language, and the
its own context. As students of mission have be- discovery of great varieties of music never previ-
come increasingly sensitive to the need to con- ously observed as a result of nineteenth-century
textualize the biblical message, ethnography has explorations into various parts of the world. With
helped them describe accurately the cultural con- its roots dating back to the 1880s in the field of
text to which the message must be adapted. In comparative musicology, the term ethnomusicol-
addition, in an age when cultural contexts are ogy was first coined in 1958 by Jaap Kunst. As a
constantly changing and no two contexts are pre- discipline, ethnomusicology has grown from ini-
cisely alike, ethnography allows the student of tial arm-chair observations of music collected
mission to make disciplined assessments of any by explorers to active analysis, documentation,
current cultural grouping, to focus on and define and participant-observation research of the ever-
what may be available only in a general form in burgeoning musics of the worlds cultures. Ethno-
the literature. musicology is interdisciplinary, drawing from AN-
Ethnographical attempts to understand the THROPOLOGY, LINGUISTICS, and musicology. A major
complexity of human behavior begin with gen- goal of ethnomusicologists today is to understand
eral observations in the field. The ethnographer the music of the worlds peoples.
attempts to observe as much as possible, noting, Traditionally, ethnomusicology includes the
for instance, the use of space, objects, acts, activ- study of folk and traditional music, contempo-
ities, events, time, actors, goals, and feelings. This rary music in oral tradition, and Eastern art
all-encompassing survey avoids the trap of look- music. It involves the study of conceptual issues
ing for something specific. Often the richest in- such as the origin of music, musical change,
sights and understandings result from observa- composition and improvisation, music as sym-
tion of patterns that the ethnographer did not bol, universals in music, the roles and functions
expect to find or did not understand at the begin- of music in society, the comparison of musical
ning of research. All of these observations are systems, and the interrelationships of music in
converted into written data, which are then ana- multimedia events with drama and dance. Al-
lyzed and coded. This cycle is repeated until a though research methodologies can apply to any
complex set of patterns begins to emerge in the musical culture, ethnomusicologists most often
observations and analysis. Interview protocols study cultures other than their own.
are then developed to explore the meaning of Historically, ethnomusicologists have debated
these patterns from the point of view of the the philosophical and methodological founda-
members of the group. The interviews are often tions of the discipline. The great divide falls be-
carried out with open-ended (no specific answer) tween anthropological and musicological ap-
and indirect (what would other people say?) proaches to music. Alan Merriams thinking
questions, a technique that allows the interview- evolved from seeing ethnomusicology as the
ees to reveal what otherwise would be unknown study of music in culture (1960), to the study of
to the interviewer. These data are likewise ana- music as culture (1973), to the assertion that
lyzed and coded into a grounded theory. The music is culture and what musicians do is soci-
findings are then transformed into a readable re- ety (1975). Musicological approaches, on the
port known as an ethnography. other hand, kept their focus on the transcription
Ethnography as a research method should not and analysis of the worlds musics.
be confused with QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH. Quan- Despite this conflict in approaches, ethnomu-
titative research breaks down and interprets sur- sicologists today generally agree on five main
veys through statistical analysis. In contrast, as characteristics of the field. First, they recognize
similarities and universals in music and musical
ethnography attempts to discover and describe
behavior over against an appreciation for the
complex human behavior, it develops the ques-
plethora of musical styles worldwide. Second,
tions that may later be used for quantitative re-
they agree that personal research must be carried
search. Ethnography freely admits that qualita-
out in the field. Drawing from anthropological
tive research is a subjective approach, but asserts
methodologies, field research includes the gath-
that with proper techniques the researcher can
ering of data about music, the collecting of
compensate for personal bias.
music, participant-observation techniques, the
CHARLES A. DAVIS
audio-videorecording of music events, the collec-
Bibliography. O. Lewis, The Children of Sanchez: Au- tion of song texts and musical instruments, the
tobiography of a Mexican Family; M. Mead, Coming of investigation of concepts about musical sound
Age in Samoa; J. P. Spradley, Participant Observation; and musical behavior, and learning to perform
A. L. Strauss, Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists. the music under investigation. Third, ethnomusi-
cologists generally agree that music can be writ-
Ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicology is an aca- ten down and analyzed from a visible format.
demic discipline emerging in the twentieth cen- They seek solutions that go beyond the adapta-
tury. It grew out of the tension posed by the tion of Western musical notation. Fourth, ethno-
327
Ethnomusicology
musicologists investigate music as a phenome- Ethnomusicology can and should be integrated

non of culture. They insist that music has roles into every level of the missionary task. The mis-
and functions within the wider cultural organi- sionary-ethnomusicologists major work is to de-
zation of societies, and that the study of music velop mission approaches and methods that are
within its cultural context produces a true, gen- meaningful and helpful to the church, that are
uine understanding of that music. Finally, ethno- readily understood by missionaries as being
musicologists extend their interests to the highly effective, that are in agreement with na-
processes of musical change, the ways in which tional church leaders goals and concerns for the
music remains stable, grows, and disappears. church, and that are readily accessible to Chris-
They interest themselves in the music of a culture tian workers. Ethnomusicology for missions is
as a whole, in the individual song or piece, and in more than the mere development and collection
the life of an individual or group. of indigenous hymns, although this is important
Ethnomusicology and Mission. Historically, in itself. Rather, in addition, it seeks to contribute
music and ethnomusicology played only a minor to the overall increased effectiveness of making
role when it came to doing the task of mission.
Christ known through the study of a cultures mu-
Parallel to academia, most missionaries viewed
sical genres, the learning of a peoples worldview
music as a universal language that required the
through the study of song texts, the identification
translation of Western hymns into local dialects
of the role and function of music for developing
for new converts. However, current research
shows that the discipline of ethnomusicology can methods in the use of music for evangelism,
greatly impact the task of missions. Two major music for making disciples, and music for train-
approaches help accomplish this. First, ethno- ing leaders. Finally, the development of meaning-
musicology, through the study of a cultures ful songs for worship that lead people to an en-
music and song texts, can bring a deeper dimen- counter with God is an ultimate goal.
sion in cultural understandings of the people ROBERTA R. KING
with whom a cross-cultural worker is minister- Bibliography. V. Chenowith, Melodic Perception and
ing. Second, it can help make the gospel more Analysis; J. R. Krabill, The Hymnody of the Harrist
relevant by working within the indigenous com- Church among the Dida of South-Central Ivory Coast
munication systems inherent within a culture. (19131949): A Historico-Religious Study; A. Merriam,
The development of culturally appropriate songs The Anthropology of Music; Helen Myers, ed., Ethno-
and music for evangelism, discipleship, and wor- musicology: Historical and Regional Studies; B. Nettl,
ship makes a major contribution to creative con- The Study of Ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine Issues and
textualization of the gospel. Concepts.
Within contemporary missions, ethnomusicol-
ogy is receiving a more recognized role for mak- Ethnopsychology. See C ROSS -C ULTURAL C OUN -
ing Christ known among the nations. Vida SELING.
Chenowith, a pioneer in ethnomusicology for
mission as a professional musician and Bible Ethnotheologies. Ethnotheology is a recent word
translator, has combined linguistic methodolo- in mission vocabulary. Achieving prominence in
gies, ethnomusicological concerns, and her de- the 1970s, it has grown out of a new realitythe
sire to provide indigenous songs for worship. cross-cultural diffusion of the gospel into every
Roberta King, who focuses on music as commu- corner of the world. The Christian faith has been
nication, seeks to encourage the development of
rooted in Africa, Oceania, and various parts of
culturally relevant and meaningful songs for
Asia. Latin America is reformulating its centuries-
communicating the gospel that are readily ac-
old dialogue with the faith into something that is
ceptable to and understood by the receiving cul-
more than borrowed from Iberian or Anglo-
ture. The process includes working with indige-
nous Christian musicians in setting Scripture to Saxon churches. Voices in the United States
song; the approach leads to creative contextual- African-American, Asian, and Hispanic, for exam-
ization of the gospel. James Krabill has studied plesilenced by their minority status, are
the growth and theological development of an in- speaking loudly. A new day for missions has
digenous church, the Harrists of Cte dIvoire, dawneda demographic shift in the ecclesiastical
through the study of their song texts. The South- center of gravity from north to south, from west
ern Baptists and Christian Missionary Alliance to east, from majority to minority.
also pursue various approaches to incorporating With that shift comes a new opportunity for
ethnomusicology in mission. Newer missions, theological cross-fertilization beyond those tradi-
such as Frontiers, are sending teams to areas of tional geographical, social, and ethnic barriers,
the world where music and dance are major and new reflections on the meaning of Christian-
channels of communication and encouraging ity in new contexts. The reading list of the world
them to develop evangelistic methods based on church has expanded past the names of Calvin
the arts. and Wesley, Hodge and Packer. To it has been
328
Ethnotheologies
added names of Elizonelo and Kim, Mbiti and traditional titles of Jesus as the Lord, Son of God,
Cone. Son of Man, Jesus as prophet, priest, and king.
Terminology. No single term has yet emerged African theologians are turning to their own cul-
to describe this new situation. Indigenous theol- tural designations. Can we speak of Jesus as the
ogy was an early term that is still in use in some master of initiation, as chief, as ancestor and
places. But its colonialist ring and its attachment elder brother, and as healer (Schreiter, 1991)?
to missionary sources sound too much like an In an Asian context where the worlds major re-
outsiders imposition. Contextual theology ligions predominate, how do we confess Christ in
draws attention to role of context and setting in an Islamic setting? Who is Jesus for Asian
doing theology. But some evangelicals, for that women? In a Korean context of suffering and re-
very reason, are hesitant to give it full support; pressed anger, how does Jesus speak for the peo-
they fear an overemphasis on context and an un- ple (the minjung)? In a Hindu setting, is he
deremphasis on biblical text. Local theology is Avatar or more (Sugirtharajah, 1993)?
popular among some Roman Catholic missiolo- Ethnotheologies are widening theologys con-
gists (Schreiter, 1985, 6). text in a more holistic direction. For a millennium
Ethnotheology has found wide, but not wide- and a half, Western European theology increas-
spread, acceptance in evangelical Protestant cir- ingly found its dominant dialogue partner in phi-
cles. Its strengths lie in its focus on the specificity losophy. Its concerns turned to more abstract is-
of theology for a given socio-cultural area and its sues of ontology and epistemology. The secularist
support from linguistics and cultural anthropol- worldview of the Enlightenment turned theology
ogy (Kraft, 1979). to issues of faith and reason. And the rise of the
One common danger may be lying behind all university gave both skepticism and religious
these terms. It is the hidden, parochial assumption studies a home, further compartmentalizing life
that real theology, theology without an adjective, is into separate categories of the public and the pri-
what has been done in the Anglo-Saxon world. vate, theology and ethics, knowledge and virtue.
And that those developing theologies variously In a world now seen as governed by human rea-
called indigenous, local, contextual, or ethnic are son and natural law, Western European theology
mere addenda to this generic universal. A true ter-
found itself asking, Where is the God of truth in
minological breakthrough will not come until we
a world of science?
can speak easily of all particular theologies as ul-
The ethnotheologies of a new day are driven by
timately contributions, northern and southern, to
other contextual interests. In a political world of
mutual enrichment and self-criticism.
power versus powerlessness, they cross the
The Contributions of Ethnotheologies. In this
boundary between theology and ethics. BLACK
new global mission setting ethnotheologies are
prodding theological reflection in directions new THEOLOGIES in the United States and South Africa
and old. They are underlining again the missio- and LIBERATION THEOLOGIES in Latin America ask,
logical dimension of all theology past and pres- Where is the God of righteousness and justice in
ent. Pauls theology was thata task theology a world of injustice? Often the theological for-
whose map found its orientation point in mis- mulations are THEODICY questions. Western Eu-
sions. And the early church that followed him did ropean theologies ask, Does God exist? Black
not lose that dimension (Conn, 1990, 5163). theology and FEMINIST THEOLOGIES ask, Does
Through the years, however, the missiological God care?
dimension has moved to the periphery. Theology Issues of traditional culture dominate the black
has made itself comfortable in the Western world African theological agenda: What should our at-
of Christendom, the corpus Christianum. It oc- titude be to AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGIONS?
cupies itself with the missionary enterprise as What is our relation as African Christians to
and when it seems to it appropriate to do so Africas past (see AFRICAN THEOLOGIES)? And in
(Bosch, 1991, 494). Asia ethnotheologies are formed particularly in
Ethnotheologies, however, do not flow out of a dialogue with the worlds major religions. Theol-
world where the church is in a majority. They ogy there resembles religious apologetics (see
must define the faith in a non-Christian world ASIAN THEOLOGIES).
where theirs is a minority voice. In this setting, Emerging Concerns. In this explosion of cre-
whether post- or pre-Christian, ethnotheologies ative theologizing, evangelicals remain concerned
are recovering the missionary obligation of all about the balance between text and context.
theology. The gospels connection to the world de- Theology must undoubtedly always be relevant
mands the service of more than simply theolo- and contextual, but this may never be pursued at
gians; evangelicals are calling for mission theolo- the expense of Gods revelation (Bosch, 1991,
gians (Branson and Padilla, 1986, 31123). 187). In the hermeneutical process of theology
Ethnotheologies are expanding the global in- Christians must take seriously the normative pri-
terests of theology. Anglo-Saxon theology, for ex- ority of their classical text, the Scriptures. But,
ample, has explored Christology in terms of the with a general weakness of biblical exposition in
329
Ethnotheologies
many ethnotheologies (Dyrness, 1990, 195), at it became the state religion of the Roman Empire.
least two particulars threaten this balance. This process was not all gain, for with it, as Euse-
First, when does sensitivity to context become bius (c. 260340), the churchs first historian, ob-
SYNCRETISM (Conn, 1984, 176205)? The 1982 served, there came social advantage in adopting
gathering of Third World evangelical theologians the Christian faith, whose adherents came to rep-
reflected this concern. Ethnotheologies are often resent a range of motivations from continued
politically motivated and do little or no justice to faithfulness to more pragmatic reasons (the
the Scriptures. Syncretistic theologies often ac- hypocrisy of people who crept into church with
commodate biblical truth to cultural variables. an eye upon securing imperial favor).
Several liberation theologies have raised vital With the Christianization of the Roman world,
questions which we cannot ignore. But we reject the expansion of the empire itself came to have
their tendency to give primacy to a PRAXIS which mission implications. Some have suggested that
is not biblically informed in the doing of theol- the expansion of Christianity among the Teutonic
ogy. Likewise we object to their use of a socio- peoples pressing on the borders of the empire
economic analysis as the hermeneutical key to was in the first place a product of Christians who
the Scriptures (Ro and Eshenaur, 1984, 2324). had been taken prisoner by, for example, the ma-
Second, can the particularism of ethnotheol- rauding Goths. Franks and Celts were to follow
ogy lose its connection to the universal gospel? in accepting the Christian faith and among them
Where is the continuity between the theological some remarkable early missionaries responded
formulations of the past and the emerging eth- to the missionary call to evangelize the continent:
notheologies of the present? How do we relate receiving cultures soon became also sending cul-
new understandings to the churchs theological tures, seen, for example, in the lives of COLUM-
heritage of the past? BANUS (c. 543615) and BONIFACE (680764) (see
And how do we do it without assuming that also CELTIC MISSIONS). Later the missionary en-
there is some grand cookie-cutter patterna deavors in the East of two Greek brothers, CYRIL
kind of universal theology that will apply in every (826869) and METHODIUS (c. 815885), saw the
context without nuance? How do we deal with gospel taken in 862 to Moravia, where Cyrils ed-
discontinuities between Western European and ucational activities led to the invention of the
other theologies? Where is the line between sem- Cyrillic alphabet, which it is claimed became the
per reformanda and semper imitanda? These are foundation of all Slavonic languages. The East-
the contemporary questions that surround eth- ern Churchs use of the vernacular in early mis-
notheology and its ongoing development. sionary activities was in marked distinction to
HARVIE M. CONN the Western Churchs concentration on Latin.
In the fifteenth century the missionary endeav-
Bibliography. D. Bosch, Transforming Mission; M. L. ors of a reinvigorated Catholic Church were more
Branson and R. Padilla, eds., Conflict and Context:
obvious than the outreach of Protestantism,
Hermeneutics in the Americas; H. M. Conn, Eternal
Word and Changing Worlds; idem, WTJ 52:1 (Spring which remained confined to Europe. In the West
1990): 5163; W. Dyrness, Learning About Theology from the sending of priests alongside the conquista-
the Third World; C. H. Kraft, Christianity in Culture; dores to colonize the new world that Columbus
B. R. Ro and R. Eshenaur, eds., The Bible and Theology had discovered was seen as simply a continua-
in Asian Contexts: An Evangelical Perspective in Asian tion of the Christianization of the Iberian penin-
Theology; R. Schreiter, Constructing Local Theologies; sula, or Reconquista, the driving of the Moors out
idem, ed., Faces of Jesus in Africa; R. S. Sugirtharajah, of Spain. Columbuss famous journey and the fall
ed., Asian Faces of Jesus. of Granada both occurred in 1492. At the same
time militant Islam, in the form of the Ottoman
Europe. Mission in Europe, as also in Africa and Turks, was pressing the Christian East with great
Asia, must start with the biblical record: thus the ferocity until 1683, when Vienna in the center of
importance for Europeans of the Syrophonecian Christian Europe came under siege by these alien
woman in Marks Gospel who used Jesus sense of forces. The most remarkable missionary story of
humor to secure the healing of her daughter, and the sixteenth century was that of the Jesuit, FRAN-
the Greeks in Johns Gospel who would see CIS XAVIER (150652), who in the last decade of
Jesus. Building on this the record indicates Eu- his life undertook a formidable program of evan-
ropean participation in the Pentecostal experi- gelization starting in Goa. From there he traveled
ence: Peters direction by vision to accept Cor- to Sri Lanka and the islands of Indonesia, going
nelius as a fellow follower of the Way, and the as far east as Japan and founding a church there
Macedonian appeal to Paul to render help to the before continuing his mission work in China. In
youthful churches of Europe. Thus bound up the process he was surprised to find a Christian
with the early history of Europe is the growth of presence already in India in the form of the Mal-
the early Christian community, the story of how it abar Christians whom he thought most dread-
came to define its core beliefs in relation to incip- fully ignorant. MATTEO RICCI (15521610), born in
ient heresy, and how from being a persecuted sect the year of Xaviers death and also a Jesuit, won
330
Europe
the trust of the Chinese court through his demon- Europes citizens, in a century of troubled politi-
strated mastery of science and technology and cal and economic development, pushed matters
exploited this for missionary purposes. of faith to the margins of life and concern. In the
In the Protestant world it was not until the era East the legacy of the years of Marxist constraint
of PIETISM had succeeded that of the REFORMA- and persecution is still painfully present. Regret-
TION that the churches began to look to wider tably the relationships between evangelical mi-
missionary horizons. In England the SOCIETY FOR norities and state orthodoxy have all too often de-
THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL IN FOREIGN PARTS teriorated since the end of the Cold War, while in
was founded in 1701. Although much of its work the former Yugoslavia, as in the island of Cyprus,
was among European ex-patriots it did provide a ethnic tensions and conflict have all too often set
mechanism to evangelize non-Christian popula- Christians against their Islamic neighbors.
tions, a theme that in continental Europe came In the West, folk or national churches still
to be championed by Count VON ZINZENDORF claim large baptismal memberships and main-
(17001760) and the MORAVIANS. By the end of tain an excellent range of worship buildings and
the eighteenth century, Protestants, under the in- ancillary facilities, even though regular wor-
fluence of Calvinism modified by the experience shipers form only a small percentage of secular
of the Evangelical Revival inaugurated what LA- Europes population. Europe hardly needed the
TOURETTE has called THE GREAT CENTURY of mis- reminder of the MEXICO CITY CONFERENCE ON
sionary endeavor. The BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCI- WORLD MISSION in 1963 that witness was to take
ETY was formed in 1792, with the LONDON place in all six continents. Those who had been
MISSIONARY SOCIETY following in 1795 and the sending nations now desperately needed to re-
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY in 1799. In Europe, ceive something of the buoyancy and hope of the
where Bremen led the way with the founding of churches of the south. Many North American
a new missionary society in 1819, Hamburg fol- missionary societies increasingly saw Europe as
lowed in 1822; the BASEL MISSION was established a mission field needing urgent attention.
in 1815, the Rhineland Society in 1828, and the In its turn this has led to a new relationship be-
BERLIN SOCIETY in 1824, two years after French tween mission agencies and the churches which
Protestants had formed the PARIS EVANGELICAL had been born out of the labors of their mission-
MISSIONARY SOCIETY. aries. First, within the ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT
MISSIOLOGY in such a context was born out of younger mission-founded churches sought recog-
shared experiences and soon implanted within nition as churches in their own right, not to be
the university curriculum with the establishment represented by proxy through mission boards.
of the Halle chair of mission studies in 1896. Mis- Second, questions were raised about missionary
siological scholars networked with one another structures and some of the old societies chose to
and with practitioners through the activities of reconstruct themselves more into mission part-
the INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL, itself a nership organizations. Perhaps the classic trans-
child of the historic WORLD MISSIONARY CONFER- formation was the way in which the London Mis-
ENCE meeting in Edinburgh in 1910, which sionary Society became first the Congregational
played such a crucial part in bringing the ECU- Council for World Mission in 1966. This body was
MENICAL MOVEMENT to maturity. Consent between in turn fully internationalized as the COUNCIL FOR
Christians on the style and content of Christian WORLD MISSION in 1977. The new council, it was
mission was not easily obtained and was not re- hoped, recognizing a diversity of leadership
solved by the integration of the IMC into the through equality of presence around a single part-
work of the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES in 1961. nership table, would combine a commitment to
Already, by the second half of the nineteenth unity with a commitment to mission. In Europe,
century, denominational endeavors were supple- the PARIS EVANGELICAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY went
mented by interdenominational initiatives in through a similar change in 1971 when it became
which a new kind of missionary society was the Communaute Evangelique dAction Apostolique
born, of which HUDSON TAYLORS CHINA INLAND (CEVAA). Other societies were reluctant both to
MISSION of 1865 was archetypal. The new FAITH unite home and foreign mission and to replace the
MISSIONS did not overtly solicit funds from sup- societal model by one of world PARTNERSHIP.
porters, who no longer controlled policy, for de- Europe has seen the uniting of some churches,
cision making was now invested in the hands of especially within the Methodist and Reformed
missionaries to identify with those to whom they traditions, the continuation of large national
ministered in dress and culture. churches though with serious loss of member-
The century which followed that of Europes ship, and the revival of orthodoxy in the context
unstinted investment of human resources and fi- of political freedom but economic constraint.
nances in both home and foreign missions, has The Roman Catholic Church at the end of the
been a century of SECULARIZATION. Fundamen- century recognizes other Christians in a way that
tally, it was the fruits of ENLIGHTENMENT thinking would have seemed impossible at its beginning.
as well as scientific advances which, for many of In some countries it has joined national ecu-
331
Europe
menical bodies as an equal partner, and there are One of the first moves by the EFMA was to es-
good relationships between the Conference of tablish a presence in Washington, D.C., so as to
European Churches and the Conference of Euro- represent the concerns connected with the surge
pean Bishops, so that they are able to have joint in evangelical missionary activity following World
continent-wide celebrations. Moreover, the influ- War II. For example, the EFMA has intervened to
ence of the CHARISMATIC MOVEMENT among enable evangelical missionaries to obtain pass-
Roman Catholic laity and clergy has opened up ports more easily, and has worked with the U.S.
new and fruitful lines of communication, but a Department of State and with foreign embassies
reluctance to go further still emanates from the in Washington to provide, where necessary, certi-
Vatican on such issues as the recognition of non- fication of the reliability of member missions
Roman orders and the possibilities of shared agencies and churches. This has eased the process
communion. Undoubtedly, a major aspect of the of obtaining visas for missionaries serving under
century has been both the growth of Pentecostal- organizations affiliated with the EFMA.
ism alongside historic Protestantism and the Already on the scene since 1917 was the INTER-
wide impact of the Charismatic movement both DENOMINATIONAL FOREIGN MISSION ASSOCIATION
within the mainstream churches and the new (IFMA), which served non-Pentecostal missions
house and community churches. Together, these groups including the historical FAITH MISSIONS.
have contributed to growth in Christian witness In the early days of the EFMA, relations between
in Europe. the EFMA and the IFMA were tense, but by the
JOHN H. Y. BRIGGS 1960s an era of cooperation began. The two as-
sociations formed a joint Latin America Commit-
tee that continued until the 1990s. In 1964 they
Evangelical Fellowship of Mission Agencies.
formed the Evangelical Missions Information
The Evangelical Fellowship of Mission Agencies
Service (EMIS) and began publishing the Evan-
(EFMA) is a voluntary association of more than
gelical Missions Quarterly (EMQ). In the late
one hundred missionary agencies. It is com-
1950s Wade Coggins joined Clyde Taylor in the
posed of both denominational and nondenomi-
work of EFMA, and in the 1960s E. L. Frizen Jr.
national missions from a wide variety of evan-
became the director of the IFMA. Coggins, Tay-
gelical traditions. lor, and Frizen were the architects of many coop-
History of the EFMA. The EFMA was formed in erative efforts between the IFMA and the EFMA.
the 1940s as part of a larger evangelical resurgence At various times, as needed, there have been joint
in the United States. The advance of theological committees related to Africa, Latin America,
liberalism as represented in the old Federated Asia, Personnel, Publication, Church Growth,
Council of Churches (predecessor of the National and Theological Education by Extension (TEE).
Council of Churches) and its missions arm, the Di- Through the 1950s the number of missionaries
vision of Foreign Missions (predecessor of the Di- being sent out by the EFMA and the IFMA agen-
vision of Overseas Ministries), had given rise to cies increased while those related to the National
concerns for developing evangelical missions. Council of Churches of Christ (NCCC) declined.
Efforts to present an evangelical voice were By 1960 it was noted by missiologists that the
hampered by continued divisions in outlook and combined number of missionaries of EFMA and
strategy. The moderate voice that developed was IFMA agencies was greater than those of the
called the National Association of Evangelicals NCC-related groups.
(1943), rallying around leaders such as Harold One significant example of EFMAIFMA coop-
Ockenga and Clyde Taylor. eration was joint sponsorship in 1966 of the CON-
In 1945 Taylor issued a call for evangelical mis- GRESS ON THE CHURCHS WORLDWIDE MISSION,
sions, both denominational and nondenomina- which came to be known as Wheaton 66. Meet-
tional, to come together under the aegis of the ing on the campus of Wheaton College, it gath-
NAE to deal with missions-related problems. ered together hundreds of missions leaders to
Fourteen of the missions agencies that gathered hear the challenge of reaching the world with the
for this purpose became charter members and gospel of Jesus Christ. The Congress issued a
launched the EFMA. Taylor served as executive statement called the WHEATON DECLARATION,
director of the EFMA until 1975. The organiza- which stated the continuing call to the church to
tion was led by Wade Coggins from 1975 to 1990, acknowledge the lostness of humanity and the
and by Paul E. McKaughan from 1990. The need to take the gospel to all the earth.
EFMA broke new ground by pulling together EFMA has been a major proponent and sup-
evangelicals from various traditions, ranging porter of the WORLD EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP
from Baptist to Reformed, Mennonite, Holiness, (WEF), an association of more than 120 national
and Pentecostal. As a variety of evangelical de- organizations of evangelicals worldwide. These
nominations, missions and service agencies, and national unitsvariously known as evangelical
student ministries joined the association, the fellowships, associations, federations, alliances,
EFMA experienced rapid growth. or councilsfrequently have within their mem-
332
Evangelical Missiological Society (EMS)
bership the churches that have grown out of the include recruitment of missionaries, orientation,
work of EFMA and IFMA missions. training, evaluation, compensation, retirement,
EFMA Distinctives. The EFMA is a nonprofit pensions, childrens education, and pastoral and
membership organization that provides many psychological care.
services to its members and to the larger evan- The CHURCH GROWTH MOVEMENT was given
gelical community. In many ways it parallels a prominence as an academic discipline and mis-
trade or professional association. The EFMA sions strategy through EFMA-sponsored work-
concentrates on the needs of its members, seek- shops by DONALD MCGAVRAN during the 1960s.
ing to enhance their work and to make the lead- Through the ministry of the EMIS, Church
ership of member organizations more effective in Growth seminars were conducted by interna-
their respective tasks. tional teams (often including McGavran) and
While retaining solid commitment on the evan- local leaders worldwide. Having served as a cata-
gelical theological essentials, member agencies lyst in this area, the EFMA left the development
represent a wide range of doctrinal distinctives of programs and training to others. The DISCIPLE
within the broader evangelical family. Member- A WHOLE NATION (DAWN) strategy, for example,
ship is divided almost evenly between denomina- has its roots in the Church Growth seminars held
tional and nondenominational groups. They in the Philippines.
come from traditions including Wesleyan, Re- The EFMA also had a significant role in the de-
formed, Pentecostal/Charismatic, Baptist, Pres- velopment and dissemination of THEOLOGICAL ED-
byterian, Lutheran, Mennonite, and Brethren. UCATION BY EXTENSION (TEE). Through its joint
While denominational groups provided impor- (with IFMA) subsidiary Committee to Assist Min-
tant momentum for the EFMA, independent mis- istry Education Overseas (CAMEO), EFMA sup-
sions have also been a significant part of the as- ported seminars for missionaries in the prepara-
sociation from the beginning. Missions with tion of TEE materials. In turn, TEE programs
specialized ministries and service organizations around the world have impacted thousands of
are also an integral part of the EFMA. lives and provided theological training for church
The EFMA has maintained a fundamental com- leaders. CAMEO, led by Raymond Buker and
mitment to cooperation, a stance that has charac- later Lois McKinney, also gave important leader-
terized its philosophy and activity. It has some- ship in developing improved curricula for all lev-
times found itself caught between the broader els of leadership training worldwide.
ecumenical movement and the more separatist Focus/listening groups constitute another
evangelicals and fundamentalists. During the method of strategic planning. EFMA convenes
years of its ascendancy, the separatist American such groups at various locations across the
Council of Churches made vicious attacks on the United States, bringing together people from the
NAE and EFMA because of their more moderate missions community such as missions execu-
stance. In time, the EFMA became the largest as- tives, pastors, academic leaders, and specialized
sociation of missionary agencies. ministry representatives. Such gatherings provide
Identification and authentication are very im- opportunities for creative thinking and planning
portant components of EFMAs ministry. Through as issues and opportunities confronting missions
its membership standards it provides individuals in the coming decades are considered.
and churches with a way to recognize missions Although not without its problems, the EFMA
agencies that conform to specific doctrinal and has served a vital role in the task of world evan-
financial standards. gelization during the past half century. As the
Strategic planning is another significant role, church moves into the twenty-first century it will
with the EFMA often serving as a kind of think confront an increasingly complex world with a
tank, providing opportunities for missions fresh set of opportunities and challenges, and the
leaders to wrestle with ideas and strategies. EFMA can be expected to continue to provide
Through such forums various missions strate- leadership to member groups as they work to-
gists have launched major new missions con- gether to make disciples of Jesus Christ among
cepts and initiatives. all nations.
An important channel of catalytic ministry was WADE T. COGGINS
the formation and development, with the IFMA,
of the EMIS. Under the leadership of James Bibliography. W. T. Coggins and E. L. Frizen, EMQ
Reapsome, EMQ and World Pulse contribute sig- 20:2 (1984): 11827.
nificantly to the distribution of news and ideas
about missions. The EMIS has also sponsored Evangelical Missiological Society (EMS). A
significant strategy conferences and seminars. North American organization that brings together
As a cooperative effort with the IFMA, the an- professors of missiology and related disciplines,
nual Personnel Workshop has stimulated signifi- missionaries/missiologists, and missions admin-
cant advances in how missions deal with person- istrators for the purpose of encouraging fellow-
nel concerns. Subjects addressed by the workshop ship and professional stimulation in the common
333
Evangelical Missiological Society (EMS)
commitment to carrying out the GREAT COMMIS- was founded. EMS was a prayer fellowship that
SION. Regional and annual meetings provide fo- disbanded in 1957 prior to the 1958 formation of
rums for discussion of missiological issues facing EMA.
evangelicals in their missions endeavors. Mem- The EMA incorporated into its membership
bers share a common evangelical theological both interdenominational and denominational
framework as expressed in the doctrinal state- organizations. Its first secretary was Gilbert
ments of the INTERDENOMINATIONAL FOREIGN MIS- Kirby, who was then also the secretary of the
SION ASSOCIATION (IFMA), the EVANGELICAL FEL- Evangelical Alliance UK. In 1966, Ernest Oliver
LOWSHIP OF MISSION AGENCIES (EFMA), and the was appointed secretary and carried this respon-
Fellowship of Frontier Missions. sibility in a part-time capacity in addition to
Due in large measure to the vigorous leader- being first secretary of Regions Beyond Mission-
ship of DONALD MCGAVRAN and DAVID J. HESSEL- ary Union and later a director of Tear Fund. His
GRAVE, the EMS was officially established in No- distinguished work at EMA in 196682 provided
vember 1990 through a reorganization of the the foundation for further development in recent
already existing Association of Evangelical Pro- years. In 1983 Stanley Davies, the current general
fessors of Mission (AEPM). Several factors led to secretary, was appointed.
the formation of EMS. First, there was a per- There are four members of staff, including the
ceived need for a missiological society composed general secretary. Additionally, a council of
solely of evangelicals who were committed both twenty-six elected persons is responsible for es-
to the full authority of Scripture and to the prior- tablishing policy, approving budgets, and ap-
ity of EVANGELISM and CHURCH PLANTING in mis- pointing senior staff. It is also a forum for debat-
sion. The already existing AMERICAN SOCIETY OF ing current missiological issues in the United
MISSIOLOGY, with its broader membership base Kingdom. An appointed executive committee of
(which includes Roman Catholics and conciliar nine provides guidance for senior staff regarding
Protestants) and interests, did not fit this expec- EMA work.
tation. Second, since membership in the AEPM The EMA has acted as an information service
was restricted to professors of mission, it was felt on all aspects of world mission, monitoring
that a new society was needed that included not world developments, brokering relationships,
only classroom professors but also field practi- and advising members on a wide range of issues
tioners and missions administrators with missio- (financial, legal, technical, training, and missio-
logical interests. Third, there was a perceived logical). It convenes various continental and
need for closer ties between the evangelical mis- functional working groups (e.g., Africa, radio,
sions community and the broader evangelical short-term mission) and consultations of specific
theological world. Through regular joint meet- regions and issues; it holds specialist seminars
ings with the Evangelical Theological Society and courses (e.g., for missionaries on home as-
(ETS), the IFMA, and the EFMA, the EMS was signment, promotion, and publicity for mission).
expected to represent evangelical missions inter- It also convenes an annual conference that ad-
dresses key missiological issues. It helps in devel-
ests within the broader evangelical community.
oping and facilitating youth involvement in mis-
Annual meetings of the EMS are held in con-
sion, and initiates new ventures that raise the
junction with the ETS and, every third year, the
profile of world mission in the United Kingdom
IFMA and EFMA.
by encouraging and fostering partnership in all
In addition to its national and regional meet-
aspects of Christian mission. From time to time,
ings, the EMS has also sponsored numerous
it also provides representation to government
monographs and publications addressing critical
and media publishing material.
missiological issues from an evangelical perspec-
EMA Cooperation. While the EMA is a sepa-
tive. The first executive director of the EMS was rate organization with its own constitution and
David Hesselgrave, under whose leadership soci- council, it has a partnership relationship with the
ety membership increased dramatically. Evangelical Alliance UK. The two organizations
HAROLD A. NETLAND
are committed to working together in mobilizing
SEE ALSO Academic Associations of Mission. churches for mission involvement through their
joint World Mission Project. Another joint proj-
Bibliography. EMQ 27 (1991): 18487. ect is the Commission on Unreached Peoples,
which aims to foster pan-evangelical reflection
Evangelical Missionary Alliance (EMA). The and action, evaluate strategic initiatives, and
EMA, an evangelical missions association in the comment on trends and issues requiring action
United Kingdom, aims to resource, equip, repre- (see also PEOPLES, PEOPLE GROUPS).
sent, and network its members to promote the The EMA also works with other bodies. It co-
cause of global mission. The roots of the EMA operates with Churches Commission on Mission
can be traced to 1941, when the Fellowship of In- (CCOM), the ecumenical mission network in the
terdenominational Missionary Societies (FIMS) United Kingdom, on a number of joint initiatives
334
Evangelical Missions Conferences
such as the Personnel Officers Group and The riety of forms, most have tended to fall within
Mission Finance Officers Group. It also has one of two main categories. They generally exist
worked with CCOM health-related issues such as either as think-tanks for discussing missions
AIDS consultations. strategies, programs, and policies, or as inspira-
The EMA also cooperates with the European tional meetings to rally the Christian public. The
Evangelical Missionary Alliance (EEMA), a net- latter seek to inform and inspire people in the
work of national missionary associations across pews to contribute their prayer and financial
Europe. The EEMA holds an annual meeting that support, as well as to send forth their sons and
is hosted by one of its national member associa- daughters (and increasingly themselves, as short-
tions. It occasionally calls a Europe-wide consul- term and second-career missionaries) to engage
tation on a particular topic, such as EURO- directly in the great missionary task.
COMET 92, a consultation on the care and The most common variety of the inspirational
education of MISSIONARY CHILDREN. Currently the type conferences have been those held annually
EMA UK office services the EEMA network. in local churches (see CHURCH MISSIONS CONFER-
Finally, the EMA is represented on the WORLD ENCES). These have followed a wide variety of
EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP Missions Commission schedules and patterns during their lengthy his-
by its general secretary, who is a member of the tory, but the long-popular pattern of week-long
executive committee. The EMA is committed to conferences with nightly meetings has largely
the goals of the commission, and participates in given way in our overly programmed and frenetic
its programs. age to weekend conferences or month-long mis-
Membership. There are three categories of sion emphases with special events and speakers
EMA membership. First, corporate membership is taking center stage over several weeks of regular
for organizations that send missionaries into meeting times. The common features generally
cross-cultural work, agencies that support the include displays and reports from furloughing
cause of world mission in different ways, and or- missionaries and mission agencies that the
ganizations that train people for cross-cultural church supports as well as messages from one or
mission. Corporate membership requires mem- more gifted speakers.
bers to meet and maintain certain standards with A related but largely fading tradition among
regard to publicity, finance, and relationships. In fundamentalist and evangelical Christians is the
1996, there were over 140 corporate members, Bible and missions conference centers, which
representing nearly six thousand serving mission- combine rustic vacation and recreational oppor-
aries and staff. This represents over 60 percent of tunities with Bible teaching and missionary re-
all Christian missionaries, of all denominations, ports and challenges. While these were very pop-
ular during the late nineteenth century and much
sent from the United Kingdom. Second, affiliate
of the twentieth, they have not fared as well in
membership is open to non-U.K. originated agen-
recent decades with an increasingly affluent and
cies that work cross-culturally in the United King-
harried American evangelical population. Even
dom. Third, personal membership is available for
where these centers have continued with relative
individuals committed to global mission.
success, the missions emphasis has become
Vision. The EMA vision for the decade from
much less pronounced.
1995 to 2005 is that it will be a dynamic catalyst,
In terms of perennial conferences, there can
impacting local, national, and global Christian or- be little doubt that the triennial URBANA MISSION
ganizations in the education and implementation CONFERENCES are among the most famous and
of world mission. It will be recognized as the key long-lasting. This massively attended event
network of successful cooperation for world mis- (close to 20,000 in 1996) has been held over the
sion, enabling all U.K. evangelicals to contribute Christmas break since 1948 at the University of
to the goal of a church for every people and pro- Illinois at Urbana, but its roots go all the way
moting missiological reflection and application back to the quadrennial student conventions
among colleges, agencies, and churches. It will begun by the STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT in
serve as the primary U.K. voice of evangelical 1891. Those gatherings continued until 1936, but
missions in representing, encouraging, educating, ended as the clouds of war gathered. The model
and enabling them in effective world mission, and was again picked up in 1946 in Toronto by the
in working with the EMA so that world mission InterVarsity Christian Fellowship, which had re-
will be high on the agenda of local churches. cently merged with the Student Foreign Mis-
STANLEY DAVIES sions Fellowship. The gatherings today at Ur-
bana, which combine large doses of both
Evangelical Missions Conferences. Repre- inspiration and information, attract hundreds of
sented by a broad spectrum of types, evangelical mission agencies and thousands of students,
missions conferences have typically shared the missionaries, and others.
common purpose of furthering the worldwide Conferences devoted to discussing strategic
Christian movement. While they have taken a va- missions policies, programs, and plans have
335
Evangelical Missions Conferences
played an influential role in shaping the North place. Beginning in 1966, with the twin events of
American evangelical missionary movement the CONGRESS ON THE CHURCHS WORLDWIDE MIS-
through the years. Over the last three decades or SION (Wheaton, 1966) and the WORLD CONGRESS ON
so, they have been doing the same internationally EVANGELISM (BERLIN CONGRESS 1966), evangelicals
as well. On the domestic North American scene, of many stripes, and from around the world, have
a long-standing and influential place has been gathered together in events like these to declare
held by the annual conferences sponsored by the their commitment to global mission in the face of
INTERDENOMINATIONAL FOREIGN MISSIONS ASSOCIA- theological, cultural, and pluralistic challenges to
TION (since 1917), and the EVANGELICAL FELLOW- its legitimacy. Subsequent global conferences over
SHIP OF MISSION AGENCIES, the missionary wing of the period have maintained this emphasis while
the National Association of Evangelicals, for- building on it in various ways.
merly known as the Evangelical Foreign Missions The most significant of these more recent con-
Association (since 1945). Supplementing their ferences was the first LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON
annual meetings, these two associations have WORLD EVANGELIZATION (1974). Besides being the
also met jointly on a triennial basis since 1963, most representative global conference up to that
when their momentous first meeting together time, it was pivotal in at least two ways: First, it
gave birth to the Evangelical Missions Informa- refocused in a very important way the attention
tion Service. Others among their meetings have of the evangelical missions community on the
also been of weighty importance. Their meeting most neglected segment of the worlds popula-
together at Green Lake, Wisconsin, in 1971, for tion, unreached peoples. Second, through the in-
example, was a pivotal event in the history of strumentation of the Lausanne Covenant, it en-
evangelical mission and church relationships, hanced the status of social concern ministry as
providing as it did a strategic examination of an integral part of gospel witness. Other confer-
both overseas and domestic issues. ences that followed built on these foundations.
Other important issues-oriented missions con- These included the LAUSANNE CONGRESS II ON
ferences that take place annually or periodically WORLD EVANGELISM held Manila in 1989, a fact
in North America would include the meetings of indicating perhaps better than anything else the
groups like the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MISSIOLOGY, enduring legacy of Lausanne I. It clearly was a
the EVANGELICAL MISSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, the In- watershed event, having produced in its wake a
ternational Society for Frontier Missions, AIMS movement with the same name.
(Association of International Mission Services), The other really significant series of global
and ACMC (Advancing Churches in Missions conferences that followed in the train of Lau-
Commitment). sanne I, albeit with a less churchly and more
There are in addition periodic scholarly con- specifically missions-oriented clientele, were the
ferences devoted to missions topics, generally Global Consultations on World Evangelization
sponsored by evangelical seminaries and gradu- held in Singapore in 1989, in Seoul in 1995 (see
ate studies programs. An important example GLOBAL CONSULTATION OF WORLD EVANGELIZATION
would be the June 1986 conference held at [GCOWE 95]), and in Pretoria in 1997 (see
Wheaton College, A Century of World Evange- GLOBAL CONSULTATION OF WORLD EVANGELIZATION
lization: North American Evangelical Missions, 97 [GCOWE II]). This series of conferences has
18861986. More regular but smaller study con- been particularly significant in mobilizing na-
ferences are also sponsored by the Overseas Min- tional evangelical leadership in various countries
istries Study Center, a center for missions schol- to the task of reaching the unevangelized peoples
arship which publishes the International Bulletin and corners of their own land with the gospel, as
of Missionary Research. well as in stirring up a passion for engaging in
On a wider and usually international front, mission beyond their own borders.
there is a long tradition of the great conferences, Finally, mention should be made of the WORLD
some of which would be claimed by both evan- EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP and its network of asso-
gelical Christians and others, and some of which ciations and commissions that sponsor global, re-
would be far less international than others. The gional, and national conferences that serve over
earliest of these would include gatherings such as 100 million evangelicals globally every year. A
the UNION MISSIONARY CONVENTION (NEW YORK significant portion of these have a profound mis-
MISSIONARY CONFERENCE, 1854), the CENTENARY sions impact.
CONFERENCE ON THE PROTESTANT MISSIONS OF THE GARY R. CORWIN
WORLD (LONDON MISSIONARY CONFERENCE, 1888),
the ECUMENICAL MISSIONARY CONFERENCE (New Bibliography. J. D. Allan, The Evangelicals: An Illus-
trated History; J. D. Douglas, ed., Let the Earth Hear His
York, 1900), the PANAMA CONGRESS (1916), and Voice: International Congress on World Evangelization,
most notable of all, the WORLD MISSIONARY CON- Lausanne, Switzerland; idem, Proclaim Christ Until He
FERENCE (EDINBURGH, 1910). Comes: Lausanne II in Manila; D. M. Howard, Student
In recent decades a new wave of self-consciously Power in World Evangelization; H. Lindsell, ed., The
evangelical international conferences have taken Churchs Worldwide Mission; D. McGavran, ed., The
336
Evangelical Movement
Conciliar-Evangelical Debate: The Crucial Documents movement soon spilled over into Mennonite,
19641976; J. M. Phillips, and R. T. Coote, eds., Toward Brethren, and Quaker churches. Jansenism and
the 21st Century in Christian Mission; J. Stott, ed., Mak- quietism in the Roman Catholic Church were
ing Christ Known: Historic Mission Documents from the part of the larger spiritual awakening at the time
Lausanne Movement, 19741989; T. Wang, ed., Count-
associated with Pietism.
down to AD 2000: GCOWE in Singapore. The AD 2000
Movement. The mass evangelism of Charles and JOHN WES-
LEY and GEORGE WHITFIELD advanced the evangel-
ical revival in eighteenth-century England. In
Evangelical Movement. In the broadest sense, 1738, at a Moravian meeting on Aldersgate Street
an evangelical movement comprises persons in London, John Wesley found new meaning in
who believe in salvation by faith in Jesus Christ the doctrine of justification by faith when he re-
and present the gospel to others. In the context of ceived personal assurance of his own salvation.
North America, the term denotes a twentieth- While the Methodists, as their converts were
century movement committed to the historic called, eventually left the Church of England, An-
doctrines of the Christian faith, the supreme au- glican evangelicalism continued, led in part by
thority of Scripture in faith and practice, the Charles Simeon and William Wilberforce. Across
need for personal conversion, and the imperative the Atlantic, stirred by revivalists like Jonathan
of world evangelization. In global Christianity, Edwards and George Whitfield, the GREAT AWAK-
evangelicalism encompasses a broad scope of ENING secured for evangelicals an important role
Christians, movements, and organizations which in the development of the United States. In nine-
transcend confessional and ecclesiastical lines. teenth-century America, evangelical Christianity
In the sixteenth century, an early evangelical reigned as the dominant faith and forged the na-
movement appeared among Roman Catholics in tions values and religious consciousness. Revival-
Spain and Italy (e.g., Juan de Valdes) who wished ism, promoted by evangelists such as CHARLES G.
to bring about reform in the institutional church FINNEY, offered hope for a spiritual awakening
through a more biblically based faith than that of that would eliminate social evils and bring about
the late medieval church. Much more promi- the establishment of a Christian republic. African-
nently, however, evangelical described the faith American churches guided by leaders Richard
of Martin Luther and his followers who initiated Allen (African Methodist Episcopal Church),
the Protestant Reformation. Along with justifica- Thomas Paul (Baptist), and others, also taught
tion by faith, he taught the priesthood of all be- evangelical doctrine. Social activists, represented
lievers, thereby replacing a sacred hierarchy with by the later Ida B. Wells-Barnett (Methodist),
a community of faith in which all believers serve found strength for their struggles for racial equal-
as priests before God. Gradually, the term em- ity in a deep evangelical faith.
braced the Reformed churches originating with The Wesleyan holiness movement, fired by the
Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin. It also de- teachings of John Fletcher, PHOEBE PALMER, and
scribed the faith of Mennonites and Swiss William Arthur, highlighted the postconversion
Brethren in the Radical Reformation, as well as experience of entire sanctification for the per-
English Separatists and Baptists. Beginning in fection of the believer and purification of society.
the seventeenth century, renewal movements Reformed revivalists DWIGHT L. MOODY, Hannah
changed the landscape of Protestant Christianity. Whitall Smith, and speakers at the annual
Puritanism, already a force for Reformed theol- KESWICK CONVENTIONS in England viewed this sec-
ogy in the Church of England, sought to bring ond experience of grace as the beginning of the
about the restoration of New Testament Chris- Higher Life, a fully consecrated life empowered
tianity and a Christian society. Its influence ex- for Christian service. Both holiness camps re-
tended to the pietist movement in Germany and ferred to this as baptism in the Holy Spirit.
the later evangelical revival in England. Cele- From the holiness taproot grew the PENTE-
brated Puritan leaders included Richard Baxter COSTAL MOVEMENT shortly after the turn of the
and John Owen; in America, Puritanism reached twentieth century. It originated with a revival at
its peak in the spiritual and theological writings Charles F. Parhams Bethel Bible School in
of JONATHAN EDWARDS. Topeka, Kansas, in 1901. The movement became
In continental Europe, PIETISM emerged in the worldwide several years later as a result of the in-
Lutheran and Reformed churches. Though faith- terracial Azusa Street revival (19069) in Los An-
ful to Luthers teaching on justification, it fo- geles, California, led by the African-American
cused on the believers need of regeneration. William J. Seymour. With scores of succeeding
Lutheran Pietists Philipp Jakob Spener and Au- revivals in North America and Europe, a new di-
gust Hermann Francke emphasized a heartfelt aspora of missionaries left for the mission lands.
conversion, individual and family prayers, devo- Concurrent with the Azusa Street revival, a Pen-
tional study of the Bible with applications for the tecostal revival commenced in India in 1906.
Christian life, hope for the world as expressed in Between the Civil War and World War I, the
Christian social action, and foreign missions. The hegemony of evangelical Christianity declined
337
due to rapid changes in the culture. Waves of im- the shaping of neo-evangelicalism. Key institu-
migration brought large numbers of Roman tions also served the new movement: among
Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and Jews them, the National Association of Evangelicals
to the American shores that threatened evangeli- (NAE [1943]), Wheaton College (1869), Fuller
cal dominance. Prompted by the religious skepti- Theological Seminary (1947), and Christianity
cism of the ENLIGHTENMENT, Darwinian evolu- Today magazine (1956). These and similar insti-
tion, and the radical higher criticism of the Bible tutions fostered a renaissance of evangelical
coming from German and English academic cir- biblical and theological scholarship beginning in
cles, questions arose about the ultimate claims of the 1950s. The elections of evangelicals as presi-
the Christian faith. These challenges appeared to dents of the United States in recent decades has
undermine the historical integrity of Scripture, not only marked the resurgence of evangelical-
creationism, miracles, and the divinity and res- ism, but signaled widely different political orien-
urrection of Christ. Furthermore, the growing ap- tations within.
peal of the social gospel convinced numerous The organization of the National Black Evan-
evangelicals that social action was now replacing gelical Association (1963), and to the north, the
the priority of personal conversion in some Evangelical Fellowship of Canada (1964), repre-
church bodies. Many were influenced by dispen- sented other notable milestones. While the NAE
sational PREMILLENNIALISM with its negative as- preempted the term evangelical, many evangeli-
sessment of human progress and warning of the cals remained within their denominations, most of
imminent return of Jesus Christ and impending which were constituent members of the National
judgment on the wicked. In response to these as- Council of Churches (NCC) and the World Coun-
saults on traditional Christian beliefs, conserva- cil of Churches (WCC). Three large evangelical de-
tives in mainline churches sought to preserve the- nominationsthe Lutheran ChurchMissouri
ological orthodoxy by controlling denominational Synod, Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod,
structures and seminaries. This agenda conse- and the Southern Baptist Conventionhave cho-
quently led to the fundamentalist-modernist consen to remain outside conciliar bodies.
troversy that peaked in the 1920s. Modernists en- Modern evangelicalism now encompasses an al-
deavored to reconcile Christian beliefs with most unbridgeable diversity of Christians, all loyal
scientific discoveries and higher criticism, and to the gospel message, but with varying theologi-
concentrated their energies on the social applica- cal and spiritual orientations. Major groupings
tions of the gospel. Some endorsed forms of reli- consist of Lutherans, Presbyterians, Anglicans,
gious PLURALISM. Fundamentalists, as the conser- Pentecostals, Baptists, Wesleyans, Mennonites,
vatives were called, coming largely from the Brethren, Churches of Christ, and others in the
Reformed sector of evangelicalism, denied the Restoration Movement. To these can be added
Enlightenment notion of the innate goodness of Messianic Jews, nondenominational Christians,
humankind and fought modernist tenets. Losing and constituents of parachurch agencies (e.g.,
the battle in their denominations, fundamental- Campus Crusade for Christ). Although controver-
ists like the New Testament scholar J. Gresham sial, some observers have listed Seventh-Day Ad-
Machen, Carl T. McIntire, founder of the Ameri- ventists; and Jesus Name or Oneness Pente-
can Council of Christian Churches, and the Cana- costals belong.
dian Baptist T. T. Shields, encouraged conserva- The CHARISMATIC MOVEMENT has magnified
tives to separate from them. evangelical witness in the mainline denomina-
Fundamentalists resisted changes that imper- tions, highlighted the ministry of the Holy Spirit
iled their vision of a Christian society, the truth in the life of the believer, and notably influenced
claims of non-Christian religions, scientific ar- contemporary Christian music and worship styles
guments against biblical teachings on the origins across a wide range of churches. Noted leaders in-
of life, as well as the ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT and cluded Dennis Bennett (Episcopal Church), Larry
the Pentecostal movement. After the famous Christenson (Evangelical Lutheran Church in
Monkey Trial in 1925 at Dayton, Tennessee, in America), Demos Shakarian (Full Gospel Busi-
which John T. Scopes was convicted of illegally ness Mens Fellowship International), and
teaching evolutionary theory in a public school, David J. du Plessis (Assemblies of God). In a sig-
the public viewed fundamentalism as antiscien- nificant development, some charismatics in the
tific and obscurantist. Roman Catholic Church have identified them-
By the 1940s, conservatives J. Elwin Wright, selves as evangelical Catholics.
Harold J. Ockenga, Carl F. H. Henry, BILLY GRA- In England, the perceived new threat of
HAM, and others rejected the denominational sep- Roman Catholicism and the decline of evangeli-
aratism and intellectual and cultural isolationism cal doctrine led to the founding of the Evangeli-
of fundamentalism and became the spokesmen cal Alliance in 1846 to sponsor conferences and
for the New Evangelicals. The evangelistic cru- promote biblical Christianity, an international
sades of Billy Graham, which first gained na- week of prayer, aid to Protestant minorities, and
tional attention in 1948, played a crucial part in the evangelization of the world. A century later, it
338
became a founding member of the WORLD EVAN- As the missions movement progressed, prac-
GELICAL FELLOWSHIP (1951). Anglican Evangeli- tices that centered on establishing schools and
calism advanced under the tutelage of JOHN R. W. charitable institutions came under fire from crit-
STOTT, James I. Packer, and Anglicans in other ics who favored apostolic methods (e.g., Matt.
countries such as FESTO KIVENGERE in Uganda 10:710). Usually impelled by premillennial es-
and Leon Morris in Australia. chatology and dissatisfied with the slow rate of
Protestant missions began as a result of re- conversions, independent FAITH MISSIONS (e.g.,
newal movements subsequent to the Reforma- CHINA INLAND MISSION founded by J. Hudson Tay-
tion. While the Reformers exhibited little interest lor in 1865) aimed their attention primarily at di-
in evangelizing non-Christians (see REFORMATION rect evangelism. Radical evangelicals like A. B.
AND MISSION), the rediscovering of the gospel and SIMPSON, founder of the CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY
the value placed on the translation of the Scrip- ALLIANCE (1881), anticipated that in the end-times
tures into the vernacular languages made a pro- the outpouring of the Holy Spirit (Joel 2:2829)
found impact on the course of the missions would bring miraculous SIGNS AND WONDERS (Acts
movement. Indicative of the complex origins of 5:12) that would once more accompany gospel
Protestant missions, early efforts varied from proclamation. A novel approach to training un-
chaplains working for the Dutch East India Com- folded with Bible institutes, which prepared
pany, to Puritan missions to Native Americans in ministers and missionaries for the FAITH MIS-
New England, and in England the founding of SIONS. Early schools included the Missionary
the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge Training Institute (Nyack College) founded by
(169899) and the SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION Simpson in 1882; Chicago Evangelization Society
OF THE GOSPEL IN FOREIGN PARTS (SPG) (1701).
(Moody Bible Institute) by Dwight L. Moody in
From Germany came the DANISH-HALLE MISSION 1889; Boston Missionary Training Institute (Gor-
(1705) and MORAVIAN MISSIONS (1732), the latter don College and Gordon-Conwell Theological
under the leadership of the pietist NIKOLAUS LUD- Seminary) by A. J. GORDON in 1889; and Toronto
WIG VON ZINZENDORF.
Bible Training School (Tyndale College and Semi-
Missions gained more ground with the publi- nary) by Elmore Harris in 1894.
In the twentieth century, doubts about the need
cation of WILLIAM CAREYs Enquiry into the Oblig-
for sending missionaries took a heavy toll on
ations of Christians to Use Means for the Conver-
Protestant missions and after midcentury, the
sion of the Heathen and the organization of the
number of missionaries in most of the older de-
BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY, both in 1792. Many
nominations declined. In contrast, the missions
more societies emerged, including the LONDON
that remained conservative in theology grew. Net-
MISSIONARY SOCIETY (1795), the CHURCH MISSION-
working among them resulted in the formation
ARY SOCIETY (1799), the AMERICAN BOARD OF COM-
of the INTERDENOMINATIONAL FOREIGN MISSION AS-
MISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS (1810), the
SOCIATION (1971) and the EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP
Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society (1813), OF MISSION AGENCIES (1945), an NAE affiliate.
African Baptist Missionary Society (1815), Pres- Subsequent efforts at cooperation have included
byterian Board of Foreign Missions (1831), the CONGRESS ON THE CHURCHS WORLDWIDE MIS-
Womans Union Missionary Society (1861), and SION (WHEATON CONGRESS, 1966), WORLD CON-
the Womans Foreign Missionary Society of the GRESS ON EVANGELISM (BERLIN CONGRESS, 1966),
Methodist Episcopal Church (1869). The evan- LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGELISM
gelical unity of these agencies and the several (1974), and International Conference for Itiner-
hundred mission societies that followed laid the ant Evangelists (1983). Regional networks have
theological basis for COMITY agreements in the been formed to further evangelism and achieve
nineteenth century and the international mis- other objectives (e.g., theological education, so-
sionary conferences (e.g., CENTENARY CONFERENCE cial action, relief work).
ON THE PROTESTANT MISSIONS OF THE WORLD [LON- In addition to nondenominational faith mis-
DON MISSIONARY CONFERENCE, 1888]). sions, a variety of parachurch organizations have
University and college students were inspired to extended vital services. Along with the contribu-
dedicate their lives to foreign missions at Dwight L. tions of the United Bible Societies (1946),
Moodys Northfield Conference in Massachusetts WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS (1934) has trained
in 1886. At the gathering, ARTHUR T. PIERSON, an ar- workers to reduce languages to writing, produce
dent evangelical and later editor of the Missionary grammars, and translate the Scriptures. Contin-
Review of the World, challenged the students with uing the tradition of the SVM, Inter-Varsity
the watchword, The evangelization of the world in Christian Fellowship (1936) and its triennial UR-
this generation. From this event arose the STU- BANA MISSION CONFERENCES in the United States
DENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS have inspired thousands of students to become
(SVM) and leaders such as JOHN R. MOTT (World missionaries. Youth With a Mission (YWAM
Student Christian Federation) and Robert P. Wilder [1960]) has created opportunities for youth to
(SVM traveling secretary). evangelize overseas. Mission Aviation Fellowship
339
(1944) has provided air transport and communi- Evangelical Theology. The basic relationship
cations assistance for missionaries. World Vision between missions and evangelical theology can
(1950) has focused on relief and development ac- be defined in terms of two doctrines: bibliology
tivities. Others have engaged in publishing ven- and soteriology.
tures, and radio and television evangelism. The Evangelicals view of Scripture is characterized
INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR EVANGELICAL THEO- by a strong commitment to divine inspiration, in-
LOGICAL EDUCATION (ICETE) (1980) has encour- errancy, and the grammatical-historical method
aged the upgrading of standards in Bible colleges of exegesis. But more than any other factor, it has
and seminaries and promoted regional accredit- been the evangelicals unyielding adherence to
ing associations. the unconditional authority of Scripture that has
Pentecostalism ushered in a new pattern in shaped their approach to mission. Evangelicals
missions, based on the radical expectancy of mir- view the BIBLE as a reservoir of divinely revealed
acles in ministry (e.g., physical healings, deliver- truth, its authority being traced back to the ab-
ance from chemical addictions), glossolalia and solute authority of God himself. That being the
the gifts of the Holy Spirit for spiritual empower- case, all prescriptive statements of Scripture
ment, and the encouragement of INDIGENOUS must be followed to the letter.
CHURCHES. Embracing many of the same beliefs, This conviction naturally leads to an emphasis
the charismatic movement influenced missions on obedience as a motivation for service. Compli-
in church bodies connected to NCC and WCC. In- ance with Gods own commission to make disci-
dependent charismatics have found assistance ples of all nations (Matt. 28:19) is a theme that
for their missions in the Association of Interna- has echoed down through every epoch of the
modern missionary movement and has repeatedly
tional Mission Services (1985). Believing that su-
loosed new waves of activity. The STUDENT VOLUN-
pernatural interventions and power encounters
TEER MOVEMENT is a good example of this. Be-
will help bring closure to the GREAT COMMISSION
tween 1890 and 1920 the movement was able to
before the imminent return of Christ, Third
motivate upwards of 1,800 volunteers by appeal-
Wave and New Apostolic Reformation mission
ing to the Christians responsibility to go. Typical
endeavors have grown under the tutelage of John of this are the words of one of the movements
Wimber, Charles H. Kraft, and C. Peter Wagner leaders. According to ROBERT E. SPEER, everyone
(see also NEW APOSTOLIC REFORMATION MISSIONS). of us rests under a sort of obligation to give life
Evangelical Christianity has grown signifi- and time and possessions to the evangelization of
cantly outside of North America and Europe in the souls everywhere that have never heard of
the last half-century. Major advances have taken Jesus Christ, and we are bound to go, unless we
place in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, can offer some sure ground of exemption (Wall-
and Oceania. Christians in these areas, the ma- strom, 16). He firmly believed that the only thing
jority of whom now exhibit features of Pente- that could prevent successful evangelization of
costal/charismatic spirituality and are vibrantly the world was the Christians disobedience.
concerned for world evangelization. They have The same motive, obedience, still characterizes
begun sending out their own missionaries in one much of evangelicalisms recruitment of new mis-
of the momentous developments in modern sionaries. And the case is almost exclusively
Christianity (see also NON-WESTERN MISSION based on Christs authoritative command as
BOARDS AND SOCIETIES). recorded in Matthew 28:1920.
GARY B. MCGEE Soteriology is the other doctrine that has
Bibliography. D. W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in
shaped the evangelical approach to mission. Ac-
Modern Britain: A History for the 1730s to the 1980s; cording to evangelical understanding of salva-
D. G. Bloesch, The Evangelical Renaissance; J. A. Car- tion, the necessity of mission arises, on the one
penter and W. R. Shenk, eds., Earthen Vessels: American hand, out of the spiritual need of humanity, and
Evangelicals and Foreign Missions, 18801980; M. - on the other hand, out of the redemptive work of
Dieter, The Holiness Movement of the Nineteenth Cen- Christ. As a result of the fall into sin human be-
tury; K. A. Fournier with W. D. Watkins, A House ings are alienated from God, live under his anger,
United? Evangelicals and Catholics Together; R. A. N. and will suffer eternal damnation. However,
Kydd, Healing Through The Centuries: Models For Un- Jesus vicarious death and resurrection achieved
derstanding; G. M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and a basis for justification. This basic soteriological
American Culture; idem, Reforming Fundamentalism; orientation has been applied to the missionary
G. A Rawlyk, ed., The Canadian Protestant Experience,
task in two ways.
17601990; G. A. Rawlyk and M. A. Noll, eds., Amazing
Grace: Evangelicalism in Australia, Britain, Canada, and
First, every individual who has not accepted
the United States; M. C. Sernett, Black Religion and the message of Gods grace by faith is lost. There
American Evangelicalism; F. E. Stoeffler, ed., Continen- are no exceptions, since Scripture clearly ex-
tal Pietism and Early American Christianity; V. Synan, presses the fact that all have sinned (Rom. 3:23),
The Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition: Charismatic Move- that all sinners are subject to Gods wrath (Eph.
ments in the Twentieth Century. 2:3). Of course, it has become especially difficult
340
Evangelism
for moderns to accept the idea that people who us to the theologically fluid nature of missionary
through no fault of their own have not heard will encounter. For example, the ongoing encounter
be damned. Recently there have been several at- with non-Christian religions generates a steady
tempts to reevaluate or soften the impact of stream of theological questions. Theological con-
these verses. Nevertheless, the lostness of the un- sensus does not obviate the need for what might
evangelized has been and remains the position be called dynamic field theologizing, since prob-
of most evangelicals (see also ANNIHILATION and lems of a primarily theological nature do not yield
UNIVERSALISM). to nontheological (social scientific) solutions.
Second, the offer of salvation is addressed to This form of theological atrophication would
all of humanity. Perhaps it is because of the un- not be so difficult to overcome if it had not been
comfortable consequences of the previous thesis replaced by other, nontheological paradigms.
that some seek a way out by interpreting pas- Perhaps it is the elevation of pragmatism to the
sages like 2 Corinthians 5:18 in a universalistic status of a missiological norm that has led to an
way. But, whatever discomfort or reservations uncritical acceptance of applied social science.
they might have, most evangelicals strictly reject This trend has continued unabated during the
all forms of universalism, since the salvation last few years. There can be little doubt that the
which has been made available to all can only be insights and techniques of social science are use-
appropriated by means of an individual act of
ful. Nevertheless as Os Guinness observes, it is
faith. As a result, evangelical missionary efforts
distressing to witness the lemming-like rush of
have been consistently driven by a desire to reach
church leaders who forget theology in the charge
everyone with the gospel message. This has been
done under the banner of slogans such as evan- after the latest insights of sociologyregardless
gelize the world in this generation. And a great of where the ideas come from or where they
deal has been made of statistics that show the lead (Guinness, 157).
disproportionate relationship between the Chris- Just where have these ideas led? To a missionary
tian missionary force and that part of the worlds enterprise in which there is little place for God
population that remains UNEVANGELIZED. and his enabling Spirit. The often stunning effec-
Combined with the emphasis on the necessity tiveness of these methodologies has deceived some
of individual faith, this global outreach places the into thinking that (or acting as though) ministry
personal act of the will at center stage. All other can be managed quite nicely without God. If
responses (e.g., good works or general religiosity) human agency is viewed as the primary engine of
are rejected as false or misleading and are in all missions, it should come as no surprise that theol-
likelihood some form of SYNCRETISM, in which ogy has been neglected. But if the majority of mis-
case, the essential element of the gospel, the ne- siological problems are actually theological in na-
cessity of CONVERSION, is lost. There is no way ture, theological skills will have to be recultivated
around personal faith in Christ and this message and reasserted in every area of mission.
of salvation must be offered to all. EDWARD ROMMEN
All of this has had a pronounced and some-
Bibliography. H. Berkhof, Christian Faith; D. G.
times stifling effect on the level of theological ac- Bloesch, A Theology of Word and Spirit; G. D. Fee, Gods
tivity among evangelicals engaged in mission. Empowering Presence; T. N. Finger, Christian Theology:
The basic theological framework described above An Eschatological Approach; O. Guinness and J. Seel, No
is so widely accepted that one may indeed speak God But God; S. J. Grenz, Revisioning Evangelical The-
of a consensus. This is borne out by the docu- ology; idem, Theology for the Community of God; P. K.
ments produced by various conferences con- Jewett, God, Creation, and Revelation; G. R. Lewis and
vened by evangelicals, which reflect a high de- B. A. Demarest, Integrative Theology; A. E. McGrath,
gree of theological commonality. But one of the Christian Theology: An Introduction; E. Rommen and H.
unintended results is that many within the evan- Netland, eds., Christianity and the Religions: A Biblical
gelical missiological community have assumed Theology of World Religions; J. Sanders, No Other Name;
that because there is general agreement on basic C. Van Engen, Mission on the Way; T. Wallstrom, The
theological issues we should focus our resources Creation of a Student Movement to Evangelize the World;
O. Weber, Foundations of Dogmatics.
exclusively on the practical contingencies of
completing that task. Driven by a desire for
achievement, they have abandoned theological Evangelism. Evangelism announces that salva-
reflection and have turned to the secular market- tion has come. The verb evangelize literally
place in search of methodological guarantors of means to bear good news. In the noun form, it
success. Encouraged by the prospect of new lev- translates gospel or evangel. The angels
els of productivity, they uncritically apply social proclamation of Christs birth is typical of the
scientific or managerial techniques to essentially more than 130 times the term in its various
theological issues (see also SOCIAL SCIENCES). forms occurs in the New Testament: Behold, I
Unfortunately, this tends to obviate the advan- bring you good tidings of great joy, which shall
tages of consensus, by allowing activism to blind be to all people. For there is born to you this day
341
Evangelism
in the city of David a Savior, who is Christ the the spiritual consequences of sin continue on for-
Lord (Luke 2:1011). ever in HELL.
The Hebrew term translated in the Septuagint Knowing, therefore, what is at stake, evangel-
by the same word appears in the writings of Isa- ism strikes at the heart of SIN. Though the disclo-
iah: How beautiful upon the mountains are the sure of human rebellion and its result may be
feet of him that brings good news . . . (Isa. bad news, still the gospel shines through it all, for
52:7). Again, speaking of the ministry of the God judges so that he might save.
coming Messiah, the prophet writes, The Spirit Incarnate in Christ. The redeeming work of
of the LORD God is upon Me; because the LORD the Trinity focuses in the person of the Son. In
has anointed Me to preach good tidings . . . (Isa. Jesus Christ evangelism becomes incarnate.
61:1, 2). Jesus is not God apart from the human, nor the
Jesus interpreted his mission as fulfillment of human apart from God; he is God and mankind
this promise (Luke 4:18, 19). He saw himself as united in one Personality. In this perfect union of
an evangelist, announcing the coming of the eternal consciousness, Christ becomes the recon-
KINGDOM OF GOD. This message was to be pro- ciling center of the gospel. All that took place in
claimed in the context of demonstrated compas- salvation before his coming was in anticipation
sion for the bruised and forgotten people of the of him. All that has taken place since his coming
world. is accomplished in his Namethe only Name
At this point, there is often confusion among under heaven given among men by which we
Christians today. Some contend that evangelism must be saved (Acts 4:12).
involves only the gospel declaration, while others The apostolic gospel does not minimize the ex-
identify it essentially with establishing a caring clusive claims of Christ. He alone is Lord, and
presence in society or seeking to rectify injustice. with all authority (Matt. 28:18), he stands
It should be clear that both are necessary. One among us, and says, I am the way, the truth, and
without the other leaves a distorted impression of the life. No one comes to the Father except
the good news. If Jesus had not borne the sor- through me (John 14:6).
rows of people and performed deeds of mercy His mission reaches its climax on the hill of
among them, we might question his concern. On Calvary. There in the fullness of time Jesus bore
the other hand, if he had not articulated the our sins in his own body on the cross, suffering
gospel, we would not have known why he came, in our stead, the just for the unjust, that he
nor how we could be saved. To bind up the might bring us to God (1 Peter 3:18).
wounds of the dying, while withholding the mes- Christs bodily resurrection and subsequent as-
sage that could bring deliverance to their souls, cension into heaven bring the cross forcibly to
would leave them still in bondage. Mere social our attention. For when one dies who has the
concern does not address the ultimate need of a power to rise from the grave, in all honesty we
lost world (see also EVANGELISM AND SOCIAL RE- must ask why he died in the first place. To this
SPONSIBILITY). penetrating question the gospel unequivocally
A Revelation of God. What makes the an- answers, Jesus . . . was delivered for our of-
nouncement so compelling is its divine source. fenses, and was raised again for our purification
Contrary to the opinion of popular humanism, (Rom. 4:24, 25).
evangelism does not originate in the valiant grop- Experiencing Grace. In confronting the reality
ing of persons seeking a higher life. Rather, it of the cross, we are made supremely aware of
comes as a revelation of God who is ever seeking Gods love. It is not that we loved God, but that
to make a people to display his glory. he loved us, and gave himself for us (1 John
The deposit of this divine quest is the canon of 4:10; Gal. 2:20). Perhaps we could understand
inspired Scripture. As the Word of God, without one giving his life for a righteous person, or for a
error in all that it affirms (The Lausanne friend, but God demonstrates his own love to-
Covenant, Section 2) the BIBLE is the objective ward us, in that while we were still sinners,
authority for the gospel. To be sure, it does not Christ died for us (Rom. 5:8).
pretend to answer every curious question of hu- Heaven is the wonder of the gospel. Nothing
mankind, but what is written does show Gods deserved! Nothing earned! In our complete help-
way of salvation to an honest heart. Not surpris- lessness, bankrupt of all natural goodness, God
ingly, then, theological systems that compromise moved in and did for us what we could not do for
Scriptural verities do not produce evangelism. ourselves. It is all of GRACEunmerited love.
The revelation makes us see how we have all From beginning to end, salvation is the gift of
turned to our own way. Such arrogance cannot God (Eph. 2:8).
be ignored by a just God, since it is an affront to The invitation is to all. Whosoever will may
his holiness. Inevitably, then, the sinner must be come (Rev. 22:17). Though the enabling power to
separated from God. Furthermore, his wrath believe is entirely of grace, the responsibility to
upon iniquity cannot be annulled as long as the respond to Gods word rests upon the sinner. We
cause of evil remains. Since life is unending, all must receive the gift in true repentance and faith.
342
Evangelism
It means that we choose to turn from the pretense The Way of the Spirit. Let it be understood,
of self-righteousness, and with a broken and con- however, that this work is not contrived by
trite spirit, trust ourselves unto the loving arms of human ingenuity. God the Holy Spirit is the en-
Jesus. Until there is such a CONVERSION, no one abler. What God administers as the Father and
can enter the kingdom of heaven (Matt. 18:3). reveals as the Son, he accomplishes as the Third
Through this commitment, the believer is in- Member of the Trinity. So the mission of Christ
troduced to a life of forgiveness, love and true through the church becomes the acts of the
freedom. Old things have passed away; behold, Spirit. He lifts up the Word, and as Jesus is glori-
all things have become new (2 Cor. 5:17). There fied, convicted men and women cry out to be
is an actual partaking of the divine nature, so saved. Evangelism is finally Gods work, not ours.
that a regenerated person begins to live in the We are merely the channel through which the
Savior. It is this inward dynamic of sanctification Spirit of Christ makes disciples.
that makes Christianity a saving force for holi- That is why even to begin the Christian life one
ness in the world. Out of it flows compassionate must be born again (John 3:3). It is the Spirit
deeds of mercy and bold evangelistic outreach. who gives life; the flesh profits nothing (John
A Ministering Church. Faithful witness of the 6:63). Likewise, it is the Spirit who sustains and
gospel calls forth the church. All who heed the nourishes the developing relationship. He calls
call and live by faith in the Son of Godpast, the church to ministry. He leads us in prayer. He
present, and futurebecome part of this com- dispenses gifts for service. Through the Spirits
munion of the saints. strength faith comes alive in obedience and by
As the church is created by evangelism, so it his impartation of grace, we are being conformed
becomes the agent of God in dispensing the to the image of our Lord.
gospel to others. Unfortunately, our mission to Everything, then, depends upon the Spirits
the whole world may be forgotten, and we accept possession of the sent ones, the church. Just as
the same delusion as did the self-serving religious those first disciples were told to tarry until they
community of Jesus day. Their attitude was seen received the promised power, so must we (Luke
in bold relief at the cross when they said in deri- 24:49; Acts 2:4). The spiritual inducement at Pen-
sion, He saved others; himself he cannot save tecost, by whatever name is called, must be a re-
(Mark 15:31). What they failed to realize was that ality in our lives, not as a distant memory, but as
Jesus had not come to save himself; he came to a present experience of the reigning Christ. Hin-
save us; The Son of Man did not come to be drances that obstruct his dominion must be con-
served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ran- fessed, and our hearts cleansed so that the Spirit
som for many (Mark 10:4); he came to seek and of holiness can fill us with the love of God.
to save that which was lost (Luke 19:10). Though we can never contain all of him, he
Those who take up his cross, as we are bidden, wants all of usto love and adore him with all
enter into this mission. In this service, whatever that we are and all that we hope to be. Any evan-
our gifts, every person in the church is sent gelistic effort that circumvents this provision will
from God, even as we are called into Christs min- be as lifeless as it is barren. The secret of New
istry (John 17:18; 20:21). Testament evangelism is to let the Holy Spirit
Underscoring this mission, before returning to have his way in our lives.
the Father in heaven, Jesus commanded his The Glorious Consummation. Whatever may
church to go and make disciples of all nations be our method of presenting the gospel, and
(Matt. 28:18). The GREAT COMMISSION is not some wherever God may place us in his service, we
special assignment for a few clerical workers; it labor in the confidence that his world mission
is a way of life; it is the way Jesus directed his life will be finished. Evangelism, as the heartbeat of
with a few disciples while he was among us, and Christian ministry, simply directs our energy to
now the way he expects his church to follow. that goal toward which history is moving, when
Wrapped up in this lifestyle is his plan to evan- the completed church will be presented faultless
gelize the world. For discipleslearners of before the presence of his glory with exceeding
Christwill follow him, and as they learn more of joy (Jude 24).
him, they will grow in his likeness, while also be- Indeed, in Christ the KINGDOM OF GOD is al-
coming involved in his ministry. So they, too, will ready present in the hearts of those that worship
begin to make disciples, teaching them in turn to him, and the day is hastening when his kingdom
do the same, until, through the process of multi- will come to fruition in the new Jerusalem. The
plication, the whole world will hear the gospel. church militant, like an ever-advancing army, will
Bringing people to Christ is not the only ex- at last shatter the principalities of Satan and
pression of the churchs ministry, of course. But storm the gates of hell. In the councils of eternity
it is the most crucial, for it makes possible every the celebration has already begun (Rev. 7:9, 10:
other church activity. Without evangelism the 11:15). Anything we do which does not con-
church would soon become extinct. tribute to that destiny is an exercise in futility.
343
Evangelism
Our work now on earth may seem slow, and On the surface, the modern mission movement
sometimes discouraging, but we may be sure that began in the nineteenth century with a whole
Gods program will not suffer defeat. Someday gospel. Missionaries planted churches, and es-
the trumpet will sound, and the Son of Man, with tablished schools, hospitals, handicraft projects,
his legions, shall descend from heaven in trailing and agricultural centers. They cared for the starv-
clouds of glory, and he will reign over his people ing during times of famine, and called for social
gathered from every tongue, every tribe, every na- justice. Underneath these activities, however, the
tion. This is the reality which always rings dualistic perspective persisted. It did not help
through evangelism. that missionaries often cooperated with the colo-
The King is coming! While it does not yet ap- nial agenda, the goal of which was civilizing
pear what we shall be, we know that, when he is their new territories. Evangelism and church
revealed, we shall be like him (1 John 3:2). And planting were seen as the marks of Christianity.
before him every knee shall bow and every Education, medicine, and agriculture were signs
tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the of civilization. In many cases, however, people
glory of God the Father (Phil. 2:11). accepted science, technology, and other manifes-
ROBERT E. COLEMAN tations of modern rational thought introduced by
the missionaries, but rejected the gospel they
SEE ALSO Cross-Cultural Evangelism; Cross-Cul- proclaimed. That is why some observers con-
tural Ministry; Crusade Evangelism; Lifestyle clude that Christian missionaries have unwit-
Evangelism; Presence Evangelism; AND Procla- tingly been a force for SECULARIZATION worldwide.
mation Evangelism. A second consequence of this dualism was that
Bibliography. R. E. Coleman, The Master Plan of missions organized schools, hospitals, and agri-
Evangelism; J. I. Packer, Evangelism and the Sovereignty cultural projects based on Western models that
of God; E. L. Towns, Evangelism and Church Growth: A did not fit local contexts. The operation of these
Practical Encyclopedia; Equipping for Evangelism. institutions reflected the division between evan-
gelism and social concern. Specialists provided
Evangelism and Social Responsibility. Over the services in a compartmentalized way that com-
past two centuries the modern Protestant move- municated something less than an integrated
ment has planted vibrant churches around the gospel. Furthermore, these institutions required
world. Today, the center of Christianity is moving large amounts of money and Western-style orga-
to these younger churches. But this growth is not nizational skill, most of which had to be im-
without its problems. One area of deep concern ported from outside. Later, when missions began
in many evangelical circles is the division be- handing over the administration of the institu-
tween evangelism and social concerns. Despite tions to local churches, local leaders often saw
many efforts to present a whole gospel, the ef- them as heavy burdens which their churches
fects of this dualism in missions and churches could not easily sustain.
are still apparent. The division between evangelism and social
The roots of this division go back to medieval concern reached its peak in the early twentieth
Europe, where churches and monasteries were century in the battles between liberals and fun-
centers of worship, evangelism, literacy, relief, damentalists over the emerging Social Gospel
medicine, and agriculture. The WORLDVIEW of the movement. Liberal churches virtually abandoned
Middle Ages, rooted in biblical thought, divided aggressive evangelism in favor of relief and de-
reality between the Creator and the creation. In velopment ministries of all kinds. Conservative
this view God was intimately involved in all of his churches increasingly focused their attention on
creation, and all creation, including both heav- evangelism and church planting, and left relief
enly and earthly concerns, was one. That same and development tasks to parachurch agencies.
unity is evident in the ministry of Jesus, which That emphasis has created the impression in
reflects a wholism that does not seem natural many parts of the world that the church deals
today. with ultimate concerns, but has little to con-
By the eighteenth century, the church felt tribute to the urgent needs of the contemporary
called to worship and to mission, but education, world.
medicine, and agriculture became the domains In recent years there have been efforts in evan-
of science and the modern nation-state. The shift gelical circles to restore a holistic understanding
was due mainly to the rediscovery of Greek of the gospel. In 1966 the CONGRESS ON THE
thought, especially Greek dualism, which sepa- CHURCHS WORLDWIDE MISSION was held at
rated spirit and matter, supernatural and natural, Wheaton, Illinois, sponsored by the Evangelical
and heavenly and earthly affairs. The absorption Foreign Mission Association (now the EVANGELI-
of dualism theologically was formalized by CAL FELLOWSHIP OF MISSION AGENCIES) and the IN-
Thomas Aquinas. The result was the increasingly TERDENOMINATIONAL FOREIGN MISSION ASSOCIATION,
sharp distinction between religion and science, agencies that represented at that time 102 mis-
or between eternal and earthly needs. sion boards and 30,000 missionaries. The con-
344
Evangelism and Social Responsibility
gress, which was comprised of nearly 1,000 dele- mittee for World Evangelization, and the CON-
gates from 71 countries, wrote The Wheaton Dec- SULTATION ON THE CHURCH IN RESPONSE TO HUMAN
laration, in which they called on the church to NEED (Wheaton, 1983) sponsored by the World
address contemporary issues such as racism, war, Evangelical Fellowship. Both affirmed that evan-
the population explosion, poverty, and the disin- gelism cannot be divorced from meaningful in-
tegration of the family. This growing concern for volvement with people in all their needs. In re-
a Christian response to social problems was due, cent years, Christian agencies such as World
in part, to the influence of the large number of Vision International, Food for the Hungry, the
participants from outside the United States Mennonite Central Committee, and the Adventist
whose churches could not ignore the social evils Development and Relief Agency have initiated
around them. Also in 1966, the WORLD CONGRESS theological and administrative reflections on how
ON EVANGELISM gathered in Berlin, sponsored by to implement the proclamation of the whole
Christianity Today. That congress reaffirmed the gospel (see also HOLISM, BIBLICAL).
importance of proclaiming the gospel, but in the It is clear that as long as evangelism and social
closing statement condemned racism and called concern are seen as two separate entities that
for repentance and unity among Christians in ad- need to be integrated, the dualism that has weak-
dressing the worlds desperate needs. In the re- ened missions will remain. Some will reduce one
gional congresses that followed (Singapore, Min- to the other: conservatives will see social min-
neapolis, Bogota), the involvement of the church istries as means to evangelistic ends and liberals
in social issues was a recurring theme. In 1973, will see social ministries as ends in themselves.
the Workshop on Evangelicals and Social Con- Others will try to balance the two by claiming
cern drafted the Chicago Declaration of Evangeli- that one is more important than the other, with
cal Social Concern which represented another at- many conservatives arguing that evangelism is
tempt to transcend the traditional dichotomy the top priority while liberals counter that the
between evangelism and social responsibility. church must concentrate on other, more pressing
The LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGE- needs. Both approaches fail to integrate the dif-
LIZATION (1974) took a major step toward resolv- ferent strands of the gospel into a single whole.
ing the tension between these two concerns by We will proclaim a whole gospel only when we
affirming that both evangelism and social re- reject the dualism between supernatural and nat-
sponsibility are essential to the mission of the ural realities, religion and science, and evangel-
church. The Lausanne Covenant stated that The ism and social concerns. Many young churches
message of salvation also implies a message of in other cultures have taken a step in this direc-
judgment upon every form of alienation, oppres- tion by making no distinction between the spiri-
sion, and discrimination, and we should not be tual and the material, or between supernatural
afraid to denounce evil and injustice wherever and natural realms. Many of them model inte-
they exist (section 5). The plea to keep evangel- grated ministries to whole persons and societies.
ism and social concerns together was strength- Evangelical mission agencies and churches are
ened by a statement of support that was signed catching on as well. In partnership with younger
by some five hundred Lausanne participants. churches, they are beginning to focus on people
This effort to bring evangelism and social re- more than tasks, on holistic development more
sponsibility together generated sharp criticisms than relief, on transformation more than the sim-
on the part of some mission leaders in North ple delivery of services (see also TRANSFORMA-
America. But, particularly for those in the Two- TIONAL DEVELOPMENT), and on the formation of
Thirds World, it was an invitation to proclaim a living communities of faith rather than bureau-
whole gospel. That conviction was validated cratic institutions. Some agencies are backing
again at the All India Conference on Evangelical away from the overspecialization that character-
Social Action (1979), the Second Latin American izes Western approaches to life and are offering
Congress on Evangelism (1979), and the Consul- a more generalized sort of training with holistic
tation on Simple Lifestyle (1980) sponsored by ministry in mind (see also HOLISTIC MISSION).
the Lausanne Committee and the WORLD EVAN- The push for holism draws strength from the
GELICAL FELLOWSHIP. Although attempts were rediscovery of the church as a healing commu-
made at the WORLD CONSULTATION ON WORLD nity where Christians gather to WORSHIP, to bear
EVANGELIZATION (Pattaya, 1980) to focus exclu- WITNESS to the world, and to minister healing, in
sively on world evangelism, many delegates the fullest sense of the term, to people. It is also
called for the inclusion of social issues in the fueled by a renewed emphasis on a theology of
conference statement. the kingdom of God, within which evangelism,
The need to clarify the relationship between church, ministry, and prophetic witness are parts
evangelism and social responsibility led to the of the whole. This kingdom, however, cannot be
CONSULTATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN defined by theories of modern utopias, as in
EVANGELISM AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (Grand Marxism and capitalism. It is defined by Christ,
Rapids, 1982) sponsored by the Lausanne Com- its King. He and his incarnation as a human
345
Evangelism and Social Responsibility
unite Gods concerns for all creation, now and for dressed his defense of Christianity to the Em-
eternity. His salvation includes not only eternal peror Hadrian.
life in the presence of God, but also a new earth Other early evangelists served in the mission-
characterized by righteousness, peace, justice, ary capacity such as PANTAENUS, who took the
and fullness of life. In a word, Shalom is the ideal gospel as far as India. Pantaenus was the founder
to which individual Christians as well as the cor- and first teacher of the theological school in
porate church aspires. As Dan Fountain points Alexandria around A.D. 180. He was primarily a
out, Gods plan for the world is this: that all per- missionary theologian. When he arrived in India,
sons everywhere, in every nation, know Gods he discovered that many people had a copy of the
saving health and be delivered from disobedi- Gospel of Matthew. Eusebius notes that these
ence, disruption, despair, disease and all that copies had been left by the apostle Bartholomew
would destroy our wholeness. during a preaching tour through India.
PAUL G. HIEBERT AND MONTE B. COX From the beginning of Christianity, the evangel-
ist has played an important role in reaching the
Bibliography. B. Bradshaw, Bridging the Gap: Evan-
gelism, Development and Shalom; E. J. Elliston, ed., non-Christian population. As missionaries, apolo-
Christian Relief and Development: Developing Workers gists, and theological educators, evangelists have
for Effective Ministry; R. Greenway, Together Again!; played vital roles in the growth of the church.
B. J. Nicholls, Word and Deed: Evangelism and Social In contemporary times, evangelists have been
Responsibility; C. R. Padilla, Transformation 2:3 (1985): particularly effective through the medium of
2732; E. Ram, ed., Transforming Health: Christian Ap- mass evangelism (see also MASS COMMUNICATION).
proaches to Healing and Wholeness; T. Sine, ed., The Evangelists such as BILL BRIGHT, BILLY GRAHAM,
Church in Response to Human Need; C. Van Engen, LUIS PALAU, and Ravi Zacharias have seen great
Mission on the Way.
impact in reaching people through specialized
tools (e.g., tracts), mass media (radio, television,
Evangelist. The term evangelist is used three the JESUS FILM), crusades (see CRUSADE EVANGE-
times in the New Testament: Acts 21:8 refers to LISM), and other significant evangelistic methods.
Philip as the evangelist; Ephesians 4:11 refers to FRANK HARBER
the evangelist as a gift or office of the church;
and in 2 Timothy 4:5 Timothy is exhorted to do Bibliography. J. D. Douglas, ed., The Work of an
the work of an evangelist. These references indi- Evangelist; idem, ed., The Calling of the Evangelist;
M. Green, Evangelism in the Early Church.
cate that the evangelist is a divinely gifted spe-
cialist in the work of the church.
During the second century, evidence indicates Evangelistic Mandate. See GREAT COMMISSION.
that there were great numbers of Christians who
became full-time wandering evangelists. As mis- Evangelization, Measurement of. A major bibli-
sionaries they set out on long journeys endeavor- cal concept standing for human response and re-
ing to preach the gospel to those who had never sponsibility with regard to the implementation of
heard. Gods mission to the world. The term can be de-
The evangelist in many ways parallels the fined as the whole process of spreading the Good
APOSTLE. The apostle is described in the Didache News of the KINGDOM OF GOD, the extent to which
as a wandering missionary. Such a close associa- the Good News has been spread, the extent of
tion has led scholars, such as Adolf Harnack, to awareness of Christianity, Christ, and the gospel.
conclude that there was little distinction between It is based on the central biblical verb euangelizo,m
apostles and evangelists. Because the apostles which with its immediate cognates occurs 25
were known as those who preach the gospel (Gal. times in the Greek Old Testament (Septuagint)
1:8; outside of the New Testament, see 1 Clem. and 132 times in the New Testament, with its
42.1; Polycarp, Ep. 6:3; and Barn. 8:3), the evan- meaning similar to the English transliteration
gelists were closely linked with them. A fre- evangelize. The Greek verb means to spread the
quently quoted dictum was, Every apostle is an good news of the gospel, with signs following, in
evangelist but not every evangelist is an apostle. both supernatural power and compassionate deed;
The evangelist continued the work of the apostles to preach, to persuade, to call to faith in Christ.
long after the technical sense of an apostle as one The Greek verb has 42 synonyms in biblical Greek,
who was an eyewitness of Jesus earthly ministry and the English verb has 700 synonyms in current
(Acts 1:2122) ceased. English, which can be reduced to 400 distinct and
Evangelists also served as apologists, giving different dimensions of evangelization.
able defenses of the faith to the secular world. Evangelization can be seen as obedience to the
Quadradus has been thought by many to be the seven mandates of Christs GREAT COMMISSION:
earliest Christian apologist. The historian Euse- Receive (the Spirit)! Go! Witness! Proclaim! Dis-
bius refers to him as an evangelist who wrote a ciple! Baptize! Train! The churchs endeavors to
defense against the false charges of the heathen obey this Commission have resulted in some 45
in order to defend his fellow Christians. He ad- major types or varieties of Christian ministry and
346
Evil Spirit
outreach. Down through the centuries, the at the Koho Bible Institute, which was estab-
churchs concern with evangelization has resulted lished in the 1930s by Herbert Jackson, Helens
in over 1,400 distinct global plans to evangelize uncle. She was a primary contributing translator
the world, some 300 of which are still being en- for the Koho New Testament (published 1967)
ergetically implemented today. and translated hymns and choruses for the Koho
In order to keep track of the status of evange- church hymnal. Alongside her academic and
lization and progress with its implementation, the translation work her weekends were devoted to
worlds churches and missions spend about U.S. taking Koho youth in her Land Rover into the
$750 billion each year on their annual censuses. surrounding mountain villages for services in
This status is measured and enumerated for indi- Christian villages and for witness to non-Chris-
viduals, for peoples, for language speakers, for tians. Due to the Vietnamese communist revolu-
cities, for countries, for continents, or for the en- tion of 1975 she relocated to Indonesia, where
tire world. It enables the computation, for any from 1977 to 1986 she learned the Indonesian
specific population, of the number of evangelistic language and taught theology at the CMA Bible
opportunities people receive, per year per capita.
School in Makale, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. In
It also enables the trichotomy to be formed
1986 her mission reassigned her to assist immi-
whereby the world and its populations can be
grant tribal refugees from Vietnams Central
categorized as either World A (the unevangelized,
being populations with individuals numbering Highlands resettle in Charlotte, North Carolina,
less than 50% evangelized, but with church mem- where she resides.
bers less than 60%), and World C (the Christian JAMES F. LEWIS
world, with church members numbering more
than 60%). This enables mission planners to see Evans, James (180146). English missionary to
clearly the distinction between, on the one hand, Canada and linguist. Born in England, Evans
the worlds 4 billion non-Christians, as priority traveled to Canada in 1823 and taught at the Rice
target for the sharing of all the benefits of Christ Lake Indian Mission School. He was ordained a
and his kingdom, and on the other hand, the Methodist minister in 1833 and went to work
worlds already heavily Christianized populations among the Ojibwa people. Evans was appointed
with strong enough home ministries to not re- general superintendent of Northwest Indian Mis-
quire foreign missionary resources. sions in 1840, based in northern Manitoba. He
Evangelization is widely recognized as danger- had already prepared a grammar for the Ojibwa
ous business. Throughout 20 centuries and 70 language and now started work on a written lan-
generations of Christian mission, 60 million Chris- guage for the Cree Indians. He invented a syllabic
tians have become martyrs for Christbelievers alphabet of simplicity and eloquence that was
who have lost their lives, prematurely, in situations adopted by the Crees and is still in use today
of witness, as a result of human hostility. Every among many of the Indian people of northwest
day around 500 Christians scattered across 100 Canada. In 1841, using ingenuity and the materi-
countries are murdered because of their faith. In- als at hand, he printed a hymnal in Cree, possibly
evitably, persons at highest risk are those imple- the first book printed in the Canadian northwest.
menting evangelizationbishops, evangelists, col- By this time he had made enemies in Hudson
porteurs, and foreign missionaries. MARTYRDOM
Bay Company, which was the political power in
has thus become, empirically, the major single fac-
the area. Evans taught his converts to rest on
tor involved in world evangelization.
Sunday and this slowed down fur trade. Com-
DAVID B. BARRETT
pany officials accused him of immorality and
SEE ALSO Quantitative Research. murder. Although cleared of all charges, the
struggle broke his health and heart and he re-
Evans, Helen E. (1930 ). American missionary turned to England to die in 1846. But he trained
to Vietnam and Indonesia. Educated at Wheaton a group of translators to succeed him and in
College (Illinois) (B.A., 1946) and the Nyack Mis- 1861 they published the entire Bible in the Cree
sionary Training College (New York) (1949), she language, using his alphabet.
served as a rural Bible teacher under the New ROBERT SHUSTER
England Fellowship of Evangelicals (194648,
Bibliography. P. R. Dekar, BDCM, pp. 2034; N. Ship-
1950). She was sent by the CHRISTIAN AND MIS-
ley, The James Evans Story.
SIONARY ALLIANCE (CMA) to French Indo-China in
1951 after French-language studies in Paris.
After learning the language of the Koho, a Evanston Assembly (1954). See WORLD COUNCIL
mountain dwelling people in the Central High- OF CHURCHES ASSEMBLIES.
lands near Dalat, Vietnam, she served there
twenty-three years as a teacher, translator, and Evil Spirit. See DEMON, DEMONIZATION; also POS-
youth worker. She was a regular faculty member SESSION PHENOMENA.
347
Exegesis
Exegesis. Exegesis, from the Greek word exegeo- These steps provide the raw data, the original
mai meaning to lead out or explain, inter- meaning of the passage. Theological exegesis
pret, or describe, has come to refer to the act seeks to understand what it teaches about God,
and process of determining the meaning of a Gods view of human persons, Gods expectations
text, particularly a biblical text. In the broader from those who confront his revelation, and ex-
field, HERMENEUTICS (the principles and theory of amples of Gods dealing with people. The careful
the art and science of interpretation), modern exegete is aware of basic spiritual and moral
students may include such goals as discovering principles, rooted in the nature of God, which are
the authors experience and person at the mo- revealed in the Bible. Occasionally these are
ment of writing or the readers authentic self- stated plainly, more often they are revealed
hood. Traditional exegesis seeks to discover as through the situations related in the Bible. These
precisely as possible the meaning and intent of principles should be identified in individual pas-
the original author. Hence, it is assumed that, sages and in Scripture as a whole. These revealed
with the possible exception of predictive principles comprise the teachings, the doctrines,
prophecy, the correct interpretation of a passage of Scripture which were applied in the ancient
must be something the author could have in- world and now must be implemented in very dif-
tended and the first hearer/readers understood. ferent situations of the modern world.
The careful exegete will employ a number of Exegesis is important for missions at a number
steps included in what is often called the gram- of points. It is the biblical message that the mis-
matical-historical method. These include: sionary proclaims; exegesis is essential to ensure
(1) What did the writer write? Answering this it is indeed that message which is declared. Exe-
question includes consideration of textual criti- gesis is imperative to understand properly the na-
cism, seeking that which is most likely what the ture and parameters of the missionary commis-
writer wrote when there are differences in the sion lest we undertake a human rather than the
wording among ancient manuscripts linguistic divine agenda.
study of the words and grammatical structure of Careful exegesis must distinguish between the
the original language if possible; and the nature basic principles of Scripture and the adaptation
and wording of translations (literary, dynamic and application of them in specific cultural set-
equivalent, paraphrase). (2) What was the literary tings. Contemplation of the essential truths of the
setting? Here one seeks to identify the genre or lit- faith and their cultural adaptations in Scripture
erary form (narrative, poetry, history, prophecy, must be the basis for legitimate CONTEXTUALIZA-
wisdom, apocalyptic, gospel, epistle, etc.) in TION. This helps guard against letting the modern
order to employ the methods appropriate for un- culture pour its message into the Bible rather
derstanding it. Consideration of the literary con- than making the divine revelation understand-
text enables the student to see the implications able and adaptable to the modern world. This is
for interpretation of what comes just before and essential in conveying the gospel and its implica-
after the passage under consideration as well as tions in the culture and setting of people groups
its relation to the book as a whole, all books by
addressed by missions, avoiding unnecessarily
the same author, its position within the Testa-
transporting forms, emphases, traditions, and
ment, Old or New, within which it appears, and
values from the missionaries own culture. The
in the Bible as a whole. (3) What were the intro-
cultural awareness which is a part of the mis-
ductory matters of the identity of the writer and
sionary-interpreters responsibilities is also es-
recipients, their situation, when and where the
sential to avoid literalistic or legalistic interpre-
document was written, the purpose, and the
tations and applications which miss the authors
writers sources of information? (4) What were
(divine and human) intent.
the elements of the historical situation, including
All biblical translation should be based upon
the influences of geography, politics, philosophy,
the social, religious, and cultural context of the solid exegesis. As important as it is to put as
day, as well as the intellectual and current events quickly as possible the Scriptures in the language
of the writers time? It is important to note that of groups among which missions work, the trans-
different parts of the BIBLE often have their dis- lator must, by careful exegesis, be sure that the
tinct historical-cultural settings within which translation conveys the same message to the mind
each must be considered. of the modern recipient as it did to the original re-
The exegete may also find help in seeing how cipients. Exegesis must assure that the translator
others have dealt with the passage. An examina- has done this as closely as possible before work is
tion of the history of its interpretation will pro- begun on transferring the message into the new
vide both positive and negative examples. Con- setting (see also BIBLE TRANSLATION).
sulting commentaries may furnish information J. JULIUS SCOTT, JR.
and insights one might otherwise miss. However, Bibliography. G. Bray, Biblical Interpretation Past
neither of these should substitute for the inter- and Present; G. D. Fee and D. Stuart, How to Read the
preters personal struggling with the passage. Bible For All Its Worth; G. D. Fee, New Testament Exege-
348
Extent of Missionary Identification
sis, A Handbook for Students and Pastors; W. J. Larkin, als, but abandoned or issued strict controls over
Culture and Biblical Hermeneutics. Interpreting and Ap- them by the 1600s to prevent abuses. Among
plying the Authoritative Word in a Relativistic Age; some contemporary Christian groups the form of
M. Larson, Meaning Based Translation; A. B. Mickelsen,
demonic confrontation, the use of religious para-
Interpreting the Bible; G. Osborne, The Hermeneutical
Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Inter- phernalia (water, oil, crucifixes), prayer and fast-
pretation; D. Stuart, Old Testament Exegesis. ing, and repetitive reading of key Bible passages
all with the extensive use of formulaic language
point to a ritual orientation even though no for-
Exodus, The. See OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY OF
MISSION. malized procedure is being followed.
It is important for the missionary to understand
the function of exorcism in the local community.
Exorcism. To exorcize is to charge under oath The fact that we are privileged to call on Christs
(e.g., in Matt. 26:63 Jesus is adjured to tell the authority in dealing with spirits in a POWER EN-
truth about his messianic status). The term also COUNTER is often recognized by the local commu-
refers to the expelling of a spirit or spirits by nity as Gods work among them, and thus pro-
means of ritual(s). Such rituals involve oaths; vides an evangelistic breakthrough. A danger to
they may also include the use of magical formu- be noted is that if missionaries present a ritual-
las and secret incantations. Though widely used
dependent Christian authority over the demonic,
today of Christian work in expelling demons, the
they may be opening the door to the rise of SYN-
term exorcism is not used in the New Testa-
CRETISM in the form of Christian magical thinking.
ment to describe Jesus or his disciples ministry.
A. SCOTT MOREAU
Rather than relying on ritual, they cast out
demons by verbally exercising Gods authority SEE ALSO Demons, Demonism AND Possession
(see DEMON, DEMONIZATION). The noun occurs Phenomena.
only in Acts 19:13 of Jewish exorcists who used
Bibliography. F. Goodman, How about Demons?
the name of Jesus in a botched exorcism.
Possession and Exorcism in the Modern World; M. Kraft,
Rituals of exorcism are found in every world Understanding Spiritual Power; S. Moreau, The World of
religion and especially in FOLK RELIGIONS. Four the Spirits.
components are almost universally involved: the
exorcist, the victim, the community, and the rit-
Extended Family. See KINSHIP.
ual. The exorcist is seen as a person with special
powers. The victim may be troubled because of
personal, clan, or tribal TABOO violations or rela- Extent of Missionary Identification. Mission-
tional breakdowns. Anthropologists note that the ary identification pervades all levels of the mis-
victim is often a scapegoat for the community. In sionary task. A complex concept, effective mis-
spite of this, the community still lends support to sionary identification lies at the heart of making
the exorcistic process, especially when commu- Christ known across cultures and involves all
nity participation is required for restoration. The that we are as human beings. A superficial mis-
ritual is the actual ceremony in which the spirits sionary identification merely imitates the local
are expelled. The variations are many, though customs of a people hoping to gain access for a
they generally focus on the release of spiritual hearing of the gospel. With time, however, the re-
power. This may be accomplished by torture to ceiving culture will recognize such identification
make the victim an uninhabitable host for spirits; as a gimmick. As Nida notes, the goal is not to
the application of specially prepared herbs; the propagandize people into the kingdom but to
use of magical formulas, chants, and incanta- identify with them so as to communicate more
tions; an offering; or some type of animal sacri- clearly with them. This can only come about by
fice. The help or advice of friendly spirits may be being with them where they are and working
enlisted through mediumistic channeling to deal with them rather than for them.
with the spirit tormenting the victim. Under- Historically rooted in anthropological research
standing the functions of such rituals and the techniques where the researcher studied his or
way they act as a social glue in the community is her subjects in their own context, identification
important for the missionary. If they are dis- was recognized as a means of increasing insights,
carded by the missionary and the social functions sympathy, and influence among the people under
that they serve remain unmet, the practices may study. The sensitive missionary, however, goes
simply go underground. further and benefits more deeply by becoming
A variety of formalized exorcism ceremonies subjectively involved with the people among
have existed inside the church from early on. In whom he or she ministers. Recognizing that the
the second and third centuries, rituals of exorcism final decision for Christ lies with the hearer, not
were a common part of the baptismal process. the advocate, early concepts for missionary iden-
The Catholic Church has a well-established ritual. tification called for the missionary to work in
Lutherans and Anglicans once had exorcism ritu- light of human social institutions and the associ-
349
Extent of Missionary Identification
ated means to make decisions in the local setting The second arena for missionary identification
when presenting the gospel. deals with the content and presentation of the
Contemporary missiology presents missionary message. Drawing from COMMUNICATION theory,
identification based on an incarnational model the missionary is encouraged to adopt the recep-
for ministry (see INCARNATIONAL MISSION). The tors frame of reference where one becomes fa-
model functions within three main arenas: the miliar with the conceptual framework of the re-
life of the missionary, the message itself, and the ceptor and attempts to fit communication of the
medium or forms that convey the message. message within the categories and felt needs of
The first arena, the missionarys lifestyle, fos- the receptors WORLDVIEW. Thus, the message is
ters the most powerful means of identification. presented in a way that scratches where the
The missionary seeks to become a full participant hearer itches. Jesus demonstrated this when he
in the host society. Recognizing the reality of spoke to the woman at the well about living
misunderstanding, the missionary enters the new water and her background. He also dealt with
culture as a learner rather than teacher. He or Nicodemus on his own Pharasaic terms. He in-
she is open to genuinely sharing his or her own teracted differently with Zacchaeus (Luke
cultural background. Thus, the missionary be- 19:110), the rich young ruler (Mark 10:21), and
comes a type of culture-broker living between the demoniac (Luke 8:3839). Furthermore, the
two worlds, transmitting information from one apostle Paul followed Jesus example when he de-
to the other, bringing the gospel from without termined to be Jewish or Greek depending on his
and giving from one cultural context to contem- audience (1 Cor. 9:1922), clearly seen in his ad-
porary yet culturally different recipients. The dress to the Athenians (Acts 17:2231).
goal of identification is to achieve a cross- The third arena for missionary identification
cultural understanding in order to effectively lies in the development of the forms and media
communicate the message of Christ. The result of for conveying the gospel message. The mission-
participating deeply in another culture forces one ary who has not learned the beliefs, feelings, and
to think in new ways and recognize differing values of a culture will often fail to recognize the
views of reality. In doing so, the missionary be- most appropriate methods for communicating
comes a bicultural person with a broader vision Christ. There is the continued danger of simple
that enables the ability to pull away from the translation of Western books, songs, drama, and
home culture and work meaningfully in the new films. As Tippett suggested, the first step in iden-
one (see BICULTURALISM). Incarnational mission- tification is to accept as many indigenous forms
aries thus develop a new cultural framework and procedures as can legitimately be retained as
based on the two cultures known to them, allow- Christian. Although the cost in time and effort to
ing more effective ministry in the host culture. pursue such CONTEXTUALIZATION of the gospel is
Additionally, they often find new perceptions great, it does not match the cost and threat of
about their home culture. miscommunicating the gospel. A syncretistic ac-
Inherent to the goal of living in two worlds as ceptance of the gospel and stilted or stunted
a bicultural person is the danger of rejection of churches easily result from lack of identification
one of our two worlds. We may either reject the on this level.
culture in which we are ministering or reject our Missionary identification today is not an option:
own culture by going native. Neither of these it is an imperative. Historically, one of the results
options is helpful to the missionary personally or of poor missionary identification has been the na-
professionally. The first option denies the validity tional outcry of Missionary go home! We must
of the people with whom we are ministering. The learn from our mistakes and move ahead with
second option denies the fact that we will always greater determination, especially in light of
be seen as outsiders. Our goal is to learn to ac- modernitys more complex degree of multicultur-
cept what is true and good in all cultures and to alism. In spite of our tendency to work at external
critique what is false and evil in each of them identification, people still need to experience love
based on deeply rooted biblical truth. on deeper levels. Missionaries must incarnate
The practice of incarnational missionary iden- themselves by recognizing and working within the
tification functions on three levels: (1) lifestyle individual needs and social contexts of peoples.
external identification in terms of language, ROBERTA R. KING
dress, food, patterns of courtesy, use of local
transportation, and housing; (2) willingness to SEE ALSO Bonding; Culture Learning; Culture
serve alongside and eventually under a local Shock.
leader; (3) inner identification, the deepest of all
Bibliography. K. Bediako, Christianity in Africa: The
levels. Attitudes of dignity, respect, and trust Renewal of a Non-Western Religion; P. Hiebert, Anthropo-
speak of our genuine love for the people with logical Insights for Missionaries; C. H. Kraft, Christianity
whom we minister. Genuinely deep love forms in Culture; E. Nida, Message and Mission: The Communi-
both the foundation and capstone for all levels of cation of the Faith; P. Parshall, New Paths in Muslim
identification. Evangelism; A. Tippett, Introduction to Missiology.
350
E-F Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:45 AM Page 351
Fads in Missions. When an innovation begins to

take hold, we would like to know if it is going to
endure. One way is to ask how biblical the inno-
vation is: Does it aim at reinforcing some biblical
mandate or principle, or recovering one that has
been neglected?
For example, when RALPH WINTER rocked the
LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGELIZATION in
1974 with his vision of hidden people, it was
not a fad. Recognizing Christs mandate to reach
Ff
not have the strength the innovation once knew,
so may prove to be a fad.
Two of the strongest emphases in the last quar-
ter of the twentieth century were SHORT-TERM
every nation, the unreached of the world became MISSION and TENT-MAKING MISSIONS. These can-
the focal point of evangelical missions. Thus, to- not be considered fads since they have always
ward the end of the twentieth century a plethora been with us, but unrealistic expectations for
of innovations aimed in the same direction: the these approaches may pass since they lack bibli-
10/40 WINDOW concept, the AD 2000 Movement, cal mandate or principle.
identifying the gateway cities or peoples, for Holy Spirit power is essential for missionary
example, all target the least reached. Are they success, but the innovations accompanying the
fads? Time will tell. POWER ENCOUNTER movement at the end of the
Another innovation which has endured is the twentieth centuryprayer walks, spiritual map-
indigenous methodology developed in the nine- ping, confronting an identifiable demonic
prince that reigns over a city or region (see TER-
teenth century by JOHN NEVIUSthat the goal of
RITORIAL SPIRITS), and many othersmay prove
missions is to establish self-governing, self-
to be fads because the biblical foundation is at
supporting, self-propagating churches (see IN-
least problematic.
DIGENOUS CHURCHES). The Third-World missions
Innovation is essential for the cause of mis-
movement has grown from the self-propagat-
sions and this will bring genuine biblical ad-
ing or GREAT COMMISSION mandate, an enduring
vance, but inevitably it will bring passing fads as
new development. But fads often seem to ac- well. The way of confidence is to evaluate each
company biblical innovation. For example, the new idea at the bar of Scripture.
self-support principle became, let the nationals ROBERTSON MCQUILKIN
do it, and let the West pay for it (see FOREIGN FI-
NANCING OF INDIGENOUS WORKERS). These are fads SEE ALSO Controversies in Contemporary Evan-
that will pass because they violate basic biblical gelical Missions.
principles. We can never buy our way out of per-
sonal responsibility, nor assign world evangelism Faeroe Islands (Denmark Autonomous Area)
to others so long as half the world has no Christ- (Est. 2000 pop. 47,000; 1,399 sq. km. [540 sq.
ian nationals, because peoples live out of reach mi.]). A small group of eighteen islands off the
of present gospel witness. coast of northern Europe between Iceland and
DONALD MCGAVRANS themes of concentrating Scotland populated primarily by Faeroese (of
on responsive peoples and targeting homogenous Scandinavian descent) who are largely dependent
units for evangelism are certainly far less popu- on fishing for their livelihood. In 1993 the popu-
lar than they once were. This should come as no lation was estimated at 93.4 percent Christian
surprise regarding the HOMOGENEOUS UNIT PRIN- (93% Protestant, 0.1% Catholic, 0.3% marginal),
CIPLE, since it is extra-biblical (though not though they are generally nominal. The Evangeli-
demonstrably anti-biblical, at least in the way cal Lutheran Church, thought to be present since
McGavran advocated it). But concentration on the mid-eighteenth century, is the largest denom-
responsive people is clearly biblical, the way God ination, followed by the Christian Brethren.
himself operates. Nevertheless, this concept does A. SCOTT MOREAU
351
Faith
Faith. Faith is both proposition and practice, from sin also came to live in them, to direct and
creed and conduct, belief and behavior. Hebrews control their lives, to be the object of their wor-
11 describes what faith is and what faith does. ship, love, obedience, and service. Therefore, peo-
James warns that faith that does not work is no ple of faith confess Christ as Savior and Lord.
faith at all. Throughout Scripture, faith is not They commit themselves without reservation to
only revealed in terms of what to believe, the ob- do his good and perfect will.
ject of faith, God himself, but it is also that which From this obedient faith springs the New Tes-
works in the human mind, heart, and will to tament pattern for mission. Faith is not a pass-
bring people to saving trust in the living God. ing phase; it is a continuing walk of obedience
Although the word faith does not stand out to the Lords commands, including his G REAT
boldly in the Old Testament, the stories of Gods COMMISSION.
people are replete with belief, trust, and hope. Church history reveals remarkable exploits of
For example, the deeply introspective psalms re- what we call faith to evangelize the unbelieving
veal how intense personal faith is. To these writ- world. Unfortunately, too often these heroines
ers, faith stands out like a life preserver. Trust in and heroes of faith were loners, isolated from the
God, rather than self, is proposed as the only way larger institutional churches because they dared
to salvation and wholeness, whether the enemies to go against the grain. While church hierarchies
be internal or external. Old Testament persons and public opinion argued otherwise, these mis-
did not have the advantage of hearing Jesus or sionary pioneers abandoned their comfort zones
reading Paul, but they clearly understood what to enter uncharted waters, where the name of
God required of them in terms of obedient faith, Jesus was not known or confessed.
trust, and hope. These people believed God not for salvation
Faith blossoms like a spring rose in the New alone but also for overcoming horrendous obsta-
Testament. Taken together, in its verb, noun, and cles. In that sense, they discovered a realm of
adjectival forms, the basic Greek word pistis oc- faith often described by Jesus. For example, he
curs more than three hundred times. The object said, Everything is possible for him who be-
of such faith is Gods saving work in his Son, the lieves (Mark 9:23). He promised great results
Lord Jesus Christ. Faith is a personal relation- from faith that was as small as a grain of mus-
ship. People of faith relinquish their own efforts tard seed (Matt. 17:20; Luke 17:6).
to be good enough to please God. Instead, they The story of the expansion of Christianity is
trust completely in Christ and in him alone for filled with exploits that would qualify for inclu-
salvation, forgiveness, righteousness, and whole- sion in Hebrews 11. At the same time, not all of
ness (see also SHALOM). those people were delivered from great tribula-
Although intimately relational, New Testament tion, neither were many missionary pioneers who
faith is rooted in certain historical facts. People laid the foundation for the worldwide church
who come to faith believe the testimony, or the today. In fact, missionary martyrs are many, and
record, about Christs life, death, resurrection, it is important to recognize not only the obedi-
and ascension. The only valid repository of faith ence of their faith, but also the costliness of it.
is the Lord Jesus Christ himself, not a set of facts Having confessed Christ, they put their lives on
about him, not the Bible, not the church, but a the line for him (see MARTYRDOM).
living person. Saving faith does not require a Mission board archives are crammed with sto-
complete understanding of biblical theology, but ries showing that for many missionaries faith
it does require knowing why Jesus came to earth, was defined as obedience, courage, trust, hope,
died, and rose again. and a willingness to die for the sake of planting
Subjective faith begins with a conviction of the the church. Perhaps this quote from LOTTIE
mind based on adequate evidence. It grows in the MOON, a nineteenth-century missionary to China,
confidence of the heart, or emotions, based on says it best: If I had a thousand lives, I would
the conviction of the mind. Faith is crowned in the give them all for the women of China.
consent of the will, by means of which conviction To look at mission from the other side, it is safe
and confidence are expressed in conduct. The will to say that apart from this kind of faith, the
acts in response to what God has done in Christ. church would never have advanced anywhere.
The will says Yes to Jesus Christ. This combina- But somehow the mission of the church exploded
tion of the elements in human personality involves because a minority of Christians took their cue
a moral decision, according to Paul (1 Thess. 1:9) from the faith they saw exercised by the early be-
and Peter (1 Peter 2:25). Jesus described that Yes lievers in the Book of Acts. Those Christians not
in many different ways, as receiving him, trusting only confessed personal faith in Christ, but they
him, believing in him, welcoming him, drinking of either went themselves or sent others to declare
him, eating of him, loving him, and obeying him Christs lordship throughout the Roman Empire
(see also CONVERSION). and into Africa and Asia. Their successors took
New Testament stories and dogma emphasize Christs name throughout Eastern and Western
that the Son of Man who came to redeem people Europe.
352
Faith Missions
Faith is the key to personal salvation and to send out missionaries. The new boards, operat-
missionary obedience. Faith links people to God ing on the faith principle, believed that God
through Jesus Christ; faith engages them whole- would provide even when it appeared that no
heartedly in Gods worldwide mission. Faith has money was available. This made it possible for
been Gods instrument for building his universal them to continue to send out new missionaries.
church. At the beginning, societies like the China Inland
JIM REAPSOME Mission instructed their missionaries not to ask
for money nor to tell anyone but God about their
Faith Missions. With the beginning of the mod- specific financial need. At present, most of the
ern missionary movement in the last years of the faith agencies ask for money or in some way
eighteenth century, several types of mission agen- make their financial needs known.
cies emerged. The earliest agencies, such as the As concerned Christian leaders assessed the
AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN spiritual needs of the world, they formed a num-
MISSIONS and the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY ber of specialized mission agencies that can also
were interdenominational. In the early years of be considered faith or independent societies.
the nineteenth century denominations organized Among these were Mission Aviation Fellowship,
their own boards of missions; and even as late as Far Eastern Broadcasting Company, Gospel
1925, 75 percent of American missionaries were Recordings, and WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS.
affiliated with denominational boards. The formation of these new agencies came in a
Faith mission societies, often also referred to period at the end of the nineteenth century when
mission interest was stirred to new heights by
as independent, interdenominational, or nonde-
many mission conferences both in England and
nominational, developed in the latter half of the
in America. Among these were international con-
nineteenth century. At the present time they have
ventions held in Cleveland, Detroit (1894), and
many more missionaries under appointment
Liverpool (1896) by the STUDENT VOLUNTEER
than do the denominational agencies. These
MOVEMENT FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS. Another series
types of mission agencies appeared first in Great
of important annual conferences was promoted,
Britain, the best known being the CHINA INLAND
beginning in 1893, by the Interdenominational
MISSION in 1865. Some of the early faith missions Conference of Foreign Missionary Boards and
in the United States were the CHRISTIAN AND MIS- Societies in the United States and Canada. The
SIONARY ALLIANCE (1887), the Evangelical Alliance
most international and interdenominational of
Mission (1890), the SUDAN INTERIOR MISSION all these conferences was the ECUMENICAL MIS-
(1893), and the AFRICA INLAND MISSION (1895). SIONARY CONFERENCE held in New York in 1900.
Several interrelated factors led to the develop- From the beginning, the faith mission societies
ment of faith mission societies. First was the con- derived their finances and personnel from inde-
viction that the denominational agencies were pendent Bible and community churches. Most of
not reaching the unevangelized areas of the their missionaries were trained in Bible schools
worldthey were not penetrating the interiors or founded in the last two decades of the nineteenth
frontiers of many countries. The terms interior century, such as Nyack (1882), Moody (1886),
and inland in the names of these new agencies Ontario (1894), and Barrington (1900). Gradu-
testified to this fact. Among the unreached in ally, many of these schools added liberal arts
many countries were women. This led to the first courses to their curriculum and became Bible
American faith mission, the Womans Union Mis- colleges granting the B.A. degree. Most candi-
sionary Society (1860). dates for faith missions continue to come from
A second major issue was theological. Chris- these schools.
tian leaders were alarmed at the growth of what Many faith mission agencies that were based
they perceived to be liberalism in many denomi- originally only in the United States or England
nations and wished to found agencies that were have now established centers in other countries,
fully committed to the authority of Scripture and even in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Thus they
had an evangelistic fervor to reach the lost. These have become international societies, sending mis-
new agencies were connected with the funda- sionaries from six continents to six continents.
mentalist movement, were theologically conser- The theologically more inclusive nature of the
vative, and usually separated themselves from the WORLD MISSIONARY CONFERENCE at Edinburgh in
mainline denominations. They tended to be op- 1910, the growth of liberalism in mainline denom-
posed to the conciliar ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT, be- inations, and the antipathy of denominational
lieving that many of its leaders were liberal and boards to the faith mission agencies contributed to
that it was more committed to social issues than the founding in 1917 of the INTERDENOMINATIONAL
to evangelism. FOREIGN MISSION ASSOCIATION of North America.
A third factor for the establishing of the inde- Boards formerly a part of the Foreign Mission
pendent mission agencies was financial. Denom- Conference of North America, such as the Africa
inational agencies often had insufficient funds to Inland Mission, Central American Mission, China
353
Faith Missions
Inland Mission, Sudan Interior Mission, South compounds her sin by persuading her husband
Africa General Mission, Inland South America to sin (1 Tim. 2:1213).
Missionary Union, and the Womans Union Mis- The immediate consequences of sin were entry
sionary Society joined forces to form this new as- of sin and guilt into the formerly perfect world.
sociation of interdenominational or faith missions The couple experiences guilt, when their eyes are
societies. Today a total of seventy-two agencies be- opened, they know shame, and they hide from
long to the IFMA. the presence of God (Gen. 3:711). Immediately
The IFMA does not include denominational, they die spiritually and in old age they will die
Pentecostal, or holiness groups, even though it is physically. In fact, the whole creation becomes
willing to work with them in cooperative endeav- subject to frustration and decay (Rom. 8:2022).
ors. So in 1945 a group of mission executives re- As a result, a mitigated but real curse falls on
lated to the National Association of Evangelicals Adam and Eve and all humankind. There is mul-
formed the Evangelical Foreign Missions Associ- tiplied pain in child bearing and a constant ten-
ation (EFMA), now renamed EVANGELICAL FEL- sion in Eves relation to her husband. She will de-
LOWSHIP OF MISSION AGENCIES. It includes many
sire to master him, but his role will be to have the
leadership in the home (Gen. 3:16). The man will
agencies that are not members of the IFMA.
only by much toil wrest a living from the soil, a
RALPH R. COVELL
task of doubtful meaningfulness, since his end is
SEE ALSO Independent Non-Denominational physical death, in which he returns to the same
Mission Agencies. soil from which he was taken.
The greatest consequence, however, is the in-
Bibliography. E. L. Frizen Jr., 75 Years of IFMA troduction of original sin into human history
19171992; J. H. Kane, A Concise History of the Christ- (Rom. 5:1219; 1 Cor. 15:2122). Each succeed-
ian World Mission.
ing generation will be born spiritually dead, lack-
ing original right standing with God, charged
Falkland Islands [Islas Malvinas] (United King- with the guilt of the first humans sin, with a sin
dom Dependent Area) (Est. 2000 pop.: 2,000; nature driving them toward a life of sin, and with
16,300 sq. km. [6,293 sq. mi.]). The Falkland Is- only one prospect for eternity: eternal condem-
lands consist of two main islands and over 100 nation (Gen. 4:18, 19; 6:2, 5; Ps. 51:5; Jer. 17:9).
smaller ones in the South Atlantic Ocean off the The account of the fall of humankind does
coast of Argentina. It is a colony of the United offer a glimmer of hope, however. The seed of
Kingdom and its residents enjoy all civil and po- the woman would be final victor in the continu-
litical rights. Nearly all residents are British in ing spiritual battle with the serpents seed. Ad-
background. Most of these are Christians but dressing the serpent God declares the offspring of
there is a growing movement among the nonreli- the woman will crush his head (Gen. 3:15). The
gious. Evangelicals are found among the Angli- rest of biblical revelation reveals that Jesus Christ
cans and the Free Church. is that offspring and in his death and resurrec-
TODD M. JOHNSON tion he won the victory everyone who believes
may claim as his or her own.
Fall of Humankind, The. The biblical teaching ANIMISM, as well as a number of the worlds
concerning the fall of humankind is found in great religions, have myths of origin that include
Genesis 3; Romans 5:1219; 1 Corinthians an account of the fall of humankind. These ac-
counts to a greater or lesser extent agree in detail
15:2122; and 1 Timothy 2:1213. Genesis 1 and
with the Genesis account. The student of com-
2 record the conditions of the golden age when
parative religion may posit nostalgia for the be-
humans, created in the image of God with man-
ginning of things as a permanent part of mans
dates for dominion over and stewardship of cre- collective memory. He or she will conclude that
ation (Gen. 1:2628), were given only one limita- humans in many cultures once positing it as a
tion. You are free to eat from any tree in the golden age will then have to explain the acci-
garden; but you must not eat from the tree of the dent that produced the present situation in
knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat of which there is both physical and moral evil (Ries,
it you will surely die (Gen 2:1617). God sets the 1987, 267). Since Genesis 13 presents itself not
prohibition in the context of his limitless provi- as a religiously generated myth but as a histori-
sion and gives no rationale other than a declara- cal account of beginnings, it is better to explain
tion of the consequences: death. all the similarities between Genesis and religious
The narrative of temptation and sin (Gen. mythology as evidence of humankinds common
3:16) introduces Satan as the crafty tempter, historical memory, which under the influence of
the serpent. He leads Eve to doubt Gods good- the fall yields a variety of versions of what actu-
ness and truthfulness, to allow her appetites to ally happened. The early chapters of Genesis then
transgress Gods law limits, and to act on her de- provide the missionaries with both opportunity
sires in willful rebellion against God. She further and challenges as they approach other cultures
354
Farrar, Cynthia
and religions with the gospel. The opportunity is ject somewhat moot, particularly since the chil-
bridge building to the culture by dealing in the dren of missionaries most often remained in the
area of origins from Genesis 13. The challenge home country for their education and safety. As
is to effectively correct the religionists views on the twentieth century progressed, children did go
these matters so that clearer understanding of overseas with their parents, but usually spent
the truth of biblical revelation results. most of their time in the protected and often in-
Among animists many narratives of the fall sulated enclave of the missionary school.
may be found. These often stress the closeness of In the mid-twentieth century, family issues
God and humanity in the golden age, a theme began to receive expanded attention in mission-
congruent with that of Genesis. The accident, ary circles. This has had both positive and nega-
which introduces death into the world, though tive effects. On the positive side, it opened up a
sometimes a sin, in many instances is not. What discussion of very real issues that impact both
brings the fall may be disturbing the gods with the effectiveness and longevity of missionaries.
the noise of grinding millet (the Dogon of Mali) On the negative side, an almost idolatrous fixa-
or an accident like falling asleep (Aranda of Aus- tion on family needs has at times undercut the
tralia). It may be a matter of an original arche- purposes for which missionaries go forth in the
typal message of immortality being changed in first place.
transmission or not passed on by the messenger This is in many respects a time of transition in
(Ashanti of Ghana). It may occur because of the way agencies and churches respond to issues
human frailty. A Maasai myth tells of a package of family life among missionaries. Most agencies
that humans are given by God and forbidden to today are highly aware that family issues are
open. However, their curiosity drives them to among the most important factors impacting
open it. In all these instances, biblical revelations both missionary recruitment and attrition. Woe
moral and salvation history framework for the to the agency that has not developed policies and
fall must be a necessary corrective. made suitable provision. Perhaps chief among
Hinduism knows no definite occasion on the issues is the education of children. Gone are
which the fall of humankind occurred, only a the days when missionaries happily sent their
gradual decline in the second of four ages of hu- children off to boarding school; most want mul-
mankinds history. The imputation of guilt from tiple options.
the first human to all succeeding generations is A related issue of great importance is the status
similar in principle to the concept of samsara of the missionary wife. Here, too, maximum flex-
and karma, though the difference is very impor- ibility is desired and often demanded. For some
tant. In Scripture, it is only the guilt of Adams the issue is finding a satisfying ministry niche,
sin, not effects of the sinfulness of each succeed- which may or may not parallel that of the hus-
ing generation, which is imputed to the individ- band. For others the primary issue is the freedom
ual. Neither Buddhism nor Chinese traditional not to have significant responsibilities outside the
thought contains myths of the fall of humankind. home, particularly if there are children whom the
Islams Koran follows Genesis 13 fairly closely. couple desire to homeschool. Whatever the par-
It does provide an explanation for why Satan
ticular issue, maximum flexibility with under-
(Iblis) fell: his refusal to bow to Adam. While the
standing and encouragement is necessary. This
guilt for the fall is imputed to the devil, humans
can provide no small challenge to agencies and
only experience the sanctions and consequences.
churches seeking to maintain cost-effective, ac-
Original sin is minimized to the level of weak-
countable, and equitable policies. The good news
ness, the habitual.
is that significant research and many broadly
WILLIAM J. LARKIN JR.
based efforts and organizations have emerged to
SEE ALSO Sin. address such family issues as care for MISSIONARY
CHILDREN, reentry into the home culture (see
Bibliography. M. Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mys-
teries; J. Ries, ER, 5:25667; G. G. Van Groningen,
REENTRY SHOCK), and retirement planning.
EDBT, pp. 24041. GARY R. CORWIN
Bibliography. P. Echerd and A. Arathoon, eds., Un-
Family Life of the Missionary. With the gener- derstanding and Nurturing the Missionary Family; B. J.
ational shift in evangelical missions, the family Kenney, The Missionary Family; R. J. Rowen and S. F.
life of missionaries has become a crucial topic. Rowen, Sojourners: The Family on the Move.
Earlier volumes on Christian mission generally
did not address the issue. In the age of rugged in- Farrar, Cynthia (17951862). American mission-
dividualism it simply would not have occurred to ary to India. She was born in Marlborough, New
people. That is not to say that missionaries in the Hampshire. When she was twenty years old she
past did not marry and have families, but it does made a profession of faith and immediately
recognize that the reduced life expectancy of mis- joined the Congregational Church. After com-
sionaries in the nineteenth century made the sub- pleting her studies at Union Academy in Plain-
355
Farrar, Cynthia
field, New Hampshire, she applied her teaching tributions include her encouragement of Sey-
skills both in New Hampshire and later in mour to enter the Pentecostal movement, inter-
Boston, Massachusetts. It was during this time racial ministry, and service in the vanguard of
that the Marathi Mission in western India re- Pentecostal missions.
quested that the AMERICAN BOARD send an experi- GARY B. MCGEE
enced single woman educator to their school. It
Bibliography. J. R. Goff Jr., Fields White Unto Har-
was the belief of the mission that they needed ex- vest: Charles F. Parham and the Missionary Origins of
pert and continual supervision that no one caring Pentecostalism; C. M. Robeck Jr., Initial Evidence and
for a family and a husband could provide. Farrar Spirit Baptism.
received and accepted the challenge in May 1827,
and sailed for India on June 5, 1827, becoming Fearing, Maria (18381937). African American
the first unmarried American woman to be sent missionary to Zaire. Maria Fearing was one of
overseas as a missionary by any American the few single African American women to ever
agency. During her thirty-four years with the become a missionary. Through her hard work
Marathi Mission she successfully educated many and dedication to the missionary efforts in Africa
young women who formerly were not allowed an she became known as a Mother to African
education by their Hindu fathers. She gained the Girls. One of the most intriguing things about
respect of the higher castes, the support of some her was that her personal efforts to get to Africa
prominent British residents, including the gover- were just as noteworthy as the work she accom-
nor, and later, Bishop Carr provided her with plished while she was there.
funds to establish additional schools. In 1839, She was born a slave in Gainsville, Alabama.
she was transferred to Ahmednagar, where she Sometime during her childhood, she developed a
organized new schools that attracted the atten- desire to go to Africa. At thirty-three, she com-
tion of some of the high-caste men who asked pleted the ninth grade at Talladega College,
that she establish two schools for their daugh- where she also served as assistant matron.
ters. Unfortunately the sponsors closed these At fifty-six, she volunteered for the Congo Mis-
schools when one of the Brahmin teachers em- sion of the Presbyterian Church. However, be-
ployed by Farrar became a Christian. Shunning cause of her age, the Committee for Foreign Mis-
discouragement, she continued to direct mission sions turned her down. But that did not stop her.
schools and later a primary and secondary school She sold her house, withdrew her savings, and
before her death. applied again to the committee, offering to pay
WENDY S. LARSON her own expenses.
Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, All Loves Excelling; R. C. The committee then agreed to accept her. She
Brouwer, New Women for God: Canadian Presbyterian went to the Congo Mission in May 1894. Because
Women & India Missions 18761914. of her hard work and devotion, within two years
she was appointed a missionary with full support.
Farrow, Lucy F. (b. c. 1852). African American She founded the Pantops Home for orphaned
pastor, evangelist, and missionary to Liberia. girls and was the director there until 1915.
Born in slavery in Norfolk, Virginia, Farrow was She then returned to Gainsville, where she died
a niece of the abolitionist and journalist Freder- in 1937. Perhaps one of her greatest legacies was
ick Douglass. She came in contact with Pente- that she did not let her age become an obstacle.
costal evangelist Charles F. Parham in 1905 while Nor did she let the opinion of others hinder her
from obeying Christs call to the mission field. As
pastoring a small Holiness church in Houston,
a result, many orphaned girls gained a Mother
Texas. By now a widow, she served for a brief
in Africa.
time as a governess in the Parham household.
KATHY MCREYNOLDS
Farrow introduced William J. Seymour, a
member of her congregation, to the Pentecostal Bibliography. S. M. Jacobs, Black Americans and the
movement and then arranged for him to attend Missionary Movement, pp. 15576.
Parhams Houston Bible School, where he ac-
cepted the latters Pentecostal doctrine. In early Feminist Theologies. Although it can be argued
1906, Seymour traveled to Los Angeles, Califor- that there is no such thing as feminist theology,
nia, where he played a major role in the interna- only feminist theologies, this is only a response to
tionally significant Azusa Street Revival (1906- the diversity of the women theologians engaged
13). Farrow followed and ministered there, in the debate. This ignores the fact that there is
praying for seekers to receive the baptism in the an underlying common approach and agenda
Holy Spirit with speaking in tongues. Beginning which is shared by women of other faiths, espe-
in August 1906, she traveled across the country cially Jewish women. Consequently feminist is-
holding evangelistic meetings and four months sues have proved a fruitful ground for interfaith
later went as a missionary to Monrovia, Liberia, dialogue, as some of the titles below indicate.
returning to Los Angeles in 1907. Farrows con- The literature in the field is now so vast that only
356
Festivals, Religious
a few titles representative of the different insights In many cultures the coming of the gospel
and disciplines involved can be given. meant education and liberation, and as Ruth
Feminist theology is of necessity highly con- Brouwer shows, missionary societies offered
textual. It addresses the factors governing women meaningful service, lifetime careers, and
womens existence from a womans perspective. management experience. Yet, ironically, since
Women feel marginalized from the conduct of 1914 women have increasingly felt oppressed by
worship, from the decision-making processes of evangelical structures. There are disproportion-
their faith community, and from professional ately few women missiologists compared with
training and the creation of academic theology other theological disciplines and too often in
and a living spiritual tradition. In some denomi- evangelical congregations they are expected to
nations, the study of theology may be restricted keep silent. A radical reappraisal of all Christian
to those involved in the training for male- traditions is necessary if the flow of women out
ordained ministry. However, this situation may of the churches into goddess worship, alternative
be due to a lack of opportunity for women to take communities, and Neo-Buddhism is not to be-
advantage of higher education in some countries, come a flood tide.
discrimination against single mothers in the ELEANOR M. JACKSON
wider society, and so on.
Bibliography. R. C. Brouwer, New Women for God.
Feminist theologians have increasingly listened
Canadian Presbyterian Women and India Missions,
to their non-Western sisters and perceived that 18761914; M. Grey, Redeeming the Dream: Feminism,
the dignity of women is indissolubly linked to Redemption and Christian Tradition; D. Hampson, The-
HUMAN RIGHTS, POVERTY, and deprivation. They ology and Feminism; L. Hogan, From Womens Experi-
have appropriated the feminist concept of the pa- ence to Feminist Theology; R. Holloway, ed., Who Needs
triarchy to locate the socioeconomic and reli- Feminism? Men Respond to Sexism in the Church;
gious causes of this. They criticize the traditions A. Joseph, ed., Through the Devils Gateway: Women, Re-
that depict women as Eves, temptresses, those ligion and Taboo; U. King, ed., Women and Religion;
who at best load men down with domestic duties J. Plaskow, Standing Again at Sinai. Judaism from a
that distract them from salvation, or who at Feminist Perspective.
worst are responsible for leading them into sin.
Together with secular feminists, feminist theolo- Festivals, Religious. Religious festivals are
gians object to womens inferior status and to the cyclic phenomena in most, if not all, religious
cult of Mary exalting motherhood in the abstract traditions. They are extremely varied in form and
while mothers are oppressed. They scrutinize the function. Such festivals include the Jewish
underlying issues of ritual purity which bar Passover; the Christian Christmas; the Hindu
women from approaching the sacred, or exclude Deepval, Dasara, and Kubha Mela; the Xocoth
them from their own households during men- Huetzi of the Aztecs; the New Yam festival of the
struation and childbirth, but reject the pro-abor- Igbo; and the Muslim Ramadan. Religious festi-
tion stance of secular feminists. vals are fundamentally rites of symbolic, expres-
In feminist theology the sacred Scriptures are sive communication and religious celebration. All
reclaimed for study, and reinterpreted both to re- religious festivals fulfill some of the social, psy-
trieve womens contributions as, for example, chic, and spiritual needs of the people who prac-
that of Miriam, Moses sister, of charismatic lead- tice them, reflecting a universal, inner human
ers such as Deborah, or of the founders of early quest to relate to the transcendent.
Christian communities. Texts are also reinter- In the social dimension religious festivals func-
preted to address contemporary situations. Reli- tion as significant means of informal socializa-
gious language is made inclusive, feminine epi- tion and contribute to a sense of corporate iden-
thets and similes applied to God, and liturgy tity, thus promoting social cohesion. There is an
rewritten while theology is restructured and a aspect of gaiety and flexibility in the format of
new image of God created. Fresh translations of festivals, but where these elements are replaced
the original Hebrew Scriptures have revealed a by rigid formalism the rituals easily become a
male bias which cannot be justified in terms of burdensome, legalistic ritualism. Ritualism de-
accuracy or theology. stroys the very re-creative purpose of the festi-
Feminist theology seeks the liberation of vals. This will only continue to be the case as
women and men, but is not linked so closely to these festivals can withstand the threat of SECU-
analysis of a particular political ideology as liber- LARIZATION through tourism and CONSUMERISM.
ation theology is. Such earnest and thorough- Taking a wider perspective, some religious festive
going study of the Scriptures and the early fa- cycles have been shown to be important as so-
thers (or their equivalent in Judaism and Islam) cioreligious mechanisms in maintaining a dy-
and such openness to the moving of the Spirit namic balance between consumption and con-
can only benefit the tradition as a whole. It un- servation in the environment.
derlines the truth that to be effective a theology From a religious perspective, festivals establish
of mission must be fully contextual. and strengthen the link between the sacred and
357
Festivals, Religious
the profane; the temporal existence and the expe- them and get clear guidance, then wait on the
rience of the eternal. They renew and transform Lord for his leading on the other three. Today
the profane and affirm the essential goodness of many mission agencies provide considerable
life, while at the same time they critique its de- counsel, advice, and the use of various forms of
structive elements. Festivals interrupt the mun- testing, including psychological inventories and
daneness and profanity of life. Religious festivals language aptitude exams, prior to appointing a
raise the level of consciousness of the continuity candidate to a designated field (see CANDIDACY).
of life by allowing participants to withdraw tem- It is necessary to carefully consider the gifts, the
porarily from profane time into sacred time abilities, the background, and even the candi-
while also bringing a measure of sacredness to all dates personality in making a field appointment.
of life. By contrast many early societies offered much
A religious festival often involves reenactment less help in this process and gave the missionar-
of historical or mythical events, making the sa- ies total freedom without adequate accountabil-
cred past present in experience or the benefits of ity. Ultimately both the mission agency and the
the event made a present reality. It can also be a missionary need to arrive at a consensus of field
medium to communicate the experience of appointment that could possibly include a desig-
thanksgiving, atonement, redemption, and hope. nated PEOPLE GROUP and also a well-thought-out
The uniqueness of Christian festivals lies in their job description.
source in divine revelation of God and in the rit- JOHN EASTERLING
ual meaning and perception of the participants Bibliography. J. H. Kane, Life and Work on the Mis-
role. Christians not only celebrate the past and sion Field.
present, but also anticipate a future life in the
consummated kingdom of God. Christian cele- Field Responsibilities. A missionarys lifestyle
brations involve reenactments that do not renew and field of service involve several parties: sending
the initial redemptive act, but the benefits of that church, mission agency, co-workers, and nationals
act are made present. The Christian is an ob- (including leaders and national churches). Field
server and recipient of the divine act, not a par- responsibilities include at least six areas: personal
ticipant in the divine act. and family welfare, interpersonal relationships, ef-
The Christian engaging in cross-cultural min- fective communication, witness and evangelism,
istry must consider making use of the ritual sym- planting and/or development of the church, and
bolism to communicate the gospel to avoid a for- leadership preparation. The personal needs of the
eign message or SYNCRETISM. Religious festivals missionary include spiritual growth, physical care,
reveal the significant religious concerns of the intellectual stimulation, and needs of the spouse
practitioners and have an important social and and children. When these needs are adequately
possibly an ecological function. For these reasons met, the missionary can then minister with greater
Christians also need to consider the use of func- freedom and success. Interpersonal relationships
tional substitutes that are both indigenous and must start in the home as a foundation (see FAMILY
Christian to fulfill at least the social (and envi- LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY). The missionaries need to
ronmental) needs. work as team members with an interdependent
ALBERT F. TUCKER spirit of humility and love (see TEAMS IN MISSION).
Missionaries need to develop a servant attitude in
SEE ALSO Burial Rites, Rites of Passage. working with others. The open lines of communi-
Bibliography. R. L. Browning, Religious Education cation among missionaries, mission administra-
75 (1980): 27381; M. Eliade, The Sacred and the Pro- tors, and nationals create the basis of trust and a
fane: The Nature of Religion. sense of concern. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
and cultural understanding are necessary for iden-
Fetish. See MAGIC, MAGICK, MAGICAL BELIEFS AND tifying with the nationals and reaching out to
PRACTICES. those who do not know Christ. The development
and planting of churches give permanence and
Field Appointment. The designation of mis- stability to the emerging Christian community.
sionaries to particular fields is both the work of The final goal of the missionary is selectively train-
divine sovereignty and of personal choice. The ing local leaders who are spiritually mature and
apostle Pauls calling was to the Gentiles (Acts 9), gifted (see LEADERSHIP). The end result will be IN-
DIGENOUS CHURCHES, churches that are strong and
but he and Barnabas chose to visit Cyprus and
Asia Minor (Acts 13) on the first missionary ultimately independent from missionary leader-
journey. J. HERBERT KANE cites four aspects of ship. Each field responsibility needs to be kept in
making a choice for missionary service: the mis- balance with others to avoid BURNOUT and to max-
sion, the country, the people, and the vocation. imize the missionarys effectiveness.
JOHN EASTERLING
These four factors are not presented in a fixed
order, but the secret is to focus upon one of Bibliography. P. A. Beals, A People for His Name.
358
Financing Missions
Field, Adele Marion (18391916). American pi- 4:1214). A tentmaker by trade (Acts 18:3), he
oneer Baptist missionary to Thailand (186772) mentioned to the Ephesians and the Thessaloni-
and China (187390). Raised a universalist, Field ans that he provided his own needs through his
graduated from the State Normal School at Al- labor (Acts 20:34 and 1 Thess. 2:9). TENT-MAKING
bany, New York, and taught school. Having con- MISSION, as it is known today, is named after this
verted to her fiancs Baptist belief, she sailed for practice. In writing to the Corinthians, however,
149 days to Hong Kong only to learn of her fi- Paul directly urged them to give generously
ancs death. Another 34-day voyage took her to (2 Cor. 89). His flexibility for financing mission-
Bangkok. The only single woman at the Thai ary work illustrates a general principle that any
(Siamese) mission, she was criticized for social- method which is ethically sound and God-honor-
izing (playing cards, dancing, and reportedly ing may be considered acceptable.
smoking opium) with diplomats and business- Types of Missionary Support. The most com-
men. En route home after colleagues insisted she mon method of mission funding has long been
be recalled, she stopped in Amoy where the mis- the voluntary contribution of members of local
sionaries begged her to stay since she spoke the churches, though there are multiple means used
dialect. In China she began the much copied to channel what is given to where it is needed.
practice of training Bible women; worked on an Some denominational missions assess member
Amoy dictionary published under the missions churches on a per capita basis to fund the de-
name; and was one of the few women to attend nominational mission efforts, while others allow
the 1877 Shanghai Missionary Conference. each church to develop its own mission budget
Although not wealthy, just prior to retirement and give money as it sees fit. Non-denomina-
Field resigned so as not to receive her pension, tional mission agencies also serve as administra-
declaring that she had never believed Baptist tive conduits through which money is collected
teachings. Once home she reported on anti- and distributed (see also FAITH MISSIONS). Many
Semitic pogroms in Russia. In New York as a suf- agencies require each missionary to raise his or
fragette she organized the League for Political her own individual support, while others form a
Education. She wrote books about China and ar- central pool for which every missionary raises
ticles about politics and her biological studies, money and out of which all salaries and project
particularly on ants. After a decade in New York funding comes.
she moved to Seattle, where she was instrumen- Following Pauls example (Acts 18:3), many
tal in establishing the political processes of refer- continue to engage in tent-making mission. This
endum and recall. is perhaps the most common method of financ-
KATHLEEN L. LODWICK ing Third-World missionaries, whose churches
and agencies often do not have the financial ca-
Bibliography. H. N. Stevens, Memorial Biography of
pability to underwrite international travel or
Adele M. Fielde, Humanitarian; F. B. Hoyt, Historian 44
(May 1982): 31822; R. A. Tucker, GGC. urban mission work among the economic elite in
the major cities of the world.
Since the dawn of political states looking fa-
Fiji (Est. 2000 pop.: 845,000; 18,274 sq. km. [7,056 vorably on Christianity, missions have also been
sq. mi.]). Fiji comprises a group of some 330 vol- financed out of state treasuries, including finan-
canic islands in the South Pacific. Originally a cial grants, land grants, and imperial patronages.
British territory, Fijis population bears the im- During the colonial era, many Protestant efforts
press of its colonial history. The British imported were financed by colonial grant-in-aid deals
over 60,000 indentured Indian laborers between which mutually benefited missionary and colo-
1879 and 1916 to work in the sugarcane fields. nial enterprise. The resulting entanglements of
The descendants of these laborers constitute a nu- church and state, however, often left a mixed per-
merical majority on the islands, while the native ception on the part of both missionaries and the
Fijians constitute a minority. Fiji is 54.5% Chris- national churches, with the latter seeing the for-
tian (43% Protestant) and 35.5% Hindu. Evangel- mer as agents of the supporting state rather than
icals are found in all of the Protestant denomina- ambassadors of Christ.
tions but the Assemblies of God have been the Finally, contemporary economic trends in the
most successful with over 32,000 members. West have enabled the development of numerous
TODD M. JOHNSON
private foundations and trust funds, many of
which underwrite projects and otherwise finance
Financial Support. See DEPUTATION. Christian charitable work as well as direct evan-
gelistic endeavors.
Financing Missions. Biblical Models. Three Issues in Financing Mission. Recently, how-
biblical models of financing missionary efforts ever, several issues of significance for future mis-
are found in the life of Paul. He wrote to the sion financing have been raised. First, at least in
Philippians that he had learned to trust God in all North America, mission giving has largely come
circumstances to provide his needs (Phil. out of discretionary income, which has been dry-
359
Financing Missions
ing up over the last few decades. While a wealthy Missions; J. Ronsvale and S. Ronsvale, Behind the
generation that is now in process of dying has Stained Glass Windows.
been leaving large gifts to missionary work in
wills and trust funds, such giving is generally not Finkenbinder, Paul Edwin (1921 ). American
projected to extend beyond this generation. missionary evangelist. Born in Santurce, Puerto
Second, many Western churches and agencies Rico, of missionary parents, he was bilingual in
have begun to build giving policies around the fi- Spanish and English from an early age. After fin-
nancing of Third World missionaries, who are ishing his education in the United States and pas-
significantly cheaper than Western missionaries. toring briefly a church in New Mexico, he and his
In general this emphasis, based on new thinking wife Linda went to El Salvador in 1943 as As-
of global partnership and cost-effectiveness, is a semblies of God missionaries. People in El Sal-
welcome change. Unfortunately, however, for vador began calling him Hermano Pablo
some it has become an inappropriate vehicle to (Brother Paul) because they could not pronounce
call for a cessation of supporting Western mis- Finkenbinder. In 1955 he began broadcasting a
sionaries altogether (see also FOREIGN FINANCING five-minute radio program that eventually be-
OF INDIGENOUS WORKERS). came known as Un Mensaje a la Conciencia (A
Third, some rightly question the amount that Message to the Conscience). The program was es-
Western missionaries feel they must raise, which pecially aimed at the machismo of non-Christian
often adds up to many thousands of dollars per men who considered religion womanly. In 1960
month to finance family travel and lifestyles he began preparing television broadcasts as well.
which are often well above the level of indige- The Finkenbinders moved to Costa Mesa, Cali-
nous populations along with benefits such as fornia, in 1964 and that has been the base of Her-
health insurance and retirement income. The im- mano Pablo Ministries ever since. By 1995
plications of this for giving patterns and priori- Finkenbinders programs were broadcast over
ties is now being felt in churches, mission agen- 1,911 radio and 317 television stations in 28
cies, and on the various fields of service (Bonk; countries. His column was carried in 179 papers.
see also MISSIONARY AFFLUENCE). Besides being one of the leading Protestant
Fourth, control of money and exercise of broadcasters in Latin America, he led city cru-
power cannot be separated as easily as we might sades, pastor seminars, and university meetings
like. This is especially significant when foreign and produced Christian dramatic films based on
funds have been used to initiate and preserve the Bible. His broadcasts and films have won nu-
large missionary institutions (e.g., schools, and merous awards from Christian organizations.
hospitals) which the local economy could not ROBERT SHUSTER
support unaided. Such institutions have tended Bibliography. S. R. Sywulka, TCDCB, p. 142.
to foster dependence rather than PARTNERSHIP in
missionary efforts. Finland (Est. 2000 pop.: 5,201,000; 338,145 sq.
Finally, alarms over future Western missionary km. [130,558 sq. mi.]). Finland is the fifth largest
funding has begun to sound in many quarters. country in Europe (exclusive of the Russian fed-
Models that have become traditional in the West, eration). Although Finland is so vast, its popula-
such as the mission agency relying on local tion is only about one-third as large as that of the
churches to passively and unquestioningly give Netherlands. The industrialized southern section
whenever approached, no longer hold. Discre- of the country is the most densely populated with
tionary finances in the consumer-driven Western about eight times as many people per square mile
cultures appear to be dwindling, as in commitment as in the northern two-thirds of the country. Fin-
to traditional mission fund-raising techniques. land is one of the leading manufacturers and ex-
In light of these factors, it will be increasingly porters of timber and paper products. The econ-
important in the future to find new and appropri- omy depends heavily on the forestry industry.
ate ways to creatively trust God to supply the nec- Finland borders Norway on the north, the
essary means for engaging in the missionary task. Russian federation on the east, the Gulf of Fin-
However, since it is Gods intention to see the land on the south, and the Gulf of Bothnia and
whole world reached, it does not seem unreason- Sweden on the west. The hostility of their neigh-
able to assume that he will continue to provide bors has frequently forced the Finnish people to
the means to do so, though not necessarily in the defend themselves. There have been battles with
ways we expect and not without our taking seri- Russia and Sweden throughout the ages for con-
ously our responsibility to the GREAT COMMISSION. trol of the land. During the eighteenth century a
A. SCOTT MOREAU growing separatist movement in Finland de-
Bibliography. J. Bonk, Missions and Money: Afflu- manded independence. Independence was de-
ence as a Western Missionary Problem; L. Bush, Funding clared on December 6, 1917. As a result of the
Third World Missions; CDCWM, pp. 2089; J. F. Engel, war of 18089, Sweden surrendered Finland to
A Clouded Future: Advancing North American World Russia. Russia allowed the Finns to retain their
360
Finnish Mission Boards and Societies
old Constitution. Finland continued to battle gational church in 1836. The next year he be-
Russia for the Karelian territories, however. Fi- came professor of theology at Oberlin College
nally, a peace treaty was signed in 1947. (Ohio), where he taught until his death. He also
Upon conquering Finland in the twelfth cen- served as president from 1851 until 1866. He reg-
tury, Sweden introduced Christianity. In the six- ularly held revival meetings in urban settings
teenth century, as Sweden consolidated its au- (twice in England) until 1860. His meetings,
thority in Finland, Lutheranism was proclaimed classes, and books shaped generations of church
the official religion. Currently, the Lutheran and leaders, and the mission movement in the United
Orthodox churches are recognized as official state States was spurred on by his emphasis on the
churches. The Finnish Constitution, adopted in need for sinners to accept Christ and for Chris-
1919, allows freedom of worship. tians to preach salvation.
Today, the Evangelical Lutheran Church claims ROBERT SHUSTER
88.4 percent of the population of 5.2 million; the
Bibliography. C. G. Finney, Revivals of Religion;
Orthodox Church, 1.1 percent; the Roman idem, The Memoirs of Charles G. Finney: The Complete
Catholic Church, 0.1 percent; and other denomi- Restored Text; K. Hardman, Charles Grandison Finney
nations, 0.8 percent; 9.6 percent have no church 17921875: Revivalist and Reformer.
affiliation. The Lutheran churches that are evan-
gelical have been fairly successful with revivals Finnish Mission Boards and Societies. Finland
and fellowship meetings. The attendance at their became independent only in 1917, after a century
Sunday services is very low, however (4 percent). of Russian czarist rule and, before that, seven
This may indicate that the traditional services are centuries of Swedish domination. The oldest and,
not meeting the needs of the members, while the until recently, largest sending agency, the Finnish
more casual and personal fellowship meetings Missionary Society, was founded in 1959 and tra-
are fulfilling spiritual and relational needs. The ditionally was organizationally independent of,
free churches, which tend to be less traditional in but closely linked with, the Lutheran Church. It
their forms, are growing; and groups that target sent out its first missionaries in 1870 to the
youth are proving successful. Given the economic northernmost region (Ovamboland) of what is
recession that followed the collapse of the Soviet now Namibia and a strong Lutheran Church
Union (unemployment in Finland has run as eventually resulted in what remained its main re-
high as 18 percent) as well as other challenges of ceiving field. In 1901, missionaries were sent to
daily living, alcoholism has become a problem China. After World War II they were withdrawn,
and provides a further challenge for Christian but work, usually cooperating with other agen-
evangelism in Finland. Some Finnish Christians cies, was begun in Tanzania, Taiwan, Pakistan,
have chosen to focus on evangelizing their neigh- and Jerusalem. By the mid-1960s there were
bors. The collapse of communism in Russia has nearly two hundred missionaries with this
provided others with an opportunity to share the agency, representing more than 90 percent of the
gospel with the Russian people and to be a sup- national churchs total force, and supported by
port to the Christians in Estonia. voluntary contributions rather than official
MARKUS WAGNER church funds.
There are a few other small sending societies
Finney, Charles Grandison (17921875). Amer- working within the national church. Mention
ican evangelist, theologian, and educator. Born in should be made of the Lutheran Evangelistic As-
Warren, Connecticut, he received little religious sociation, which began in 1873 for home mission
instruction and only brief formal education. He work as part of a revival movement, but since
was practicing law when converted on October 1900 has often supported around a dozen mis-
10, 1821. He was licensed to preach in 1823 and sionaries at a time in Japan in association with
ordained as an evangelist in 1824. His meetings the Lutheran Church there.
in western New York began drawing large crowds The total of all Protestant free church adherents
and strong responses. Finney preached in a sim- in Finland is probably under 3 percent of the pop-
ple, lawyerly, unsentimental way to convince peo- ulation and is divided into several denominations,
ple of their sin and need for deliverance. His most of which have Swedish- and Finnish-speak-
new methods were based on New School Pres- ing sections (which usually have separate mission
byterian beliefs that put greater emphasis on a programs). The Pentecostals apparently have more
sinners ability to choose redemption. Soon he members than the combination of all the rest (Ad-
was preaching in the largest cities of the North. ventist, Baptist, Free Church Methodist, Salvation
From 1832 until 1837, he was a pastor in New Army, etc.) In general, the small free church de-
York City. Men and women converted or influ- nominations take responsibility as a whole for
enced by Finney became leaders in antislavery, their missionaries rather than through separate
temperance, anti-Mason, and home and foreign organizations. These missionaries often work in
mission movements. Finney joined the Congre- cooperation with international agencies, so that it
361
Finnish Mission Boards and Societies
is hard to identify a mission church of specifically rian Community in Urumiah, Persia, in 1842.
Finnish free church origin. Fiske saw that one way of raising the value of
However, the free churches as a whole, and the women in Persian Nestorian society was to edu-
Pentecostals in particular, contribute quite dis- cate them. Her task was difficult, for education
proportionately to the total missionary force was not valued in Persia and the Nestorian com-
from Finland. In the early 1970s there were over munity, though viewed as heretical in the rest of
five hundred Finnish missionaries and this was a the world, considered itself Christian. She en-
doubling of the figure from a decade before. The joyed a great deal of success, watching several of
Pentecostals were sending more than a third of her students mature into godly Christian women
them (and they were going to many different and providing a model for other girls seminaries
fields, especially in Asia). By the early 1990s, the which opened in cities throughout Persia. When
total of missionaries had grown to over 1,300, forced by illness to return to America in 1858,
serving with some twenty-two agencies, six of she wrote the book Woman and Her Savior in Per-
which work within the national church. Opera- sia. After teaching for a year at Mount Holyoke
tion Mobilization has been especially successful Seminary, she died in the summer of 1864.
in recruiting Finns to serve abroad, most com- GRACE L. KLEIN
monly for shorter periods of service. Bibliography. E. C. Dawson, Missionary Heroines of
DONALD TINDER the Cross; P. Kretzmann, Men and Missions: Glimpses of
the Lives of Great Missionary Women; D. L. Robert,
Fisk, Pliny (17921825). American missionary to BDCM, p. 213.
the Middle East. Born in Massachusetts, he was
educated in New England. In 1818 he and Levi Fison, Lorimer (18321907). English missionary
Parsons were sent to the Middle East by the to Fiji. Born in Suffolk, England, he attended
AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN Caius College, Cambridge, but was suspended.
MISSIONS to determine its desirability as a field He went to the goldfields in Australia in the
for American missionaries. All this areaGreece, 1850s. Following his conversion in 1860 at an
Asia Minor, Palestine, Syria, and Egyptwas open air Methodist service, he began to preach.
then under the actual or nominal control of the He was appointed as a Methodist missionary to
Ottoman Empire. They arrived in Smyrna in Fiji and served there 186372 and 187584. Fison
1820 and stayed in that area for the next two was the outstanding scholar missionary in Fiji
years, studying the languages, preaching, and during the nineteenth century and recognized as
distributing tracts. Fisk sent back reports on the an authority on Fijian society. He strongly sup-
spiritual condition of the region to the Mission- ported Fijian land rights and influenced govern-
ary Herald. In 1822 they traveled to Egypt, where ment policy in this area. In the face of the ex-
Parsons died. Fisk continued his travels. Al- ploitation of Pacific laborers he made strong
though he hoped to base his work on reviving the representations on their behalf. While he cham-
existing churches, rather than creating new ones, pioned the rights of Fijian ministers he adopted
his preaching and distribution of tracts and the a gradualist approach toward the independence
Bible offended Muslim government officials, of the Fijian church. As principal of Navuloa The-
Catholic priests, and the Maronite patriarch. By ological Institution (187784) he provided valu-
1825, he joined three missionary recruits in able resources for Fijian students. His breadth of
Beirut, where a mission was started. He died in religious outlook was seen in his condemnation
October of that year, just after finishing his Ara- of the Methodist-Catholic conflict at Rotuma. His
bic-English dictionary. His efforts marked the be- pioneering anthropological work was recognized
ginning of American Protestant missionary work by honorary degrees and a Civil List pension. In
in the region. His niece Fidelia (181664) was, in 1884 he returned to Australia, where he edited
the next generation, an influential missionary the Methodist paper, The Spectator (18881905),
among the women of Persia. and published Tales of Old Fiji (1907).
ROBERT SHUSTER ALLAN K. DAVIDSON
Bibliography. A. H. Wood, Overseas Missions of the
Fiske, Fidelia (181664). American pioneer mis- Australian Methodist Church, vol. 2, Fiji.
sionary to Turkey. Raised in Massachusetts in a
strong Christian family that traced its American Fjellstedt, Peter (180281). Swedish missionary
immigrant roots to 1637, Fiske made public con- to India and Turkey and pioneer missions pro-
fession of faith in Christ at the age of fifteen, and moter in Sweden. Born in Varmland, Sweden, he
at the age of twenty-three began attending Mount was a shy but very intelligent young man who
Holyoke Seminary. After graduating, she taught changed his name to Fjellstedt at age sixteen.
at the seminary until compelled to go to Persia After completing his studies, he joined the BASEL
(now Turkey) by the request for help from a vis- MISSION SOCIETY (BaMS) in 1827 because the
iting missionary. She arrived in the small Nesto- Church in Sweden had no structures for sending
362
Flynn, John
their own missionaries. Prior to departure for attack). The blind spot in the Western worldview
India, BaMS required that he return to his home- Hiebert labeled the flaw of the excluded middle.
land to help foster interest in missions. His His model was quickly picked up by mission-
preaching inspired the formation of the Swedish aries and missiologists working among non-
Missionary Society in 1829. Six years later, a so- Western populations, especially those working in
ciety of the same name but national in its scope areas such as SPIRITUAL WARFARE. It was used to
was established. After a four-year term in India give legitimacy to demonic and spiritual explana-
and another in Smyrna, Turkey, he returned to tions of phenomena that had been previously
Europe, where he became a traveling preacher to overlooked by Western theology, anthropology,
promote mission interest across the Continent. and missiology, all of which tended to look for so-
His sweeping success in addition to his commit- called natural explanations for the observed phe-
ment to educating missionaries in biblical and nomena. As a tool it named an area many evan-
theological studies led to the formation of the gelical missionaries had missed in their training
first mission institute in Sweden in 1846. As di- and identified the sources of their discomfort in
rector of the Lund Institute he not only saw to finding ways to contextually address middle
the grounding of the students in the fundamen- world issues in non-Western cultures.
tals; he also launched Lunds Mission-Tidning, a For some, however, the pendulum has swung
newspaper created solely for the purpose of in- so far that the danger is a flaw of an expanded
forming people about the newly formed Lund middle in which every strange event is thought to
Missionary Society and to stimulate more inter- have a middle domain explanation; this is espe-
cially significant in the contemporary discussion
est in the cause of missions. It is fair to say that,
of TERRITORIAL SPIRITS. Using the middle domain
before his death, he had succeeded in making
to explain all such events is taking Hieberts ana-
missions an important imperative in the life of
lytic model beyond its intention, which was to
the Swedish church.
address the ways events are explained in differing
WENDY S. LARSON
cultures rather than to give an ontological picture
Bibliography. E. E. Eklund, Peter Fjellstedt: Mission- of the explanations behind such events.
ary Mentor to Three Continents; C. F. Hallencreutz, A. SCOTT MOREAU
CDCWM, p. 210.
SEE ALSO Folk Religions.
Flaw of the Excluded Middle. A concept devel-
oped by missiologist Paul Hiebert in an article in Flynn, John (18801951). Australian Presbyter-
Missiology 10:1 (January 1982, pp. 3547) and ian minister, missionary, and founder of Aus-
later reprinted in Anthropological Reflections on tralian Inland Mission. Developing a passion for
Missiological Issues. Hiebert observed that the Australian outback while on shearers missions
and teaching, Flynn used his church contacts to
Western two-tiered view of the universe typically
mobilize Presbyterian and wider church interest
left out an entire dimension seen quite readily by
in the largely uncared-for outback. First through
people of non-Western cultures. Hiebert built his
his highly successful publication Bushmans
analysis on a two-dimensional matrix. The first
Companion (1910), then through the Oodnadatta
dimension is that of three worlds or domains:
Nursing Hostel (1911) Flynn began a long career
(1) a seen world (that which is of this world and of developing services and ministry to bush
seen), (2) the unseen of this world (that which is dwellers. The Oodnadatta institution developed
of this world but not seen), and (3) an unseen along the lines of Flynns vision for a Mantle of
transempirical world (that which pertains to Safety into a chain of hostels, hospitals, and
heavens, hells, and other worlds). The second di- chaplaincies, followed by the foundation of the
mension is that of two types of analogies people AIM Aerial Medical Service (AMS, a.k.a. Flying
use to explain the powers around them: (1) an or- Doctor Service). Services were soon also ex-
ganic analogy (powers are personal, e.g., gods tended to the aboriginal populations of the bush,
and spirits) and (2) a mechanical analogy (pow- though his care for indigenous people was long
ers are impersonal, e.g., gravity and electricity). questioned by Charles Duguid. The AMS relied
Combining the seen/unseen/transempirical heavily on contact, leading Flynn to champion
worlds and organic/mechanical analogies into a the use of radio in remote stations, leading to
matrix, Hieberts model highlighted the differ- considerable technological advance. His ceaseless
ence between Westerners, who tend to see only advertisement of his programs and his energetic
two worlds (the seen world and the transempiri- apologetic for the bush caused him to become a
cal world) and many non-Westerners who recog- key government advisor on services to the out-
nize the middle world, comprised of unseen pow- back. The AMS was nationalized and became the
ers (magical forces, evil eye, mana) and spirits Flying Doctor Service of Australia after 1942
that are very much a part of everyday human life (later Royal). Flynn was internationally recog-
(e.g., a person is ill because of a curse or a spirit nized for his work, receiving an OBE and a num-
363
Flynn, John
ber of honorary doctorates. He became the sym- the world go to churches on Sunday, but to tradi-
bol of Christian involvement in national affairs, tional healers, exorcists, diviners, and priests dur-
later appearing on the Australian $20 bill. Too ac- ing the week. To understand this religion of the
tivist and incarnational to be evangelical in his common folk, we need to examine the nature of
theology, Flynn was influenced in younger life by formal and informal religion.
German romanticism and idealism. Long, thin, Formal religions deal with ontological ques-
and given to drawling sermons, which told a tions regarding the ultimate origins, meaning,
story without religious tags or emotional and end of this world, of humankind, and of in-
blackmail of any sort, he suited the outback bet- dividual persons, which they affirm are univer-
ter than the polish required in the city. At his re- sally true for all people. Most of the leaders are
quest, he was buried at the foot of Mount Gillen, literate and develop sophisticated philosophical
outside Alice Springs, central Australia. systems based on sacred texts to answer these
MARK HUTCHINSON questions, and are concerned that the laypeople
learn and accept these truths. Formal religions
Bibliography. G. Bucknall, Australian Dictionary of have local traditionsthe local gatherings of lay
Biography, vol. 8; M. McKenzi, Fred McKay: Successor
followers who live their lives out in the world,
to Flynn of the Inland; W. S. McPheat, John Flynn: Apos-
tle to the Inland. and have little knowledge of or time for the theo-
logical debates of the great tradition. They pro-
vide the people with a sense of the cosmic story
Folk Religions. Most scholars trained in Western and their place in it as they participate in the pre-
schools define religion in terms of the formal, inscribed rituals.
stitutionalized religions such as Christianity, Ju- But high religions often leave unanswered the
daism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, existential questions ordinary people face in their
most of which claim universal application. These everyday lives. What is the meaning of life here on
have sacred texts and commentaries, philosophi- earth when I am caught in meaningless drudgery
cal traditions and orthodoxies, professional lead- to make a living? How can I prevent calamities
ers and schools, and organized churches, temples, such as illnesses and crop failures? Why did my
and mosques. child die so suddenly, leaving no one to care for
During the age of exploration, travelers, mis- me in my old age? People know that they need to
sionaries, and colonial administrators encoun- care for their bodies to be healthy, and to plant
tered a great many oral religions around the and tend their fields to get crops, but when their
world. These centered around rituals, myths, an- folk sciences fail, what do they do? If their formal
cestors, spirits, witchcraft, and magic, and were religion provides no answers, they turn to ani-
particularist in nature. Each tribe and people mistic practicesto magic, spirits, ancestors, div-
group had its own gods, and did not seek to con- ination, and other local religious practices.
vert other peoples to its beliefs. Folk religions are ad hoc mixtures of local ex-
The initial response of Western scholars was to pressions of formal religions and local animistic
see these oral religions as superstitions based on beliefs and practices. They are sets of loosely re-
prelogical thought. They called these ANIMISM, in lated practices, often mutually contradictory,
contrast to religions, which they believed were used not to present a coherent true view of real-
logical and true. They assumed that when the ity but to produce immediate results. They pro-
high religions came, the people would abandon vide answers to the existential questions of every-
their superstitions. Consequently, Christian mis- day life. One is the meaning of life here on earth,
sionaries rarely took time to study the traditional and an explanation of death, not for those who
religions or to deal with them. die, but for those who remain behind and must
As missionaries and anthropologists began to deal with the grief and loss. A second is the desire
study traditional religions, they found that unfor a good life, and the need to deal with the con-
derlying these are sophisticated conceptual sys- stant crises of life such as illness, spirit posses-
tems that can be articulated by the philosophers sion, droughts, famines, and defeats in battle. A
in these societies. Moreover, they found that third is the need to make everyday decisions re-
when traditional religionists became Christians, garding marriage, farming, business, hunting
Hindus, or Muslims, they did not abandon their and raids, and the problem that much is un-
old ways, but added high religious beliefs over known. A fourth is the desire for justice and so-
the old leading to two-tiered religious systems. cial order, and the constant experiences of injus-
While the leaders might be committed wholly to tice, offense, and pollution. Folk religions provide
Islam or Hinduism, the common folk went to the various courses of action to those facing illnesses,
mosque or temple to answer some questions, and bad fortunes, sudden deaths, failure in love and
to the shaman and witch doctor to answer other marriage, and guidance for those making impor-
ones. Most converts were folk Muslims or folk tant decisions.
Hindus. Christian missions faces the same prob- The relationship between the leaders of formal
lem of split-level religion. Lay Christians around religions and the animistic practices of their fol-
364
Foreign Financing of Indigenous Workers
lowers is an uneasy one. In many cases, such as Folklore. A wide range of stories, traditions, be-
in Islamic fundamentalism, the leaders condemn liefs, and practices that have been preserved by a
them as heretical and seek to stamp them out, people but not accepted as part of the official re-
often by force. In other cases, such as in Hin- ligion. The church has regarded such traditions
duism, formal and local folk beliefs and rites are as mere superstitions, and the Enlightenment
interwoven in complex accommodations. Tribal philosophers attacked them as unscientific and
and local gods are absorbed into Hinduism by worthless. The first steps to study religious folk-
identifying them as incarnations of one of the lore were taken by the Grimm brothers, who
high Hindu deities. Local rites are embedded in were part of the nineteenth-century Romantic
orthodox rituals, and goddesses and local spirits movement. The Grimms claimed that there was
are enshrined under the trees and on the edges of a direct relationship between ancient MYTH and
Hindu temples. modern fairy tales, which the folklorist should
Given this difference in focus, it should not bring to light.
Much folklore is connected with the calendar
surprise us that Christian missionaries and lead-
or stages in the life cyclebirth, marriage, and
ers trained in formal Christianity called people to
death. Because a newborn child and its mother
eternal salvation, and often failed to address the
are especially exposed to danger, precautions
everyday problems the people were facing. Con- must be taken. A common story is that the fairies
sequently the people continued to go to tradi- may try to steal the baby and replace it with one
tional healers and diviners. In many cases, new that is deformed. Brides are encouraged to wear
converts knew that the leaders objected to their something borrowed and something blue. At a
old ways, so they continued these practices in se- funeral the curtains of the house may be kept
cret. Animistic beliefs and practices did not disclosed and the mourners dress in black. Many
appear, nor were they stamped out. They simply European people still touch wood for luck.
went underground. The notable exception are the Folklore is particularly rich among children:
independent churches arising around the world, studies have shown that they may retain elements
which often seek to provide answers to the prob- that have passed out of use among adults. They
lems of everyday life (see AFRICAN INITIATED have songs and rhymes addressed to ladybirds,
CHURCH MOVEMENT). butterflies, snails, the first tooth, and the new
Dealing with folk religious beliefs and practices month. The sun may be asked to shine, and the
remains an unfinished task in the CONTEXTUAL- rain to go away and come another day. Regional
IZATION of the gospel in churches around the repertories are extensive, and though social mo-
world, young and old. They often have few an- bility has increased, many of the stories remain.
swers to the questions of sickness, spirits, witch- DAVID BURNETT
craft, ancestors, and guidance, so Christians turn
to their old ways for answers, even as they go to Foreign Financing of Indigenous Workers.
church for forgiveness and fellowship with God. Nineteenth-century missionaries often em-
There is a growing awareness of the need for ployed local personnel as evangelists, pastors,
the church to provide a whole gospel that ad- and Bible women, but eventually they came to
dresses both the ultimate and existential ques- realize that unhealthy D EPENDENCY and rice
tions the common people face. It must present Christian attitudes often resulted from this
the Good News of forgiveness, salvation, and rec- employer-employee relationship. In reaction to
onciliation with God. It must also show that this this problem, mission theorists insisted that
Good News answers the everyday questions of churches and ministries in the non-Western
the people. If it does not proclaim a whole world should be totally self-governing, self-
propagating, and especially self-supporting (see
gospel, lay folk will continue to come to the
INDIGENOUS CHURCHES). By the early twentieth
church for eternal salvation, but turn elsewhere
century many missions had established firm
to deal with the spiritual problems of everyday
policies against any mission pay or subsidy for
life. The result will continue to be a two-tiered
local pastors and evangelists.
Christianity, which, in the long run, will make However, some people believed that insisting on
Christianity marginal in their lives, or turn it into full self-support was an overreaction. Instead, they
CHRISTO-PAGANISM in which the gospel becomes advocated careful financial partnership with in-
captive to the local culture and its worldview. digenous ministries, treating them as equals rather
PAUL G. HIEBERT than employees. Partners International (then
Bibliography. P. Hiebert, D. Gilliland, and T. Tienou, CNEC) was founded in 1943 for that express pur-
Folk Religions; A. C. Lehmann and J. E. Myers, Magic, pose. Among the most vocal advocates of financial
Witchcraft and Religion: An Anthropological Study of the support for indigenous workers were Robert Fin-
Supernatural; G. Van Rheenen, Communicating Christ ley, founder of International Students, Inc. and
in Animistic Contexts. Christian Aid; his brother Allen, president of
365
Foreign Financing of Indigenous Workers
CNEC/Partners International; and Ian North, Aus- Accountability is greatly enhanced by funding
tralian founder of Ambassadors for Christ. only ministry teams that are organized and have
As Western colonialism dissolved, between governing boards or similar accountability struc-
1946 and 1960, European and American main- tures. Giving funds to indigenous workers who
line denominations quickly handed over leader- are lone rangers is always fraught with danger,
ship of the churches and institutions their mis- however effective or charismatic the leaders may
sionaries had established in former colonies. To be. It is perfectly proper to require regular finan-
symbolize this new relationship, American Pres- cial reports by the recipients and even external
byterians even began to call their missionaries audits where possible. However, the key to suc-
FRATERNAL WORKERS. cess is to have open trust relationships in a part-
Theologically conservative missions were nership between equals.
slower to change but as the churches in the Third CHARLES BENNETT
World increased rapidly in size and maturity, at- SEE ALSO Globalization.
titudes among leaders of evangelical missions
began to shift. In 1972 the Latin America Mission Bibliography. L. Bush and L. Lutz, Partnering in
granted full autonomy to all its field ministries Ministry; A. Finley and L. Lutz, The Family Tie; J. H.
and openly espoused continual financial partner- Kraakevik, ed., Partners in the Gospel; D. Rickett and
D. Welliver, eds., Supporting Indigenous Ministries;
ship with them. To a lesser degree, other mis-
W. Taylor, ed., Kingdom Partnerships for Synergy in
sions began to follow suit. Missions.
Around 1980 two new evangelical partnering
agencies were formed, Gospel for Asia and Over-
Foreign Missions Inquiry, Laymens. Interde-
seas Council for Theological Education. By the
nominational endeavor that grew out of the con-
late 1980s partnership with indigenous ministries
cern of a number of Baptist laymen, including
as equals had become almost a watchword.
John D. Rockefeller, over the difficulties that for-
Scores of new organizations were formed for the
eign missions were encountering in securing sup-
express purpose of supporting indigenous work-
port from contributors and young people. A com-
ers and ministries in the Third World, instead of mittee was formed with a membership from seven
sending out missionaries from the West. By 1996 denominations, including the Northern Baptists,
there were more than 110 such organizations in Congregational, Methodist Episcopal, Presbyter-
North America alone. In October of that year the ian Church in the USA, Protestant Episcopal, Re-
leaders of more than fifty of these new support formed Church in America, and United Presbyter-
missions met together at the Billy Graham Cen- ian to try to formulate an effective approach to
ter in Wheaton, Illinois, for the first Consulta- missions in the modern world. Each of these
tion on Support of Indigenous Ministries. churches was informally represented by five indi-
The two most common questions that arise viduals who made up the Directors of the Inquiry.
when considering foreign financing of indige- In the fall of 1930 three teams of carefully se-
nous workers are: lected research workers, fact finders, were sent
out to survey the missions of these denomina-
1. How can you give them financial assis- tions in India, Burma, China, and Japan. Their
tance without creating unhealthy work was placed at the disposal of a fifteen-
dependency? member commission of appraisal headed by the
2. How can you assure financial accounta- distinguished philosopher WILLIAM E. HOCKING.
bility and proper use of funds if you They spent about nine months visiting the coun-
have no direct control over them? tries surveyed and writing the report, Re-Think-
ing Missions (1932). A vigorous debate resulted,
Advocates of financial assistance for indige- concentrating on the liberal theological convic-
nous workers insist that interdependency be- tions found in the document. The Christian mes-
tween different parts of the Body of Christ is sage, the report explained, had passed beyond ar-
both biblical and healthy. Unhealthy dependency guments over details of the mode of creation,
develops when one partner tries to exercise too the age of the earth, the descent of man, miracle
much control. Usually it is the provider of finan- and law, to the state of maturity in which there is
cial resources that does so. little disposition to believe that sincere and as-
If most of the funding comes from a foreign piring seekers after God in other religions are to
source, then the recipients will feel they cannot be damned: it has become less concerned in any
risk offending that source. But if the vision, con- land to save men from eternal punishment than
trol, and a majority of the funding is indigenous from the danger of losing the supreme good
and an open trust relationship exists between the (p. 19). It advocated that missionaries should co-
two parties, then foreign funding can leverage operate with the good in other religions and cul-
and multiply the effectiveness of indigenous min- tures to secure social justice and to purify un-
istries without creating unhealthy dependency. healthy religious practices, and that the ultimate
366
Forgiveness of Sins
goal should be the emergence of the various thy of all praise (Rev. 5:610). The Christian mes-
faiths out of their isolation into a world fellow- sage is a message of forgiveness and the re-
ship of religion. It also noted that the great dan- deemed who spend their eternity with God are
gers with which all religions had to deal were those who have been forgiven of their sins.
communism and secularism. The Biblical Doctrine of Forgiveness. Theo-
The report was widely criticized, especially in logically speaking, there are three basic compo-
Europe, for its abdication of the basic MISSIONARY nents to the doctrine of forgiveness: the nature of
TASK of proclaiming the gospel. However, subse- humankind, the nature of God, and the provision
quent to the report, it proved impossible for the that God has made to restore the broken rela-
major Protestant denominations to return to mis- tionship between himself and his fallen world.
sions with the same assurance of the WORLD MIS- The Fallen Nature of Humankind. It is not
SIONARY CONFERENCE (EDINBURGH 1910). Despite necessary to consider every aspect of the human
the controversy surrounding the Inquirys con- person in order to discuss the nature of forgive-
clusions, the wealth of information found in the ness; one alone is necessary, the fact of human
fact finders reports published in the supple- sinfulness (see SIN). It is this negative quality,
mentary volumes continue to be valuable. oddly enough, that lifts us most clearly above the
ROBERT G. CLOUSE rest of our earthly, created order and shows us
most decisively what we are not to be, even
Bibliography. W. E. Hocking, Re-Thinking Missions, though that is what we are. This is true because
A Laymens Inquiry After One Hundred Years; K. A. La-
sin is a moral category and only moral, responsi-
tourette, IRM 22 (1933): 15373; idem, IRM 46 (1957):
16470; Laymens Foreign Missions Inquiry, Supplemen- ble beings may sin. And because guilt attends our
tal Series (7 vols.). sin, we are painfully aware that sin ought not to
be there even though it is and it is unquestion-
ably ours; we cannot honestly blame anyone else.
Foreknowledge. See DIVINE ELECTION.
All the major religions of the world have concepts
of morality, sin, guilt, and responsibility (see also
Forgiveness of Sins. The forgiveness of sins is at HUMAN CONDITION IN WORLD RELIGIONS). The
the very heart of the Christian message. It is a Bible, in particular, speaks with great force and
profoundly complex doctrine that ultimately in- clarity here, emphasizing the inherent nature of
cludes our idea of God, of Gods relation to the our sinfulness, its gravity, and its consequences.
world, of the nature of humankind, of sin, of the Sin is not simply something that we have done
incarnation, death, and resurrection of Jesus, of wrong or some hurt we have inflicted upon
the last judgment, and of our eternal state in someone else; sin is an offense against God and
heaven or hell. The concept of forgiveness was at Gods moral requirements, requirements that de-
the core of Israels worship in both tabernacle rive from his very nature. Were the moral nature
and temple, centering upon sacrificessome of the universe simply the result of Gods deci-
even being named sin-offering, trespass-offering, sions, they would not have ultimate ontic reality
and peace-offering. These offerings dealt with the and could be changed at will. Rather, the moral
problem of sin and restored peace with God by categoriesthe violation of which makes sin sin-
affirming the reality of forgiveness through a fulare expressions of the very nature of reality
God-appointed religious practitioner. as God has created it, with ourselves as God in-
But forgiveness of sin is not just a national or tended us to be, and with God himself as he eter-
a theological issue. It is also a very personal nally is (see DIVINE ATTRIBUTES OF GOD). Hence,
issue, lying deep within the human heart. We all David cries out, I know my transgressions and
struggle with the realization that something is my sin is always before me. Against you, you only
drastically wrong that we cannot put right. We have I sinned and done what is evil in your sight
have offended God and his moral laws and justly (Ps. 51:3, 4). As the contemporary psychologist
deserve judgment. Yet also deep within us we Karl Menninger puts it, sin is An implicitly ag-
know that God can forgive us our sins, so we cry gressive qualitya ruthlessness, a hurting, a
out to him for that remission. In the New Testa- breaking away from God and from the rest of hu-
ment, the message of forgiveness was brought by manity, a partial alienation, or act of rebellion.
John the Baptist (Luke 3:3), by Jesus in his . . . Sin has a willful, defiant or disloyal quality.
earthly life (Mark 2:5, 7, 10) and in his post- Someone is defied or offended or hurt (Whatever
resurrection state (Luke 24:4547), by Peter at Became of Sin? p. 19)and that someone is God.
Pentecost (Acts 2:38), and by Paul as he traveled The Bible presents an unremitting picture of uni-
on his missionary journeys (Acts 13:38, 39). In versal human sinfulness, surrounded by the
the Book of Revelation the redeemed of God are apostle Paul in Romans 3:1018, concluding with
those who conquered through the blood of the All have sinned and fall short of the glory of
Lamb (Rev. 5:9; 7:14; 12:11) and Jesus is symbol- God (Rom. 3:23).
ically seen as the triumphant slain Lamb who Among the many dire consequences of sin, the
can unfold the destiny of the nations and is wor- most devastating is alienation from God, which
367
Forgiveness of Sins
results in eternal condemnation. The sinful mind thing, yet it had to be done on the human plane,
is hostile to God (Rom. 8:7), sinners are the ene- because it was for the sake of human beings. The
mies of God (Rom. 5:10), we are dead in our tres- infinite demands of God could only be met by the
passes and sins (Eph. 2:1), the wrath of God infinite God himself. This line of reasoning un-
abides upon us (John 3:36), and sinners will not derlies the New Testaments doctrine of the in-
inherit the kingdom of God (1 Cor. 6:9) but will carnation, death, and resurrection of Christ. Only
be punished with everlasting destruction and God could meet the demands of God, so the sec-
shut out from the presence of the Lord and from ond person of the Trinity became one of us in
the majesty of his power (2 Thess. 1:8). order to pay the price of sin, freeing God up to
The radical nature of our sinfulness renders us offer forgiveness of sin to the lost (2 Cor. 5:21). As
incapable of rectifying the situation. We are inca- Paul put it, God was in Christ, reconciling the
pable of bringing anything of sufficient value or world unto himself (2 Cor. 5:19). In this way
ultimacy to God of such a nature as to atone for God could be both just and the One who justifies
our sins. We are, in fact, lost in our sins and totally the person who has faith in Jesus, because all the
unable to find a way out of our hopeless situation. requirements of his holiness, justice, love, and
The Nature of God. As has already been seen, mercy have been met (Rom. 3:25, 26). Specifi-
sin is, in essence, a violation of the nature of cally, the redemptive work of God is the death of
God, but what is it in God that is violated? Scrip- Jesus Christ on the cross. There the punishment
turally speaking, it is the totality of Gods infinite due us was paid for by God himself in the person
perfections or attributes. All that God is recoils of his Son (Rom. 5:610; 1 Cor. 15:3; Gal. 1:4;
from that which is less than morally perfect and Eph. 2:13). Jesus ties the forgiveness of sins di-
the attempt to single out one attribute or another rectly to his coming death, when at the last sup-
that is most offended by sin would be to slice per he says, This is my blood of the covenant,
God up into categories as though God were some which is poured out for many for the forgiveness
internally unrelated collection of qualities, rather of sins (Matt. 26:28).
than a unified, personal Being. Having said that, The Missiological Implications of Forgive-
however, the holiness of God does stand out as ness. When considering the missiological impli-
the quality most obviously violated when human cations of forgiveness, what stands out most
beings sin (Josh. 24:19; Pss. 5:4; 92:15; Hab. 1:13; prominently in the New Testament is the UNIQUE-
Rev. 6:10). The Bible is replete with affirmations NESS OF CHRIST, who he is and what he has done.
of Gods holiness and of the demand that we be Because there is only one God, there is only one
holy (Exod. 15:11; Lev. 11:44, 45; Isa. 6:3; 1 Peter Son of God, who died for sin once for all. There
1:15) and when we fail to live up to Gods stan- is only one plan of salvation and one Savior who
dards we fall under the just judgment of God. must be proclaimed to all the earth for Salvation
Gods justice and impartiality decree that every- is found in no one else, for there is no other
one be treated fairly and equally, which translates name under heaven given to men by which we
into everyone being equally under the judgment must be saved (Acts 4:12). The fact of Christs
of God, since every one of us has violated Gods uniqueness and that forgiveness of sin may be
commands. found nowhere else lays a moral imperative upon
Were this the end of the story, humankind the church to make his name known. There are
would be in a sorry state, for there could be no not many saviors for many people, but only one
such thing as forgiveness. However, Gods love savior for all peoples and that is the incarnate
and his mercy work alongside his holiness and Son of God who died and rose again. It is this
justice in such a way that all aspects of his being fact that underlies the command of God himself
are satisfied. The Scriptures reveal a God, who al- to us that repentance and forgiveness of sins be
though he is holy, also delights in mercy and for- preached in Jesus name to all nations (Luke
giveness (Deut. 4:31; Neh. 9:31; Ps. 78:38; Isa. 24:47). Where else can salvation be found except
55:7; Dan. 9:9; Luke 6:35). Who is a God like in Jesus? Because of this, those who had experi-
you? asks Micah, Who pardons sin and forgives enced the forgiveness of their sins were to be em-
the transgression of the remnant of his inheri- powered by the Holy Spirit and then become
tance? Who, indeed? There is no other God who witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and
can forgive the sins of lost humanity. Samaria, and to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8).
The Provision of God for Forgiveness. There Peter began this on the day of Pentecost in
was only one way that the totality of Gods being Jerusalem offering his countrymen forgiveness of
could be satisfied that the demands of his holi- their sins in Jesus name (Acts 2:38), continuing
ness and justice be met while at the same time this to the Gentile Cornelius in Caesarea (Acts
expressing Gods love and mercy. To do that God 10:43), then reaching others in Asia Minor
devised a plan of salvation that met his infinite (1 Peter 1:1, 2), ultimately giving his life for the
demands and offered full salvation to the lost, at gospel in Rome during the Neronian Persecution.
no cost to them, since they were in no position to Others went elsewhere. Paul traveled extensively
pay anything. No human being could do such a across the Roman world, John went to Ephesus,
368
E-F Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:45 AM Page 369
France
Titus went to Crete, Mark went to Egypt, and Forsyth, Christina nee Moir (18441918). Scot-
Thomas, according to some records, went to tish missionary to South Africa. In her own
India. words, she described herself as a watcher for
What motivated these early believers was cer- souls. Her desire was to proclaim Christ not to
tainly the uniqueness of their message, coupled the masses, but to the individual. She whole-
with the command of God, but they had also ex- heartedly believed that through the individual
perienced the love of God in their own forgiveness she could reach the masses. Her life was a
and hence wished to share that sense of release paragon of her philosophy. For thirty years, she
with others (2 Cor. 5:14). For whatever reason, the ministered single-handedly in the remotest part
early church realized that the forgiveness of sins of Fingoland, South Africa.
must be at the heart of their message (Acts 10:43; She was born in Scotland. She grew up in a
13:38, 39; 26:17, 18), just as it must be today. Christian home, raised by parents who were
WALTER A. ELWELL deeply devoted to Scripture. At the age of four-
teen, she had a religious experience after which
SEE ALSO Confession of Sin. she fully surrendered her life to Christ.
Bibliography. E. M. B. Green, The Meaning of Salva- She had a desire to become a missionary and
tion; H. D. McDonald, The Atonement of the Death of was particularly interested in South Africa. She
Christ; H. R. Mackintosh, The Christian Experience of offered herself to the Mission Board of the United
Forgiveness; K. Menninger, Whatever Became of Sin?; Presbyterian Church in Scotland and worked in
H. Vorlnder, NIDNTT 1:697703; J. R. W. Stott, The South Africa for three years. When her work was
Cross of Christ, pp. 87110; V. Taylor, Forgiveness and
complete, she returned to Scotland and married
Reconciliation; W. Telfer, The Forgiveness of Sins.
Allan Forsyth. After his untimely death one year
later, Christina returned to South Africa. She re-
Forman, Charles W. (1916 ). Indian-born quested to work in Xolobe, the remotest part of
American missionary scholar and missionary in Fingoland. Many attempts had been made by
India. Despite being born in a family of Presby- missionaries to reach the Fingos, but to no avail.
terian missionaries that spanned three genera- All that remained in Xolobe was a deserted mis-
tions, Forman did not consider missionary work sion house. The Lord gave Christina a vision of
until he was an adult. While in seminary at Xolobe won for Christ and she never wavered
Union (New York), already having completed a from it. At forty-six years of age, she moved into
Ph.D. (history) at the University of Wisconsin, it the mission house, established a Sunday school,
suddenly dawned on him that he could teach and brought many people to Christ. For thirty
seminary in an overseas setting. In 1945 he years, she never left the region. She worked alone,
moved to the North India United Theological toiling in the backwoods of South Africa and
College in Saharanpur, where he taught until scarcely ever seeing a white face. Today, Xolobe
1950. Three years after returning to the United has a fully organized mission station, complete
States he succeeded KENNETH SCOTT LATOURETTE with a church building and a day school.
at Yale University, where he taught for the next KATHY MCREYNOLDS
thirty-four years.
Deeply involved from the beginning in the The- Bibliography. A. C. Ross, BDCM, p. 219.
ological Education Fund of the WCC, his exten-
sive travels in the late 1950s provided exposure to France (Est. 2000 pop.: 59,024,000; 543,965 sq.
the development of educational facilities in the km. [210,025 sq. mi.]). One of the largest countries
South Pacific that were largely unknown in the in Western Europe and one of the ten wealthiest
West. The lack of available research and the in- countries in the world, France has often been re-
digenous nature of the churches and institutions ferred to as the eldest Daughter of the Church
motivated him to concentrate his study and re- when reflecting on its rich Roman Catholic her-
search in that part of the world. This led to posi- itage, but since the Revolution of 1789, the society
tions such as chair of the Foundation for Theo- has become a hardened, secular state.
logical Education in Southeast Asia from 1970 to History of Christianity in France. The gospel
1989, publications such as The Voice of Many Wa- was brought to France by the end of the first cen-
ters: The Story of the Life and Ministry of the Pa- tury A.D. via Italy and was firmly established in
cific Conference of Churches (1982), and interna- Lyons and Arles in the second century. The
tional recognition as an authority on the church church father, Irenaeus, was consecrated the
in the South Pacific. bishop of Lyons in A.D. 180 as he ministered
A. SCOTT MOREAU among both the Greek-speaking community and
Bibliography. G.H. Anderson, BDCM, pp. 21819;
in the vernacular. Serious persecution is recorded
C.W. Forman, Christianity in the Non-Western World; in A.D. 171 in both Lyons and Vienne. Further
idem, IBMR 18 (1994): 2628; idem, The Island persecution under the Emperor Decius (A.D.
Churches of the South Pacific; idem, The Nation and the 249251) brought on the martyrdom of St. Denis,
Kingdom. the Bishop of Paris, and Saturnin of Toulouse. By
369
France
A.D. 312 Christianity became the official religion tendance rate is only 13 percent. Less than 2 per-
of France and gained further control of the soci- cent are Protestant, just over half of which are
ety. The conversion of Clovis, the king of the evangelical.
Franks, on Christmas Day in A.D. 496 marked the There are numerous missionaries serving in
beginning of the strong ties of the church and France from North America, the United Kingdom,
state. COLUMBANUS (c. 543615) and BONIFACE Holland, Germany, Scandinavia, and Switzerland.
(680754), early missionaries from the British Many of the newer evangelical churches in the
Isles, journeyed through France. metropolitan areas are being founded with help
The ties of church and state were strengthened from missionaries.
under Charlemagne of the Holy Roman Empire France is described as an ideological vacuum
in A.D. 800. The CRUSADES to recapture the Holy and has become a mission field for Christians,
Land were first preached in A.D. 1095 by Bernard both Protestant and Roman Catholics, as well as
de Clairvaux. The churchs power and intolerance Muslims, Buddhists, and the cults.
grew and forced movements of laity that empha- JOHN EASTERLING
sized personal piety and the translation of the
Bibliography. J. Ardagh, The New France: A Society
Bible into the vernacular. At the height of the Re- in Transition; C. Dubois, France in Perspective; F. Orna-
formation the Protestants and their sympathizers Ornstein, France: Forgotten Mission Field.
were estimated to encompass nearly a quarter of
Frances population. This posed a tremendous
Francis, Mabel (18801975). American mission-
threat to the monarchy and the Roman Catholic
ary to Japan. Of the many things that could be
Church and ultimately led to a war of religion
said about Mabel Francis, the one statement at
that drained France of many of her educated lit-
the top of the list is that she loved her enemies.
erate artisans and others. Many lost their lives
She was an American missionary to Japan during
and hundreds of thousands left France for
World War II. At a time when the United States
Switzerland, Germany, South Africa, and even
and Japan were waging war against each other,
the American colonies. By the time of the French
Francis was sharing the gospel of reconciliation.
Revolution, the Protestants found more freedom
Francis was born in Corinth, New Hampshire,
but had little strength. Over the nineteenth cen-
where she was raised. She started teaching school
tury while the Roman Catholics sought in vain to
at age 15. Soon thereafter, she began to feel a con-
regain their former strength and power over
viction from the Lord about her failure to preach
French society, missionaries/pastors from Scot-
the gospel. So she began holding Sunday after-
land (Haldane) and England (Baptists and noon church services in the schoolhouse. Revival
Methodists) established a foothold. In the early broke out in that New England community, even
twentieth century the Salvationists and the Welsh among the most resistant people.
Revival made their mark. At age 19, Francis responded to Gods call to
In terms of Frances mission outreach, the missionary service in Japan. She began her min-
French have played a significant role in Catholic istry there in 1909 and remained in Japan for
missions. In addition to the work of the PARIS fifty-six years. When the missionaries were called
EVANGELICAL MISSION SOCIETY, other smaller to return to the United States during the 1930s,
French Protestant mission societies have been ac- she decided to remain with the Japanese people.
tive over the past two centuries (see also FRENCH She was deeply devoted to them and could not
MISSION BOARDS AND SOCIETIES). bear to leave them during their greatest trials.
People of France. There are growing ethnic Due to the lack of financial support from the
minorities due to naturalization and immigra- United States and the Great Depression, both she
tion. The ethnic French are 74.7 percent with re- and the Japanese people suffered greatly. How-
gional minorities including the Breton, Alsatian, ever, because of her courage, love, and consis-
Flemish, Basaque, Corsican, and Catalan. Na- tency in preaching the gospel, many Japanese
tional minorities include the Jews, West Indian people were brought to the Lord.
Antilleans, Gypsies, and Reunionese. North KATHY MC REYNOLDS
Africans and Middle Easterners comprise 7.3 per-
cent of the country but are nearly 50 percent of Bibliography. M. Francis with G. B. Smith, One
the population of Marseilles. Asians, coming Shall Chase a Thousand.
from Vietnam, China, Laos, Cambodia, India,
and Sri Lanka account for 1.3 percent of the Francis of Assisi (c. 11821226). Italian founder
population. Africans from the former colonies of the Franciscan Order. Francis worked in his
are less than 1 percent. fathers textile trade until a serious illness
Religion of France. Since 1905 there has been brought him to a deep internal struggle. This
a separation of church and state. The nonreli- conflict and a vision in 1205 led him to dedicate
gious are currently estimated at just over 19 per- himself to a life of prayer and ministry among
cent; almost 8 percent are Muslim. Though over the poor. After a pilgrimage, during which he
70 percent claim to be Christian, the church at- traded clothes with a beggar and personally ex-
370
Fraser, Donald
perienced poverty, he broke from his father and found only through faith in Christ; and (7) mis-
turned to work with beggars and lepers. sion is Gods decisive activity that will continue
In 1209, responding to another visionary call, until the return of Christ.
he discarded the last of his worldly possessions Reaction among German scholars tended to be
and began evangelizing. A small band gathered either strongly in favor of or strongly against the
around him, and he drew up a simple set of rules declaration. It received significant attention in
for living. They traveled throughout France and American evangelical circles through the efforts
Spain evangelizing, though his hope to reach of McGavran and Harold Lindsell, who published
Africa went unfulfilled due to illness. Papal per- it in Christianity Today. Interestingly enough, ec-
mission to establish the Order of Friars Minor umenical leadership publicly ignored it in spite
was granted in 1209. In 1212, during the Fifth of the fact that it received international accept-
Crusade, Francis and some followers traveled to ance within evangelicalism.
eastern Europe and Egypt. In his absence, lead- A. SCOTT MOREAU
ership of the Order passed to others and he never Bibliography. P. Beyerhaus, Shaken Foundations;
sought to regain it. The rest of his life was spent idem, Missions: Which Way? Humanization or Redemp-
preaching, writing circular letters to and admon- tion; D. McGavran, Eye of the Storm.
ishing members of his Order, and taking repeated
breaks for solitary retreats. Franson, Fredrik (18521908). Swedish-born
A. SCOTT MOREAU American founder of TEAM. Born in Nora, Swe-
Bibliography. D. W. H. Arnold, Francis: A Call to den, in 1852, Franson immigrated to the United
Conversion; M. Bishop, Saint Francis of Assisi; G. K. States at age seventeen with his mother and step-
Chesterton, St. Francis of Assisi; M. A. Habig, ed., St. father and settled in Nebraska. A profound con-
Francis of Assisi: Writings and Early Biographies: Eng- version experience at age nineteen left him an in-
lish Omnibus of the Sources for the Life of St. Francis; tensely committed disciple of Jesus Christ. In
L. Hardick, NCE, 6:2831; ODCC. 1875 he moved to Chicago and joined Moody
Church, which commissioned him to conduct
Frankfurt Declaration on the Fundamental evangelistic campaigns among the Scandinavian
Crisis in Christian Mission. Among evangelical immigrants in the United States.
efforts to redress the significant shifts in mission Ordained in the Evangelical Free Church in
theology seen in the ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT was 1881, Franson continued to minister around the
the Frankfurt Declaration. The flash point was country. In 1890 he organized a missionary train-
the preconference document Renewal in Mis- ing course in Brooklyn and a mission board in
sion, prepared for the WCC Uppsala Assembly Chicago. Having been heavily influenced by
in 1968. PETER BEYERHAUS felt that the document GEORGE MLLER and HUDSON TAYLOR, his was a
represented a serious disruption of the whole tra- mission based on prayer, faith in Gods provision,
dition of missiological thinking. DONALD MC- and an evangelistic focus. In the years that fol-
GAVRANS parallel response led to correspondence lowed, hundreds of missionaries were sent out to
between the two in which McGavran urged Bey- China, Japan, India, and Africa under the Scan-
erhaus to pen a statement similar to the Wheaton dinavian Alliance Mission of North America.
Declaration (see CONGRESS ON THE CHURCHS From the founding of the mission until he died
WORLDWIDE MISSION), but dealing with the recent in 1908, Franson traveled the globe preaching the
WCC documents and thinking. The Theological imminent return of Christ and encouraging his
Convention, a group of fifteen German theolo- fellow missionaries. The legacy of this man of
gians, echoed McGavrans urging. Beyerhaus faith, prayer, and unwavering commitment to his
drafted the declaration, and after discussion and Savior continues today as his mission, which is
revision the group signed it on March 4, 1970. now known as THE EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE MIS-
The single goal of the Frankfurt Declaration SION (TEAM), fearlessly proclaims the truth of
was to reaffirm the biblical basis of mission. Bey- Jesus Christ around the world.
erhaus listed seven indispensable elements of WENDY S. LARSON
mission, each of which specifically refuted a Bibliography. D. B. Woodward, Aflame for God;
trend seen in the WCC: (1) the foundation for E. Torjesen, Fredrik Franson: A Model for Worldwide
mission is found solely in the New Testament; Evangelism; idem, BDCM, p. 223.
(2) the primary goal is to glorify and proclaim
Gods name throughout the world; (3) Jesus alone Fraser, Donald (18701933). Scottish missionary
is the basis, content, and authority of mission; to Malawi. Missionaries influenced the parents of
(4) mission is the churchs presentation of salva- Donald Fraser, who was dedicated for ministry at
tion appropriated through belief and baptism; birth. While a theology student, Fraser helped or-
(5) the primary visible task is to call out from ganize an international missionary conference en-
among all people those who are saved and to in- titled, The Evangelization of the World in This
corporate them into the church; (6) salvation is Generation. In 1896 the Scottish Free Presbyter-
371
Fraser, Donald
ian Church sent him to Nyasaland to serve with nation or mission agency, transferred to work for
the Livingstonia Mission. During furlough (1901) the receiving church.
he married Agnes Renton Robson, a physician, Although the motives behind using fraternal
who also had a mission call. She was active in the worker were well-intentioned, the results were
work, teaching women, giving medical care, and mixed. The unique call, authority, giftedness, and
writing. They had five children; one died at birth. leadership of the long-term cross-cultural mis-
Fraser served in a large area where the British sionary were undermined. The significance and
government did not have influence. His responsi- contribution of long-term missionaries in CON-
bilities included evangelization, leadership train- TEXTUALIZATION of the gospel and in providing
ing, and overseeing a system of village schools. new vision and direction in world evangelization
His writings show his obvious love of the Word were diminished. The term lowered the motiva-
and the people. His missiological principles in- tion of churches and individuals in the West to
cluded the following: use local customs to build support mission efforts financially and struc-
biblical knowledge; dreams, knowledge of the turally, and its use in ecumenical and mainline
spirit world, and group loyalty are important Protestant circles paralleled their dramatic de-
evangelism factors; evangelism is best done by cline in mission funding and sending.
local people; local elders must be involved in all CHARLES VAN ENGEN
church decisions; village schools are to be built
and financed by the villages; Christians should be Bibliography. D. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Par-
involved in ministry; and Africans should send adigm Shifts in Theology of Mission; O. Costas, Christ
Outside the Gate: Mission Beyond Christendom; R. T.
missionaries. Fraser wrote several books and ar-
Parsons, CDCWM, p. 217; B. Sundkler, The World of
ticles about Africa and how to reach Africans Mission; J. Verkuyl, Contemporary Missiology: An Intro-
with the gospel. duction.
MIKEL NEUMANN
Bibliography. A. R. Fraser, Donald Fraser; D. Fraser, Freedom. See RELIGIOUS FREEDOM.
IRM 15 (1926): 438; idem, Winning a Primitive People,
J. Thompson, ML, pp. 16672. Freeman, Thomas Birch (180690). English
missionary to West Africa. The son of a black
Fraternal Workers. Fraternal workers, a term African father and a white English mother, he
used by denominations and mission agencies was born in England two years after the slave
since the 1960s, refers to long- and short-term trade had been abolished. A Wesleyan Methodist
cross-cultural missionaries. shoemaker led him to Christ. His African roots
In the 1960s, the term national church was gave him an interest in African missions.
used to refer to the churches of Africa, Asia, and Freeman sailed for the Gold Coast in 1837
Latin America. Calls for a MORATORIUM on send- under the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Soci-
ing missionaries from Europe and North Amer- ety. This portion of West Africa (Ghana, Togo,
ica, and cries such as missionary go home, Benin, and Western Nigeria) was known to the
gave rise to the thinking behind MISSION ON SIX outside world for the brutal slave trade and the
CONTINENTS at the 1963 CWME MEXICO CITY short life of white missionaries. His new bride
CONFERENCE. died within two months of their arrival. His sec-
Mission on six continents called for new ways ond wife died in 1841 after less than seven
to refer to missionaries and their roles, especially months in Africa. His ill health, discouragement
among mainline churches of the United States of losing his wives, and lack of funds did not deter
and state churches in Europe, resulting in con- him from his work. In 1854 he married an edu-
cepts like mutual sharing of resources and cated African Christian. They had four children.
partnership in mission. Protestants and Roman
Freeman was instrumental in starting churches
Catholics rediscovered the local church as the
and schools throughout two great African king-
primary mission agent, leading to a new view of
doms, the Ashanti and the Dahomey, where the
the purpose and role of missionaries and mission
gospel was unknown. While he never learned the
agencies. An integral response to this was to refer
local language, he made friends of powerful
to missionaries as fraternal workers.
Africans who said, He understands our cus-
Fraternal workers meant that missionaries
toms. He was the first missionary to visit the
were accountable to leaders in the receiving
great cities of gold. He also observed the brutal
churches in an equal, cooperative relationship.
Missions as organizations of expatriate mission- atrocities of the slave trade that he fought. He
aries were dissolved, recognizing the authority of was a peacemaker among Africans and between
the national churches. Mission agendas and proj- England and African kingdoms.
MIKEL NEUMANN
ects were to be set by the receiving churches with
specific goals and time lines. The fraternal work- Bibliography. A. Birtwhistle, Thomas Birch Freeman,
ers became employees of the sending denomi- West African Pioneer; T. B. Freeman, Journal of Various
372
French Mission Boards and Societies
Visits to the Kingdoms of Ashanti, Aku, and Dahomi; F. D. Land of Many Waters, and was known as
Walker, Thomas Birch Freeman: The Son of an African. Cayenne in colonial times. The country continues
to be dependent on France although it is an Over-
Freire, Paulo Reglus Neves (192197). Brazil- seas Department of France. It is known for its fa-
ian educator and theorist. Born in northeastern mous former penal colony of Devils Island.
Brazil on September 19, 1921, Paulo Freires The region was visited by the Spanish explorers
early life was a journey from childhood poverty early in the sixteenth century, who did not settle
into secondary school teaching, adult literacy ef- down because there was no gold. The British tried
forts, and political activism, culminating in a to take possession of the territory in 1654. Guyane
professorship at the University of Recife. There, became a French colony in 1667. Except for a
along with students, he developed a highly effec- Dutch attack in 1676, it remained undisturbed
tive literacy program which gained the support of until 1809, when it was seized by an Anglo-
the government and rapidly grew into a national Portuguese naval force. In 1814, France regained
movement. control until 1946 when the Colony of French
The Revolution of 1964 forced Freire into exile. Guiana became the Department of Guyane.
He first went to Chile where he worked in agrar- The predominant religion of Guyane is Roman
ian reform and wrote Spanish and Portuguese edi- Catholicism, although the majority of the popu-
tions of his two most significant works, Education lation are nominally Roman Catholic. The first
for Critical Consciousness and Pedagogy of the Op- missionaries were Jesuits, followed by the Holy
pressed. Later, he taught at Harvard University Ghost Fathers and other European orders. The
(1959) and served as a consultant with the WORLD Roman Catholic testimony spread among the
COUNCIL OF CHURCHES in Geneva (197079). maroons or Bush Negroes (descendants of es-
When he returned to Brazil in 1980, Freire be- caped slaves). The work among the Djuka was es-
came involved in the Partido de Trabalhadores pecially successful. During the 1820s a colony
(Workers Party), in base ecclesial communities was founded by Mother ANNE MARIE JAVOUHAY,
within the Roman Catholic Church, and in a Superior of the Sisters of St. Joseph Cluny, for
spectrum of other teaching, consulting, and writ- the freed slaves. In 1848 slavery was irrevocably
ing activities. He died May 2, 1997. abolished. French Guiana comprises the single
For Freire, the major problem of society is that diocese of Cayenne, suffragan to the archdiocese
the masses live in a culture of silence, dominated of Fort-de-France, Martinique.
and oppressed by higher classes. Nondialogic or Protestant testimony has not been in signifi-
banking education, with its emphasis on de- cant in the country. The local Anglican Church
positing information in the minds of passive stu- forms part of the diocese of Guyana, with the
dents, is a principal instrument of oppression. bishop residing in Georgetown. Other Protestant
Education which liberates must be dialogic, communities are the Seventh-Day Adventists and
problem-posing, and consciousness-raising (con- the Assemblies of God.
scientizing). PABLO A. DEIROS
Frieres thought has had a global impact on Bibliography. R. Price, ed., Maroon Societies: Rebel
adult education, international development, reli- Slave Communities in the Americas.
gious education, and missiology. His influence is
seen in the writings of liberation theologians and
French Mission Boards and Societies. France
in documents from the Second Latin American
has been a mission field since the beginning of
Episcopal Conference (Medelln, 1968). Evangel-
Christianity. Pauls disciple Crescens possibly
ical appraisals of Freires contributions appear in
reached Gaul (2 Tim. 4:10 according to ancient
publications of the Latin American Theological
manuscripts). The first congregations were
Fraternity. His ideas are also evident in Catholic
Greek-speaking. Latin became common until
and Protestant base ecclesial communities, in re-
French was shaped and established itself as a re-
newal movements in international theological ed-
ligious language. Worship in French became the
ucation, and in the PRAXIS elements of THEOLOG-
rule in the sixteenth century in the emerging
ICAL EDUCATION BY EXTENSION.
churches of the Reformation. The Roman
LOIS MCKINNEY DOUGLAS
Catholic Church of France followed suit only
Bibliography. J. L. Elias, Paulo Freire, Pedagogue of after the SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL allowed local
Liberation; P. Freire, Education for a Critical Conscious- languages to be used in the Mass liturgy (1963).
ness. idem, Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Sermons, however, were always delivered in
French. The level of language is differentiated ac-
French Guiana (Est. 2000 pop.: 179,000; 91,000 cording to educational, social, and geographical
sq. km. [35,135 sq. mi.]). French Guiana or backgrounds. BIBLE SOCIETIES produce several
Guyane is located on the northeast coast of translations from basic to literary French.
South America, east of Suriname and with Brazil France today is both a mission field and a send-
to the east and south. The name Guiana means ing country. Home and foreign missions (based
373
French Mission Boards and Societies
mostly in America, England, Holland, and Ger- nonites, Free Churches). Other French evangeli-
many) are approaching secularized French popu- cal missions are associated with Swiss, Dutch,
lations and also linguistic minorities settled in German, English, and American mission boards.
France in growing numbers (North and West Significant organizations in France are Action
Africans, Asians, Eastern Europeans). A striking Chrtienne en Orient Fellowship (founded in
development was the creation of the Evangelical 1922 by Paul Berron in Strasbourg, restructured
Gypsy Church in France through the ministry of in 1995), the Baptist branch of the European
Clment Le Cossee and some American mission- Baptist Union, the French branch of the Evan-
aries. This church was received in 1975 as a full gelical Leprosy Mission, the French branch of
member of the Federation of Protestant Churches the Evangelical Mission in Cte dIvoire, the In-
in France. Similarly, some missionary groups are ternational Association for the Albert Schweitzer
targeting so-called NOMINAL CHRISTIANS. Many Hospital at Lambarene, Gabon.
scattered Pentecostal, Baptist, and independent When the churches in the mission fields be-
evangelical congregations and networks have came autonomous bodies in the 1950s and 1960s,
emerged mainly in the cities, either spontaneously mainline mission boards merged into the synodal
or through the ministry of evangelists and mis- structure of the French churches. This so-called
sionaries. churchification of missions led to the creation of
While the consolidated Protestant population a new intercontinental and interchurch body, the
in France oscillates between 2 and 5 percent, Apostolic Community for Apostolic Action
Roman Catholic tradition is cherished by about (CEVAA) (1971), which presently operates on be-
two-thirds of the population. This includes a
half of forty-seven churches worldwide, with
strong foreign missionary commitment, which
headquarters in Paris. Its first executive secretary
interfered with French foreign policy in the nine-
was Victor Rakotoarimanana, of the United Re-
teenth and the beginning of the twentieth cen-
formed Church of Madagascar. This body is di-
turies, when France officially protected Roman
rectly supported by church synods, according to
Catholic missions in China and the Pacific.
There are about 300 Roman Catholic mission- the respective financial capacities of the member
ary orders and congregations in France; among churches. Swiss and French contributions make
them at least 210 womens congregations of up 90 percent of the budget.
French origin. But most of them have become Relationships between Roman Catholic and
international groups due to the Vatican strategy Protestant missions used to be tense and even
of centralization since 1922, and to interna- hostile until the SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL
tional recruitment. At this time most of origi- (196265) articulated a new theology of ecu-
nally French Catholic foreign missions have menism. There have been many successful ex-
moved their headquarters to Rome: the Oblates periments in forms of common witness. Two ec-
of Mary Immaculate, founded in 1816 by Eu- umenical associations of missiologists have been
gne de Mazenod; the Holy Ghost Fathers, reestablished (1979 for mission history, 1994 for
founded by Franois Libermann in 1848; the mission theology).
White Fathers, founded by Charles Lavigerie in A puzzling development is the multiplication of
1868; the Christian Brothers, the Sisters of St. highly profiled nongovernmental organizations
Joseph of Cluny, the Daughters of Charity of St. in the field of development and relief, relying
Vincent de Paul, among many others. Until the upon secular funding. Many of them have a
decline of missionary vocations in the 1960s, Christian background, but are reluctant to coop-
France and the Netherlands had the highest erate with established churches and mission
ratio of missionaries in the world. Roman boards.
Catholic missions are supported by a worldwide MARC R. SPINDLER
fund established in Rome since 1922, but fund
Bibliography. P. King, ed., French Christian Handbook.
raising is also operated by local and regional
missionary networks.
The internationalization of the Protestant mis- French Polynesia (Est. 2000 pop.: 242,000; 4,000
sionary movement is probably even more evi- sq. km. [1,544 sq. mi.]). French Polynesia consists
dent. The PARIS EVANGELICAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY of some 130 islands in five groups located in the
(18221971) always recruited its staff from many western Pacific halfway between Australia and
European countries and worked in close cooper- South America. The French protectorate declared
ation with the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, the in 1842 was extended over the whole group by
BASEL MISSION, and the Methodist Mission. This 1901. The country is an overseas territory of
mission board was restructured in 1971 as the France with its people having French citizenship,
French Evangelical Department of Apostolic Ac- representation in the French parliament, and
tion (DEFAP). It recruits missionaries and vol- their own Territorial Assembly. Nearly half the
unteers on behalf of almost all denominations population are members of the Evangelical
(Reformed, Lutheran, Moravians, Baptists, Men- Church; one-third are Roman Catholics; and
374
Friends (Quakers) Missions
Mormons, Seventh-Day Adventists, and Jehovahs The major emphasis is on evangelism and
Witnesses are significant minorities. church planting. Various social ministries are
ALLAN K. DAVIDSON carried on providing needed health care, hygiene,
water, child care, education, and other services.
SEE ALSO Polynesia. FMPB has experienced considerable group con-
version in Gujarat and Bihar.
Freytag, Walter (18991959). German theolo- ROGER E. HEDLUND
gian and missiologist. He served as professor of
missions and ecumenical studies at the Univer- Bibliography. R. E. Hedlund and F. Hrangkhuma,
eds., Indigenous Missions of India; L. J. Joshi, Evalua-
sity of Hamburg until his death in 1959, having
tion of Indigenous Missions of India; L. Lazarus, ed.,
graduated from Tbingen, Marburg, and Halle Proclaiming Christ: A Handbook of Indigenous Mission
Universities and receiving his doctorate in psy- in India; M. A. Nelson and C. Chun, Asian Mission So-
chology and education from the University of cieties: New Resources for World Evangelization.
Hamburg in 1925.
One year after receiving his doctorate, Freytag Friends (Quakers) Missions. One of the great
became the director of the German Missionary puzzles of English church history is why the
Council. He led this ecumenical group of thirty Friends (Quaker) missionary movement, which
missionary societies for thirty-three years. He as- broke like a sunburst into the British and Ameri-
sumed an important role at the organizing and can scene about 1650, so quickly receded to a
founding of the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES in footnote in missions history. While Quakerism
Amsterdam in 1948. He also helped organize the continued to claim an influence out of propor-
East Asia Christian Conference in Indonesia in tion to its numerical size, its missionary impact
1957. was muted by the Quietistic era from 1700 to
Missiological interest and ecumenical involve- 1850. A second burst of missions came between
ment carried Freytag to the major INTERNATIONAL 1850 and 1900, particularly propelled forward by
MISSIONARY COUNCIL meetings in Jerusalem, India, evangelical and Wesleyan revivals. It produced
Canada, Germany, and Ghana. At his death, Frey- small but permanent works in Mexico, Japan, Ja-
tag was vice chairman of the International Mis- maica, Palestine, India, China, Alaska, and Cuba.
sionary Council and chairman of the Division of A third round of new activity followed in the
Studies of the World Council of Churches. early 1900s, especially in Africa and Latin Amer-
Freytags missionary research in the 1930s car- ica. After 1975 a number of new fields were
ried him to New Guinea, Indonesia, and China to opened by evangelical American and non-West-
study the impact of Christianity upon those cul- ern Friends in a fourth wave of missionary en-
tures. He published his conclusions in his book ergy with more interest in Asia.
The Spiritual Revolution in the East. After 1927, British Friends mostly ceased a
DAVID H. SHEPHERD sense of active conversion evangelism, but con-
tinued peace and service efforts and loose ties
Friends Missionary Prayer Board. The out- with mission-founded groups of Friends in Africa,
growth of prayer bands started by Tamil young India, and elsewhere. The Quaker Peace and Ser-
men in 1958, FMPB became a missionary send- vice Committee is one of the visible heirs to the
ing agency in 1967 when its first missionaries earlier British Quaker missionary concerns.
were sent to Dharmapuri District. The mission Initially, American Friends Yearly Meetings (re-
expanded to North India in 1972. By 1978 there gional conferences) were the missionary sending
were 119 missionaries including wives. In 1987, bodies, with each Yearly Meeting developing its
274 were reported, and 423 in 1992. By 1997 own area of world interest. From 1900, shifting
FMPB had a total of 620 missionaries and 120 patterns gradually sorted American Quakers into
field stations in 17 states. 300 local evangelists three major alliances: Friends United Meeting,
(converts) were trained as leaders in about 1,600 based in Richmond, Indiana; Evangelical Friends
congregations begun by the mission. International/North America with a missions of-
FMPB is a lay Christian movement with an ef- fice in Denver, Colorado; and the more theologi-
ficient organizational structure supported by cally liberal Friends General Conference, clus-
prayer group members. Recruitment is through tered in the eastern United States. Friends
district Gideonite Meets, area-wide Challenge General Conference does not look favorably on
Meets, and prayer cell meetings where a mis- conversion evangelism, and limits its interna-
sionary challenge and call for volunteers is given. tional work to social development, humanitarian
Leadership carefully screens applicants. A rigid relief, and promotion of sociopolitical justice is-
spiritual discipline is demanded. Candidates are sues. Both FUM (Friends United Meeting) and
sent for a year of training at Bethel Bible Insti- EFI (Evangelical Friends International) actively
tute, Danishpet, and other exposures. The first combine conversion evangelism and social serv-
year in the field is considered probationary. ice in their programs of world missions. Evan-
375
Friends (Quakers) Missions
gelical Friends Mission (EFM) is the missionary Meetings cared for smaller and scattered mis-
arm of EFI/North America and after its forma- sions efforts.
tion in 1975 became the most active Friends The close of the twentieth century found the
agency in establishing new churches among un- two American Friends missions agencies (FUM
reached peoples. and EFM) phasing out of older fields and passing
Friends United Meeting. Friends United Meet- into new ones. Missionaries like Everett and
ing (FUM) maintains missionary and fraternal Catherine Cattell (India), Charles and Leora
church ties in East Africa (Kenya, Uganda, and DeVol (China and Taiwan), Roscoe and Tina
Tanzania), Cuba, Jamaica, Belize, Palestine (Ra- Knight (Latin America), and Arthur and Edna
mallah Friends School and Monthly Meeting), Chilson (Africa) represent a distinguished and
Mexico, and Native American missions in the vigorous history of cultural sensitivity, interde-
United States. New works in the 1990s include nominational leadership, and spiritual zeal. Their
contacts in Moscow, Russia, and in Tecuci, wholistic ministries stressed conversion evangel-
Romania. ism and church planting along with education,
The overwhelmingly largest of FUM church human equality, women in ministry, and the
plants is in Kenya, where perhaps more people guidance of the Holy Spirit in worship and serv-
call themselves Quaker than in any other nation. ice. Strong national leadership arose in East and
Roughly one hundred thousand adherents are Central Africa, Central and South America, and
now divided among a number of autonomous Taiwan. Were it not for twentieth-century mis-
Yearly Meetings. The original Friends Africa In- sions, Quakerism would have nearly disappeared
dustrial Mission was begun about 1900 and pro- from the picture of world Christianity. Instead,
moted by the missionary efforts of three students the majority of Quakers are now non-Western
from what is now Malone College in Ohio. In the evangelical Christians who have joined the mis-
beginning, it was a blend of technical training, sionary sending movement by commissioning
medical ministry, founding of schools, and evan- workers to Nepal, Nicaragua, Peru, the Philip-
gelistic church planting. One of the three stu- pines, Siberia, and Zaire.
dents eventually left the Friends mission and RONALD G. STANSELL
paved the way for the large and prosperous work
of World Gospel Mission, a phenomenon re- Bibliography. E. L. Cattell, Christian Mission: A Mat-
peated by other Friends pioneers in Bolivia, ter of Life; C. Jones, American Friends in World Mis-
Honduras, and elsewhere. Another started a new sions; H. Smuck, Friends in East Africa; D. E. True-
work in Burundi, later related to EFI. blood, The People Called Quakers; C. P. Wagner, The
Protestant Movement in Bolivia; W. R. Williams, The
Evangelical Friends Mission. Evangelical Rich Heritage of Quakerism.
Friends Mission represents a fourth wave of
Friends missions, beginning in 1975 in Mexico
City. Other new missions started by EFM include Friendship Evangelism. Evangelism that em-
a Muslim student ministry, the Philippines, phasizes the crucial role that relationships play
Friends of Garhwal (North India), Nepal, in constructing a platform from which the gospel
Rwanda, and Siberia, Russia. After 1975, EFM can be communicated effectively. In this ap-
also became a missions network for the member proach, friendships are not conceived of as sup-
yearly meetings of Alaska, Evangelical Friends planting the gospel. They are bridges over which
ChurchEastern Region, Northwest, Rocky the gospel may be delivered and received.
Mountain, and Friends Church Southwest. These This approach is also commonly known as
older missions and national churches include Bo- LIFESTYLE EVANGELISM. It highlights the necessity
livia, Peru, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Sal- of living out the Christian life in a consistent and
vador, Bundelkhand province of India, Taiwan, winsome manner in the context of family and
Burundi, and Rough Rock Indian Mission in Ari- friendships. This is foundational to the compan-
zona. The largest membership block of evangeli- ion step of proclaiming the gospel. A living
cal Friends work exists in Latin America, with demonstration of the gospel must go together
perhaps fifty thousand calling themselves Friends with its proclamation. This is particularly true in
(including Central Friends in Bolivia). New friendship evangelism. The foundational premise
works were started in the late 1980s and 1990s in is that a lifestyle of obedience to the lordship of
Indonesia, Cambodia, and Jamaica. The national Christ makes ones verbal witness credible.
churches of these Friends were loosely organized The biblical basis for sharing the gospel along
worldwide by the Evangelical Friends Interna- lines established by friendships and intimates is
tional Council with Regional Directors in Africa, strong. The example of Jesus is instructive. He
Asia, Latin America, and North America. was known as a friend of sinners (Matt. 11:19).
Nonaligned but evangelical Central Yearly Yet for that reason the multitudes heard him
Meeting (Indiana) pursued a separate mission in gladly. The earliest disciples of Jesus were won
Bolivia, with as many as five spinoff Yearly Meet- along such webs of relationships. John the Bap-
ings within that nation. Other individual Yearly tist pointed two of his disciples and friends to the
376
The Fruit of the Spirit
Lord. One of these, Andrew, immediately sought selves arguing for a spirituality that differs
his brother, Peter. Philip, a likely friend of An- sharply from that found in the church today.
drew and Peter, was the next convert. In turn, The Context: Particularism or Universalism.
Philip found his friend Nathanael and brought The Book of Galatians can be seen as a sustained
him to the Lord (John 1:35ff.). After Jesus had argument by one missionary for a universalist
healed the Gadarene demoniac he instructed perspective against other missionaries arguing
him, Go home to your family, and tell them how for a particularist viewpoint. Gentile Christians
much the Lord has done for you, and how he has are being urged to embrace circumcision and the
had mercy on you (Mark 5:19 [NIV]). In the Book Law as a means of sanctification. Paul argues
of Acts the account of the Gentile centurion Cor- from his own experience (Gal. 1:12:14) and
nelius illustrates this same principle. This seeker from the Scriptures (2:155:12) that God wills
gathered together his extended family and close salvation for Gentiles and Jews through free
friends to hear the message that Peter was com- grace, apart from the Law. This freedom can only
missioned to share with him (Acts 10:24). be maintained by the Holy Spirit (5:136:10).
The advantages of friendship evangelism are Flesh or Spirit. The most pervasive of several
significant. First, it makes use of the most natu- antithetical arguments in Galatians is that of
ral avenue for the spread of the gospel. The close flesh/law, related to Spirit. Paul asks: Did you re-
emotional and physical proximity of unbelieving ceive the Spirit by doing the works of the law or
by believing what you heard? Are you so foolish?
intimates provides ample opportunities for wit-
Having started with the Spirit, are you now end-
ness. Second, the unbeliever who has observed a
ing with the flesh? (3:23, NRSV).
wholesome Christian witness from a personal
Individual Spirituality or Community Spiri-
friend is much more likely to receive the message
tuality. Paul accents community spirituality in
of salvation and become a disciple. Galatians. This becomes clear in his one an-
Dangers are also inherent in this method. It is other exhortations (5:13, 15, 26; 6:2); let us
possible to allow the friendship factor to sup- challenges (5:25, 26; 6:9, 10); and warnings about
plant a clear presentation of the demands of the biting and devouring and competing against
gospel. A good testimony, as invaluable as it is, one another (5:15, 26). Individually each Chris-
can never take the place of the gospel message in tian lives by the Spirit, having crucified the
the process of salvation (Rom. 1:16). Also, one flesh, (5:16, 24). Paul views Christians living out
might be tempted to neglect strangers or slight this new way of life in community (5:1315, 26;
acquaintances who need the gospel in favor of in- 6:1, 2, 10). The Spirit empowers relationships in
vesting exclusively in closer friends. community.
The Christian has no right to limit obedience The Meaning of Flesh and Spirit. Ones un-
to the GREAT COMMISSION to a select circle. Never- derstanding of flesh and Spirit is crucial in inter-
theless, believers should be cognizant of their re- preting the fruit of the Spirit in Galatians. Inter-
sponsibility to share the gospel with their friends pretations of flesh (sarx) vary widely. The NIV
and intimates. Even more, Christians of all cul- translates sarx as human nature in most places
tures should be intentional in cultivating genuine in Galatians while the NRSV retains the word
friendships with unbelievers. flesh. The NIV translation conforms to the com-
JEFFERY B. GINN mon evangelical view of the Christian life as a
struggle between two entities in the person with
Bibliography. J. Aldrich, Life-Style Evangelism: Cross-
ing Traditional Boundaries to Reach the Unbelieving
the Christian caught in the middle, as in Gala-
World; D. Owens, Sharing Christ When You Feel You tians 5:17. This interpretation must be rejected.
Cant: Making It Easier to Tell Your Friends and Family Pauls usage of flesh and Spirit in Galatians is
about Your Faith in Christ; T. Stebbens, Friendship Evan- rooted in his eschatological view of salvation his-
gelism by the Book; C. Van Engen, You Are My Witnesses. tory. For Paul salvation history divides between
two aeons, with the death of Christ and the com-
Frontier Mission Work. See PIONEER MISSION ing of the Holy Spirit marking this division. He
WORK. reminds the Galatians that the Lord Jesus Christ
. . . gave himself for our sins to rescue us from the
present evil age (1:3) and recounts their salvation
Frontier Peoples. See PEOPLES, PEOPLE GROUPS; experience with the Holy Spirit (3:2). The flesh
UNREACHED PEOPLES. and Law dominates one aeon and the Spirit the
other. To walk by the Spirit is to experience the
The Fruit of the Spirit. The fruit of the Spirit as empowering age to come (5:16, 18, 25).
found in Galatians 5:2223 is often contrasted Christ and Holy Spirit (two kingdom promises)
with the gifts of the Spirit and made to say some- introduce a new way of salvation. The crucified
thing quite different than originally intended. As Christ and the empowering Spirit determine the
Paul argues for a new kind of spirituality, so nature of the universal gospel and the Spirit-
those who study this text today may find them- empowered nature of the people of God. Particu-
377
The Fruit of the Spirit
larism (flesh and Law) characterizes the old fastness in our relationships in the body of Christ
aeon. Seeking holiness without the enabling is the idea.
Spirit fulfills the desires of the flesh and puts one GentlenessPerhaps the most difficult of the
under the Law (5:16, 18, 1921). The Spirit of virtues to translate into English. At one time the
Christ empowers Christians to experience the al- English word meekness was a good transla-
ready of Gods kingdom. tion. Because many people are opinionated, gen-
Fruit versus Works. The agricultural meta- tleness will curb inclinations to run roughshod
phor of fruit can be found throughout Scripture. over others.
Jesus uses this metaphor to show the results of Self-controlThis could be one of the virtues
ones relationship to God (John 15). Paul uses the whose primary application is individual, al-
metaphor to describe the life of the Christian though certainly needed in relationships. Our
(Rom. 6:22; Eph. 5:9; Phil. 1:11; 4:17). Paul con- passions must be brought under the control of
trasts the fruit of the Spirit (5:2223) with the the Spirit. Self-control is needed to avoid such
works of the flesh (5:1921). Producing fruit sins as fornication, impurity, and drunkenness
through the empowering Spirit is not a passive (5:1921).
experience, but a dynamic interaction between Application. Spirituality is determined by the
being led by the Spirit (the indicative) and walk- empowering presence of the eschatological gift of
ing by the Spirit (the imperative). Fruitbearing the Spirit. Never before in the history of Chris-
calls for disciplined obedience to the Holy Spirit, tianity has this message been more needed than
recognizing his presence in the community. today. Missionaries establishing churches by
The word fruit may be considered plural or preaching a gospel of grace may be tempted to
singular. Lists of vice and virtues are common in introduce law for daily Christian living. For in-
both biblical and extrabiblical literature. None of stance, missionaries in Africa confronted by
these lists are meant to be exhaustive. For exam- polygamous marriages are tempted to lay down
ple, this list leaves out such virtues as forgiveness the law of monogamy. Dependence on anything
and compassion. This list is guided by the per- except the Spirit leads to walking in the flesh.
sonal needs of the church. That the vice list in- Those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified
cludes enmities, strife, jealousy, anger, quarrels, the flesh with its passions and desires (5:24).
dissensions, factions, and envy points toward Christianity as a way of life calls for the enabling
community needs (5:15, 26). The virtues listed al- power of the Holy Spirit.
most uniformly apply to community life. For Western Christians this message is espe-
The Fruit. LoveChrist, Paul, and John stress cially applicable. Modern evangelicalism, influ-
love as the foundational virtue. God is love. enced by a highly technological society, is advo-
Christs love for marginals in society distin- cating a technique spirituality. Self-help and
guished him. Love calls us to place priority on how to advice dominates. This new legalism
people. Love fulfills the Law (5:14). characterizes Western spirituality. Paul calls for
JoyJoy is the keynote of Christianity. The an abandonment of the flesh in all of its forms.
Spirits manifest presence in the church will be Walk by the Spirit. Love, joy, peace, patience,
evidenced by joy. kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and
PeaceModern life brings deep personal anxi- self-control characterize the community of faith
eties, robbing people of peace. Personal peace when the crucified Christ and the empowering
flows from and into community. The Holy Spirit Spirit are present.
can enable diverse people to experience and HAROLD G. DOLLAR
maintain peace.
PatienceAlso translated longsuffering. Living SEE ALSO Conscience, Ethics, AND Moral Devel-
in community calls for an ability to put up with opment.
the foibles and idiosyncrasies of others. Without Bibliography. J. M. G. Barclay, Obeying the Truth:
Spirit-produced longsuffering there will be anger Pauls Ethics in Galatians; J. D. G. Dunn, The Epistle to
and quarrels (5:20). the Galatians; G. D. Fee, Gods Empowering Presence:
KindnessKindness manifests itself in the The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul, pp. 367471;
words we speak and the acts we engage in when R. Y. K. Fung, The Epistle to the Galatians; G. W.
in community. Kindness manifested strengthens Hansen, Galatians; W. Russell, WmTJ 57 (1995):
those benefited. 33357; S. F. Winward, Fruit of the Spirit.
GoodnessNot found in extrabiblical litera-
ture. Being generous or good is a quality of moral Frumentius (c. 300380). Pioneer missionary to
excellence. This word is used for God (Luke Ethiopia. Greek and Roman historians recount
18:1819). It is the opposite of envy. how the youthful Frumentius and his brother
FaithfulnessThis word pistis occurs twenty- Edesius on a voyage from Tyre about 330 were
two times in Galatians, normally translated faith. shipwrecked on the Ethiopian coast and cap-
Faithfulness is perhaps correct here. The spiri- tured. They subsequently impressed the royal
tual quality of loyalty, commitment, and stead- court at Axum so much that they were allowed to
378
Fundamentalisms
preach the gospela work continued by Fru- emphasis led 20 percent of its graduates from
mentius after Edesius had returned to Tyre. 1950 to 1960 to go into foreign missions.
About 339 Frumentius went to Alexandria, where In 1964, at age seventy-seven, Charles Fuller
Bishop Athanasius consecrated him as bishop mandated David Hubbard, the seminarys third
and arranged for missionaries to join Frumentius president, to organize a school of world mission.
in Ethiopia whose future church heads were It opened in 1965 with DONALD MCGAVRAN as
known as Abuna (Our Father). dean. His church growth principles, developed as
J. D. DOUGLAS a lifelong missionary in India, shaped its curricu-
lum and faculty selection. Since then over 1,800
Fuller, Andrew (17541815). English founder of students who serve in more than 150 countries
the Baptist Missionary Society. Born in Wicken, have graduated with mission degrees from Fuller.
Cambridgeshire, Fuller joined the Soham Baptist DANIEL P. FULLER
Church at the age of sixteen. Though lacking for- Bibliography. D. P. Fuller, Give the Winds a Mighty
mal theological training, he was called to be their Voice; G. M. Marsden, Reforming Fundamentalism.
minister in 1775. Seven years later he moved to
Kettering, Northamptonshire, where he served
Fund Raising. Missionary enterprises require
until his death.
adequate financial underwriting. Missions at-
Fuller began to promote the missionary en-
tached to mainline denominations may use spe-
deavors of the Baptist Church in about 1784. The
cial offerings (Southern Baptists) or assessments
Baptists of his time tended to push the tenets of
Calvinism to the extreme belief that since God per church member (Presbyterian Church
would call his elect, there need be no invitation [U.S.A.]) to supply the needs. The missionary
to salvation through presentation of the gospel. may have little to do in this process or may have
After searching the Scriptures and studying au- only a catalytic role (CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY
thors like JONATHAN EDWARDS, Fuller published an ALLIANCE) speaking at district missions confer-
opposing view in 1785: The Gospel Worthy of All ences. For a growing number of evangelical de-
Acceptance, or the Obligation of Men Fully to nominational missions (Evangelical Free) and for
Credit and Cordially to Approve Whatever God all independent societies (AIM, SIM), fund rais-
Makes Known. This book helped to ignite the fire ing is a task shared by the agency and the indi-
of evangelism and missions among the Free vidual missionary. Churches may partner with a
Churches in England. It greatly impacted mission agency to help in underwriting the sup-
WILLIAM CAREY (17611834), who became the port of individuals, mission-run institutions, and
first missionary of the Baptist Missionary Soci- special projects. These funds may (Overseas Mis-
ety, which was founded in 1792 at Kettering. sionary Fellowship) or may not (The Evangelical
Fuller served as its first home director. Alliance Mission) be pooled by the agency to un-
Fuller was given D.D. degrees by Princeton and derwrite the general needs of the mission.
Yale in recognition of his contributions. His com- The mission may provide significant help, train-
plete works were first published in 1838 and have ing, and guidance for those raising funds, but
been reprinted several times. many agencies rely on the individual to follow up
GARY LAMB contacts and raise ones own support. The admin-
istrative cost of fund raising varies a great deal. In
Bibliography. T. E. Fuller, A Memoir of the Life and some cases there is practically no overhead be-
Writings of Andrew Fuller; A. G. Fuller, The Principal cause of volunteers in the home office (World
Works and Remains of the Rev. Andrew Fuller.
Prayer League); in other cases it is a fixed percent-
age of all income (e.g., CBInternational15 per-
Fuller, Charles E. (18871968). American radio cent). Missions with a higher cost may often have
evangelist and founder of a school of missions. greater benefits for their missionaries than do
Having been influenced by A. B. SIMPSON, Charles those with little or no administrative costs.
Fullers father, Henry Fuller (18461926) set aside JOHN EASTERLING
monies from his orange groves in Redlands, Cal-
ifornia, for the advance of foreign missions. Then Bibliography. B. Barnett, Friend Raising: Building a
in 1945 Charles Fuller, internationally known Missionary Support Team That Lasts.
from his weekly hour-long broadcast (193767),
felt Gods call to use this money to found a theo- Fundamentalisms. Certain dynamic and popu-
logical seminary with a zeal for missions. lar religious movements that have been a signifi-
Fuller asked Harold J. Ockenga to organize cant feature within WORLD RELIGIONS during the
such a school because he both pastored a church twentieth century. Part of their power and appeal
in Boston supporting many missionaries and had lies in their claim to rediscover religious authen-
the academic credentials needed. Fuller Theolog- ticity and divine purpose amidst the confusions
ical Seminary (named after Henry Fuller) opened of modern life by attempting a retrieval of the
in Pasadena in 1947. The seminarys missionary original doctrines and practices of their particu-
379
Fundamentalisms
lar religion. Such fundamentals in an unchanged dependent Muslim nations who misjudged the
form are regarded as being the answer to the religious sentiments of the masses.
needs of humankind in every age and context. The central question is whether traditional Is-
Despite this focus on the past, fundamentalism lamic institutions and law are now outdated and
is itself a product of the modern era. The history need to be modernized. Islamic fundamentalists
of the particular religion is seen as a record of believe that the relevance of the traditional
general decline and compromise. The fundamen- sources of Muslim faith and practice was not lim-
talist response to MODERNITY stands as an alter- ited to seventh-century Arabia, but that in their
native to the liberal approach, which sees the his- original form they are still suited to the modern
tory of religion as progress and is willing to era. Thus fundamentalists call for the implemen-
review religious doctrine in the light of modern tation of Islamic law (sharia) in such detail as
knowledge as a means of achieving contempo- the veiling of women, the prohibition of banking
rary relevance. interest, certain forms of criminal punishment,
The origins of the term fundamentalism in and the execution of apostates.
Christian circles are usually associated with the PATRICK SOOKHDEO
publication of a series of tracts entitled The Fun-
Bibliography. M. A. Noll, Between Faith and Criti-
damentals (190915), which defended certain cism; H. Kng and J. Moltmann, Fundamentalism as an
tenets of biblical orthodoxy as literally true. Ecumenical Challenge; M. E. Marty and R. S. Appleby,
These included creation in six days, the virgin eds., Fundamentalism Project Series; M. Nazir-Ali,
birth, the physical resurrection and bodily return Islam: A Christian Perspective; W. M. Watt, Islamic Fun-
of Christ. The fundamentalists affirmed the in- damentalism and Modernity.
errancy of Scripture (including its descriptions of
supernatural events) in contrast to the more lib- Fundamentalist Denominational Missions.
eral approach to the Bible, which was based on Many fundamentalist mission agencies emerged
historical and source criticism and scientific in the context of ecclesiastical controversy during
opinion. the early twentieth century. Since most funda-
In the United States the fundamentalists be- mentalist denominations are inherently separatis-
came associated with revivalist movements and tic, their approach to foreign missions has been
dispensationalism. Some fundamentalists in very different from that of mainline Protestant
their opposition to modernity separated from de- denominations. Fundamentalists reacted to what
nominations that included modernists, while oth- they perceived as theological laxity and overly
ers (including Carl Henry) led the way for the centralized bureaucratic structures in traditional
evangelicals, Bible-believing Christians within Protestantism. In establishing alternatives to de-
many traditions who were more open to a cul- nominational mission boards, fundamentalists
tural engagement with modernity. made concerted efforts to avoid these alleged pit-
Fundamentalist tendencies may be detected in falls; hence, the relationships between fundamen-
other world religions (e.g., within Hinduism in talist denominations and the mission enterprises
the nationalist political forms of Shiv Sena and that they have supported have frequently been in-
the Bharatiya Janata Party). However, the word direct and deliberately decentralized. In fact, very
fundamentalism has been more popularly as- few fundamentalist denominations have mission
sociated with certain modern reform movements agencies that are integrally or officially incorpo-
within Islam, although Muslim fundamentalists rated into a denominational framework.
themselves prefer to be described as Islamists Some of the earliest denominational missions
rather than fundamentalists. It may be argued of a fundamentalist cast resulted from the Land-
that the origins of the present fundamentalist mark controversy in the Southern Baptist Con-
movements in Islam can be traced back to the vention, which began in earnest around 1850.
Wahhabi movement in Arabia, the Ikwan al Mus- Landmarkers believed that mission work was the
limun in Egypt and Syria, and the Jamaat-i- responsibility of the local church, so they gener-
Islami in India and Pakistan. These drew in part ally opposed the organized efforts of societies or
from existing thought within Islam (e.g., from denominational boards, including the SBCs For-
Ibn Taymiyah, d. 1328) and articulated a power- eign Mission Board. Conflicts surrounding Land-
ful message of religion, patriotism, and revolu- markism were the most intense in Arkansas and
tion. In the context of the decline of Islam (asso- Texas during the late nineteenth and early twen-
ciated in part with the Western colonial era) they tieth centuries, eventually leading to the rise of
advocated a return to the roots of the faith. What two Landmark denominations, which are now
was needed was not less Islam or adulterated known as the American Baptist Association and
Islam, but original and genuine Islam. The vital- the Baptist Missionary Association of America.
ity of the fundamentalist agenda continued in the The Missionary Committee of the ABA, based in
postcolonial era in opposition both to Western Texarkana, Texas, serves as a support agency that
interference and to the secularized rulers in in- assists local churches in sending out missionar-
380
Fundamentalist Denominational Missions
ies who are engaged in church planting, theolog- today on church planting, evangelism, Bible
ical education, evangelism, and literature distri- translation, medical work, theological education
bution in Latin America, Europe, Africa, Asia, by extension, and aviation services. Like BMM,
and Oceania. The BMAA, headquartered in Little the ABWE supports in excess of 600 overseas
Rock, Arkansas, reports itself as a denomina- missionaries. These two agencies represent the
tional sending agency, an apparent shift from bulk of foreign mission endeavor that is related
strict Landmark principles. It supports church to the GARBC.
planting, Bible distribution, theological educa- One additional organization that emerged out
tion, and evangelism in Latin America, Europe, of controversy in the Northern Baptist Conven-
and Asia. Both Landmark denominational pro- tion was the Conservative Baptist Foreign Mis-
grams are small, with a combined overseas mission Society. The creation of CBFMS in 1943
sionary corps of less than fifty. pointed to continuing fundamentalist concerns
The fundamentalist-modernist controversy of about the NBCs missionary program. The
the 1920s and 1930s produced several funda- founders hoped to create a channel for NBC
mentalist quasi-denominational agencies. Fun- churches that wanted to support conservative
damentalists, particularly in the Northern Baptist evangelical missionaries, but they were not al-
Convention (now the American Baptist Churches lowed to function under the NBC umbrella and
in the U.S.A.) and the Presbyterian Church in the thus formed the Conservative Baptist Association
U.S.A. (northern), grew increasingly disillusioned in 1947. The CBFMS, now called CBInterna-
with their denominational boards and turned in- tional, has been the main missionary arm of the
stead to nondenominational faith missions, some CBA. Although established in the waning stages
of which predated the fundamentalist-modernist of the fundamentalist-modernist disputes, CBIn-
conflicts, or to new organizations that offered a ternational now is considered part of the Ameri-
denominational focus without being part of the can evangelical mainstream, unlike BMM and
mainline establishment. Overall, Baptist and the ABWE.
Presbyterian fundamentalists wanted mission The most significant fundamentalist Presby-
agendas with greater emphases on evangelism terian missionary society to appear during a pe-
and doctrinal orthodoxy. riod of conflict was the Independent Board for
As early as 1920, Baptist fundamentalist Presbyterian Missions, founded in 1933 by
William C. Haas, who earlier had worked with J. Gresham Machen. Machen had accused the
the AFRICA INLAND MISSION and the Heart of Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions of har-
Africa Mission, set up the General Council of Co- boring modernists in its missionary corps, and
operating Baptist Missions of North America in wanted a missions alternative for conservatives
Elyria, Ohio. This agency became one of the en- in the Presbyterian Church. His involvement
dorsed missions of the General Association of with the Independent Board led to his defrock-
Regular Baptist Churches, a fundamentalist de- ing and the formation in 1936 of what was even-
nomination that resulted from a Northern Bap- tually named the Orthodox Presbyterian Church.
tist schism in 1932. The GCCBMNA eventually Carl McIntire, a dissident who once was allied
expanded its ministry beyond Africa to include with Machen, subsequently gained control of the
Latin America, Asia, and Oceania, and was re- Independent Board and made it the virtual for-
named Baptist Mid-Missions in 1953. Currently eign missions department of his Bible Presbyter-
based in Cleveland, Ohio, BMMs more recent ian Church. Today it is a very small agency,
projects have centered on church planting, Bible based in Philadelphia, with work in evangelism,
translation, broadcasting, camping, correspon- church planting, theological education, and lit-
dence courses, theological education, evangelism, erature distribution. With the loss of the Inde-
literature production, literacy work, medical mis- pendent Board to McIntire, the Orthodox Pres-
sions, relief aid, and aviation services. One of the byterian Church launched its Committee on
larger fundamentalist agencies, BMM employs Foreign Missions in 1937. Headquartered in Wil-
more than 600 overseas personnel. low Grove, Pennsylvania, this committee super-
Raphael C. Thomas, a former American Bap- vises less than twenty missionaries who are en-
tist Foreign Mission Society medical missionary gaged in evangelism, church planting, theological
in the Philippines, established the Association of education, literature distribution, and support of
Baptists for Evangelism in the Orient in 1927 national churches in six foreign countries, most
after disputes with the ABFMS regarding doc- notably in Japan.
trine and evangelism. This organization, re- Along with several other independent organiza-
named the Association of Baptists for World tions in the Baptist tradition, these fundamental-
Evangelism in 1939, likewise received the ac- ist missions have consistently maintained evan-
creditation of the GARBC. Its work has grown to gelism and church planting as missionary
include other parts of Asia, Latin America, Eu- priorities. They also have contributed to the over-
rope, Africa, and Oceania. With headquarters in all diversity of the American Protestant missions
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, the ABWE focuses movement. At the same time, many of them have
381
Fundamentalist Denominational Missions
shown a divisive spirit and a marked unwilling- with the term home assignment, for the mis-
ness to cooperate with other evangelical agencies. sionary is still on active duty while at home.
JAMES A. PATTERSON Missionaries are often assigned a percentage of
time to spend in active ministry in churches. Cer-
Bibliography. J. A. Patterson, Earthen Vessels: Amer- tain missions with denominational underwriting
ican Evangelicals and Foreign Missions, 18801980, pp. (Southern Baptists) make this time strictly a pe-
7391; J. A. Siewert and J. A. Kenyon, eds., Mission riod of rest and retooling, but most missions re-
Handbook: 199395 Edition; J. A. Siewert, ed., Mission quire missionaries to spend time visiting sup-
Handbook: Directory Edition 1996; T. P. Weber, DCA, pp. porters. A furlough was often set on a four-to-one
46165. ratiofour years on the field and one year on
furlough. However, medical, educational, and fi-
Funerals. See DEATH RITES. nancial needs often required an extension to
meet the personal situation of the missionary.
With the advent of inexpensive international
Furlough. The period of time when the mission-
travel, a greater percentage of missionaries are
ary is home from the field for a set period of rest, moving to summer furloughs every two or three
reentry (adjustment to the changes in ones home years so as to not leave their ministry for an en-
country), taking care of personal and family tire year nor to interrupt the educational pro-
needs, and giving reports to supporters. Since the grams of their children.
1980s, the word furlough has been replaced JOHN EASTERLING
382
G-H Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/8/03 3:57 PM Page 383
Gabon (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,517,000; 267,667 sq. km.

[103,346 sq. mi.]). Gabon is one of the most Chris-
tianized nations in Africa. Over 90 percent of the
Gabonese population professes Christian faith.
The American Board of Commissioners was
the first mission agency to send missionaries to
Gabon. The missionaries arrived in Baraka, near
present-day Libreville, in 1842. Thus began the
evangelization of northern Gabon. American
Presbyterian missionaries had been active on the
Gg
ful Catholic Church and Protestant Church of
island of Corisco, off the coast of Gabon, since northern Gabon. It must also contend with Islam
1849. The American Board of Commissioners and a variety of cults. The missiological chal-
joined the Presbyterian Mission in 1870. This led lenge in Gabon is one of reevangelization.
to the opening of the first Presbyterian mission TITE TINOU
stations around Lambarn in 1874.
American Presbyterian missionaries had to cur- Gairdner, William Henry Temple (18731928).
tail their activities, however, as France extended Scottish missionary to Egypt. Born in Ayrshire,
its colonial rule over Gabon toward the end of the Scotland, at Oxford University he received his
nineteenth century. They sought cooperation with call to missionary service through contacts with
the PARIS EVANGELICAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY as a the KESWICK and STUDENT VOLUNTEER move-
way of gaining protection from French authori- ments. In 1899 he joined Douglas Thornton in
ties. The Franco-American cooperation in mis- Cairo, Egypt, to begin ministry with the CHURCH
sions lasted from 1888 to 1892. In 1892, the Pres- MISSIONARY SOCIETY, and in 1901 was ordained in
byterians ceded their work in Gabon to the Paris the Church of England. In 1902 he married Mar-
Evangelical Missionary Society and transferred garet Mitchell, who bore him five children.
their missionaries to Cameroon. Gairdner and Thornton established a reading
Over the years, schools and other forms of so- room and bookstore, learning from patrons the
cial work became the focus of the Paris Evangel- arguments of Muslims against Christianity.
ical Missionary Society. The Lambarn Hospi- Gairdner spoke of his frustration with these
tal, founded by the Mission in 1913, is the best masters of the art of disputing, preferring in-
known example. It was directed by ALBERT stead everyday conversation with individuals or
SCHWEITZER from 1913 until his death. small groups. In 1910 he studied Islam under
When the CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY ALLIANCE Duncan Black MacDonald and Ignaz Goldziher,
established its first mission station in Bongolo but felt that his goal of becoming a missionary
in 1934 it found Protestants well established in scholar of Islam could not be realized due to
the northern part of the country. It concen- the extensiveness of his ministry. However, in
trated its efforts on southern Gabon. Eventu- addition to administrative responsibilities, he
ally the Alliance extended its work nationwide. taught classes on the Arabic language, pub-
There are at least two factors behind that deci- lished the journal Orient and Occident, wrote
sion. First, Christians from Alliance churches several book-length treatises on Islam, and de-
moved to Libreville and other major urban cen- veloped dramatic productions for use in out-
ters in northern Gabon. Second, the churches reach ministry.
of northern Gabon were increasingly less evan- Convinced that inter-mission cooperation was
gelical. necessary to erase the stigma of sectarianism, he
As the only major evangelical church in participated in several ecumenical conferences
Gabon, the Alliance enjoys significant growth. It and developed a relationship with the Coptic
must deal, however, with nominal Christianity Church of Egypt.
fueled by the respectable and politically power- LARRY POSTON
383
Gairdner, William Henry Temple
Bibliography. C. E. Padwick, Temple Gairdner of Cairo. sent missionaries in 1966. With only 3 percent of
the population professing Christianity, it is evi-
Gall (c. 560645). Irish missionary to Switzer- dent that none of these organizations have been
land. Gall, a gifted linguist and significant partic- successful in attracting members. By 1982, both
ipant in the CELTIC MISSIONARY MOVEMENT, began the Anglican and Methodists had indigenous and
his missionary career as one of twelve compan- expatriate clergy while there were no indigenous
ions of COLUMBANUS, the Irish abbot who traveled Catholic priests. There is one diocese responsible
throughout Europe to reach the peoples there for directly to the Holy See.
Christ. During the journey, Gall became ill, and The Gambia Christian Council, comprising
Columbanus, who was determined to continue to Catholics, Anglicans, and Methodists, was founded
northern Italy and reach the Lombards, was in 1963 to cooperate in joint services and the pro-
forced to leave him behind. duction and distribution of literature. Radio Gam-
Having recovered from his illness, Gall was bia also rotates among these three churches,
convinced that God had called him to serve broadcasting an epilogue every Sunday.
where he was. He was given permission to set up GARY LAMB
his own very modest living accommodations,
and, after some exploration, found the type of Bibliography. D. B. Barrett, WCE.
place he sought. It was here that the famous
nighttime encounter with a bear (commemorated Gardiner, Allen Francis (17941851). English
in the trademarks of St. Gallen) took place. missionary in South Africa and South America.
Gall is also remembered as a competent exor- Born in a Christian family in the quiet Berkshire
cist, and was reportedly given the land grant on village of Basildon in 1794, Allen Gardiner be-
which the monastery bearing his name sits by came a restless adolescent and joined the British
Sigebert after he cast demons out of the kings Navy at the age of fourteen. The death of his
daughter. Over the thirty-five years of his min- mother, a narrow escape from drowning off the
istry, Gall acquired substantial prestige, seen in Peruvian coast, and observing the lives of Chris-
nominations to become bishop of Constance and tians in Tahiti seem to be the main factors leading
abbot of Luzeuil. His commitment to a simple up to his conversion to Christ. He was tempted to
lifestyle, however, compelled him to turn both exchange his sailors garb for the ministers gown
down. While there is little written evidence of his but the words of the Apostle Paul, Let every man,
own personal evangelistic activity, he is known wherein he is called, therein abide with God,
today as the apostle of Switzerland because of convinced him to serve the Lord upon the seas,
the evangelistic work of his followers. Gall died which he did for several years.
from illness on October 16, 645. Throughout the 1830s he was used by God to
A. SCOTT MOREAU initiate the gospel among the Zulus in South
Bibliography. W. H. Marnell, Light from the West: Africa. His stubborn perseverance finally won
The Irish Mission and the Emergence of Modern Europe. over the Zulu king Dingarn. But his heart was set
on South America, especially the Patagonians of
Gambia (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,291,000; 11,295 sq. the southern cone. In 1838 he tried to reach them
km. [4,361 sq. mi.]). The Republic of Gambia is overland via Mendoza, Argentina, but this and
surrounded on three sides by Senegal, with the following attempts failed. He returned to En-
Atlantic as its western border. Originally a British gland in 1843 to try to persuade the CHURCH MIS-
dependency, Gambia became a separate colony SIONARY SOCIETY to open Patagonia to the gospel.
in 1888 and gained independence in 1965. In this Having received a negative response from the so-
predominantly Muslim country (85% of the pop- ciety, Gardiner himself organized some backers.
ulation), mosques are found in the majority of In 1850, together with a small band of committed
towns and villages where the majority are Sunnis Christians, he made one last attempt to reach the
of the Malekite rite. African tribal religionists Patagonians by sea. Evangelistic encounters with
comprise 11 percent of the population and are the Patagonians did not produce the desired re-
strongest among the Serer, Diola, Pacari, and sponse. Sickness, scurvy, inclement weather, and
Bassari peoples. The Constitution of 1970 guar- a lack of food caused the members of the mis-
antees freedom of thought, religion, public man- sionary band to die off one by one. Gardiner was
ifestation, and propagation. the last one to perish, leaving behind only his
The first permanent missionary was an Angli- journal. But it was the discovery and later pub-
can chaplain who arrived in 1816, followed five lishing of that journal in Hope Deferred, Not Lost
years later by the British Methodists. While which stirred the hearts of many Christians
Catholicism touched Gambia through Por- around the world. The following year a vessel,
tuguese traders around 1445, the first Catholic the Allen Gardiner, carried new missionaries to
mission was not founded until 1849. The first evangelize the Patagonians. Thus was born the
Protestant group was WEC INTERNATIONAL, which South American Missionary Society which for
384
Gender Roles
over a century has proclaimed the Word of God producing a missionary church of lasting in-
throughout Latin America. tegrity and influence.
LINDY SCOTT MARK HUTCHINSON
Bibliography. P. Thompson, An Unquenchable Bibliography. R. S. Miller, Misi Gete: John Geddie, Pi-
Flame: The Story of Captain Allen Gardiner, Founder of oneer Missionary to the New Hebrides; J. Garrett, To Live
the South American Missionary Society. Among the Stars.
GCOWE. See GLOBAL CONSULTATION OF WORLD Gender Roles. The term gender refers to the
EVANGELIZATION 95 (GCOWE 95). nonbiological, social, cultural, and psychological
aspect of being male or female. Gender roles re-
GCOWE II. See GLOBAL CONSULTATION OF WORLD flect the cultural norms of the society and can be
EVANGELIZATION 97 (GCOWE II). defined as the learned or socialized differences in
behavior between male and female. Societys def-
Geddie, John (181572). Scottish-born Canadian inition of feminine and masculine gender role ex-
Presbyterian missionary in New Hebrides (Vanu- pectations has changed throughout history and
atu) and founder of the New Hebrides Mission. there continues to be pressure for the redefining
Son of a Congregationalist elder in Banff, Geddie of gender roles. Few areas of inquiry are so
joined the Scots diaspora to Canada in 1816 and fraught with personal biases as the gender-role
settled in Pictou, Nova Scotia. He was active in related characteristics of men and women.
Bible and Missionary Societies, in support of Though formerly research in this area was done
LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY (LMS), and with oth- primarily by men, a large number of research-
ers prompted the establishment of the Synod of trained women are now involved and new in-
Nova Scotia mission to Polynesia in 1844. An ex- sights have resulted.
perienced cabinet-maker, Geddie saw printing All societies provide institutionalized gender-
and medicine as essential aids in mission, to gain appropriate roles. In some societies moving into
the good favour of Polynesians and to make the womanhood requires special ritual and celebra-
gospel available. He departed Halifax in Novem- tion for girls, often perceived as preparation for
ber 1845 and was eventually assisted by the LMS marriage. Gilmore (1990), who has researched
in establishing a mission on Aneitum, where he the approved way of being an adult male in many
produced an alphabet and within six weeks was societies around the world, sees manhood as gen-
able to preach in dialect. erally needing to be achieved. It is a precarious
Printing of elementary school books, Scripture state that boys must win against powerful odds
portions, and finally the entire New Testament in and that can be diminished or lost as well. It in-
Aneityumese (1863) followed, which was to have volves conceptually separating adult males from
profound effects on the development of Vanuatan the women and girls in society. Womanhood, in
culture and nationality. Though obstructed by contrast, he sees as a natural condition that hap-
fever, storm, indigenous opposition, traders, exten- pens through biological maturation and is cul-
sion of French imperialism, and Catholic mission- turally refined or augmented through body orna-
aries, the LMS/Nova Scotian group extended mentation or cosmetic behavior.
around the island. Geddie was able to use the vis- Though male domination is a universal with
its of G. A. SELWYN and others to develop interna- men filling the positions of authority and power,
tional support, a status developed by JOHN G. PATON women have great influence. Men and their val-
into an international movement dependent during ues, status, and work, tend to be in focus while
Geddies life largely on Scots-Canadian Presbyter- women have much responsibility and work hard
ian missionaries, such as J. Inglis (1852), George in the background, more out of focus. In many
Gordon (1857), J. Matheson (1858), and others. societies a womans status depends on her hus-
The mission extended to other islands in the bands status in society. In others, a womans sta-
group, such that after his death it was said of tus depends almost totally on her position among
Geddie that When he landed in 1848 there were the other women. Another way of contrasting
no Christians here, and when he left in 1872, mens and womens status is to see mens position
there were no heathen. Less imperially minded as public and womens as private (in the
than Paton, Geddie led opposition to the inden- home). Men are most often seen as protectors
tured labor trade, and to the use of British mili- and providers and women as childbearers and
tary force in reprisals against aggressive indi- nurturers, both being necessary for the well-
genes. He made the most of and fostered being of society.
Australias growing interest in missions and Pa- The Bible clearly states that all humans are
cific expansion, overseeing cooperative work be- created in Gods image, both male and female
tween the Canadian and Australian Presbyterian (Gen. 1:27). Furthermore, humans, both male
churches. Wiry, intelligent, practical yet spiritual, and female, have been given salvation and made
Geddie was of the finest type of colonial Scot, ambassadors for God (2 Cor. 5:1720). However,
385
Gender Roles
there are a variety of interpretations of what the Dealing with these and other changes is im-
Bible teaches concerning the relationships of portant to crosscultural communicators of the
men, women, and God. On the one hand, a hier- gospel. Often legislation allows for change long
archical arrangement is perceived with woman before there is a change in attitude and practice.
under man who is under God (Mickelsen, 1983). For instance, in areas where the womens role
On the other hand, equality between male and has been traditionally in the home and then they
female is perceived with both being equally re- are given the option of training for a career, when
sponsible to God (Spencer, 1985). Yet another in- they are working outside the home they continue
terpretation focuses on complementarity with to be unconsciously evaluated by society on how
male and female using their God-given strengths well they run their homes. New technologies, ur-
for honoring and serving God (Hull, 1987). banization, education, war, and industrialization
The institutionalized Western church has gen- all result in subtle changes in gender roles. There
erally reserved the positions of authority, decision needs to be sensitivity not just to the logistics of
making, and top leadership for males. However, what is happening, but to the meaning of what is
from the very beginning of the modern mission happening to both genders. Changes affecting the
movement women have played an active role. Be- women also bring change for the men, and vice
sides providing home-front support, they re- versa. All of these changes influence the structure
sponded to Gods call and went to the field, first and program of the church and development pro-
as wives and mothers but later as teachers, grams. Often a different approach is needed to
nurses, and nannies. Once on the field they be- reach those choosing to retain traditional role
came church planters, evangelists, preachers, and
definition from those who choose change.
administrators. Their choice to become mission-
MARGUERITE G. KRAFT
aries reflected their deep Christian commitment
and their search for a structure that would allow SEE ALSO Women in Mission.
them to unite the spiritual with practical needs in
the world. In the early decades of the twentieth Bibliography. E. E. Brusco, The Reformation of
Machismo: Evangelical Conversion and Gender in
century women outnumbered men on the mission
Colombia; D. D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cul-
field by a ratio of more than two to one. They tural Concepts of Masculinity; G. G. Hull, Equal to
have been the guardians of the great commis- Serve: Women and Men in the Church and the Home;
sion (Tucker, 1988). Though there were forty- A. Mickelsen, Authority and the Bible; A. B. Spencer, Be-
four womens missionary boards sending both yond the Curse: Women Called to Ministry; R. A. Tucker,
men and women to the field in 1910, today the GGC; M. S. VanLeeuwen, Gender and Grace: Love,
authority structure and decision-making power in Work, and Parenting in a Changing World.
mission organizations is mostly in male hands.
It is important for missionaries to understand General Revelation. See REVELATION, GENERAL.
the fact that differences in gender roles are so-
cially defined. In cross-cultural work the ten-
George, Eliza Davis (18791979). American mis-
dency is to impose the cultural patterns of the
sionary to Liberia. Growing up in Texas during
carrier of the gospel on the assumption that they
the late nineteenth century, Eliza George faced
are biblical without even investigating what it
severe obstacles to her call to missions. Her vi-
means to be male or female in the receptor soci-
ety. The Bible, however, shows God working ac- sion of telling her brothers and sisters in Africa
cording to the gender role definition of each bib- that Christ has died for them met with two major
lical society. In divided societies where women stumbling blocks. As a black woman she was
function in the womens world and men in the told that she did not have to go over there to be
mens world, it is usually best that the carrier of a missionarywe have enough Africa over here;
the gospel be the same sex as the hearer. Women nor was she capable of pioneering work since an
need to reach the women and the men the men African American woman had never previously
in such a society. If one gender creates and sings served as a foreign missionary. Yet she became
the songs of the society, then that sex should be the first black woman from Texas to go to Africa
tapped as a key resource for that role in the as a missionarya pioneer missionary with re-
church. Division of labor according to gender as markable accomplishments.
prescribed by the society does not have to change George arrived in Liberia in 1914, immediately
when people become Christian. Leadership train- establishing a Bible Industrial Academy for the
ing in the church for males and females should training of fifty boys. Her great love became the
be related to the roles they play in society. Brusco holding of revivals in churches and in regions
(1995) has done an excellent anthropological without churches. After fifty-five years of service
study on the effect of conversion to evangelical in Africa in the face of continuing set-backs,
Protestantism on gender roles in Colombia. Her Mother George left a legacy of the establishment
work shows how allegiance to Christ brings gen- of the Elizabeth Native Interior Mission with four
der role changes. substations, the founding of eight schools, and the
386
German Mission Boards and Societies
planting of over one hundred churches in cooper- Next came the FAITH MISSIONS, originating in
ation with local Christian leaders. the Holiness revival (1859) which also came from
ROBERTA R. KING Britain: Neukirchen (1880), Allianz Mission
(1889), CHINA INLAND MISSION, German Branch
Bibliography. L. Lutz, Born to Lose, Bound to Win:
(1896, later Liebenzell), Marburg (1899/1909),
The Amazing Journey of Mother Eliza George; R. A.
Tucker, GGC. Sudan Pioneer Mission (1900), Mission fr Sd-
Ost-Europa (1903), and Licht im Osten (1920).
The German faith missions originally followed
Georgia (Est. 2000 pop.: 5,527,000; 69,700 sq. km. the concepts of the British faith missions, but in-
[26,911 sq. mi.]). Georgia is a predominantly agri- creasingly modified them to better suit the eccle-
cultural republic of the former Soviet Union, lo- siastical environment. The only major mission
cated in the southern Caucasus region on the then of the German Free Churches was the
Black Sea. Ethnic Georgians make up about two- Baptist Mission (1890).
thirds of the population, with most claiming alle- The Pentecostal revival (1907), not being strong
giance to the Georgian Orthodox Church. This in Germany, still produced some foreign mission
church, whose roots go back to the early centuries work, starting with Velbert (1931). The Catholic
of the Christian era, is largely lacking in spiritual missionary revival started after the Great Awak-
vitality today. There is also a sizable Muslim mi- ening, with major centers in France, Belgium,
nority representing over 20 percent of the popula- and Holland. Catholic missionary work relies
tion. Less than one percent of the population is heavily on missionary orders (Society of the Di-
evangelicalmostly Baptists, with some Pente- vine Word, Steyl, 1875, the Mission Benedictines
costals. Despite Orthodox intimidation and oppo- of St. Ottilien, 1887, and the White Fathers of
sition, which have led to restrictions on evangel- Trier, 1894, being the first in Germany) and sup-
ism and the construction of new church porting societies (Franziskus Xaverius Verein,
buildings, evangelicals are increasing in number. 1832, Kindheit-Jesus-Verein, 1843). Women far
RAYMOND P. PRIGODICH outnumber men as Catholic missionaries (Ser-
SEE ALSO Commonwealth of Independent States. vants of the Holy Spirit, Reichenbach, 1887, the
first German female missionary order). Though
women also provided the larger numbers in the
German Mission Boards and Societies. The Protestant missionary force, they developed few
German missions are children of revivals, and womens missionary societies (Deutscher Frauen-
they differ depending from which revival they missionsgebetsbund, 1899).
come. After an unsuccessful attempt by Justinian The First World War disrupted German foreign
von Welz (1664), the first two German missions, missionary work severely, and the years between
the DANISH-HALLE MISSION (India, 1706) and the the wars were, as in other countries, years with-
worldwide MORAVIAN MISSION (Herrnhut, 1732), out revivals, when few new missions were
were born in the pietistic revival (see PIETISM). founded. However, in the Third Reich the Ger-
Herrnhut managed to withstand the ENLIGHTEN- man Protestant missions as a whole took the side
MENT and provided spiritual and organizational of the Confessing Church against the state-
links to the classical missions of the GREAT AWAK- supported German Christians. Nazi rule and ide-
ENING, which came over to the Continent from ology did affect their work. The period after the
Britain. Basel, through the Christentums- Second World War saw a strong renewal of the
gesellschaft, served as a center of revival and mis- efforts of the classical missions in a new ecu-
sions for both Germany and German-speaking menical setting. A missiological reorientation
Switzerland. Several of the Basel auxiliaries de- connected with the NEW DELHI ASSEMBLY (1961)
veloped into missions of their own. The first set led to a closer integration of the classical Protes-
of these Protestant classical German missions tant missions into the territorial (mainline)
(BASEL, 1815; BERLIN, 1824; Barmen, 1828, Bre- churches, and to a reliance more on funds allo-
men, 1836) was interdenominational, based on cated by the churches than on funds collected by
Lutheran and Reformed churches, but not de- the missions.
pendent on them. The second set of classical mis- During the same time the evangelical missions
sions came from the more definitely Lutheran experienced a major expansion. The fact that
wing of the Great Awakening in Germany: over the decades most of the early German faith
Leipzig (1836), Neuendettelsau (1841), Her- missions had become closely related to one or
mannsburg (1849), and Breklum (1876). The several fellowship movements within the territo-
power of the classical missions lay in their revival rial churches created room for new interdenomi-
spirituality, lay involvement, and organizational national missions. Many of them were German
independence. Both groups together form today branches of interdenominational faith missions
the ecumenical missions and are largely inte- like WEC INTERNATIONAL, OVERSEAS MISSIONARY
grated into the German Lutheran/Presbyterian FELLOWSHIP, and Sudan United Mission. Taking
territorial churches. ideas from the faith missions and from the
387
German Mission Boards and Societies
Brethren missions, ERNST SCHRUPP developed Germany (Est. 2000 pop.: 81,700,000; 356,974 sq.
Missionshaus Bibelschule Wiedenest, which had km. [137,828 sq. mi.]). Christianity reached Ger-
originated in an effort to evangelize in Eastern man territories when large parts still belonged to
Europe (Alliance Bible School Berlin, 1905) into the Roman Empire. Professing Christians were
a major evangelical mission with a strong con- among the Roman and Greek soldiers in the mil-
gregational base. The Baptist mission was reor- itary strongholds at Trier, Cologne, Mainz, and
ganized as European Baptist Mission, and a good Augsburg. Christianization started from outside,
number of new evangelical missions came into when whole tribesGotes in the East and Fran-
being (like Deutsche Indianer Pionier Mission or conians in the Westcorporately accepted the
Kindewerk Lima). A new departure was the new faith. Missionary work proper was intro-
founding of the Deutsche Missionsgemeinschaft duced by Iro-Scottish (COLUMBANUS) and An-
(1951), also Vereinigte Deutsche Missionshilfe glosaxon monks, particularly BONIFACE, the
(1961), designed to send German missionaries to Apostle of the Germans. Under Charlemagne
many international faith missions. The majority and Otto the Great, Christianity was enforced on
of the German missions and missionaries are still resistive tribes within Germany (e.g., Saxo-
now evangelical. The charismatic revival, which nians) and beyond its eastern borders (e.g.,
reached Germany in 1963, was slow in develop- Wends). The power of the sword was mitigated
ing its own missions, but is now increasingly by the preaching and educating ministry of Bene-
doing so, with the missions often being based in dictine and Cistercian monks, whose monaster-
or almost identical with a local congregation. A ies became centers of evangelistic, pastoral, and
new development is the transformation of the cultural activities. In medieval times German
Vereinigte Evangelische Mission (Barmen/Bethel) Christendom was characterized by the synthesis
into a worldwide fellowship of [equal] churches between imperial and ecclesiastic authority, some
in mission (United Evangelical Mission, 1996). archbishops acting as secular princes in personal
In Germany the classical (ecumenical) mis- union. Thus the Christian religion was rather le-
sions cooperate in the Evangelisches Missions- galistic and superficial, permeated with pagan
werk (1975, successor to Deutscher Evangelischer residues.
Missionstag, 1922), the evangelical missions co- The REFORMATION brought a spiritual revolu-
operate in the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Evangelikaler tion, the impacts of which shaped German Chris-
Missionen (1969, with the Freie Hochschule fr tian culture for three centuries. Although histori-
Mission), and the Pentecostal and charismatic cal circumstances impeded foreign mission
missions in the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Pfingstlich- ventures, the tenets of Luthers theology dy-
namized the Protestant faith with evangelistic
Charismatischer Missionen (1993).
force. His rediscovery of the priesthood of all
KLAUS FIEDLER
baptized paved the way for the laity becoming
involved in domestic and foreign missions. It
German Society for Missiology. Deutsche was, however, only by the breakthrough of
Gesellschaft fr Missionswissenschaft, founded at PIETISM around 1700 that the evangelistic poten-
Berlin in 1918, was the first body of its kind in tial of Lutheranism was fully realized. Because of
the world. It was designed to promote the schol- the imperial reconquest of Reformed provinces
arly treatment of the history and theory of the to the Catholic faith, Germany was eventually di-
Christian mission. From the outset membership vided into equal territories, in which either the
was, and still is, by election only. No fees are Protestant or the Catholic faith became the es-
charged, and there are no restrictions in terms of tablished religion, the rights of which were guar-
gender, origin, or confession. For financial sup- anteed by the Treatises of Augsburg (1555) and
port the society has depended on grants from Osnabrck (1668) after extended religious and
German churches and mission bodies. Activities political wars. No provision was made to tolerate
of the society include publication of books and a the ANABAPTISTS, many of whom eventually emi-
periodical on missiology, promotion of research grated to America. Only after the ENLIGHTENMENT
projects, and the granting of scholarships to de- did the religious climate change toward tolerance
serving students. While the society is unable to (and relativism), thereby facilitating the founding
endow chairs of mission in universities, it exerts of religious societies and free churches under
influence in providing adequate representation of American and English influence in the middle of
mission studies in theological education. In the the nineteenth century.
1960s and 1970s the society sponsored a series of The main impact of the Enlightenment and the
consultations which resulted in the inauguration French Revolution (178993), however, was the
of the INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR MISSION undermining of belief in the supernatural, the in-
STUDIES in 1972. Currently membership of the auguration of an age of secularization, and the
German Society for Missiology is two hundred emergence of humanistic ideologies with atheistic
members, half of them from outside of Germany. tendencies. Church attendance dropped steadily in
HANS-WERNER GENSICHEN many regions, and whole sections of the popula-
388
Ghana
tion became nominal Christians. The two World acteristic contribution to the proceedings of the
Wars and the reign of anti-Christian totalitarian meetings of the INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL
ideologies caused spiritual blackouts. In the east- and the COMMISSION ON WORLD MISSION AND EVAN-
ern federal counties, only 32 percent of the popu- GELISM. The German emphasis was on the concept
lation still hold at least nominal church member- of Heilsgeschichte (salvation history), which
ship (compared to 84 percent in the West). stressed the eschatological orientation of the
Reevangelization. In view of the alarming churchs mission. Accordingly, they criticized all
process of de-Christianization, pietistic leaders as- tendencies in ecumenical theology to interpret the
sembled in 1888 in the Moravian colony of KINGDOM OF GOD in terms of an ideological utopia.
Gnadau and formed the German Association for Outstanding spokesmen for this view were Karl
Fostering Fellowship and Evangelization, shortly Hartenstein, WALTER FREYTAG, and Georg Vice-
called Gnadauer Verband. In 1848, Hinrich dom. When in Uppsala 1968 the WCCs theology
Wichern called Germans to meet the growing so- of mission appeared to have substituted the hori-
cial and spiritual needs of the uprooted classes by zontal for the vertical dimension of salvation, a
engaging in a joint venture for Inner Mission, group (Theologischer Konvent) of theologians who
which combined charity work with pastoral and were in sympathy with the new Confession Move-
evangelistic care. HOME MISSIONS were inaugu- ment No Other Gospel (1966) issued the FRANK-
rated to reach a variety of social segments. The FURT DECLARATION ON THE FUNDAMENTAL CRISIS OF
evangelistic branch of the Inner Mission was MISSIONS. German missiologists organized in the
called Volksmission. In order to ensure the spon- GERMAN SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF MISSIONS (1918)
taneous support of the believers, the Inner Mission and the Working Group for Evangelical Missiology
maintained its independent status in close cooper- (initiated by GEORGE W. PETERS in 1977). Mission-
ation with church authorities. After World War II, aries do their professional studies either in the
however, the official churches acknowledged the seminaries of their societies or centrally at the
diaconal and evangelistic functions as their own Freie Hochschule fr Mission in Korntal, which is
responsibility and integrated them into their struc- now a branch of Columbia International Univer-
ture. The Gnadau Association and the German sity. Spiritual discernment with regard to heretical
Evangelical Alliance, however, continued to oper- and syncretistic influences in missions continues
ate through their own agencies. In the wake of the to be a main function of the Theologischer Konvent
LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGELISM (1974), in close cooperation with the International Chris-
new initiatives were taken to unite all existing tian Network (established in 1978 in London).
forces toward a new evangelization of the country. PETER BEYERHAUS
The following years saw several projects initiated,
including the declaration of 1980 as Missionary Bibliography. R. H. Bainton, Here I Stand. A Life of
Martin Luther; P. Beyerhaus and H. Lefevre, The Re-
Year and a Year with the Bible later on. The vis-
sponsible Church and the Foreign Mission; P. Beyerhaus,
its of BILLY GRAHAM to stage telecasted campaigns Shaken Foundations: Theological Foundations for Mis-
like Euro70 and ProChrist proved to be inspira- sion; idem, Gods Kingdom and the Utopian Error;
tional for similar initiatives by German evangeli- K. Fiedler, Christianity and African Culture: Conservative
cal leaders. Large-scale Bible study meetings Protestant Missionaries in Tanzania 19001940; H. W.
(Gemeindetage; Ludwig-Hofacker-Conferences) Gensichen, Living Mission: The Test of Faith; G. Vice-
and national youth rallies (Christival) have at- dom, A Prayer for the World; J. Warneck, The Living
tracted tens of thousands of participants. Forces of the Gospel; D. Zeisberger, Diary of D. Z.: A
Missiology. The German contribution to the de- Moravian Missionary amongst the Indians of Ohio.
velopment of missiology as a basically theological
subject with interdisciplinary complementation is Ghana (Est. 2000 pop.: 20,172,000; 238,533 sq.
outstanding. The seminaries of German mission km. [92,098 sq. mi.]). Located on the west coast
societies contributed much to produce generations of Africa, Ghana is home to over fifty-seven in-
of well-educated missionaries, committed to bibli- digenous language groups, with Akan, Ewe, and
cal doctrines and sensitive to communicate them Ga being the three major ones. Ghana is prima-
transculturally. German missionaries did out- rily an agricultural country, with over 65 percent
standing work in reducing vernaculars to writing, engaging in subsistence farming.
creating an indigenous literature, and publishing Formerly called the Gold Coast, Ghana received
substantial volumes of anthropological research. its current name when it became the first sub-
The oldest chair of mission studies still in exis- Saharan country in Africa to gain independence
tence is the one established for GUSTAV WARNECK from Britain under the leadership of Kwame
(18341910) in Halle in 1896. Chairs for missiol- Nkrumah in 1957. Ghanas post-Independence po-
ogy were also instituted at other theological facul- litical history has been a checkered one. Nkrumah
ties (e.g., Berlin, Tbingen, Heidelberg, Hamburg) was overthrown by the military in 1966, followed
and seminaries. Ever since the historical WORLD by five military regimes and three short-lived
MISSIONARY CONFERENCE in Edinburgh in 1910, civilian governments. Multiparty democratic elec-
German mission thinkers tried to make their char- tions were held in 1992.
389
Ghana
The first recorded contact of the church with 169 percent, the Assemblies of God 550 percent,
Ghana came in 1471 through Roman Catholic and the Church of Pentecost 200 percent. While
priests who were chaplains to the Portuguese today 64 percent of the population claims to fol-
traders working in Ghana. The first Protestants low Christ, 40 percent of these have a church af-
were the Moravians who arrived in 1737 and filiation and only 12 percent attend church regu-
1770 and among whom eleven died in thirty-five larly. Thus, there is still work to be done in
years of work. In 1828 the BASEL MISSION started reaching Ghana for Christ.
work in the southeast among the Ga- and Twi- JUDE HAMA
speaking people. The Methodist Church, Ghana,
came into being through the instrumentality of a Ghanaian Mission Boards and Societies.
group of Ghanaian Christian young men led by Ghanaians have been active in missionary work
de Graft, who requested Bibles from Britain ever since PHILIP QUAQUE (c. 17411816) was first
through Captain Porters. In response, the British engaged by the Anglican Church to reach people
Methodist Church sent a missionary and some from his own country. The Presbyterian Church of
Bibles in 1835. Six of the first seven Basel mis- Ghana and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in
sionaries and all three of the first Methodists Ghana were planted by German mission agencies,
died, and more missionaries were sent. Those and became the first self-governing non-Western
who survived planted the church in Ghana. The churches in Ghana after World War I. By 1980,
Bremen Mission started work in 1847 among the there were 23 active mission agencies in Ghana. In
Ewe in the German colony of Togoland. Catholic 1993 it was estimated that over 670 Ghana mis-
missionary work began again in the south in sionaries had been sent out by some 44 agencies.
1881 and the north in 1906. Near the turn of the The Church of Pentecost has placed workers in
century the African Episcopal Zion (1898), Sev-
several African countries as well as in Europe and
enth-Day Adventists (1898), and the Society for
North America. Christian Outreach Fellowship,
the Propogation of the Gospel (1904) began
founded by William Ofori Atta, deploys cross-
work. To facilitate social synchrony with the na-
cultural missionaries to unreached people groups.
tionals, the Basel missionaries brought in six
Pioneers Africa, headed by Solomon Aryeetey,
West Indian Christian families to augment their
works among Muslims in Mali and has focused on
team. THOMAS BIRCH FREEMAN, an English
unreached peoples in Africa.
Methodist of African descent, was the first mis-
sionary to reach the Asante (Kumasi) in 1839. BIBLE TRANSLATION and Christian literature dis-
The pioneer Basel and Bremen missionaries, tribution have been important facets of Ghanian
J. G. Christaller and B. Schlegel, translated the mission endeavor. The growth of Bible transla-
Bible into the local languages and produced ver- tion work in the local languages is closely related
nacular primers, grammars, and dictionaries for to the story of the growth of missions in Ghana.
literacy work and evangelism. They also taught The work of the Ghana Institute of Linguistics,
crafts and improved methods of agriculture. Literacy, and Bible Translation (GILLBT) is rec-
We can trace the movement of independent ognized by both the church and the state. The
African churches in Ghana to the visit in 1914 by use of the JESUS FILM in local languages is help-
WILLIAM WADE HARRIS to southwest Ghana. Har- ing Ghanians reach unreached peoples within
ris turned thousands away from fetishism in the Ghanas borders.
Nzema area. The Assemblies of God was the first There are several parachurch organizations
Pentecostal mission that came to Ghana through that actively utilize Ghanian staff to reach
the northern borders from Burkina Faso in 1931. Ghana and other countries for Christ. Gottfried
The genesis of the work that later developed into Osei-Mensah was the first executive director of
the Christ Apostolic Church, the Apostolic the Lausanne Committe for World Evangeliza-
Church, and the Church of Pentecost was the ef- tion. Theophilus B. Dankwa headed IFES-Africa
forts of indigenous preachers in the Asamakese and Sam Atiemo Youth for Christ. Isaac Ababio
area. They were later served by James McKeown pioneered the Hour of Visitation Evangelistic As-
(from 1937). sociation. Florence Yeboahs GHACOE Womens
The Christian Council of Ghana launched the Ministry is engaged in holistic mission. Scrip-
Ghana Evangelism Committee (GEC) New Life ture Union (SU) had been active in Ghana since
for All (NLFA) outreach in 1974, mobilizing the early 1950s, and many of the current Ghan-
churches for aggressive evangelism. The work of ian church leaders came to Christ through the
Bible translation, Scripture Union in schools, SU efforts.
and the NLFA campaign resulted in many thou- As a result of the Ghana Church Survey pub-
sands coming to Christ, and enabled renewal in lished by the Ghana Evangelism Committee in
the churches. From 1977 to 1986 church growth 1989 and a subsequent national mission consul-
in Ghana exploded. The Presbyterian Church tation in 1993, Ghanas most neglected mission
grew 211 percent, the Evangelical Presbyterians fields have become the target of pioneer out-
grew 500 percent, the Ghana Baptist Convention reaches by denominations, mission agencies, and
390
Gifts of the Spirit
individual churches; more cross-cultural mis- Spanish influence brought with it the Roman
sionaries have been sent out and an Association Catholic faith practiced by the majority. The Mo-
of Evangelical Missions has been formed. roccans brought the Muslim religion, which is
Theological education and training for mis- practiced by 10 percent of the population.
sions remains a challenge. Christian G. Baeta, MARKUS WAGNER
Kwesi Dickson, and John Pobee have made sig-
nificant contributions. Kwame Bediako and the Gifts of the Spirit. The twentieth century wit-
Akrofi-Christaller Memorial Centre for Mission nessed an explosion of interest in the person and
Research and Applied Theology are also making work of the Holy Spirit. The impact of this upon
fresh strides in mission training and research. the growth and expansion of the church, espe-
Ghana has sent missionaries around the world. cially in the non-Western world, has been almost
In the past twenty years, these have included a universally acknowledged. The phenomenal
new wave of missionarieseconomic mission- growth of churches which have emphasized the
aries. They are comprised of committed believ- Spirits work in their worship and witness has
ers who have been spread out from Ghana be- drawn attention to the many ways the Holy Spirit
cause of harsh national economic pressure on influences the quality of life and the growth of
them at home. They mostly serve as profession- the church. Although a considerable output of lit-
als in their new host countries, but diligently erature dealing with the gifts of the Spirit in re-
work as members of Gods kingdom on his busi- cent years has emphasized its importance, con-
ness of telling others about Christ. They are on fusion continues regarding this subject.
every continent and in every ideological and reli- Of the several terms used to indicate the gifts
gious region around the world. of the Spirit in the New Testament, the two
ROBERT ABOAGYE-MENSAH
words of most significance are pneumatika and
AND JUDE HAMA
charismata, both distinctively Pauline terms. As
SEE ALSO African Mission Boards and Societies. used by Paul (Rom. 15:27; 1 Cor. 2:13; 9:11; 12:1;
14:1), the term pneumatika denotes that which
Gibraltar (United Kingdom Dependent Area) belongs to, or pertains to, spirit. Since the word
(Est. 2000 pop.: 28,000; 7 sq. km. [3 sq. mi.]). pneuma in Paul primarily refers to the Holy
Gibraltar is a British territory located on a penin- Spirit, pneumatika refers literally to the things of
sula six square kilometers in area that extends the Spirit, which in certain contexts is appropri-
five kilometers into the Mediterranean Sea from ately rendered spiritual gifts (1 Cor. 12:1; 14:1).
southeastern Spain and dominates the Strait of The word charismata is also frequently translated
Gibraltar, which connects the Mediterranean to spiritual gifts, although the term itself lacks any
the Atlantic Ocean. The peninsula consists of the direct reference as such to the Spirit. Derived
Rock of Gibraltar, a high ridge of limestone and from charis (grace), charismata broadly signifies
shale rising 426 meters above the sea level, and a the various expressions of Gods grace concretely
low-lying isthmus connecting it to the mainland. manifested in the form of gracious bestowals. It
The domination of Gibraltar by the Moors is only by its application in specific contexts
began with their invasion in A.D. 711 under Tarik (Rom. 1:11; 1 Cor. 1:47; 12:4, 9, 2831) that the
Ibn Zeyad. They constructed a mosque, defenses, term charismata acquires the meaning gifts of
and an elaborate system of reservoirs at the the Spiritgracious manifestations of the Spirit
northern end of the Rock. The territory remained in the life of the Christian community.
in Arab hands until a surprise attack by the The key texts concerning spiritual gifts are
Spanish in 1309. The brief Spanish occupation 1 Corinthians 1214, Romans 12:68, Ephesians
ended in 1333 when Sultan Abul Hassan of Fez 4:11, and 1 Peter 4:1011. A major difficulty in
took over. Most of the extant Moorish structures any effort to define or categorize the gifts of the
were built in the ensuing years. In August 1462 Spirit is that nowhere in the New Testament do
the Moors were finally driven out by the Spanish, we find systematic instruction on the gifts. This
who over the next 240 years fortified the Rock difficulty is further compounded by the realiza-
and developed Gibraltar as a naval base from tion that no New Testament lists are identical,
which they sailed against the Mediterranean and with no exhaustive listing of the gifts. While
Barbary pirates. Gibraltar was captured in Au- some scholars have distinguished a cumulative
gust 1704 by a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet, and total of twenty gifts in these passages (apostles,
British sovereignty was formalized in 1713 by the prophets/prophecy, evangelists, pastors, teach-
Treaty of Utrecht. ers/teaching, service, exhortation, giving, leader-
Gibraltars current population of roughly ship, mercy, wisdom, knowledge, faith, healing,
30,000 includes some 20,000 Gibraltarians, 6,000 miracles, distinguishing of spirits, tongues, inter-
British expatriates, and 4,000 Moroccans. Spiri- pretation of tongues, helpers, and administra-
tually, there is religious freedom. Approximately tors), others have added to this list from refer-
87 percent of the population is Christian. The ences or allusions in other New Testament texts
391
Gifts of the Spirit
(celibacy, voluntary poverty, martyrdom, hospi- age. In recent years, however, some persuasive
tality, missionary, intercession, and exorcism), ar- scholarly responses have challenged the cessa-
riving at a total of twenty-seven spiritual gifts. tionist position. The debate continues.
Among the various attempts to classify the A third question has to do with whether the
gifts, the most plausible analysis distinguishes gifts of the Spirit are to be understood in essen-
three categories: service gifts, miraculous gifts, tially natural or supernatural terms. Thus while
and utterance gifts. Service gifts include a broad some view the gifts primarily as natural abilities
range of Spirit-inspired activity, such as giving, or talents dedicated to the Lord, others have em-
showing mercy, serving, helping, leading, and ad- phasized the supernatural element to an extreme,
ministering, designed to strengthen and deepen denying the role of human faculties in the exer-
interpersonal relationships within the church cise of gifts. The biblical teaching seems to point
community. Miraculous gifts, such as faith, heal- toward a balanced incarnational understanding
ings, and miracles, are associated with manifes- of the gifts, with an interpenetration of the divine
tations of the Spirits power. Utterance gifts, and the human, the supernatural and the natural.
which include the message of wisdom, the mes- The gifts of the Spirit are not just the wise stew-
sage of knowledge, prophecy, teaching, tongues, ardship of natural gifts and abilities, but the re-
interpretation of tongues, and exhortation, are sult of the immediate working of the Spirit in the
forms of oral expression inspired by the Holy life of the believer. A natural talent only becomes
Spirit. While the significance and value of the a gift of the Spirit when it is yielded to the Holy
gifts specifically mentioned in Scripture must not Spirit and used by the Spirit.
be undermined, the lack of any exhaustive listing The New Testament clearly witnesses to the
indicates the possibility that the Spirit may sup- close relationship between Pentecost and the
ply other gifts in response to specific needs at any missionary witness of the church, a fact made
given time and place. particularly explicit in the Book of Acts (John
While research has proved that charismatic 15:2627; 20:1923; Acts 1:8; 2:4ff; 11:28; 13:2, 4;
gifts have never been altogether absent through 19:6; 21:4, 11). For the first-century church, the
the history of the church, there has perhaps Spirit was the fulfilled eschatological promise of
never been a time in the postapostolic period God, experienced personally and corporately in
when the exercise of spiritual gifts has been as powerful and visible ways, especially through the
widespread and as integral a part of the churchs Spirits gifts. In contrast to the experience of the
experience as today, although not without con- church through most of its history, the New Tes-
troversy. One question concerns the relationship tament seems to treat the manifestation of spiri-
of the gifts to an important Pentecostal distinc- tual gifts as part of the normal life of the Chris-
tive: Are the gifts of the Spirit contingent on and tian community. The life and growth of the early
a consequence of the baptism in the Holy Spirit, church can be properly understood only when
a special endowment of the Spirit subsequent to viewed in terms of a community of Spirit-filled
conversion? A significant segment of charismatic Christians exercising their spiritual gifts.
Christians remain convinced that the gifts can be The gifts of the Spirit impact the mission of the
appropriated apart from the Pentecostal belief in church in at least two significant ways. The first
a subsequent experience. This view has gained and less obvious way in which the gifts of the
increasing acceptance and popularity among Spirit facilitate the churchs mission is by equip-
evangelicals, largely as a result of the influence of ping the believer for ministry within and to the
a relatively small but influential movement of so- church, strengthening the church, deepening its
called THIRD WAVE evangelicals. fellowship, and enriching the quality of its life.
Another issue stems from a cessationist view of Effective Christian witness is only possible when
the charismata that limits supernatural manifes- there is a healthy church base experiencing gen-
tations of the Spirit to the apostolic age. Although uine koinonia and manifesting authentic signs of
the cessationist view is no longer widely held, it is kingdom life. The gifts of the Spirit constitute the
nonetheless influential, due to its impressive the- basic divine equipment for mission and service.
ological pedigree and sophistication. In continu- The New Testament promises of spiritual power
ity with the position adopted by the Protestant and spiritual gifts are frequently linked to the
Reformers, and essentially rehearsing the theo- worldwide mission mandate of the church (Mark
logical position of the great Princeton theologian, 16:1517; Luke 24:4749; Acts 1:8).
B. B. Warfield, a significant group of dispensa- Apart from specific gifts such as that of the
tionalist and Reformed evangelicals maintain that evangelist or missionary, several other power
the spiritual gifts had only temporary significance gifts have been used in various evangelism and
and purpose: to authenticate the apostles as trust- church planting efforts in recent years, especially
worthy authors of Scripture. Now that we have a in Two-Thirds World contexts such as Africa,
complete and closed canon of Scripture, the gifts Latin America, and Asia. Called POWER EN-
have fulfilled their function, and are no longer COUNTER by many, this process signifies the use of
necessary nor to be found in the postapostolic different miraculous gifts, such as exorcism,
392
Glasser, Arthur F.
healing and prophetic revelation to visibly SOCIETY, he went to Chestnut College in London
demonstrate the power of Jesus Christ over spir- for two years education, during which time he
its, powers, or false gods which hold the alle- was assigned to the Mongol mission, unstaffed
giance of an individual or people group. Exercise since 1845. Well-known for his sense of humor,
of the gifts of the Spirit thus announces the real- he sailed for China in 1870 and, with only a few
ity of the kingdoms arrival in Christ, and con- sentences of Chinese, two of Mongol and none of
firms the truth of the gospel message proclaimed. Russian, set off with some Russians for Kalgan
The gifts of the Spirit are not to be viewed as and Kiakhta. He acquired proficiency in Mongo-
optional appendages to the life of the church. lian and produced several tracts and a catechism.
They are neither temporally nor culturally He spent the winter of 187172 in Peking, re-
bound, and their cross-cultural validity makes turning to Mongolia in the spring (this set a pat-
their presence a vital and necessary component tern he would follow for many years). His eleven-
of the churchs cross-cultural witness.
year marriage to the sister of a colleague
IVAN SATYAVRATA
produced three sons. His only furlough was in
Bibliography. D. A. Carson, Showing the Spirit; 1882, and from 1883 to 1885 he served Mongols
J. Deere, Surprised by the Power of the Spirit; G. D. Fee, living in Peking. His first book, Among the Mon-
Gods Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters gols (1883), received a rave review in the Specta-
of Paul; M. Green, I Believe in the Holy Spirit; D. Lim,
tor, where it was compared to Robinson Crusoe;
Spiritual Gifts: A Fresh Look; J. R. Michaels, DPCM, pp.
33234; E. F. Murphy, Spiritual Gifts and the Great Com- one of his colleagues stated, If you have not read
mission; H. A. Snyder, The Problem of Wine Skins, the book, read it, there is a treat in store for you.
J. G. S. S. Thomson and W. A. Elwell, EDT, pp. 104246; His second book was More About the Mongols
C. P. Wagner, Your Spiritual Gifts Can Help Your Church (1893). He died in Tientsin on May 21, 1891.
Grow; J. R. Williams, Renewal Theology, vol. 2. KATHLEEN L. LODWICK
Bibliography. J. T. Mueller, Great Missionaries to
Gih, Andrew (190185). Chinese evangelist and
China; W. P. Nairne, Gilmour of the Mongols.
founder of Evangelize China Fellowship. Born in
Shanghai, China; he committed his life to Christ
at age twenty-two and entered the ministry at age Glasser, Arthur F. (1914 ). American mission
twenty-five. He organized the Bethel World Wide theologian, educator, and missionary to China.
Evangelistic Band and conducted crusades to Glasser studied at Cornell and Faith Theological
many parts of China. Seminary. A Marine chaplain during World
In 1947 Gih founded the Evangelize China Fel- War II, he served in China with his wife Alice,
lowship to address the needs of a China devas- from 1947 to 1951. Expelled in 1951, he taught at
tated by external invasion and internal suffering. Columbia Bible College and then became the
Organized in Shanghai as a FAITH MISSION and in- North American director of China Inland Mission
terdenominational in character, the mission was (now OVERSEAS MISSIONARY FELLOWSHIP).
expanded to Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. En- Glasser reflected on several vital issuesbetter
suing years saw the work extended throughout missionary training, encouragement of national
Asia. leadership, a positive approach to non-Western
Primary and high schools for girls and orphan- cultures, and the social concerns of the gospel. In
ages remain today as a testimony to Gihs com- 1970 he began to teach theology of mission at
passionate concern for the marginal Chinese. Fuller Seminarys School of World Mission,
Bible schools and colleges along with over fifty where he served as dean from 1971 to 1980.
indigenous churches mark his commitment to Glassers theology focused on the KINGDOM OF
personal redemption and renewal. GOD, a framework that entailed evangelism and
Gih was a traveler and preacher of interna- social concerns. His leadership in the broader
tional stature, circling the globe and building a
missionary community included participation in
global network of prayer and concern for the so-
both evangelical and ecumenical consultations.
cial and spiritual needs of Asia. His focus was
Solidly evangelical in his own faith, he sought to
one of wholistic ministry and indigenous effort.
He was a visionary and missionary who could be a bridge builder. He helped establish the
galvanize others into corporate action and serv- AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MISSIOLOGY and the Zwemer
ice. He is a model and stimulant for indigenous Institute for Muslim Studies. Special evangelistic
outreach among the Chinese today. concerns have been the Chinese and the Jews.
HOOVER WONG His extensive writings have been primarily in the
form of journal articles.
Gilmour, James (184391). Scottish missionary PAUL E. PIERSON
to Mongolia. Born near Cathkin, Scotland, he re- Bibliography. C. Van Engen, D. S. Gilliland, and
ceived an M.A. from Glasgow University. Ac- P. Pierson, eds., The Good News of the Kingdom: Mis-
cepted as a student by the LONDON MISSIONARY sion Theology for the Third Millennium.
393
Glegg, [Alexander] Lindsay
Glegg, [Alexander] Lindsay (18821975). powerment developed as women delegates and

British evangelist. Lindsay Glegg was possibly representatives from traditional mission fields
the best known British evangelist of the twentieth recognized their opportunity and responsibility
century. His father, Sir Alexander Glegg, was a for world evangelization; mobilization of both
leading London Congregationalist, but Lindsay people and resources was identified as the next
was always interdenominational in his contacts step, and an estimated 70,000 Korean young peo-
and sympathies. As a young man, he was at- ple dedicated their lives to world mission.
tracted for a time to the New Theology of R. J. LUIS BUSH
Campbell, but at the KESWICK CONVENTION in
1905 he discovered a new commitment to Christ Global Consultation on World Evangelization
and repudiated liberalism. Like his father, he was 97 (GCOWE II). A follow-up conference to
an engineer and company director, but spent his GCOWE 95, the Global Consultation on World
spare time from 1917 as lay pastor of Down Evangelization 97, held June 30 to July 5, 1997,
Lodge Hall, a mission hall in Wandsworth in drew some 4,000 delegates from 133 countries to
South London, and in conducting some forty Pretoria, South Africa. Sponsored by the global
evangelistic campaigns throughout the British AD 2000 and Beyond Movement, GCOWE IIs
Isles. Glegg was involved in an extraordinarily main focus was on assessing how many of the
wide range of evangelical organizations, includ- movements 1,739 designated people groups
ing the Scripture Union, Christian Endeavour, had been adopted for church-planting efforts
and the Evangelical Union of South America, of by missions agencies and churches. After the
which he was chairman for many years. He was conference, about 90 percent of the 1,739 groups
a regular speaker at the KESWICK CONVENTION. In in the Joshua Project 2000 list were reported to
1931 he was co-founder, with Thomas Cochrane, have a church-planting movement (however
the former China medical missionary, of the large or small) or a commitment to mobilize a
Movement for World Evangelization. In 1955 he team of church starters.
instituted the annual Christian Holiday Crusade As with GCOWE 95, less emphasis was placed
held at Butlins holiday camp at Filey in York- on meeting AD 2000s goal of a church for every
shire. In later life Glegg was a close friend of people and the gospel for every person by the
BILLY GRAHAM. He continued preaching into his year 2000. The AD 2000 Movement was
nineties. launched in 1989 at the Lausanne II conference
BRIAN STANLEY in Manila. By 1997 many leaders were speaking
Bibliography. J. D. Douglas, Completing the Course: of the year 2000 as a kind of springboard for a
The Story of Lindsay Glegg. new century of outreach, rather than as a dead-
line to finish the task of world evangelization.
In Pretoria missiologist RALPH WINTER urged that
Global Consultation on World Evangelization
a more contextualized, de-Westernized gospel be
(GCOWE 95). A global-strategy consultation
presented to the huge and largely unreached
held in Seoul, South Korea, on May 1726, 1995.
blocs of Hindus, Muslims, and Buddhists.
Sponsored by the AD 2000 and Beyond Move-
Some observers said the movement was em-
ment, GCOWE 95 is believed to be the largest
bracing a broader mission for the church beyond
and most representative such gathering in his-
short-term evangelism and church planting. Ten
tory, with 4,000 delegates representing more than
consultations were convened during GCOWE 97,
180 nations.
including ones for business executives, African
GCOWE 95 focused on an in-process re-
initiatives, local pastors, childrens concerns, the
view/assessment of the unfinished task of the
poor, and the performing arts. Racial reconcilia-
GREAT COMMISSION, emphasizing UNREACHED
tion, appropriate to the South African venue, was
PEOPLES, uncharted areas, and countries within
another major theme.
the 10/40 WINDOW. Six notable marks of the con-
STANLEY M. GUTHRIE
sultation facilitated movement toward the stated
goal of a church for every people and the gospel Bibliography. B. Nickles, Pulse, August 1, 1997;
for every person by the year 2000: prayer was P. Ulrey, Pulse, January 3, 1997; S. R. Sywulka, Pulse,
frequent, both planned and spontaneous as the July 7, 1995; J. Reapsome, Pulse, August 25, 1989.
Spirit led; reconciliation and bonding occurred
between individuals, ethnic groups, mission Globalization. In the Bible God anticipated and
agencies, denominations, and countries; partner- commanded the globalization, or worldwide
ships were formed as delegates shared mutual in- spread, of biblical faith. In the Old Testament,
terests and discussed specific plans for world God blessed Abraham and promised that all peo-
evangelization; strategic planning was pursued as ples on earth will be blessed through you (Gen.
conferees laid out agendas to reach their own 12:3). The people of God were told to Declare his
countries and tried to cooperate in missionary- glory among the nations, his marvelous deeds
sending efforts targeting the 10/40 Window; em- among all peoples (Ps. 96:3). The covenant com-
394
Globalization
munity was open not just to Jews but to all who worlds Christians were Westerners; in 1990, only
would follow Yahweh, such as Ruth of Moab. 38 percent were. Latin Americas evangelical
Gods grace and compassion reached even the presence exploded from a mere 50,000 in 1900 to
wicked people of Nineveh through Jonah and 40 million in 1990. Today, with about one-third of
Naaman the Syrian. The Servant of the Lord, fully the earths approximately 6 billion people, Chris-
realized in Christ, was to be a light for the Gen- tianity is present in every nation-state. Most of
tiles, that you may bring my salvation to the ends the growth has come in the former mission
of the earth (Isa. 49:6). fields of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. From
In the New Testament, Jesus Christ told the 1960 to 1990, the number of evangelicals in the
disciples, And this gospel of the kingdom will be West grew from 57.7 million to 95.9 million,
preached in the whole world as a testimony to all while evangelicals outside the West multiplied
nations, and then the end will come (Matt. from 29 million to 208 million. About three in
24:14). After the resurrection, he commissioned four of the worlds evangelicals are non-Western-
them to reach beyond the Jews and go and ers. However, despite this growth, many people
make disciples of all nations (Matt. 28:19). Just in the worlds vast Muslim, Hindu, and secular-
before his ascension the Lord told them, But ized blocs remain relatively untouched by the
you will receive power when the Holy Spirit gospel.
comes on you; and you will be my witnesses in Globalization of the Missionary Task. As
Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to Christians in the former missionary receiving
the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8). Acts chronicles countries have realized their responsibilities to
the beginning of this expansion. The Bible as- be senders, the globalization of the missionary
sures us that at the end of history there will be a enterprise has begun to track the globalization of
great multitude that no one could count, from the church. The number of Protestant missionar-
every nation, tribe, people and language, stand- ies from the United States and Canada has de-
ing before the throne and in front of the Lamb clined, from 50,500 in 1988 to 41,142 in 1992, ac-
(Rev. 7:9). cording to the fifteenth edition of Mission
Globalization of the Church. Christianity has Handbook. South Korea and India each boast
advanced unevenly around the globe during most 4,000 missionaries, and their numbers continue
of its first twenty centuries, with the church often to grow. Nigerias Evangelical Missionary Society
slow to remember its evangelistic mandate. De- sends about 950. While the precise figures are in
spite occasional periods of persecution, until A.D. dispute, the numbers of non-Western missionar-
313, when Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, ies are certainly growing substantially faster than
the church exploded across the Roman Empire. their Western counterparts (see NON-WESTERN
For the next three centuries, the Christian faith MISSION BOARDS AND AGENCIES). Some experts be-
continued to spread via monks and bishops into lieve that Western missionaries will be numeri-
Ethiopia, India, Ireland, Britain, and along the cally eclipsed by the turn of the century.
trade routes toward Central Asia. With the shifting balance of missions power
The coming of Islam brought a series of rever- have come calls for Western churches to stop
sals. Lost to the Muslim invaders were the holy sending missionaries and insteador predomi-
lands, North Africa, Asia Minor, and Persia. The nantlysend money to support native mission-
church, however, continued to spread across Eu- aries (see FOREIGN FINANCING OF INDIGENOUS
rope, to what are now Belgium, Germany, and the WORKERS). These are said to be cheaper and
Netherlands. Russia also became Christianized. more effective than Westerners. Such calls have
NESTORIAN Christianity made its way into China been especially attractive to Western Christians,
but did not last. Later, the Dominicans, Francis- who find themselves increasingly inward-looking
cans, and Jesuits brought Christianity into Cen- and financially pressured. While applauding the
tral Asia, China, Africa, and Latin America. energy, vision, and commitment of the younger
Protestants, inspired by the example of DAVID missionary movement, missions experts caution
BRAINERD among the Indians of the New World against idealizing the non-Westerners as without
and the MORAVIANS of Germany, began to remem- problems. They acknowledge weaknesses in the
ber their missionary responsibilities. But not non-Western sending, training, and shepherding
until 1792, with the spark provided by WILLIAM bases as well as dangers in sending money only
CAREY, did the Protestant Church begin large- both for recipients and for senders. Non-Western
scale outreach to other lands. The 1800s, some- churches and mission agencies are sometimes
times called the GREAT CENTURY OF MISSIONS, saw better at sending people out than keeping them
the proliferation of missionary societies, aided by there, they say. Much effort is being expended to
the expansion of the great colonial powers into shore up the training of non-Westerners in order
India, China, and Africa. to keep them in their assignments.
The advance of the gospel has been remarkable Most of the discussion about the relationship of
in the twentieth century, particularly the latter Western and non-Western missions focuses on
half. In 1960, an estimated 58 percent of the discarding old roles and developing partnerships
395
Globalization
in the common task of world evangelization. Testament into vernacular Russian. In the midst
While PARTNERSHIP most often refers to Western of this final task, Makarius died.
missionaries and non-Western nationals work- LUKE A. VERONIS
ing one on one as equals, it can have a more Bibliography. N. Struve, IRM 54 (4): 30814; L. A.
structural meaning for missionary organizations. Veronis, Missionaries, Monks, and Martyrs: Making Dis-
Agencies that cross ethnic or national lines to ciples of All Nations.
work together are said to be internationalized.
Four types of internationalized organizations Gobat, Maria (181379). Swiss missionary to
have been identified: cooperative (through infor- Jerusalem. Born in Zofingen, Switzerland, she
mal sharing, such as the Missions Advanced Re- helped her father, who was a director of schools
search and Communication Center), task-oriented and founder of a home for orphaned children.
partnerships (spearheaded by groups such as She served these destitute children throughout
Gospel for Asia and Interdev that bring several or- her youth. In May 1834 she married Rev. Samuel
ganizations together), international agencies Gobat. Soon after the wedding, they left for
(such as WEC INTERNATIONAL and the SOCIETY FOR Abyssinia, where Samuel had been working.
INTERNATIONAL MINISTRIES, which operate in many Their journey was filled with such difficulty and
nations or have multinational leadership), and in- hardship that their arrival in Abyssinia was de-
ternational movements in pursuit of a common layed by two years. After the Gobats established
goal or strategy. The AD 2000 and Beyond Move- their work in Abyssinia, they were forced to leave
ment, with its emphasis on unreached peoples, prematurely due to Samuels continuing health
is an example of the latter. Such movements are problems. Their journey back to Europe proved
effectively reaching across national, denomina- to be more treacherous; their newborn daughter
tional, and ethnic boundaries and presenting a died along the way.
clearer picture of the globalization of missions at Through a series of events, Samuel was nomi-
the dawn of the twenty-first century. nated by Frederick William IV of Prussia to the
STANLEY M. GUTHRIE see of Jerusalem. The Gobats served the people
of Jerusalem, especially the children, for many
Bibliography. D. Hicks, Globalizing Missions; L. Pate, years. Maria worked faithfully and diligently in
From Every People; J. A. Siewert and J. A. Kenyon, eds.,
all the schools and missions founded by her hus-
Mission Handbook; W. D. Taylor, ed., Internationalizing
Missionary Training; R. D. Winter and S. C. Hawthorne,
band until her death, exactly twelve weeks after
eds., PWCM; J. D. Woodbridge, ed., AFC. her husbands.
KATHY MCREYNOLDS
Gloukharev, Makarius (17921847). Russian
Orthodox missionary to Siberia. Makarius God. The relationship between the Christian doc-
Gloukharev was a missionary monk who served trine of God and mission is best explored within
fourteen years in the Altai Mountains of Siberia. the context of salvation history. By tracing that
path we see that mission is in fact Gods gracious,
He was also one of the first missiologists to for-
loving response to the problem of human SIN.
mulate a theology of missions for the Russian Or-
Every cardinal attribute of God is brought to
thodox Church. Makarius was born in the
bear on the problem of sin (see also DIVINE AT-
province of Smolensk in 1792. In the early 1820s,
TRIBUTES OF GOD).
he retreated into the monastery caves of Kiev for We begin with an attempt to assess the range
a life of solitude. There he received his mission- or scope of Gods salvific desire. Using only the
ary calling. New Testament, we would have no difficulty con-
Makarius traveled to the mountainous Altai re- cluding that Gods desire is universal (1 Tim.
gion of Siberia in 1829, where 40,000 people 2:16). He has acted to reconcile the world to
lived. Early on he translated parts of the Bible himself (2 Cor. 5:19) and has gathered a people
and liturgical services into the indigenous lan- for himself from among the Gentiles, that is,
guage. He emphasized a long catechism before from all nations (Acts 15:14). Most of the Old
baptism, but his solid pioneer work led to the Testament, however, seems to be the history of
eventual baptism of over 25,000 Altai. Gods dealings with but one special people, Israel.
In 1843, Makarius left Siberia but continued his Nevertheless, Gods desire to save all people of all
missionary effort by writing a challenging book nations can be argued from several Old Testa-
entitled Thoughts on the Methods to be Followed ment perspectives (see also OLD TESTAMENT THE-
for a Successful Dissemination of the Faith among OLOGY OF MISSION).
Muhammadans, Jews and Pagans in the Russian First, it should be noted that Gods involvement
Empire. Makarius understood that the best way to in human affairs has not been limited to any one
motivate the believers was to guide them in study part of the race. This unlimited scope of Gods in-
of the Holy Scriptures. Since only a Slavonic text teraction with humankind is evident in several
of the Bible existed, he began translating the Old aspects of CREATION. Scripture clearly portrays
396
God
God as the Creator and Sustainer of the world spread, although universal in scope, do anticipate
and in particular the human race (Gen. 1:12:19; narrower foci of implementation (Gen. 3:15, the
14:19; Isa. 40:28). The intent of the command to seed; Gen. 9:26, the blessing of Shem).
be fruitful and multiply (Gen. 1:28; 9:1) is obvi- The locus classicus for the concept of election
ously universal as were the results of obedience. is Deuteronomy 7:68 (see also 9:46; 10:14ff.;
Thus, the repeated affirmation of his ownership 14:2). Here we see that in being chosen Israel is
of creation is justified (1 Sam. 2: 110; Ps. 24:1; called a holy people and treasured possession.
Ps. 50). All peoples are his. All depend upon his This description gives us significant insight into
custodial activity, that which sustains existence the nature of the election.
as we know it (Ps. 104:14). No human standard was applied and used as
The unlimited scope of Gods dealings with hu- the basis for election. We see that Israel is not
manity can also be seen in his sweeping and uni- chosen on the basis of special social characteris-
versal judgment of sin. The effects of Adam and tics or cultic and moral integrity. In fact, we are
Eves fall were not limited to one people or ethnic told that they were the least among the nations.
group. As humankind began to spread out across We know that they were just as vulnerable to the
the face of the earth, the effects of sin were car- effects of sin as other peoples. So it is wholly be-
ried with them and intensified (Gen. 3:17; cause of Gods love and grace that Israel is af-
4:112; 6:58). At each stage of this devolution, forded such a privileged position. And yet, they
Gods response in judgment matched the range of were also not the only people to be favored by
sins pandemic spread. In Genesis 3:1419 judg- God. The nations remain in the purview of elec-
ment was meted out to each participant: the ser- tion. Deuteronomy 7:8 links election to the prom-
pent, Eve, and Adam. Similarly, the flood brought ise given to Abraham and with that to the univer-
divine wrath to bear on all sinners (Gen. 6:56). sal scope of Gods redemptive purpose.
Gods response is no less inclusive when sin once The purpose of election also rests squarely
again engulfs humankind, as reported in Genesis within the context of Gods universal design. The
1011. intended result was for Israel to be a blessing and
But Gods promises and implementation of a light for the nations (Gen. 12:3; 18:18; Gal. 3:8).
restoration are also universal. In concert with Election does not only imply privilege, but also
each wave of judgment, God keeps hope alive responsibility. The history of Israel is an exten-
with the promise of reconciliation. After the fall, sion of Gods dealings with the nations to which
in the midst of Gods condemnation of the initial Israel is to be light (Exod. 19:56).
sin, there is a promise of the Seed, a descendent Thus, it comes as no surprise that others were
of the woman who would crush the head of the allowed to participate in the benefits of that priv-
serpent. Many have referred to Genesis 3:15 as ilege (Gen. 14:19, Melchizedech; Gen. 16:13,
the first statement (protevangelium) of Gods ul- Hagar [Egyptian]; Exod. 12:38, mixed multitude;
timate answer to sin, anticipating Christs re- Deut. 31:12 foreigner). In fact, there is so much
demptive work on the cross. After the flood, God material of this sort that many have inferred that
reestablishes his relationship to humans by en- Israel clearly understood the universal salvific
tering into a covenant with the whole of human- implications of its election.
ity (Gen. 9:917). That the covenant with Noah As we continue to follow the course of salva-
has universal implications can be seen from the tion history, we recognize that the developments
inclusive language (every living creature, all gen- described in the New Testament are largely the
erations). After the affair at Babel, God calls out result of God having completed his plan of re-
Abraham and promises that through him all na- demption. With the coming of Christ, we have
tions will be blessed. the concretization of salvation, a new covenant,
Thus, we see that the pattern established by and a new people. Christ fulfills the promise
Gods general intercourse with humanity also ap- made by God, initiates a new covenant, calls into
plies to his judgment of sin. Gods concern for existence a new people of God, and inaugurates
reconciliation extends to every people (Pss. 67:4; the Christian mission (activation of witness).
82:8; 96:10; Isa. 2:4; Joel 3:12; Mic. 4:3). In Galatians 4:4 we are told that when the
God not only desires salvation universally, he fullness of time had come, God sent forth his
has taken concrete, practical steps to accomplish Son . . . to redeem those who were under the
that. From the Old Testament perspective this is law. The idea here is not that time has simply
reflected primarily in the election of Israel (see run its course, but that an appointed time or the
also DIVINE ELECTION). God enters a covenant fulfillment of the promise had arrived. God him-
with one person and his descendants. However, self initiates the final stage in redemption history
these developments alter nothing with respect to by sending his Son into the world.
Gods universal salvific will. In fact, the election The context for our understanding of these
of Israel is best viewed as a continuation of Gods events is the one already established by the Old
interaction with all nations. Each of the promises Testament, namely, that of the Abrahamic prom-
given in response to the first two stages of sins ise, the covenants, and the anticipated blessing of
397
God
all nations (see also ABRAHAMIC COVENANT). This is The missionary spirit is the spirit of love.
exactly the approach taken by Paul in Galatians First Timothy 1:5 teaches that the sum of all
3. In Galatians 3:15 he raises the fundamental teaching is loveunconditional love for all.
question of just how they received the gift of re- The Holy Spirit guides the missionary outreach
demption (which is now a concrete reality). Their of the early church. This was done in several
own experience provided an obvious answer. ways. First, the Holy Spirit is presented as the
They received the gift of the Spirit as a result of initiator of missionary outreach (Acts 13:1ff.).
their obedient response to the message of faith. Second, the Spirit inspires the proclamation of
In Galatians 3:69 Paul supplements this line of the gospel (Acts 10). Third, the Spirit guides the
argument by appealing to Scripture (Gen. 15:6), course of missions (Acts 16:910).
showing that it was Abrahams willingness to The Holy Spirit achieves the results. In John
have faith in Gods plan and not some level of re- 16:8 Jesus teaches that it is the Spirit who opens
ligious performance, which led to God declaring the eyes of the world to its own sinfulness. There
him righteous. That leads to the conclusion that is no natural awareness of guilt. Consider the ser-
the true children of Abraham are those (any, in- mons given in Acts. They reflect a dependence on
cluding the Gentiles) who have faith (Gen. 17:7; the Spirit in that (1) they call for a decision (Acts
Rom. 9:6ff.). 2:28), (2) they promise forgiveness (Acts 2:28),
The promise made to Abraham is referred to and (3) they warn about the coming judgment.
here as the gospel (Gen. 12:3; 18:18; 22:18; 26:4; Having followed the implementation of Gods
28:14). So it is faith, not ethnicity or keeping the plan of salvation, we conclude that it is God him-
law (3:10ff.), which leads to redemption. The law self who has been and is engaged in missions.
did not change the conditions of the promise Several decades ago Georg Vicedom popularized
(Gal. 3:15), it only revealed sin as sin. The object the term MISSIO DEI in a book with that title pub-
of faith is Christ, Gods plan, as accomplished by lished in 1961. In it he suggested that he was
Christ (Gal. 3:1014), which is precisely what the using the phrase in order to underscore the fact
promise envisioned. This fact is established by that mission is above all Gods work, that is, God
highlighting the singular of the word seed. The is the active subject of mission. In that case mis-
promise was not intended to include all the de- sion is actually an extension of Gods salvific de-
scendants of Abraham, but the descendant, sire and activity. Vicedom goes on to challenge
Christ (Gal. 3:16) and all those who are in him his readers by suggesting that if our assumption
(Gal. 3:2629). As in the Old Testament, the scope that God desires mission because he is himself
of the promise is universal (Gal. 3:8). involved in mission is correct, then the church
The Book of Acts picks up the theme of unre- can be Gods instrument and tool only if it allows
stricted mission. In 1:8 we see Jesus diverting at- itself to be used by him (p. 13). This may well be
tention from the question of time and placing it a needed reminder at the beginning of the
on the disciples responsibilities. These included twenty-first century. God, and not human agen-
worldwide outreach. Consider the similarities to cies, is in charge of the mission of the church.
the GREAT COMMISSION passages. EDWARD ROMMEN
But not only has God kept his promise by
sending the Son, he also enables the new people Bibliography. H. Berkhof, Christian Faith; D. G.
of God to fulfill their responsibility by sending Bloesch, A Theology of Word and Spirit; J. Carpenter
the Spirit. Even a cursory reading of the Book of and W. Shenk, eds., Earthen Vessels; G. D. Fee, Gods
Empowering Presence; T. N. Finger, Christian Theology:
Acts impresses one with the prominence and im-
An Eschatological Approach; A. Glasser, Kingdom and
portance of the HOLY SPIRIT. And here we see how Mission; S. J. Grenz, Revisioning Evangelical Theology;
the work of the Spirit relates to that of the other S. J. Grenz, Theology for the Community of God; P. K.
members of the Godhead. Jewett, God, Creation, and Revelation; G. R. Lewis and
The Holy Spirit generates the missionary spirit. B. A. Demarest, Integrative Theology; A. E. McGrath,
The drive toward spontaneous expansion comes Christian Theology: An Introduction; C. Van Engen,
only after Pentecost. The missionary spirit is first D. S. Gilliland, and P. Pierson, eds., The Good News of
and foremost the spirit of sacrifice. The early the Kingdom: Mission Theology for the Third Millen-
Christians were willing to put their very lives on nium; O. Weber, Foundations of Dogmatics.
the line (Acts 15:26), give up everything familiar,
family, homes (Acts 13:3), rather than retain the Gods and Goddesses. People have always con-
best for themselves, as is often the case today. sidered everyday life to be closely associated with
The missionary spirit is also a spirit of courage. the sacred which is encountered in the form of
Consider the way in which the apostles faced im- powers and divine beings. Concepts of gods and
prisonment, beatings, and a host of other dan- goddesses have developed as answers to funda-
gers. The challenges were, of course, not just mental human questions of how one can cope in
physical. They were willing to challenge existing an uncertain world. This topic most aptly fits
paradigms and power structures (Acts 4:31; 21:3). those religious systems classified as POLYTHEISM,
Are we any less in need of courage? where the divine is perceived as many distinct
398
Gods and Goddesses
entities. Gods and goddesses have been perceived litical might of a city. Thus the Babylonians
in every conceivable expression: the sun and would take the idols of conquered nations back
moon, earth and sky, climatic phenomena, ani- to their temples in Babylon as symbols of Baby-
mals, heroes, and various aspects of human life. lonian domination.
In ancient agricultural societies the earth god- Many gods had their own special domain.
dess was an important deity regarded as the giver Those who displayed great physical powers often
of life and of fertility. Often seen as Mother functioned as gods of protection and war. The
Earth, in ancient Mesopotamia she was com- Vedas of ancient India spoke of the storm god
monly known as Ishtar or Ashtoreth. She was Indra, and Thor was the storm god of the Viking
known to the Israelites through the Canaanites, people. Mars was the Roman god of war protect-
and many turned to worship her soon after arriving the state. Often the king was considered an
ing in the Promised Land (Judg. 2:13; 10:6). The embodiment of such a god. An example was the
goddess was also known in the ancient civiliza- Japanese emperor, who was regarded as the sun
tion of the Indus Valley prior to the Aryan migra- god. Other deities were associated with the arts
tion from the north. Frequently the moon is as- and technology. Thoth was the Egyptian god of
sociated with the goddess of fertility because she wisdom, and Njord was the Scandinavian patron
seems to relate to the rhythms of life. The rhythm of shipping. Ogun was the Yoruba god for all
of fertility is also symbolized by deities depicted those who worked with iron, the blacksmith, the
as dying and then rising. The modern pagan goldsmith, the hunter, and even the taxi driver in
movement in the West has sought to recover the modern times. The Greek god Hades, Seth of the
worship of the Earth Mother, who is variously Egyptians, and Ereshkigal of Mesopotamia re-
spoken of as Gaia or The Lady, and is considered ceived the dead into their abode. Thus there was
in the threefold form of young maid, mother, and a great variety of religious expression relating to
old crone. state cults, local cults, and occupational cults. A
Often associated with the earth goddess was deity might with time grow or decline in impor-
the sky god who brings rain, which fertilizes the tance, so even within ancient societies there was
earth that produces the harvest. For example, in continual change, making it difficult to draft sim-
the ancient Middle East the goddess Ashtoreth ple typologies.
was associated with the god Baal. The fertility rit- Scholars have attempted to distinguish be-
uals associated with these deities took place at tween gods and ancestors, or between divinities
mountain shrines spoken of as high places in the and lesser spirits. An ancestor is usually a deified
Old Testament (1 Kings 14:23). The Baals were human, a cultural hero who through great ex-
often considered to be the lords of particular ploits has risen to the status of a god (see ANCES-
areas, so they had appropriate surnames, for ex- TRAL PRACTICES). The famous Chinese general
ample, Baal-Peor (Num. 25:3). Baal was the great Kuan-ti was deified as the warrior protector of
fertility god of the Canaanites whose worship the empire. Although these distinctions may be
throughout Israelite history was a continual chal- useful, they can mislead, and it is usually best to
lenge to the worship of Yahweh. begin with the categories that the particular soci-
In the more complex civilizations of the an- ety has set up. The Lugbara of Africa, for exam-
cient world, the pluralism of divinities was con- ple, distinguish between ancestors and adro spir-
sidered to operate as a pantheon, a community of its. Ancestors remain close to the image of
gods and goddesses. The pantheon was based on human beings, while the adro do the reverse of
a complex system of MYTHS and legends that normal human behavior: they are cannibalistic,
gave an explanation of the nature of the sacred in incestuous, and walk upside down. The ancestors
every area of social life. There was often a senior express the pattern of the human world with its
god conceived of as the father of the gods, a social order, while the adro represent the danger-
supreme being associated with the sky. For ex- ous world of the bush. This contrast of opposites
ample, Zeus was the high god of the Greeks, explains the perplexing features of life.
Jupiter for the Romans, and Odin for the Vikings. Gods and spirits are often believed to be able
Sometimes this supreme deity was regarded as to reveal themselves or express their will to hu-
old or remote, so that the real powers were with mans. A common manner is through DREAMS, es-
the more immanent and vigorous gods. In other pecially those that are vivid or unusual. People
cases, one god ruled, and the others performed ponder these dreams and ask others to help in-
the basic functions that maintained life and terpret whether they are warnings or promises.
order. These gods married and had offspring, Another means of divine revelation is through a
fought wars or made peace. trance; a person possessed by a deity. In these
Civilizations like those of the city-states of cases the god is believed to speak directly and ex-
Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and the Aztecs had press his will through the mouth or the actions of
a hierarchical pantheon governing through a the individual (see POSSESSION PHENOMENA).
human ruler. A close relationship was sometimes In return gods and goddesses require homage
conceived between a particular god and the po- and SACRIFICES. These are usually offered at spe-
399
Gods and Goddesses
cial times of the year in order to give thanks. the cultivation of indigenous Bible teachers and
Among the Ga of Ghana the great annual festival evangelists.
is hummowo (hunger-hooting), when all the The Goforths escaped with their lives during
corn remaining from the previous season is the 1900 Boxer Rebellion, although Jonathan was
cooked and presented at the shrine of the gods nearly killed. After a brief furlough in Canada
and ancestors. Then the first of the new corn is they returned to China in 1901. Grief over mod-
offered to the deities, after which the people have ernism in the homeland churches and the power-
a time of feasting and license. Sacrifices can also lessness of the small satellite churches in China
be required to make atonement for violations of moved Jonathan to hunger and plead with God
rules and TABOOS, to remove evil or sickness from for revival. Jonathan personally witnessed the
a person or a community. Most Hindus perform great Korean revival in 1907 and returned to
simple rituals of puja in which vegetables, fruits, China with the burning desire to see Gods spiri-
and flowers are offered to the image of a deity. tual blessing fall there. On a speaking tour of es-
RITUALS, however, often become elaborate, so that tablished churches throughout Manchuria,
only religious specialists (priests) are able to per- Jonathans desire was realized as the spirit of re-
form them correctly. Among the Aryans the Brah- vival began to take hold. A preliminary pattern
min priests came to dominate the religious ritual was soon established: deliberate and faithful
because of their knowledge of the Vedic hymns prayer, clear testimony of revival in another
and the complex ceremonies, which required place, preaching of the Word, and an invitation
years of study. to confess sins and pray. Churches were revital-
Monistic religious traditions assume that the ized and thousands of new converts were bap-
whole of reality is divine, but even here gods and tized between 1908 and 1913.
goddesses can be an important feature, regarded Holding to the absolute authority of the Word
as manifestations of the one divine reality. Within of God, the Goforths carried the message of sal-
the Hindu tradition the bhakti way (bhaktimarga) vation to the remote areas of Manchuria. They
is a type of devotion that leads to liberation. The called on mission and denominational leaders
worship of Vishnu in the form of Krishna or there and in the homeland to forsake the compro-
Rama is very popular in India, as is the worship mise of modernism. Winsome and tireless, they
of Shiva and his consort Sakti. Bhakti reflects not continued in the ministry until 1934, when failing
only a special relationship to a particular form of health led them to return to Canada. During their
deity, but also the mood of the devotee. It is char- forty-six years of faithful ministry, God raised up
acterized by chanting of the sacred name, recit- over sixty Chinese evangelists and Bible teachers
ing and acting the great stories of the deity, and and established thirty new mission stations.
singing hymns of praise. Various combinations of JANET BRUCE
human relationships have been used to depict Bibliography. J. Goforth, By My Spirit; J. and R. Go-
this devotion to the deity: servant to master, child forth, Miracle Lives of China; R. Goforth, Goforth of
to parent, friend to friend, lover to beloved. China, 6th ed.
DAVID BURNETT
Goforth, Rosalind Bell Smith (18641942).
Goforth, Jonathan (18591936). Canadian mis- Canadian missionary to China. When Rosalind
sionary to China. First and last a soul-winner, and Jonathan Goforth lost all their worldly pos-
Jonathan Goforth was born on a farm in rural sessions in a fire during their first year of mar-
Ontario, the seventh of eleven children. Converted riage and ministry in China, Rosalind felt God
at age eighteen, he soon influenced a high school weaning her soul decisively from the past to their
teacher and an entire class to follow Christ. calling among the Chinese. The Goforths prayed
Reading the memoirs of Robert Murray Mc- earnestly for converts from the very first, and
Cheyne, Jonathan caught the vision for a life of God answered. As a means of breaking into a for-
ministry and dedicated himself to foreign mis- eign culture, they opened their first home in
sions just before attending Knox College North Honan Province for daily tours and hun-
(Toronto). He married Rosalind Bell Smith in dreds of local villagers responded. The visitors
1887 and was appointed by the Presbyterian were ushered through the house in small groups
Church of Canada to China, arriving there in and were given a short introduction to the God of
1888. Goforths first focus was the North Honon the Bible and the Lord Jesus Christ.
Province, at that time a dangerous territory for Rosalind bore eleven children, five of whom
foreigners. Given Jonathans energetic and in- died in China. An educated and capable woman,
spired commitment to soul-winning and to es- she managed the household details for her large
tablishing a witness in new areas, the Goforths family and frequently the mission bookkeeping
immersed themselves in the culture. Despite and correspondence as well. She had a special
many setbacks and trials, including the deaths of role in evangelizing women and training some as
several of their children, their first decade saw Bible teachers. Following Jonathans lead, she
400
The Gospel and Culture
submitted her own will to God to leave the secu- ed., The Vision Continues: Centennial Papers of Gordon-
rity of the home mission station and go with her Conwell Theological Seminary.
husband and children to evangelize in distant
areas. Bearing up under often primitive living Gorham, Sarah (183294). American missionary
conditions and difficult, dangerous travel, they to Sierra Leone. She was born in Fredericksburg,
believed and proved together that the safest place Maryland. Little is known about her childhood or
for them and their family was the path of duty. educational background. About 1880 she visited
God raised up converts and disciplined thou- some relatives in Liberia. Deeply moved by the
sands through their obedience and faithfulness. appalling living conditions she observed, she trav-
In their later years, Rosalind was Jonathans eled about comforting those who were in need.
eyes and he her ears as their health began to fail. She returned to the United States and settled
They returned to Canada in 1934 and were able in Boston, Massachusetts. Shortly thereafter, she
to record the essence of their lifework in several joined the Charles Street AME Church and be-
books before Jonathans passing in 1936 and came involved in humanitarian work. In 1888
Rosalinds in 1942. Rosalinds How I Know God she felt Gods call to the mission field and volun-
Answers Prayer merited numerous reprintings teered for the AME Liberian Mission.
and has influenced a generation of Christians to She planned to go to Liberia, the place she had
commit their lives to God and his blessing. previously visited, but was moved by the Rev-
JANET BRUCE erend Frederick to join him in Sierra Leone. At
Bibliography. R. Goforth, Climbing: Memories of a fifty-six years of age, Gorham became the first
Missionarys Wife; L. Dorsett, AFC, pp. 18091. woman missionary appointed to a foreign field.
After her arrival in Sierra Leone, she moved to
Magbelle, a town on the banks of the Scarcies
Gordon, Adoniram Judson (183695). Ameri-
River. She was very active in the Allen AME
can Baptist missions promoter. Born in New
Church and also founded the Sarah Gorham Mis-
Hampton, New Hampshire, educated at Brown
sion School. The school, which trained both boys
University (B.A., 1860) and Newton Theological
and girls in religion and industry, was highly suc-
Institution (B.D., 1863), Gordon championed the
cessful. By 1899, 250 to 300 pupils were enrolled.
cause of missions during his pastorate of
Gorham worked with extraordinary fervor and
Bostons Clarendon Street Baptist Church from
dedication. In a letter dated May 28, 1894, she
1869 to 1895. He joined the Executive Committee
of the American Baptist Missionary Union in wrote: With all I am suffering and all I am en-
1871, and became chair in 1888. In 1884 he ne- during I would not give up this work under any
gotiated the ABMU takeover of the faltering condition. Indeed, she did not give up her work
British Congo River Livingstone Inland Mission. until she was forced to.
In 1889 he established the Boston Missionary In July 1894 she fell ill with fever and died on
Training School, which welcomed female stu- August 10. Like her Lord Jesus Christ, she liter-
dents, sent out fifty missionaries in its first ally gave her life for the work of the gospel.
KATHY MCREYNOLDS
decade, and later developed into Gordon College
and Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. Bibliography. S. M. Jacobs, Women in New Worlds,
Through extensive speaking and writing, Gor- 2:26880.
don promoted missions across denominational
and international boundaries. In 1886 he helped The Gospel and Culture. The GOSPEL is Gods
launch what became the STUDENT VOLUNTEER gift to humankind. CULTURE is a human creation.
MOVEMENT. At the 1888 LONDON CENTENARY CON- However, the gospel is expressed within culture
FERENCE on the Protestant Missions of the World and communicated through culture. The Word
he emerged as an international missions advo- became flesh [incarnation] and made his dwelling
cate. A premillennialist, Gordon did not conflate among us [enculturation] (John 1:14a).
Christianity and Western culture, or favor the civ- We create cultures because humans are created
ilizing incremental missiology typical of the im- in Gods image (Gen. 1:2631) (see IMAGE OF
perialist era. His views on world evangelization GOD). God creates; humans make artifacts. God
were articulated in The Ship Jesus (c. 1884), The speaks; humans develop languages. God is a
Holy Spirit in Missions (c. 1893), his journal The covenant being; humans create social institu-
Watchword, and the Missionary Review of the tions. God is righteous; humans develop systems
World, of which he became associate editor in of mors. Religion develops out of human yearn-
1890. Gordon is also remembered as a hymn ing for a relationship with the other dimensions
writer, poet, educator, and social reformer. of existence. Artifacts, languages, social institu-
THOMAS A. ASKEW tions, mors, and religion are some dimensions
Bibliography. E. B. Gordon, Adoniram Judson Gor- of human culture.
don: A Biography with Letters and Illustrative Extracts; Cultures are organized. Like an artichoke, cul-
D. L. Robert, IBMR 11 (1987): 17681; G. M. Rosell, tures have a core with layers encircling that core.
401
The Gospel and Culture
The WORLDVIEW is the cultural corethe under- The church within every society needs to dis-
standing of the meaning of the universe and the cern the aspects of the culture that the gospel
persons place within the universe. Moving out- blesses, and those dimensions that the gospel cri-
ward from the core other layers include power, tiques and transforms. Acts 15 describes a con-
values, practices, and artifacts. The core funda- ference in Jerusalem that convened to address
mentally informs each of the other layers. such issues. Persons representing Jewish and
All cultures possess indications of truth and Greek cultures participated. They heard accounts
graciousness. For example, most AFRICAN TRADI- of what the Holy Spirit was doing in transform-
TIONAL RELIGIONS assumed some form of life after ing lives, they searched the Scriptures for guid-
death; there was a hint of gospel-like truth in that ance, they listened to the counsel of the Holy
perception. Children were valued; the mother Spirit, and in counsel together they bound some
carried the newborn baby on her back for many practices and loosened others.
months. Children grew up secure. Such indica- This remarkable Jerusalem council affirmed sal-
tions of image-of-God-like truth and goodness vation in Jesus Christ as the center of the churchs
are present in all cultures (Rom. 1:20; 10:8; Acts faith in every culture, but also freed the church to
17:2223, 28). embrace cultural diversity. Consequently the
All cultures also possess the imprint of evil and global church can celebrate astonishing cultural
distortions of truth (Rom. 1:1832). When Adam diversity while enjoying unity in Christ.
and Eve turned away from God, they did so be- The gospel is always clothed within the idioms
cause they wanted to be like God (Gen. 3:111). of culture. That is the nature of the Bible and the
This declaration of independence from our Cre- church. Consequently, Christian missionaries
ator is universal. We ourselves and our cultures carry both their culture and the gospel with them
become our ultimate loyalty, rather than our Cre- when they move from one culture to another.
ator. Consequently, the gods we worship become However, whenever a people receive Jesus Christ,
the psychoprojection of our cultures. In various they are empowered and freed by the Holy Spirit
ways religions everywhere are inclined to become and the Scriptures to evaluate and critique both
the mirror image of respective cultures; the gods their own culture and that of the missionary. The
of culture rarely call people to repent (Jer. presence of Jesus Christ within any culture is life-
10:116). giving empowerment (John 8:3136).
The Bible pronounces the gods of culture as DAVID W. SHENK
false. It is for this reason that repentance is the
essential response of all who embrace biblical SEE ALSO Christ and Culture.
faith. God the Creator confronts the gods of cul- Bibliography. P. Hiebert, Anthropological Insights for
ture. God calls people to repent, to turn away Missionaries; T. Hopler, A World of Difference; C. H. Kraft,
from the gods of culture they have created and Christianity and Culture; E. A. Nida and W. D. Reyburn,
worship rather the God who has created them Meaning Across Cultures; D. Richardson, Eternity in Their
(Exod. 20:3). Hearts; L. Sanneh, Translating the Message: The Mission-
Jesus Christ is the supreme clarification event. ary Impact on Culture; D. W. Shenk, Global Gods, Ex-
As God With Us, he entered and lived within a ploring the Role of Religions in Modern Societies.
particular culture with relevant, disturbing, revo-
lutionary, life-giving power. Jesus is unprece- The Gospel and Our Culture Network. The
dented. No human culture, religion, philosophy, Gospel and Our Culture movement began in the
or speculation ever imagined the possibility of United Kingdom in the early 1980s under the in-
Jesus Christ (Matt. 16:1318). Jesus is the gospel. fluence of LESSLIE NEWBIGINS challenge to the
He is Gods salvation gift to humanity (John 3:16), churches of the West to engage what he called
and transformation gift to culture (Matt. 13:33). the most important missionary challenge of the
Through the Holy Spirit, Jesus Christ seeks to latter part of the twentieth centurythe mission-
make his home within the worldview and power ary encounter of the gospel with Western culture.
centers of every culture (Matt. 5, 6, 7, 24:14). Mis- His book The Other Side of 1984 sparked the
siologists refer to this as CONTEXTUALIZATION. The movement in Britain, which first took the form
gospel should become relevant and revolutionary as the Gospel and Our Culture Programme of the
good news within every cultural context. The British Council of Churches. That programme
Dyak of Petussibau in West Kalimantan, who tra- later merged with the C. S. Lewis Society to form
ditionally feared birds as omens of the gods, can Gospel and Culture, which subsequently was
discover that Jesus frees from bondage to taken under the wing of the British and Foreign
squawking birds. However, a Harvard University Bible Society.
astronomer would be quite amused if a Christian In North America, the Gospel and Our Culture
student were to tell him that Christ can free him Network formed in the late 1980s under the influ-
from the fear of squawking crows. The cultural ence of Newbigin and others as an effort to en-
contexts in Boston and Petussibau are exceed- gage the same challenge within the specific con-
ingly different! text of the United States and Canada. Coordinated
402
Gospel, The
by George R. Hunsberger, the network sustains a Gal. 3:13). He had to invalidate the claim and
quarterly newsletter, an annual consultation, and power of sin by entering into the death that is its
a program of research, publication, and education ultimate penalty. His object thereby was to de-
for the purpose of providing useful research for stroy it, for death is Satans greatest weapon
the encounter of the gospel with North American (Heb. 2:9, 14, 15). In so doing he disarmed the
culture and encouraging local action toward the powers and authorities under Satans dominion
transformation of the life and witness of the in order that he might send sin back to its de-
churches. The Church Between Gospel and Culture monic author. He thereby broke its tyranny and
and Missional Church, the first two volumes in destroyed its power, and by this means removed
the networks Gospel and Our Culture Series, lay its curse (Col. 2:15). Hence, the gospel is equated
out the essential agenda for Western churches as with this unique once for-all-time event: the
one engaged in assessing our culture, discerning death, burial, and RESURRECTION OF CHRIST, fol-
the gospel, and defining the church and call the lowed by his subsequent exaltation to the right
churches to embody their essential missional hand of God, where he was gloriously acclaimed
character. and made both Lord and Christ (Acts 2:36).
Parallel movements have emerged in other The reason the Son of God appeared was to de-
Western societies, most notably the Gospel and stroy the devils work (1 John 3:8).
Cultures Trust in New Zealand, founded and led On this basis the people of God, in response to
by HAROLD TURNER. In addition, an international their Lords GREAT COMMISSION to make disciples
project led by Wilbert R. Shenk has begun proof all nations, have but one way to demonstrate
ducing a body of research and literature on the their obedience to him. They are to confront the
theme of a MISSIOLOGY of Western culture. human race with the divine command: Repent
GEORGE R. HUNSBERGER and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of
Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. And
Bibliography. D. L. Guder, ed., Missional Church; you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. The
G. R. Hunsberger and C. Van Gelder, eds., The Church promise is for you and your children and for all
Between Gospel and Culture; L. Newbigin, The Other who are far offfor all whom the Lord our God
Side of 1984; idem, Foolishness to the Greeks, W. R.
Shenk, Write the Vision.
will call (2:38, 39). From this it follows that the
call to REPENTANCE and FAITH, with its promise of
divine intervention, is of the very essence of Gods
Gospel, The. The gospel (euangelion) or good plan for the redemption of his people from the
news has been entrusted to the church to pro- nations of the earth.
claim to all peoples. It is variously described as When one examines the total usage of the word
an eternal gospel (Rev. 14:6), the gospel of gospel in the Scriptures the impression quickly
peace (Eph. 6:15), the gospel of Christ (1 Cor. grows that preaching the gospel cannot be con-
9:12), the gospel of the grace of God (Acts fined to the mere recitation of the actual facts of
20:24), and the gospel of the kingdom (Matt. Christs atoning and saving work. To the apostles
24:14). These different designations do not mean all that he did was in accordance with the Scrip-
different gospels, for there is only one gospel tures (1 Cor. 15:3, 4). This meant nothing less to
(Gal. 1:8). This word is also associated with the them than that the coming of Christ into the
synonym kerygma, a noun used eight times in the world (when the time had fully come Gal. 4:4)
New Testament to focus particular attention on represented the central event in salvation his-
the proclamation of the precise content of the tory. It was almost of the order of an eschato-
gospel. These two words are identical in their logical event at a critical juncture in the biblical
definition of the gospel and both stress the fact record of Israels long and troubled history. In-
that in essence the gospel concerns an event of deed, it also marked a distinctly new era in the
surpassing uniqueness. Prior to the consumma- fortunes of the nations, for by the gospel nothing
tion of human history, when God shall bring all less than the KINGDOM OF GOD is being
things in heaven and on earth together under one preached (Luke 16:16). Since this would involve
head, even Christ, it is his will that this gospel the reclamation of this fallen world from Satans
must first be preached to all nations (Eph. 1:10; control, the proclamation of the gospel from then
Mark 13:10). on attained the order of something special in
Although the uniqueness of this gospel event is Gods dealings with not only Israel but with the
clearly and frequently referred to in the New Tes- Gentile world as well. This brought a sense of
tament as the sum total of the redemptive work uniqueness to the calling of those who would go
of Christ, its full meaning is beyond human com- forth to the nations with this gospel. Indeed, Paul
prehension. When he embraced the cross this in- would speak of Christ having given to him the
volved not only taking to his innocency the total- ministry of reconciliation, a ministry so sublime
ity of human SIN and SHAME in order to make it in his eyes that it was nothing less than God
his own responsibility, but also included the making his appeal through us (2 Cor. 5:1820).
curse of sin as well, which is death (2 Cor. 5:21; All those who proclaim this gospel can truthfully
403
Gospel, The
though humbly state that they are Gods fellow and subsequently a place among those who are
workers (6:1). In their preaching of the gospel, sanctified in Christ (i.e., gain incorporation into
what they share is not the word of men, but as it a local congregation of fellow believers through
actually is, the word of God (1 Thess. 2:13). As a baptism). Central in this evangelistic sequence is
result their preaching was making actual and the fact that the gospel is a Person. To receive
available to their hearers the very reality of Gods him (John 1:11, 12) involves consciously submit-
salvation. ting to a new authority over ones life, even to
This brings up another point of far-reaching Christ the Lord.
significance. The apostles unitedly and fiercely ARTHUR F. GLASSER
opposed any thought that the achievement of the
Bibliography. E. Bruner, The Mediator; L. Morris,
worlds reconciliation by Christ alone through his
The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross; L. Newbigin, The
solitary cross was somehow incomplete. How Gospel in a Pluralist Society.
could it be otherwise when at its heart was noth-
ing less than God himself in his Son reconciling
the world to himself (2 Cor. 5:19). As a result Gossner, Johannes Evangelista (17731858).
only human arrogance would dare to challenge German founder of the Gossner Mission Society.
its perfection by claiming that any human activ- Born at Hausen in Bavaria, Gossner studied at
ity was needed to bring it to completion. The Augsburg, Dillingen, and Ingolstadt. While study-
Christians at Ephesus were pointedly told: It is ing, he was influenced by Johann Sailer, a pietist
by GRACE you have been saved, through faith professor. Consecrated as a Roman Catholic
and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of priest in 1796, he served his first year as an assis-
Godnot by works, so that no one can boast tant at Neuburg. As cathedral chaplain at Augs-
(Eph. 2:8, 9). Indeed, no person can make him- burg (17971804), his evangelistic views brought
self or herself fit for Gods Presence, much less him into conflict with Catholic authorities. He
enter into personal relationship with him. The had contact with both the Catholic and Protes-
preaching of the gospel has solely to do with the tant revival movements and belonged to a group
person of Christ and must be kept free from all of converted priests and laypeople that was sus-
reference to legalistic Judaism or any other form pended by the Inquisition in 1802.
of what has been popularly termed works-right- Banished from Bavaria, Gossner answered a
eousness. The followers of Christ in Crete were call from Czar Alexander I to Saint Petersburg in
told: When the kindness and love of God our 1820 but was expelled in 1824. He formally left
Savior appeared, He saved us, not because of the the Roman Catholic Church in 1826 and was or-
righteous things we had done, but because of His dained a Lutheran minister. While serving as pas-
mercy (Titus 3:4, 5). tor of the Bethlehem Church in Berlin (182946),
When Saul the Pharisee was confronted by the he developed a vision for missions. Gossner
Lord on the road to Damascus, he not only had a founded a childrens nursery in 1834, the Gossner
vision of the risen, glorified Christ. Through re- Mission Society in 1836, and the Elizabeth Hos-
pentance and faith the persecutor of the people pital in 1837. Over the next twenty years Gossner
of God found himself graciously called to the trained and sent out 140 missionaries around the
fellowship and service of the One whom he had world. He resigned from the pastorate in 1846 to
so persistently and hatefully opposed (Acts devote his time to the hospital, counseling, and
26:1218). As the apostle to the Gentiles he was preaching. Among Gossners publications were a
given a fivefold task (v. 18, see also PAUL AND MIS- German translation of the New Testament, a
SION). He was to open their eyes, for people by commentary on the New Testament, and a mis-
nature and satanic influence cannot see the light sionary journal Die Biene auf dem Missionsfeld
of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the (The Bee on the Mission Field).
image of God (2 Cor. 4:4). Paul was then to turn GARY LAMB
them from darkness to light, for people in their
fallenness are not facing this Christ, the Light of Grace of God. The mission of God (MISSIO DEI)
the World, who alone can meet their need. But flows directly from Gods gracious, merciful love
before they can effectually reach out to the Sav- for rebellious, sinful humans who deserve justice
ior, they must turn from the power of Satan to rather than mercy. For the wages of sin is death,
God. This is absolutely crucial, for it involves the but the grace/gift of God is eternal life in Christ
conscious repudiation of all that has previously Jesus our Lord (Rom. 6:23). Traditionally, the
controlled their lives. The early church encour- grace of God has been understood to mean Gods
aged would-be followers of Jesus to renounce by loving initiative in bestowing unmerited favor on
solemn oath the devil and all his works. It was humankind through Jesus Christ. The biblical
felt that only then would they be able to commit idea of grace is foundational for the mission of
their lives to the control of the Lord. And once the church.
this change of allegiance takes place they will be First, grace is an attribute of Gods being. In
able by faith to receive the forgiveness of sins the Bible, God is known most essentially as The
404
Grace of God
Lord, the compassionate and gracious God, slow convicts of sin, and grants all people the power to
to anger, abounding in love and faithfulness, turn to God in faith (Lewis and Demarest, 2223;
maintaining love to thousands and forgiving cf. also S. Grenz, 259; A. McGrath, 378).
wickedness, rebellion and sin (Exod. 34:6; see Third, Gods grace takes place fully and com-
also Exod. 22:27; 33:19; Num. 14:18 Deut. 4:31; pletely by Gods sending his only Son, Jesus
2 Chron. 30:9; Neh. 9:17; Pss. 111:4; 86:15; 102:8; Christ. This truth keeps common grace or gen-
112:4; 145:8; Jonah 4:2; Joel 2:13; Rom. 9:15). eral revelation from becoming inclusivist or plu-
Gods grace derives from Gods love (see LOVE OF ralist in relation to the religions. It keeps Gods
GOD). John says that God is love (1 John 4:8). grace focused in the fact that it is unmerited, a
In his freedom, God so loved the world that he merciful response to judgment. In Jesus Christ,
gave his only begotten son (John 3:16). Pauls Gods grace abounds for our salvation. God
missionary vision was motivated by this love: demonstrates his own love for us in this: While
For Christs love compels us (2 Cor. 5:14, 20). we were still sinners, Christ died for us (Rom.
Gods grace and mercy toward those who like 5:8). The Bible emphasizes this active, direct, re-
sheep have gone astray (Isa. 53:6) motivates the demptive grace by stressing Gods mercymercy
church to mission. that is not merited by human creatures (Deut.
Second, the grace of God takes two forms: 4:31; 2 Sam. 24:11; 1 Chron. 21:13; Neh. 9:3, 31;
common or general grace directed toward all cre- Ps. 25:6; Jer. 9:12; Dan. 9:9, 18; Hos. 6:6; Amos
ation and special grace in relation to Gods 5:15; Mic. 6:8; 7:18; Luke 1:50; Eph. 2:4; 1 Peter
covenant children. In the Sermon on the Mount, 1:3). Paul stressed the inseparable connection of
Jesus affirmed Gods common grace, saying: grace with the incarnation in Jesus Christ, by
(Your Father in heaven) causes his sun to rise on saying repeatedly, the grace of our Lord Jesus
the evil and the good, and sends rain on the Christ (Rom. 3:24; 16:20; 1 Cor. 1:4; 16:23; Gal.
righteous and the unrighteous (Matt. 5:45). 2:16; Eph. 2:58; Philem. 25; cf. also John 1:14,
Common grace points the church to a wholistic, 17; Acts 15:11; Rev. 22:21).
KINGDOM OF GOD orientation in mission that is Fourth, the church is the community of love,
concerned with all of Gods creation. Common mercy, and grace. As the Father has sent me,
grace also provides the space for missionary Jesus told his disciples, I am sending you (John
CONTEXTUALIZATION, based on general revelation 20:21). Mission in grace means that the church is
(Rom. 1), recognizing that in all cultures God has to be a koinonia fellowship of grace, mercy, and
endowed human beings with some inbuilt sense love (C. Van Engen, 9092). As I have loved you,
or presentiment of the divine existence. It is as if so you must love one another. By this (everyone)
something about God has been engraved in the will know that you are my disciples, if you love
heart of every human being (A. McGrath, p. 160, one another (John 13:3435). Jesus told his dis-
citing John Calvin, Institutes). This is what Don ciples to be merciful, just as your Father is mer-
Richardson called REDEMPTIVE ANALOGIES, allow- ciful (Luke 6:36). Paul encouraged the church in
ing for the possibility of conceptual bridges to Ephesus to be compassionate with one another
those who do not yet know Jesus Christ, without (Eph. 4:32). Peter wrote to the churches, Finally,
going so far as to affirm the revelational stature all of you, live in harmony with one another; be
of natural theology against which Karl Barth sympathetic, love as brothers, be compassionate
spoke so vehemently (cf. e.g., K. Barth, II:1, (merciful) and humble (1 Peter 3:8). The preach-
13478; D. Bloesch, 1992, 14183; Berkouwer, ing of the Word and the administration of the
1955, 2147). sacraments are means of grace not only for
Calvinist Reformed theology maintains a dis- church members but through the church in evan-
tinction between common or general grace and gelical proclamation of the gospel to the world.
Gods special grace that happens supremely in Fifth, the mission of the church is itself a work
Jesus Christ through faith, brought about by the of grace whereby the disciples of Jesus Christ
work of the Holy Spirit. In contrast, ARMINIAN participate in Gods gracious initiative in showing
THEOLOGY would affirm prevenient grace. Preve- mercy to the world. So Jonah was called to have
nient grace was taught by Jacobus Arminius compassion on Nineveh as God has compassion.
(15601609) and was elaborated later by the Wes- In Acts, STEPHEN, one of the first deacons, was
leys and Methodists. They affirmed that Gods as- said to be a man full of Gods grace and power
sistance is freely and graciously given to humans (Acts 6:8). The disciples of Jesus share Christs
prior to their having saving faith and gives hu- love, compassion, and commitment for all those
mans the inclination and ability to accept Gods who will come to faith. They commit themselves
salvation in Jesus Christ. They saw grace as a to world evangelization because The Lord . . . is
seamless garment; no difference exists between patient, not wanting anyone to perish, but every-
general and special grace. (Prevenient) grace pro- one to come to repentance (2 Peter 3:9). The
vides for basic human needs, restrains evil, main- grace of God means, therefore, that mission is
tains civil justice, removes the guilt and penalty of not optional or extra to the life of the church; it
original sin, implants the first wish to please God, is essential and integral to its very being. The
405
Grace of God
church is Gods gracious missionary people, combined linguistic skills with the ability to inte-
agents of Gods mercy, calling women and men to grate a broad range of knowledge in service of
become disciples of Jesus Christ and responsible missions. He advocated the need for theologically
members of Christs church. trained missionaries at a time when such were
CHARLES VAN ENGEN hard to find. He pioneered thinking on indigene-
ity for mission-planted churches, emphasizing
SEE ALSO Divine Election.
that they must be independent and intimately
Bibliography. K. Barth, Church Dogmatics; H. Berk- grounded in the cultural characteristics of the
hof, Christian Faith; G. C. Berkouwer, General Revela- people among which they were planted. Core to
tion; D. Bloesch, Theology of Word and Spirit; J. Calvin, his concept of indigeneity was the idea that those
Institutes of the Christian Religion; S. Grenz, Theology things which are morally neutral, including most
for the Community of God; idem, Revisioning Evangeli-
of the cultures social order, need not be changed.
cal Theology; G. R. Lewis and B. A. Demarest, Integra-
tive Theology; A. McGrath, Christian Theology; S. Neill, This included, for example, the CASTE system,
CDCWM, pp. 23334; C. Van Engen, Gods Missionary which Graul felt should be allowed in the Indian
People; O. Weber, Foundations of Dogmatics. church with the hope of eventual change.
Graul, a staunch Lutheran, directed the LEIPZIG
Graham, William Franklin (1918 ). American MISSION from 1844 to 1860. As director, he moved
evangelist and Christian statesman. Reared on a to Tamil where he lived for four years. Gifted in
dairy farm in Charlotte, North Carolina, he was languages, in that short period he was able to
converted in 1934 through the ministry of evan- learn Tamil well enough to establish himself as
gelist Mordecai Ham. He studied at Florida Bible an expert in the language. He wrote extensively
Institute and then at Wheaton College (Illinois) on Tamil, Vedanta Hinduism, and missionary
where he met his future wife, Ruth Bell. Upon principles and work. He was among the first to
graduation he joined Youth for Christ and seek to establish a chair of missions at the uni-
preached throughout the United States and Eu- versity level in Germany. Though successful in
rope. The 1949 Los Angeles crusade placed Gra- setting up the opportunity, he died before he was
ham in the national spotlight and the following able to assume the position.
year the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association A. SCOTT MOREAU
was formed. The London crusade of 1954 Bibliography. A. Lehmann, CDCWM, pp. 23435;
brought him international prominence. He has G. Myklebust, The Study of Missions in Theological
since preached in over 185 countries and territo- Education.
ries of the world.
In his role as a Christian statesman he has Great Awakenings. The term Great Awaken-
counseled numerous United States presidents ings refers to a series of movements in western
and world leaders. His impact on the evangelical Europe and North America that began around
world has been enormous, from his part in 1725 and extended to the late nineteenth century.
founding Christianity Today and Gordon-Conwell In generally accepted terminology, REVIVALS oc-
Theological Seminary, to his bringing together curred within the church, bringing Christians to
mission-minded groups at conferences such as deeper personal faith and devotion, while awak-
the LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGELIZA- enings resulted from revivals as the church
TION (1974). He has preached the gospel to more
moved powerfully into the world in evangelism,
people in live audiences than anyone else in his- social transformation, and mission. But the two
tory, estimated at over 210 million people. Hun- cannot be separated. Most scholars list three
dreds of millions more have been reached major awakenings during the period, even
through his use of radio, television, video, film, though the chronological boundaries cannot al-
and print media.
ways be easily defined, and vary from area to
TIMOTHY K. BEOUGHER
area. The movements had their roots in English
Bibliography. B. Graham, Just As I Am; W. Martin, Puritanism and German pietism, while MORA-
A Prophet with Honor: The Billy Graham Story; J. Pol- VIANISM, which was part of the first awakening,
lock, Billy Graham, Evangelist to the World: An Autho- was a catalyst in the wider church, especially in
rized Biography of the Decisive Years. missions.
The First Awakening began in North America in
Grand Rapids Consultation (1982). See CON- the 1720s, led by Theodorus Frelinghuysen and
SULTATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EVANGE- Gilbert Tennent. Tennents father William was an
LISM AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY. Irish immigrant who established a log college to
prepare ministers who were spiritually alive as
Graul, Karl (181464). German pioneer missiol- well as theologically orthodox. Influenced by
ogist and missionary to India. Graul is regarded pietism, they preached the necessity of conversion
as one of the leading German missiological to Frelinghausens Dutch parishioners and Ten-
thinkers of the nineteenth century. He uniquely nents Presbyterians. The movement spread, and
406
Great Awakenings
the revivalists began to itinerate. In 1741 Presby- two eventually split because of Whitefields ac-
terians in the middle colonies divided over the is- ceptance of Calvinism and Wesleys rejection of
sues of pastoral training, itineration, and the em- predestination and acceptance of the doctrine of
phases of the revival. When they reunited in 1758, perfection. The bishop of London sharply criti-
the revivalist group had tripled in number, while cized Wesleys movement, saying it drew to itself
the anti-revivalist group had dwindled. the lowest and most ignorant people.
In 173435 Jonathan Edwards, a Congrega- The awakening gave birth to the Methodist
tionalist, led a revival in Northampton, Massa- Church, while thousands joined Presbyterian,
chusetts, and neighboring towns. In 174042 the Congregationalist, and Baptist churches. The
movement spread across much of New England successful antislavery movement in England
and eventually across the American colonies as found its roots here. Missionary work like that of
GEORGE WHITEFIELD became the major figure. DAVID BRAINERD among Indians was stimulated.
Formerly a member of the Holy Club at Oxford, Brainerds Journal would be powerfully used in
he had experienced an evangelical conversion in subsequent missionary motivation. The awaken-
1735. On his second trip to America in 173940 ing also produced a number of colleges, includ-
he preached to large crowds in the middle ing Princeton and Dartmouth. It hastened sepa-
colonies and New England in a unique display of ration of church and state in America and to
interdenominational cooperation. Crowds flocked some degree contributed to the American Revo-
to hear him; thousands were converted and joined lution. Women played a role in the Wesleyan
the churches. When Congregationalists in New movement as preachers and class leaders.
England split over the revival, some became Bap- The awakening died down in the 1760s and
tists and later went to Virginia and the Carolinas, 1770s with the American Revolution and the
where their churches grew primarily among the growth of rationalism. In 1784 John Erskine of
poor. A spontaneous movement also began in Edinburgh republished Edwards Call to Prayer
Hanover County, Virginia, as lay persons came for a Revival. Soon concerts of prayer were held
together to read the sermons of Whitefield and across Britain and on the Continent. The direc-
writings of Luther. Thousands came, special tors of the newly formed LONDON MISSIONARY SO-
buildings were constructed, and Presbyterian CIETY recommended that one meeting a month
churches were eventually established. The de- focus on prayer for missions.
mocratizing influence of Presbyterians and Bap- By 1795 concerts of prayer had spread among
tists would bring change in the rigid social order churches of most evangelical denominations in
of Virginia. the eastern United States, and three years later
The focus of preaching in the awakenings was the awakening became widespread.
the necessity of conversion, personal faith in Revival came to Yale in 1802 under the presi-
Jesus Christ that went beyond mere assent to or- dency of Timothy Dwight, Edwards grandson,
thodoxy to include personal assurance of salva- and one-third of the students professed conver-
tion, and the call to a Christian lifestyle. Opposi- sion. The HAYSTACK PRAYER MEETING in 1806 at
tion arose, primarily for two reasons. Some, for Williams College resulted in the beginning of the
reasons of spiritual complacency or theology, did American overseas missionary movement. The
not believe in the validity of the movement or its revival was orderly in the East, but in the West
necessity. Others rejected it because of the ex- and Southwest it was accompanied with many
cesses and fanaticism of some revivalists or be- unusual manifestations. A camp meeting was
cause of preaching by laymen. held in 1800 in Kentucky with services held in
In Britain, praying societies similar to pietist the open air; families came from a distance. In
groups in Germany were precursors. In Wales, 1801 the Cane Ridge Meeting was organized in
Daniel Rowland, an Anglican vicar, and Howell Kentucky, which lasted six days and was at-
Harris, a layman, were converted in 1735 and tended by around 12,500. Hundreds were held
began itinerant preaching. In 1736 Whitefield the following years, and the camp meeting be-
began to preach widely and with great effect. He came an important method of evangelism in the
and his friends began a daily prayer meeting in southern United States, led first by Presbyterians
1737 for the renewal of the church. The following and later by Baptists and Methodists. The latter
year John and Charles Wesley, already zealous in two groups grew very rapidly to become the
their religious devotion, came to personal assur- largest Protestant denominations in the United
ance of salvation. JOHN WESLEYS preaching on States, largely because of the awakening and be-
the new birth and the radical nature of disciple- cause of their flexibility in ordaining pastors with
ship soon resulted in his exclusion from most little or no training and establishing churches
churches. He joined Whitefield in a pattern he quickly. Other results of this phase of the Second
would follow until his death in 1791traveling Awakening in the United States were the forma-
four thousand to five thousand miles per year tion of the AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS
and preaching fifteen to eighteen times per week FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS in 1810, the Baptist For-
in streets, fields, and Methodist societies. The eign Missionary Society in 1814, and the
407
Great Awakenings
Methodist Episcopal Foreign Missionary Society Similar movements in Switzerland, France,

in 1819. Holland, and Germany resulted in philanthropic
After the War of 1812 the awakening contin- social action, Sunday schools, Bible distribution,
ued. Its most prominent exponent was CHARLES and mission to the Jews.
FINNEY, a Presbyterian who rejected the older The Second Awakening had significant results
Calvinist theology and adopted new techniques in the shape of the church in the United States.
designed to lead people to conversion. In his Baptists and Methodists became the major de-
1830 campaign in Rochester 10 percent of the nominations. Evangelical Protestantism became
10,000 citizens professed conversion and 450 a significant force at every level in Great Britain
joined the Presbyterian churches; other churches and North America, and the awakening provided
grew as well. This phase of the American awak- the foundation for the overseas mission thrust of
ening produced a number of interdenomina- the second half of the century.
tional voluntary societies to promote educational The Third Awakening began in 1857 in the
and social reform and missions. At Oberlin Col- United States, when Presbyterians, Baptists, and
lege Finney encouraged the ministry of women. Methodists began meeting for prayer and discus-
A strong antislavery movement developed in the sion on the need for revival and awakening. That
North but not in the South. year Jeremiah Lamphier, a lay missionary in
In England the Methodists saw their total downtown New York for the Dutch Reformed
membership grow from 72,000 in 1791 to nearly Church, started a weekly noonday prayer meet-
a quarter of a million within a generation. Other ing. Beginning with six men, within six months
churches also grew. The Protestant missionary 10,000 businessmen were meeting daily to pray
movement, with roots in the earlier awakening, in 150 different groups. Similar prayer meetings
was launched. WILLIAM CAREYS Baptist Mission- began to spring up in other cities. A financial cri-
ary Society was formed in 1792, the interdenom- sis had occurred shortly after he began, but there
inational London Missionary Society in 1795, is evidence that the revival had begun prior to the
and the Anglican CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY in crisis.
1799. Other societies were formed in Scotland This Third Awakening saw laymen play a much
stronger role. D. L. MOODY began his Christian
and on the Continent. The evangelical movement
work in 1858 and two years later gave up his
was greatly strengthened in the Church of En-
business interests to concentrate full time on
gland, led especially by Charles Simeon, who was
Sunday schools and the YMCA, which had grown
also a strong advocate for foreign missions. The
out of the Second Awakening. News from Amer-
CLAPHAM SECT comprising Anglican evangelicals
ica reached the British Isles. Others began to
successfully implemented a number of social re-
pray, and increasingly people were converted.
forms, including the ABOLITION of slavery. The Re- Twenty thousand met in the open air in Ulster,
ligious Tract Society (1799) and the British and while in Scotland much of the northeast was af-
Foreign Bible Society (1804) were established. fected, and the movement spread into the whole
Evangelicals sought to work out Christian princi- country. The revival began in Wales in 1858,
ples in society. These included Robert Raikes and reaching its height the two following years.
Hannah Moore, who founded the Sunday School Phoebe and Walter Palmer visited Newcastle in
movement; Elizabeth Fry, the prison reformer; England in 1859, and the awakening began to in-
and later the Earl of Shaftsbury, who cam- crease in strength. WILLIAM BOOTH, joined in
paigned for improvement of inhuman factory preaching by his wife Catherine, began an itiner-
conditions. The Scot, Robert Haldane, used his ant ministry, which led to the formation of the
wealth to establish a Society for the Propagation SALVATION ARMY. Theaters were used for Sunday
of the Gospel at home, which sent out over one evening services, which were attended by large
hundred catechists and missionaries, and per- crowds who would not have entered a church.
sonally financed the training of three hundred The Salvation Army, the Keswick movement,
students in a missionary training institute. Even- Christian Unions in universities, and the growth
tually he ministered effectively in Switzerland of the Sunday School movement all resulted. A
and France. In Norway a movement developed large number of itinerant evangelists came to
through the itinerant preaching of Hans Hauge, prominence in the revival, the best known of
a lay preacher who traveled widely for eight years whom was Moody.
before being imprisoned for ten years. His soci- The missionary movement received new im-
eties remained in the Lutheran Church. pulses. J. HUDSON TAYLOR organized the China In-
In Scotland the evangelical party maintained land Mission in 1865. Moodys Cambridge Mis-
Sunday schools, protested against the exploita- sion in 1882 resulted in a number of conversions,
tion of the poor, and promoted popular educa- including the Cambridge Seven, who went to
tion. Its greatest leader, Thomas Chalmers, insti- China as missionaries. They powerfully influ-
tuted an ingenious plan for the church to care for enced other students. Among the 251 in atten-
the poor. dance at Moodys student conference in 1886, 100
408
Great Century of Missions
volunteered for mission, and the STUDENT VOLUN- The first area of service was India, followed in
TEER MOVEMENT for Foreign Missions was 1813 by Burma (Myanmar). Beginning in 1796
formed. Under its auspices 20,500 young people LMS missionaries did heroic work in the South
from Europe and North America eventually went Sea Islands, where a number were killed. In 1820
to Asia, Africa, and Latin America as missionar- JOHN WILLIAMS went to Samoa with eight Tahit-
ies. It also led to the formation of the World Stu- ian teachers, and in a few years the Samoan
dent Christian Federation. church had sent missionaries to a number of
In the last third of the century revivals began other islands. ABCFM personnel arrived in
to lose their character of widespread movements, Hawaii in 1820. Anglicans, Presbyterians, and
becoming primarily mass evangelism, a tech- Congregationalists arrived in Iran in 1811, Egypt
nique for reaching people that was much less in 1818, and Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey shortly
concerned with changing society. This was ac- afterward. The CMS began sending personnel to
centuated by the rise of theological liberalism Sierra Leone in 1804, where in twenty years over
and the social gospel. fifty missionaries died of disease. But others took
Nevertheless, the Third Awakening, building on their places. The BASEL MISSION began work in
the previous two, shaped Anglo-American Protes- Ghana in 1828, the Scottish Presbyterians went
tantism and the missionary movement during the to Calabar (Nigeria) in 1846, and the LMS en-
first half of the twentieth century, and provided tered South Africa in 1799. DAVID LIVINGSTONE,
most of its significant leaders. who arrived there in 1841, went north into Cen-
PAUL E. PIERSON tral Africa with the twofold goal of evangelizing
and ending the slave trade. When Anglicans en-
Bibliography. A. Brouwer, Reformed Church Roots; tered Uganda, Bishop James Hannington was
R. E. Davis, I Will Pour Out My Spirit; J. Edwards, speared to death, and later thirty-five Christian
Works, vol. 4, The Great Awakening; E. S. Gaustad, The martyrs were burned alive by the chief of the
Great Awakening in New England; E. H. Maxson, The
Buganda people. But within a few years Buganda
Great Awakening in the Middle Colonies; J. E. Orr, The
Light of the Nations; idem, The Second Evangelical Christians were taking the gospel to traditional
Awakening; T. Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform; enemies, and one of them, APOLO KIVEBULAYA,
J. Wesley, Journal. won the trust of pygmies, learned their language,
and translated the Gospel of Mark.
Great Britain. See UNITED KINGDOM. China prohibited the residence of foreigners
until forced by the West to allow them to live in
five ports after the treaty ending the first Opium
Great Century of Missions (A.D. 17921910). War in 1842. The treaties after the second Opium
The great century is considered to have begun War forced the government to allow Christians
with WILLIAM CAREY and the organization of the access to all of China after 1856. This resulted in
BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY in England in 1792. a massive influx of missionaries by the end of the
Carey is properly called the Father of the Mod- century, led by the CHINA INLAND MISSION, organ-
ern Protestant Missionary Movement, because ized in 1865. Four American societies entered
of his leadership in initiating this new and Japan from 1859 to 1869, and American Presby-
greatly expanded phase. But he was not the first terians and Methodists arrived in Korea in 1884
Protestant missionary. Puritans had worked with and 1885. Protestant work began in the Philip-
Native Americans in New England in the seven- pines shortly after the Spanish American War.
teenth century, German pietists had gone to India Permanent Protestant work began in Latin Amer-
early in the eighteenth, and Moravians had gone ica after midcentury, when Presbyterians, Bap-
to at least twenty-eight countries in that century. tists, and Methodists arrived in Brazil, which en-
The movement had its roots in the spiritual dy- joyed a measure of religious liberty. Work in
namic of the first and second GREAT AWAKENINGS other countries followed. Thus by 1910 several
on both sides of the Atlantic, and resulted in the thousand Protestant missionaries were at work
organization of a large number of other mission- in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
ary societies. In England they included the LON- Careys goals, which most others accepted,
DON MISSIONARY SOCIETY (LMS, 1795), primarily were first, to preach the gospel by every possible
by Congregationalists and Presbyterians, the means; second, to support the preaching by the
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY (CMS, 1799) by distribution of the Bible in the languages of the
evangelical Anglicans, and the British and For- people; third, to establish the church; fourth, to
eign Bible Society (1804) by evangelicals of vari- study the background and religious thought of
ous denominations. In the United States the the peoples; and finally, to train indigenous min-
AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN isters. The nineteenth-century movement accom-
MISSIONS (ABCFM, 1810) and the American Bap- plished all of these objectives to some degree, al-
tist Society (1814) were established. Others were though different missions and their workers
organized in Scotland and on the Continent. varied in their emphases.
409
Great Century of Missions
In the words of two of the greatest mission often did work in Asia and Africa denied to them
leaders of the century, HENRY VENN of the CMS, at home. Eventually, nearly one-third of the mis-
and RUFUS ANDERSON of the ABCFM, the goal was sionary force would be single women and one-
to establish churches which would be self- third married women. They pioneered in educa-
supporting, self-governing, and self-propagating. tion and medical care for girls and women, while
An important assumption, with roots in the re- some itinerated as evangelists. CHARLOTTE LOT-
vivals which gave birth to missions, was that the TIE MOON became one of the best known of all
preaching of the gospel would be accompanied Southern Baptist missionaries because of her vi-
by works of compassion and lead to positive sion, compassion, and ability to communicate
changes in the societies where the church was with the church back home. CLARA SWAIN, who
planted. Naturally, in the minds of most mission- arrived in India in 1870, was the first woman
aries those changes would include Western-style medical missionary appointed by any board. She
education, literacy, health care, and better treat- was the first of many who not only treated
ment of women. Even though many of the women, whom men were not permitted to see,
changes looked very Western, that was not en- but pioneered establishing nursing and medical
tirely negative. Carey worked, successfully, to end schools, opening these professions to women.
infanticide and suttee (the burning alive of wid- When the first missionaries arrived in Korea, a
ows with the bodies of their husbands) in India; woman had no status outside her home except
Scottish Presbyterians were the first to speak out for functions in traditional shamanism. But by
against female genital mutilation in Kenya; while the middle of this century, HELEN KIM was presi-
others worked to end the painful and crippling dent of Ehwa, the largest womens university in
practice of foot binding in China. the world, established by Methodists. She was
Thus, along with the preaching of the gospel, also a leader in evangelism.
clinics, hospitals, and eventually medical schools Shortly before the end of the century the evan-
were established along with facilities to care for gelical consensus in Protestantism in general, and
marginalized people, the blind, lepers, and or- thus the missionary movement, began to break
phans. Missionaries established schools, seminar- down. That consensus included four points: the
ies, and universities. They did so, first, to train the assertion that the supreme aim of missions was to
children of new Christians and prepare church make Jesus Christ known as Savior and Lord, and
leadership, but they had other goals in mind: to to persuade persons to become his disciples and
raise the social and economic level of the people, gather them into churches; allegiance to the
and to win students and their families to the faith uniquely divine nature of Jesus Christ; the will-
(see also EDUCATIONAL MISSION WORK). By 1826 the ingness to defend the social dimensions of mis-
ABCFM had established twenty-six schools in sions; and a pragmatic ecumenism. The advent of
Hawaii with sixty-six indigenous teachers and Darwinism and the undermining of biblical au-
twenty thousand students. Projects to improve thority brought confidence in progress, a more
agriculture were initiated in several countries (see optimistic view of human nature, and a lower
also AGRICULTURAL MISSIONS). Members of the Christology on the one hand, while the movement
Swiss Basel Mission introduced the cultivation of which would be known as fundamentalism
Cacao into Ghana. Industrial schools and Western adopted premillennialism, the view that only
technology were also introduced. when Christ returned would the millennium be
LITERACY, BIBLE TRANSLATION, and the produc- established and that thus the only important ac-
tion of literature were important. Many unwrit- tivity was evangelism (see MILLENNIAL THOUGHT).
ten languages were learned, reduced to writing, In this context two new movements arose. The
and part or all of the Scriptures translated. By first, the STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT FOR FOR-
1873 the Hawaii mission had published 153 dif- EIGN MISSIONS began among students at a confer-
ferent works plus thirteen magazines and an al- ence led by D. L. MOODY in 1886. Before its de-
manac in the local language which missionaries cline in the 1920s it had motivated the vocations
had reduced to writing. At the end of the century, of over 20,500 missionaries, most of whom
the entire Bible had been translated into over one served under the older boards. The other devel-
hundred languages, the New Testament into 120, opment was the rise of the FAITH MISSIONS, be-
and parts of the Bible into three hundred more. ginning with the CHINA INLAND MISSION in 1865.
Early in the century women began to seek a It was soon followed by the SUDAN INTERIOR MIS-
greater role in the missionary enterprise (see also SION, the Central American Mission, the AFRICAN
WOMEN IN MISSION). First, they organized them- INLAND MISSION, and others. These were funda-
selves to raise funds, to pray, and to encourage mentalist in theology, interdenominational, some
their children and churches in mission. When the led by laymen, and many of their personnel were
male leaders of the boards were unresponsive to graduates of the newly formed Bible institutes
their desire for a greater role, womens mission- instead of universities and seminaries. This de-
ary societies were organized. These, along with velopment of the fundamentalist and evangelical
the older agencies, sent out many women who missions, along with the beginning of the PENTE-
410
Great Commandment
COSTAL MOVEMENT in 1906 would eventually Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, All Loves Excelling;
change the face of the missionary enterprise. At J. Carpenter and W. Shenk, eds., Earthen Vessels;
the same time, liberals and fundamentalists alike W. Hutchison, Errand to the World; S. A. Neill, History
assumed that Western culture was Christian and of Christian Missions.
superior to all others, and thus normative for all
Christians, believing that the entire world would Great Commandment. When considering mis-
eventually adopt that culture. sions, it is usually not the Great Command-
Even though there were large people movement (Mark 12:2834 par. Matt. 22:3440; cf.
ments among some groups of animistic back- Luke 10:2528) but the GREAT COMMISSION
ground (Karens in Burma, Mizos and Nagas in (Matt. 28:1620; Luke 24:4649) that takes center
Northeast India, untouchables in other parts of stage. Arguably, however, the Great Command-
India, some African tribes and especially South ment provides a crucial foundation for the Great
Pacific peoples) most of the churches formed Commission, and a unilateral emphasis on the
were still small. In Korea a revival from 1903 to latter creates an imbalance that may render the
1907 laid the foundation for remarkable growth churchs mission ineffective. We will first discuss
later. But even though most wanted only to the scriptural foundation for the Great Com-
preach a nondenominational pure gospel, as mandment and subsequently deal with its con-
the LMS had urged, the churches established temporary relevance for mission.
were similar to those from which the missionar- Scriptural Foundation. The Great Command-
ies came. The Anglican Bishop Tucker serving in ment, according to Jesus, is the Old Testament
Uganda at the turn of the century wanted to see command to love God with all of ones heart, soul,
a church in which missionaries and Africans mind, and strength (Deut. 6:45), together with
served side by side in a spirit of equality, but the injunction to love ones neighbor as oneself
most churches were still dominated by Western- (cf. Lev. 19:18b; on the question of who is ones
ers. And while there were some exceptions in neighbor, cf. Lev. 19:34; Luke 10:2527; and
Korea and elsewhere, inadequate attention was Matt. 5:4348). To call this commandment the
given to preparing national leadership. In some Great Commandment is to follow Matthews ter-
areas, China and Africa especially, breakaway minology (Matt. 22:36: great; 22:38: great and
churches which sought to be more culturally in- first), where great is probably used with elative
digenous, would later grow rapidly. force to denote what is greatest or most impor-
The climax of the Great Century came with tant. Mark simply numbers the commandments
the Edinburgh WORLD MISSIONARY CONFERENCE in as first and second (Mark 12:38, 41; cf. Matt.
1910. Over 1,200 delegates from various mission 22:38). In Luke, the lawyers question is, Teacher,
agencies came together; however, all but eighteen what shall I do to inherit eternal life? (Luke
were Westerners. It was a time of optimism as 10:25), raising the question of whether Lukes ac-
they planned for greater unity and advance. count refers to a different event altogether, espe-
There was reason for celebration. For the first
cially since, in Luke, it is not Jesus who is speak-
time in history, the Christian faith was now
ing but the lawyer (Luke 10:27).
worldwide. The church, along with educational
The question of what constituted the heart of
and medical institutions, had been planted in
the Law was an issue widely discussed in rab-
many countries. A growing number of national
leaders was being prepared, establishing a foun- binic circles in Jesus day. Jesus emphatic state-
dation for growth in the future. The missionary ment, only found in Matthew, that the entire
movement had made a significant contribution Law and the Prophets depend on the Great
in works of compassion with women and mar- Commandment, is therefore of utmost signifi-
ginalized people, and had introduced such con- cance (Matt. 22:40). Unlike the Decalogue, which
cepts even among some who did not accept the is mostly given in the form of prohibitions, Jesus
Christian faith. But there were also problems, states this injunction in a positive way (cf. Matt.
some of which were seen, others not. The theo- 7:12). By expressing the commandment in an
logical consensus regarding the nature and pur- absolute and categorical rather than a relative
pose of mission was ending. Western Christen- and limited fashion, Jesus stresses the priority of
dom still failed to see the beam in its own eye: the inward disposition over the outward action.
COLONIALISM, ETHNOCENTRISM, and feelings of su- In keeping with Old Testament prophetic tradi-
periority. The church still looked very foreign in tion, Jesus requires heart religion, not merely
many cultures. And few if any realized that four formalistic legalism. At the same time, it is not
years later Western Christendom would be his desire to use this commandment to relegate
plunged into one of the most meaningless and every other obligation of the believer to the point
bloody wars in history. That would bring the end of irrelevance.
of confidence to much of the West and would What is the relationship between the Great
raise a whole new set of problems for the mis- Commandment and the Great Commission in
sionary movement in the new century. Matthews Gospel? Since Matthew presents disci-
PAUL E. PIERSON pleship as the way of righteousness (cf. Matt. 5:6,
411
Great Commandment
10, 20; 6:33), and since the Great Commission the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES (WCC) at its
entails the teaching of converts to obey every- BANGKOK CONFERENCE (1973), argued for a nar-
thing Jesus commanded, it is clear that the keep- row use of salvation language, restricting salva-
ing of the Great Commandment is a prerequisite tion to the sphere of conscious confession of
for the fulfillment of the Great Commission. faith in Christ. A. Johnston, D. McGavran,
Moreover, the latter entails, not mere EVANGELISM P. Wagner, P. Beyerhaus, K. Bockmhl, and
in modern parlance, where the term usually H. Lindsell joined in affirming this position
refers merely to the bringing of a person to the against those who sought to define salvation
point of conversion, but the grounding of Chris- more broadly. This latter group contended that
tian converts in the way of righteousness, includ- salvation has not only personal but also social
ing the observance of the Great Commandment and cosmic dimensions, so that socioeconomic
(and, ultimately, once again the Great Commis- improvements should be described as an aspect
sion!). Finally, the concept of righteousness in of salvation, pointing also to Luke 4:1621 (cf.
Matthew, while possessing a spiritual core, is not Isa. 61:12). It was further argued that the lord-
limited to the religious domain but also has so- ship of Christ extends over all demonic powers of
cial and economic dimensions. In these ways evil that possess persons, pervade structures, so-
Matthew lays a crucial foundation for the under- cieties, and the created order.
standing of the relationship between the Great How does Scripture adjudicate between these
Commandment and the Great Commission in two positions? On the one hand, it cautions
contemporary discussion. against a reductionistic focus on people merely
Contemporary Relevance for Mission. Histor- as souls that need to be saved, so that the
ically, Anglo-Saxon Protestant missionary churchs task should not be conceived in merely
thought has emphasized the Great Commission, religious terms. On the other hand, Scripture
while the latter task never occupied an equally does affirm the primacy of a persons spiritual di-
central position among Christians on the Euro- mension, so that the effort of leading unbelievers
pean Continent. The issue of the relationship be- to a Christian conversion rightly belongs at the
tween the Great Commission and the Great heart of the churchs mission. As noted, read in
Commandment caused considerable discussion the context of Matthews entire Gospel, the ful-
at the LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGELISM fillment of the Great Commission entails a com-
in 1974. While in the final conference document mitment to both the King and his kingdom, to
evangelism was named as the primary mission of both righteousness and justice (Bosch), while
the church, this drew the criticism of a signifi- the making of disciples also involves teaching
cant number of participants, including JOHN them to obey Jesus teachings which include lov-
STOTT, R. Sider, and others. After a reaffirmation ing God and ones neighbor. Hence love for God
of the primacy of evangelism by the Consultation and others ought to be the driving motivation for
on World Evangelization (COWE) in Pattaya, mission (see MOTIVE, MOTIVATION), since, in love,
Thailand, in June 1980, the question was taken God sent his Son; in love, Jesus gave his life for
up again by the Consultation on the Relationship others; and by our love, the world will know that
between Evangelism and Social Responsibility
we are his disciples.
held in Grand Rapids, Michigan, in June 1982,
ANDREAS J. KSTENBERGER
an effort co-sponsored by the WORLD EVANGELICAL
FELLOWSHIP (WEF) and the Lausanne Committee Bibliography. D. J. Bosch, IRM 73 (1984): 1732;
for World Evangelization (LCWE) (see LAUSANNE D. A. Carson, EBC, 8:46366; P. A. Deiros, Faith and
MOVEMENT). This conference identified three Mission 2 (1985): 4249; R. H. Fuller, Essays on the
kinds of relationships between EVANGELISM AND Love Commandment, pp. 97121; A. P. Williamson, CT
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY: (1) social responsibility as 26, no. 19 (1982): 3236.
a consequence of evangelism; (2) social action as
a bridge to evangelism; and (3) social concern as Great Commission. The term Great Commis-
a partner of evangelism. The delegates advocated sion is commonly assigned to Christs command
a holistic approach to mission, since [s]eldom if to his disciples as found in Matthew 28:1820,
ever should we have to choose between satisfying Mark 16:1516, Luke 24:4649, John 20:21, and
physical hunger and spiritual hunger, or between Acts 1:8. It is sometimes referred to as the Evan-
healing bodies or saving souls, since an authen- gelistic Mandate and distinguished from the
tic love for our neighbor will lead us to serve him Cultural and/or Social Mandate found in
or her as a whole person (see HOLISTIC MISSION). Genesis 1:2830 and Genesis 9:17 (see CULTURAL
The key questions addressed at the 1982 con- MANDATE). The prominence accorded to the Great
sultation were the following: What is mission? Commission in the past two hundred years is not
How broad is salvation in Scripture? What is the apparent in previous church history. The early
relationship between the church and the king- church made remarkable progress in spreading
dom? What is the churchs mandate for social the faith throughout the Mediterranean world by
justice? R. Sider and J. I. Packer, in contrast to virtue of the witness of dispersed Christians and
412
Great Commission
the missionary journeys of the apostle Paul and upon the missionary activities of the church, but
others. However, there is no clear indication in an inner principle of church faith and life allow-
the Book of Acts that this effort was motivated by ing for freedom in the way churches and mis-
explicit appeals to the Great Commission. Rather, sions interpret and carry it out.
after Pentecost the Holy Spirit both motivated Subsequent history has revealed how diverse
and orchestrated the missionary effort in accor- and divisive such interpretations can be. The
dance with that Commission. Similarly, through- twentieth century gave rise to a number of sig-
out the early centuries when both the Eastern nificant points of departure in understanding.
and especially Western branches of the church First, upon a review of history and the biblical
were expanding significantly, the Great Commis- text, some (e.g., Harry Boer) have concluded that,
sion as such does not appear to have been a deci- in the process of convincing Christians that the
sive motivating or defining factor. Great Commission applied to them, proponents
In REFORMATION times concerns and controver- unwittingly contributed to the idea that the va-
sies relating to the Great Commission had to do lidity of Christian mission rested primarily upon
with its applicability. In 1537 Pope Paul III em- that command. This led to a corresponding neg-
phasized the importance of the Great Commis- lect of the missionary role of the Holy Spirit and
sion and said that all people are capable of re- the missionary thrust of the whole of biblical rev-
ceiving the doctrines of the Faith. However, elation. Second, perhaps responding to the em-
sixteenth-century Catholic theology applied the phasis on the social task of the church in the
text to the Church with its episcopacy, not to the WCC and especially at the 1968 General Assem-
individual Christians as such. The Reformers bly in Uppsala, some evangelicals (e.g., JOHN
generally taught that the Great Commission was STOTT) revised their thinking on the Great Com-
entrusted to the apostles and that the apostles mission and now argue against the generally ac-
fulfilled it by going to the ends of their known cepted position that the statement in Matthew
world. This is not to say that they had no mis- 28:1620, being the most complete, possesses a
sionary vision. Hadrian Saravia (15311613) and certain priority. Their revised position is that the
Justinian von Welz (162161) found reason statement in John 20:21 (As the Father has sent
enough to write treatises in which they urged me, so send I you) takes priority and makes the
Christians to recognize their responsibility to Lord Jesus earthly ministry as outlined in Luke
obey the Great Commission and evangelize the 4:18, 19 a model for modern mission. This inter-
world. Nevertheless, it remained for WILLIAM pretation opens the way for sociopolitical action
CAREY (17611834) to make one of the most com- as an integral part of biblical mission. Third,
pelling cases for the applicability of the Great many Pentecostals and charismatics have given a
Commission to all believers. The first section of certain priority to the Markan version of the
his treatise An Inquiry into the Obligations of Great Commission with its emphasis on the
Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of the signs following conversion and faithcasting
Heathens (published in 1792) made a concerted out demons, speaking in new tongues, handling
argument that individual Christians should join snakes, drinking poisonous liquids without hurt,
together in an effort to take the gospel to the and healing the sick (Mark 16:1719). This ap-
HEATHEN (at that time the common designation proach is generally dependent upon a considera-
for the unevangelized) in obedience to the Great tion of the manuscript evidence relating to the
Commission. Some historians have concluded shorter and longer endings of Marks Gospel.
that An Inquiry rivals Luthers Ninety-five Theses Fourth, some exegetes (e.g., Robert Culver) point
in terms of its influence on church history. out that the Matthew 28:1820 text does not sup-
By the middle of the nineteenth century a con- port the commonly understood interpretation
sensus on the applicability of the Great Commis- with its overemphasis on going into all the
sion had emerged but this consensus paved the world in obedience to Christ. Rather, the main
way for differences as to its application, particu- verb and imperative is make disciples. The
larly in America. Not everyone agreed with the other verbs (in English translations) are actually
interpretation and approach of A. T. PIERSON and participles and take their imperitival force from
others who, in the 1880s and 1890s, pressed the the main verb. In descending order of impor-
completion of world evangelization by the year tance the verbs are make disciples, teach,
1900 in obedience to the Great Commission. baptize, and go. The text would be better
The organizers of the great Edinburgh Confer- translated Going . . . or As you go . . . and un-
ence of 1910 attempted to avoid controversy con- derstanding enhanced by giving more attention
cerning the requirements of the Great Commis- to the grammatical construction of the original
sion and the nature of mission by taking the text. Fifth, DONALD MCGAVRAN held that there is a
position that the Great Commission is intrinsic clear distinction between disciple-making and
rather than extrinsic (James Scherers words) to teaching in fulfilling the Great Commission. The
the church and its missions. In other words, it is former has to do with people of a culture turning
not so much an exterior law that sits in judgment from their old ways, old gods, and old holy books
413
Great Commission
or myths to the missionarys God, the Bible, and flected in the changed thinking of even the early-
a new way of living. The latter has to do with twentieth-century liberal scholar Adolf von Har-
perfecting as many as will take instruction and nack. At first he concluded that the words of
follow the new way more closely. In obeying 28:1820 probably constituted a later addition to
the Great Commission, discipling new peoples the Gospel of Matthew. In later life he found it to
should never be discontinued in an effort to per- be not only a fitting conclusion to that Gospel,
fect a few. Though comparatively few agreed but a statement so magnificent that it would be
with McGavran early on, in recent years there difficult to say anything more meaningful and
has been a somewhat wider acceptance of certain complete in an equal number of words (see
aspects of his thesis. Sixth, Church Growth advo- Bosch, 1991, 5657).
cates generally and proponents of the AD 2000 DAVID J. HESSELGRAVE
and Beyond Movement especially (e.g., RALPH
WINTER) have placed great emphasis on the Bibliography. D. J. Bosch, Transforming Mission:
Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission; H. R. Boer, Pen-
phrase panta ta ethnem in Matthew 28:19 and have
tecost and Missions; R. D. Culver, A Greater Commis-
insisted that this is best understood as having ref- sion: A Theology for World Missions; D. A. McGavran,
erence to the various people groups of the The Bridges of God.
world (see PEOPLES, PEOPLE GROUPS). Originally
Donald McGavran identified endogamy as a pri-
Greece (Est. 2000 pop.: 10,573,000; 131,990 sq.
mary characteristic of a people group but sub-
km. [50,961 sq. mi.]). Bordered by Turkey, Bul-
sequently other characteristics such as a com-
garia, Albania, and the former Yugoslav Republic
mon worldview, religion, ethnicity, language,
of Macedonia, Greece forms a geographical and
social order, and self-identification have been em-
cultural bridge between Europe and the Middle
phasized. This understanding lends itself to a
program of world evangelization whereby people East. Of the more than 2,000 islands, only 169
groups are identified and reached by planting are inhabited.
viable, New Testament churches that become the Paul was the first Christian missionary to
primary means of evangelizing the group socially Greece, establishing churches in Philippi, Berea,
to the fringes and temporally into the future. Sev- Athens, and Thessalonica (Acts 1617). From the
enth, in recent years a growing number of missi- time of Constantine, Christianity has played a
ologists (e.g., Trevor McIlwain) have advocated a dominant role. Today some 16,500 Greeks attend
missionary approach that gives more serious at- churches of various Protestant traditions, most
tention to the Great Commission requirement to being Pentecostals. JEHOVAHS WITNESSES have
teach all that Christ commanded. To many mis- nearly twice as many adherents. It is the Eastern
sions people this has seemed altogether too en- Orthodox Church which dominates, officially and
compassing and demanding. They have preferred culturally, this nation of 10.5 million. The com-
to communicate basic truths about human spiri- mon perception is that to be Greek is to be Ortho-
tual need and the way in which the Lord Jesus dox. Although Greece formally adheres to interna-
has met that need by means of his death and res- tional declarations on religious liberty, in practice
urrection. In a way the tension between these non-Orthodox, and especially those who engage in
two approaches reflects a classic missions con- active evangelism, face significant pressures. Too
troversy as to whether missionaries should first often, evangelical churches are perceived by
communicate truths about the nature of God and Greeks as being foreign and unattractive.
his requirements as revealed in the whole of Missionaries to Greece face the challenge of
Scripture or are better advised to begin with the nationalism coupled with a strong group (as op-
New Testament account of Jesus teaching and posed to individual) orientation, both reinforcing
ministry. What is distinctive about the recent em- the Orthodox identity of the people. Some evan-
phasis, however, is that its proponents usually gelicals among the large Greek diaspora have
link all I [Christ] have commanded in Matthew been active in outreach to their homeland and
28:20 with John 5:39 and a chronological teach- should be encouraged to do more. Missionaries
ing of the Bible as redemptive history. to Greece, whatever their national origin, should
However one may assess the foregoing (among be prepared to cooperate with the existing evan-
other) responses to the requirements of the Great gelical entitiesthe two hundred congregations
Commission, it seems apparent that, unlike the are already divided among forty denominations!
first two hundred years of Protestantism, during Cooperation might both increase the effective-
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the Great ness of witness and cut back the missionary at-
Commission came to play an extremely impor- trition rate, reported at over 70 percent within
tant role in missions and missiology. In fact, the the first four years.
authors of the FRANKFURT DECLARATION of 1970 Greece has an advantageous location for mis-
placed it first in their list of seven indispensable sion outreach to Muslims from the Middle East
basic elements of mission. In a way this growing and the Balkans. Some outreach has been re-
appreciation for the Great Commission was reported among Albanians, both in Greece and in
414
Greenland
Albania, as well as among transient and resident the Japan mission of the AMERICAN BOARD OF
Middle Easterners. But animosity resulting from COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS. This un-
centuries of Turkish domination constitutes a dertaking became the most active Protestant mis-
barrier to outreach among Turks, whether in sion in Japan during the Meiji era.
Greece or in Turkey. Other ethnic minorities, Returning to the United States for only four
such as the Vlach and Bulgarian-speaking Po- brief furloughs in forty-one years, the Greenes
maks, are officially ignored by the government lived in Yokohama, Kobe, Tokyo, and Kyoto.
and may require special missionary strategies. During those years they saw Japan embrace both
Further, hundreds of towns and villages, espe- Western technology and ideology; the response to
cially in the north, and most of the islands have Christianity ranged from enthusiastic embrace to
no permanent evangelical witness. indifference. When religious freedom was de-
Greek evangelical missionaries currently num- clared in the 1889 Meiji Constitution, the interest
ber only a handful. While facing the challenge of in Christianity began to wane.
their own country, they could also make a signifi- Mary Janes life in Japan revolved around her
cant contribution in needy neighboring countries. home, family, and mission networks. Her home,
DAVID GREENLEE
the Wayside Inn, was known for its hospitality to
Bibliography. R. Clegg, Concise History of Greece; missionaries, expatriates, and the Japanese com-
T. Ware, Introduction to the Orthodox Church, rev. ed. munity. Her public missionary role included
church and womens work, with her most dis-
Greene, Elizabeth Betty (192197). American tinctive contributions coming in the areas of
missionary aviation pioneer. Born in 1921, she teaching and music performance. She suffered
learned to fly at the age of sixteen. A member of two bouts with cancer and died in Tokyo in 1910.
the Womens Air Forces Service Pilots during TRACY K. SMITH
World War II, Greene performed high-altitude
Bibliography. M. Kilson, Mary Jane Forbes Greene
test flights, towed targets for live-fire gunnery
(18451910), Mother of the Japan Mission: An Anthro-
practice, and flew a number of military aircraft, pological Portrait.
including the four-engine B-17 Flying Fortress.
Greene opened the Christian Airmens Mis-
sionary Fellowship (CAMF) office in Los Angeles Greenland (Danish Autonomous Area) (Est.
in 1944 as the designated secretary-treasurer. Co- 2000 pop.: 60,000; 2,176,000 sq. km. [840,154 sq.
laborer with Jim Truxton, she quickly became a mi.]). Most of Greenland, the worlds largest is-
major driving force behind the new organization. land, is glacial icecap. Approximately 80 percent
Greene worked with Truxton, Parrott, and Buyers of the inhabitants are Inuit Eskimos, most other
on the incorporation papers for CAMF, which residents being Danes. The island nation enjoys
later became Mission Aviation Fellowship (MAF). autonomy as a home-ruled government within
She served both on the first board of directors the Danish kingdom. Official languages are
and on the first executive committee. In 1946, Greenlandic, also known as Inupik, and Danish.
Greene became CAMFs first field pilot, flying a Greenlanders trace their history to the early
plane to SILs Jungle Camp in Mexico, MAF-USs Thule culture of about A.D. 900. Migrants from
first foreign field. During her thirty-year career neighboring regions introduced new hunting and
with MAF, Greene flew all over the globe, becom- gathering techniques which enabled development
ing the first woman to fly over the Andes. She of permanent settlements. Other changes in the
also flew missionary tours in Nigeria, Sudan, methods of subsistence living led to the emer-
Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, the Congo (Zaire), and gence of the Inussuk culture. Norsemen of the
Dutch New Guinea (Irian Jaya). On the forefront Viking cultures settled in Greenlands eastern sec-
of promoting prayer for MAF, she launched a tor about 985. In the final waves of polar Eskimo
newsletter in 1945, Wings of Praise and Prayer, immigration in the eighteenth and nineteenth
distinguishing herself as MAFs prayer secretary. centuries from Canada and Alaska, the Inughuit
GARY LAMB settled in Avanersuaq (Thule).
Bibliogaphy. D. G. Buss, and A. F. Glasser, Giving The first Christians arrived with the medieval
Wings to the Gospel: The Remarkable Story of Mission explorer Leif Eriksson about A.D. 990. Lutheran
Aviation Fellowship; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ. missionaries came in 1721; their work waned by
1860. The Moravians came in 1733; by 1900 they
Greene, Mary Jane Forbes (18451910). Ameri- gave way to the Church of Denmark.
can missionary to Japan. Having spent her young Measuring the exposure to the gospel, re-
adulthood in Westborough, Massachusetts, Mary searchers conclude that Greenland is fully Chris-
Jane Forbes both attended and taught at Mount tianized. Yet there is a high degree of SECULARIZA-
Holyoke Female Seminary. Five months after her TION in this modern arctic society. Like Europe
1869 marriage, she arrived with her husband, and North America, there is a rapidly emerging
Daniel Crosby Greene, in Yokohama to cofound postmodern culture. Greenland has a need for
415
Greenland
fresh methods of spiritual renewal, and even new sion in 1984. Grenada thereafter received suffi-
life, amid its mix of post-Christian cultures. cient foreign aid for its economy to rebound
KEITH E. EITEL from the rapid deterioration of the early 1980s. A
reported 60 percent of the population is Roman
Gregg, Jessie (18751942). English missionary Catholic, with a third nominally Protestant. In
to China. Having been accepted by the China In- the early 1990s six evangelical missions had two
land Mission, Gregg spent two years in training dozen missionaries on the island.
and six months at the womens language school EVERETT A. WILSON
at Yangchow before being assigned to Hwailu. SEE ALSO Caribbean.
During the Boxer Rebellion the station was de-
stroyed, and she and her colleagues, Mr. and Mrs. Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer-
C. H. S. Green, hid in a Buddhist temple and ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His-
then a cave before being captured and severely tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to
the Present.
beaten. After a short furlough in England she re-
turned to China in 1901 and began actively pur-
suing her lifelong interest in womens work. She Grenfell, George (18491906). English mission-
spent the next fifteen years in almost constant ary to Cameroon and Zaire. George Grenfell grew
travel from Chihli to Shensi and Kansu and up in Birmingham, England. Excellent spiritual
south to Hunan and Hupeh. She was a skilled mentors influenced his life after his conversion in
storyteller and an excellent teacher; and although a Baptist chapel at age fifteen. He apprenticed in
many men heard her, she insisted that she had the machine and tool industry and edited Mis-
come only to teach women and that men should sion Work magazine before attending Bristol
listen to a male evangelist. Her five-day mission Baptist College, where he prepared for mission
schools for women were well attended, some- service.
times attracting several hundred. On a number of The Baptist Missionary Society appointed
occasions she reported that half her hearers were Grenfell to Cameroon in 1875. His bride, Mary
ready to stand up for Christ at the conclusion of Hawkes, died shortly after their arrival. He was
her teaching. one of two men who opened the Congo (modern
KATHLEEN L. LODWICK Zaire) for missionary work in 1877. He married
his second wife, Rose Patience Edgerley, in 1878.
Bibliography. M. Broomhall, The Jubilee Story of the He buried several small children on the field. One
China Inland Mission; P. Thompson, Each to Her Post; daughter, who returned to work with him in
R. A. Tucker, GGC. Congo, died of fever in 1898.
He is best known for the steamship Peace,
Gregory the Illuminator (c. 240332). Founder which he helped design and shipped unassembled
of the Armenian Church. Born in Armenia, he to Congo. The engineers sent to help in the recon-
fled to Cappadocia when Persian rulers tem- struction died. From 1884 until 1907, he sailed
porarily took control of Armenia. In Cappadocia the Peace the three thousand miles of the Congo
he received Christian instruction. Returning River, opening new areas for mission work. The
home once Armenian king Tiridates gained many converts positively impacted the area.
power, he faced persecution after refusing to par- Cannibalism, slavery, virulent disease, war, and
ticipate in a pagan ritual. Eventually, however, an antagonistic Belgian colonial regime were
Tiridates came to Christ and declared Christian- among the major obstacles Grenfell dealt with
ity the official religion. Neill relates that this is during his life in Congo. He was known as a
the first clear historical example of a whole coun- peacemaker who believed that Bible translations
try won to Christ through the conversion of the in local languages and educational work were es-
king, and Gregory is consequently remembered sential for a successful missionary effort.
as the Apostle to Armenia. Throughout the rest MIKEL NEUMANN
of his life, Gregory continued the work of evan-
gelizing Armenia and the surrounding regions, Bibliography. S. J. Dickins, Grenfell of the Congo;
H. L. Hemmens, George Grenfell, Pioneer in Congo; H.
baptizing four other kings in the process. Johnston, George Grenfell and the Congo.
A. SCOTT MOREAU
Bibliography. F. X. Murphy, NCE, 6:79091; S. Neill, Grenfell, Sir Wilfred Thomason (18651940).
HCM; ODCC. English missionary to Labrador. Born near
Chester, England, he graduated with a degree in
Grenada (Est. 2000 pop.: 94,000; 344 sq. km. medicine after studying at Oxford and London.
[133 sq. mi.]). The southernmost of the Wind- Converted at a D. L. Moody mission service in
ward Islands of the Lesser Antilles, Grenada London in 1885, he joined the Royal National
came to world attention when American Presi- Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen in 1889. He fitted
dent Ronald Reagan authorized an armed inva- out the first hospital shop for North Sea fisher-
416
Grubb, Wilfred Barbrooke
men, and established homes for their use. In 1892 Grubb, Sir Kenneth George (19001980).
Grenfell began his four decades of service to the British missionary statesman and missionary to
scattered communities of Labrador, himself rais- Latin America. Kenneth Grubb (younger brother
ing most of the funds, which from 1912 were of Norman P. Grubb) was one of the most influ-
channeled through the International Grenfell As- ential British missionaries and ecumenical
sociation. He operated medical ships, and had statesmen of the mid-twentieth century. He was
hospitals and nursing stations located at strategic converted after the end of the First World War,
points along the desolate coast of Labrador, about following prayer on his behalf by Norman. Soon
which he provided valuable geographical data. He afterwards, he was accepted by WEC INTERNA-
also set up orphanages, schools, cooperative TIONAL to travel in Amazonia and compile a lin-
stores, and other institutions designed to help the guistic schedule of the Indian peoples of the
fisherfolk and their families. He fought unfair Amazon basin. This was published in 1927. Feel-
traders and liquor dealers. His enterprise was ing somewhat constricted within WEC, he left to
backed financially by friends in Britain and North join the research staff of the Survey Application
America, some of whom came to give practical Trust, for whom he worked throughout the 1930s
help. He received fellowships from both the Royal producing a series of volumes surveying Chris-
(British) and the American College of Surgeons, a tian prospects in Latin America. With the out-
knighthood from King George V (1927), and the break of war imminent, he was recruited by the
first honorary doctorate in medicine bestowed by British government as a Latin American special-
Oxford. Students of St. Andrews University in ist, and was promoted rapidly to become over-
Scotland elected him as their rector. seas controller of publicity within the Ministry of
Grenfell retired in 1935 and died in Char- Information. In 1944 he became president of the
lotte, Vermont. He was author of some two CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY (CMS), an office he
dozen books, among them the autobiographical held for twenty-five years. Working closely with
A Labrador Doctor (1922) and Forty Years for MAX WARREN, Grubb presided with a firm hand
Labrador (1932). over the transition of the CMS into the postcolo-
J. D. DOUGLAS nial era. He was also an active, but not uncritical
participant of the postwar ecumenical move-
Groves, Anthony Norris (17951853). English ment, serving for twenty-three years as the first
missionary to Iraq and India. Born in Newton, chairman of the Churches Commission on Inter-
Hants, England, Groves worked professionally as national Affairs. For many years he edited the
a dentist in Plymouth, then Exeter. In 1816, he World Christian Handbook. He received his
married Mary Bethia Thompson. They had two knighthood in 1953.
sons who wrote histories of the Plymouth BRIAN STANLEY
Brethren that identify Groves as an early propo- Bibliography. K. Grubb, Crypts of Power: An Auto-
nent of the movement. biography.
In an influential book Christian Devotedness
(1825) Groves repudiated institutional mission Grubb, Wilfred Barbrooke (18651930). Scot-
societies. Relying on prayer, the indwelling of the tish missionary to Latin America. Born in Edin-
Holy Spirit, Christ-centeredness, and personal burgh, into a medical family, Grubb was known
holiness, Groves pioneered the TENT-MAKING ap- as the Livingstone of South America. After join-
proach typical of FAITH MISSIONS. From 1829 to ing the Edinburgh Medical Mission in 1881, he
1833, he served as a missionary in Baghdad, sought to take part in an expedition to Africa but
where his wife and infant daughter died. Subse- was thought too young. DWIGHT MOODY and Ira
quently, apart from two short visits to England, Sankey challenged Grubb to commit his life to
Groves served in South India with his second missions in 1884. He was accepted by the South
wife, Harriet Baynes, who in 1856 published a American Missionary Society (SAMS) at nineteen
Memoir of A. N. Groves. and left in 1886 for the Falkland Islands. He soon
Groves deplored as fallen the state of the an- volunteered as a pioneer missionary and was ap-
cient Christian churches of India. He stressed pointed to work among the people of the
church planting, self-support, and cultural sensi- Paraguayan Chaco in 1889.
tivity. Plymouth Brethren missionaries and his Penetrating the interior of the Chaco, Grubb
Indian disciple, JOHN CHRISTIAN AROOLAPPEN won the confidence of the Lengua Indians. Grubb
(181067), adopted this approach. strove for a holistic ministry incorporating educa-
PAUL R. DEKAR tion, medicine, and evangelism. He translated
Bibliography. G. H. Lang, Anthony Norris Groves.
hymns, prayers, and a large portion of the New
Saint and Pioneer; idem, The History and Diaries of an Testament into Lengua. The quality of his work
Indian Christian (J. C. Aroolappen); H. W. Rowdon, and reputation prompted the Paraguayan govern-
BDCM, pp. 26465; W. T. Stunt, et al., Turning the World ment to appoint him as commissioner for the
Upside Down. A Century of Missionary Endeavor. Chaco. Out of a desire to provide industrial train-
417
Grubb, Wilfred Barbrooke
ing and work for the neglected Lengua, he formed Guatemala has been traditionally Roman
the Chaco Indian Association in 1900. Catholic (with significant syncretistic elements of
In 1914 Grubb joined an effort to initiate a Mayan ANIMISM) since the Spanish conquest in
similar mission in the Argentine Chaco. Having 1524. While a few Spanish priests like Fray Bar-
returned to England in 1921 with double pneu- tolom de las Casas, later bishop of Chiapas,
monia, he undertook deputation work for SAMS Mexico, sought to win converts by use of local
until his death in 1930. languages and gentle persuasion, the church was
GARY LAMB overwhelmingly identified with the oppressive
power structures that enslaved and decimated
Bibliography. W. B. Grubb, A Church in the Wilds; the Indians and tried to stamp out their culture.
R. J. Hunt, The Livingstone of South America. Early Protestant missionary efforts, including
those of British colporteur Frederick Crowe
Guadeloupe (French Overseas Department) (Est. (184346), were unsuccessful due to opposition
2000 pop.: 462,000; 1,781 sq. km. [688 sq. mi.]). A by Catholic clergy, but sowed seeds for the liberal
former French colony, Guadeloupe had been an reforms of President Justo Rufino Barrios, who
overseas department of France since 1946. The is- promulgated freedom of religion in 1873 and later
lands residents are 85 percent Roman Catholic personally invited the Presbyterian Board of For-
and 5 percent Protestant. After a stormy history of eign Missions to open work in Guatemala. As a
slave revolts, emancipation, and schemes to inte- result, the Rev. John C. Hill arrived in November
grate the black citizens, the planters of Guade- 1882, with Barrioss entourage and his support.
loupe in the second half of the nineteenth century The Presbyterians were followed by the Central
imported East Indian workers. This community American Mission (CAM) in 1899, the Church of
presently makes up 10 percent of the population. the Nazarene in 1901, and the Friends in 1902.
EVERETT A. WILSON These, with the Primitive Methodists (1922),
adopted a comity agreement. In 1935 the five
SEE ALSO Caribbean. missions and their associated national churches
Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer- formed the Evangelical Synod of Guatemala, pre-
ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His- cursor of the present Evangelical Alliance of
tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to Guatemala.
the Present. Progress was initially slow, but by 1982 evan-
gelicals comprised nearly 20 percent of the pop-
Guam (United States Dependent Area) (Est. 2000 ulation, and some seven hundred thousand gath-
pop.: 164,000; 549 sq. km. [212 sq. mi.]). Guam is ered for a centennial rally. Explosive church
growth in the 1970s was fueled by several factors:
the largest and most southerly island of the
a proliferation of agencies and independent na-
northern Marianas Archipelago, to the west of
tional churches, mass evangelism, the devastat-
the Philippines in the eastern Pacific Ocean. It is
ing earthquake of 1976, and political violence
administered as an unincorporated territory of that claimed one hundred thousand lives over
the United States and the economy is based on fi- twenty-five years. Despite predictions evangeli-
nancial services and the military installations. cals would be a majority by 1990, church growth
Nearly half of the population are Chamorro- leveled off in the mid-1980s and in 1995 evangel-
speaking. Although 80 percent of the population icals were about 24 percent of the population.
is Roman Catholic, many evangelical groups are There are some 200 denominations with 16,000
active in Guam, including Assemblies of God, local churches in Guatemala; over half of all evan-
Baptists, and Seventh-Day Adventists. gelicals belong to the six largest groups: Prince of
TODD M. JOHNSON Peace Church, Church of God (Cleveland, Tenn.),
SEE ALSO Micronesia. Assemblies of God, Central American Evangelical
Churches (CAM), Calvary Churches, and Elim
Christian Mission. About two-thirds of the Protes-
Guatemala (Est. 2000 pop.: 12,222,000; 108,889 tants are Pentecostal.
sq. km. [42,042 sq. mi.]). A Central American Six seminaries, some twenty-five Bible Insti-
country bordering Mexico, Belize, Honduras, and tutes, and various TEE programs provide leader-
El Salvador, Guatemala has a population of more ship training, while fifteen evangelical radio and
than 12 million, which is about 55 percent of two television stations broadcast both evangelis-
Mayan origin. This is divided into twenty-one tic and teaching programs. Christian schools,
language groups, some with several dialects. The many operated by local churches, are widespread.
majority of the people live in the mountainous Translation of the Bible and other materials
central highlands. The economy is largely agri- into local dialects, along with cassettes and radio,
cultural, with coffee, sugar, bananas, beef, and has been a major factor in Mayan church growth;
cardamom the chief exports. Tourism and textiles in 1995 four complete Bibles and fifteen New
are also important. Testaments had been published, with work un-
418
Guinea
derway in nineteen additional dialects. Five radio tion. Here transgression is against persons. The
stations broadcast primarily in Mayan languages. transgressor feels person-guilt. Still other cul-
Some 650 foreign missionaries serve with tures emphasize moral ideals in a model iden-
ninety agencies in the country, while two national tity characterized by correct moral sentiments,
agencies and several churches have sent about character traits, and virtues. When self-identity
forty Guatemalans into transcultural ministries. is seen to fall short of model identity, shame-
STEPHEN R. SYWULKA guilt is felt.
Bibliography. C. L. Holland, ed., World Christianity:
Western missionaries historically come from
Central America and the Caribbean. backgrounds stressing law-guilt, and tend to em-
phasize selectively the corresponding biblical im-
agery (sin as crime, as transgression of the law;
Guilt. Guilt refers both to an objective reality (of
guilt as formal pronouncement of a judge in a
moral, sinful culpability) and to a subjective real-
court of law, as deserved punishment; grace as
ity (a subjective perception and experience of
justification, canceling of deserved punishment).
oneself as culpable, a feeling of guilt). Both are
When they go to Tahiti or Japan, where person-
relevant to missions.
guilt and shame-guilt are stressed, they generally
Sinful human beings violate moral law(s)
fail to utilize the appropriate corresponding bib-
both human and divine. They violate other per-
lical imagery (with person-guilt: sin as rebellion,
sonsboth human and divine. And they fail to
ingratitude, personal harm; guilt as alienation, as
exemplify and be characterized by the moral sen-
debt requiring restitution; grace as restored rela-
timents, character traits, and virtues called for by
human conscience and by the God who created tionship, canceled debt, redemption; or with
them in his own image. Objectively, then, all are shame-guilt: sin as falling short; guilt as naked-
guilty sinners deserving of death and judgment. ness, filthy uncleanness, dishonor, desire for con-
It is this objective reality that explains both the cealment; grace as sins covered and forgotten, re-
need for Christs work on the cross and the need generation, a new self, glorification). Instead they
for missions. And it is this objective reality of retain imagery focusing on law-guilt. As a result
human sin and guilt that is a critical component their message of an objective guilt and proferred
of the missionarys message. salvation fails to resonate with their hearers.
The call for repentance and faith is a call for an Furthermore, such norms, personal obliga-
inner response in which ones subjective experi- tions, and ideals involve a curious mixture of
ence and perceptions are congruent with objec- conventional elements and universal moral ele-
tive realities. The Bible itself (Romans 2) indi- ments, and thus vary from one culture to an-
cates that there is within each individual a set of other. The issues here are complex, and missiol-
inner perceptions and judgments (conscience) ogy needs to go much further in generating
that does in fact ratify the biblical message of sin understandings of sin, guilt, and conscience in
and guilt. Yet missionaries frequently complain relationship to culture, the gospel message, and
that those to whom they proclaim the objective missionary methodology.
reality of sin and guilt do not subjectively per- ROBERT J. PRIEST
ceive and experience themselves as sinful and SEE ALSO Shame.
guilty. In some contexts there seems to be no
inner assent of conscience and soul to the mes- Bibliography. T. W. Dye, Missiology 4 (1976): 2741;
sage of sin, guilt, and judgment and the need for R. J. Priest, Missiology 22 (1994): 291315.
forgiveness and salvation.
In part, this is because missionaries often fail Guinea (Est. 2000 pop. 7,759,000; 245,857 sq.
to understand subjective guilt, as it varies from km [94,925 sq. mi.]). In 1919 the CHRISTIAN AND
culture to culture, and missiologists fail to ad- MISSIONARY ALLIANCE opened its first mission sta-
dress methodologically how objective guilt and tion in French West Africa as Baro, in present-
subjective guilt should be brought together in the day Guinea. The group of missionaries, led by
presentation of the gospel message. Robert Sherman Roseberry (18831976), was
No society can afford to affirm unbridled evil conscious of the strategic importance of this
in all directions. All societies work to inculcate new work. For them Baro was to be the beach-
moral norms, interpersonal moral obligations, head for the evangelization of the vast territory
and personal character ideals in their members. then colonized by France. Just the year before,
Some cultures place formal moral codes, moral the French government had agreed to open its
prohibitions, at the center of their moral sys- West Africa colony to Christian missionaries
tem, carefully delineating the line at which an from other Western nations. This was one of the
infraction occurs and punishment can be meted results of the 1918 Saint Germain Treaty. For
out. The transgressor in such a culture is likely Edith Roseberry this was providential in open-
to feel law-guilt. Other cultures put the moral ing French territories to the preaching of the
focus on interpersonal sensitivity and obliga- gospel (E. Roseberry, 1957, 39).
419
Guinea
Though evangelical missionaries entered Senegal and Guinea. The almost 1.2 million in-
Guinea only in 1919, the Christian faith had a habitants are comprised of some 27 ethnic
longer history in that part of the world. In 1804, groups. Roughly 48 percent are traditional reli-
the Anglicans began work among the Susu of gious adherents, 44 percent Muslims, and just
Guinea, and in 1861 West Indian Christians es- under 8 percent Christians (7 percent Catholic
tablished the Pongas Mission in Conakry, pres- and 1 percent Protestant). Devastated by civil war
ent capital of Guinea. Neighboring Sierra Leone since independence was gained in 1974, Guinea
has had a vibrant and active Christian commu- Bissau remains one of the worlds least developed
nity since the eighteenth century. As African bor- countries. Johnstone reported in 1993 that the
ders were still being drawn, the Christians from public debt per person was $479 while the in-
Sierra Leone carried the gospel to some of the come was only $180.
people of the country we now call Guinea. In- The first Catholic missionaries arrived in 1462,
deed, the Christian and Missionary Alliance en- though progress in the work was so slow that
tered Guinea from Sierra Leone. Yet little re- more than two centuries later there were only
mains from the earliest Christian mission 2,000 known believers. By 1929, only one priest
endeavors in Guinea. Today the Roman Catholic was present in the area. In 1940, Franciscans were
Church, the Christian and Missionary Alliance, given oversight of the work, and by the time of in-
and, to some extent, the Anglicans, are the only dependence there were some 50,000 Christians.
Christian communities with a continuous pres- Catholic influence made it difficult for Protes-
ence in Guinea since the beginning of their evan- tant efforts to begin, with visa restrictions on
gelistic efforts. Protestant missionaries not easing until 1990. In
In 1967, Skou Tour, then president of the 1993 Johnstone estimated that there were 71
country, decreed to expel all foreign Catholic and Protestant missionaries working there. Protestant
Protestant missionaries. This political decision labors began in 1939 with the arrival of WORLD-
may explain the privileged status enjoyed by the WIDE EVANGELISTIC CRUSADE. The only large
Catholic Church and the church related to the Protestant church (Igreja Evanglica da Guin;
Christian and Missionary Alliance, the Eglise Evangelical Church of Guinea, with an estimated
Protestante Evanglique de Guine. The resilience 8,000 believers in some 60 congregations) grew
of these two churches may be due to the fact that out of their work. Also present are the Assemblies
Guineans were their leaders and active agents. of God and Seventh-Day Adventists.
Early in its work, the Christian and Missionary A. SCOTT MOREAU
Alliance opened and operated a Bible school in Bibliography. D. Barrett, WCE; J. Baur, 2000 Years of
Baro. It is remarkable that already in the 1930s Christianity in Africa; P. Johnstone, OW.
there was a Guinean teacher at Baro, Jean Kita,
who had a great influence on the students.
Guinness, Henry Grattan (18351910). Irish
Mission agencies such as the Open Bible Stan-
evangelist and mission organizer. Born in Dublin,
dard, the PARIS EVANGELICAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Guinness went to sea at seventeen only to return
and the United World Mission terminated their ac-
home a year later and experience a conversion at
tivities in Guinea in 1967. The Christian and Mis-
the age of twenty. With a vision for missions and
sionary Alliance was allowed to keep a few mis-
a passion for evangelism, he left New College,
sionaries in selected areas and ministries. Only
London, without completing his training and be-
after Skou Tours death in 1984 did Guinea open
came an itinerant international evangelist. De-
its doors widely to foreign Christian missionaries. spite poverty and persecution, he was ordained
Evangelical missionaries, in particular, built on an evangelist in 1857 and preached to thousands
the foundations laid by Guinean Christians during throughout the British Isles and the United
the twenty-year ban on foreign missionaries. The States during the great revival.
story of missions in Guinea thus provides a labo- After visiting France in 1865, Guinness founded
ratory for testing the claim that no heathen land the McAll Mission. In 1873, he opened the East
will ever become Christian as long as its Chris- London Institute for Home and Foreign Missions
tianity is exotic, propagated by foreigners and de- at Harley House. Guinnesss influence also led to
pendent upon them (Brown, 310). the founding of the North Africa Mission in 1881
TITE TINOU
and the Livingstone Inland Mission in 1887,
Bibliography. A. J. Brown, The Foreign Missionary which began in the Congo and expanded to South
Yesterday and Today; R. S. Roseberry, Training Men for America and North India, eventually becoming
God in French West Africa; E. Roseberry, Kansas Prairies part of the Regions Beyond Missionary Union in
to African Forests. 1899. He encouraged the establishment of train-
ing centers in Boston and Minneapolis in 1889,
Guinea Bissau (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,192,000; 36,125 which by 1910 had sent hundreds of graduates
sq. km. [13,948 sq. mi.]). Located on the west into the missionary endeavor. That same year
coast of Africa, Guinea Bissau is surrounded by Guinness received a D.D. from Brown University.
420
Gutmann, Bruno
Guinness wrote two books that stirred interna- breaking book, he discusses the foundational
tional evangelical interest: The Approaching End of themes of liberation theology, which he further
the Age (1886) and Light for the Last Days (1888). explores in later writings. These themes include
He believed that the world would end in 1919, but the nature of the theological task, the contribu-
died without knowing that he was wrong. tion of the social sciences (in particular, Marxism)
GARY LAMB to the doing of theology, the mission of the
(Roman Catholic) church in light of the problem-
Bibliography. S. D. Walters, Asbury Theological Jour-
atic sociopolitical context of Latin America, the
nal 44 (Spring 1989): 2950.
work of God in historical struggles of liberation,
and the characteristics of a new spirituality con-
Guru. A commonly used word in much of South cerned about the suffering and hopes of the poor.
Asia, particularly in the HINDU tradition, referring Gutirrez later focused his research and writ-
to teachers and spiritual leaders. Its etymology is ing on a Dominican friar from the time of the
uncertain. In ancient India instructions in the Spanish conquest of the Americas, Bartolom de
Hindu sacred scriptures were orally passed on to las Casas (14741566). In this tireless defender of
people through an unbroken chain of gurus. A the indigenous peoples Gutirrez observes a pre-
gurus house was called the academy, and his fol- cursor of liberation theology who opposed the in-
lowers learned as they lived with their teacher in justices of those in power and tried to under-
a strong bond of love and submissive obedience stand the person and message of Jesus Christ in
to him. He was considered to be the embodiment light of the needs of the oppressed.
of his spiritual instructions, and was idealized as M. DANIEL CARROLL
representing the deity.
Gurus were typically ascetics who were single, Bibliography. R. A. Brown, Gustavo Gutirrez: An In-
troduction to Liberation Theology; G. Gutirrez, The
having no particular qualifications other than Power of the Poor in History; We Drink from Our Own
that of charisma in leadership. In the SIKH reli- Wells; The Spiritual Journey of a People; On Job: God-
gion, however, the title guru refers particularly Talk and the Suffering of the Innocent; Las Casas: In
to the ten great original teachers and founders of Search of the Poor of Jesus Christ; B. Nickoloff, Gustavo
the faith. Gutirrez: Essential Writings; E. A. Nez, Liberation
Since the 1960s, in the face of the emptiness of Theology; E. A. Nez and W. D. Taylor, Crisis and Hope
materialism and secularism, a great many people in Latin America: An Evangelical Perspective, rev. ed.
around the world, especially Western youth,
turned to Eastern mysticism. In this context Gutmann, Bruno (18761966). German mission
many gurus popularized the Hindu concept of scholar and missionary to Tanzania. Born in
salvation for individuals, communities, and na- Dresden, Saxony, into a family of humble cir-
tions. The lifestyles of these modern gurus are cumstances, he entered the Leipzig Mission Sem-
widely varied. Some are materialistic, distorting inary in 1895 and worked from 1902 to 1938 as a
the Hindu faith and mixing religion and sex for missionary on the slopes of Kilimanjaro in
their personal gains in the West. Others, however, northern Tanzania, mostly in the Old Moshi
are giants of religious philosophy and Eastern (Kidia) congregation. As a missionary, he showed
spirituality. deep interest in Chagga culture, which resulted
In the communication of the Christian gospel in both publications and the collection and
to the Hindus and the Sikhs the concept of guru preservation of the Chagga tribal teachings
as associated with Christ and the evangelist or connected to the various transition rites so rele-
discipler is both relevant and effective. vant in Chagga society.
SAPHIR ATHYAL Because of his many writings reflecting the
work of the church in Old Moshi and beyond, he
Bibliography. V. Mangalwadi, The World of Gurus; became one of the best known German missiolo-
K. Singh, Gurus, Godmen and Good People. gists before World War II. Gutmanns aim was to
root the church deeply in Chagga society, by bas-
Gutirrez, Gustavo (1928 ). Peruvian system- ing the churchs work on the three primal ties of
atic theologian of Latin American LIBERATION THE- kinship, neighborhood, and age-group. These he
OLOGY. Gutirrezs seminal work, A Theology of considered to be part of the image of God and
Liberation, has been translated into many differ- therefore valid not only for the Chagga but for all
ent languages and still serves as the best intro- of humankind.
duction to that theological and pastoral current. Gutmann is sometimes seen as an archconser-
A revised edition, with a substantial new intro- vative, which he was not, as his work in Old
duction detailing Gutirrezs theological pilgrim- Moshi congregation and his support for the mis-
age, was published to coincide with his sixtieth sions progressive educational system, based on
birthday and the fifteenth anniversary of the Bish- Marangu, shows. His missionary approach,
ops Conference at Medelln, Colombia, on which based on Lutheran premises, was very effective in
he had a profound influence. In this ground- coping with the quickly rising number of Chris-
421
Gutmann, Bruno
tians, but when he tried to solve moral problems one colony, British Guiana. With its capital city
by making use of traditional Chagga concepts, he in Georgetown, Guyana has a population of over
was often not supported by the Chagga Chris- seven thousand people. East Indians constitute
tians themselves. the majority of the population (51%), followed by
KLAUS FIELDER black and mixed (43%), and Amerindians (4%).
The Moravian Brethren were the first to do
Bibliography. K. Fielder, Christianity and African
Culture: Conservative German Protestant Missionaries in
missionary work among the Arawak Indians in
Tanzania, 19001940; E. Jeschke, ML, pp. 17380. Berbice, in 1738. In 1763 an insurrection of
slaves moved the missionaries to Demerara, and
by the end of the century their mission was aban-
Gtzlaff, Karl Friedrich August (180351). Ger-
doned. The LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY began its
man missionary linguist in China. Gtzlaff has
work in 1807 among the plantation slaves, with
been called the Apostle of China. He was born
John Wray (d. 1837). Difficulties arose when the
in Pyritz, Prussian Pomerania; he died in Hong
colonial government issued a proclamation pro-
Kong. In 1821, he began study at a mission
hibiting the slaves from assembling, even for re-
school in Berlin established by Johann Jaenicke,
ligious purposes. By 1826 there was a congrega-
a devout Moravian pastor. The Netherlands Mis-
tion in Georgetown, and by 1835 there were three
sionary Society sent Gtzlaff to Batavia, the cap- missionary stations in Demerara. The English
ital of Java, in 1827. There he married Miss Methodist Missionary Society sent missionaries
Newell, the first self-supporting woman mission- from other colonies to Demerara in 1815. A con-
ary in Java. Sadly, his wife died soon after their gregation was organized, mostly of black slaves.
marriage. The CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY began its
Gtzlaff was an outstanding linguist who pub- work in 1829. They worked among the seventy
lished sixty-one books in various languages, in- thousand slaves (African and Creoles) that were
cluding several translations of the New Testa- in Demerara-Essequibo. Their efforts were also
ment. Although China restricted missionary successful among the Indians of the Essequibo
work, Gtzlaff made at least three voyages as sur- and Potaro rivers. However, the work was given
geon and interpreter along the coast to China, up in 1856. The Society for the Propagation of
Korea, and Japan, preaching and leaving tracts to the Gospel began its work among the slaves in
nobility and peasant alike. He was employed by 1835. Churches and schools were erected. Other
the East India Company, and self-funded much denominations came later: Plymouth Brethren,
of his work. His attempt to utilize indigenous Salvation Army, Church of the Nazarene (1945),
evangelists in China was not successful, but later and Southern Baptists (1966). Roman Catholics
missionaries learned from him. Gtzlaff can be constitute a minority.
credited for helping lay the foundation for larger After a compensated emancipation of the
missionary work after his death. The greatest blacks in 1834, the freed slaves refused to work
missionary contribution of Gtzlaff was probably on the plantations. Only by the importation of
his inspirational example of holy consecration, East Indian indentured servants was the planta-
sacrifice, love, eloquence, and zeal. tion system preserved. The bond servant migra-
T. VAN MCCLAIN tion ended in 1917. However, ethnic tensions
Bibliography. E. L. Lueker, ed., Lutheran Cyclopedia, have affected political life and the Christian tes-
rev. ed.; J. T. Mueller, Great Missionaries to China. timony in Guyana through the years. The coun-
try became independent on May 26, 1966. Evan-
Guyana (Est. 2000 pop.: 883,000; 214,969 sq. km. gelization has proven to be difficult because of
[83,000 sq. mi.]). Located on the north coast of the various cultures, religions, and languages
South America, between Venezuela and Surinam, represented.
Guyana became a Dutch possession in the early PABLO DEIROS
seventeenth century. Sovereignty passed to Bibliography. P. Blanshard, Democracy and Empire
Britain in 1814. In 1831, the three counties of De- in the Caribbean Area; R. V. Long, We Can, We Will; T. B.
merara, Essequibo, and Berbice were united into Neely, South America: Its Missionary Problems.
422
Hades. See HELL.
Haining, Jane Mathison (18971944). Scottish

missionary to Hungary. Born to a farming family
near Dunscore, Dumfriesshire, she was educated
at Dumfries Academy and was very successful as
a secretary for Coats thread business. At that
time, she attended a meeting in Glasgow of the
Church of Scotland Jewish missions. She sensed
the Lords leading and, after further training, of-
Hh
While three-quarters of all Haitians are consid-
ered to be Roman Catholic, an equal proportion
are considered spiritists. The proliferation of
evangelical groups in Haiti has produced a com-
fered herself to the Church of Scotlands Jewish bined community of more than 20 percent of the
missions. In 1932 she took up her post as matron population. The Seventh-Day Adventists are the
of the girls home of Jewish missions in Bu- largest non-Catholic group, with Baptist and Ho-
dapest, Hungary. liness churches making up a significant propor-
When World War II broke out, Haining was on tion of the total.
leave in Scotland. When she learned that Hitler EVERETT A. WILSON
had invaded Poland, she hurried back to the
girls home in Budapest. Shortly thereafter, be- SEE ALSO Caribbean.
cause of the growing tensions in Europe, the Bibliography. F. J. Conway, Perspectives on Pente-
Church of Scotland recalled their missionaries. costalism: Case Studies from the Caribbean and Latin
But Haining refused to leave her girls in their America; L. P. Gerlach, Religious Movements in Con-
time of need. By that time, there was hardly any temporary America; A. Lampe, The Church in Latin
food or water available and the girls home was America, 14921992; J. Rogozinski, A Brief History of
in desperate need of repairs. Nonetheless, to the the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to the
best of her ability, Haining provided for and Present.
comforted those who were in her care.
In May 1944 German authorities arrested Hamer, Lilian (191259). English missionary to
Haining on suspicion of espionage. She was im- China and Thailand. She started out as a mill
mediately taken to Auschwitz, where she was worker in Lancashire, England. At twenty-one
gassed, probably on July 17, 1944. She was the years of age, she announced to her father that
only Scot killed in a Nazi concentration camp. she was taking a nurses training course to pre-
Haining lived and died with those she came to pare for missionary service. Her father was so
serve. Her home church in Glasgow dedicated enraged that he asked her to leave home. Though
two stained glass windows in memory of her. she was devastated by her fathers decree, she fin-
They are fittingly named Service and Sacrifice. ished her nursing training and applied to the
KATHY MCREYNOLDS CHINA INLAND MISSION. Much to her dismay, CIM
did not accept her. However, her first priority
Haiti (Est. 2000 pop.: 7,959,000; 27,750 sq. km. was to serve God; so she applied to the Red Cross
[10,714 sq. mi.]) Haiti has had a tragic history and was accepted.
since it became the first of the Caribbean states After she had fulfilled her obligation to the Red
to gain independence and the first black republic Cross in China, she reapplied to the China Inland
to come into existence. By the 1920s, Haiti ac- Mission and, this time, was welcomed into the
quired its present character as a nation of peas- fold. In 1951 she was forced to leave China be-
ant landowners raising food crops on their own cause of the communist takeover. But she re-
small plots. The country soon developed a caste turned to the Far East a year later to work
system of rural African peasants and light- among the tribes of Thailand. It was there that
skinned, urban elites who controlled govern- she specialized in the treatment of opium ad-
ment, the professions, and life in the capital. dicts. She would relieve their physical symptoms
423
Hamer, Lilian
by use of medicine and then tell them that true with twenty-seven North Korean refugees before
freedom was found in Christ alone. An addict the Korean War. This church now has 60,000
from the Lisu village was so impressed by her members and is the largest Presbyterian church
treatment that he had his kinsmen invite her to in the world.
live among them. When the Communists took over North Korea
From that time forward she lived among the right after World War II, Han was pastoring in
Lisu people, faithfully ministering to the addicts North Pyung Yang province of North Korea. He
and preaching the gospel of Christ. Sadly, in and other church leaders organized the Christian
1959, she was attacked and killed while walking Socialist Democratic Party in September 1945,
in the jungle alone. Years later it was discovered but he had to flee to South Korea to avoid com-
that a witch doctor bribed an opium addict to munist persecution. He became one of the best
commit the murder. known pastors in South Korea for his vision for
Despite this heinous crime, the work among evangelism, missions, education, and social con-
the Lisu people continued. A church was built cern. Over a thirty-year period, his Young Nak
not far from where she was killed. church has started more than 350 churches and
KATHY MCREYNOLDS sent out missionaries to serve in 21 countries. He
Bibliography. A. Crane, Fierce the Conflict: The Story is the only Korean pastor who received the pres-
of Lilian Hamer. tigious Templeton Award in 1993.
He was educated at Soong Sil (Union Christ-
Han, Chul-la (1924 ). Korean professor and ian) College in Pyung Yang, North Korea, Empo-
mission advocate. Born in Pyung Yang province ria College in Kansas, and Princeton Theological
in North Korea, he was educated at Seoul Na- Seminary. He has served as a board member for
tional University, Westminster Theological Semi- many Christian institutes and organizations.
nary, and Union Theological Seminary in Vir- BONG RIN RO
ginia. He also did graduate studies at the Bibliography. C. C. Ok, BDCM, p. 278; S. H. Moffett,
Ecumenical Institute in Geneva, Earlangen Uni- TCDCB, pp. 16768.
versitat, and Westminister College in England.
Han is president (198298) and professor of sys- Harris, William Wade (18651929). Liberian
tematic theology at the Asian Center for Theolog- evangelist and missionary in West Africa. Known
ical Studies and Mission (ACTS) in Seoul, Korea, as Prophet Harris, he was a Liberian (Grebo/
which was founded in 1974. Prior to coming to Kru) Anglican catechist. Jailed twice in Liberia
ACTS, he was the dean of the Graduate School of for anti-government activity, during his second
the Presbyterian Theological Seminary (Tong imprisonment he had a vision of the angel
Hap) in Seoul (196474). Gabriel calling him to be a prophet, to preach a
His significant contributions to the churches in gospel of repentance, to destroy fetish worship,
Korea and Asia are twofold. First, he has devel- and to baptize those who obeyed. In 1913, he
oped evangelical theological education in both began preaching in Cte dIvoire (Ivory Coast)
Korea and Asia. One of the well-respected evan- and Gold Coast (Ghana) that Jesus Christ must
gelical theologians in Korea and an ordained
reign, and that Harris was his prophet. He pro-
Presbyterian minister in the Presbyterian Church
claimed a political vision that would bring all na-
of Korea (Tong Hap), he has trained thousands of
tions under the earthly rule of Jesus. Colonial au-
Korean pastors, parachurch organizational lead-
thorities were condemned as Satan. Harris
ers, and theologians as well as hundreds of other
preached belief in one God, destruction of
Asian, African, and South American students
fetishes, observance of Sunday as a day of rest,
who studied at ACTS. Second, he is a mission-
and prohibition of adultery and alcohol. He
minded theologian who has promoted the evan-
stressed the incomparable importance of the
gelization of Asia through his ACTS ministry
Word of God.
and trained many Korean missionaries to serve
overseas. Harris told those he baptized to build churches
Han has written numerous books and articles, and wait for teachers who would come and give
but is best known for Asian Christian Thought them fuller instruction. An estimated 100,000
(1990). Ivorians believed before French authorities de-
BONG RIN RO ported Harris in 1915.
In 1923, a missionary of the English Methodist
Bibliography. S. H. Moffett, TCDCB, p. 167. Society found 45,000 people faithful to Harriss
teaching. In Ghana, Wesleyans increased seven-
Han, Kyung-Chik (1902 ). Korean pastor and fold between 1912 and 1929, largely through the
mission advocate. Han is pastor emeritus of the preaching of Harris. He continued preaching in
Young Nak Presbyterian Church (Tong Hap de- Liberia until his death in 1929.
nomination) in Seoul, Korea, which he started DONALD K. SMITH
424
Health Care and Missions
Bibliography. G. M. Haliburton, The Prophet Harris; Haygood was actively involved at the Clopton
D. Shank, Prophet Harris, the Black Elijah of West Boarding School for Girls and eventually merged
Africa; S. S. Walker, The Religious Revolution in the it with Mary Lambuth School at Soochow.
Ivory Coast: The Prophet Harris and the Harrist Church. Throughout all her endeavors, she stressed
teacher training. She raised up an army of teach-
Harvey, Esther Bragg (18911986). American ers and imparted to them the same passion for
missionary administrator in India. Born in Port teaching.
Huron, Michigan, Harvey attended Presbyterian Her greatest achievement was the opening of
and Methodist churches before joining a local McTyeire, a high school for girls and home and
Pentecostal church, where she testified to physi- training school for new women missionaries to
cal healing. Called to India as a missionary, Har- China. The school opened in March 1892 and be-
vey enrolled at the Bible and Missionary Training came the most prominent private girls high
School in Norwalk, Ohio, in 1911 directed by school in the Shanghai region.
Etta Wurmser, sometime member of the Chris- After a long furlough in Atlanta, Haygood re-
tian and Missionary Alliance. Ordained there in turned to China in 1896 and became the director
1913, she soon left for India as an independent of the Womans Board for the entire Shanghai re-
missionary. At the Pentecostal mission in gion. Despite her overwhelming administrative
Nawabganj, United Provinces, she met mission- duties, she renewed an interest in evangelism by
ary James Harvey, a former soldier in the British establishing two Bible schools for women at Soo-
Indian Army. After their marriage in 1914, they chow and Sungkiang.
became affiliated with the Assemblies of God. KATHY MCREYNOLDS
The Harveys renamed their mission the Sha-
rannagar Mission (place of refuge), and initially Haystack Meeting. The first American mission
focused on evangelism; as needs arose they board to spread the gospel outside the United
added a boys school (present-day James Harvey States was the AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS
Memorial School) and homes for widows and or- FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS (ABCFM). The impetus to
phans. Remarkable answers to prayer character- found this society came from a group of students
ized their ministry. After James death in 1922, at Andover Theological Seminary. The leader of
Esther continued to promote and direct the mis- this group was SAMUEL MILLS, who, touched by
sion. While on furlough in 1940, she married Sid- the Second Great Awakening in New England,
ney Grimmette, who subsequently died in Japan had received a call to missions and gone for train-
while en route to India. Harveys fruitful ministry ing to Williams College in Massachusetts. Here
in evangelism, education, and compassion repre- several like-minded students, among them Luther
Rice, joined with him to form the Society of
sents the dedicated service of early Pentecostal
Brethren, a group that met in a grove of maples
women missionaries.
near the campus for prayer and discussion about
GARY B. MCGEE
missions. One day going to their time of prayer,
Bibliography. E. B. Harvey, The Faithfulness of God. they were caught in a violent thunderstorm and
took refuge in a nearby haystack. After an intense
Haygood, Laura Askew (18451900). American time of prayer, they took a pledge to devote their
missionary to China. Born in Watkinsville, Geor- lives to missionary service.
gia, she was brought up in Atlanta, where her After their graduation from Williams College,
mother was an administrator of a school. Her several of these students went to Andover Semi-
brilliance was seen in that she graduated from nary, where they were joined by ADONIRAM JUDSON
Wesleyan Female College after only two years of from Brown, Samuel Newell from Harvard, and
study. She taught for one year at Palmer Institute Samuel Nott Jr. from Union College. They
formed a Society of Inquiry on the Subject of
at Oxford and then returned to Atlanta after the
Missions and in June 1810 appeared before the
Civil War. In 1872 she became a teacher at Girls
General Assembly of Congregational Churches,
High School, and in 1877 was appointed princi-
where they offered themselves for missionary
pal. Her passion was to train teachers. Besides
service. This led to the formation of the ABCFM,
her administrative duties and teaching responsi- with themselves as the first appointees.
bilities at the high school, she trained Sunday RALPH R. COVELL
school teachers for several denominations.
Haygood sensed the call to the mission field Bibliography. J. H. Kane, A Concise History of the
when Young J. Allen of China Mission asked her Christian World Mission.
to locate an educator to develop the work among
women and children in China. She sensed this to Healing. See MIRACLES IN MISSION.
be a personal call and offered herself for duty. In
November 1884 she arrived in Shanghai and took Health Care and Missions. In the 1970s it be-
charge of the Womens Board. came clear that the traditional pattern of health
425
Health Care and Missions
care delivery in medical missions, that of medical a significant impact on morbidity and mortality
institutions staffed by trained medical profes- in its catchment area of 200,000 people.
sionals, was inadequate. Institutions were unable The flexible, community-oriented initiatives,
to cure the number of sick who came and had which began in the 1970s, have proliferated in
done little to improve the health of the majority subsequent years. Documentation of these initia-
of people in the communities they served. A vari- tives has been undertaken by MARC, a division of
ety of global health agencies and Christian World Vision International, in a series of publi-
groups addressed this issue, with significant lead- cations by Ted Yamamori and colleagues entitled
ership for the Christian community coming from Serving with the Poor in Africa, Serving with the
the Christian Medical Commission in Geneva. Poor in Asia, and Serving with the Poor in Latin
Historic mission involvement in schools, agricul- America, making engaging reading on Christian
ture, evangelism, and church plantingas well as social transformation, integrated development,
hospitals and clinicsreflected a genuine, and health care that ministers to both physical
though often unarticulated, concern for social and spiritual needs.
and economic transformation as well as for spir- EVVY CAMPBELL
itual development. The legacy of the 1970s was to
focus attention on community participation in SEE ALSO Medical Mission Work.
health care, the responsibility of governments in Bibliography. C. Bellamy, The State of the Worlds
health care, the relationship between health and Children 1996; B. Bradshaw, Bridging the Gap: Evange-
DEVELOPMENT, training personnel for primary lism, Development and Shalom; D. M. Ewert, A New
care, using appropriate technology in health care, Agenda for Medical Missions; E. Ram, Transforming
and providing essential affordable drugs. Health: Christian Approaches to Healing and Wholeness;
The World Health Organization definition of S. B. Rifkin, Community Health in Asia; E. H. Patterson
health includes physical, mental, and social well- and S. B. Rifkin, Health Care in China: An Introduction;
D. Van Reken, Mission and Ministry: Christian Medical
being, but the biblical concept of SHALOM moves
Practice in Todays Changing World Cultures.
beyond that, encompassing the welfare, health,
and prosperity of both the person and persons-in-
community. Around the globe there have The Heathen. In missions, the term heathen
emerged many models of integrated holistic min- refers to those who have never heard the good
istry that promote health. They are diversely news that God offers sinful humanity divine for-
sponsored by mission agencies, churches, devel- giveness on the ground of the substitutionary
opment agencies, grassroots organizations, and death of Christ (Henry, Through No Fault of
combinations of those groups. Their Own, p. 246). The scriptural development
Model Programs. Parachurch organizations, of the term heathen centers around the words
such as the Luke Society and Campus Crusade Gentiles, nations, and peoples. The primary
for Christ, have made significant contributions in Hebrew words are goy and am. The primary
the area of Christian health ministries. The Luke Greek words are ethnos and laos.
Society, working in the Ashanti province of The scriptural emphasis behind the term hea-
Ghana since 1989, founded twenty-two commu- then is rooted in the doctrine of the sinful state
nity health centers with trained workers as part of the human race. Jesus taught that slavery to
of a larger program that also included evangel- sin leads to self-centeredness (Matt. 5:47), indul-
ism, church planting, and income-generation gence in self-centered materialistic and temporal
projects. Community Health Evangelism, origi- pursuits (Matt. 6:32), abuse of relational respon-
nally a program of Life Ministry Africa (Campus sibilities (Matt. 20:25), and misunderstanding of
Crusade for Christ), was conceived to help the true prayer (Matt. 6:7). The apostle Paul affirmed
church meet both the physical and spiritual this doctrine in a very systematic way (Rom.
needs of the people. Community health evangel- 1:183:20).
ists teach health workers, who in turn train oth- Gods desire to reach all nations is clearly em-
ers in disease prevention, health promotion, and bedded in his covenant with Abraham (Gen.
how to have an abundant Christian life through 12:13). The chosen nation was to be Gods in-
a personal relationship with Christ. strument to reach the heathen. While Israel was
Traditional mission agencies working in part- to be set apart from all nations (Lev. 11:4347), it
nership with local churches have developed was also to be a kingdom of priests to represent
strong programs as well. In the Republic of the true God to the nations (Exod. 19:6). Christ
Congo, the Vanga Evangelical Hospital under the reiterated Gods desire to reach the world when
leadership of Dan Fountain developed in three he gave his final commission to his disciples
decades from a rural hospital with two dispen- (Matt. 28:1820).
saries to a 300-bed referral hospital with five Scripture presents Christ as the light of the
physicians and a network of 50 primary health world and its only hope (John 8:12) The Book of
care centers, working in partnership with the Acts gives the historical outworking of God giv-
Baptist Church of Western Zaire. There has been ing the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:48), his Word (Acts
426
The Heathen
11:1), repentance (Acts 11:18), faith (Acts 14:27), ably refers to martyred Christians who heard the
and conversion (Acts 15:13) to the Gentiles. gospel while they were alive.
Today God is calling Gentiles or heathen (Rom. Another theory is that the sincere seeker can be
9:24), and taking from among them a people for saved even apart from faith in Christ. Is it true
his name (Acts 15:14). One day the fullness of the that God cares about the direction of the heart
Gentiles will be complete, which speaks of the and not the content of theology (Pinnock, A
total number that God will save (Rom. 11:25). Wideness in Gods Mercy, p. 158)? Roman Catholic
The apostle Pauls response to the heathens theology, according to Vatican II, teaches that
spiritual condition is reflected in his desire to those who are guiltlessly ignorant of Christs
preach the gospel where it had never been gospel and sincerely seek God can achieve eternal
preached (Rom. 15:2021). While all Christians salvation. Cornelius is used as an illustration of
are not called to be pioneer missionaries, all are this theory. Acts 10:35 does teach that Gentiles
called to live distinct lives (Eph. 4:17; 1 Thess. such as Cornelius are suitable candidates for sal-
4:5), and to obey Christs command to disciple vation, but Acts 11:14 says he was not saved until
the nations (Matt. 28:1820). he heard the gospel.
The classical answer to the persistent question The theory that God will save those who re-
of the spiritual state of one who has never heard spond to general revelation of creation and con-
the gospel is found in the early chapters of Ro- science is set forth by Justin Martyr, Chrysostom,
mans. The answer is that God has spoken to all Zwingli, Wesley, Augustus Strong, and more re-
people through creation (Rom. 1:1920; cf. Ps. cently by Clark Pinnock. In one of JOHN STOTTs
19:16). The revelation of Gods moral law is also earlier writings he called the issue of those who
written on every persons conscience (Rom. have never heard a perplexing problem. He also
2:1415). All persons will be judged according to encouraged the Christian not to preoccupy one-
the light they have received (Rom. 2:1112). Such self with such speculative questions (Stott,
revelation is said to leave the heathen with no ex- Christian Counterculture, p. 196). Jesus encour-
cuse (Rom. 1:20). The pattern given in Romans is aged us to focus not on speculation but on our
a pattern of rejecting Gods revelation in creation responsibility (Luke 13:2324).
and conscience. The emphasis in Scripture is on the necessity
A recent flurry of articles and books address of human agents to bring the gospel to a lost
the issue of the heathen. Some argue that since world (Rom. 10:1415). Scripture gives only one
many evangelicals make room for the salvation clear way to escape Gods judgment and that is
of infants, is not there a case for salvation of hea- through faith in Christ. The heathen are respon-
then apart from explicit faith in Christ? Of sible to God based on general revelation. There is
course, it must be noted that the infant is not a provision for all peoples salvation in Christ.
guilty of volitionally rejecting GENERAL REVELA- The churchs responsibility is to declare this mes-
TION in the same way that the heathen are. sage to all. The Christian is not to be arrogant
Some argue for a UNIVERSALISM that states all but rather to honor all people (1 Peter 2:17).
will be saved. The supposed scriptural basis is However, there is no greater honor one gives to
rooted in Gods universal desire (1 Tim. 2:4; another than humbly sharing Jesus, the light and
2 Peter 3:9), his universal provision (John 12:32), hope of the world.
and the future universal acknowledgment of McQuillkin considers any theory that gives
Christ (Phil. 2:911). The clear biblical teaching hope to the unevangelized as dangerous (Mc-
on judgment, the necessity of personal faith in Quillkin, The Great Omission, p. 50). Nash states
Christ, and the separation of the lost and the his similar concerns regarding any theory that es-
saved appear to clearly negate this teaching that pouses that the preaching of Christ is not neces-
has been espoused by such ancients as Origen, sary for salvation (Nash, Is Jesus the Only Sav-
who saw hell as remedial and the threat of an iour? p. 126). Kantzer is probably correct in
eternal hell as only hortatory. The related ques- stating that God does not want us to spend enor-
tion of the nature and duration of divine punish- mous amounts of time investigating things about
ment is outside the scope of this present article which we can do absolutely nothing (Kantzer,
(see ANNIHILATION). Through No Fault of Their Own, pp. 1415). We
There are a number of theories that do not em- do know that God will enable and reward every
brace universalism but do espouse a wider hope effort to reach the heathen with the gospel. We
(see also PLURALISM). They tend to give some hope also know that our just God can never do any-
to the heathen by giving various ways that one thing that is not perfectly righteous. It is proba-
might be saved without explicit faith in Christ. bly better, as Phillips says, to err on the side of
Some theorize that God will expose everyone to safety than gamble on speculative leniency
the gospel after they die. There appears to be no (Phillips, 154).
clear evidence for this position. The spirits in WILLIAM O. THRASHER
prison in 1 Peter 3:18 are probably best taken as
angelic beings and the dead in 1 Peter 4:6 prob- SEE ALSO Unevangelized, the.
427
The Heathen
Bibliography. W. Crockett and J. Sigountos, eds., Justice and Hell. Hell answers the perennial
Through No Fault of Their Own; L. Dixon, The Other Side cry for justice. The Holocaust and ethnic cleans-
of the Good News; W. G. Phillips, BibSac 154 (1994): ing haunt us with the question, When will the
14054; J. Sanders, No Other Name; E. Rommen and wicked be judged? These pangs of morality re-
H. Netland, eds., Christianity and the Religions. flect the way God made us as accountable to
him, the Moral Judge of the cosmos (Rom.
Hell. Place of Gods final retributive punishment 2:1516). Scriptures ultimate answer to the prob-
for the wicked. In the Old Testament souls of the lem of evil is that God, the holy Judge of all the
dead face a shadowy existence in Sheol (Job earth, calls every human to account on the Day
10:21; Ps. 88:12; Isa. 14:10; Eccles. 9:10). Since of Judgment for his or her life (Matt. 12:36; Ps.
death is not Gods original intent but results from 31:18; Rom. 2:611). Hell is the horrific and
the fall, the Old Testament confidently awaits tragic place where God will pay back the wicked
Gods demonstration of his lordship by raising for their evils and reestablish his righteous rule
the righteous to life (Gen. 23; Pss. 16:10, 49:15; even over the reprobate (Matt. 16:27; 25:3146;
Isa. 25:8; Hos. 13:14). Occasionally it suggests a Rom. 12:19; 1 Cor. 15:2425; 2 Cor. 5:10).
future retribution for the wicked (Pss. 21:10; However, the fact that God will punish all sin
34:1516, 140:11; Dan. 12:2; Mal. 3:184:2). Jesus defines the human predicament. Although cre-
further develops this framework, teaching that at ated for God, humans proclaimed their inde-
the final judgment, Satan, his demons, and the pendence, resulting in historys tragedy of hatred,
wicked will be thrown into hell, bringing an end deceit, and neglect. As a result, each sin is first
to evils free ways (Matt. 25:41). His standard and foremost an offense against the infinite God
term for hell is Gehenna, referring to the valley of against whom all have sinned (Rom. 8:7; 3:23).
Hinnom outside Jerusalem, a place notorious for Scripture reveals that the penalty required for sin
evil deeds and Gods fiery JUDGMENT (Jer. 7:31ff.; is hell. Jesus repeatedly warns of sins heinous
Isa. 30:33; 66:24). nature and dreadful consequence: If your eye
The Biblical View of Hell. Jesus is most re- causes you to sin, gouge it out. . . . It is better for
sponsible for defining the biblical concept of hell, you to enter life with one eye than to have two
which includes the following integral features. and be thrown into the fire of Hell (Matt. 18:9).
Place of Irretrievable Bondage. The wicked are Hell and the Proclamation of the Gospel. How
imprisoned in a furnace (Matt. 13:42, 50), a is it possible for God the Holy Judge to be merci-
lake of fire (Rev. 20:10, 1415; 21:8), a prison ful to sinners? The biblical answer is that the per-
(Matt. 5:2226; 18:3435; Jude 6) and so sepa- sonal, infinite God has substituted himself for us.
rated from the righteous (Luke 16:26). The gospel is the good news that God in Jesus
Place of Retribution. Jesus image of fire por- Christ has come to this rebellious world and suf-
trays Gods searing holiness exacting retribution fered the judgment for those who have faith in
Christs blood (Rom. 3:25; 2 Cor. 5:21). Except for
for evil deeds (Luke 17:2930). Here the wicked
Gods awesome love, everyone would lack hope! If
are punished and paid back with harm for the
one fails to trust in Jesus, hell is the awful conse-
harm they have done (2 Peter 2:13; Matt. 16:27;
quence (Luke 12:89; Acts 4:12; Rom. 10:915). So
Jude 7; Rev. 14:911).
hell is both the presupposition for the gospel as
Penalties of Loss. The graves maggots (Mark well as the consequence of its rejection.
9:48; Isa. 14:11) and darkness (Matt. 8:12; Ps. Challenges to Hell. In view of the integral link
88:12) were common images of a ruined and de- between the gospel and the judgment for sin, re-
spairing existence without hope, and thus sepa- visions to the doctrine of hell have direct and even
rated from Gods loving presence (Matt. 25:30). devastating implications for the proclamation of
Penalties of Torment. The pictures of gnashing the gospel. Revisionist eschatology, UNIVERSALISM,
teeth, beatings, and fire suggest that hells and ANNIHILATIONISM pose significant challenges
punishment includes physical affliction (Matt to concepts of hell and may result in changes to
13:42; Mark 9:4849; Luke 12:47). Since these the biblical understanding of the gospel.
images are often at odds with each otherdark- Revisionist Eschatology. Many have abandoned
ness and fire, or never-dying worms in an un- Jesus bodily resurrection and any personal life
quenchable firethey should not be interpreted after death, interpreting heaven and hell as sim-
literally but as metaphors for punishment. ply mythological expressions of a first-century
Degrees of Punishment. Punishment varies so faith. Not only does this view demolish the
that those who were entrusted with much are gospels promised hope but it also undermines
more responsible (Luke 12:48). lifes moral significance. In this view justice can-
Hell Exists Forever. Jesus picture of hell as a not be established.
place where the fire is never put out (Mark Universalism. Universalists insist that God will
9:48) reflects what Scripture clearly states else- eventually transform everyone into Christs
where: punishment is forever and ever (Rev. image, even if it requires remedial punishments
20:10; 14:11; Matt 25:46). after death. How, they ask, could a loving God re-
428
Hepburn, James Curtis
ject forever the creature he loves? Note that this Shedd, The Doctrine of Endless Punishment; J. F. Walvo-
question elevates humanity as Gods highest ord, W. Crockett, Z. Hayes, and C. H. Pinnock, Four
good! But God is self-sufficient; his goodness and Views on Hell.
love are completely grounded in himself (Acts
17:25). Humanity exists to glorify God (Ps. Henotheism. The term henotheism, from the
73:2426; 1 Cor. 10:31; Col. 1:16). Because Gods Greek henos (one) and theos (god), was intro-
goodness is self-grounded, anything contrary to duced into the study of religion by F. Max Mller,
his will is evil and retribution reflects Gods good- and refers to the practice of worshiping one par-
ness. In view of Jesus own concept of hell, uni- ticular deity without necessarily denying the re-
versalism also attacks his character. For it must ality of other gods. Mller observed that in the
treat Jesus as ignorant of Gods moral character Vedas, the oldest Indian religious literature,
or as intentionally misleading his hearers. deities are invoked by a variety of names, but
Not only does universalism dispute Gods reve- that to the particular supplicant each god is for
lation in Jesus Christ, its insistence that Gods that person or group the real divinity, absolute
eternal pursuit will bring everyone to salvation and supreme. Throughout Hindu religion, there
undermines the moral seriousness of our present is the tendency for various groups to give special
life. By contrast Jesus stresses the urgency of a place and devotion to specific deitiesShiva,
decision in the present life (Matt. 25:13; Mark Brahma, Vishnuwithout necessarily denying
13:3237) precisely because Gods gracious offer the reality of other deities. A biblical example of
is not eternal (Matt. 25:41). This present life is henotheistic practice might be found in Canaan-
decisive for our future (Heb. 9:27). Moreover, ite religion, such as the example of the Philistines,
universalisms view that those who die outside of who regarded Dagon as their superior deity while
Christ are not lost eliminates the need for evan- also recognizing the power of Yahweh when they
gelism. Historically universalism has subverted captured the ark (1 Sam. 4).
mission institutions into becoming merely social Although distinct from them, the concept of
and political agencies. henotheism overlaps to some extent with other
Annihilationism. Annihilationists acknowledge categories for the study of religion, such as
the necessity for retribution, but insist that the MONOTHEISM (belief in one God, excluding the
wicked are obliterated by Gods wrath and not very possibility of other gods), POLYTHEISM (belief
punished forever and ever. The punishment due in a plurality of gods), and monolatry (the exclu-
for sin is the crucial issue. Scriptures answer fo- sive worship of a deity by a certain social group).
cuses on Christs death. At the cross God in Christ Furthermore, discussions of henotheism have
became our substitute to bear the punishment frequently been plagued by rather dubious as-
for our sins so as to be just and the one who jus- sumptions of the allegedly evolutionary develop-
tifies the man who has faith in Jesus (2 Cor. ment of human religion. The challenge for Chris-
5:21; Rom. 3:2126; 1 Peter 2:24). The fact that tian missions is to encourage people to move
only God the Judge, the Lord of glory himself from henotheistic tendencies to a full acceptance
(1 Cor. 2:8), could pay the penalty due us, sug- of the biblical God as the only God and Creator,
gests that the penalty for sin against the Infinite who forbids the worship or acknowledgment of
is infinite. Annihilationism fails to take seriously any other deities.
the infinite penalty that God in Jesus Christ paid WILLIAM H. BAKER
for us. Moreover, hell marks the gravity of hu-
manitys rebellion. Diminishing hell means the Bibliography. R. Mackintosh, ERE VIII:81011;
horrific nature of sin begins to be lost. F. M. Mller, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Reli-
Conclusion. Many questions remain. While gion; R. Pettazoni, Essays on the History of Religions.
Scripture does not answer all our questions, we
know that the Lord of all the earth will do right Hepburn, James Curtis (18151911). American
(Gen. 18:25). Just as Christ cried over Jerusalems missionary to China and Japan. A second-gener-
fate (Luke 19:41), we can only speak of Gods ation missionary sent to China, the first by the
final damning punishment with tears as we re- American Presbyterians, James C. Hepburn later
spond to a lost world as did our Savior, who became most notable for his work in Japanese
humbled himself to our condition, suffered, and languages. His Japanese-English dictionary was
died for the wicked. This destiny should impel an internationally acclaimed work, employed ex-
the church to follow Christ in sacrificially pro- tensively in the late nineteenth and early twenti-
claiming the gospel in word and deed to the lost. eth centuries.
TIMOTHY R. PHILLIPS After completing medical work in the United
States, Hepburn and his wife were first assigned to
Bibliography. A. A. Hoekema, The Bible and the Fu-
ture, pp. 26573; C. S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain; J. I. Singapore and later, under the Medical Missionary
Packer, Evangelical Affirmations, pp. 10736; T. R. Society, to the China port city of Amoy. Due to his
Phillips, Through No Fault of Their Own: The Fate of wifes unstable health, the Hepburns returned to
Those Who Have Never Heard, pp. 4759; W. G. T. North America in 1845. Maintaining his Asian in-
429
Hepburn, James Curtis
terests, Hepburn in 1859 was once more commis- communicating eternal truth through the human
sioned by the Presbyterian Church for a lifelong authors. The basic dilemma in interpretation is
career in Kanagawa, Japan (185992). the author-text-reader problem. An author writes
Little is known about his medical practice a text with an embedded message. A reader stud-
there, but his missionary sensitivities drove him ies the text in order to understand it, but what
to emphasize educational work and the compil- access do readers have to the authors intended
ing of extensive notes on the rapid changes in meaning? In the case of the Bible, the authors
Japanese language during the burgeoning have been dead over two millennia, and the cul-
decades of the progressive Meiji imperial era. His tures within which the Bible was written no
dictionarys first edition appeared in 1867; the longer exist. Is it possible to understand and con-
third edition was republished numerous times as textualize the Bible in a set of cultures so far re-
the standard work in the field. This extensive moved from the original setting? That is the basic
knowledge he applied to an early translation of problem.
the Japanese Bible. Philosophical and literary developments, from
LAUREN PFISTER Freud to Heidegger, Gadamer to Derrida, led to
the dominant movement of the 1990s, POSTMOD-
Bibliography. J. C. Hepburn, A Japanese-English and
ERNISM. In the philosophical arena, it is decon-
English-Japanese Dictionary; S. Kaiser, ed., The Western
Rediscovery of the Japanese Language; A. Wylie, Memo- struction; in the literary field, it is readerresponse
rials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese. criticism; in the religious sector it is radical PLU-
RALISM and UNIVERSALISM; in culture it is tolerance
Herman of Alaska (17561837). Russian Ortho- and relativism. In each of its guises postmod-
dox missionary to Alaska. Herman was one of ten ernism means the rejection of absolute TRUTH
Russian Orthodox monks who took part in the and the replacement of God with socio-historical
first Christian mission to Alaska in 1794. He re- forces as the deterministic forces in society. Truth
mained there for forty-three years, faithfully serv- is as you make it, and the only arbiter is culture
ing the Alaskan natives and proclaiming the or the needs of the group.
gospel of Christ. There is an answer. There is one final proof of
Herman was born in a little town outside absolute truth; and while it is grounded in ra-
Moscow. At the age of sixteen, he entered the tional evidence (see Osborne, ch. 1), it must in the
monastery. Although he never envisioned the life end be accepted by faith: the Bible is the Word of
God. In his Word, God has spoken, and all truth
of a missionary, after twenty years in the
is linked to that one distinct fact. On the
monastery he volunteered to join the first over-
hermeneutical side, there are many arguments on
seas mission team of the Russian Church. They
behalf of the viability, indeed the necessity, of
arrived in Kodiak, Alaska, on September 24, 1794.
seeking the authors intended meaning of the text.
The mission thrived during the first five years
First, God is behind it and expects the reader to
despite great obstacles from Russian explorers
ascertain and then obey his message, not some
and hunters. The missionaries baptized more
reader-oriented perspective. There is an ethical re-
than seven thousand people and established a
sponsibility demanded of all readers to let the text
strong foundation for the new church. Over a
guide their understanding to its meaning. This is
short period of time, however, three of the origi-
especially true of the Bible, for authors often (see
nal missionaries drowned at sea, a fourth was
Pauls use of the rhetorical question in Romans)
martyred, and another five returned to Russia.
try to clear up any possible misunderstanding on
Herman remained alone.
the part of the reader. Thiselton argues (1992,
For the remaining thirty-eight years of his life,
61119) that if there was no intended meaning in
he continued to preach and protect the indige-
the biblical text, it would lose its transforming
nous peoples from Russian traders. Hermans
function. It is certainly true that scholars contin-
legacy best represents the Orthodox Churchs un-
ually debate and often fail to agree on the mean-
derstanding of passive missions, where holy
ing of a particular text, but that does not mean
people preach the gospel more with their life
there is no correct meaning. In fact, the ability of
than with their actual words.
communities of readers to challenge each others
LUKE A. VERONIS
interpretations draws the student back to the text
Bibliography. G. Afonsky, A History of the Orthodox and produces a greater openness to its meaning.
Church in Alaska (17941917); M. Oleksa, Alaskan Mis- Our preunderstanding (views inherited from tra-
sionary Spirituality; idem, Orthodox Alaska. dition and community) has enormous influence
but does not have to determine our understand-
Hermeneutics. Science, art, and spiritual act of ing. The hermeneutical process elucidated below
interpreting the Scriptures. Presupposed is the can enable us to go beyond the interpretation
view that the Bible is the inspired, inerrant Word mandated by our Reformed or Anabaptist or dis-
of God (see INERRANCY). There is not just an au- pensational background and let the text guide us
thor of the biblical books but a divine Author to its own meaning.
430
Hermeneutics
Hermeneutical Principles. There are two pri- context. Note Philippians 2:7 as an example. The
mary aspects to interpretation theory, which thrust of ekenom sen (emptied) has been debated
might be labeled meaning and significance for centuries, and the kenotic school developed
(drawing from Hirsch). However, these are not from the belief that Jesus emptied himself of his
distinct but part of a single process. Still, mean- divinity at his incarnation. However, it has been
ing refers to the search for the authors original realized recently that the verb only means emp-
message, and significance to the contextualiza- tied when it is transitive, that is, when the con-
tion of the message for the various cultural contents that have been emptied are mentioned.
texts of the current age. There are three primary When it is intransitive, as here, it means to make
components of meaningcontext, exegesis, and yourself low or humble yourself.
biblical theology. There are two components of Syntax does not refer just to grammar but to a
significancesystematic theology and contextu- broader concepttracing the interrelationships in
alization. All of these interact in the process of the passage to determine the meaning of the
moving from text to context. whole. This is critical in order to counter the
The Meaning of the Text. The context of a text major failure of most commentariescentering
is the literary world surrounding it. In other upon isolated words and phrases without devel-
words, what does it add to the surrounding con- oping the meaning of the whole. It must always
text? One of the major hermeneutical axioms is be kept in mind that the structure of the whole al-
the realization that no word, sentence, or para- ways determines the meaning of the parts and
graph has meaning apart from a context. Take that the value of any particular statement is en-
out the trash means something different if it is tirely in its contribution to the whole message.
embedded in an editorial choice for removing a For instance, Gospel pericopes are part of a larger
section of an article or a domestic choice for pattern called story time, namely, the develop-
placing the garbage on the curb. So the first step ing message of the Gospel as a whole. In Mark the
is to note what kind of literary context surrounds feeding of the five thousand and the walking on
a passage. the water are a single story, concluding with the
The exegetical task has four aspectsgrammar, startling their hearts were hardened. Yet they
semantics, syntax, and backgrounds (see also EX- are also part of a larger unit, 6:308:21, centering
EGESIS). Grammar studies the building blocks of on discipleship failure surrounding the two feed-
language, noting how the words in a sentence re- ing miracles (6:3044, 8:110, with the message
late to one another in communicating their mean- God will provide) and contrasting the failure of
ing. For instance, consider the phrase the love of the disciples with the faith of the little people
God. Does it mean Gods love, divine love, (7:2437). Each episode in this section of Mark
love from God, God loves me, I love God, or contributes to this basic message.
the churchs community love that God makes Finally, background analysis traces the shared
possible? All are viable, and only the larger con- assumptions between the author and original
text can decide. The tense or mood of the verb, readers regarding the customs and culture be-
the case of the noun, the place of prepositions or hind the text. There are two approachessocial
infinitives or participles, all are determinative for description, in which we study the text in terms
interpreting a passage properly. Grammar is not of the sociological details that help us understand
inconsequential but essential in hermeneutics. Of it more deeply; and sociological interpretation, in
course, there are questions, such as in the current which we apply current models to re-create the
debate on traditional versus aspect theory in social dynamics that led to the creation of the
studying the tense of the verb. However, in the text. The problem with the latter is that it tends
end these enhance rather than obscure grammat- to be speculative and reductionistic. We must
ical knowledge. The important thing to remember allow the text to drive our theory and not force
is that every grammatical option makes possible our theory upon the text. Therefore, social de-
a different translation. scription is far more helpful. In this we study
Semantics is closely connected to grammar. parallels in the intertestamental world of Ju-
The meaning of a particular term is dependent on daism, Qumran, and the Hellenistic world that fit
the impact of the surrounding words in the sen- the situation behind the text (see also INTERTESTA-
tence. The key again is context. No term has MENTAL STUDIES). We consider geographical, ma-
meaning in and of itself but draws its meaning terial, everyday life, or religious customs and
from the larger communication unit in which it is their impact on interpreting the text.
embedded. There are three rules to follow: (1) de- Biblical theology studies the developing theo-
termine the semantic range of the term; (2) allow logical message of the text by tracing the primary
the context to choose which of the meaning pos- themes of the book as they emerge from the text.
sibilities best fits the passage; (3) study the se- This is determined by allowing the themes to
mantic field (the different terms or phrases that emerge and interact with one another as one ex-
could have been used to communicate that mean- egetes the developing text. For instance, there are
ing) to deepen the understanding of its use in the two major themes in the Book of Revelation (the
431
Hermeneutics
sovereignty of God and the perseverance of the ways. It must be practical and not just academic.
saints) with several subthemes (the unity of God This began with the Bible itself, as the early
and the Lamb, the conflict with Satan, the escha- church moved from a Jewish to a Hellenistic-Jew-
ton, etc.). One determines this by studying the in- ish to a Hellenistic cultural base. In each new cul-
terdependence of these themes through the pro- tural center, from South Galatia (Galatians) to
gressive unfolding of the book. Biblical theology North Galatia (1 Peter) to the province of Asia
emerges from the exegetical analysis of individual (Ephesians, Revelation), a new set of cultural
passages and then the collation of the theological problems emerged, and Christianity had to be re-
themes emerging from the passages first in terms contextualized. This dynamic process must be
of individual books, then in authors, then in the carefully controlled, as all too easily the culture
Testaments, and finally in the Bible as a whole. rather than the Word of God can become the de-
The Significance of the Text. It must be termining factor. If the Bible is indeed the Word
stressed that this is not a separate aspect of of God, it must provide the content for all contex-
hermeneutics but is part of the meaning of the tualization. In a DYNAMIC EQUIVALENCE approach,
text. Readers do not artificially determine the ob- whenever the receptor culture controls the
jective meaning of the text and only then contex- process, RELATIVISM and SYNCRETISM result. At the
tualize that meaning for today. The very exegeti- same time, however, the form that this content
cal questions we ask come from the modern will take is determined by the cultural context.
context. However, it is still a helpful metaphor to Form and content provide the matrix of contextu-
think in terms of meaning and significance. alization. The Bible is the norm, but the current
SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY (ST) is actually a contex- culture provides the arena within which the bibli-
tualization of biblical theology (BT) in light of cal truths are reformulated. We must allow the di-
the models provided by the history of dogma. vine truths to adapt to those aspects of culture
There are four components of theological formu- that we might call REDEMPTIVE ANALOGIES but at
lationScripture, tradition, community, and ex- the same time challenge and transform those as-
perience. Scripture, particularly BT, provides the pects that are contrary to Scripture. We need to
content of ST. The other three together make up exegete the culture as carefully as we do the Bible,
our preunderstanding, the set of beliefs we bring and to understand the people anthropologically
to the task. We make theological decisions on the and sociologically very deeply as we contextual-
basis of the ecclesiastical tradition we have ac- ize, lest we misapply the Word to our world.
cepted and the particular formulation of that sys- GRANT R. OSBORNE
tem in our particular church community. The
question is how much influence our inherited Bibliography. P. Cotterell and M. Turner, Linguistics
and Biblical Interpretation; D. J. Hesselgrave and
system has on us as we rework our beliefs in light
E. Rommen, Contextualization: Meanings, Methods, and
of the scriptural data. Theoretically, our preun- Models; P. Hiebert, IBMR (1987), pp. 10412; E. D.
derstanding should be influential but not deci- Hirsch, Validity in Interpretation; G. R. Osborne, The
sive; it should be brought to the surface and Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to
placed on the examining table to be reworked on Biblical Interpretation; idem, Three Crucial Questions
the basis of the biblical data. This process will about the Bible; M. Silva, God, Language, and Scripture:
take several steps: the Bible will first be studied Reading the Bible in the Light of General Linguistics;
inductively to discover all the passages that ad- A. C. Thiselton, New Horizons in Hermeneutics: The
dress the issue. Each passage will be exegeted Theory and Practice of Transforming Biblical Reading.
and the theological message determined. The
texts will next be collated on the basis of the as- Hesselgrave, David (1924 ). American missi-
pect of the issue addressed by each, and a pre- ologist and missionary to Japan. Born in Wiscon-
liminary model of the doctrine as it emerges sin, Hesselgrave trusted Christ as a boy. God
from the biblical teaching will be constructed. called him to pastoral ministry, then missions,
The understanding of the doctrine through his- the preparation of missionaries, and guidance of
tory will then be consulted, and the model will be the missionary enterprise.
reworked in light of that data so that a covering Married to Gertrude in 1944, he prepared for
model for today can be erected. This model is ministry at Trinity Seminary and at the Univer-
heuristic, continually reconsidered in light of the sity of Minnesota. There he earned a B.A. in phi-
biblical data. losophy, M.A. in speech, and Ph.D. in rhetoric
CONTEXTUALIZATION in essence refers to the emphasizing cross-cultural communication. He
cross-cultural application and communication of was ordained by the Evangelical Free Church of
biblical and theological truths. The true goal of America with whom he served five years in a pas-
hermeneutics is not the learned essay but the ser- torate and twelve years (195062) in Japan.
mon, not the commentary but the missiological After returning to the United States, he joined
adaptation of Christianity in the diverse cultures the faculty of Trinity Evangelical Divinity School
of the world. Biblical truth is meant not just to be (TEDS) in 1965, inaugurating the School of
studied but more to be applied in life-changing World Missions and Evangelism and the doctoral
432
Hidden Peoples
programs in missiology at TEDS in 1976. He Coptic and Arabic languages, he reached Ethiopia
served at TEDS until retirement in 1991. in 1634. Here, he became an influential minister,
A significant contribution in addition to 10 teacher, and doctor at the court of King Fsilidas
books and 140 articles on missions was the call- (163267). Eagerly he also attempted to bring
ing of several missions consultations. These about a reforming renewal in Coptic Christianity.
brought together biblical scholars, theologians, This resulted not only in unproductive christolog-
and missiologists. Hesselgrave has always been ical disputes, but also in an Amharic translation
concerned to keep the missions movement of the New Testament. Johns Gospel, in particu-
grounded in Scripture and sound theology, em- lar, was widely distributed. He is also said to have
phasizing this through teaching and lecturing
compiled a collection of legislation taken from
worldwide and through active membership in
Roman and civil law. According to an unsecured
several professional societies (e.g., AMERICAN SO-
CIETY OF MISSIOLOGY and the Evangelical Theolog-
tradition Heyling was extradited from the country
ical Society), and the directorship of the EVANGEL- and died in Suaqin (Sudan, at the Red Sea) as a
ICAL MISSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY from 1991 to 1992. martyr. His missionary work left its traces in the
MICHAEL POCOCK Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus
(founded in 1959).
Hewat, Elizabeth G. K. (18971968). Scottish WERNER RAUPP
missionary to China. Born in Scotland, she was Bibliography. W. Raupp, BDCM, p. 292.
one of four daughters of the renowned historian
and minister Kirkwood Hewat of Prestwick, Ayr- Hicks, Tommy (190973). American missionary
shire. In 1926 she was one of the few women to
evangelist. Little is known of Hicks background
graduate from Edinburgh University with a dou-
except that he was from Lancaster, California,
ble degree in history and philosophy.
During her years at Edinburgh, she was on and served as a Baptist minister prior to becom-
staff at St. Colms, the Womens Missionary Col- ing Pentecostal. As an independent evangelist in
lege. Afterwards, she joined her sister, Helen, in the healing movement of the 1950s and 1960s,
China, where they engaged in medical mission- his crusades were sponsored by the Full Gospel
ary work for several years. Business Mens Fellowship International.
Out of that experience came the material for Hicks held meetings in the United States and
her Ph.D. thesis in which she compared Hebrew many foreign countries, but his claim to fame
and Chinese wisdom literature. She returned to came from his meetings in Buenos Aires, Ar-
Scotland and became assistant at the North Mer- gentina. At the invitation of Assemblies of God
chiston Church in Edinburgh. missionaries and pastors from twelve denomina-
After six months, Hewat left Edinburgh and tions, his Salvation-Healing Campaign lasted
took up the post of professor of history at Wilson from April to June 1954. The crowds grew so
College, Bombay. She stayed in that position for large that the meetings were moved from the At-
twenty years, from 1935 to 1955. During that lanta to the Hurucan stadium with the blessing
time, she taught Scripture at the Women Stu- of Juan Peron; there, nightly attendance ex-
dents Hostel and became an elder in the United ceeded 110,000. Driven by reports of dramatic
Church of North India. healings and conversions, the aggregate atten-
When she returned to Scotland, she was a strong
dance reached 2 million. As the largest evangeli-
advocate of the opening of both eldership and the
cal gathering in Argentine history at the time, it
ministry of the Church of Scotland to women.
With her credentials and achievements, there is lit- resulted in significant Pentecostal and evangeli-
tle doubt that she made a lasting impact both on cal church growth.
the mission field and in the Church of Scotland. Hicks overseas ministry continued but not
KATHY MCREYNOLDS without controversy over his lifestyle and
fundraising methods. His books include, among
Bibliography. L. O. Macdonald, DSCHT, p. 402. others, Capturing the Nations in the Name of the
Lord (1956) and Millions Found Christ (1956), the
Heyling, Peter (1607/852). German pioneer mis- latter his account of the Buenos Aires campaign.
sionary theologian in Ethiopia. A native of the GARY B. MCGEE
Hanseatic city of Lbeck in Germany, Heyling
studied law and theology in Paris (162832) and Bibliography. A. W. Enns, Man, Milieu and Mission
was influenced by Huigh Groot (15831645). To- in Argentina; L. W. Stokes, The Great Revival in Buenos
gether with some fellow students from Lbeck he Aires; But What About Hicks? CCen 71:27 (July 7,
made a decision to reawaken the ruined 1954): 81415.
churches of the Orient to a genuine evangelical
life. After a stay in Egypt for one year, where he Hidden Peoples. See PEOPLES, PEOPLE GROUPS;
lived in monasteries in the desert to learn the UNREACHED PEOPLES.
433
Higginbottom, Sam
Higginbottom, Sam (18741958). English agri- Wesleyan Central China Mission, and in 1890
cultural educator and missionary in India. Hig- was designated the English president of the Gen-
ginbottom worked tirelessly at improving agri- eral Missionary Conference. He died from typhus
cultural productivity in India. Raised in England, contracted while distributing funds for the poor
he moved to Boston, Massachusetts, for studies entrusted to him by mandarins.
at Amherst College, Princeton, and Ohio State LAUREN PFISTER
University. Responding to a strong call to mis-
Bibliography. W. T. A. Barber, David Hill: Missionary
sionary service, he left for India under the Pres- and Saint; H. B. Rattenbury, David Hill, Friend of China:
byterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1903. The A Modern Portrait.
following year he married Jane E. Cody in Bom-
bay, India; they later had six children.
Hinderer, Anna (Martin) (182770). English pi-
After six years of teaching at Allahabad Chris-
oneer missionary to Nigeria. Born in Norfolk, she
tian College, Higginbottom became convinced of
lost her mother early and was largely brought up
the need to minister to the Indian people through in the home of the Anglican rector of Lowestoft,
agriculture. In 1911 he founded the Allahabad where she assisted in work in the parish. In Oc-
Agricultural Institute, where research and exper- tober 1852 she married David Hinderer, a Ger-
imental methods were used to adapt modern man clergyman serving under the CHURCH MIS-
techniques to the particularities of Indian farm- SIONARY SOCIETY in Yoruba country (Nigeria), and
ing. The Institute met with great success, and they sailed almost immediately for Lagos.
grew to become Indias finest agricultural college. Hinderer, originally at Abeokuta, near the
Higginbottom also succeeded in attracting a coast, had started work at Ibadan, farther in-
great deal of financial assistance and trained per- land, and they traveled there early in 1853. Ac-
sonnel to the Institute. He taught and ministered commodation was primitive; they were both fre-
in Allahabad until his retirement in 1944. Hig- quently ill, but Anna at once began to visit the
ginbottom served on many Indian governmental town, and soon had a school in her home. Child-
boards concerned with rural affairs. He received less herself, she became a mother to many. After
the Kaiser-I-Hind Gold Medal in 1924 in addition leave (185658) they found their Yoruba assis-
to five honorary doctorates from universities in tants had carried on well, and there were many
the United States. baptisms. But in 1860 an ongoing feud between
J. MICHAEL CONNOR two sections of the Yoruba people came to a
Bibliography. G. R. Hess, Sam Higginbottom of Alla- head, and for the next five years they lived in a
habad, Pioneer of Point Four to India; S. Higginbottom, state of siege. Not until April 1865 were they re-
Sam Higginbottom, Farmer: An Autobiography. lieved and able to visit Britain again. They re-
turned to Ibadan at the end of 1866 and found
Hill, David (184096). English missionary to the work progressing well, but their health was
China. Arriving in Shanghai in 1865 following worse and in 1869 they were forced to leave.
the downfall of the Taiping revolution, David Hill David Hinderer resigned from the CMS and took
prepared himself for evangelistic ministry with a parish at Martham, Norfolk, where Anna died
the Wesleyan Mission in the Hubei Province. Son in June 1870.
of a wealthy alderman of Yorkshire in England, The memoir her husband compiled has kept
Hill was a self-supporting missionary who as- her memory fresh. She represents the sacrificial
pired to live a relatively ascetic celibate life, one band of wives without whose help the new com-
which many considered exceptional and saintly. munities of Christians could not have developed.
This he did to be free to preach to the widest JOCELYN MURRAY
range of Chinese people. Bibliography. A. Hinderer, Seventeen Years in the
Believing prayer to be the mightiest tool of Yoruba Country: Memorials of Anna Hinderer, Wife of the
mission strategy, Hill maintained spiritual disci- Rev. David Hinderer, C.M.S. Missionary in Western
plines, including extensive daily intercession. He Africa, Gathered from Her Journals and Letters; J. Mur-
advocated missionary prayer unions in England, ray, Proclaim the Good News: A Short History of the
later promoted and established lay missions in Church Missionary Society.
China, and became known as a biblically styled
apostle to the Chinese. Over thirty years his mis- Hindu, Hinduism. Hindu is a term originally
sion strategies changed from a singular emphasis used by Muslim conquerors of India to refer to
on preaching in country circuits to a multifac- the indigenous peoples of North India whom
eted plan, including medical work, schools, pub- they subjected in the second millennium A.D.
lishing, and charity. Later Hinduism came to be used by British col-
Involved in famine relief in Shanxi province in onizers for the religion of these Hindus without
1878 and 1879, Hill from that time on dressed in initially realizing how diverse and distinct the re-
Chinese attire and developed extensive ministries ligious communities among the Hindus were.
to the poor. From 1885 he was chairman of the Today, both terms are used popularly by both
434
Hindu, Hinduism
Hindus and others to refer to their religious life, cording to conditions determined by karma.
but at best these terms serve only to distinguish Karma is the belief that every act, thought, and
Hindus from other religious groups such as Mus- attitude has its consequences for good or bad ei-
lims and Christians. Hinduism is useful only ther in this life, the life to come, or both. This law
generally to refer to a cluster of mutually distinct is inexorable in that it affects all persons and can-
beliefs and related practices ranging from ani- not be set aside or its operation countered. Rein-
mism to Tantric occultism to polytheism to the- carnation and karma emerge as enduring notions
ism and impersonal monism. These typically for Hindus and are basic in revised forms in
have warrant in Hindu texts which provide a rich many other Indian religious communities such
treasury of symbols that are understood, com- as Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs.
bined, and used very differently. Though there is Shastras. The Shastras are additional supple-
no unified religious entity that corresponds to the mental literature seen as authoritative though
term Hinduism, one can speak intelligently of not all are universally recognized by Hindus. The
Hindu traditions. What follows is a description of epics of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana
the history and development of those traditions. were probably composed some time at the end of
Vedic Texts. Most Hindu traditions draw selec- the Vedic period and narrate myths and legends,
tively upon a body of authoritative religious texts some with possible historical footings. The Ra-
called Vedas which were written down in the mayana is a favorite for its story of Rama who
1500300 B.C. period by the priests of warlike and seeks to recover his wife Sita from Ravana, the
nomadic Aryans from Eastern Europe who con- demon king of (Sri) Lanka. With the kindly help
quered and settled in the Indus River Valley of of the monkey deity Hanuman, Sita is rescued;
present-day Pakistan. These texts in four parts the couple are reunited and serve as models of
(Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upan- the ideal Hindu couple. The Mahabharata, larger
ishads) express their early beliefs and practices than the Ramayana at well over 90,000 stanzas of
(Rig Veda) as well as later changes that occurred 32 syllables each, contains the Bhagavad Gita
as they reinterpreted and modified traditional (Song of God) whose impact on Hindu traditions
sacrifices to the deities and speculated about the is profound and, other than the Vedas, probably
primary source of life and experience (Brahman). unequaled.
The Vedas are known as shruti (that which is The Bhagavad Gita tells the story of relatives
heard) to distinguish from later literature, also who find themselves in opposing armies on a bat-
authoritative to many, called smriti (that which is tlefield in north India. The dilemma of the Pan-
remembered). Examples of smriti include some dava warrior, Arjuna, is similar to that of cousins
or all of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. in the American Civil War who faced one another
The Vedas give evidence of an enduring Brah- across the firing line. Arjunas servant-cum-char-
man priestly class assisted by other ritualists who iot driver reasons with him that it is required of
made offerings to deities who inhabited earth, sky, a warrior to do his duty and leave the conse-
and deep space. Some of these deities continue quences aside. This reflects a widely held view,
today to be addressed in worship such as Agni and reinforced in later Hindu literature, that the way
Soma. Vedic Rudra is known today as Siva who to liberation is to perform socially required acts
along with deities such as Vishnu, Krishna, and without attachment to their merits and conse-
Rama, are widely popular with Hindus. The quences. Karma in the Bhagavad Gita has as one
priests also officiated at the observance of more of its notions the idea that acts done with de-
than forty samskaras or RITES OF PASSAGE such as tachment do not have bad effects. Arjuna is fi-
birth, initiation, marriage, and death. Though the nally convinced he should do his duty but the
number of these rites has diminished in modern text shifts the readers attention from the battle-
times, they are vital to the life cycle of Hindus. field issue to a startling revelation that the char-
CASTE, the stratification of society into classes of iot driver is in reality Krishna, the Supreme Lord
people who observe common rituals and taboos, is and God of the universe. His message to Arjuna
rooted in the Vedas (Rigveda 10:90) and serves to and the reader is that liberation (moksha) is pos-
distinguish Hindus from one another socially and sible by the grace of Krishna for those who wor-
often religiously. The Indian Constitution prohibits ship him in self-surrender. Thus the Bhagavad
civil discrimination on caste lines but the private Gita, which comingles several religious themes,
lives of Hindus continue to be significantly gov- subordinates them all to the doctrine of bhakti
erned by caste rules governing social contact, fam- (devoted surrender).
ily life, and marriage. Bhakti. For most Hindus, bhakti (devotion or
The Upanishads, last of the Vedas, introduce surrender to a personal deity) is a daily experi-
concepts that pervade formal Hindu thought and ence in either the home or the temple and is ex-
mass consciousness. Reincarnation, (see also pressed as puja (worship, adoration) in song,
REINCARNATION AND TRANSMIGRATION) not known prayer, flowers, incense, fruit, and money before
in the Rigveda, emerges as the notion that the a symbol or image of the deity. Popular deities
atman (soul) continues existence after death ac- such as Vishnu, Krisha, Rama, Shiva each have
435
Hindu, Hinduism
wives and mounts such as a bull (Shiva) to trans- mysteriously created. The misinformed ignorantly
port them. Stories of their lives and exploits are (avidya) take Brahman as a personal deity (Ish-
told in Puranas (Old Stories) which were written vara, Saguna Brahman) which is a useful position
from A.D. 5001500. Bhakti is considered of two until one discovers highest reality. Shankara thus
kinds, perfect and imperfect. Perfect bhakti is accommodates bhakti while pointing seekers be-
when the devotee worships the deity selflessly and yond it to the higher goal of moksha (liberation)
without ulterior motives. This is thought to be im- through an intuitive and unmediated apprehen-
possible without the aid of a GURU (spiritual sion of reality, thus ending samsara (the rounds of
guide) who may himself be regarded as an avatar birth and death due to reincarnation). Moksha is
(descent) of the deity. Further, the grace of the the unitary experience by which the soul is made
deity is necessary for such pure devotion. Imper- one with Brahman much as a drop of water is
fect bhakti entails worship that is mixed with per- dropped into the ocean.
sonal petitions and requests. Bhakti has inspired Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) was Ra-
a rich body of music and hymns in the vernacular manujas (A.D. 10171073) rejection of Advaita and
languages of India. Bhajans (hymns sings) and constitutes a defense of bhakti since he refused to
kirtans (musical performances) are an essential regard Ishvara, which for him was Vishnu, as
part of bhakti piety. Historic temples for major something to be sublated through a non-dual ex-
deities are found in such cities as Calcutta (Kali), perience. The world was created by a personal god
Puri (Vishnu, Jagganath), Mathura (Krishna), and who had qualities which included maya (power to
Madurai (Minakshi, Shiva). Deities have some- create) through which matter (prakriti) and souls
times been combined into a single form and were formed. The world and souls are real yet de-
name as in the case of Trimurthi, which combines rived and dependent, having no existence inde-
Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma. Many deities have pendent of Brahman. He spoke of Brahman as the
fascinating biographies and mythologies. Krishna soul of the world and the world as the body of
is known in the Bhagavad Gita as Supreme Deity Brahman. Liberation was possible by meditation
but in the Puranas as mischievous prankster and and the grace of the deity, thus ending samsara.
womanizer. Vishnu has ten avatars, including the The soul, like fish in water, is enveloped in and to-
Buddha and Krishna. Siva is known for his fierce tally surrounded by the deity but not identical to
demeanor against opponents as well as his gener- Brahman as in Shankara.
ative powers symbolized by the lingam (stone Dvaita (dualism) is the third of these above
phallic shaft). Shivas wife Parvati (also Durga, Vedantic positions and as proposed by Madhva
Uma, Kali) has her own following centering in a (thirteenth century) takes the position that the
widely celebrated festival called Durga Puja. correct synthesis of shruti and smriti is that high-
Many Hindus worship more than one of the est reality (Vishnu, Narayana), the material
many regional and pan-India deities with no world, and innumerable souls are all independ-
sense of impropriety or contradiction since each ent realities. Thus, the central problem of all
has special qualities and appeal. Hindu thinkers which is to solve the relation be-
Hindu Religious Thought. While the alleged tween identity/the one and difference/the many is
330,000,000 gods of India defy easy classification resolved by affirming a difference among five
and comprehensive study, Hindu thinkers have eternally distinct realities: Brahman and souls,
systematized in logical and defensible terms the Brahman and world, world and souls, souls and
meaning they derive from their religious litera- souls, and the finite objects of the world them-
ture. Thus, Hindu thinkers and their followers es- selves. Brahman is thus absolutely independent
tablished unique positions, debated their merits though it sustains a relationship with other enti-
with each other, and further competed with ties not as cause but as source since the qualities
highly refined proposals of others such as Bud- found in other entities in limited ways are found
dhists and Jains. There are many significant reli- perfectly in Brahman. Souls at liberation remain
gious systems among which are Advaita Vedanta, distinct, contrary to Ramanuja who taught that
Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita, Yoga, Carvaka. they become indistinguishable in their purity.
Advaita Vedanta was proposed by Shankara Madhva is unique in Hindu thought by teaching
(A.D. 788820) to resolve unsystematic Upan- that heretics and sinners who reject his truth will
ishadic passages that affirmed views of both the- suffer in hell eternally. The usual notion is that
ism and monism. Advaita (non-dual) Vedanta is hell is not an irreversible state but given time and
one of several Vedantic systems, each of which good karma one can escape it through the oper-
claims to authentically interpret the last book of ation of samsara.
the Vedas and to identify the goal toward which YOGA is based upon the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali
they point (Vedanta). Based upon one of the (second century B.C.). Though the meditative
major themes of the Upanishads, Shankara re- techniques and postures of yoga have in the past
garded highest reality (Nirguna Brahman) as non- and present been adopted to reach very diverse
dual, without attributes, and impersonal which, religious goals, Patanjali used it to achieve a dis-
through maya (occult power) the universe was tinct religious aim: distinguish within oneself pu-
436
Hinz, Hansina
rusha (changeless self) from prakriti (changing Hindu New Religious Movements. In nine-
matter). The truth about these two eternal reali- teenth-century India a variety of forces led to the
ties is that there is no connection. But one is emergence of new Hindu groups. The Brahmo
falsely led to believe that when change occurs it Samaj (Theistic Society, 1828), a Hindu social
is the self (purusha) that changes when in fact is and religious reform movement, sought to end
only mind (citta, prakriti). Moksha is achieved offensive Hindu practices such as widow burning
when through meditation one ceases to confuse (sati) and temple prostitution (deva-dasi). The
the changeless with the changing and experi- Arya Samaj (Society of Aryans), established in
ences the absolute identity of the self and Pu- 1875, supported some reforms but reacted defen-
rusha. The steps toward this goal, ideally guided sively by claiming the superiority of the Hindu
by a guru, begin with ethical restraint followed tradition. The Ramakrishna Mission seeks today
by proper postures, controlled breathing, and re- to advance Hindu social and religious concerns
stricted sense-awareness so as to ultimately still through its many chapters located throughout
the mind allowing purusha to shine unhindered. the subcontinent and the world. The Vedanta So-
The cessation of mental modifications means ciety, now found in many cities of Europe and
that the self is known to be unchanging, thereby America, traces its origins to the charismatic ef-
eliminating the possibility of karmic action lead- forts of Swami Vivekananda, who effectively rep-
ing to reincarnation. resented Hindu beliefs at the 1893 Chicago
Carvaka is the system defending the belief that Worlds Parliament of Religions.
perception is the only valid source of knowledge With the countercultural movement of the
about the real. It is sometimes called Lokayata, 1960s Hindu beliefs, practices, and groups began
meaning only the visible world is real. The world further advances in the Western world. Strength-
is made up of a complex of four elements: earth, ened by increased immigration from India,
water, fire, and air. There is no place given to the Hindu temples and organizations flourished.
time-honored notions of atman (soul) or Brah- Swami Bhaktivedanta Prabupada began to at-
man nor to the traditional practices of bhakti, tract celebrities in New York City in the 1960s,
which does puja and requires the services of leading to the establishing of the Krishna Con-
priests and temple functionaries. Thus, Carvaka sciousness Society based upon the teachings of
the Bhagavad Gita. Transcendental meditation,
is iconoclastic and, in contemporary terms, thor-
with origins in the Hindu thought of Maharishi
oughly secular. While it has had its historic advo-
Maheshyogi, sought to mainstream meditation
cates, many modern Hindus today whose educa-
and mantra through marketing the science of
tion leads to a materialistic worldview, would
creative intelligence. Other gurus such as Bha-
find themselves in significant agreement with
gavan Rajneesh and Sai Baba gained followers.
Carvakas tenets. This fact alone is enough to
Hindu texts, meditative practices, and rituals
warn Westerners against facile comparisons behave been a deep well from which diverse NEW
tween a spiritual India and a secular West. AGE thought has drawn. However, as seen by
Hindus in the Modern Era. The nineteenth many Hindus on the subcontinent itself, these
and twentieth centuries have seen Hindu reforms represent less than an authentic continuation of
as well as renaissance. Reform societies such as Hindu traditions. But Hindu thought has a his-
the Brahma Samaj spoke against practices tory of adapting to the changing religious land-
deemed cruel and offensive. The Arya Samaj scape, which is precisely what is observed at the
launched a defense of Hindu ways as a counter- beginning of the twenty-first century.
attack to Christian critiques. The establishing of JAMES F. LEWIS
independent India as a secular state introduced
controls on Hindus and others in the name of SEE ALSO New Religious Movements.
public order and morality. Since the 1960s the Bibliography. R. D. Baird, Religion in Modern India,
Western world has seen the introduction of the 2nd rev. ed.; D. K. Clark, and N. L. Geisler, Apologetics in
Krishna Consciousness society, Transcendental the New Age; J. N. Farquhar, Modern Religious Movements
Meditation, and groups led by gurus such as Sai in India; E. B. Rockford Jr., Hare Krishna in America.
Baba and Bhagavan Rajneesh. Thus Hindu tradi-
tions have been both constricted and advanced Hinz, Hansina (186796). German missionary to
by the cross-currents of the modern world. Greenland. Born in far northern Germany on
JAMES F. LEWIS June 25, 1867, Hansina Christina was the fifth
Bibliography. R. D. Baird, ed., Religion In Modern
child of a humble farmer. Like her siblings, she
India; A. Fernando, The Christians Attitude Toward was required to go into domestic service. During
World Religions; G. J. Larson, Indias Agony Over Reli- her years of service, she came into contact with
gion; J. F. Lewis and W. G. Travis, Religious Traditions the Moravians, whose simple and Christ-devoted
of the Word; R. Minor, Modern Indian Interpreters of the lives led her to call upon Jesus to redeem her as
Bhagavad Gita; S. Radhakrishnan and C. A. Moore, well. Her heart, now seized by grace, was avail-
eds., A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. able for service anywhere. Her call to missionary
437
Hinz, Hansina
service came via a letter from the Moravian and concluded that it was basically a docetic
board asking that she go to Greenland to wed a Christ. Mackays missiological agenda was de-
young missionary who was seeking a godly wife. signed as an evangelical response at the top of
Having determined that this was the call of God, which was Christology, an effort to proclaim the
she took to the stormy and ice-laden seas in Jesus of the Gospels in a contextual way, and to
March 1895, to meet her future husband. stress Jesus as the resurrected Lord and the con-
Arriving with only the clothing on her back, sequent ethical demands of faith in him.
Hansina met and married Johannes Hinz. Over Next was the generation of Founders, Latin
the next year, Hansina served her husband and American evangelical thinkers such as Gonzalo
the people with a generous and loving heart. This Bez-Camargo and Alberto Rembao whose works
service was short-lived, however, as she fell ill were journalistic and homiletical in style but em-
after the birth of their daughter and died eight bodied a rich biblical Christology, emphasizing
days later. While her contribution was limited in the humanity of Jesus Christ.
duration, Hansinas life is a testimony of that After World War II a new generation of Ecu-
right missionary stuff that relies completely on menical Thinkers developed. They participated in
the grace and strength of God and goes where he the growing ecumenical movement and were in-
wills in order to win victories in the most remote fluenced by European and American mainline
and seemingly unhopeful fields. Protestantism. Men such as EMILIO CASTRO, Mor-
WENDY S. LARSON timer Arias, and Jos Mguez Bonino were influ-
enced theologically by Karl Barth but never lost
Bibliography. E. C. Dawson, Heroines of Missionary the evangelical thrust received from previous
Adventure; H. G. Schneider, Hansina Hinz: A True Story
generations. Their reflection focused on the mis-
of the Moravian Missions in Greenland.
sion of the church in a changing continent. When
liberation theologies developed within Catholi-
Hispanic Evangelical Theologies. The Iberian cism, these theologians adopted it with a meas-
Christianization of the Americas after 1492 was ure of criticism but they did not make any spe-
carried on as part of the military conquest, cific Protestant contribution to the debate. Their
within the frame of a political theology inherited influence was limited to mainline churches, the
from the medieval schools and the COUNTER- smaller and less evangelistic within Latin Ameri-
REFORMATION. Missionaries allied with secular can Protestantism.
power were able to coerce the people they were Within the social tensions of the 1960s, Protes-
evangelizing instead of persuading them. A feu- tantism in Latin America became sharply divided
dal social order, justified by theological dis- and within the more conservative camp rose a
course, was transplanted to the Americas. So the new generation of Evangelical Thinkers. Their
first original theological work in the continent work developed within the frame of evangelistic
was the critical missiology of the Dominican Bar- and missionary conferences such as the Bogota
tolom de las Casas and of Jesuit JOS DE ACOSTA. Congress on Evangelism (CLADE I, 1969) in
The latters book De procuranda indorum salute is which the first steps were taken to found the
a theological reflection about the best way to Latin American Theological Fraternity in 1970.
evangelize the indigenous peoples. Thus theological work has had a basically missi-
After independence from Spain (181024) ological agenda.
Protestant missionaries who carried out Bible Evangelical theologians worked first in a criti-
distribution and evangelism through the nine- cal task, which included an ongoing debate with
teenth century had an evangelical pietist outlook. the liberation theologies that dominated the the-
Their basic Protestant tenets were strengthened ological scenario in the 1970s and 1980s. A sys-
by the debate with established Catholicism and, tematic critical approach was developed by An-
because of the declining Christendom situation drew Kirk, EMILIO A. NEZ, and Samuel
in which they worked, Christology became the Escobar. Daniel Schipani gathered several other
first privileged theme demanded by their mis- contributions in a collective volume from an An-
sionary theology. The work of four generations abaptist perspective. What is distinctive of the
may be recognized. evangelical stance is an emphasis on the primacy
First were the Pioneers, basically missionar- of biblical authority in theological method and
ies. A lasting contribution because of his con- the demand to keep evangelistic activity at the
textual frame and evangelistic thrust came from center of the mission of the church. Their critical
Scottish Presbyterian JOHN ALEXANDER MACKAY task has also included a consistent debate against
(18891983). A missiological exploration around the theological assumptions of Church Growth
the theme of Christ in Latin American culture missiology (see also CHURCH GROWTH MOVEMENT).
was the central concern in his classic work The The constructive task of this generation has
Other Spanish Christ (1933). He analyzed the been the development of a theology of mission
popular images of Jesus as either an infant child that expresses the dynamic reality and the mis-
in his big mothers arms or a bleeding victim sionary thrust of the Latin American Evangelical
438
History of Missions
churches, in order to provide a solid biblical ology of the Crossroads in Contemporary Latin America;
basis for new contextual patterns of evangelism idem, Christ Outside the Gate; idem, Liberating News;
and discipleship. They have worked on the as- W. A. Dyrness, Emerging Voices in Global Christian The-
sumption that commitment to biblical authority ology; S. Escobar, Liberation Themes in Reformational
Perspective; J. L. Gonzalez, Maana Christian Theology
is more than paying lip service to it. Rather it re- from a Hispanic Perspective; J. A. Kirk, Liberation The-
quires a fresh exploration into the depths of the ology; D. Kirkpatrick, ed., Faith Born in the Struggle for
biblical text, with the questions raised by the Life; J. A. Mackay, The Other Spanish Christ; J. Mguez
Latin American context, not limiting itself to the Bonino, Faces of Latin American Protestantism; E. A.
area of soteriology but to fresh explorations into Nez, Liberation Theology; C. R. Padilla and L. B. M.
a biblically based social ethics. Branson, eds., Conflict and Context. Hermeneutics in the
An example of this twofold approach is found Americas; C. R. Padilla, Mission Between the Times;
in the work of REN PADILLA that offers a missio- V. Samuel and C. Sugden, eds., Sharing Jesus in the Two
logical reflection based on detailed EXEGESIS of Thirds World; D. Schipani, ed., Freedom and Disciple-
ship; V. R. Steuernagel, The Theology of Mission in Re-
the biblical text. He takes liberation themes but lation to Social Responsibility Within the Lausanne
works with them, incorporating the missionary Movement; E. Villafae, The Liberating Spirit.
thrust and the evangelistic passion of the evan-
gelical perspective. Valdir Steuernagel works in
History of Missions. The Apostolic Age. The
the development of a more systematic missiology.
story of how the followers of a first-century itin-
Orlando Costas approach was less polemical
erant Jewish preacher spread his message of
against liberation theologies, and more prag-
Gods kingdom to the entire world is amazing.
matic about Church Growth missiology, in a con-
The initial conquest of the Roman Empire and
tinuous dialogue with missiology and ecclesiol-
the subsequent planting of the Christian church
ogy from ecumenical theologians. Along similar
around the earth were the result of the witness of
lines Guillermo Cook has worked in ecclesiology.
countless believers. A great number of these mis-
A growing number of Pentecostal theologians
sionaries are known, but there is an even greater
such as Norberto Saracco and Ricardo Gondim
number whose names are unknown to subse-
are contributing to the ongoing reflection.
quent generations. This lack of a complete his-
The themes and style of this Latin American
tory forces us to recognize that God empowered
evangelical theology are related to the daily pas-
ordinary believers to carry out the missionary
toral and evangelistic practice of these thinkers
task. While Jesus limited his ministry to the areas
more than to the demands of academic debate in
of Judea and Galilee, with occasional forays into
the European or North American settings. The
non-Jewish territory, he gave his disciples specific
urgency of the questions is also determined by instructions to be his witnesses in Jerusalem,
the need for a radical departure from the Con- Judea, Samaria and even to the remotest parts of
stantinian pattern of a missionary enterprise that the earth (Acts 1:8). The Acts of the Apostles is
relied on military power, economic conquest, and organized along that plan, with the gospel ema-
technological prowess, and in its stead a fresh nating in an ever-increasing circle. With the com-
look at the biblical pattern for mission. Their ing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost, the
search coincided with the rediscovery of the Jo- gospel was preached in Jerusalem to Jews and
hannine pattern for mission to which JOHN STOTT proselytes from every nation under heaven
contributed since the WORLD CONGRESS ON EVAN- (Acts 2:5).
GELISM (BERLIN CONGRESS 1966). This explains
The first persecution that dispersed the church
also the contribution of Latin Americans such as after the stoning of STEPHEN (Acts 7) resulted in
Samuel Escobar and Ren Padilla to the theolog- the scattering of the believers throughout Judea,
ical work of the LAUSANNE MOVEMENT after 1974. Samaria (Acts 8:1), Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Anti-
Other foci for their global dialogue have been the och (Acts 11:1920). It is noteworthy that the
Theological Commission of the WORLD EVANGELI- movement commanded by Jesus to disciple the
CAL FELLOWSHIP and the International Fellowship
nations only commenced with PERSECUTION. This
of Evangelical Mission Theologians (INFEMIT). theme of Gods using what seemed like tragic
In the case of Latin America most of the contrib- events to propagate the gospel is repeated
utors to this dialogue have come from the Latin throughout history. The bringing of the gospel to
American Theological Fraternity. A new and im- the Samaritans bridged two major hurdles, reli-
portant expression of Hispanic theologies comes gion and culture. The first recorded preaching to
from the Hispanic minority in the United States. Gentiles is Peters interaction with Cornelius
Outstanding theological work has been done in (Acts 10). Some of those who were scattered be-
historical theology by Justo L. Gonzlez and in cause of persecution went to Antioch, where they
spirituality and social ethics by Eldin Villafae. shared the message with Gentiles (Acts 11:20).
SAMUEL ESCOBAR Since these Gentile converts were not proselytes,
Bibliography. M. Arias, The Great Commission; it is not strange that the disciples were first called
G. Cook, The Expectation of the Poor; O. E. Costas, The- Christians in Antioch to distinguish them from a
439
History of Missions
sect of Judaism (Acts 11:26). The missionary fusal to pay homage to the Roman gods. Their
journeys of Paul originated from this church, the loyalty to Christ alone as God earned them the
Holy Spirit directing the sending of Paul and name atheists since they would not acknowledge
Barnabas (Acts 13:2ff.), indicating where Paul the Roman pantheon of deities. Justin Martyr
and his team were forbidden to preach the gospel (c. 100165) was one of the early apologists who
(Acts 16:610). At the end of Acts Paul is in Rome sought to defend the Christian faith against mis-
preaching Christ unhindered while awaiting the representation. By the year 251, there is an esti-
disposition of the charges against him. mate of the Christian population in Rome num-
The early expansion of the church is a para- bering thirty thousand. The persecution did not
digm for understanding how the gospel traveled eliminate the church, as the clear testimony of the
around the world in the succeeding two millen- martyrs often bore eloquent witness to the reality
nia. Under the Pax Romana the gospel spread of the Christian faith. Because of their coura-
rapidly in the major centers of commerce and geous witness, Tertullian (c. 160/70c. 215/20)
government. Even during Jesus ministry, the could write that the blood of the martyrs is the
gospel had penetrated government circles (cf. seed of the church (see also MARTYRDOM).
Luke 8:3, where Joanna, the wife of Chuza, The gospel entered Egypt at an early date,
Herods steward, is numbered among the circle though again the original missionaries are not
that traveled with Jesus). Paul can write from known. Alexandria became a major Christian
Rome that the reason for his imprisonment is center with teachers like Clement (c. 150215)
well known in the palace (Phil. 1:13). This inter- and Origen (c. 185254) holding firmly to the
est in Christianity by the ruling authorities is in- biblical revelation but also recognizing Greek
dicative of the interaction that the gospel would philosophy as a preparation for the gospel. This
have throughout history. Up through the twenti- is the first example of discerning the seeds of a
eth century, the conversion of a ruler often meant pre-gospel understanding in a peoples culture as
gaining at least the nominal adherence of that a forerunner to evangelization. The results of
rulers subjects to Christianity. The close connec- both the Alexandrian model and applications of
tion between the rulers religion and the subjects the same principle throughout the history of the
adherence is particularly pronounced through to church have been debated. The danger of SYN-
the sixteenth century in Europe, and it is always CRETISM is ever present in such formulations.
common in close knit societies. Christianity spread quickly across Roman
The interaction of the gospel with commerce is North Africa among the educated colonial
something that is seen in Acts and has been re- classes. These were the first Latin-speaking
peated in various periods of missionary work. At churches in the world. There was some use of the
times the gospel was bad for business (Acts Punic language, brought by the Phoenicians who
16:19; 19:23ff.). The commercial motive drove had colonized Carthage, but it is not clear that
the sponsors of both Catholic and Protestant mis- the church ever penetrated to the Berber vernac-
sions. Another theme that is repeated is the in- ular of the villages and nomads. By not using the
teraction of the gospel with other religions. The heart language of the peasant population, it was
main rivals of the Christian faith in the first cen- assured that these groups would turn to Islam in
tury were the mystery religions; elements of these the seventh century. The major lesson learned
religions addressed similar questions answered from the experience in North Africa is that the
in the Christian gospel. There was a spiritual church needs to penetrate the common language
hunger that the gospel could meet. However, the of the people. While the church in this area pro-
pagan religions did not give in easily, necessitat- duced outstanding theologians, including the key
ing POWER ENCOUNTERS such as those in Acts (e.g. figure in Western theology, AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO,
6:8; 8:9ff.; 13:6ff.; 16:16ff.) the theological formulations did not stop the
The First 500 Years. As we do not know the rapid spread of Islam.
identity of the disciples who first preached to the The Donatist controversy, which revolved
Gentiles in Antioch, so we do not know who first around what was to be the churchs stand toward
preached the gospel in Rome. But Paul found be- those who deny the faith during times of perse-
lievers there to welcome him. The earliest con- cution, further weakened the church of North
verts were most likely from the lower classes. Africa. Nevertheless, from a missiological per-
However, during the persecution under the em- spective it is sobering to note the absence of
peror Domitian (c. A.D. 96), a cousin of the em- Christianity today in what had been an influen-
peror was put to death and his wife banished be- tial center.
cause of sacrilege, the usual charge against The earliest Christian kingdom was Edessa,
Christians. Some take this as an indication of the which was one of the sources for the spread of
penetration of the gospel to the highest reaches of the gospel in Armenia, the second Christian king-
society. At the end of the first century and dom. Tradition tells of the visit of the apostle
throughout the second century, severe persecu- Thomas to India. Such a voyage would have been
tions arose against Christians because of their re- possible; Roman coins found in India indicate a
440
History of Missions
trading pattern. The Mar Thoma (St. Thomas) These five hundred years were the time when the
Christians regard their origin in the ministry of church attempted to tame the barbarians and
the apostle. The church certainly was in India in make their conversion more than nominal. The
the first centuries of the Christian era. three key factors in this period were royal pa-
The conversion of the emperor Constantine tronage, martyrdom, and monasticism (see also
dramatically changed the picture for the develop- MONASTIC MOVEMENT).
ing church. From a persecuted minority, the Another challenge to Christendom came from
church became legal and then socially acceptable. Arabia, where Muhammad gathered his followers
The peace of the church from external persecu- and provided them with a sense of unity and mis-
tion provided the opportunity to solve its theolog- sion. They swept over Christian lands and within
ical disputes, a process in which the emperors a hundred years of Muhammads death, all of
from Constantine on took part. The trinitarian North Africa and most of Spain, as well as Pales-
and christological disputes gave rise to what are tine and Syria were under Muslim control.
sometimes called the Oriental Eastern churches, Checked for the first time by Charles Martel at
which adopted a doctrinal stance different from Tours in 732, Muslims still sacked Rome in 846.
the Chalcedonian formulas. These churches were Sicily was a Muslim country by 902. Finally in
missionary centers, with the NESTORIAN MISSION 1453, Constantinople itself fell to the Muslims,
movement reaching into China. ending over a thousand years of primacy in
Even before Christianity became recognized as Christendom.
the official religion of the Roman Empire (A.D. Yet in spite of perilous times, the church con-
333), the gospel had penetrated the western and tinued to be found in new places. Irish mission-
northern provinces of the empire. Irenaeus aries established monasteries on the rugged Scot-
(c. 130c. 200), bishop of Lyons, writes of using tish coast and evangelized Britain. At the same
Celtic as well as Latin in the church, which signi- time a mission was sent by Pope Gregory the
fies the presence of the church among the less Great to the Anglo-Saxons who had supplanted
educated population. When Christianity became the native Britons. In 596 Augustine and a party
the religion of the empire, more direct assaults of monks made their way to Kent, where Ethel-
could be made against paganism. However, the bert (c. 560616) was king. He had married
gain in legitimacy was at the expense of an in- Bertha, a Christian princess from Gaul and by
creasing nominalism. Monasticism was in part a the end of the year, Ethelbert and ten thousand
reaction to the lower standard of Christianity. Saxons were baptized. The Celtic missionaries
PATRICK (c. 389461) was captured by Irish had slightly different customs which had been
raiders from his home in England as a youth. preserved in their more isolated settings. While
After six years, he escaped and entered a these differences seem insignificant to modern
monastery in France. Persistent visions led him readers, it raised the question that reappears in
to return to Ireland at the age of forty-three, other ages: Who has the right to resolve differ-
where he labored until his death. When he began ences? In the end Rome prevailed, which set a
his work, Ireland was nearly entirely pagan but pattern that endured until the REFORMATION.
by the time he died, Ireland was largely Chris- The advance of the church was not without
tian. Later Celtic monks would be responsible for compromise, exemplified by Pope Gregory, who
evangelizing large parts of Europe (see CELTIC advised his missionaries to reconsecrate the
MISSIONARY MOVEMENT). pagan temples, destroying only the idols in them.
One of the turning points in Europe was the Likewise, pagan festivals were remade into Chris-
baptism of Clovis, king of the Franks. He had tian holy days and traditional religious customs
married (in 493) a Christian princess, Clotilda of baptized as Christian symbols. The origins of the
Burgundy, who did her best to convert him. Clo- Christmas tree, the Yule log, and even the tradi-
vis vowed if the Christian God would help him tional date of Christmas are examples of this
defeat his enemies, the Alemanni, he would con- ACCOMMODATION.
vert. On Christmas day 496 he was baptized There were POWER ENCOUNTERS between the
along with three thousand of his soldiers. Other missionaries and the indigenous people. BONI-
rulers had converted, but Clovis was the first to FACE, apostle to the Germans, felled the sacred
accept, to the extent he understood, the Catholic oak of Thor in Hesse. The gospel made a slow,
faith instead of Arianism. steady advance through Europe, though it is
The Dark Ages, 5001000. The classical world doubtful that the pagan influences were ever fully
was passing. The barbarians pouring out of the rooted out, surfacing again in folk stories of trolls
Central European plain overran western Europe. and fairies, with syncretism affecting church life.
The Vikings raided as far as Constantinople and Some peoples were more resistant to the gospel
terrorized Britain and northern Europe. Centers and many monks were martyred.
of learning were special targets because they The schism between the church in the eastern
were wealthy, yet even the horrors of these en- and western halves of the Roman Empire was
counters presented an opportunity for the gospel. not official until the bull of excommunication of
441
History of Missions
1054 and even then it was only the hierarchies preach before the Sultan of Egypt, who is re-
that were excommunicated. However, the drift ported to have said, If I meet any more Chris-
can be detected earlier in the different theologi- tians like you I will become one myself. The last-
cal foci that were developing. The importance for ing legacy of the Crusades is enmity between
missions is that the eastern church did not insist Muslims and Christians that exists to this day.
on the same linguistic unity that the western The rumored existence of a Christian kingdom
church did. It is significant that ULFILAS to the east of the Muslim-dominated lands
(c. 311383), the missionary bishop who trans- prompted speculation. Several expeditions were
lated the Bible for the Goths, was consecrated at undertaken to the Mongols, with varying degrees
Constantinople, though his Arianism keeps him of success. The Christian kingdom was not
from being claimed by the Eastern Orthodox. In found. However, the Mongols who ruled Central
the eighth century when CYRIL and METHODIUS Asia threatened the Muslim Empire, capturing
undertook missionary work among the Slavic- and destroying Baghdad in 1258 and reaching
speaking Moravians, they were opposed by mis- Damascus two years later. The Nestorian church
sionaries connected with the pope because of enjoyed a favorable position under the Mongols
their translation work. The three principles that it had not known before. But in the end the Mon-
these two brothers from Thessalonica put for- gols came under the Muslim culture and the op-
ward were the use of the vernacular in worship, portunity was lost to bring them into the realm of
the employment of indigenous clergy, and the the church.
eventual selfhood of the church. They traveled to The traveler Marco Polo brought back tales of
Rome, where they were able to celebrate the the Chinese Empire and a request from the
Slavonic liturgy in the popes presence. However, Kublai Khan for one hundred scholars to debate
when Methodius returned to Moravia as a the virtues of the Christian faith. JOHN OF MON-
bishop, he faced opposition and eventual expul- TECORVINO (c. 12471328), a Franciscan, under-
sion. Their disciples spread throughout the Slavic took the journey, reaching Beijing in 1294. By the
lands, giving rise to the circumstances that led to time of his death (1328), he had been joined by
the conversion of Vladimir in 988. PRINCE three other Franciscans and had been appointed
VLADIMIR, who was descended from Vikings, used
archbishop by the pope. John had baptized sev-
his authority to force his followers into the fold
eral thousand people; however, after his death,
of the church, thereby setting one of the patterns
the church in China declined because more mis-
for successive rulers of Russia. In spite of its be-
sionaries were not sent.
ginnings, the church in Russia has endured for
The Age of Discovery, 15001600. The Cru-
more than a thousand years, at times under re-
sades fueled a desire to reach the East by cir-
pressive rulers who tried to control it.
The Medieval World, 10001500. As the Chris- cumventing the lands under Muslim control.
tian church entered its second millennium, it was Voyages of exploration were undertaken to reach
a mainly European phenomenon. Vestiges of the the East Indies to secure a trade route for the
ancient churches existed in Muslim-controlled spices of the East and to attempt to find allies in
territory, the church had a foothold in India and the continuing crusade against Islam. Prince
Ethiopia, but the Nestorian work in China had Henry the Navigator (13941460) had sent crews
been suppressed. The Scandinavian peoples were down the coast of Africa. Christopher Columbus
initially resistant to the gospel, but by the late tried to reach the East by sailing west and de-
twelfth century, the church had been planted in sired to bring the benefits of Christianity as well
the Nordic lands. The paganism that had been as securing lands and riches for his patron, Is-
the religion was hard to suppress and still carries abelle, queen of Spain. In 1493, to settle a dispute
on in Nordic folklore. between two Catholic sovereigns, the pope di-
The CRUSADES are perhaps the least likely vehi- vided the world between the nations of Spain and
cle for missionary expansion in the history of the Portugal with the commission to bring the true
church. Conceived as an attempt to wrest control faith to the lands that they conquered. All the
of the Holy Land from the Muslims, the military lands west of the line were to belong to Spain,
adventures spanned two hundred years and re- those to the east to Portugal. When the line was
sulted in thousands of lives lost. The attempt to moved to the west a year later, Brazil came under
use force to convert unbelievers, while it had a Portugal. The conquest of the New World was ac-
seven-hundred-year tradition in the church, was complished with considerable violence by the
a failure, in part because the Crusaders found it conquistadors. Some of the missionaries to Span-
easier to kill the infidels than reason with them. ish America became vocal champions of the In-
The attempts to witness to Muslims by the hum- dians. The best known was Bartholomew de Las
ble FRANCIS OF ASSISI (11811226) and the schol- Casas (14741566), who petitioned the Spanish
arly RAYMOND LULL (c. 12351315) are bright throne for fair treatment of the Indians. Pedro
spots on an otherwise bleak landscape. Lull was Claver (15811654), a Jesuit, devoted his life to
martyred in North Africa. Francis managed to ministering to the African slaves brought to work
442
History of Missions
the plantations. It is said he baptized over three transport France, Spain, Italy or some other Eu-
hundred thousand slaves. ropean country to China.
When in 1534 IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA gathered In India ROBERT DE NOBILI (15771656) fol-
with his six friends to form the Jesuits, a potent lowed the methods of Ricci by adapting his
missionary force was launched. This new order method of presentation to Brahman customs.
was subject to the pope and devoted to the re- While he gained some success with the upper
conversion of heretics and the conversion of pa- castes, he faced opposition from other European
gans to the Catholic faith. By 1640 Jesuit mis- missionaries who accused him of theological
sionaries had been in most of the then known compromise. It was only when the lower castes
world. One of the original six, FRANCIS XAVIER, were the target of missionary work that what
was not only to become a famous Catholic mis- might be termed a MASS MOVEMENT occurred.
sionary, but arguably one of the greatest mission- With the decline of Spain and Portugal, France
aries of all time. Xavier first worked among the became the great Roman Catholic missionary
illiterate fisherfolk in India, but news of the po- source. French expeditions had priests with them
tential for evangelism in Japan led him there. who journeyed with the explorers into the inte-
One of Xavier s lasting contributions to mission- rior of North America, establishing missions
ary thinking arose out his experience in Japan. among the indigenous populations. In France a
His previous ministry among low-caste people nun of the Ursuline order, Mary of the Incarna-
did not prepare him for the advanced culture and tion, had a vision of missionary work in Canada.
traditions of the Japanese. Rather than tear down Arriving in Montreal in 1639, the first six mem-
everything in the culture, Xavier sought to refine bers of the order were the forerunners of the con-
and re-create elements of tradition. In some siderable involvement of nuns in missionary
ways, this is an extension of the policy carried work. In Paraguay Jesuits established self-suffi-
out during the evangelization of Europe when cient villages or reductiones in which they gath-
pagan customs were incorporated into the faith. ered their Indian converts. These were places of
It was to have great consequences and some con- safety to protect the converts from hostile tribes
troversy in the missionaries who followed Xavier. and the colonial slave traders. While the church
Another great innovative Catholic missionary was the center of the community life, from the
was MATTEO RICCI (15521610), who labored in standpoint of expansion of the church, the work
China. An expert clockmaker, he presented clocks among the Guaran was a failure because while
as gifts to the Chinese and when the clocks the Jesuits conducted their mission for more
needed to be wound he used the opportunity to than a century, they brought no candidate for the
preach. He dressed as a Confucian scholar and priesthood forward from the Indians.
allowed his converts to observe the rites that The second half of the eighteenth century saw
honored Confucius and the family. Riccis princi- the eclipse of Roman Catholic missions. Among
ple was to make the gospel as acceptable as pos- the reasons for this change was the evolving po-
sible to the Chinese and, judging by the number litical situation with Protestant nations becoming
of converts of high rank, he was successful. The world powers. In some countries a reaction
question of accommodation, however easy to against Christianity set in and many missionaries
enunciate, is extremely difficult to practice with- were martyred. The final blow was the suppres-
out compromising the gospel. sion of the Jesuits by Pope Clement XIV in 1773.
Roman Catholic Missions, 1600 to 1800. The The loss of their missionaries and influence was
advantages of the Padroado, which divided the at that time irreplaceable.
world between Spain and Portugal, meant that Eastern Orthodox Missions. After the Great
the missionaries could count on support, if not Schism (1054), the histories of the Western and
overly generous, from the colonial authorities. Eastern branches of Christianity drifted even far-
But it broke down because Portugal, whose pop- ther apart. The Tartar invasion was the crucible
ulation at the time was around one million, could that forged the Russian nation but it also hindered
not fulfill the missionary mandate. Thus in 1622 evangelism. However, there were notable mission-
Pope Gregory XV established the Sacred Congre- ary heroes of the Orthodox Church, all of whom
gation for the Propagation of the Faith to assume shared the same concern for the Bible and liturgy
the missionary task. Francesco Ingoli, the first to be in the language of the people. STEPHEN OF
head of the Propaganda, was a remarkable mis- PERM (134096) evangelized the Zyrians, reducing
sionary statesman. Ingoli pushed for the rapid their language to writing. MAKARIUS GLOUKAREV
development of indigenous clergy and the freeing (17921847) worked in the Altai Mountains, in-
of Christian work from colonial attachments. In corporating education and health care into his
1659 the Propaganda issued instructions to the missionary work and being one of the first to see
vicars apostolic (heads of missionary regions) not the ministry of women. Nicholas Illiminiski
to attempt to change customs of indigenous peo- (182191) was a linguist who became a brilliant
ples unless these practices were distinctly nonmissionary strategist. While he was never a mis-
Christian. What could be more absurd than to sionary in the traditional sense, he discovered that
443
G-H Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:47 AM Page 444
History of Missions
the use of Arabic script was reinforcing the Tar- tiny colony of Tranquebar. He turned to the cen-
tars allegiance to Islam rather than instructing ter of pietism in Halle in Germany for recruits.
them in Christianity. Illiminiski reduced the Tartar August Hermann Francke (16631727) selected
language to writing using Russian script and pro- two men, BARTHOLOMAEUS ZIEGENBALG and Henry
moted the use of vernacular languages to teach Plschau, who arrived on the field in 1706, the
Christian truth. INNOCENT VENIAMINOV (17971878) first non-Roman Catholic missionaries in India.
answered the missionary call to Russian Alaska, Ziegenbalg (16831719), with no precedence to
planting the church among the Aleuts. He also guide him, unerringly made the right choices and
adopted the use of the vernacular and was profi- the best of missionary work followed the princi-
cient in navigating his kayak around his island ples he laid down for Bible translation, an accu-
parish. After his wife died, he became a monk, tak- rate understanding of local culture, definite and
ing the name Innocent, and was made a mission- personal conversion, and development of indige-
ary bishop for the vast territory of Siberia. He nous clergy as quickly as possible. He saw the po-
ended his service to the Church by occupying the tential of using education to spread the gospel
highest office, metropolitan of Moscow. One of the because Christians must be able to read the Word
missionaries that he influenced was NICOLAS of God.
KASATKIN (18361912), who pioneered the Ortho- Another missionary leader influenced by
dox Church in Japan. Kasatkins method of mak- pietism was Count NICOLAUS LUDWIG VON ZINZEN-
ing each believer responsible to teach another per- DORF, who had welcomed the Unity of the
son mobilized the Japanese. Brethren who had been exiled from Moravia to
The common elements in these examples were settle on his estate at Herrnhut. Hearing that the
the use of the vernacular and the creation of an Danish mission to Greenland would likely be
indigenous clergy. abandoned, he proposed that the Moravians un-
The Beginnings of Protestant Missions. At the dertake the mission. August 21, 1732, is cele-
time of the Protestant Reformation, the countries brated by the Moravian churches as the begin-
that embraced the Reformation were not the ning of their missionary work. In addition to the
worlds dominant powers. Furthermore, internal work in Greenland, the Moravians sent mission-
squabbles as well as pressure from the Catholic aries to the West Indies and Surinam (see also
Church made missions impossible. The response MORAVIAN MISSIONS).
of the Reformers was to teach that the obligation The Great Century of Missions. The explosion
for missionary work had ceased with the apostles in Protestant missions coincided with the Euro-
(see also REFORMATION AND MISSION). There were pean mastery of speed in the form of the
notable exceptions, such as Justinian von Welz steamship and power in the form of the steam
(162168), who advocated missionary work. engine. As the European powers scrambled to
When Holland became a world power, chaplains carve out colonies in the rest of the world, so
were sent to its colonies. However, any mission- missionary interest in the spiritual welfare of
ary effort was to come after their primary task of these peoples increased. The voyages of Captain
meeting the needs of the colonists. Cook stirred WILLIAM CAREY, whose An Enquiry
The discovery of America prompted a new in- into the Obligations of Christians to use Means for
terest in reaching the Native American popula- the Conversion of Heathens (1792) was a stirring
tion. The charter of the colony of Massachusetts call to missions. Carey challenged the generally
included the statement that the principal purpose accepted theological notions that the missionary
of the plantation was to convert the natives to mandate had ceased. Carey (17611834) was a
Christianity. The first successful attempt was by shoemaker and schoolteacher. A self-taught man,
JOHN ELIOT (160490), who learned the language he is sometimes referred to as the father of mod-
of the Pequots and organized his converts into ern missions. This is not accurate, as Carey
Praying Towns so they could live Christian knew about the work of previous missionaries.
lives. He is remembered for his Bible translation However, Careys importance was as a forerunner
into the Indian language. DAVID BRAINERD in the English-speaking world which has pro-
(171847), a close friend of JONATHAN EDWARDS, duced in the time since Carey the overwhelming
also labored among the Indians. When he died, majority of Protestant missionaries. Landing in
exhausted by his labors, he left behind a diary India in 1793, he worked as a plantation man-
that influenced both WILLIAM CAREY and HENRY ager for five years. With the arrival of more Bap-
MARTYN. tist missionaries in 1799, the missionary work
The European missionary enterprise had its progressed.
start in the movement known as PIETISM. Pia Carey was persuaded to join JOSHUA MARSHMAN
Desideria written by Philip Jakob Spener outlined (17681837), a schoolteacher, and WILLIAM WARD
the necessity for personal conversion, holiness, (17691823), a printer, in establishing a station at
fellowship, and witness. As the movement grew the Danish enclave of Serampore, sixteen miles
in the churches, King Frederick IV of Denmark from Calcutta. They established a Baptist church
decided that he should send missionaries to his and engaged in preaching tours. Their great work
444
History of Missions
was in translation. In thirty years, six whole laffs work was not in vain as he made the outside
Bibles, twenty-three complete New Testaments, world aware of the provinces. Another result of
as well as Bible portions in ten additional lan- the opium trade and the entrance of missionaries
guages were printed. They were students of In- was the Tai Ping rebellion. Hung Hsiu-Chuan
dian culture, with Ward publishing a book on (181464) had received Christian literature from
Hindu culture in 1811. Liang Fah (17891855), the first ordained Chi-
While the SERAMPORE TRIO had education as nese Protestant pastor. Through a series of
one of their goals, it was ALEXANDER DUFF dreams he conceived of his destiny to reform
(180678) who opened the first English-speaking China through Christian principles as he under-
institution of higher education in India. Duffs stood them. The extent of his sects orthodoxy is
aims were both educational and evangelistic and debated, but he used the Lords Prayer and the
while he only saw thirty-three converts in eight- Ten Commandments, with the fifth enhanced to
een years, these were solid conversions. Duffs include filial piety and the seventh to prohibit
methods were widely copied in other areas. opium use. This peaceful movement was trans-
ADONIRAM JUDSON (17881850) was the pioneer formed between 1848 and 1853 into a revolution-
in Burma (Myanmar). ANN HAZELTINE JUDSON ary army that had its goal of overthrowing the
(17891826) was one of the first missionary hero- Manchu dynasty. Nanking was captured by the
ines, literally keeping her husband alive during rebels in 1853 and for eleven years was the capi-
his captivity in the Anglo-Burmese war. Judsons tal of Hungs dynasty. The imperial forces as-
work lived on in his translation of the Bible into sisted by the Western powers crushed the revolt.
Burmese. But a greater legacy was to be found in Ironically Charles Gordon, the British Army offi-
one of his converts, KO THA BYU, who brought cer who commanded the imperial troops, was as
the gospel to his own Karen people. The Karens much a Bible reader as Hung, whose printers
had a tradition of a Creator God whom they had had been distributing Morrisons translation at a
displeased because of their sin. The gospel told great rate.
them of a Savior who paid the price of their sin. The great visionary for China was JAMES HUD-
A mass movement occurred among the Karens. SON TAYLOR, who founded the CHINA INLAND MIS-
By no means the first missionary to Africa, SION to place missionaries in the interior of
DAVID LIVINGSTONE (181373) is known for his ex- China. His workers wore Chinese dress and
plorations and opposition to the slavery. Son-in- adapted as much as possible to the Chinese way
law to ROBERT MOFFAT (17951883), who served of life. Taylor accepted missionaries who had lit-
for forty-eight years among the Tswana people of tle formal education, which was a change from
Southern Africa, Livingstone was not content to the societies that were growing more profes-
stay in one place. Beckoned on by the smoke of sional. In most cases his recruits were fine mis-
a thousand villages that had never heard the sionaries and many became superior linguists.
gospel, he explored the interior. It was his con- He also had the mission headquarters in China
viction that only as Africa became Christian and so that the work could be directed by those who
developed economically could the horrors of the knew the local situation.
slave trade be stopped. The gospel had some success in China so that
Christianitys entrance into China was with the by the end of the nineteenth century there were
accompaniment of commercial interests. The about half a million adherents, but it also
first Protestant missionary in China was ROBERT spawned fear and resistance. China was still in
MORRISON (17821834). He arrived when it was turmoil, with foreign nations making more de-
illegal for missionaries to preach the gospel and mands and in some cases occupying territory.
was compelled to live in hiding. However, his flu- Opposition to foreigners and Christians exploded
ency in Chinese was so great that he became a in 1900 with the formation of Righteous Harmo-
translator for the East India Company. The trade nious Fists (Boxers), supported by the empress
in tea was causing an imbalance of payments for dowager. The Boxers killed Chinese Christians
the British as the Chinese demanded silver for and missionaries and destroyed mission property.
their tea. The answer for the British, who con- It was the greatest loss of missionaries lives to
trolled the areas that produced opium, was to that time. A military force from the Western pow-
force China to allow trade in the narcotic. Two ers finally suppressed the rebellion.
opium wars opened China to trade and allowed Missionary work in the twentieth century ex-
the residence of foreigners in China and trans- panded dramatically. The Bible was translated
ferred Hong Kong to Britain. KARL F. A. GTZLAFF into more languages. As the Bible was made
(180351) envisioned a grand strategy for evan- available in Africa, the phenomenon of separatist
gelizing the interior of China by employing native churches erupted. The result of a vision of their
agents as colporteurs (see COLPORTAGE) and evan- founder, such as the Church of SIMON KIMBANGU,
gelists. Unfortunately, his agents were not always these groups which are variously called Zionist
trustworthy and did not carry out the missionary or Ethiopian are conveniently referred to as
work for which they were paid. However, Gtz- African Independent Churches to indicate their
445
History of Missions
nonmissionary origin. Their doctrines are typi- work. He edited the findings of that commission,
cally a mixture of traditional African cultures and published as Re-thinking Missions (1932), and
the biblical revelation. These indigenized forms wrote the chapter on General Principles. This
of Christianity engaged the concerns of the peo- chapter proved quite controversial because Hock-
ple and provided an answer to a population tran- ing wrote that every religion contains a germ of
sitioning to the pressures of the modern world religious truth and that world religions and Chris-
(see AFRICAN INITIATED CHURCH MOVEMENT). tianity should stimulate each other in religious
The twentieth century was also marked by a growth. Hockings views prompted Hendrik Krae-
worldwide charismatic phenomenon, that grew mer to write The Christian Message in a Non-
out of the Holiness movement. This renewal, Christian World in rebuttal. In later years Hocking
which resulted in the formation of Pentecostal tried to clarify his views on the relationship of
denominations, provided a fresh impetus for mis- Christianity to world religions in his books, Living
sionary work. The outbreak of charismatic activ- Religions and a World Faith (1940) and The Com-
ity in the older traditional denominations has ing World Civilization (1956). In these books he
prompted a new interest in spreading a gospel of stated that he believed Christianity was the best
power encounters with the forces of evil (see also suited to be the world religion.
PENTECOSTAL MISSIONS). JOHN MARK TERRY
In this survey of expansion of the church, sev-
Bibliography. W. E. Hocking, Re-thinking Missions:
eral themes have reappeared. The Bible, in the
A Laymens Inquiry After One Hundred Years; K. S. La-
vernacular of the people, is a powerful force for tourette, CDCWM, p. 254.
transformation of societies. Empowerment of
converts, either by recognizing them as leaders
through ordination or through separatist move- Hodges, Melvin Lyle (190988). American mis-
ments, is the way the church grows in a culture. sionary to Nicaragua and El Salvador. Hodges
The contagious sharing of what has been experi- name is synonymous with missiology done from
enced in Christ empowered by the Holy Spirit, ei- a Pentecostal perspective. His classic work, The
ther by missionaries or converts, is the key to Indigenous Church, published in 1953, was the
church growth. first booklength volume on missiology published
JAMES J. STAMOOLIS
by a Pentecostal.
Hodges received missionary appointment as an
Bibliography. J. Beeching, An Open Path: Christian Assemblies of God missionary in 1935. He spent
Missionaries 15151914; S. Bolshakoff, The Foreign Mis- his missionary career in Central America work-
sions of The Russian Orthodox Church; A. J. Broomhall, ing primarily in Nicaragua and El Salvador. The
Hudson Taylor and Chinas Open Century; J. Du Plessis,
Indigenous Church is a clear missiological reflec-
A History of Christian Missions in South Africa;
F. Dvornik, Byzantine Missions Among The Slavs; H. M. tion deeply influenced by the writings of ROLAND
Goodpasture, Cross and Sword: An Eyewitness History ALLEN and clearly Pentecostal in its understand-
of Christianity in Latin America; C. P. Groves, The Plant- ing of the role of the Holy Spirit and missionary
ing of Christianity in Africa; M. Jarrett-Kerr, Patterns of activity. The significant growth of Pentecostals in
Christian Acceptance: Individual Response to the Mis- Central America during the last decades of the
sionary Impact 15501950; S. Neill, Colonialism and twentieth century must acknowledge Hodges ef-
Christian Missions; idem, A History of Christian Mis- forts to champion strong evangelistic churches
sions; K. S. Latourette, A History of the Expansion of whose capability to indigenize their Pentecostal
Christianity; idem, Christianity in a Revolutionary Age:
faith has been central to their vitality and contin-
The 19th and 20th Centuries; S. H. Moffett, A History of
Christianity in Asia; D. Roberts, American Women in ued growth.
Mission; E. Smirnoff, A Short Account of The Historical Recognition of Hodges missiological contribu-
Development And Present Position of Russian Orthodox tion by those outside Pentecostal ranks was ex-
Missions; B. Stanley, The Bible And The Flag: Protestant emplified in a 1963 invitation by DONALD MC-
Missions and British Imperialism in the Nineteenth and GAVRAN to be part of the first Church Growth
Twentieth Centuries; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ; idem, GGC; A. F. lectures sponsored by the Institute of Church
Walls, The Missionary Movement in Christian History; Growth.
M. Warren, The Missionary Movement from Britain in Retiring from full-time missionary service in
Modem History.
1973, Hodges became professor of missions at
the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary
Hocking, William Ernest (18731966). American where he served until 1986.
professor of philosophy at Harvard University and BYRON D. KLAUS
missions researcher. Well known for his works on
the philosophy of religion, in missions he Bibliography. G. B. McGee, BDCM, p. 296.
achieved fame as chair of the Commission on Ap-
praisal of the Laymens Foreign Missions Inquiry. Hoekendijk, Johannes Christiaan (191275).
In this capacity he traveled throughout Asia in Indonesian-born Dutch missiologist. Hoekendijk
193132 to study American Protestant missionary spent his early years in western Java, where his
446
Holiness
father served as a missionary. At the age of eight- Scripture, a great variety of items can be holy:
een, he attended missionary training school in cities (Matt. 4:5); ground (Acts 7:33); buildings
Oegstgeest in the Netherlands followed by doc- (1 Kings 8:611); created beings (Mark 8:38); hu-
toral studies at the State University of Utrecht mans (2 Peter 1:32); the law (Rom. 7:12); and
(193641). His goals of finishing his dissertation bodies of believers (Rom. 12:1). It would appear
and serving as a missionary in Indonesia were in- that any object, place, person, or act can be holy
terrupted by World War II. In 1940, he married when used in the purpose of God.
and, though appointed as a missionary, had to Holiness is also a quality of character. It im-
wait out the war to travel to his assignment. In plies a disposition and attitude toward those
the meantime, he served the Dutch resistance things consistent with the nature of God. Believ-
movement. In 1945 he arrived in Indonesia, but, ers are commanded to be holy like God himself
to his lasting disappointment, ill health forced (1 Peter 1:15) and therefore holiness is the norm
his return to Holland in 1946. for standard of conduct. Holiness, however, must
Hoekenjijk is remembered as an ecumenical never be confused with religiousness or self-
theologian who made proposals with a seculariz- righteousness.
ing focus in the 1950s and 1960s. He opposed In mission, the focus on holiness has two
centering our view of Gods work in the world equally significant dimensions. On the one hand,
through the church (ecclesiocentrism or missionaries must protect themselves from im-
church-ism), instead postulating that we should purities which will affect the way they are seen
focus on the secular world as the place of Gods
by the people who are being reached. Since the
action. He did this by calling for a shift in focus
missionaries represent God to the people to
from the church to a world in need of SHALOM.
whom they are ministering, lifestyle and attitude
He did not think that the church was unimpor-
are to be compatible with God. This may require
tant, but rather that it was only an instrument of
God instead of the focus of Gods attention. special sensitivity toward particularly offensive
A. SCOTT MOREAU
practices in each culture.
A significant danger for missionaries is that
Bibliography. B. Hoedemaker, IBMR 19:3 (1995): one must be careful that the holiness presented is
16670. according to Gods definition and character and
not according to ones own culturally conditioned
Holiness. In Scripture, the term holiness most assumptions (see GUILT). Jesus shocked his gen-
commonly derives from the Hebrew word qadash eration by being a friend of sinners (Matt.
or the Greek word hagios. The issue of holiness, 11:19). This judgment against him was based
however, must begin with understanding the holy upon culturally defined religious values and not
God who determines the standard for holiness. by Gods heart and will for lost people. Jesus kept
The concept of holiness is to be developed via the himself pure from immorality and did not sin in
self-revelation of Gods character and nature (see any fashion, but he also kept himself pure from
DIVINE ATTRIBUTES OF GOD). In conveying the idea the religious hypocrisy of his day.
of holiness in missions, it must be supposed that The second dimension of missiological holi-
some cultures may not think of moral and ethical ness is separation from cultural influences in the
issues by the norms assumed by the missionary field of service. There are always dangers related
(see ETHICS) and therefore the concept of holiness to striving for acceptance by the people to whom
must be introduced by understanding and imi- one is ministering, especially in a foreign culture
tating the holiness of God. It is for this reason (see EXTENT OF MISSIONARY IDENTIFICATION). Mis-
Peter reminds the church of the same responsi-
sionaries are trained and conditioned to be cul-
bility which Israel had, that is, all of Gods people
turally relevant. This could possibly lead to un-
are to be like God in holiness: You shall be holy
knowingly compromising the holy standards of
for I am holy (1 Peter 1:16; Lev. 11:44).
God in order to be admitted into the new com-
In the New Testament, the Greek hagios occurs
more than 200 times and has as its basic mean- munity. Gods standards and character must al-
ing separation. A cognate word, hagiazom, used ways be in focus and the missionary must be able
25 times in the New Testament, often means to to evaluate each situation to guard Gods holi-
purify or to cleanse. This can be seen in the Old ness. The highest goal is not to be accepted by
Testament qadash as well. Israel is told to be holy the new culture, but to correctly demonstrate
because God is holy, and they were therefore to Gods holy character to those who must under-
be separate from the practices and attitudes of stand Gods message of sin and salvation.
the Canaanite people around them. Thus it must L. E. GLASSCOCK
be assumed that the basic concept behind holi- Bibliography. B. A. Demarest, BEB, I:98485;
ness is separation from those things which God E. Russell, ZPBD, pp. 35758; A. J. Saldarini, HBD, pp.
has determined to be impure or those things 26465; H. Seebass, NIDNTT, II:22338; R. H. Strachan,
which God has separated out for his own use. In DAC, 1:56671; W. I. Thomas, The Mystery of Godliness.
447
Holiness Missions
Holiness Missions. See WESLEYAN/HOLINESS wanted words, the starting point is often deed or
MISSIONS. sign. Both deed and sign need explaining; in this
way the Word that brings faith is received (Rom.
Holism, Biblical. Holism is the philosophy that 10:17).
the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In There is room for all the gifts of the Spirit in
reaction, holism, explained biblically, has been holistic mission. The best missionary teams are
claimed as a unifying concept within the Chris- groups of diversely gifted people representing the
tian worldview. three dimensions of mission. The Christian
The Greek word holos, meaning whole, wholly, community is to be a sign of the kingdom in
or complete is used by Matthew (5:2930), Luke which evangelism, social action and the Spirit
(Acts 3:16), John (9:34), James (1:4), and Paul are present and inseparably related (McAlpine).
(1 Thess. 5:23). Jesus (John 7:23) and Peter (Acts As a result, a new focus is needed in training.
3:16) are quoted using it. The English wholly This focus involves an orientation to kingdom
and holy (Greek hagios), frequently confused, wholeness, giving as much weight to sign and
are not the same, although the latter is impossi- deed as to Word.
ble without the former. The Hebrew word closest Finally, biblical holism in mission is a call to re-
to holos is possibly shalom. hearing Scripture in community, putting process
Biblical holism is based on Christs lordship before program, people before structure, context
over every part of lifewhere people who are in before tradition, and having a commitment to
right relationship with God and one another (re- continual learning. Wherever this is happening
lationship), are responsibly managing the re- people are entering the kingdom of Christ.
JOHN STEWARD
sources entrusted by him (stewardship), in ways
that show that those resources belong to God SEE ALSO Evangelism and Social Responsibility.
(ownership).
Sin also affects life holistically: relationships Bibliography. B. Bradshaw, Bridging the Gap; D. J.
Hesselgrave, EMQ 35:3 (1999): 27884; T. McAlpine,
are broken, stewardship is affected, and Gods By Word, Work and Wonder; B. Myers, EMQ 35:3
ownership is ignored or usurped (Gen. 3:110). (1999): 28587; J. Steward, Where God, People and
Every part of life shows the pain of the fall (Gen. Deeds Connect.
3:1424). Redemption is about reversing the ef-
fects of the fall; it is multidimensional (Isa. Holistic Mission. Holistic mission is concerned
42:67). with ministry to the whole person through the
God called the community of Israel to a transforming power of the gospel. While holistic
shalom life (Mic. 6:8) that G. E. Wright sees as a mission affirms the functional uniqueness of
paradigm or model for the holistic kingdom liv- evangelism and social responsibility, it views
ing of the New Testament community. The prom- them as inseparable from the ministry of the
ises of a redeemed humanity and a new heaven kingdom of God. Therefore, holistic mission is
and earth (Rom. 8:1823; Rev. 21:15) reflect the intentional integration of building the church
Gods desire for the ultimate wholeness in the and transforming society.
creation. If God acts holistically from Genesis to Scriptural Foundation. Holistic mission be-
Revelation, dare we do less than that? gins with creation in perfect harmony under the
Mission is then no longer seen in terms of pri- lordship of God (Gen. 12) and humans in rela-
orities, but as parts of a whole. The scope of the tionship with their Creator as stewards of his cre-
gospel is the same as the scope of sin and its ef- ation (Gen. 1:2730). The entry of sin and conse-
fects. Because sin is holistic, it is imperative that quent judgment affected every aspect of creation
the gospel be holistic (Athyal). (Gen. 3; Rom. 3:23; 6:23), yet God did not aban-
We discover three dimensions of the whole don humankind but sought to redeem them by
gospel: words proclaim the truth of God (the tra- calling out a people for himself (Gen. 12:13;
ditional focus of evangelicals); signs proclaim the Exod. 15:213). His people were to be an obedi-
power of God (most loved by Pentecostals and ent and holy nation (Exod. 19:56), living as
charismatics); and deeds proclaim the love of God stewards of the land he gave them (Deut. 4:18,
(a strength of liberals and social activists). Each is 3240), so that in obedience they might enjoy
a part of the Good News, but the gospel is not long life (Deut. 6:13). The law prescribed the
fully proclaimed until all three dimensions are ex- theological, social, and economic dimensions of
perienced and understood; it is both the truth Gods rule, symbolized by the Hebrew word
and love and the power of God (Hathaway). SHALOM (Mal. 2:5).
Any of the three dimensions is an appropriate The record of Gods people is one of struggle
starting point for mission: word is for those who and failure to maintain their allegiance, resulting
need to know, deed is for those who need to have, in judgment (2 Kings 17:720; 2 Chron.
sign is for those who need to experience the 36:1519). During this period, the prophets de-
power of God. Since we live in a world full of un- nounced Israel for her sins (Isa. 5:17; Amos
448
Holy See
2:616), calling her to live according to Gods will Current literature is exploring the biblical na-
(Jer. 22:35; Hos. 6:6; Mic. 6:8). The failure that ture of transformation, the effects of differing
resulted in judgment also held the promise that a worldviews, and the churchs role in development.
redeemer would come who would establish the The internationalization of missions (see GLOBAL-
kingdom characterized by shalom (Isa. 2:4; 9:67; IZATION) and the increased cooperation among or-
42:14; Jer. 31:3134). ganizations have functionally expanded the view
Throughout his ministry, Jesus announced the of the churchs role in the world and the necessity
kingdom (Mark 1:15; Luke 16:16). As the fulfill- for a greater understanding of holistic mission.
ment of the prophetic hope, Jesus brought DOUGLAS MCCONNELL
shalom (Luke 1:3233, 79; 2:14), which includes
Bibliography. B. Bradshaw, Bridging the Gap: Evan-
reconciliation with God through repentance gelism, Development and Shalom; T. H. McAlpine, By
(Matt. 4:16) leading to salvation (John 1:118; Word, Work and Wonder; J. Matthews, EMQ 35:3 (1999):
3:16) and transformed relationships (Matt. 57; 29098; D. Miller, EMQ 35:3 (1999): 299302;
Luke 6; John 13:3435). In establishing the king- A. Nichols, ed., The Whole Gospel for the Whole World;
dom, Jesus reclaimed that which was lost in the R. J. Sider, One-sided Christianity? Uniting the Church
fall (Matt. 13:3133) and called his followers to to Heal a Lost and Broken World; J. Steward, Biblical
do the same (John 20:21). The church, as the Holism: Where God, People and Deeds Connect; T. B. Ya-
community of Gods redeemed people (Matt. mamori, B. Myers, and D. Conner, eds., Serving with the
Poor in Asia: Cases in Holistic Ministry; C. J. H. Wright,
18:20; Rom. 12:58; 1 Cor. 12; Eph. 4:116;
Living as the People of God.
1 Peter 4:1011), is called to fulfill the mission of
Christ in creation (Eph. 1:2023; 3:1011).
Holistic mission is the commitment to all that Hollenweger, Walter Jacob (1927 ). Swiss the-
the church is called to do, which includes the ologian, missiologist, and dramatist. Born in
GREAT COMMISSION (Matt. 28:1820) and the Antwerp into a Swiss family, Hollenweger was
GREAT COMMANDMENT (Matt. 22:3740). raised in Zurich. Though she was Swiss Re-
Critical Issues. Central to the concerns of ho- formed, his mother attended the Swiss Pente-
listic mission is the relationship between evan- costal Mission, where Hollenweger met his future
gelism and social responsibility. The contempo- wife. In 194849 he attended the International
rary concern arose out of the fundamentalist and Bible Training Institute at Leamington Spa, En-
liberal movements of the early twentieth century. gland. A successful Pentecostal pastor and evan-
The liberal movement moved toward a conciliar gelist, he saw his congregation increase from 300
position with other religions and away from the to 1,500 members, but left in 1958 because he dis-
issue of conversion, emphasizing cooperation on agreed with the narrow teachings of the denomi-
issues of social concern. In a strong reaction nation. Following theological studies at the Uni-
against the social gospel, evangelical missions versity of Zurich, he was ordained in the Swiss
emphasized the UNIQUENESS OF CHRIST as the only Reformed Church.
way of salvation and made evangelism the pri- In 1965 Hollenweger was appointed secretary
mary emphasis of the MISSIONARY TASK. of evangelism for the WCC, and in 1966 received
Evangelical concern over the relationship be- a Th.D. from the University of Zurich for his sur-
tween evangelism and social concern has convey of the worldwide Pentecostal movement. In
tributed to the multiplication of specialized or- 1971 he became the first occupant of the chair of
ganizations. This dichotomy has been reflected in mission studies at the University of Birmingham
the traditional evangelical missions emphases on and the Selly Oak Colleges. His approach to the-
evangelism and church planting despite their ology combined critical thinking with narrative
widespread involvement in education, health, forms from oral cultures, which included theo-
and development. Growing out of the concerns logical stories, plays, and musicals. Considered a
for social needs, evangelical relief and develop- world authority on the Pentecostal movement and
ment organizations have multiplied. Unlike tra- intercultural theology, Hollenweger created and
coedited the series Studies in the Intercultural His-
ditional missions, the relief and development
tory of Christianity. With numerous books and ar-
groups have concentrated on physical and social
ticles to his credit, he devoted his retirement to
needs, cooperating with other groups in their ef-
writing theological plays and musicals.
forts (see also DEVELOPMENT).
KENNETH D. GILL
In the past two decades a shift has occurred,
which is evident by comparing the Lausanne Bibliography. W. J. Hollenweger, IRM 75 (Jan. 1986):
Covenant (1974) with the Manila Manifesto 312; idem, The Pentecostals; J. A. B. Jongeneel, ed.,
(1989). Both documents focus on evangelism, yet Pentecost, Mission, and Theology.
the latter emphasizes the issue of the whole
gospel, demonstrating the wide acceptance of so- Holy See (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,000; 0.44 sq. km.
cial concern as an integral part of the Good News [0.17 sq. mi.]). The worlds smallest country, the
of Christ. Holy See (Vatican City) is located within Rome,
449
Holy See
Italy. Established in 1929 by the signing of the The prophets are keenly aware of the role of
Lateran Agreements with Italy, the Holy See was the Spirit as they call Israel to holiness. But the
created to ensure the continuing existence of a prophets are especially sensitive to the Spirits
geographic base from which international sover- work during the age to come of which they often
eignty of the Roman Catholic Church could be prophesy. The Servant of the Lord, who will
exercised. Its citizens are almost exclusively usher in this age, will be filled with the Spirit to
Catholic hierarchical figures. accomplish a worldwide mission (Isa. 11:1: 42:1;
EDITORS 61:1). The Spirit will give Gods people a new
heart and empower them (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26;
Holy Spirit. The Spirit of God appears in Scrip- Joel 2:2832).
ture from creation (Gen. 1:2) to re-creation (Rev. The Holy Spirit in the New Testament. The
22:17); from the Old Covenant (Exod. 31:3) to the sharp sense of discontinuity felt when moving
New Covenant (Acts 2:14; Titus 3:5); and, wher- from the Old Testament to the New Testament is
ever he appears he is the creative, dynamic life alleviated somewhat by the role of the Holy Spirit
force of the Triune God. Who he is and how he in the life of Jesus. The degree to which the Holy
functions becomes progressively known in the Spirit appears in the life of the early church, in
unfolding of salvation history. Throughout salva- Pauls letters, and in all parts of the New Testa-
tion history the Spirit empowers the people of ment is truly impressive. Jesus made it clear that
God in making God known and experienced. The his departure would be advantageous over his
New Testament makes clear his deity and co- personal presence (Luke 24:49; John 16:515;
Acts 1:8). The Spirit of God in the Old Testament
equality with the Father and Son (Matt. 28:19;
quickly becomes known as the Holy Spirit in the
Eph. 4:46).
New Testament. He is the gift of the Father, also
The word ruah appears some 377 times in the
called the Spirit of God, the Spirit of Jesus, or the
Old Testament and can refer to breath, wind, or
Spirit of the Lord. The New Testament writers
spirit while the word pneuma appears some 387
can refer to the Holy Spirit on a par with the Fa-
times in the New Testament and can be translated
ther and Son without any need of explaining this
by the same words. Approximately 350 times
as a radical idea. The Holy Spirit is the sine qua
these words refer to the Holy Spirit with slightly
non of the Good News (Acts 2:38; Gal. 3:2).
less than 100 of these occurring in the Old Testa- Jesus and the Spirit. Jesus mission cannot be
ment. The Holy Spirit is especially prominent at explained apart from the Holy Spirit. The Spirit
redemptive and revelational moments. He gives launches Jesus into mission, leads him, fills him,
skill in building the tabernacle (Exod. 31: 15); in- anoints him, and gives him joy (Mark 1:10, 12;
spires national and prophetic leaders (Num. Luke 4:1, 18; 10:21). The Spirits presence in his
11:2426; 1 Sam. 16:13; Ezek. 2:2); anoints Jesus life cannot be measured (John 3:34). All the
for his mission (Luke 4:18); and empowers the Gospel writers stress the empowering presence of
apostles in proclamation of the gospel to Jews the Holy Spirit in Jesus ministry of preaching,
and Gentiles (Acts 2:1421; 13:14) healing the sick, casting out demons, and reliev-
The Spirit of God in the Old Testament. The ing suffering. The Spirits presence in the life of
Spirit makes his presence manifest during Israels Jesus confirms for John the Baptist his messi-
movement into nationhood, in clarifying and ap- ahship (John 1:33). John, as well as Jesus, stresses
plying the Law, and as the promised Spirit who the importance of the Holy Spirit in the apostles
will empower Gods Messiah and make the New mission (Luke 3:16; John 20:22; Acts 1:8).
Covenant possible. The Holy Spirit as the Missionary Spirit. Mis-
Gods command that Israel build a tabernacle sion as glorifying God through reconciliation
brings forth the Spirits creativity and power for places the Spirit at the center of salvation history.
skill in workmanship and wisdom in interpreting The statement that the Spirit of the LORD came
and applying the Law (Exod. 31:3; Num. 11:16). upon David in power (1 Sam. 16:13) clarifies
The Spirit is actively involved as Israel attains na- Davids statement to Goliath: Ill strike you down
tionhood. The Spirit of the Lord came upon Oth- and cut off your head . . . the whole world will
niel, Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson, enabling know that there is a God in Israel (1 Sam. 17:46).
them to deliver Israel from the oppression of the The Spirit comes upon, falls on, clothes and
nations (Judg. 3:10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:19). The Spirit enables judges, prophets, and kings to lead, war,
of the Lord came upon Saul with power and he prophesy, and make God known to the world.
prophesied (1 Sam. 10:511). The Spirit later hu- The new age will be characterized by Gods em-
miliates him when Saul strips off his clothes and powering presence through the Spirit. The Mes-
prophesies (1 Sam. 19:2324). The Spirit came siah, the apostles, and all post-Pentecost disciples
upon David with power (1 Sam. 16:13). When are people of the Spirit. While the entire New
David sins he pleads: Do not . . . take your Holy Testament is Spirit-imprinted, John, Paul, and
Spirit from me (Ps. 51:11). Luke have the most profound pneumatology.
450
Holy Spirit
John: The Spirit as Jesus Presence. Without guished (Gal. 1:1117). Pauls personal call to
question Johns pneumatology is the most commission cannot be traced to the Spirit, but the
plex, rich, and exact of all the Gospel accounts. Spirit is an eschatological gift, who longs for the
In Johns theology the Holy Spirit is the other conversion of the Gentiles (Rom. 15:822). Paul
Jesus (14:1617, 26). The Holy Spirit will replace emphasizes the power of the Holy Spirit in his
Jesus, giving an even greater sense of Gods pres- mission (1 Thess. 1:56). It is the Holy Spirits
ence, teaching the disciples and giving them di- power manifested by signs and wonders that
vine illumination (16:415). confirms his apostleship and authenticates his
While Johns pneumatology informs mission, mission (2 Cor. 12:12). The Holy Spirit gives gifts
three passages in particular provide a clear view to every Christian, enabling each to minister for
of the relationship of the Spirit and mission. God (1 Cor. 12:7).
John the Baptist sees Jesus anointed for mission Luke: The Spirit as the Missionary Spirit. What-
during his baptism and God reveals to him that ever other contributions Luke makes, he is a mis-
Jesus will be known as he who baptizes with the sionary theologian and the centerpiece of his
Spirit (1:33). When giving the apostles the GREAT missionary theology is the Holy Spirit. Lukes
COMMISSION, Jesus breathed on them, and said, focus on the Holy Spirit as the missionary Spirit
Receive the Holy Spirit (20:22). Just as God begins with the announcement of Johns birth to
breathed into Adam the breath of life, so Jesus Zechariah (1:1316). While the full manifestation
breathes on his disciples. The most detailed out- of the Holy Spirit awaits Pentecost, an unprece-
line of the Spirits ministry in the lives of those dented outburst of charismatic activity occurs at
hearing the gospel is outlined by John in 16:811. the birth and launching of Jesus mission.
The Spirit will convict the world of guilt in re- Zechariah, Elizabeth, John the Baptist, Simeon,
gard to sin and righteousness and judgment. and Jesus are all filled with the Holy Spirit (1:41,
These three themessin, righteousness, and 67; 2:2627). Mary, Zechariah, Simeon, and Anna
judgmentfind a significant place in John. manifest the presence of the Holy Spirit by
Johns designation of the source of this convic- prophetic activity (1:45, 67; 2:2832, 38).
tion as the world indicates the mission applica- In Jesus life the Holy Spirit descended on him
tion of this passage. in bodily form as he was praying after his bap-
Paul: The Spirit as the Eschatological Gift. Paul tism (3:2122). He returns from the Jordan full
is the theologian of the Holy Spirit. His letters are of the Spirit and was led by the Spirit in the
saturated with references to the Holy Spirit. Most desert, (4:1). After defeating the devil and defin-
of Pauls 145 uses of pneuma refer to the Holy ing the nature of his mission, he returned to
Spirit. Paul uses the name Holy Spirit about six- Galilee in the power of the Spirit (4:14). In the
teen times. His favorite word is Spirit, leading to synagogue of Nazareth, Jesus took the scroll of
some doubt on how best to translate some of his Isaiah and read these words: The Spirit of the
references. For example, the NIV translators see Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to
the Holy Spirit in Romans 1:4 and 2:29, but the preach the good news to the poor (4:18).
majority of the NRSV translators see spirit here. Concluding his mission through death and res-
For Paul the Spirit is Gods eschatological gift, urrection, Jesus commands his disciples to re-
who cannot be understood apart from the Good main in Jerusalem for the empowering they
News. The Spirit initiates a person into Christ would need to fulfill his worldwide mission
through regeneration (Titus 3:5), seals the person (24:49; Acts 1:45, 8). Pentecost comes ten days
until the day of redemption (Eph. 1:13), assures after Jesus ascension with mighty signs from
the Christian of family life (Rom. 8:14), and en- heaven, enabling all those present to witness
ables the Christian to live the Christian life (Gal. powerfully and persuasively. Peters words from
5:16, 22, 25). The church is the temple of the Joel emphasize the eschatological nature of this
Holy Spirit, receives gifts from the Holy Spirit outpouring. The Holy Spirit has now been
(1 Cor. 12), and makes Jews and Gentiles one poured out on all of Gods people, giving them
body (Eph. 2:1922). the ability to prophesy, leading people to call
But some find Pauls rich theology of the Spirit upon the name of the Lord (Acts 2:1718, 21).
incomplete or inadequate on mission. Why does The Holy Spirit is the missionary Spirit, sent
Paul say so little about the Spirits missionary from the Father by the exalted Jesus, empower-
role? Is the Spirit a missionary Spirit for Paul? ing the church in fulfilling Gods intention that
Pauls call and commission comes from a revela- the gospel become a universal message, with
tion (Gal. 1:16). Pauls theological center can be Jews and Gentiles embracing the Good News.
found in eschatology. For Paul this new age has The Spirit leads the mission at every point, em-
dawned through the resurrection of Christ and powering the witnesses and directing them in
the coming of the Holy Spirit (Gal. 1:15; 4:47). preaching the gospel to those who have never
Pauls conversion and call to mission, coming heard, enabling them with signs and wonders.
apocalyptically through his post-Easter experi- Conclusion. Scripture is clear and emphatic:
ence with the risen Jesus, cannot be distin- The Holy Spirit is God the missionary Spirit. He
451
Holy Spirit
broods over emptiness and formlessness. Whether the faithful and their giving, and had to deal with
in the life of Israel, Jesus, or the church, the Spirit the difficulty of breaking established emotional
empowers the people of God in proclaiming and ties and setting down roots in a new community.
witnessing to the nations. He is the eschatological Local churches, denominations, and independent
gift of God, enabling Christians to experience the organizations began concentrated programs for
already of the kingdom of God while living in starting new churches. Unfortunately, these pro-
the present evil age. The Spirit constantly moti- grams were confined primarily to white, middle-
vates and empowers the church in reaching the class, English-speaking communities.
unreached. As home missions took on new life with the
HAROLD G. DOLLAR challenge of starting congregations in the sub-
urbs, the downside was that a whole new mission
SEE ALSO Fruit of the Spirit; Gifts of the Spirit. field was created in the cities. With so many peo-
Bibliography. H. Boer, Pentecost and Mission; ple leaving the urban centers, churches that re-
C. Brown, NIDNTT, III:689709; F. W. Dillistone, The mained dwindled in size until many closed their
Theology of the Christian Mission, pp. 6980; G. D. Fee, doors and others became shadows of the past.
Gods Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Let- Even as the vacuum of evangelical witness in-
ters of Paul; G. W. H. Lampe, Studies in the Gospels: Es- creased in size, the urban mission field was
says in Memory of R. H. Lightfoot, pp. 159200; R. Men- growing and changing. Houses and apartments
zies, The Development of Early Christian Pneumatology: that previously held one family of five or six peo-
With Special Reference to LukeActs; R. Stronstad, The
Charismatic Theology of St. Luke; B. B. Warfield, Bibli-
ple became home for three or four families with
cal and Theological Studies, pp. 12756. twenty or more people. The sounds of different
languages were heard. Cultural interests and
practices changed. Old businesses relocated, with
Home Assignment. See FURLOUGH.
new and different businesses replacing them.
While new life was burgeoning in the commu-
Home Missions. The distinction between home nity, church buildings stood dark and empty.
and foreign missions is primarily that of distance Other changes in home missions taking place
and travel. Unfortunately, the distinction too during the postwar era included growing min-
often involved philosophy, qualifications, fi- istries such as college/university, high school, and
nances, and sense of importance. For these rea- Christian camping. At the same time, two factors
sons, missions in America has had an interesting reduced or eliminated many social programs
past and now has a most intriguing future. which had been part of home missions. These
For the first two hundred years, most home were (1) the increasingly stringent governmental
mission activity in the United States was directed regulations on such subjects as child care, serv-
toward Native Americans and black slaves. In the ing of food, and medical care and (2) government
early 1800s, Bible societies began printing and programs providing for these same needs.
distributing tracts in rural and frontier regions. Three major challenges face home missions in
Sunday schools and new churches were begun in the United States for the twenty-first century. The
these same rural and frontier areas by both de- first is to make the church inclusive. The world
nominational and independent organizations. has come to our doorstep, with immigrants
Later in that century rescue missions, missions bringing a great diversity of languages, cultural,
for lumberjacks, Jewish missions, missions to social, and religious practices. In addition, many
Catholics, ministry in Appalachia, orphanages, of the poor and disenfranchised of our society do
hospitals, nursing homes, and other singly fo- not feel welcome and in fact are not welcome in
cused missions came on the scene. The Great De- many of churches. Congregations need to break
pression and World War II brought major their present comfort zones to allow the church
changes to society in general and to the cause of to be biblically inclusive.
Christian missions in particular. Following the The second challenge is for the church to be
war, an explosion of activity on behalf of foreign creative in adopting ways to reach changing com-
missions and a lesser but significant thrust for munities. Gated communities prevent initial con-
home missions occurred. tacts with people and then control the sale and
With the building of tract houses, the phenom- use of all property. Churches are seen as out-
enon of totally new communities coming into siders and are often not welcome. Self-contained
being overnight underscored the need for high-rise communities present similar chal-
churches in such communities. Congregations lenges. Gentrification produces new communi-
faced the difficult decision whether to stay, move, ties within cities and is responsible for dramati-
or help new churches become established. cally increased property costs. Where property is
Churches that chose to stay in their old urban difficult to acquire or too expensive, house
communities were forced to operate their pro- churches and cell churches may become neces-
grams with fewer people and less resources. sary. In contrast to these growing areas, people
Congregations which voted to move lost some of are leaving small towns and rural America, re-
452
Homiletics
ducing financial support for pastors, programs, learning is encouraged; learning takes place in a
and church buildings. Home missions must pro- secure environment; there is more adultchild in-
mote bivocationalism, multiparish ministries, sis- teraction than in a large classroom; the flexible
ter church support, and other ways to ensure a schedule can take advantage of the richness of
strong witness in these locations. the unique learning environment; the student can
The third challenge is for the church to be the have an opportunity to become bilingual and bi-
church in an increasingly pagan society. The cultural and to know and appreciate people of
church must minister where society is secular the local culture; the child can be involved in
and hostile, local ordinances are restrictive, and ministry along with the parents; family closeness
court decisions are anti-biblical. is facilitated and enhanced; the young person
As a nation with the third largest number of tends to be less peer-dependent and less suscep-
non-Christians, with ethnically diverse people, tible to peer pressure; in a multinational mission
and a society that is plagued with racism, mate- the instruction can be conducted in the familys
rialism, violence, and abuse, America must be native language.
seen not as a Christian nation but as a major In the majority of research studies the educa-
mission field. Never has effective home missions tional learning outcome of home-schooled chil-
in the United States been needed more. dren has been found to be highly positive. Ray, in
JACK ESTEP a study of 4,600 children in the United States,
found that home-educated children averaged at
Home Schooling. Home education has a rich or above the 80th percentile on standardized
heritage and is an expression of the historical achievement tests in all academic subject areas:
practice of home- and family-centered learning. language, mathematics, reading, listening, sci-
Five World War II leaders were schooled at ence, and social studies. Home-educated learners
home: Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, have also generally been found to do well in
Konrad Adenauer, Douglas MacArthur, and measures of social and emotional adjustment.
George Patton. Many Western MISSIONARY CHIL- ELIZABETH S. BREWSTER
DREN in the modern missions era have been Bibliography. P. Echerd and A. Arathoon, eds., Un-
home-schooled. A whole generation of mission- derstanding and Nurturing the Missionary Family; J. A.
ary children grew up under the Calvert School Holzmann, Helping Missionaries Grow: Readings in
correspondence course. Mental Health and Missions; M. Hood, Home School
Home schooling currently takes a variety of Reseacher (1991): 18; E. K. McEwan, Schooling Op-
tions; R. Moore and D. Moore, Home Style Teaching;
forms: correspondence education through an es-
P. Nelson, EMQ 24 (1988): 12629; D. C. Pollock, IBMR
tablished correspondence course, home school as 13 (1989): 1319; B. D. Ray, Marching to the Beat of
a satellite of a day school or residence school, in- Their Own Drum!A Profile of Home Education Re-
home tutors, home education under the supervi- search; B. A. Tetzel and P. Mortenson, eds., Interna-
sion of a traveling teacher who chooses the cur- tional Conference on Missionary Kids 1984; T. E. Wade
riculum and evaluates the students on a regular Jr., The Home School Manual.
basis, cooperative home schooling among vari-
ous families, and home-based education that is Homiletics. The term homiletics is derived
parent-designed and -led. from homily (i.e., a sermon), from the Greek ho-
Some missionary families educate their chil- milia, meaning conversation or instruction.
dren at home due to a lack of financially or geo- Homiletics is the field of theological training
graphically accessible alternatives. Other parents dealing with the preparation and presentation of
home school a child because of the particular sermons.
needs and personality of that child. For others the The intent of the discipline of homiletics is not
decision to home school is based on a commit- just to train preachers, but to prepare them to be
ment to an educational philosophy; many home- as effective in their presentation as possible.
schooling parents share the belief that the educa- Thus, the proper and creative linking of biblical
tion of children is primarily the responsibility and interpretation, writing and speaking skills, and
right of parents. (Mary Hood described four edu- even body language is necessary.
cational philosophies that can motivate home Homiletics is an important skill on the mission
schoolingessentialism, progressivism, perenni- field. However, it is further complicated by the
alism, and existentialism.) Since no single school- need to deliver the sermon with cross-cultural
ing option is best for all families, for all children, awareness and, often, in a language or dialect
or even for all stages in a given childs life, home other than that normally spoken by the preacher.
schooling will not be ideal for every family. If anything, skill in homiletics is becoming
Home schooling, however, offers some distinct even more crucial as media technology becomes
advantages, including the following: the individ- ever more sophisticated, yet, at the same time,
ualized instruction can take into account a available to the masses. The expectation of being
pupils learning styles and interests; self-directed entertained and the shortening attention span
453
Homiletics
make it difficult to reach and impact the mass power, so that your faith might not rest on mens
audience that desperately needs to hear the wisdom, but on Gods power (1 Cor. 2:15).
gospel message and related biblical truth that can A related tendency in regard to homiletical
transform lives. training is seen in Pauls words. There is a subtle
In the midst of an increasingly secular society, temptation to trust in communication technique,
it may seem to some that homiletics and preach- even for those who are committed to the gospel
ing are outmoded. However, Jesus himself indi- and the divine design of global mission.
cates that homiletics and mission will continue However, it is clear scripturally that it is the
hand-in-hand until the end of the age: This Holy Spirit that convicts a lost and dying world
gospel of the kingdom will be preached in the of its sinfulness and need for redemption (John
whole world as a testimony to all nations, and 16:711). It is the Spirit that gives spiritual free-
then the end will come (Matt. 24:14). dom (2 Cor. 3:17). That being the case, it be-
So, there can be no question that preaching comes clear that the preacher testifies as a team-
must take place in connection with mission. John mate of the Holy Spirit (John 15:2627), whose
the Baptist was involved in such preaching (Matt. witness is primary and decisive.
3:1), as was Jesus (4:17). The explosive birth of Another significant concern of mission in re-
the church at Pentecost is the direct effect of gard to homiletics has to do with what has been
Peters preaching (Acts 2:1441). The overflow of called putting the cookies on the lower shelf.
Pauls preaching and teaching in Ephesus spread This refers to speaking with simplicity and clar-
to the entire Roman province of Asia (southwest- ity. Just as it is very common for preachers to add
ern Turkey today; Acts 19:810). unnecessary complexity to their presentations of
The apostle to the nations clarifies the crucial- the gospel, there is the opposite tendency to over-
ity of preaching by asking, How can they believe simplify. It should be remembered, though, that
in the one in whom they have not heard? And there is a bedrock historical basis for the gospel
how can they hear without someone preaching to (1 Cor. 15:15) that is true (and, hence, must be
them? (Rom. 10:14). It stands to reason, then, articulated and believed) or our preaching is
that, if the whole world is to hear about Jesus be- useless and so is your faith (v. 14).
fore the end of the age, a virtual army of workers There is a related tendency in cross-cultural
must be sent out into the harvest (Matt. 9:3738). mission that can short-circuit the gospel mes-
The training of such workers must include at sage. In attempting to find common ground be-
least basic homiletics. tween the missionarys cultural background and
In spite of the clearcut necessity of preaching the culture of the hearer, it is entirely possible to
and doing so effectively, potential concerns exist grasp for a lowest common denominator that
in regard to homiletics. For example, from the over-generalizes or distorts the gospel. This is not
earliest chapters of rhetoric and oratory, there to discount the kind of cultural key provided by
has been the tendency for golden-tongued speak- the peace child understanding of Don Richard-
ers to manipulate audiences. By sheer eloquence, son, or similar examples (see REDEMPTIVE ANALO-
or attractiveness, it is not uncommon for a com-
GIES). It is only to caution that CONTEXTUALIZATION
municator to mold his or her hearers to draw
of the gospel taken too far can blur the timeless
conclusions or take action that is, in a very real
gospel in favor of a supposed timely culture-
sense, against their will. Similarly, the stirring of
friendly message.
emotions in seeking a specific audience reaction
Beyond all these important considerations of
is frequently manipulative.
technique and strategy, there is still the factor of
Such manipulative behavior cannot be justi-
faithfulness. As Paul admonished his younger as-
fied, even in the name of the GREAT COMMISSION-
sociate Timothy, homiletical skill will not always
based aim of converting the masses of the world
to saving faith in Jesus Christ. No matter how be appreciated by those who need to hear and re-
laudatory or pious-sounding the end, it does not spond to the gospel: Preach the Word; be pre-
justify the means. pared in season and out of season; correct, re-
Preachers involved in the missiological enter- buke and encourage with great patience and
prise need to hear and heed the apostle Pauls careful instruction. For the time will come when
ringing rebuke of rhetorical slickness and manip- men will not put up with sound doctrine (2 Tim.
ulation to the Corinthian church, which was ap- 4:23). Even in the face of such utterly discour-
parently quite susceptible to such skills: When I aging results, the homiletical practitioner is
came to you, brothers, I did not come with elo- urged to tenaciously pursue the goal of the Great
quence or superior wisdom as I proclaimed to Commission by continuing to do the work of an
you the testimony about God. For I resolved to evangelist (v. 5).
know nothing while I was with you except Jesus A. B. LUTER, JR.
Christ and him crucified. . . . My message and my Bibliography. C. Bugg, Handbook of Contemporary
preaching were not with wise and persuasive Preaching, pp. 47483; K. Hemphill, Handbook of Con-
words, but with a demonstration of the Spirits temporary Preaching, pp. 51829; D. L. Larsen, The Joy-
454
Homosexuality
ful Sound: Evangelistic Preaching Today; J. Piper, The groups as primary targets for world evangeliza-
Supremacy of Christ in Preaching; I. Pitt-Watson, A tion. The AD 2000 motto, A church for every
Primer for Preachers; H. W. Robinson, Biblical Preach- people and the gospel for every person by the
ing; J. R. W. Stott, Between Two Worlds.
year 2000, is rooted in the homogeneous unit
perspective.
Homogeneous Unit Principle. The homoge- What is a homogeneous unit? McGavrans brief
neous unit principle is a derivative of one of the definition is: The homogeneous unit is simply a
more significant advances in missiological think- section of society in which all the members have
ing over the past century: DONALD A. MCGAVRANS some characteristics in common (ibid., 69). A
people movement theory (see CHURCH GROWTH more precise definition was later forged through
MOVEMENT and PEOPLE MOVEMENTS). McGavrans discussions among missiologists over the years,
most frequently cited statement of the homoge- and now it is generally accepted, using the term
neous principle is, People like to become Chris-
people group instead of homogeneous unit:
tians without crossing racial, linguistic, or class
A people group is a significantly large sociologi-
barriers (McGavran, 1970, 163). McGavran ar-
cal grouping of individuals who perceive them-
gued that conversion should occur with a mini-
selves to have a common affinity for one another.
mum of social dislocation. The homogeneous
unit principle has become perhaps the most con- From the viewpoint of evangelization, this is the
troversial of all church growth principles because largest possible group within which the gospel
some critics have interpreted it as having racist can spread without encountering barriers of un-
or classist overtones. Nothing could have been derstanding or acceptance. The common affin-
further from McGavrans mind, however. The ho- ity can be based on any combination of culture,
mogeneous unit principle is a serious attempt to language, religion, economics, ethnicity, resi-
respect the dignity of individuals and the social dence, occupation, class, caste, life situation, or
units to which they belong, and to encourage other significant characteristics which provide
their decisions for Christ to be religious decisions ties which bind the individuals in the group to-
rather than social decisions. McGavran said, It gether (see also PEOPLES, PEOPLE GROUPS).
may be taken as axiomatic that whenever be- The homogeneous unit principle assumes that
coming a Christian is considered a racial rather the focus and presentation of the gospel which
than a religious decision, there the growth of the has reaped an evangelistic harvest in a given peo-
church will be exceedingly slow. As the church ple group might not have the same effect on
faces the evangelization of the world, perhaps its other people groups, not because of the theologi-
main problem is how to present Christ so that cal core of the gospel message, but because of ir-
unbelievers can truly follow him without traitor- relevant cultural trappings often attached to the
ously leaving their kindred (ibid., 155). And in a gospel message by missionaries. Missionaries un-
related statement, he added, The great obstacles trained in cultural anthropology tend to imagine
to conversion are social, not theological. Great that churches planted in any culture will look
turning of Muslims and Hindus can be expected and sound and act like their own churches. The
as soon as ways are found for them to become disastrous results of such cultural nearsighted-
Christian without renouncing their loved ones, ness are extensively chronicled in missiological
which seem to them to be a betrayal (ibid., 156). history. Many cases are recorded in which the
A more contemporary term for the homoge- gospel presented by white American missionaries
neous unit principle is the people approach to has been rejected by those of other people groups
world evangelization. It is now widely recog- because the nationals culture was denigrated
nized and accepted as a primary starting point and ridiculed rather than respected. In the minds
for missiological strategy. RALPH D. WINTER, of some of the nationals, the missionary was ask-
while still a member of Donald McGavrans orig- ing them to become Americans, for example, in
inal faculty in the Fuller Seminary School of order to become Christians. The application of
World Mission, gave the concept worldwide ex- the homogeneous principle to correct and pre-
posure through his plenary address at the LAU- vent such cases is a facet of CONTEXTUALIZATION.
SANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGELISM (1974). Although there are differences of opinion about
When the Lausanne Committee for World Evan- degrees and certain forms of contextualization,
gelization was subsequently formed, its Strategy the principle itself is accepted as an axiom of
Working Group, led by C. PETER WAGNER and Ed- contemporary missiology.
ward R. Dayton, published a series of annual di- C. PETER WAGNER
rectories called Unreached Peoples. The AD 2000
and Beyond Movement was initiated in 1989, in- Bibliography. D. A. McGavran, Understanding
stituting an Unreached Peoples Track as one of Church Growth; C. Peter Wagner, Our Kind of People:
its principal building blocks. The Joshua Project The Ethical Dimensions of Church Growth in America.
2000 of the AD 2000 Movement has compiled a
list of 1,739 significantly large unreached people Homosexuality. See SEXUAL MORES.
455
Honda, Koji
Honda, Koji (1912 ). Japanese evangelist. Koji founded the Hirosaki Church, the first Methodist
Honda grew up in a small town in Fukui Prefec- church in Japan. In time over a hundred Japanese
ture. Overcoming parental opposition, he was bap- Methodist missionaries were sent out from this
tized when seventeen and in 1934 enrolled at the church. Honda was appointed president of a
Kansai Bible School. During World War II his Tokyo school that eventually became Aoyama
spiritual convictions often brought him into con- Gakuin. He also pastored the Aoyama [Methodist]
flict with the authorities. In 1944 he was drafted Church.
into the military. After the war Honda supported During a period of study in America, Honda
his family for a while as a cobbler. In 1946 it was wrestled with whether he should go into politics
possible to return to the ministry, and a tent as a member of the first Imperial Diet (parlia-
erected in the midst of the rubble of Kobe served ment), but decided instead to return to his Chris-
as a meeting place. In 1947 churches in America tian work as president of Aoyama Gakuin School.
supplied a Quonset hut. This was the beginning of When three Methodist denominations in Japan
the Kobe Central Church, which grew rapidly united in 1907, Honda accepted appointment as
under Hondas leadership. In 1956 God used mis- the first bishop of the newly organized Japan
sionaries and his Word to challenge Honda to be- Methodist Church. He was also active in the
come an evangelist. The same year the Honda cru- YMCA and other Christian organizations, and
sades began. In 1966 the Hondas with their six represented Japanese Christians abroad at meet-
children moved to Tokyo and the Honda crusade ings in America and Europe. In 1912, while on
became the Japan Gospel Crusade. In 1967 Honda the way to a Methodist Conference, he suddenly
joined other church leaders to establish the Evan- became seriously ill and died. His legacy was as
gelism-in-Depth Movement (Sodoin Dendo) and a statesman, not in politics, but for the Christian
served on the executive committee of Billy Gra- community in Japan.
hams Tokyo crusade. When Graham returned for JAMES M. PHILLIPS
crusades in 1980 and 1994, Honda was elected Bibliography. R. H. Drummond, A History of Chris-
chairman and honorary chairman respectively. tianity in Japan, N. Ebizawa, Japanese Witnesses for
Honda has played leading roles in many Chris- Christ, C. W. Iglehart, A Century of Protestant Christian-
tian organizations, among them the Pacific ity in Japan.
Broadcasting Association, Ochanomizu Christian
Center, the Association of Evangelists, and the Honduras (Est. 2000 pop.: 6,485,000; 112,088 sq.
Association of Para-Ministries. In international km. [43,277 sq. mi.]). Honduras, a Central Amer-
relations, Honda has played a major role in ican republic, was a major center of Mayan cul-
bringing about reconciliation between the Chris- ture. In about 1550, Franciscan missionaries
tians of Korea and Japan. began to spread the Roman Catholic faith. Al-
There is good reason for describing Honda as though freed from Spanish rule in 1821, Hon-
the Billy Graham of Japan. Honda has conducted duras did not become an independent nation
over four hundred crusades during the past forty until 1838. It was plagued by more than a hun-
years; he has proclaimed Christ before 1.4 million dred revolutions prior to 1932 and has experi-
in Japan and thirteen other countries. His servant enced military rule for much of this century. Next
leadership was recognized by Biola University in to Haiti, it is the poorest country in the Western
1988 with an honorary doctorate. Honda in 1995 Hemisphere. Although the Roman Catholic
was also a recipient of Japans Senior Citizen Dis- Church is officially sanctioned, there is separa-
tinguished Christian Service Award. tion of church and state, and religious freedom
SIEGFRIED A. BUSS does exist.
Protestant missionary penetration did not
Honda, Yoichi (18471912). Japanese church begin until the latter part of the nineteenth cen-
planter and leader. Born in Hirosaki, Japan, of tury. By 1859, Anglicans were working on the
samurai (warrior) lineage, as a young man he was Bay Islands off the Caribbean coast. By 1891,
involved in the political struggles that followed Seventh-Day Adventists had established work
the Meiji Restoration of the emperors authority. there as well. In July 1896, the Central America
In 1870 he went to Yokohama at clan expense and Mission became the first Protestant group to ini-
studied English under S. R. Brown and J. Ballagh, tiate organized activity on the mainland when
American missionaries from the Dutch Reformed four missionaries arrived in Santa Rosa de
Church. Impressed by their piety, he studied the Copn. The Plymouth Brethren established work
Bible, and was baptized in 1872 as a member of in San Pedro Sula in 1898. By 1911, the work of
the Yokohama Band of Christians. Returning to the Friends had spread from Guatemala to Hon-
Hirosaki in 1874, he became a school principal, duras. Although the PANAMA CONGRESS (1916) as-
and worked with Methodist missionary John Ing signed Honduras to the Northern Baptists, the
in his school in evangelistic activity. He was or- first denominational mission to enter was the
dained a Methodist minister. Honda and Ing Evangelical Synod of North America, which
456
Hong Kong
began ministry in San Pedro Sula in 1921. The continued or not. Under such circumstances, hon-
Evangelical and Reformed Church of Honduras esty in communication becomes a very important
emerged from that work. In 1931, the Moravians factor between the missionary and his or her mis-
extended their work with the Miskito Indians sion and donors and also between the mission and
from Nicaragua into Honduras. its donors. Honesty becomes an issue of Christian
In 1937, the first Assemblies of God missionar- conscience in being straightforward in these rela-
ies entered from nearby El Salvador. Then, in tionships, and it becomes an issue of faith in our
1940, indigenous Pentecostal churches sought sovereign Lord who is in complete control and who
the support of the Assemblies of God in the is building his church. Missionaries must always re-
United States to reinforce their work. Subse- member that they cannot serve God and mammon,
quently, other Pentecostal groups have entered regardless of the noble reasons for trying.
the country, the most numerous of which is the As in many such issues, the understanding of
Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee). honesty will vary from culture to culture. There-
Because of the isolation caused by mountain- fore it is very important that the missionary be
ous terrain, COMITY agreements continued to be sensitive to the cultural definitions and to the
observed until after World War II, when many standards of honesty in culture. In order to do
new evangelical missions entered Honduras. this, the missionary must have a clear under-
Early progress was slow, but then accelerated standing of this issue within the three cultural
dramatically after 1970. Massive outreach horizons of missions: the biblical culture, his or
through evangelism, Scripture distribution, liter- her own culture, and the host culture. In the
ature, and radio replaced earlier dependence on study of Scripture, the missionary will gain a
educational and medical ministries. Natural dis- Christian ethic with a biblical understanding of
asters as well as migrations and social upheavals honesty. This may not be as easy as it seems
occasioned both by the HondurasEl Salvador when one considers Gods blessing of the Hebrew
100-hour futbol war in 1969 and subsequent midwives for lying to Pharaoh about the Hebrew
guerrilla activity in Nicaragua have increased re- women giving birth in Exodus 1:1521; or of God
ceptivity. Currently about 10 percent of the pop- caring for Rahab because she lied to protect the
ulation is affiliated with an evangelical church. two spies as seen in Joshua 6:25. With this bibli-
Although most of the work has been national- cal understanding of honesty, the missionary
ized, paternalism, poverty, denominational com- must judge his or her own culture. The mission-
petition, and illiteracy have retarded the develop- ary may find that he or she is laboring under
ment of mature leadership. Amerindian ministries misconceptions of true honesty.
have been fruitful, though limited. Most Hon- Having done this, cross-cultural missionaries
durans are mestizos, and most Indians have some- are able to look more fairly at the host culture.
what assimilated into the Latin culture. However, The missionary must be able to answer cultural
some indigenous groups such as the Miskito, Gar- questions related to honesty such as ownership
ifuna, Suma, and Tol have retained their cultural of property or work ethic or what is considered
identity to a large extent. Outreach to Arabs, Chi- polite. They must gain an understanding of com-
nese, and other ethnic minorities is limited or non- munity and of what is considered proper within
existent. However, cross-cultural mission vision is the host culture. Every culture has an under-
growing. standing of what is honest and what is dishonest.
KEN MULHOLLAND The missionary must always let Scripture be the
Bibliography. W. M. Nelson, Protestantism in Central judge of whether that understanding is correct or
Ameirca; C. Alvarez, People of Hope: The Protestant incorrect. As the Holy Spirit sharpens the CON-
Movement in Central America. SCIENCE of the people and as the Scriptures in-
form them of their cultural inconsistencies, they
Honesty. The issue of honesty and mission calls will develop a more biblical understanding of
for a critical look at two sets of relationships. honesty (as well as other moral issues) and their
First of all, it needs to be understood in the rela- application of it. In this way the culture will
tionships involving the missionary, the mission, move toward a Christian culture in context,
and the donor. Second, it needs to be understood rather than a missionary culture.
in the relationship between the missionary and THOMAS L. AUSTIN
the host culture. SEE ALSO Ethics AND Guilt.
In todays missions, when the amount of financial
support available for a particular ministry or proj- Bibliography. R. J. Priest, Missiology 22:3 (1994):
ect is often tied proportionately to the level of pro- 291316.
ductivity, what is communicated to donors or po-
tential donors about the ministrys level of success Hong Kong (Est. 2000 pop.: 5,968,000; 1,061 sq.
or failure may prove to be the deciding factor in km. [410 sq. mi.]). Since Hong Kong became a
whether the support, and possibly the ministry, is British colony in 1842, there has been a never-
457
Hong Kong
ending influx of missionaries from European, Kong government in 1957. Another noteworthy
American, and Asian nations. In addition to page was marked in the history of missions in
preaching and establishing churches, there have Hong Kong in 1974, when the Chinese Coordina-
been several outstanding missionaries who also tion Center of World Evangelism was inaugu-
served as the cultural bridges between China and rated. Not only did it affirm the role of Hong
the West. JAMES LEGGE was a distinguished trans- Kong as a center for Christian missions in China,
lator of Chinese Classics. Karl Ludvig Reichelt but it also extended its commitment to other Chi-
(18771952) was likewise a well respected student nese communities abroad.
of Chinese MAHAYANA BUDDHISM. He constituted With the return of Hong Kong to the Peoples
interfaith dialogue at the Tao Fung Shan Ecu- Republic of China, many questions about the fu-
menical Center. More important, many mission- ture remain unanswered. The ongoing commit-
aries and Chinese Christians were founders and ment of Hong Kongs churches to Christ, how-
collaborators of a variety of social institutions. ever, will play a pivotal role in the continuing
Christian schools constitute the largest share of advance of the gospel in China.
Hong Kongs educational system, and missionary TIMOTHY MAN-KONG WONG
participation in education can be traced to the
first decade of British rule. The Hong Kong Chi- Bibliography. L. Chee-kong, Stories of Churches in
Hong Kong; J. Pullinger, Chasing the Dragon; C. T.
nese Christian Churches Union and the Hong Smith, Chinese Christians: Elites, Middlemen, and the
Kong Christian Council, instituted in 1915 and Church in Hong Kong; D. W. Vikner, The Role of Chris-
1954, respectively, were developed to enable bet- tian Missions in the Establishment of Hong Kongs Sys-
ter communication among different denomina- tem of Education; L. Yuet-sang, A History of Christian-
tions and to support mission work. The BILLY ity in Hong Kong.
GRAHAM crusades in Hong Kong in 1975 and 1990
stand as examples of collaboration among de- Hoover, James Matthew (18721935). American
nominations and Christian organizations. missionary to Malaysia. On March 13, 1899, fol-
In addition to such efforts, there are a number lowing Gods prompting after nine years of ele-
of Christian organizations that carry out their mentary schoolwork, Hoover applied for and was
mission by meeting the immediate needs of the accepted to serve as a Methodist teacher-
community. The rehabilitation of narcotic ad- missionary in contemporary Malaysia. He ar-
dicts, such as Jackie Pullingers programs and the rived in Penang, Malay, on September 9. In 1903,
Wu Oi Fellowship, deserve special mention. he was transferred to Sibu, Sarawak, where he
Hong Kong has played a vital role in Christian worked with the Foochow Chinese Colony. This
missions to China. Between August 22 and Sep- colony had been established for Chinese migrs,
tember 4, 1843, missionaries to China from sev- many of them Christians escaping from the
eral denominations met to improve the translation Boxer Rebellion. He helped them settle along the
of the Bible. Although its role as a Chinese Bible lush Rejang River and worked tirelessly on their
printing center was temporarily superseded by behalf. Known as Tuan Hoover of Borneo, over
other Chinese cities like Shanghai, Hong Kong re- the course of his ministry he planted more than
sumed its importance after the Communists took forty churches and helped thousands gain a new
over China in 1949. In addition to Bible transla- opportunity for life.
tion, missionaries and Chinese Christians ex- A. SCOTT MOREAU
tended their work in Guangdong province,
through which a strong reinforcement for Chris- Bibliography. T. T. Brambauagh, CDCWM, p. 259;
tian missions between Hong Kong and China be- F. T. Cartwright, Tuan Hoover of Borneo; N. B. Harmon,
came possible. The earliest example was in the EWM, 1:115455.
1860s, when the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY
Hong Kong Mission established its outstations in Hoover, Willis Collins (18561936). American
Boluo and Foshan. These stations, in turn, became missionary to Chile. Born in Freeport, Illinois, he
sources of converts, support personnel, and pas- studied medicine. Not wishing to pursue a med-
tors. As a result, the To Tsai Church, the Chinese ical career, he volunteered to work under
congregation of the London Missionary Society in Methodist WILLIAM TAYLOR in Chile. In 1902,
Hong Kong, achieved independence in 1886. Hoover became pastor of the church in Val-
Between the late 1940s and 1950s, a large paraiso.
number of missionaries, Chinese Christians, and Early on, he expressed interest in the manifes-
Chinese church leaders moved to Hong Kong, re- tations of the Holy Spirit and Pentecostal re-
sulting in a significant growth in both number vivals. After a conference several board members
and quality of converts. Leung Siu-choh were challenged to repent and get right with
(18891967), once the leader of the YMCA in God [even] if it takes all night (Hollenweger,
Guangdong and Shanghai, became the first 172). Several did, and then initiated all-night
chairman of the Church of Christ in China Hong prayer vigils every Saturday, during which Pente-
Kong Council when it registered with the Hong costal manifestations of the Spirit were wit-
458
Hoste, Dixon Edward
nessed. The Methodists were not pleased, object- By this they become already the new creation
ing to such practices as antimethodist. This led (2 Cor. 5:17), which is also the future hope. The
to a heresy trial in which Hoover was found goal also includes their being gathered as the
guilty of teaching false doctrines, specifically church. Further, the goal is that the glory of God
concerning charismatic manifestations of the will be revealed in the fulfillment of his promises
Holy Spirit. Hoover lost Methodist support and to all the nations. The motivation therefore in-
income but stayed at the request of his congrega- cludes this hope of the glory of God. The means
tion. The controversy led to the formation of the of mission will include not only the ministry of
Methodist Pentecostal Church (IMP), which Hol- the Word, but also the fruit of the Spirit, evident
lenweger calls the first theologically and finan- in deeds of compassion and in the life of the
cially self sufficient church in the Third World church. This, with all that it entails by way of so-
(169). The IMP and a later splinter group, the cial concern and involvement, is sign and evi-
Evangelical Pentecostal Church, are today the dence of the full realization to come, if it is
largest non-Catholic denominations in Chile. clearly associated with the message and the
JOE IADONISI church.
Bibliography. W. J. Hollenweger, Methodist History, The postmillennial and amillennial hopes have
20 (1982): 16982; C. E. Jones, DPCM, p. 445. been associated with a comprehensive mission-
ary approach in modern times, for which conver-
sion to Christ has always been the indispensable
Hope. The expectation engendered by faith in
Gods promises of salvation provides part of the aim, as also for the premillennial hope. The lat-
theological foundation of mission, and helps deter tended to avoid the method of planting Chris-
fine its nature, message, means, goal, and moti- tian institutions in foreign mission fields, with-
vation. out, however, rejecting social concern, until this
In the Old Testament, the hope is in God as century. When the hope stresses the betterment
Creator, who in the face of human disobedience of conditions in this present world only, as in re-
retains his purpose for creation (Gen. 8:22), alized or in existentialist eschatology, then the
makes his promise for all the nations (Gen. 12:3), emphasis is on sociopolitical action.
and chooses Israel to be blessed and to be a JOHN A. MCINTOSH
blessing, as reflected in the Davidic covenant SEE ALSO Millennial Thought.
(2 Sam. 7:19) and Solomons prayer (1 Kings
8:43, 60). The prophetic outlook (e.g., Isa. 11:10; Bibliography. R. H. Boer, Pentecost and Missions;
Zech. 8:2223) is of a future great ingathering of J. M. Everts, DPHL, pp. 41517; J. Moltmann, The The-
ology of Hope; D. Senior and C. Stuhmueller, The Bibli-
the Gentiles to join with Israel in her promised cal Foundations to Mission.
inheritance.
The New Testament takes up such promises
(e.g., Matt. 8:1112; Luke 2:3032), which be- Hospital Mission Work. See MEDICAL MISSION
come the foundation of the command to disciple WORK.
all the nations (i.e., Gentiles as well as the Jews,
Matt. 28:1920). This is connected with the rule Hoste, Dixon Edward (18611946). English
of God, the complete restoration of all creation. missionary to China. Born into a military family
The coming of the Spirit (Acts 2) is a sign of and initially an officer in the British Royal Ar-
the last days and of the new messianic people, tillery, Dixon Hoste became the second director
which includes believing Samaritans (Acts 8:17) (19001935) of the CHINA INLAND MISSION (CIM).
and Gentiles (Acts 10:4446; Gal. 3:2; 4:6), with- Converted in 1882 at evangelistic meetings, Hoste
out their having to become Jewish (cf. Acts 15). transferred his military discipline into his Chris-
The hope of Jew and Gentile alike, as forgiven tian faith.
sinners who rejoice in suffering in this age (Rom. In 1884 he joined the China Inland Mission.
5:15), is Christs coming in glory at the resurrec- After initial language training in Shanghai in
tion (Phil. 2:11; 1 Thess. 1:10; etc.). Paul sees 1885 Hoste was sent to the southern part of
himself as called to the realization of this hope Shanxi province, working there under the first
for the Gentiles (Rom. 1:5; 15:12; Gal. 2:7); Peter, CIM-ordained Chinese pastor, Pastor Hsi
for the Jews. Peter places the same stress on the (d. 1896). Working among young churches and
hope (Acts 2:3435; 1 Peter 1:35). the opium refuges established by Hsi, Hoste be-
The nature of mission must therefore include came known for his willing submission to Hsi
the communication of the message, which in- and his personal disciplines in prayer and cul-
cludes and holds out this hope to all who will tural adaptation. These experiences formed the
turn in faith to the Lord, for his coming will basis for the missiological convictions in Hostes
bring in the kingdom of God (1 Cor. 15:2224). later career as an administrator. In 1893 he mar-
The immediate goal of mission is beseeching all ried Hudson Taylors niece, Gertrude Broomhall
to receive the reconciliation achieved in Christ. (d. 1944), and so naturally became closer to the
459
Hoste, Dixon Edward
director, whom he referred to as Uncle. Hoste planter or evangelist. Rather, it is the attitude to-
was made acting director in 1900, and became ward spending time with nationals. If household
the second director in 1902. work or possessions get in the way of spending
If Hudson Taylor was the charismatic leader of time with nationals, ministry will be negatively im-
CIM, then Dixon Hoste was the institutionalizing pacted. The most effective evangelistic and church
genius. During his directorate the number of CIM planting/discipling missionaries tend to have an
missionaries rose from 780 to 1,360, Chinese ability to keep household chores and responsibili-
churches from 364 to over 1,200, outstations ties to a minimum, while balancing ministry from
from below 400 to over 2,200, and yearly bap- the home and visits outside the home. Balance,
tisms from 1,700 to 7,500. Hoste was an insight- openness, love and caring are much more impor-
ful analyst of human character, a reliable source tant ingredients than the actual amount of time
in judging missionary leadership, a consistent ad- spent on household responsibilities.
vocate for indigenizing the Chinese church lead- GLENN R. KENDALL
ership, and a model of intercessory prayer. Hoste
survived Japanese internment beginning in 1943, SEE ALSO Family Life of the Missionary.
dying in 1946 after returning to England.
LAUREN PFISTER Howard, David Morris (1928 ). American mis-
sionary statesman and president of Latin Amer-
Bibliography. D. E. Hoste, The Chinese Recorder 46
ica Mission. Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
(1915): 76063; idem, The Chinese Recorder 48 (1917):
34958; P. Thompson, D. E. Hoste, A Prince with God: he was the son of Philip E. Howard Jr., who was
Hudson Taylors Successor as General Director of the editor of the Sunday School Times. He received
China Inland Mission, 19001935. his education at Wheaton College (BA, 1949; MA,
1952) in Illinois.
House Church Movement. See CHINESE HOUSE Howard began his distinguished career as a
CHURCH MOVEMENT. missionary to Colombia and Costa Rica with the
Latin America Mission (195368) as assistant
general director. He followed this in 196877 as
Household Responsibilities. How does the
missions director and assistant to the president
ministry-burdened person balance outreach and
of InterVarsity Christian Fellowship (and director
basic living necessities? Historically, most mis-
of Urbana 73 and 76); director of consultation
sionaries, husband and wife or single, were ex-
pected to be full-time servants of the Lord. Today on World Evangelization, Pattaya, Thailand
more missionary parents have the option to (197780); international director of the WORLD
home school or to educate their children in the EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP (198292); and senior
towns or situations where they live. It is more vice president of Cook Communications Min-
common to find only one parent in full-time ministries International (199395). In November
istry while the other parent cares for the children 1995, Howard was appointed as the sixth presi-
and household chores. dent of the Latin America Mission, the organiza-
The standard at which a missionary chooses to tion where he began his ministry.
live greatly impacts the household responsibilities. Howard has written eight books, including Stu-
The missionary who chooses to live more or less at dent Power in World Missions, By the Power of the
a Western standard in a developing economy may Holy Spirit, and The Great Commission for Today.
spend more time in acquiring and maintaining WALTER A. ELWELL
possessions. Missionaries who choose to live with
fewer possessions may relate better economically Huey, Mary Alice (18771960). American mis-
to surrounding nationals but may spend much sionary to China. Born in Jefferson County, Al-
more time in providing for themselves than if they abama, she was educated at Judson College and
had more modern conveniences (see also EXTENT in 1904 became one of the first students at the
OF MISSIONARY IDENTIFICATION). training school for women at Louisville, Ken-
Ministry goals also impact household respon- tucky (later known as the Womans Missionary
sibilities. The missionary who focuses on transla- Union Training School).
tion, health care needs, school teaching, or other In 1907 she heard Gods call to the mission
institutional ministries may have complete min- field. Later that year she was appointed by the
istry contact outside the home. The institutional FOREIGN MISSION BOARD OF THE SOUTHERN BAPTIST
missionarys home might be their refuge or occa- CONVENTION to serve in Laichow, China.
sionally a place for minimal outside contact. Huey became the principal and Bible teacher
But the missionary focusing on evangelism, at a girls school and diligently worked with the
church planting, and leadership training may, as Laichow women and children for nearly twenty
part of normal household responsibilities, need to years. In 1926 she returned to the United States
have a very open home. It is not the possessions, for a brief period of time to care for her ailing
or lack thereof, that create an effective church parents.
460
Human Condition in World Religions
In 1932 she returned to China to carry on her ficiency in human character rather than the rad-
work. However, her efforts were cut short when ical corruption of human nature. People are sub-
circumstances surrounding World War II forced ject to temptation from Iblis (the devil), but it is
her to leave Laichow in 1940. But these trials did within their power to resist and remain faithful
not discourage hernor did they diminish her to Allah. The suffering and trials we encounter in
missionary zeal. this life are regarded not only as punishment for
In 1941 Huey transferred to the Hawaiian Mis- individual sins but also as Allahs way of testing
sion at Honolulu, where she carried on evangel- the sincerity and faithfulness of his followers.
istic work until she retired in 1946. Through all Quite different views of the human predica-
circumstances, she proved herself to be a compe- ment are found in religious traditions originating
tent leader and dedicated missionary. in the Indian subcontinent. Here the problem is
KATHY MCREYNOLDS samsara, the wearisome and repetitive cycle of
rebirths through which one transmigrates in ac-
Bibliography. T. L. Scales, DBA, pp. 14748.
cordance with karma. Birth leads inevitably to
death. Death in turn inevitably results in rebirth
Human Condition in World Religions. Com- in another body, and it is the impersonal cosmic
mon to most religions is the notion that human law of karma that determines the conditions of
beingsand, in many cases, the cosmos at each existence. HINDUISM, BUDDHISM, and JAINISM,
largesuffer from some kind of undesirable con- although differing in certain key respects, all ac-
dition. Violence, murders, and wars; natural dis- cept the framework of samsara and karma, and
asters such as earthquakes and floods; the inabil- thus the religious goal came to be identified with
ity of people to get along with each other; illness liberation from samsara by rendering ineffective
and death; a sense of anxiety and alienationall the principle of karma.
of these indicate that something is seriously In spite of this common framework, however,
amiss in our world. A sense of longing for the various traditions within Hinduism and Bud-
transcendent suggests a reality beyond the world dhism give different views on the nature of the
of ordinary experience, and religions characteris- problem. Often the root problem is identified
tically hold that our ultimate well-being is linked with ignorance (avidya), or holding false views
to this transcendent realm. about reality resulting in samsara. But even here
However, in spite of these common themes the various differences emerge. In Advaita Vedanta
various religions offer quite different diagnoses Hinduism samsara arises from and is rooted in
of the human predicament. Monotheistic reli- false views about the nature of Brahman and the
gions generally regard the problem in terms of an relation of the self to Brahman; in Theravada
unsatisfactory relationship between God the Cre- Buddhism, by contrast, it is the false belief in an
ator and his creatures. Central to Christianity, for enduring, substantial self (atman) which, when
example, is the idea of SIN as deliberate rejection combined with desire and craving, results in suf-
of God and his righteous ways. The biblical view fering and rebirth. Buddhism identifies the
of sin must be understood with reference to a human predicament with the claim that all exis-
holy and righteous God to whom human beings tence is characterized by pervasive suffering, dis-
are morally accountable. Sin includes not only satisfaction, and impermanence.
individual acts that transgress Gods righteous In Chinese religious traditions, or at least non-
standard but also a condition or state of rebellion Buddhist traditions, the human predicament is
against God, resulting in alienation from God. not understood in terms of the cycle of rebirths
The original sin of Adam and Eve resulted in a so much as failure to attain the proper balance
condition of sinfulness that has been passed on and harmony within the social nexus, which in
to all humanity (see also FALL OF HUMANKIND). turn is patterned after the cosmic harmony of
The suffering and evils we experience are all due Heaven and the Tao. Proper alignment and har-
ultimately to sin and its tragic consequences. monywithin the person, the familial and social
JUDAISM, rooted in the Hebrew Scriptures, has contexts, the realm of ancestors and spirits, na-
focused extensively on the PROBLEM OF EVIL and ture, and the cosmos at largeresult in human
suffering. Although it acknowledges the heart of flourishing. Disharmony on any level can result
the problem as human moral failure in commit- in the suffering and problems encountered in or-
ting sins against God, Judaism generally does not dinary life. TAOISM in particular emphasizes bal-
share Christianitys belief in original sin and total ance and proper alignment with the Tao, the Way
depravity. Rather, a more optimistic view of or eternal principle immanent within the cos-
human nature stresses original virtue and the ca- mos. Problems in society are due to the imposi-
pacity, with Gods gracious help, of working to- tion of artificial constraints that prohibit the free
ward progressive moral development. expression of life in accordance with the Tao.
ISLAM holds that human beings have erred by CONFUCIANISM, by contrast, has been concerned
straying from the right path of obedience to with cultivating proper relationships and order
Allah. But sin in Islam is more a weakness or de- within society based on virtue and moral charac-
461
Human Condition in World Religions
ter. With Mencius, and later Chu Hsi, Confucian- Western culture now seems fully committed to
ism has emphasized the inherent goodness of adopting this overall perspective.
human nature; evil results from corrupt external Such a development, however, was only possi-
influences. On a popular folk level, the reality of ble in a culture that had grown out of a Judeo-
the spirit world and the importance of proper Christian tradition. Therefore in many cultures
alignment with spiritual powers is indicated by there is no comparable commitment. In a real
widespread practices of divination, ancestral sense, Christian mission is the parent of the
rites, and recognition of a vast array of deities, human rights movement. There are several bibli-
spirits, and demons that can influence life in this cal principles that have profoundly influenced
world for good or ill. Western societies in this context: The Bible
Animistic traditions and primal religions, teaches that all of humanity is made in Gods
which do not make a sharp distinction between image; the incarnation and passion of Jesus
the world of ordinary experience and a transcen- demonstrate the value of each person to God;
dent spiritual world, attribute problems in every- God challenges us to work for a society charac-
day life such as illness, death, natural disasters, terized by righteousness, justice, and peace; he
wars, and infertility to various spiritual powers commands us to care for the weak and disadvan-
believed to be capable of impacting affairs in this taged in society; Jesus calls us to love even those
life. Thus, great care is taken to maintain proper whom we might consider enemies.
rituals through which the many ancestors, This modern commitment to the dignity of
demons, spirits, and gods who hold such power every human being has influenced the theology
can be appeased. and PRAXIS of mission to a great extent. Many
The recognition that something is profoundly Christians ask: Surely loving our fellow human
wrong with the way things are can be a point of beings involves defending their basic dignity
contact between the Christian gospel and follow- under God? Mission is therefore seen as a par-
ers of other traditions. Augustine captured this ticipation in the struggles of life alongside the op-
sense of alienation well in his statement at the pressed. If we are distant or afraid, then we lose
beginning of the Confessions: You [God] have the credibility of the gospel message of Jesus,
made us for yourself, and our hearts are restless who gave his life for the poor and oppressed.
and will find no rest until they rest in you. Other Christians believe that this commitment
HAROLD A. NETLAND to rights is essentially a humanistic endeavor,
reflecting a worldview that is at odds with the
Bibliography. J. Bowker, Problems of Suffering in the gospel. People should be giving themselves to
Religions of the World; S. G. F. Brandon, Man and His Des- God, trusting in his goodness for their lives. Mis-
tiny in the Great Religions; H. Netland, Dissonant Voices; sion is seen therefore to consist in helping people
D. Noss and J. Noss, A History of the Worlds Religions. so to trust God that their focus shifts from their
daily needs to their eternal destiny. Evangelism,
Human Rights. It is commonly accepted in with the hope of conversion, is the proper aim of
modern Western thought that human beings, by mission, as they see it.
definition, are entitled to basic human rights. It would not be an exaggeration to say that a
There are several presuppositions in this world- critical issue in modern missiology is precisely
view: the inviolability of each person as a person; the dialogue between these two views.
the right to freedom from restrictions of ones WALTER RIGGANS
rights; the equality of each person in dignity and
law; and the right to participate in decisions that SEE ALSO Enlightenment; Liberation Theology;
affect ones life and livelihood. Human Justice.
Though both Luther and Calvin played signifi- Bibliography. H. Kung and J. Moltmann, eds., The
cant parts in the development of the notion of Ethics of World Religions and Human Rights; J. Molt-
fundamental dignity and freedom, the contem- mann, On Human Dignity: Political Theology and Ethics;
porary commitment to human rights is mostly Studia Missionalia, Human Rights and Religions.
the result of a momentum that has built up since
the seventeenth century, when people became Humanitarianism. See RELIEF WORK.
sick of the years of religious and ideological in-
tolerance that followed the Reformation. Humankind, Doctrine of. The Bible gives clear
People lost respect for any rhetorical authority teaching on humankinds origin, nature, and des-
imposed by those who represented either church tiny (Gen. 12; Ps. 8; Acts 17:1631; Rev. 5:9; 7:9;
or state. They began to insist that reason, experi- 20:16). Humans are the result of a direct act of
ment, and the inherent dignity of the human being divine creation in which God declares they have
should be the arbiters of all truth. Between 1689 been made in his image (Gen. 1:2627). The
and 1789 the West saw these presuppositions and IMAGE OF GOD involves humans relating to the
rationalizations enshrined in national declarations earth as vice-regents, just as God is sovereign
of human rights in England, the U.S., and France. over the entire universe; relating to God as chil-
462
Humankind, Doctrine of
dren in filial fellowship, expressing a family like- likeness, then as Paul at Lystra, the witness can
ness in righteousness, holiness, and integrity appeal to common humanity as a means to over-
(Ferguson, 1988, 329). Humankinds position in come the ignorant rebellion of non-Christian re-
creation is unique, a little lower than the an- ligions (Acts 14:15). If what humans have in com-
gels, yet with dominion and stewardship of all mon is more basic than what divides them, then
the rest of creation (Ps. 8). thoroughgoing cultural relativism as a barrier
From one human being God created every cul- against CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION of the
ture of humans to dwell on the face of the earth gospel is effectively dismantled. At the same time,
in a harmonious patchwork of cultural diversity if Gods original design was for the earth to be
(Gen. 1:28; Deut. 32:8; Acts 17:26). Humankind filled with humankind living in a harmonious
in its origin is one, from one set of human par- patchwork of diverse cultures, then ETHNOCEN-
ents, and that unity is more basic to the Scrip- TRISM is effectively dealt with.
tures understanding of humankind than the Today there is a call from inside and outside
equally God-ordained cultural diversity. evangelicalism to somehow qualify the exclusive
Though after the fall and flood God left hu- claims of Christ as unique Savior who must be
mans in cultures to go their own ways and did particularly, explicitly owned as Savior and Lord
not punish them in each generation for their by those who would be saved. But Scripture is
waywardness, still they are responsible to him, unequivocal. Jesus is the only way salvation is ac-
for he did not leave himself without a witness to complished (John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Explicit faith
his divine nature, power, and goodness (Acts in him is the only way it is applied to humans
14:1517; Rom. 1:1920). His desire was always (Rom. 10:1317) (see also UNIQUENESS OF CHRIST).
for humankind to seek him, find him, thank him, Two passages capture the key concepts of bibli-
and worship him (Acts 17:27; Rom. 1:21). But be- cal anthropology in their interrelationships (Gen.
cause of sin, all humankinds religiosity is only 2:7; 6:17). And the Lord God formed man from
blind groping and an ignorant, rebellious substi- the dust of the ground and breathed into his nos-
tution of idolatry for the worship of the one true trils the breath of life, and man became a living
God (Acts 17:2730; Rom. 1:2132). So extensive being [nepheshsoul] . . . every creature [kal-
have the effects of the fall been, that, left to them- basarall flesh] that has the breath [ruachspirit]
selves, humans do not seek God (Rom. 3:920) of life in it. Because of the range of meaning of
(see also FALL OF HUMANKIND). the terms and their juxtaposition in various pas-
Humankinds destiny is twofold. Those human sages, there is an ongoing debate about whether
beings, some from every tribe, language, people, the biblical view of the constituent elements of a
and culture, to whom Christ has applied salvation human being is trichotomous (body, soul, spirit,
from sin and who have responded in faith to the 1 Thess. 5:23) or dichotomous (body and soul or
saving good news, will enjoy an eternity at the end spirit). If Genesis 2:7 and 6:17 may be taken as
of time in the glorious presence of their Savior guides, together with other Scriptures, then the di-
(Rev. 5:9). Those who continue, without repen- chotomous approach seems best. Humans have a
tance, in their blind rebellion against the one true material component: flesh (a body) and spirit (an
God will experience the eternal punishment that immaterial component). The soul refers to the
such sin requires (Matt. 25:41, 46; Rev. 20:15). whole person, though in various relationships.
The biblical teaching on humankind challenges The biblical teaching on the material compo-
the WORLDVIEWS molded by the WORLD RELI- nent has both a positive and a negative aspect.
GIONS. While Islam does follow the Genesis cre- Positively, though taken from the dust and in
ation account in its understanding of the origins frailty returning to dust, a humans body is part of
of the human race (Koran 15:29; 32:9; 38:72), the a good creation (Gen. 1:31; Isa. 40:6). Indeed, it is
monisms of Hinduism and Buddhism, and the destined for resurrection as a glorified spiritual
interpenetration of matter and spirit in Chinese body (1 Cor. 15:44). Negatively, since the fall, the
thinking do not. Their systems cannot accommo- flesh, the body of death, has been the seat of the
date a Creator God who stands over against his sin principle, which works its will out through
creation, particularly its crown: human beings. the misuse of the bodys appetites, the lusts of the
Christian teaching uniquely espouses a per- flesh (Rom. 7:14, 18, 24; Gal. 5:1624).
sonal relationship between God and human be- The immaterial or animating component of
ings made in his image. Human beings position our constitution is spirit (Heb. ruach; Gk.
as vice-regents and stewards of all creation, with pneuma). In the Bible the vocabulary can refer to
which Islam strongly concurs, stands against the breath (Gen. 6:17); the vital powers that sustain
passivity, the harmonious fitting into nature, a person alive (45:2627); and an aspect of the
which Eastern religions encourage. inner life, whether a disposition (Job 21:4; Ezek.
The concepts of the image of God in humans 3:14) or the seat of cognition (Exod. 28:3) and
and the basic unity of humankind provide a fruit- will (Num. 14:24; Isa. 29:24). Scripture knows of
ful perspective for WITNESS. If all fallen human nonhuman spirits, incorporeal, intelligent, feel-
beings have the faint glimmers of the family ing beings. Normally, this designates members of
463
Humankind, Doctrine of
the demonic hierarchy (Luke 4:33; Acts the human soul. It presents a solution to the
19:1216). It can speak of a humans spirit, not problem of sin and suffering that is holistic, life-
only as that dimension of the person that relates affirming, fully satisfying for the whole self.
to God (Rom. 8:16; cf. 1:9). The Scriptures also In Buddhist thought the ontological soul is
use it to refer to a humans mode of existence in nonsubstantial and illusory. The most trouble-
a disembodied state, whether in this life (2 Cor. some, but, when properly understood, most
12:12; cf. 1 Cor. 5:3; Col. 2:5) or after death in the promising statement according to Buddha is I
intermediate state (Eccles. 12:7; Luke 24:3739; have no soul. The trouble comes from realizing
2 Cor. 5:15; Heb. 12:23). the soul does not exist. The liberation comes
The biblical terminology for soul (Heb. from realizing that I also does not exist. The
nephesh, Gk. psychem) participates in much of the embracing of radical nonexistence is Buddhisms
same range of meaning as spirit, but with some way of dealing with the pain of illusory reality.
significant differences. Soul can refer to breath Christians have hope for Buddhists for they de-
(Ps. 107:5) and life (Gen. 9:5) or seat of life (Mark clare that pain can be reckoned with, if we em-
8:35), but it does so in an extensive way. The term brace an ontology with a transcendent, gracious,
embraces the whole person, either in the sense of Creator God at the center guaranteeing the real-
physical existence (Matt. 6:25; Luke 12:19; John ity of and basic goodness of created existence. He
10:11; Acts 2:27); or being a living being (Gen. created humans in his image as living souls, with
2:7); or individuality as a self (Ps. 7:2), even to the the purpose that they relate to him forever in love
human with powers of reason, emotion, and will and worship.
(Col. 3:23; 1 Thess. 2:8; Heb. 6:19). Although Animistic thought posits a world full of souls,
Scripture first and foremost views the human understanding the world within the framework
being as a unity, it presents every person as hav- of immanent power. The vital principle inhabits
ing a spirit, in or which animates, a physical whatever moves and lives. For humans there is
body. But it describes each of us as a soul. an internal soul, soul-substance, which animates
It is true that soul sometimes refers to the the body and temporarily resides in vital centers
inner person, both in terms of desires and incli- or products related to them (saliva, sweat, blood,
nations (Prov. 23:2; Jer. 2:24), including religious sperm, tears). This is not a distinct entity, but an
ones (Deut. 6:5). Humans relate to God and ex- animating power made known through func-
perience final salvation or condemnation. Does tional props (heart, brain), images (shadow,
this mean that the Scriptures also participate in ghost), symbols (name, character sign), or its ac-
Greek thought, seeing humans as possessing an tivities. There is an external soul, powers of the
immortal soul? The biblical evidence as a whole soul located outside the body. Here animists
points in another direction, having to do with es- speak of the ability to leave the body and the fact
chatological and soteriological matters in which of animal (totem) and human (shadow) doubles.
the soul stands for the person and any immortal- Souls whether malevolent or benevolent may be
ity is contingent, dependent on God who sustains manipulated, and must be appeased.
persons in ETERNAL LIFE. Chinese thought participates in this animistic
Biblical anthropology also challenges other rethinking through its conception of the interpene-
ligious wordviews. Since Islam builds its under- tration of the material and nonmaterial aspects
standing on the same Genesis passages, it partic- of the human. By linking the two souls of hu-
ipates in the same radical distinction between the mans, po (spirit of the physical nature) and hun
material and nonmaterial in humans as Chris- (a persons vital force: consciousness, intelli-
tianity does. It equates the concepts of soul and gence), with the two essential components of the
spirit and differs from biblical teaching only in universe, yin and yang, the former acquire the
its view of the effects of the fall on the human same quality of interpenetration as the latter
race: the guilt is imputed to Satan, the sanctions have. The vital force principle, chi, endows some
and consequences to humankind. with pure po and others with an admixture of
Hindu thought from one standpoint views the evil. By education, the soul becomes an increas-
atman (soul) as a distinct entity being reincar- ingly refined vital force that mediates between
nated from life to life according to accumulated the human world and the spiritual realm. With
karma. From another, however, it participates in soul force humans can be in touch with the
a monistic subjective ontology: all is soul. The dead and the highest spiritual realm: heaven. The
macrocosm of paranatman (the universe in its soul helps the human achieve harmony with na-
true essence as Supreme Soul) is viewed as es- ture and to enter communion with the universe.
sentially identical with the microcosm of atman Biblical teaching, while concurring with the
in the individual. True enlightenment and release reality of the spiritual realm, presents a much
come when persons lose their identity in the uni- simpler and unified view than animism does. By
versal consciousness (Supreme Soul) and are seeing humans as being a soul with body and
united with it in universal Bliss. Biblical thought spirit, made in Gods image with dominion over
challenges this monism as idolatry: deification of creation, the fear engendered by a false enchant-
464
Hunger
ment of reality through multiple souls, inhabit- tributed to the missionary movement in Re-
ing multiple phenomena, may be overcome. formed and Lutheran circles before the First
Again biblical teaching has good news for Chi- World War, between the two Wars, and up to
nese thought. Humans are not under an onto- 1951. Hungarian missionaries worked among
logical bondage to evil, which is inextricably Jews and Muslims in the Balkans, as well as in
mixed with the good in the soul. Rather, there Africa, China, Indonesia, and elsewhere. The
are such distinctions between the Creator and numbers were never large, but had the commu-
the creature, humans made in Gods image, yet nist period not cut it short it could have grown
fallen, that salvation can be achieved through and developed significantly. Kool is currently in-
the Creator Gods atoning sacrifice of his Son. volved in developing missionary interest anew in
True harmony is reconciliation with God the churches and among theological students in Hun-
Creator in Christ. gary. Missionary interest in Baptist, Methodist,
WILLIAM J. LARKIN JR. Brethren, and Pentecostal churches suffered sim-
ilarly under Marxist rule but is also recovering
SEE ALSO Anthropology.
and being developed with help and encourage-
Bibliography. J. Ching, Confucianism and Christian- ment from Western Christian agencies.
ity: A Comparative Study; S. B. Ferguson, NBD, pp. RONALD DAVIES
32829; D. C, Fredericks, NIDOTTE, 3:13334; The
Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism.
2:25052, 42526; C. Riviere, et al., ER 13:42631; Hunger. In accepting the presidency of the
43843; 44750; 46065; C. Schultz, EDBT, pp. 60204; United States in 1960, John Kennedy stated, We
M. Van Pelt, W. C. Kaiser Jr., and D. I. Block, NIDOTTE, have the capacity to solve the problem of hunger
3:107378. in the world. What we need is the will. Decades
later the problem still exists.
Hungary (Est. 2000 pop.: 9,940,000; 93,032 sq. What Is Hunger? There are five types of
km. [35,920 sq. mi.]). The life and witness of the hunger. Undernutrition is where people have con-
Hungarian churches, including their missionary sumed insufficient food over an extended period
vision and activity, have inevitably been affected of time. Malnutrition is caused by not enough
by the political and social condition of the na- nutrients in the food consumed. Some people
tion. From 1951 to 1989 communist domination also suffer from malabsorption when their bod-
meant that all foreign mission activity was im- ies are unable to utilize the food eaten, often due
possible. However, unlike some other Central and to the presence of intestinal parasites. Seasonal
Eastern European countries, which were also hunger occurs in some rural communities where
under Soviet control, Hungary had a longer his- the food supply runs out before the next harvest
tory of precommunist mission activity, and mem- is gathered. Finally, famine occurs when crops
ories of this survived even during the worst years fail and food runs out.
of the Cold War. In fact, through a kind of anom- Who Are the Hungry? The United Nations cal-
aly a representative of the Leprosy Mission con- culates that there are up to one billion hungry
tinued to operate in Hungary for the whole of people in the world, approximately 20 percent of
that time! During the same time, there was evan- the total population. Up to 35,000 of these die
gelical work among students, originally of an un- each day from hunger and POVERTY-related
official nature, but officially registered even be- causes, three-quarters of them children. Most of
fore the demise of Soviet domination. Together, these people live in tropical countries with high
these ministries fostered missionary interest, populations or low and variable rainfall. Accord-
prayer, and concern among Christian students. In ing to Susan George, the hungry are people in
at least some of the churches today there is the poor countries, where governments have not
beginning of a genuine missionary movement. made food for all a priority, mostly in rural
The fascinating history of the Hungarian areas, among the lower social classes, especially
Protestant missionary movement from 1756 until women and female children, and newborns and
1951, especially in the Reformed and Lutheran fetuses.
churches, has been chronicled by Anne Marie The Hunger Cycle. Hunger especially impacts
Kool, who heads up a Protestant Institute for Mis- children. In infancy many children are born un-
sion Studies in Budapest. She shows how such di- derweight to overworked, underfed mothers.
verse factors as the presence of the Czech During childhood they ingest inadequate quanti-
Brethren bishop Jan Amos Comenius in Hungary ties or quality of food. In adolescence they are
in the seventeenth century, the Moravian influ- poor learners with low energy levels and during
ence in the eighteenth, revival impulses and the adulthood they usually earn only low wages, have
presence in Budapest of the Scottish Mission in little capital, and survive on an inadequate diet.
the nineteenth, and the Student Volunteer Move- Myths about Hunger. Some believe that, like
ment and Christian Endeavor at the turn of the the poor, the hungry will always be with us.
nineteenth and twentieth centuries, all con- Myths about hunger include:
465
Hunger
1. There is not enough food. Actually there its pioneering period and faced considerable op-
is plenty of food. It is more a problem position. Hunt, first at Somosomo and then at
of distribution and purchasing power. Viwa from 1842, made a notable contribution to
2. Nature causes hunger. This is sometimes the acceptance of Christianity through his trans-
true but most hunger is due to human lation work. He combined Methodist hymns
actions. with the use of Fijian chants for tunes. His trans-
3. There are too many people in the world. lation of the New Testament, completed in 1847,
Scientists suggest the world could grow helped standardize the Fijian language. He be-
enough food for up to fifteen billion came the missions chairman in 1842. In the face
people. of continuing opposition he drove himself, phys-
4. More food aid will solve the problem. It ically weakening his health but winning the ad-
is more important to support local pro- miration of friends and enemies alike for his
duction and pay adequate prices for saintliness. He was noted for his preaching, the
farmers crops. centrality he gave to worship, his encourage-
5. Large farms are more productive. No so, ment of revival, and the training he gave to Fi-
except for a few crops. Small owner- jian teachers. His Letters on Entire Sanctification
operated, labor-intensive farms will (1853) were an expression of his lifelong search
feed more people. for personal holiness.
ALLAN K. DAVIDSON
Solutions to Hunger. The hunger project sug- Bibliography. A. Birtwhistle, In His Armour: The Life
gests four actions must be taken. First, eliminat- of John Hunt of Fiji; A. H. Wood, Overseas Missions of
ing hunger must become a priority. Second, pop- the Australian Methodist Church, vol. 2, Fiji.
ulation growth should be slowed through the
education and empowerment of women. Third, Hyde, John (18651912). American man of
environmentally sustainable, appropriate food- prayer and missionary to India. Born in a Pres-
growing technologies should be pursued. Fourth, byterian ministers family, Hydes call to mission
more power and profit should be channeled into work was confirmed while at McCormick Semi-
farmers hands. These actions will benefit every- nary after a night of prayer. He sailed for India in
one, rich and poor, well-fed and hungry. 1892.
The Bible and Hunger. The Bible describes Prayer was the defining quality of Hydes life,
hunger oftenfor example, in Egypt and the initiated in response to a disturbing letter he read
Negev wilderness, for David and his men and en route to India. In India, a scarcity of results
Jerusalem under siege. David (Ps. 146:7) and eventually led him to an immersion in prayer. He
Mary (Luke 1:53) declare that God feeds the hun- invested thirty days and nights in prayer in prepa-
gry, and we must also, for feeding the hungry is a ration for the first Siaklot Convention, organized
mark of true religion (Isa. 58:7) and is to be ex- in the fall of 1904 to refresh missionaries and na-
tended even to enemies (Rom. 12:20). It is a fac- tional workers spiritually. The success of these
tor in the judgment (Matt. 25:3544). In the con- world-renowned conventions was attributed
text of a hungry world Christians must respond largely to Hydes prayer. Later biographers appro-
to the immediate needs of malnourished or starv- priately dubbed him The Apostle of Prayer.
ing people and seek to change the structures Hyde displayed a tenacious desire to reach
which cause hunger. people for Christ. His prayer, O God, give me
ROB BELLINGHAM souls or I die, inspired missionaries around the
Bibliography. R. Sider, Rich Christians in an Age of world. Through prayer in 1908 God gave him the
Hunger; T. Yamamori, B. Myers, K. Bediako, and goal of seeing one person per day come to Christ.
L. Read, eds., Serving With the Poor in Africa. This number rose to four per day by 1910.
After the 1910 Sialkot Convention, a doctor
Hunt, John (181248). English missionary to told Hyde to give up his exhausting prayer sched-
Fiji. Born in Hykeham Moor near Lincoln, En- ule or he would die within six months. Hyde
gland, he had very limited schooling and worked chose prayer. His health failing, he left India in
as a farm laborer. Following his conversion at 1911. Once home, an operation to ease his severe
age seventeen he became a Methodist local headaches revealed cancer, to which he suc-
preacher. Largely self-educated, he went to Hox- cumbed on February 17, 1912.
ton Theological Institution in 1835, developing A. SCOTT MOREAU
considerable abilities in theology, Greek, and He- Bibliography. E. G. Carr, ed., Praying Hyde: A Chal-
brew. He married Hannah Summers and in 1838 lenge to Prayer; F. McGaw, John Hyde: The Apostle of
they went to Fiji. The Fijian mission was still in Prayer.
466
I-J-K Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/8/03 3:58 PM Page 467
Ibiam, (Sir Francis) Akanu (190655). Nigerian

medical missionary and church leader. Ibiam was
the first African student at the University of St.
Andrews (Scotland) medical school (192735),
then a missionary doctor in Nigeria with the
Church of Scotland. He founded the Abiriba hos-
pital (1936).
He was an educational leader, becoming prin-
cipal of the Hope Waddel Training Institute.
Knighted by the British government in 1951, he
Ii
years of Christianity. However, the majority of
Icelanders are nominally Christian with little vi-
sion for missions; less than 10 percent regularly
attend church. Prosperity, secularism, occultism,
was later appointed governor of his home region. and New Age philosophies are working together
He chose to stay with his Ibo people during the to dechristianize Iceland. Currently, seven agen-
Biafran war, renouncing his knighthood and act- cies have sent fourteen missionaries to Iceland,
ing as a roving ambassador to gain aid. Follow- while only a handful of Icelandic missionaries
ing exile, he was honorably restored to Nigerian are serving overseas.
public life, becoming active in reconstruction GARY LAMB
and reconciliation efforts.
His own distinguished service gave weight to Identification, Missionary. See EXTENT OF MIS-
his criticism of missionaries as he observed them SIONARY IDENTIFICATION.
in mid-century. He felt they were guardians of
white supremacy who did not visit the homes Identificational Repentance. See POWERS, THE.
of African Christians, much less the homes of
non-Christians. Despite resentment at his com- Identity Movements. See PROPHETIC AND IDEN-
ments, he was elected one of the six presidents of TITYMOVEMENTS.
the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES in 1961. Ibiam
also served as President of the Christian Council
Identity. See ETHNICITY.
of Nigeria, the All Africa Conference of
Churches, established the SCM (Student Chris-
tian Movement) in Nigeria, was a founder of the Ideologies. The term ideology, derived from
Bible Society of Nigeria, and chaired the council the Greek idea and logos, literally means knowl-
of the United Bible Societies. He became a re- edge or science of ideas. In a general sense ide-
spected traditional ruler, Eze Ogo Isiala I of Un- ology refers to a particular set of ideas or beliefs
wana and Osuji of Uburu. that distinguish a given group or perspective. In
DONALD K. SMITH modern times the term has assumed various pe-
jorative connotations and is used to refer to a
Bibliography. D. C. Nwafo, Born to Serve, The Biog- collection of beliefs and values held by a particu-
raphy of Dr. Akanu Ibiam. lar group for certain hidden motives or for
other than purely epistemic reasons. Thus ide-
Iceland (Est. 2000 pop.: 282,000; 103,000 sq. km. ologies are typically regarded as sets of ideas
[39,768 sq. mi.]). The Republic of Iceland is a used by particular groups in support of certain
large volcanic island in the North Atlantic. It is economic, political, or social agendas. With
famous for its Viking founders (A.D. 874) and the K. Marx and F. Engels the term took on a specific
worlds oldest parliament, the Althing (A.D. 930). meaning, referring to a set of beliefs presented as
While the first inhabitants of Iceland may have objective whereas in actuality they merely reflect
been Irish monks around 740, the Lutheran the material conditions of society and the inter-
Church is officially recognized as the state ests of the ruling classes. Thus the dominant
church, with 95 percent of Icelanders claiming ideas of any era not only reflect the views of the
membership. The year 2000 marks one thousand ruling classes but also serve their interests. More
467
Ideologies
recently, the Frankfurt School, associated with Fascism stands in contrast to liberalism in its
J. Habermas, has developed the notion of ideol- denial of the value of individual freedom. It is a
ogy as a set of ideas and communicative struc- system of government in which there is a rigid
tures inherently distorted by power relations. one-party dictatorship characterized by forcible
Some examples of modern ideologies include suppression of anything that opposes it, such as
political liberalism, Marxism, democratic social- unions, other political parties, and minority
ism, nationalism, and fascism. Political liberal- groups. Fascism is closely related to Nazism, but
ism, as found in the writings of Locke, Rousseau, fascism originated in Italy in 1922 and Adolf
Mill, and Rawls, teaches that personal liberty is a Hitler later incorporated much of its ideology.
fundamental good and that the ideal society is These forces were defeated in World War II, but
one in which individual liberty will be maxi- some extremist groups that are fascist in nature
mized. Intrinsic to liberalism is confidence in instill exist. Their glorification of war, racist senti-
dividual autonomy and the right of the individual ments, and despotic tendencies are in direct con-
to think for himself or herself. This, in turn, flict with evangelical Christianity, which is bibli-
tends to make the liberal very suspicious of any cally required to avoid war if possible, to be
claims to absolute authority, including any indifferent to race and ethnic origin, and to re-
claims to religious authority rooted in God and spect incumbent governments regardless of their
the Bible. Christian mission, which is based on nature.
belief in the authority of Scripture and a divine Conservatism in its purest form is the rejection
mandate to make disciples of Jesus Christ of all of ideology. Whereas ideology is concerned with
nations, will characteristically be viewed by lib- the rethinking of political and social systems,
eralism as a direct threat to individual liberty conservatism (as its name implies) seeks to con-
through the imposition of some divine mandate serve or maintain what it regards as good in the
for society. past and to uphold tradition. In this sense, bibli-
MARXISM (as developed by Marx, Engels, and cal, evangelical Christianity is conservative, for
Lenin) is an economic theory advocating the it consists in preserving intact the apostolic mes-
ownership of all property by the community as a sage from one generation to another.
whole. Intrinsic to Marxism is confidence in the If ideologies oppose the Christian mission it is
basic goodness and productivity of human beings in part because in the past some forms of Chris-
as well as a denial of the existence of God. Thus tianity forgot their true mission and took on po-
Christianitys belief in human depravity and the litical ambitions or at least unwittingly served in
sovereignty of God will be met with staunch re- aiding political causes by exporting aspects of for-
sistance, since such religious beliefs are per- eign cultures. This poses an obstacle that Chris-
ceived to be serving the interests of the dominant tian mission must overcome through disassocia-
classes by suppressing the lower classes and ob- tion as it seeks to make disciples of all nations.
structing the progress of communism. WILLIAM H. BAKER
Democratic socialism, although similar to Bibliography. P. Corbett, Ideologies; G. Graham, Pol-
Marxism in some respects, is a theory of what is itics in Its Place; K. Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia: An
wrong with society and how these ills can be Introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge; M. Seliger,
remedied through production and distribution by Ideology and Politics.
society as a whole rather than through private in-
dividuals. Contrary to this, the Bible advocates Idolatry. Idolatry is a major concern in both the
(notwithstanding some misinterpretations of Acts Old and New Testaments. In the Old Testament
2) responsible stewardship of property by the in- alone there are twelve different words relating to
dividual. Christianity is perceived as the sponsor idols or idolaters. In the New Testament, idol (ei-
of capitalism in spite of the fact that historically domlonor one of its cognates) is used almost
Christianity has existed in virtually all forms of thirty times. Under the old covenant, idolatry was
society and is nonpolitical in its biblical form. strictly forbidden (Exod. 20: 45; Lev. 26:1; Deut.
NATIONALISM is the belief that a nation exists 5:89) and in the new, believers are warned to
more in terms of a given group of people than in avoid any participation with the practices associ-
terms of political boundaries, and that a nations ated with idol worship (1 Cor. 8:712; 10:7;
peculiar interests and security are more impor- 1 John 5:21).
tant than international interests and welfare. The According to some historians, idolatry had its
primary virtues thus are patriotism and pride in origin in the ancient kingdom of Babylon. This
a given nations customs, language, or traits. In would seem logical in that it is the area of one of
view of such attitudes as these, the Christian mis- the oldest civilizations in recorded history. How-
sion may be perceived (and historically this has ever, idolatry is instinctive in the heart of fallen
unfortunately sometimes been the case) as an at- people (Rom. 1:2123) and could probably be as-
tempt to colonize and subjugate others in the sumed to have existed long before recorded civi-
name of a foreign religion. lization. There were at least two major forms of
468
Illiteracy
idolatry in the ancient Near East which influ- living God in a manner consistent with the New
enced Israel: the worship of false gods through Testament commission.
images and ceremony; and the false worship of The other form of idolatry may come from
the true God by means of images and pagan-in- within their own hearts. Missionaries often sac-
fluenced ceremony. rifice material goods, family, comforts, and
The basic concept behind idolatry is assigning human securities. In this sacrificial lifestyle, the
divine attributes to some power other than the temptation to become covetous or to substitute
true God. Images are used as representations of Gods work for more humanistic ideals of living
the force or personality being worshiped and is a serious enticement. Looking to medical doc-
often reflect the divine attribute most coveted by tors, savings accounts, or human advice in place
the worshiper. For this reason, in paganism, mul- of looking to God is idolatry. It needs to be re-
tiple gods are represented because it is incon- membered that God may use any of these human
ceivable that one being could possess all of the tools to bless and encourage his servants but they
forces and mysteries witnessed by humans. are no substitute for God himself.
Israel, like all of fallen humanity, fell into idol- L. E. GLASSCOCK
atry because they sought a god with whom they SEE ALSO Gods and Goddesses; Worship.
could identify. The true God of Israel was invisi-
ble, mysterious, transcendent, and required be- Bibliography. G. Bacon, EJ, 8:122738; S. Barabas,
havior consistent with his own nature. Idols ZPBD, pp. 36870; C. E. DeVries, BEB, I:101416; R. D.
could be seen, designed to meet human expecta- Knudson, NDT, pp. 32930; G. W. Peters, A Biblical The-
ology of Missions.
tions, and manipulated. They were morally weak
like the humans who served them. Thus, the nat-
ural instinct was to gravitate toward that which IFMA. See INTERDENOMINATIONAL FOREIGN MIS-
was more consistent with human ideas and stan- SION ASSOCIATION.
dards. The divine self-revelation given to Israel
was so far beyond human design and concepts Ignatius of Loyola (c. 14911556). Spanish
that Israel was easily seduced by the pagan ideas founder of the Jesuits. Born in the Basque region
and religions which surrounded them. of Spain, until 1521 he pursued a military career
Likewise, New Testament believers, most of but during convalescence from a wound he was
whom had come from pagan lifestyles before converted to Christ through reading devotional
their conversion, would be prone to return to the books. His resolve to change his life led him to
comforts of the familiar and humanly conceived. write the Spiritual Exercises, a program designed
New Testament writers often warned of the dan- to produce mastery of the will. A pilgrimage to
gers of the surrounding new religious systems the Holy Land in 1523 was intended to become a
which practiced idolatry in many forms. Paul impermanent mission to the Muslims of the Middle
plied that idolatry was more than just having an East and North Africa, but Christians in the area
image before which to bow. In Ephesians 5:5, he deterred him. He returned to study at the univer-
stated that a covetous man is an idolater. Cov- sities of Barcelona, Alcala, Salamanca, and Paris,
etousness is the improper desire of some mate- at each place introducing students to the Spiritual
rial object or place of power. In this sense, mate- Exercises. In 1540 he and six companions received
rialism can be identified as idolatry. Many papal permission to found The Society of Jesus.
Christians who would scoff at the idea of bowing Ignatius trained his Jesuits for social service and
before a statue or image are none the less prone missionary work, with special emphasis given to
to covet material goods. It is not uncommon to the establishment of educational institutions.
hear of Christians who have replaced dedication From 1547 until his death, he oversaw the ex-
to God with the pursuit of money, career, enter- pansion of the order throughout Europe, Asia,
tainment, or other things of only temporal value. and the Americas. His Constitutions of the Soci-
For missionaries, idolatry can come in two ety of Jesus outlined the educational philosophy
forms. On the one hand, they will confront cul- of the order; it is still used in its original form
tures (especially Hindu and Buddhist cultures) today. The combination of spiritual devotion, ac-
which openly participate in idol worship through ademic rigor, and missionary fervor that came to
images and ceremonies. Learning to communi- characterize the Jesuits has been inspirational to
cate the invisible, transcendent, omnipotent, and Catholics and Protestants alike.
LARRY POSTON
sovereign God to those who are conditioned to
relate to hundreds of deities is a significant chal- Bibliography. C. De Dalmases, Ignatius of Loyola,
lenge. It must be remembered that these mis- Founder of the Jesuits; G. E. Ganss, Ignatius of Loyola:
sionaries do not have the luxury of the Old Testa- Spiritual Exercises and Selected Works.
ment prophets who lived in theocratic Israel.
They cannot march into these foreign lands and Illiteracy. It has been the contention of modern
chop down idols. They must convey the true and missions that people need to read the Bible. As a
469
Illiteracy
result, literacy programs have played a major representatives to spread out and subdue the
part in Christian mission, and in some places LIT- earth, including all the wilderness outside the
ERACY has been a requirement for baptism and Garden and the rebellious creature who would
church membership. tempt the new couple to sin (Rom. 16:1920).
In spite of enormous efforts, both by Christian God instituted the family as imaging procre-
groups and by secular and government agencies, ation and organization, relating creatively and
present literacy figures are rather startling. About ruling beneficently. From the very beginning God
1.3 billion people are termed illiterates, but be- designed individuals and families to glorify him
cause many of those who enter school leave beas ambassadors, royal priests and prophets, mis-
fore they have fully acquired reading skills, many sionaries. The only thing that changed through
more are functionally illiterate. It is estimated time under Israel and then via the GREAT COM-
that less than half the worlds population are MISSION was the specificity of the message Gods
readers. Among some groups, in particular the people were to take to the world. The core mes-
poor and the outcast, literacy levels are as low as sage has always been follow the true God like
1 percent. In some developing countries, women we do, and let us show you the way.
are illiterate and most girls are not in school. Image as a Missionary Polemic against IDOL-
It has been pointed out that only about 5 per- ATRY. This missionary message directly conflicted
cent of Christs audiences were literate, and that in with the message of the images of other nations.
New Testament times people were evangelized and Images from wood, clay, and metal conveyed the
leaders were trained without a written Bible. Such message, worship our gods. The creation ac-
achievements would seem impossible today given count displays the superiority of persons as Gods
the modern worlds devotion to the printed text. living images over Baals lifeless images. Wor-
The need today is twofold. First, we need to en- shiping God with manufactured idols was futile
courage literacy programs so that as many as (Exod. 20:45). The polemical intent of Genesis
possible will learn to read and write. Power is as- 1:2628 may be paraphrased: People make im-
sociated with the printed page. The task is be- ages of Baal. Can you show me an image Baal
coming increasingly difficult as people would has made of himself? God made humans as im-
rather watch television or listen to the radio. Sec- ages of himself, so far superior to images of Baal
ond, we need to develop alternatives to print as God himself is superior to Baal! Individually
media. The fact is that hundreds of millions liv- and corporately, in words and works, we show
ing today will never learn to read. We need to what God is like. This is our responsibility. Dont
communicate the gospel to them in a form that is reduce your beautiful complexity to a statue!
appropriate, and for most that means oral com- How can an idol ever replace you: living, breath-
munication. The STORY-TELLING tradition among ing, walking, talking, authoritative representa-
many people is as it was in New Testament times, tives of our God?!
well suited to communicating the Scriptures to The polemic continues in Genesis 5:13, when
those who cannot read. Gods image procreates in its own imagewhat
VIGGO B. SGAARD image of Baal can do that? And in Genesis 9:6 the
Lord states his justice in a manner the surround-
SEE ALSO Educational Mission Work. ing nations could easily understand: If you at-
Bibliography. H. Box, Communicating Christianity to tack the image, you attack God. When asked to
Oral, Event-Oriented People; H. V. Klem, Oral Commu- summarize righteousness, Christ essentially as-
nication of the Scripture: Insights from African Oral Art; serts the converse, If you love the image, you
V. B. Sgaard, Audio Scriptures Handbook; H. W. love God (Matt. 22:3740; 1 John 4:2021).
Weber, The Communication of The biblical basis of civil government rests on
the foundation that we each represent God to
Image of God. Imaging God means showing one another. Every person continuously images
Gods attributes in actions and attitudes, words God in basic minimal ways: Gods breath blows
and works. God designed humans to fellowship through our being; Gods life flows in our blood;
with him, obey him, administer for him, and im- Gods light shines in our eyes. Every person must
itate him, including procreating more images, be treated with dignity as valuable to God. From
naming, prophesying, and influencing for right- the preborn to the terminally ill, from the pro-
eousness. Thus work of all types, secular and foundly handicapped to the profoundly rebel-
sacred, images God, especially when energized lious, every person images God and may not be
with the Spirits loving power that brings all violated with impunity (James 3:9; see also PER-
things into submission to Christ (Ps. 8:46; Col. SON, PERSONHOOD).
1:1520). The prophets expand this polemic, insisting
God created humans as his images or royal that individually and corporately Israel is Gods
representatives to glorify him. Image implies image, welded together by Gods strength, held
an audience, so imaging God was in itself a mis- upright by his power, decorated by his glory, en-
sionary endeavor. God assigned his royal priestly livened by his Spirit-breath. When the nations
470
Immanence of God
bow before their images seeking guidance and (John 5:1927; 14:9). Hebrews emphasizes the
power, their images remain silent. But when the parent-child relationship as central to the con-
nations listen to believers (Gods living images), cept of image: The Son is the radiance of Gods
through those royal representatives God guides glory and the exact representation of his being
the nations and promises to bless their obedience (Heb. 1:25; 2:613). In loving actions we honor
to his Word with the protection and provision, fe- our Father; in unrighteous actions we dishonor
cundity and fertility their gods fail to provide him by grotesque caricature (1 John 4:12, 20).
them (Isa. 40:1831; 41:710; 41:2242:1; Persons who behave in an anti-Christ manner
57:1316; Jer. 16:18; Hab. 2:1719). may be labeled children of your father the devil
Israel images God as children image their par- (John 8:44).
ents (e.g., Exod. 4:22; Deut. 32:56, 1520). Israel Corporate Representation. We image God by
glorifies God as a missionary to the nations in functioning together as men and women (Gen.
the same way a good servant accurately repre- 1:2728; 1 Cor. 11:7). Every individual represents
sents (glorifies) his or her master (Isa. 44:2126; God at some level, but corporately we image
49:36). On the other hand, when Israelites wor- more fully and clearly. A single man and woman
ship the images of the nations gods, they become working in godly cooperation with one another
like those images. The prophets describe an Is- more fully represent God than either working
rael which had become like the idols she wor- alone. The two married and parenting godly off-
shiped: deaf, dumb, and unclean. Eventually God spring represent God even more fully. A gather-
will cleanse Israel of the idols, removing hearts of ing of godly individuals and families into Gods
stone, and breathing his Spirit into them: a re- Family, Christs Body and Bride, shows a watch-
creation of Adam, a renewal of Gods image ing universe even more fully and clearly what
(Ezek. 36:2527; cf. Ps. 115). God is like (1 Cor. 12:27; Eph. 3:6, 911; 5:1ff.;
Transformed into the Image. Today the Rev. 22:17).
church images God corporately and individually, DOUGLAS J. VARDELL
as Gods Spirit transforms believers into Christs
image. Moses implied that a person fully images SEE ALSO Humankind, Biblical Doctrine of.
God by keeping Gods Law (e.g., Deut. 13:17; Bibliography. N. T. Anderson and R. L. Saucy, The
14:2). In the New Testament, Christ is the true Common Made Holy: Being Conformed to the Image of
image (2 Cor. 4:4), in part because he perfectly God; G. W. Bromiley, ISBE Revised, 2:8035; G. Ed-
kept the Law. We all are created as Gods image, wards, The Divine Romance: The Most Beautiful Love
for the purpose of representing God by fulfilling Story Ever Told; M. J. Erickson, Christian Theology;
the Law of Christ. idem, Readings in Christian Theology, vol. 2, Mans Need
Because the Spirit writes the Law in our hearts, and Gods Gift; R. S. Greenway and T. M. Monsma,
Cities: Missions New Frontier; R. E. Hedlund, The Mis-
we have the opportunity to represent God in a sion of the Church in the World: A Biblical Theology;
more complete way than could persons prior to C. F. H. Henry, EDT, pp. 54548; D. J. Hesselgrave,
the NEW COVENANT (Eph. 4:2324; 2 Cor. 4:16). Communicating Christ Cross-Culturally, 2nd ed.; idem,
Believers become Gods images more fully by Counseling Cross-Culturally; M. G. Kline, Images of the
Christs righteousness judicially applied to us and Spirit; idem, Kingdom Prologue; J. D. Levenson, Cre-
by the Spirits empowering us to live out Christs ation and the Persistence of Evil: The Jewish Drama of
righteousness. In this way we display Gods glory Divine Omnipotence; C. G. Olson, What in the World is
shining through our holy love (2 Cor. 3:18; Eph. God Doing?; A. P. Ross, Creation and Blessing.
3:10).
Being conformed to the image of Christ is in- Immanence of God. The immanence of God is
herently evangelistic and missionary (Phil. more than a theological dogma. It is a biblical re-
1:272:16). As we act more every day like a child of ality which affects ones view of natural phenom-
our Father, a brother of our Lord, our family re- ena, human events, and perspectives on value
semblance works itself out in all relationships, all and responsibilities. Immanence primarily deals
activities, undergirding and enabling our witness. with Gods presence and activity within the realm
Children Image Parents. Imitating God, Adam of the created world and human activity. Particu-
and Eve procreated a son in their own likeness, larly for mission efforts in a context of tradition-
as their image (Gen. 5:13; Luke 3:38). Children ally pantheistic cultures, the missionary must be
represent their parents by being like them in cautious in expressing Gods immanence. How-
many ways: physical appearance, values, and ever, this must be done without excluding the
will. Believers carry on this responsibility by Lord of the universe from personal involvement
speaking and acting on Gods behalf, sharing his with his created order.
goals and values, mirroring his mighty abilities Beginning with Genesis 1:2, the Spirit of God
(Isa. 43:67). Our goal is to represent our loving was hovering over the waters, Scripture empha-
Father perfectly (Matt. 5:45, 48). Our Lord re- sizes the Creators intimate connection with his
peatedly said that to look at him was to look at creation. Genesis 2:7 demonstrates that his con-
his Father, to honor him was to honor his Father nection with the creature made in his own image
471
Immanence of God
is even more intimate. God infused his very SEE ALSO Divine Attributes of God.
breath into humankind to make humans to be
Bibliography. W. Grudem, Systematic Theology, pp.
living creatures unlike any other creature in 26771; H. Berkhof, Christian Faith, pp. 11926;
Gods created system. K. Barth, Church Dogmatics, II, 1:33545.
Unlike PANTHEISM, which teaches that every-
thing is God or a part of God, or what Tillich
Immutability of God. Immutability refers to
called PANENTHEISM, meaning that God is not
the unchangeableness of God. God claims this
everything but is in everything (God is not a tree,
quality for himself, For I, the LORD, do not
but is in the tree), immanence is the view that cre-
ation is distinct from God and always dependent change . . . (Mal. 3:6). This truth does not, how-
upon God. God is above his creation (transcen- ever, imply that God is a stagnant being frozen in
dent to it) yet constantly involved with it. In Jere- an inflexible pose. The unchangeableness has to
miah 23:2324, God declares that he is near to his do with Gods character, essence, goals, and
creature and that he fills the heavens and earth. promises. For those who have learned of God in
Gods immanence flows out of his permeation of one culture, it may be important to understand
the created universe. His knowledge and his this truth when moving into another environ-
power saturate the entire creation, but his essence ment where one encounters different under-
is not contained in the material world. Thus the standings of the divine. God is the same regard-
mission of the church involves participation with less of the environment in which we may find
God in compassion and care of Gods creation. ourselves.
In some cultures, the pantheistic view of God Though God cannot change in character, he is
will confuse many and the Christian view must be changeable in replication or willingness to re-
clear in separating the material creation from the spond to a proper response to his Word. Jonah
essence of God. Missionaries have confronted this 3:4 records the words of Gods prophet: yet forty
problem for decades, but there is a new form days and Nineveh will be overthrown. The
which influences even Western societies. Some be- prophet was saying what God had already de-
lieve that Gods presence is within nature, includ- clared, and he was confident that Nineveh would
ing human nature, and therefore being an extreme be destroyed. Yet, in verse 10, we are told that
environmentalist or active social revolutionary can when God saw the repentance of the people,
be seen as worshiping God. Whereas some of God relented concerning the calamity which he
these causes may be noble and demonstrate a re- had declared he would bring upon them. God
spect for Gods creation, it is incorrect to assume often works within contingencies and is change-
that Gods presence is in the material world. There able when circumstances are altered to comply
must be a distinction between God at work in and with his conditions.
through nature, and God being in nature. The divine constancy of God is both quantita-
In relation to the human race, the immanence tive (he cannot increase in any attribute) and
of God teaches that he is actively involved with qualitative (he cannot improve in any area). God,
and near to his fallen creatures, having deter- in his attributes, nature, or promises, does not
mined their appointed times and the boundaries experience any sense of modification or variance.
of their habitation, that they should seek God, if For the minister in a cross-cultural situation, it is
perhaps they might grope for him and find him, important to keep this focus while attempting to
though he is not far from each of us (Acts communicate Gods truth. God cannot be altered
17:2627). The human race is dependent upon to suit a particular ethnic group, generation, or
God and intuitively senses Gods essence in the race. God is God regardless of the cultural biases
universe, for in him we live and move and exist of any target group. For many Americans, the
(Acts 17:27; Rom. 1:1921). Thus, one asset to idea of a God who will judge and condemn the
missions is the reality that God is ever present unregenerate was too primitive; thus, many lib-
with his servants and all his creatures made in eral theologians created the conceptions of the
his image. For this reason, classical Christian Old Testament god who was warlike and bloody
mission has always stood for early preservation and the New Testament god who was loving and
and improvement of human life. giving. Such theology is not biblicalthe Lord
A message to the world in this age of environ- who loved enough to die is the same God who
mental concerns and promotion of human rights created the worlds (John 1:114), and that God
is that God is truly concerned about these same has not changed in his essence or attitude toward
issues (Matt. 6:2630; 9:3536; 10:29). God is a sin and judgment.
God who works through the natural world to pro- Being immutable does not imply that God does
vide for his creation (Matt. 5:45). The missionary not understand and work within sequential
must never make this truth the focus of mission events and logical order to bring about his plans.
to the point of confusing the gospel, but must Within his constant program, he works through
show the world that God is near and concerned. progressive revelation and in differing contexts
D. E. GLASSCOCK having unique features. What may appear to be a
472
In-Service Education
change from a human perspective is no more Some in-service efforts are consciously adopt-
than the next phase of the continuum of his re- ing adult education methods (Brewer). A PRAXIS
demptive plan, which when viewed biblically is model which integrates new learnings with life
consistent with his nature and revealed will. experience is being employed. Times and places
A key verse in understanding the immutability are flexible. Formal, nonformal, and informal de-
of God and its practical application is found in livery modes are all used. Missionaries are en-
James 1:17: with whom there is no variation, or couraged to pursue their individual goals within
shifting shadow. This verse addresses Gods cooperative learning communities.
goodness in bestowing gifts to his creatures and Agencies, churches, and schools are increas-
is intended to give comfort to believers who are ingly realizing that in-service education contin-
facing trials (vv. 1217). Regardless of the cir- ues beyond the first term and home assignment.
cumstances, because God has been, is, and al- Ministries change and expand. Transfers to new
ways will be a bestower of good things, one may geographical locations occur. Children no longer
have confidence in him. The assurance of the be- require full-time care (Taylor, 9, 10). Even retire-
liever that God will fulfill his promises and comment does not lessen the missionarys educa-
plete the salvation he has promised is based upon tional needs.
the immutability of God. The God of Abraham, A growing concern for the care and SPIRITUAL
Isaac, and Jacob, who has not forgotten the rem- FORMATION of missionaries can also be discerned.
nant and who will fulfill all the covenant prom- At least one agency offers a mental health check-
ises, will keep his word because he does not up to returning missionaries. Mental health pro-
change in the things he has promised. The fessional and mission leaders in the United States
prophet Malachi proclaims Gods own claim to and Canada are convening conferences to explore
the nation of Israel: For I, the LORD, do not issues related to missionary care (see MEMBER
change; therefore you, O sons of Jacob, are not CARE).
consumed. The context goes on to point out that Many church pastors are visiting fields to pro-
Israel had failed to honor Gods word and did not vide counseling and spiritual encouragement for
obey him. But God did not destroy them because their missionaries. Churches are also helping with
he had made a covenant with Abraham, Isaac, funds for study programs, books, and journals.
and Jacob, and he will honor it. If God were to Others are initiating missiological dialogues with
alter his character, his attributes, or his promises, missionaries on e-mail. A few larger churches are
then there would be no assurance of his prom- offering their own courses and seminars for
ises. He is immutable and therefore trustworthy. missionaries.
L. E. GLASSCOCK The explosion of resources for in-service edu-
cation has also been encouraging. On HOME AS-
SEE ALSO Divine Attributes of God. SIGNMENT , and often on the field as well, mis-
Bibliography. H. Berkhof, Christian Faith, pp. sionaries are being helped to network with
11118, 14047; K. Barth, Church Dogmatics, II, formal study options in seminaries, graduate
1:491522; T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica; J. Calvin, schools, and universities; with nonformal oppor-
Institutes of the Christian Religion; W. Grudem, System- tunities at seminars, conferences, and institutes;
atic Theology, pp. 16368. and with informal possibilities through the re-
sources of libraries, book stores, newspapers,
In-Service Education. Efforts by mission agen- radio, and television. In addition, computer tech-
cies, training schools, and churches to provide in- nology is increasingly making bibliographic
service education for their missionaries are databases, independent study courses, missio-
poorly documented. Even so, the scattered infor- logical forums, and other resources available
mation which is available reveals some encour- through CD-ROMs, the internet, and the World
aging trends. Wide Web.
Cooperative models are beginning to emerge. In the midst of these encouraging trends, there
AVANTE mission in Brazil is combining its re- are causes for concern: the gap between prefield
sources with those of missions schools and orientation programs and the missionarys initial
churches into an extended training program field experience is sometimes wide and deep;
which begins with initial orientation and field continuing education can be haphazard, rather
experience, continues through advanced missio- than planned and purposeful; the resources of
logical studies, and culminates in a supervised national churches are seldom used effectively.
term of service in a team situation in another Missionaries are far more than human re-
country (Neuza Itioka in Taylor, ed., 11120). sources to be developed for missions. They are
North American agencies and schools are begin- persons created in Gods image, growing in
ning to work together in helping missionaries to Christ-likeness, and infinitely more valuable than
pursue a substantial portion of a masters degree any task they may perform. When all is said and
on the field. done, in-service education is ongoing disciple-
473
In-Service Education
making, encouraging Christs intercultural ser- or is little more than a facade for his divinity.
vants to keep learning from him. Maintaining theological balance has never been
LOIS MCKINNEY DOUGLAS easy, as any comprehensive survey of the history
of theology reveals. Yet when either the divinity
SEE ALSO Training. or the humanity of Jesus is over-emphasized, the
Bibliography. M. Brewer, ERT 14 (July 1990): outcome is a distortion of the nature of Jesus as
154279; M. S. Knowles, The Modern Practice of Adult represented in the New Testament. Mainstream
Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy, rev. ed.; EMQ Christianity has been unwilling to relinquish ei-
24 (October 1988); W. D. Taylor, ed., Internationalizing ther the divine or the human nature of Jesus,
Missionary Training. though some theologians have given more atten-
tion to the meaning of the incarnation than oth-
Incarnational Mission. The dramatic opening of ers. Grassroots believers, meanwhile, appear to
Johns Gospel is foundational for understanding be satisfied to confess that in Jesus Christ God
the meaning and implications of incarnational was uniquely revealed in history, and that in
mission. In the beginning was the Word, the Jesus Christ the divine intent for humanity was
apostle wrote, and the Word was with God, and definitively imaged. That there is mystery here no
the Word was God. . . . And the Word became one denies. As Archbishop William Temple put it,
flesh and lived among us . . . (1:1, 14). The fuller anyone who professes to understand the rela-
context of the passage suggests that in Jesus, God tionship of the divine to the human in Jesus
identified thoroughly with humankind, and that Christ simply demonstrates that he or she has
God came in Jesus for the express purpose of dis- failed to understand the significance of the in-
closing not only Gods love but also Gods salvific carnation (p. 139).
intent for the world (3:1617). To refer to the incarnation as mystery, however,
However the Gospel writer may have under- is not to suggest that it is beyond us or a kind of
stood the nature of Jesus, the church has stead- theological icon. Quite the contrary. As Donald
fastly regarded the incarnation to mean that God Baillie said, the mystery will always be mystery,
was enfleshed in Jesus. All the Gospels bear but the mystery is lessened once we realize that
witness to the fact that Jesus was born in a spe- believing in the incarnation means accepting a
cific time and place, into a particular culture, and paradox which can to some small measure be
that he lived, matured, worked, ministered, and understood in the light of the paradox of grace
died as a human being. In Jesuswho came to (p. 131). For the incarnation was not and is not
be called the Christ or the MessiahGod was primarily a doctrine. It was and is an event. It was
thereby revealed as love, self-giving love, love vul- a life lived, and it is a life to be lived. He was
nerable to the exigencies of human life including made what we are, declared Irenaeus, that He
the assault of evil and death. Yet evil was not vic- might make us what He is Himself (Adv. Haer.,
torious. It was instead inexorably defeated in Bk. v. Pref. cited by Baillie, ibid.). Thus Paul could
Christs death and resurrection. God became a make the staggering claim, For me to live is
human being to redeem all humankind from the Christ (Phil. 2:21). So committed was the apostle
destructive power of sin and to reconcile and to the Christ who summoned, transformed, and
transform the whole of creation. missioned him, and so determined was Paul to
Belief in the incarnation raises profound ques- communicate the same good news Jesus fleshed-
tions about the nature of God and about the na- out, that he could say, I have been crucified with
ture of Jesus Christ. Yet, from the earliest at- Christ, and it is no longer I who live, but it is
tempts to grapple with and understand who Christ who lives in me (Gal. 2:1920). In these
Jesus was, the incarnationGods assuming hu- words believers find the most significant implica-
mannesshas been pivotal in comprehending tion of the incarnation, namely, that Jesus Christ
the Christian faith. The earliest church councils can be fleshed out in the lives of those who follow
discussed, debated, and concluded that the God in Jesus steps (1 Peter 2:21). In essence, there-
was in Christ affirmation (2 Cor. 5:19) means fore, this is the mission of Jesus followers, to
that Jesus was fully human and fully divine. Ex- walk in Jesus steps.
plications (or the theology) of the incarnation are Common in Catholic theological tradition is
found not only in Scripture, but also in a succes- the idea that the incarnation of Christ is the link
sion of creeds. Three branches of Christianity, es- between God and the institutional church, or,
pecially the Orthodox, as well as Roman Catholic even more specifically, it is the link between God
and Anglo-Catholic, customarily give more atten- and the sacraments by which believers become
tion and emphasis to the doctrine of the incarna- partakers of Christ. It is a short step, therefore,
tion than do Protestants. In fact, some evangeli- from seeing the SACRAMENTS administered by the
cal theologies tend to accentuate the divinity of church as means of grace to regarding the plan-
Christ so disproportionately that the ultimate re- tatio ecclesiae as extending the incarnation.
sult is a kind of Christological docetism in which In 1838, with the publication of his Kingdom of
the human nature of Jesus is virtually eliminated Christ, British theologian Frederick D. Maurice
474
Inculturation
went beyond the conventional Anglo-Catholic un- mission means INDIGENIZATION. For Nigerian
derstanding of the incarnation by positing spe- Emefie Ikenga-Metuh, it means CONTEXTUALIZA-
cific social and political implications. In a sense, TION for God has always been incarnate in
Maurice anticipated the approach to the life of human cultures. For former World Council of
Jesus developed by many liberation theologians Churches general secretary W. Visser t. Hooft, it
during the last quarter of the twentieth century. meant a holistic ministry. Other more recent ex-
For in terms of the social and political signifi- amples are John S. Pobees insightful Mission in
cance of the incarnation, it has been the libera- Christs Way and Jonathan J. Bonks disturbing
tion theologians who expounded the relationship Missions and Money. Pobee, an African on loan to
of the incarnation in the world today. Jesus, they the World Council of Churches, spells out in de-
underscore, was born in a religio-political context tail the dimensions of an incarnational mission,
of suffering, oppression, and injustice. He was while Bonk, a former Mennonite missionary and
counted not among the rich or the powerful but now associate director of the Overseas Ministries
rather among the common, the nondescript folk Study Center in New Haven, Connecticut, ad-
from the hill country of Galilee. To inaugurate his dresses the crucial issue of missionary prosperity,
mission, nonetheless, Jesus made an astonishing saying that economically affluent missionaries
association: The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, can never engage in incarnational mission for
because he has anointed me to bring good news what they model is an inversion of the Incarna-
to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to tion. Their prosperity makes it impossible for
the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to them to identify with the life situations of the
let the oppressed go free, [and] to proclaim the poor to whom the gospel is addressed (p. 61).
year of the Lords favor (Luke 4:1819). Nearly a half-century ago one of the most re-
His mission, as he described it, was to liberate spected and effective mission leaders among
the impoverished, the imprisoned, the sightless, Southern Baptists, M. Theron Rankin, then the
and the oppressed. As it turned out, it was these executive secretary of the Foreign Mission Board,
kinds of people who became Jesus principal fol- envisioned a model of incarnational mission. If
lowersthe poor, the sick, the disabled, the de- God could have saved the world by remoteness,
spised, the marginalized, and the alienated
and achieved the divine purpose while remaining
women, tax collectors, prostitutes, and others
detached from humanity, Rankin asked, would
whom society scorned. Moreover, it was from
there have been the incarnation? Then he added,
these that Jesus chose his disciples whom he de-
the most effective witness the church makes will
clared were the salt of the earth and the light
always be in the lives of those who in Christs
of the world (Matt. 5:1: 13, 14).
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Latin Ameri- name bury themselves in the lives and struggles
can liberation theologians, following the lead of of another people, missionaries who serve the
the SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL, began asking what people, learn to speak their language, develop the
the incarnation of Jesus implied in a world beset capacity to feel their hurt and hunger, and who
with injustice, hatred, poverty, exploitation, pre- learn to love them personally and individually.
mature death, and hopelessness. Though their re- ALAN NEELY
sponse to the question incited intense debate Bibliography. A. Mortimer, Announcing the Reign of
and more resistance than support from God; D. M. Baillie, God Was in Christ; J. J. Bonk, Mis-
officialdomthe basic question they asked still sions and Money; J. R. Chandran, Student World 51
begs to be answered. Jesus, liberation theolo- (1958): 33442; E. Ikenga-Metuh, Mission Studies 6
gians said, indisputably sided with the hurting, (1989): 512; F. D. Maurice, Kingdom of Christ; J. S.
exploited, and abused of his day. This was his Pobee, Mission in Christs Way; T. M. Rankin, The Com-
mission, and anyone who presumes to incarnate mission 15 (June 1952): 9; W. Temple, Christus Veritas;
W. A. Visser t. Hooft, The Uppsala Report, pp. 31720.
Christs mission today will likewise stand with
the suffering peoples of the world whether they
are in America, Europe, Asia, or Africa (see LIB- Inculturation. Modeled on the anthropological
ERATION THEOLOGIES). term ENCULTURATION, inculturation has been used
Standing with the poor and oppressed does not regularly in Catholic discussion since the 1970s
mean ignoring or neglecting the mission of evan- as a parallel to CONTEXTUALIZATION. The core idea
gelization, but, as Mortimer Arias notes, evange- is found in the widely quoted statement from
lization can never be merely verbal proclama- Pedro Arrupe, the former superior general of the
tion. Authentic evangelization will be also the Jesuits, in a letter to the Society (Schineller, 1996,
incarnation of the gospel in the lives of Christs 109): Inculturation is the incarnation of Chris-
people, Christs community (p. 107). tian life and of the Christian message in a partic-
Reflection on the meaning of incarnational ular cultural context, in such a way that this ex-
mission can be found also in the writings of cer- perience not only finds expression through
tain ecumenical and evangelical theologians. For elements proper to the culture in question, but
J. R. Chandran of India, an incarnational view of becomes a principle that animates, directs and
475
Inculturation
unifies the culture, transforming and remaking it The bulk of the independent charismatic mis-
so as to bring about a new creation. sionary force is sent out from the Western world.
Just as contextualization went beyond ADAPTA- At least thirty thousand are sent out from
TION, so inculturation goes beyond ACCOMMODA- churches in the West. Most of these are sent di-
TION. Rather than translating the concepts of the rectly from their churches or through emerging
gospel in a new cultural setting by outsiders, it quasi-agencies. Unfortunately, the vast majority
refers to the insiders of the culture integrating at have found the most fertile soil among Christians
the root of their culture the values, ideals, teach- of other traditions, especially among Roman
ings, and orientation of the gospel and church Catholics and Protestants in Latin America and
tradition (see Luzbetak, 1988, 8283). sub-Saharan Africa, as well as, more recently,
While the general sense of inculturation so among the Orthodox in Eastern Europe and the
closely parallels contextualization that Protes- former Soviet Union. Nonetheless, todays fifty
tants have little trouble with it, the emphasis on thousand independent charismatic missionaries
church tradition as parallel to the gospel in au- represent one of the fastest-growing segments of
thority is a point of contention for Protestants the global missionary force and are likely to con-
who do not ascribe the same authority to church tribute new and innovative approaches to world
tradition as Catholic teaching does. mission well into the twenty-first century.
A. SCOTT MOREAU TODD M. JOHNSON
Bibliography. S. J. Bevans, The Japan Christian Re- SEE ALSO Charismatic Movement.
view 62 (1996): 517; M. Dhavamony, Studia Missiona-
lia 44 (1995): 143; P. Divarkar, A New Missionary Era, Independent Nondenominational Mission
pp. 16973; M. P. Gallagher, IRM 85 (1996): 17380; Agencies. Being similar to independent, nonde-
L. J. Luzbetak, The Church and Cultures; P. Schineller,
IBMR 20 (1996): 10910, 112.
nominational colleges, the strength and weak-
ness of an independent, nondenominational mis-
sion agency is that it does not depend for its
Independent Charismatic Missionaries. existence or its priorities upon the outcome of
Charismatics, those Christians emphasizing the the majority vote of any denomination or church-
use of spiritual gifts, have been active in world wide consensus, but rather upon the usually
mission for centuries but their specific contribu- stricter scrutiny of supporters who take a special
tion in the twentieth century came in three major interest in its mission.
waves. The first wave came with the formation of These characteristics are quite visible in the
Pentecostal denominations, such as the Assem- area of global Christian mission activity. For
blies of God, at the beginning of the century (see most of Christian history missionary outreach
THE PENTECOSTAL MOVEMENT). The second wave has rarely been the result of either local or de-
were charismatics who remained in mainline denominational communities of believers making a
nominations, such as Anglicans, Lutherans, Pres- decision as a whole to reach out in mission.
byterians, Catholics, Methodists, and Baptists. Rather, minority enthusiasts within such com-
Today, large numbers of missionaries from these munities have taken organized initiatives without
two waves serve in nearly every country of the waiting for a 51 percent majority vote of the en-
world. tire group, be it local or denominational.
The third wave are the independent charis- We can think of the case of WILLIAM CAREY as a
matics who have formed their own churches and classical example of a mission endeavor lacking
quasi-denominations. The first of these arose in the majority vote of an ecclesiastical body. His
Africa as prophets, pastors, and evangelists who board was a highly committed minority or sub-
broke off from existing traditions. These move- group of his Baptist friends who only much later
ments were normally evangelistic, so they sup- were backed by a denomination. By contrast, his
ported a large number of evangelists and mis- student followers in Massachusettsthe young
sionaries. Evangelists, preaching the gospel men in the so-called HAYSTACK PRAYER MEETING
among their own people, were the most numer- were able with the help of some seminary profes-
ous but African indigenous missionaries, those sors to get official ecclesiastical encouragement
who went to preach the gospel among other peo- to form the AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS
ples and languages, were a significant force and FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS, which then went on for
today represent some six thousand cross-cultural quite a few years to function as the first major
missionaries. interdenominational mission in America. But
Another significant independent charismatic because it was officially tied to a specific denom-
movement is the CHINESE HOUSE CHURCH MOVE- ination it eventually became exclusively denomi-
MENT. However, most of the Christian workers national and its work today is minimal. By con-
from this tradition are not cross-cultural mis- trast, the young men who organized the World
sionaries, but pastors, teachers, and evangelists Mission Prayer League within the Lutheran
among the majority Han Chinese. sphere never did get official denominational
476
Independent Nondenominational Mission Agencies
backing, although they tried, but the WMPL is Inland Mission (now the OVERSEAS MISSIONARY
thriving to this day. FELLOWSHIP) was welcome to participate in the
Minority initiatives have resulted in deeply early period of the FMCNA, but there came a time
dedicated people going out individually, like when only strictly denominational boards were
SAMUEL ZWEMER, or in an organized team, often allowed a vote. By 1917 in America it behooved
at great personal risk. This is not merely a mod- the interdenominational missions to form their
ern phenomenon. The Celtic Peregrini, who were own association, called the INTERDENOMINATIONAL
one of the most powerful forces for the taming of FOREIGN MISSION ASSOCIATION (IFMA).
Europe, the Roman Catholic Orders, and the Meanwhile, the FMCNA went on through vari-
early Protestant missionary societies such as the ous mutations to become the Division of Over-
Society for the Proclamation of the Gospel, the seas Ministries of the National Churches of
LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, or the CHURCH MIS- Christ in the USA, while the IFMA, holding on
SIONARY SOCIETY were all minority initiatives. tightly to its interdenominational character, gave
Until about 1870 mission organizations almost reason for the appearance in 1945 of the EFMA
never resulted from the central initiative of eccle- (by 1995 called the EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP OF
siastical structures. MISSION AGENCIES) which specifically included
In America, where the concept of a denomi- the newer, generally smaller, and distinctively
nation was first developed (implying that more evangelical denominational mission boards of
than one church tradition can be legitimate), the member denominations of the National Asso-
dozens of nondenominational mission thrusts ciation of Evangelicals.
took place long before the idea gained favor The 1890s, however, was a period of great en-
within the denominations themselves to establish thusiasm for global involvement in America, and
foreign mission departments or boards. But consequently denomination-wide consensus in
around 1870 missions for a brief but important mission effort was reasonable and relatively easy.
period became a denominational priority. Virtu- Because the Civil War had killed so many men in
ally every self-respecting denomination in Amer- a key age bracket, women took over farms, busi-
ica felt the tug as a denomination to become in- nesses, banks, and founded what would later be-
volved in its own name in world mission efforts. come elite womens colleges like Wellesley and
The same thing happened later in the century Bryn Mawr. Their efforts led to the formation of
with the newer, small, strictly evangelical de- the highly mission-minded youth movement,
nominations. Christian Endeavor, which is still the worlds
The idea of official denominational initiative largest Christian youth movement, and which in
became so strong that soon it was widely as- turn fueled the Student Foreign Mission move-
sumed that denominational mission boards were ment, whose followers eventually moved into de-
not only the best way to go but the only theologi- nominational leadership, greatly expanding de-
cally legitimate methodology of mission. What nominational missions. By 1925 three-quarters of
about the older well-respected nondenomina- all American missionaries were sent out by the
tional boards like the London Missionary Soci- mission boards of what we think of today as the
ety (in England) and the American Board of older denominations.
Commissioners for Foreign Missions? They had Unfortunately, the denominational boards of
been serving valiantly for over fifty years. By the major denominations found that while they
1870 these two began to discover that their de- had been successful in branding the interdenom-
nominational sources withdrew as denomination inational mission societies as second-class citi-
after denomination began to establish its own zens, they were unable successfully to maintain
mission board. Denominational leaders quite their own steam as the interests of the majority
often suggestedmaybe even demandedthat of their members gradually turned elsewhere.
their members no longer support nondenomi- Dozens of newer denominations, such as the Mis-
national (or interdenominational) missions. sion Covenant (now Evangelical Covenant), the
Thus, when the Foreign Mission Conference of Assemblies of God, and the Baptist General Con-
North America (FMCNA) was formed in 1891, ference tended to pick up the slack, but even
most of the board secretaries who met together greater compensatory growth came from the
were by that date denominational mission secre- older interdenominational agencies, mostly in
taries. By that time the American Board of Com- the IFMA, as well as completely independent
missioners for Foreign Missions, for example, was agencies like WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS. Three
no longer an interdenominational agency but of the five agencies in the original group forming
simply the denominational board of the Congre- the IFMAthe China Inland Mission (now Over-
gational (eventually the United Church of Christ) seas Missionary Fellowship), the Sudan Interior
tradition. That is, all other denominations had Mission (now SOCIETY FOR INTERNATIONAL MIN-
pulled out. Not only that, but the FMCNA would ISTRIES INTERNATIONAL, working all over the
gradually ease out the few interdenominational world), and the AFRICA INLAND MISSION, INTERNA-
boards that had attended its meetings. The China TIONALbecame large and competent organiza-
477
Independent Nondenominational Mission Agencies
tions, each with thousands of churches on the Note the case of the two largest non-Western mis-
field as fruit of their labor. sion agencies: the Evangelical Missionary Society
By 1970 the involvement of older denomina- in Nigeria is the result of the work of an interde-
tions in mission had shrunk back from 75 per- nominational board, SIM International; while the
cent of all American missionaries (in 1925) to FRIENDS MISSIONARY PRAYER BAND in India derived
less than 5 percent. By the end of the century the from a Daily Vacation Bible School movement
larger part of the foreign mission burden was that was interdenominational.
again carried by organizations supported by the RALPH D. WINTER
mission minority which runs throughout virtu-
ally all denominations as well as independent SEE ALSO Faith Missions.
congregations. Bibliography. E. L. Frizen, 75 years of Service, the
Granted, the first half of the twentieth century History of the IFMA.
was dominated by the mission boards of denom-
inations, and their contribution around the world India (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,022,021,000; 3,287,590
is still a major gift to the global church. But the sq. km. [1,269,339 sq. mi.]). Indias inhabitants
second half of the century, following the Second represent one-sixth of the people of the world
World War, saw a return to dominance by mis- and a population equal to that of all the countries
sion agencies not dependent on the majority of of the continents of Africa and South America
any one denomination. combined.
Thus, the interdenominational or nondenomi- There was a thriving civilization in northwest
national mission boards have sprung up to make
India as early as 2500 B.C. which paralleled the
major contributions and continue to be signifi-
ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
cant mission structures. What would have hap-
Aryans moved into India in the middle of the sec-
pened if Wycliffe Bible Translators had not
ond millennium B.C. After the periods of the
emerged to rally the troops to the difficult task of
Maurya and Gupta empires and centuries of con-
BIBLE TRANSLATION? By the end of the twentieth
flicts among many smaller kingdoms, the Mughal
century few denominations showed either the in-
empire was established by the middle of the six-
terest or the expertise to make strong contribu-
teenth century A.D.
tions in PIONEER MISSION WORK. By that time
they were mainly content to focus on the rela- European interest in India began with the
tionships and well-being of their own overseas coming of the Portuguese in the fifteenth century.
constituencies. By 1858 the British Crown took control of India.
It seems on the face of it quite logical for there After many decades of largely nonviolent struggle
to be interdenominational colleges, seminaries, for independence, India became a free country
Bible societies, publishers, and mission agencies. on August 15, 1947. Mahatma M. K. Gandhi and
What if the Billy Graham Evangelistic Associa- Jawaharlal Nehru were the two most influential
tion had bowed to the questionable ethnological leaders in this process.
case against Christian organizations not directly India has remained a secular country. It up-
controlled by local or denominational church holds democracy and socialism, and in its foreign
structures? Churches have found it possible to policy nonalignment. It has waged two wars with
cooperate at the top level in the National Council Pakistan and one with China over border dis-
of Churches and the National Association of putes. There continues to be intense local strug-
Evangelicals, but those organizations have never gles on religious and regional issues especially in
functioned as ecumenically as the marvelous Kashmir, Punjab, and northwest India. It is often
tapestry of collaboration by the agencies we see a coalition of political parties that rules both the
on the mission fields. central and the state governments. What is amaz-
For example, once the WORLD COUNCIL OF ing is that in spite of great diversities of races,
CHURCHES swallowed up the INTERNATIONAL MIS- cultures, languages, and religions, India remains
SIONARY COUNCIL, this allowed no room in that relatively unified.
body at the global level for either the Billy Gra- There are no legal restrictions in gospel work
ham Evangelistic Association or Wycliffe Bible in the country as its Constitution grants freedom
Translators (or any of the hundred agencies of to profess, practice, and propagate any religion.
the IFMA). Yet, there is strong opposition from militant Hin-
Worse still, in many of the strongly evangelical duism and often discriminatory actions of local
churches in the so-called mission lands the idea officials which discourage evangelistic activity
that only denominational structures are legiti- and conversion to Christ.
mate has gravely delayed the sponsoring of mis- Indias People. The people of India belong pri-
sionary activity by the overseas churches. In a re- marily to the Aryan and Dravidian races, though
play of the American experience we once again roughly five thousand ethnolinguistic people
find minority, interdenominational initiatives groups have been identified. There are fifteen of-
leading the way against the current of opinion. ficial languages in addition to English (taught in
478
India
all schools), and also about five hundred local di- For centuries, the church was under the juris-
alects. Caste distinctions are basic to the Hindu diction of Syrian authorities. Toward the end of
view of social structures, though caste discrimi- the thirteenth century European missions began
nation is prohibited by the countrys Constitu- to work in India. The sixteenth century brought
tion. There are roughly six thousand subcastes the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch, the Dan-
under the four main castes. ish, the French, and the British missions along
About three-fourths of the population live in with the trading interest and political ambitions
some six hundred thousand villages and depend of their respective countries. The Roman
upon agriculture for their livelihood. Yet urban Catholics vainly tried to assimilate the Syrian
and industrial centers are mushrooming. India Christians.
has twenty-three cities with over a million inhab- The major thrust of the Protestant missions
itants each. About 40 percent of the population started with the arrival of WILLIAM CAREY in Ben-
live in dire poverty while 10 percent of the people gal in 1793. Since then numerous European and
hold 75 percent of the total wealth. Recent eco- American missions have done extensive work. As-
nomic reforms and liberalization have strength- sociation with them brought about a renewal to
ened a fast-growing middle class. the Syrian Christians, especially the Mar Thoma
Indias Religions. Indias people are generally Church, and their new commitment to mission.
religious, and every major world religion is found Christian missions in general engaged them-
there. Eighty percent are Hindu which is itself a selves in evangelistic, medical, educational, phil-
mosaic of religions and more a cultural way of anthropic, and related social services. They par-
life than a religious system following specific be- ticularly excelled in education and medical work.
liefs and worship practices. Hinduism accommo- They raised the status and condition of the low-
dates in itself obvious contradictory doctrines. est classes of people and gave particular focus to
While Hindus revere Jesus Christ as a great guru girls and women.
and show interest in the gospel, they abhor any Indias independence in 1947 hastened the
idea of salvation through him only. need for the church to be independent of Western
About 12 percent belong to Islam which was patronage and develop its indigenous adminis-
introduced in India in the eighth century A.D. tration, support, and theology. Presently, there
About two-thirds are Sunni and the rest Shiite. are several hundred mission agencies with sev-
One-tenth of the worlds Muslim population is eral thousand missionaries doing cross-cultural
here without any legal restrictions to reaching ministries primarily among the unreached peo-
them with the gospel. ples and the tribals. INDIA EVANGELICAL MISSION,
Buddhism, which Gautama Buddha started in Gospel for Asia, India Evangelical Team, and
India in the sixth century B.C., almost disap- FRIENDS MISSIONARY PRAYER BAND are some of the
peared by the seventeenth century A.D. However, larger ones. Most of the denominational agencies
many low caste people have recently been ac- are from northwest India and most of the para-
cepting the faith en masse. church ones from Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and
Sikhism, founded in the fifteenth century A.D., Andhra (see also INDIAN MISSION BOARDS AND
is a syncretistic religion combining the best fea- AGENCIES).
tures of Hinduism and Islam, and claims 2 per- In evangelism and church planting the church
cent of Indias population. Finally, there are nu- in India has fared poorly. The basic reasons in-
merous other religious orientations, including clude general apathy, nominalism, and lack of
some forty million adherents of animistic tradi- mission commitment. Too much energy and
tional religions. money are wasted in court cases over church
Christians in India number roughly 3 percent property. To date, its own theology and systems
and fall into four main categories: Roman of leadership training are largely imported from
Catholics, Orthodox, Protestant, and independent the West and theologically liberal in orientation.
indigenous. About 75 percent of Christians live in Much of the life and activities in relation to the
the four southern states of India (with a heavy work of the gospel seem to be with those who uti-
concentration in Kerala), 15 percent in the north- lize their time and resources for ministries outside
eastern states, and 10 percent scattered through the institutionalized classical churches of which
much of the central and north India. they are members. Recently the charismatic and
Church in India and Its Mission. Some sig- independent churches are growing in numbers
nificant evidence points to the existence of an es- and initiating new and vibrant ministries. While
tablished church in South India as early as the most of India remains unreached with the gospel
second century A.D. A very credible oral tradition at this time, there continues to be hope that God
maintains that the apostle Thomas came to India will move in mighty ways in the future.
in A.D. 52, founded seven churches, and was mar- SAPHIR ATHYAL
tyred in Madras. Also, there were two major mi- Bibliography. S. Athyal, ed., India Christian Hand-
grations of Syrian Christians to south India. book; C. B. Firth, An Introduction to Indian Church His-
479
India
tory; History of Christianity in India, 5 vols.; F. A. which listed pioneer evangelism. Tamil Nadu has
Hrangkhuma, Church in Asia, Challenges and Opportu- the largest number of mission headquarters, fol-
nities, pp. 393434. lowed by Kerala and Andhra, Pradesh.
What precisely is an indigenous Indian mis-
Indian Evangelical Mission (IEM). Founded in sion? Definitions vary, but Indian mission boards
1965 as the indigenous missionary agency of the and agencies may be delineated in terms of mis-
Evangelical Fellowship of India, the Indian Evan- sionary work that is rooted in the Indian
gelical Mission grew from 5 missionaries in 1968 churches and has an Indian identity. They are not
to 41 in 1976. In 1978, there were 88 missionar- a copy or continuation of the foreign missions
ies in the field, a number that increased to 151 in that worked in India over the past two centuries,
1987 and 310 in 1992. Missionaries under ap- but are a genuine expression of the missionary
pointment roughly doubled every five years. By spirit of Indian churches and Christians.
1997 there were 430 missionaries and 15 over- India has two main types of mission boards.
seas associate missionaries serving among 68 One is church-based and denominational. Exam-
people groups at 87 mission stations. About 95 ples include the Mission Board of the Presbyterian
percent of all financial support comes from Church of North East India, the Zoram Baptist
within India; most of it raised by honorary area Mission of Mizoram, the Nagaland Missionary
secretaries through prayer groups. Movement, the Mar Thoma Syrian Evangelistic
Candidates are recruited through national and Association, and the various diocesan mission
state missionary conventions and promotional boards. This pattern prevails in northeast India.
meetings in churches. Those selected are sent to The other is the nondenominational or interde-
the Training Institute at Dharmapuri in Tamil nominational mission. Examples include the Na-
Nadu. Courses include linguistics, anthropology, tional Missionary Society, INDIAN EVANGELICAL MIS-
evangelism, religions, village health care, book- SION, FRIENDS MISSIONARY PRAYER BAND, and
keeping, and other practical skills. The first year various independent agencies. This pattern pre-
is probationary for all missionaries. The IEM en- dominates in the south. Yet this is only part of the
gages in evangelism, teaching, medical ministry, picture.
and church planting. In addition to overseeing Mission is not the exclusive domain of the mis-
tribal childrens hostels and various development sion societies. Churches and denominations
projects, the IEM is translating the Bible into 11 themselves are also vehicles for missionary out-
languages. reach. This is especially true of the rapidly ex-
ROGER E. HEDLUND panding Pentecostal movement in India. At
Madras the New Life Assembly of God sends and
Bibliography. R. E. Hedlund and F. Hrangkhuma, supports its own missionaries to other parts of
eds., Indigenous Missions of India; L. J. Joshi, Evalua- India. In another instance an entire new field has
tion of Indigenous Missions of India; M. A. Nelson and been opened by missionaries sent from one local
C. Chun, Asian Mission Societies: New Resources for
congregation at Chrompet, Madras, which also
World Evangelization.
functions as a mission society (GEMSGospel
Echoing Missionary Society). Further, independ-
Indian Mission Boards and Agencies. Thou- ent workers have had an important role in pene-
sands of Indian missionaries are presently serv- trating new areas and establishing Pentecostal
ing under some two hundred indigenous mission churches and agencies.
organizations. Indigenous Christian missions are Roman Catholic missionary orders have not
not new to the Indian context. Early indigenous been included in most studies of indigenous mis-
agencies still active include the Mar Thoma Syr- sions, probably because little distinction is made
ian Evangelistic Association (organized in 1888), between indigenous orders and those of non-
the Indian Missionary Society of Tirunelveli Indian origins. The latter are thoroughly indige-
(1903), and the National Missionary Society nized in personnel and management. The
(1906). The India Missions Association (IMA), Catholic contribution is in fact enormous.
created in 1977 to coordinate the activities of the Indianized international Protestant agencies
various indigenous missions, in 1994 claimed 75 include Inter-Serve (India), Operation Mobiliza-
member mission agencies having about 9,000 tion, and Youth With a Mission. Various special-
missionaries. In 1996 this had increased to 87 ized social ministriesdrug rehabilitation, edu-
members and 14,000 Indian missionaries. The cation, literature, medicine, projects with youth,
Indian Evangelical Team (IET) was the largest, the poor, the destitute, and slumsalso form part
with 1,032 pioneer missionaries in fourteen of the missionary edge of the Indian churches.
states. Many other mission organizations are not ROGER E. HEDLUND
members of IMA. It is difficult to ascertain the
number. A 1992 study identified 275 agencies en- SEE ALSO Asian Mission Boards and Societies.
gaged in cross-cultural and other direct mission- Bibliography. R. E. Hedlund and F. Hrangkhuma,
ary activity. An index included 103 agencies, 76 of eds., Indigenous Missions of India; Indian Missions As-
480
Indigenization
sociation, Languages of India: Present Status of Christ- slip into over-indigenization or SYNCRETISM?
ian Work in Every Indian Language; L. J. Joshi, Evalua- When does hesitation over indigenization slip
tion of Indigenous Missions of India; S. Lazarus, ed., into legalism and traditionalism?
Proclaiming Christ: A Handbook of Indigenous Mission Toward a Biblical Framework. The legitimacy
in India; L. D. Pate, From Every People: A Handbook of
of this process flows from the accommodations
Two-Thirds World Missions.
of God himself (Battles, 1977, 1938). Revela-
tion itself comes with a sensitivity to the time,
Indigenization. In the broadest sense, indige- place, culture, and literary genres of its receptors
nization is a term describing the translatability but never with capitulation to error. There is a
of the universal Christian faith into the forms history to special revelation; the condescending
and symbols of the particular cultures of the Father communicates truth to us in a form suited
world. Still widely accepted among evangelicals, to our particular human situations (see BIBLE;
the word validates all human languages and cul- Vos, 1948, 1127).
tures before God as legitimate paths for under- Out of the reservoir of ancient Near Eastern
standing his divine meanings. metaphors God paints himself as the divine war-
Indigenization provided the freedom for the rior (Exod. 15:13) come to deliver his people
Greek translators of the Hebrew Old Testament from Egypt. He reshapes the treaty language of
(the Septuagint) to take a word like theos from the ancient Hittite codes from their polytheistic
the idolatrous world of polytheism and use it to connections to draw a picture of the covenant
describe the only Creator of heaven and earth, made between Creator and creature, Redeemer
the God (theos) and Father of our Lord Jesus and redeemed (Exod. 20:117). He encloses his
Christ. eternal Word in the limiting wrappings of the He-
Indigenization enabled first-century Christian brew language, his own coming in the God-man
Jews in Gentile-dominated Antioch to cross a Jesus Christ, the Word of God incarnate as a
massive cultural barrier and begin preaching to first-century Palestinian Jew.
the Greeks (Walls, 1996, 17). They knew that In the fullness and power of his Holy Spirit he
their time-honored word Christ would mean lit- breaks through that Hebrew sociocultural world
tle to their neighbors. So they used another name to proclaim Christ both across and within the
to identify their Messiah in this new cultural set- global borders of cultural diversities and linguis-
ting: the Lord Jesus (Acts 11:20). tic expressions (Acts 1:8). Pentecost transforms
The same process of indigenization allowed the Babel curse of diversity into global blessing;
freedom for the emerging churches of the world we are called to be all things to all people in
to wrestle with infusing traditional cultural and order to save some at any cost (1 Cor. 9:23). The
social practices with new Christian meaning. Pat- worlds cultures become home where the gospel
terns of worship and music, of initiation, mar- takes root. And the gospel becomes the leaven in
riage, and funeral rites, even of church structure which those cultures are judged, transformed,
and leadership could be adapted or transformed and liberated.
by the gospel. The Rocky Road of Indigenization. This apos-
The Boundaries of Indigenization. Indige- tolic balance did not always appear in the cen-
nization is born out of the tension created by two turies that follow. Within the Roman Catholic
realities. One is the recognition that Christians Church, ACCOMMODATION grew as a middle ground
bring with their faith the particulars of their cul- of gradualism. The imperfections of the pagan
ture and social group and best appropriate that world of nature were to be supplemented by the
faith in terms of those particulars. The other is perfections of grace. Thus, in the seventh century
the recognition that this new Christian faith Pope Gregory the Great could advise Augustine,
brings with it a universalizing factor that extends his evangelist laboring in England, to destroy the
the Christian community past the particular bor- idols, but the temples themselves are to be sprin-
ders of culture and group. kled with holy water, altars set up, and relics en-
Indigenization as a process asks, How can the closed in them.
church be a universal, global Christian commu- Later Jesuit experiments particularly in China
nity and also a particular community, shaped moved in a similar direction. MATTEO RICCI saw
within its own culture and society? How can the the Chinese homage to Confucius and to the an-
gospel flower be planted in new soil without also cestors as ritual expressions of gratitude not inim-
planting the foreign flower pot? ical to the Christian faith. He found in Confucius
Working within these boundaries is not easy. the natural theology, the preparatio evangelica, of
How do the churches keep the balance between China as his theological training had given him
freedom to develop on their own path and alle- this for the West in Aristotle (Allen, 1960, 39).
giance to the transcultural gospel uniting all the In Europe observers often matched Jesuit en-
churches? What should be the relation of a Chris- thusiasm. The philosopher Leibnitz could argue,
tian church to its non-Christian past? When does I almost think it necessary that Chinese mis-
indigenization in the name of Christian liberty sionaries should be sent to us to teach us the
481
Indigenization
aim and practice of natural theology, as we send places the burden of initiative and responsibility
missionaries to them to instruct them in re- squarely on Christians in the local context
vealed religion. (Taber, 1991, 177).
In the face of mounting opposition by the Do- HARVIE M. CONN
minicans, confusion, and misunderstanding, in
Bibliography. E. L. Allen, Christianity Among the Re-
1744, the papacy said enough was enough. Such ligions; F. Battles, Interpretation 31 (1977): 1938;
experiments in accommodation were condemned P. Beyerhaus and H. Lefever, The Responsible Church
and Roman Catholic missionary churches found and the Foreign Mission; V. Cronin, The Wise Man From
themselves required to reflect in every detail the the West; L. Luzbetak, The Church and Cultures;
Catholic customs of the moment. Not until 1938 C. Taber, The World is Too Much with Us; G. Vos, Bibli-
was that ban lifted. And not until the years fol- cal Theology; A. Walls, The Missionary Movement in
lowing the SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL (196265) did Christian History.
Roman Catholic missiology seek to reclaim and
correct features of the accommodation model in Indigenous American Religions. It is somewhat
what is now called INCULTURATION (Luzbetak, difficult to apply the term religion to the in-
1988, 8283). digenous peoples of America. Some Native Amer-
Protestant models in the nineteenth century ican peoples have neither the word nor the con-
promised more freedom but often practiced a cept of religion in their language. For them the
similar reluctance toward indigenization. There entire life experience is an integrated set of belief
were many reasons for the hesitancy: a long his- and behavior that includes everything that is
tory of ETHNOCENTRISM that identified things physical, social, emotional, cultural, political,
Christian with the superiority of things Western; material, non-material, spiritual, secular, super-
the shaping role played by the missionary out- natural, and mystical.
sider in the receptor culture; the sense that the Also, it must be pointed out that there is no
native church was still too immature to be let single dominant religion among Native Ameri-
go; the emerging national churches own identi- cans. Each group has a religious tradition that is
fication of the shape of Christianity with its Eu- unique to its own heritage. Native Americans do,
ropean models. however, share certain common religious charac-
The promotion of the indigenous church for- teristics. Some of these are to live in harmony
mula (see INDIGENOUS CHURCHES) in the latter half with nature and the universe; respect for Mother
of the nineteenth century began to break through Earth; belief in spirits; the practice of commu-
those patterns. Developed by the missionary com- nicating with the powers of nature; shamanism;
munity to identify the emerging church, the ritualism; and creation stories.
three-self understanding of the church as self- A large number of American Indians are in-
governing, self-propagating, and self-supporting volved today in practicing and adhering to the re-
became a stepping stone to other questions that ligious traditions of their ancestors. Also, it is to
would expand into the twentieth century. be noted that in Native American communities
The indigenous church began to ask, What all across America there is a revived interest on
were the implications of selfhood beyond the the part of many to return to the heritage and
three-selfs? Could the local church possess all traditions of their fathers and grandfathers.
three selfs and still look and sound foreign? The intrusion of outside religious concepts and
The recall of foreign missionaries during World practices have had an impact on many of the
War II and the breaking up of Western COLONIAL- tribal traditions, causing considerable opposition
ISM gave the global church the long promised and/or change. There are at least four major in-
freedom to press these questions. fluences today that are affecting the religious
Indigenization became the slogan word under thinking and practice of American Indians. These
which such questions were asked. How could the are: pan-Indianism; the NEW AGE MOVEMENT; The
church now be itself, responsible to the Lord and Native American Church; and Christianity.
to its own cultural world (Beyerhaus and Lefever, Although the term pan-Indian has a consid-
1964)? How could the church now planted on six erably broader definition, it is used here specifi-
continents be a viable, prophetic force in its own cally to describe the practice of an Indian from
culture, reflecting the full power of the gospel in one group borrowing and adopting the religious
every part of its social context? beliefs and practices from another Indian that
Since the 1970s the term CONTEXTUALIZATION were not necessarily a part of his/her own groups
has also been used to include these discussions tradition. This phenomenon occurs frequently at
and to add other topics. What of the self-theolo- pow wows where Native Americans are dressed
gizing of the global church? Indigenization is in traditional, fancy-dance, or grass dance and
being seen as more than what is happening on jingle dress costumes that are not particularly a
the mission field out there. It is a reflection part of their own tribal tradition. For many Indi-
process that does not exempt the West from self- ans the pow wow is much more a social event
analysis. Indigenization/contextualization now than a religious one, but for some participating
482
Indigenous Churches
in the pow wow is very much a religious experi- tory of Indian-White relations. Many of the atroc-
ence. A number of Indians have found a source ities perpetrated against Indians by the dominant
of Indian identity in the pow wow and have White society were unfortunately carried out in
adopted much of what is associated with the pow the name of Christianity. This is an aspect of his-
wow as the expression of their personal religion. tory for which White America has yet to accept
Some of the religious customs that have been ex- responsibility and for which it needs to seek re-
changed between different tribes include the use pentance and forgiveness. While a number of In-
of the pipe, sweat baths, the use of sweet grass, dians have converted to the Jesus Way over the
smudging, vision questing, and songs. past several hundred years, Christian missionar-
A second influence that today is impacting ies, governmental officials and U.S. military per-
American indigenous religions is the New Age sonnel have done much to curtail and even pro-
Movement. This movement is bringing Indians hibit Indians from practicing their tribal rites
and non-Indians together in a somewhat strange and ceremonies. Today Indians are granted much
way in which a number of non-Indians have more freedom to practice their indigenous reli-
adopted so-called Indian religious traditions. gions than in previous times. Many Indians today
They are practicing various aspects of tribal reli- are rejecting any attempt to Christianize them
gion having been taught these ways by a num- while at the same time others are converting to
ber of self-proclaimed and self-appointed Native the Christian message. Perhaps the greatest im-
American religious leaders. Some who have pact that Christianity is having among Indians
joined the New Age Movement because of envi- today is that which is promoted and propagated
ronmental interests have been attracted to Amer- by Christian Indians themselves rather than by
ican Indian religion because of its closeness to non-Indian missionaries. It is estimated that be-
and its respect for nature. It is the desire of these tween 2 and 10 percent of Native Americans are
proselytes to Indian religion to somehow protect classified as evangelical Christians.
the environment by means of association with In- LEONARD RASCHAR
dians and their religious beliefs and practices.
The Native American Church is an indigenous
Indigenous Churches. The term indigenous
Indian religion that makes use of a cactus plant
that grows wild in the Rio Grande Valley. It is comes from biology and indicates a plant or ani-
best known by the name peyote from the Aztec mal native to an area. Missiologists adopted the
word Peyotl. It is classed as one of the hallu- word and used it to refer to churches that reflect
cinogens and contains the drug mescaline. Ap- the cultural distinctives of their ethnolinguistic
parently the use of peyote in religious rites came group. The missionary effort to establish indige-
to the Native Americans of North America out of nous churches is an effort to plant churches that
Mexico. It was first discovered among Indian fit naturally into their environment and to avoid
tribes of Oklahoma in the late 1800s. By 1906 the planting churches that replicate Western patterns.
use of peyote had spread from Oklahoma to Ne- Missionary efforts to establish indigenous
braska. The Native American Church was incor- churches are attempts to do missions as the
porated in Oklahoma in 1918. In 1944 the Okla- apostle Paul did. A brief recital of Pauls mission-
homa articles of incorporation were amended ary methods demonstrates this fact. Paul served
and the organization was named the Native as an itinerant missionary, never staying more
American Church of the United States. The pey- than three years in any city. Pauls approach to
ote religion has made considerable inroads on In- evangelizing regions was to plant churches in
dian reservations and among Indian communi- cities from which the gospel would permeate the
ties all across North America. Because of its surrounding areas. He never appealed to the
spread into Canada the organization was once churches in Antioch or Jerusalem for funds with
again renamed in 1955 as the Native American which to support the new churches. Rather, he
Church of North America. Today the Native expected the churches to support themselves.
American Church claims several hundred thou- Paul appointed and trained elders to lead all the
sand members. While the religion is not native to churches he planted. He gave the churches over
North American Indian tribes it is Indian. White to the care of the Holy Spirit, but he also visited
men do not control or dominate this religion and them and wrote to them periodically.
Indians are not converted to it by white mission- HENRY VENN (17961873) of the CHURCH MIS-
aries. Different tribes have combined the use of SIONARY SOCIETY and RUFUS ANDERSON (17961880)
peyote buttons with certain traditional religious of the AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS OF FOR-
practices as well as with the use of some Christ- EIGN MISSIONS first used the term indigenous
ian beliefs to form a religion which is both in- church in the mid-nineteenth century. They both
digenous and significantly Indian. wrote about the necessity of planting three-self
The influence of Christianity on Native Ameri- churcheschurches that would be self-support-
cans has had considerable impact on the practice ing, self-governing, and self-propagating (Venn
of indigenous religions throughout the entire his- used the term self-extending). They exhorted
483
Indigenous Churches
missionaries to establish churches that could sup- tians should be taught to provide pastoral care
port themselves, govern themselves, and carry out for each other. (5) Missionaries should give na-
a program of evangelism and missions. They cau- tional believers the authority to exercise spiritual
tioned missionaries about becoming absorbed in gifts freely and at once. Allens principles have in-
pastoring and maintaining churches, insisting that fluenced many twentieth-century missiologists,
the missionarys primary task must be planting most prominently DONALD MCGAVRAN.
new churches that would be self-reliant and MELVIN HODGES (190986), a missionary and
purely native. They instructed their missionaries mission administrator with the Assemblies of
to train national pastors and hand the care of the God, wrote The Indigenous Church (1953).
churches over to them at the earliest opportunity. Widely used in missions courses, this book ex-
Venn coupled the concept of indigenous churches pressed the ideas of Venn, Anderson, Nevius, and
with euthanasia in missions. By euthanasia he Allen in an updated, popular format. Hodges ac-
meant that missionaries should plant churches, knowledged the difficulty missionaries experi-
train leaders, and then move on to new, unevange- ence in changing a field from a subsidy approach
lized regions. Henry Venn believed that missionar- to an indigenous approach. He also emphasized
ies should always be temporary workers, not per- training national workers and giving them re-
manent fixtures. sponsibility for the care of the churches, freeing
JOHN L. NEVIUS (182993), a Presbyterian mis- the missionaries to concentrate on starting new
sionary to China, built on Venn and Andersons churches.
indigenous principles in his classic work, Plant- In his book, Verdict Theology in Missionary The-
ing and Development of Missionary Churches. ory, ALAN TIPPETT (191188) updated the three-self
Nevius developed a set of principles that came to formula of Henry Venn. Tippett served on the fac-
be called The NEVIUS PLAN: (1) Christians ulty of the School of World Mission at Fuller Sem-
should continue to live in their neighborhoods inary and was a member of Donald McGavrans
and pursue their occupations, being self-support- inner circle. The writings of Tippett, McGavran,
ing and witnessing to their co-workers and neigh- and others show that the CHURCH GROWTH MOVE-
bors. (2) Missions should only develop programs MENT accepted and built on the work of the earlier
and institutions that the national church desired proponents of indigenous missions.
and could support. (3) The national churches In Verdict Theology Tippett proposed a sixfold
should call out and support their own pastors. description of an indigenous church: (1) Self-
(4) Churches should be built in the native style image. The church sees itself as being independ-
with money and materials given by the church ent from the mission, serving as Christs church
members. (5) Intensive biblical and doctrinal in- in its locality. (2) Self-functioning. The church is
struction should be provided for church leaders capable of carrying on all the normal functions of
every year. In his writings Nevius criticized the a churchworship, Christian education, and so
heavily subsidized work that most missions car- on. (3) Self-determining. This means the church
ried on in China. Neviuss principles had little im- can and does make its own decisions. The local
pact in China, but when the American Presbyte- churches do not depend on the mission to make
rians began their work in Korea, the new their decisions for them. Tippett echoes Venn in
missionaries invited Nevius to advise them. They saying that the mission has to die for the church
adopted his plan and enjoyed great success. to be born. (4) Self-supporting. The church car-
ROLAND ALLEN (18681947), an Anglican priest, ries its own financial burdens and finances its
served as a missionary in China with the SOCIETY own service projects. (5) Self-propagation. The
FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL IN FOREIGN national church sees itself as responsible for car-
PARTS from 1892 until 1904. Like Nevius, he crit- rying out the GREAT COMMISSION. The church
icized the methods employed by most missions gives itself wholeheartedly to evangelism and
in China. He wrote several books, but expressed missions. (6) Self-giving. An indigenous church
his philosophy of indigenous missions in Mis- knows the social needs of its community and en-
sionary Methods: St. Pauls or Ours? (1912) and deavors to minister to those needs.
The Spontaneous Expansion of the Church (1927). Tippett summarizes his understanding of the
Allen emphasized the role of the Holy Spirit in indigenous church with this definition: When
missions and encouraged missionaries to work in the indigenous people of a community think of
itinerant church planting, trusting the Holy Spirit the Lord as their own, not a foreign Christ; when
to develop the churches. Allens main principles they do things as unto the Lord, meeting the cul-
are these: (1) All permanent teaching must be in- tural needs around them, worshipping in pat-
telligible and so easily understood that those who terns they understand; when their congregations
receive it can retain it, use it, and pass it on. function in participation in a body which is
(2) All organizations should be set up in a way structurally indigenous; then you have an indige-
that national Christians can maintain them. nous church (136).
(3) Church finances should be provided and con- In recent years some missiologists have sug-
trolled by the local church members. (4) Chris- gested adding a seventh mark to Tippetts list
484
Individualism and Collectivism
self-theologizing. They believe a truly indigenous A person has significance in a collectivist soci-
church will develop its own theology, expressed ety only as a member of a group. In contrast, one
in culturally appropriate ways. These theologies person in an individualist culture has signifi-
would affirm the central doctrines of the Chris- cance that is expressed through individual
tian faith, but they would express them using choices and actions with only secondary refer-
metaphors and concepts that reflect their own ence to the group.
unique cultures. The group in a collectivist society may be the
Missionaries who seek to establish indigenous extended family, the work group, caste, or entire
churches should keep these principles in mind as tribe. Whatever the particular group, its survival
they begin their work: (1) Missionaries should is paramount. Group goals control social behav-
plant churches with the goal in mind. This means ior, and loyalty to that group is fixed. Loyalty
that the desired outcomean indigenous means the sharing of resources, whether for liv-
churchshould influence the methods em- ing expenses or for special group efforts. It is ex-
ployed. (2) There will always be a dynamic ten- pressed and reinforced in obligatory participa-
sion between supracultural doctrines and vari- tion in funerals, weddings, and other ritual
able cultural traits. (3) Church planters should occasions as well as in group crises.
expect the churches to support themselves from On the other hand in an individualist society,
the beginning. (4) Bible study groups should be the group is used to achieve individual objectives.
encouraged to make basic decisions even before There is a loose loyalty to the group, which may
they organize as churches. (5) Missionaries be disavowed if individual preferences seem to be
should encourage new congregations to evangel- better served elsewhere. Sharing of resources is
ize their communities and seek opportunities to not expected, since individuals are responsible
begin new churches. (6) Missionaries should al- for meeting their own needs and desires. Partici-
ways use reproducible methods of evangelism, pation in ritual occasions is expected, but not
teaching, preaching, and leadership. (7) Mission- compulsory, to maintain good standing in the
aries should give priority to developing nationals group.
to serve as church leaders. (8) Missionaries Variation along this individualismcollectiv-
should view themselves as temporary church ism continuum is perhaps the single most signif-
planters rather than permanent pastors. (9) Mis- icant dimension of culture differences. It is re-
sionaries should resist the temptation to establish lated to major differences in cultural values and
institutions and wait for the national church to patterns, social systems, morality, religion, and
take the initiative. (10) Missionaries must allow economic development.
the national churches to develop theologies and Leadership and Change. In a collectivist soci-
practices that are biblical yet appropriate in their ety the leader often embodies the characteris-
cultural settings. tics of the group. The group identifies with the
JOHN MARK TERRY leader, so that the character, beliefs, wealth, and
Bibliography. R. Pierce Beaver, ed., To Advance the
power of the leader are seen as an expression of
Gospel: Selections from the Writings of Rufus Anderson; the group. When the leader changes, the group
M. L. Hodges, The Indigenous Church; J. L. Nevius, changes.
Planting and Development of Missionary Churches; Change in a collectivist society may also come
A. Tippett, Verdict Theology in Missionary Theory; when a large part of the group changes, catalyz-
M. Warren, ed., To Apply the Gospel: Selections from the ing change in the remainder of the group. Deci-
Writings of Henry Venn. sion is reached by consensus rather than by vot-
ing, which is the sum of individual choices (see
Individualism and Collectivism. A minority of DECISION-MAKING). Group opinion is dominant,
the worlds peoples live in cultures where indi- and personal opinions either do not exist or are
vidual interest (individualism) prevails over not tolerated. The person who does not speak or
group interest (collectivism). Individualism is act in harmony with group opinion is considered
strong in the United States, Canada, Great to have a bad character.
Britain, Australia, New Zealand, Italy, and West- To understand an individualist culture, study
ern European societies. Collectivism dominates of individual beliefs and values gives the best pic-
elsewhere. However, even in predominantly col- ture. Leaders may reflect opinions and beliefs of
lectivist nations exposure to Western individual- a majority of members in an individualist society,
ist-oriented media may shift urban groups to- but their authority rests on gaining or losing sup-
ward individualism. port of individual members. The leaders view
Individualism assumes that a person is the es- does not necessarily express the views of the so-
sential unit of society; collectivism assumes that ciety as a whole.
a group is the basic unit. Ties between individu- Authoritarian behavior is more acceptable in
als are loose in an individualist society, but in a collectivist cultures, and a greater social distance
collectivist society people are woven into a cohe- exists between leaders and those they lead. In
sive unit to which they give lifelong loyalty. contrast, individualists are most comfortable in
485
Individualism and Collectivism
horizontal relationships with minimal social dis- Values. Harmony, family relationships, equal-
tance between employer and employee, or lead- ity in use of wealth, and modesty are high-values
ers and group members. Individualists will seek in collectivist societies. The possibility of bring-
to reduce social distance, often only reluctantly ing SHAME to the group is a strong control on be-
recognizing vertical relationships, while collec- havior. The shame is in others knowing, not in
tivists are more likely to increase social distance the action itself. It is very important to meet the
and reinforce a higher status for leaders (vertical expectations of others, thus maintaining face.
relationships). Education concentrates on preparation to be a
Cooperation and Confrontation. Within the good group member, so it emphasizes tradition,
in-group of a collectivist society, cooperation is rote memory, and the ability to quote respected
extensive. Confrontation is unacceptable. Mem- scholars.
bers will often mediate any conflict within the Freedom, self-fulfillment, recognition, honesty,
group that threatens group stability and har- and distribution of wealth according to individ-
mony. Any perceived threat to the groups exis- ual effort are high values among individualists.
tence is dealt with severely by the power of the Rather than group-centered shame, the individ-
group, rejecting the person or cause of the threat. ual feels individual GUILT when standards are vi-
Loss of group membership is similar to exile, olated. Education is valued when it enables indi-
being made a non-person without rights or es- viduals to cope with demands, be productive, and
sential support for survival. maximize individual abilities.
In an individualist society, individuals compete Business Dealings. Among collectivists, per-
with and confront other individuals. Status is sonal relationships are essential. Business is con-
achieved through individual accomplishments, ducted by first establishing a social relationship,
rather than by group membership. Confrontation then proceeding to details of the task, and the ex-
is encouraged to achieve understanding and clar- change of goods, services, and money. Legal con-
ify the rights and limits of individuals. Group tracts are secondary to knowing the groups in-
membership is relatively unimportant, allowing volved and establishing rapport and trust.
great freedom for a variety of individual choices. Management focuses on groups as the basic unit.
Communication. Collectivist societies utilize It is almost compulsory that persons in the in-
their total context for communicationincluding group be given advantages in hiring, assignment
space, time, body motion, objects, taste and of jobs, and other realms of business. Failing to
smell, touchgiving a strong emotional content do this is considered disloyalty to the group.
to acts of communication. The verbal content is Individualist societies approach social and
of less importance and silence can be satisfying. business relationships in an impersonal, factual
Group togetherness is of greater importance than manner that centers on the task to be accom-
anything that might be spoken. plished. Knowing and liking among the partici-
In comparison, individualist societies are pants is secondary to agreements carefully
highly verbal, avoiding silence as empty, even drafted to specify each partys obligations. Busi-
hostile. Content must be specifically stated be- ness is primarily controlled by law; personal re-
cause the groups relative unimportance makes lationships are secondary. Management focuses
communicating through the context much less on individuals as the basic unit. Rewards are dis-
certain. tributed according to the work completed, inde-
Inter-group Relationships. Relationships with pendently of personal relationships. To act other-
outsider groups are primarily competitive in col- wise is considered unfair and even dishonest.
lectivist cultures, even confrontational and often Some Implications for Missions. Contempo-
marked by distrust and hostility. Support of the rary evangelical missions have predominantly
in-group is considered necessary in dealing with originated in individualist societies, and gone to
outsiders, an us against them approach. The collectivist societies. Differing assumptions and
factionalism that fragments some nations origi- expectations have led to frequent misunder-
nates in the collectivist cultures of their many standings and antagonism. The continuing re-
constituent groups and tribes. sistance of some people groups to the Christian
The individualist is expected, in contrast, to be message may well be a serious consequence.
able to function independently. Children are Individualistoriented missionaries have ex-
taught to observe, think, and act by themselves. pected individual acceptance of the gospel, over-
Depending on others is considered a weakness, looking the value of a favorable group response
reducing the need for a strong supportive group. before individuals are discipled. Antagonism and
Outsiders are not normally treated with suspi- resistance often come from a perceived threat to
cion simply because the distinction between instability and security of the group. Anything that
sider and outsider is much less important. Con- would fragment the group is not acceptable, al-
sequently, cooperation with other groups is lowing no place for individual choice where sur-
relatively easy if that cooperation is seen to bene- vival of the group is thought to be involved. An
fit individual members. individual who responds apart from group ap-
486
Indonesia
proval is a threat to unity, who must be dealt the Company, whose commercial interests did
with by social exile or even death. not coincide with evangelism. Moreover, apart
Missionary focus must be on the group in a from the sub-Christian behavior of many of the
collectivist culture, rather than attempting to ex- Companys employees, there was another critical
tract individuals from the group. The result of lack: the failure to instruct the Indonesian
an extraction approach is most likely to be the church members and church leaders, or appoint
creation of a new group which will be considered more than three indigenous pastors in the two
an out-group by the main society. Thus, the hundred years of the Companys rule. The num-
new Christian group is to be confronted and op- ber of baptized had gone from 40,000 in 1600 to
posed. Potential ministry bridges to the larger so- only 55,000 by 1800.
ciety are destroyed. The new government of the Indies turned the
In a collectivist society, the pastor and church existing regional Protestant groups into state
authorities are much more likely to be authori- churches. This made the ministers virtually civil
tarian, with considerable social distance between servants of the religiously neutral government
themselves and their congregations. Selection of and crippled outreach. Nevertheless the pietist
leadership often depends more on group affilia- revival in the Netherlands and elsewhere and the
tion than on objective criteria, coming through resurgence of Reformed doctrine made the nine-
discussion and agreement rather than election. teenth century one of effective evangelism and
Following the biblical pattern to become servant- laid the foundation of the church as it is now.
leaders is a major challenge within a collectivist There were three groups of churches that re-
society. sulted: the state churches, people-movement
DONALD K. SMITH churches, and minority churches. Outstanding
among state church efforts was the work of the
Bibliography. G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organiza-
tions: Software of the Mind; idem, Cultures Conse- Moravian-influenced Joseph Kam, sent by the
quences: International Differences in Work-Related Val- Netherlands Missionary Society in 1814. He
ues; S. Lingenfelter, Agents of Transformation: A Guide worked with the church of the Moluccas, reach-
for Effective Cross-Cultural Ministry; H. C. Triandis, ing out to Minahasa and West Timor.
R. W. Brislin, and C. H. Hui, Intercultural Communica- Notable of the people-movement churches was
tion: A Reader, pp. 37082. the German LUDWIG NOMMENSEN, who led the
planting of the church in North Sumatra from
Indonesia (Ext. 2000 pop.: 212,731,000; 1,904,569 1861. This work became a people-movement, and
sq. km. [735,354 sq. mi.]). Independent since by 1917 the Batak church numbered 180,000.
1945, Indonesias population spans some 3,000 is- The minority East Java Christian Church was
lands and is of great ethnolinguistic diversity. The begun in defiance of the government of the In-
largest groups are the Javanese (38.7%), the Sun- dies, and was initially torn by polar-opposite atti-
danese (15.9%), and the Madurese (6.4%). Gov- tudes toward Javanese culture. It had reached a
ernment statistics show Muslims at 87 percent, middle way by the time the government permit-
Christians at 9.6 percent (church statistics at ted the Netherlands Missionary Society to send
12.5%), Hindus at 1.9 percent, and tribal religion- J. E. Jellesma (1851) to assist in its development
ists at one percent. Professing Christians are and outreach.
about three-to-one Protestant (regional and eth- From the turn of the nineteenth century the gov-
nolinguistically based churches plus many others, ernment was more supportive of missionary work,
including Pentecostal) to Roman Catholic. which it saw as advantageous to itself. When the
Portuguese trading posts in the Moluccas, Su- Japanese invaded in 1942, however, the churches
luwesi, and East Timor brought Christianity to found themselves in a newly hostile environment
their immediate vicinities in the sixteenth century. and many Christians suffered. On the positive
The work mainly of FRANCIS XAVIER and other Je- side, the churches were suddenly self-standing.
suits and Dominicans from 1562 resulted in thou- Christians (and missionaries) supported In-
sands of baptisms and not a few martyrdoms. donesian independence from the Netherlands
Dutch trading incursion from 1590 ended fur- after World War II. The repression of suspected
ther Roman Catholic work for two hundred communist sympathizers following the attempted
years, except in Flores (and Portuguese Timor). overthrow of the government in 1965 led to thou-
Against the background of the Netherlands at- sands joining the church, especially in Java.
taining freedom from Spanish and Portuguese The Roman Catholic work, after a fall-off in ef-
domination, though still at war with both pow- fort during the eighteenth century, was renewed
ers, the Dutch East India Company took over the and became effective again after 1850, when the
Portuguese territories, resulting in the Catholic government of the Indies gave more freedom to
converts having to become Protestants. missions. They moved into every region. Like the
Some of the early pastors sent out by the Com- Protestants, however, they were prohibited from
pany were also zealous and effective missionar- working in strongly Muslim areas, and were not
ies. However, they were few, and subordinate to supposed to overlap with Protestant areas.
487
Indonesia
Since the incorporation of East (Portuguese) inerrancy (Holy Scripture cannot errLuther,
Timor in 1975 (then mostly tribal religionist) the Luthers Deutsche Schriften, XXVII, 33); and from
small minority of Roman Catholics there has be- the fact that he found it necessary to expunge the
come the large majority, and a small percentage Book of James from the canon of Scripture be-
has become Protestant. cause he believed he had found an error in it (see
In Irian Jaya people-movements have brought the introduction to his Commentary on Genesis
most of the 275 tribes to Christianity, about a written in 1545 just before his death; and William
quarter of the Christians being Roman Catholic. Barclay, The Letters of James and Peter). Similarly
About 10 percent still remain tribal religionists, Calvin charged Servetus with holding to a geo-
and coastal immigrants comprise the 17 percent graphical error in the Bible, and the charge was
who are Muslims in the region. dropped only when Servetus claimed not to have
The problem of GOSPEL AND CULTURE, present written or been responsible for that statement.
from the beginning, continues in all three groups Wesley argued that if we found but one error in
of churches: How far can the gospel shed its the Bible, we could never trust it as the Word of
Western garb, and how far can it then be joined God (see Works of John Wesley, 8:4546).
to the culture of a people to be evangelized? Syn- In holding to inerrancy the church has with
cretism, or at least dual-religion, exists widely. rare exceptions argued that the method by which
Although Christians are a minority and subject God secured an infallible Bible was certainly not
to the impact on their areas of transmigration, dictation (in spite of the charges made by their
Muslims feel like a minority over against Chris- opponents). If the Latin word dictare was em-
tians in the spheres of education, newspapers, ployed to refer to Scripture (so Calvin, for exam-
and hospitals, and so press for more influence ple), the point was explicitly made (as by Calvin)
and status. Christians easily overreact, and so far that this was not a literal dictation. Human au-
they have engaged in little dialogue with Muslims. thors of Scripture reflected their own personality
The dynamism of the Indonesian churches and employed their own vocabulary (see, for ex-
could well lead to effective outreach beyond their ample, Luke 1:14 and John 20:30, 31).
own country. In a small way the Batak Protestant The case for biblical infallibility has always
Church has already done this (in West Malaysia). rested firmly on the teaching of our Lord and of
JOHN ALAN MCINTOSH the Scripture itself about its divine truth. How,
after all, could finite humans know the Bible was
Bibliography. H. Kraemer, From Missionfield to In- infallible as to heavenly reality and the prophetic
dependent Church; K. A. Steenbrink, in Missiology: An future? If Jesus Christ is truly divine, then he is
Ecumenical Introduction.
our divine Lord; and we must trust him in all he
taught, including what he taught about the infal-
Inerrancy. Along with verbal and plenary, lible authority of Holy Scripture (see, for exam-
both inerrant and infallible are terms the ple, Matt. 5:1721; 19:39; Mark 7:6ff.; Luke
church has employed to indicate the divine truth 16:17; 24:25, 44, 45; and John 10:34, 35). Like-
and authority of the BIBLE. Each term carries a wise, if we accept the divine commission of the
slightly different connotation. Verbal emphasizes prophets and apostles to speak the Word of God,
that every word of Scripture is divinely authored we cannot consistently reject their authority
and therefore carries Gods authority; plenary when they teach the necessity of believing and
notes that the divine authority is full and com- obeying Scripture (see, for example, Pss. 19 and
plete; infallible, that Scripture is incapable of 119, especially vv. 60 and 160168; 1 Cor. 2;
mistake; and inerrant, that Scripture never wan- 2 Peter 1:1921; and 2 Tim. 1417).
ders from the divine truth. In recent years, though rarely in earlier cen-
In the ancient church Irenaeus and Augustine turies, some evangelicals have defended a limited
represented the position of the churches of their infallibility or limited inerrancy of Scripture.
day and handed this view on to the medieval and Usually this takes the form of limiting scriptural
modern church (see the extensive list of citations infallibility to its ethical or theological teaching.
in William Lee; Inspiration, Appendix G). At the Naturally we must not take every scriptural in-
time of the Reformation, the inerrancy of Scrip- struction given to an individual or a group in a
ture was embedded in the teaching of the Coun- specific situation as necessarily a divine com-
cil of Trent (154563) and reaffirmed in the first mand to be obeyed in the same way in all cir-
Vatican Council (186970). cumstances (see also HERMENEUTICS). What is
Luther and Calvin followed Augustine in de- right in one instance may be quite wrong in a
fense of scriptural inerrancy. In the early Protes- very different context. Inerrancy should not be
tant confessions the emphasis lay on the full au- understood as an excuse to take texts out of con-
thority of Scripture, but this rested on the divine text. Yet all Scripture is profitable for every child
authorship and inerrant truth of Scripture. For of God, and God never commands and expects us
Luther this is evident in his unequivocal en- to do what is truly wrong in the specific situation
dorsement of Augustines doctrine of scriptural he addresses (see Gen. 22:2; 12).
488
Information Technology
Neither does the Bible speak in scientific lan- using the tools of information technology (IT) is
guage. Nor does it seek to provide us with a neu- routine today. IT here refers to electronic com-
tral scientific history of Israel or of the life and puting and communication systems employing
teaching of our Lord. Nor does the Bible always digital technology, which started with the digital
speak in precise and exact language. Nor does computer in the late 1940s and developed into
the New Testament invariably quote the Old Tes- computer-based internetworking by the 1970s.
tament the way a twentieth-century biblical In 1960, Joseph E. Grimes used a computer to
scholar would exegete the Scripture in a univer- do language analysis in Bible translation work in
sity classroom. But, when properly understood, it Mexico. Other mission specialists also used com-
always tells the truth; and it never teaches what, puters to analyze sociological and church statis-
as a matter of fact, is not so. tics and other data in studying religious move-
Finally, it must be noted that the contempo- ments and church growth trends. David B.
rary theological battleground over Scripture has Barrett, a missionary to Kenya doing graduate
shifted significantly in the latter half of the twen- studies in New York, used a computer to analyze
tieth century. In the nineteenth and early twenti- the data he and others had collected on more that
eth centuries the threat to biblical authority six thousand African independent church and re-
came from the disciplines of history, biblical newal movements (see AFRICAN-INITIATED CHURCH
criticism, and natural science. Not so today! The MOVEMENT). Results were used in Barretts 1968
issue evangelicals most acutely face today is not, book, Schism and Renewal in Africa. Also in 1968,
Is the Bible objectively true? More frequently data from the survey of mission agencies in North
it is likely to be, Is objective nonrelative truth America were entered into a computer under the
possible for finite human beings? All TRUTH is direction of Edward R. Dayton and camera-ready
relative, so it is argued; and I as a human being pages generated for the North America Protestant
can possess only truth relative to me. And truth Ministries Overseas Directory.
for me, as John Dewey and early pragmatists ar- In 1974, information on unreached peoples
gued, is only what I as an individual hold to be was gathered from seventy-three countries for
true to enable me to adjust more comfortably to the LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGELISM.
my environment. This was stored on a computer from which an
While there are humbling lessons we need to Unreached Peoples Directory was printed and dis-
learn from such relativists, Augustine, and before tributed to Congress participants as a work-in-
him, Aristotle, gave us an appropriate answer to progress to be refined and expanded. Data about
such a position. To say one knows nothing is a the languages of the world published in the Eth-
fundamental nonsensical contradiction. If some- nologue by WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS were
one claims that he or she really does not know placed on a computer so subsequent editions
whether or not he or she exists, we can wash our could be more easily updated and analyzed.
hands of such a being and walk away realizing With the proliferation and the growing capac-
that such a being is functioning only as an ani- ity of personal computers and networks, IT sup-
mal, not as a human person. Such a view is as ported activities in missions have become wide-
devastating to basic Christianity and to the es- spread. Bible translators continue to enhance
sential gospel as it is to the infallibility of Scrip- specialized software used on portable computers
ture. And that is where the consistent evangelical to speed the work of translation. Electronic mail
wishes to stand. is used for instant communication in many parts
Basic Christianity, the fundamental Christian of the world by missionaries, national workers,
mission executives, and those supporting mis-
gospel, the Lordship of Jesus Christ, and the di-
sionaries. Mission information about unreached
vine authority and infallible truth of Holy Scrip-
peoples and other aspects of missions is available
tureall hold together in a unity of truth. Trust-
on various Internet Web sites. One can link to
ing Scripture follows irresistibly from trusting
many of these from the Global Mapping Interna-
Jesus Christ as Lord.
tional Web address (www.gmi.org) or the
KENNETH S. KANTZER
Wheaton College Missions Department address
Bibliography. J. Barr, The Scope and Authority of the (www.wheaton.edu/missions).
Bible; D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge, eds., The Internets electronic mail and conferencing
Scripture and Truth; H. M. Conn, ed., Inerrancy and capabilities also provide a way for those con-
Hermeneutic; N. Geisler, ed., Inerrancy; B. B. Warfield, cerned about various people groups to share in-
The Inspiration and Authority of the Bible; N. Wolter- formation and ideas in an open networking
storff, Divine Discourse.
mode. One of the most popular of these is the
Brigada Network (www.brigada.org) with more
Infallibility (of the Bible). See BIBLE; INERRANCY. than six thousand participants receiving the
weekly Brigada Today newsletter as well as being
Information Technology. With the dramatic involved in related online conferences of their
growth in the worldwide use of the Internet, specific missions interest.
489
Information Technology
The Internet can also expand and extend partic- new status. The bloodletting is an attempt to ini-
ipation in mission conferences and other mission- tiate, and thus participate in life-creating powers,
related activities. During InterVarsitys 1996 Ur- quite common in FOLK RELIGION. Initiation rites
bana world mission convention for students, are often associated with Third World societies
background information and daily summaries ap- which seem to place greater emphasis on the for-
peared on the Web, including audio and video seg- mal recognition of physiological and social
ments, for those who were not among the 19,300 changes, rituals which Western societies have
onsite delegates. This has been continued to help supposedly outgrown. This is not so. There may
a new generation of students anticipate the trien- be no single set of ceremonies marking transi-
nial convention in 2000 (www.urbana.org). tions, only a confusion of rites which mark
JOHN SIEWERT greater independence. However, note the cus-
toms or rites which accompany pregnancy, birth,
SEE ALSO Technology. christening/baptism, coming of age, marriage,
and death/funerals in the West. Because some
Initiation Rites. These communal rituals, which rites also have educational functions in which the
are RITES OF PASSAGE, mark changes in social sta- initiate must learn and demonstrate knowledge
tus or position which an individual undergoes by and skills consistent with the behavior appropri-
passing through culturally recognized life phases. ate to the new status graduation ceremonies
Rites are generally connected with pregnancy from educational institutions, religious ordina-
and childbirth, transition from puberty to adult- tion, military bootcamp, entry into new profes-
hood, betrothal, marriage, death and funerals, sions, and so on, serve the same purpose.
and in some societies associated with formal PHILIP M. STEYNE
training of craftspersons (or professionals), reli-
gious specialists, and warfare. Initiation rites are SEE ALSO A. VAN GENNEP, THE RITES OF PASSAGE;
the process by which individuals are made to be, C. LANE, RITES OF RULERS.
and taught to function as, recognized members
of society. These rites constitute some of the most Inspiration of the Bible. See BIBLE; INERRANCY.
significant educational experiences in the life of
an individual by dramatizing and reinforcing the Institutionalization. The development of or-
values of a given society as the initiate internal- derly, stable, socially integrating forms and struc-
izes the knowledge, feelings, and aspirations of tures out of unstable, loosely patterned or merely
the social system. They serve to establish the technical types of action (Broom and Selznick,
function of the individual in his or her responsi- 1968, 215). A dynamic process that continually
bility to the whole society and the society to the changes over time, institutionalization involves at
individual. The rites help achieve competence least four processes within a social group, such
and the psychological growth necessary for as a church or mission. Each process can be
healthy human functioning as well as safeguard- measured along a continuum.
ing the cultural system. The formalization process involves roles within
In each case the rites involve three stages: the organization. These roles usually begin as
(1) separationthe person is removed from nor- voluntary, nonformalized roles in a newer mis-
mal routine and sometimes also regular social as- sion and proceed to more structured and formal-
sociates; (2) LIMINAL periodthe in-between stage ized roles in an established mission. The final
where physical and symbolic rituals are taken to stage in this institutional process is ossification.
extinguish the old status; during this stage there In the process, efficiency is increased, but ability
may be physical hardship, such as circumcision, to change becomes more difficult.
incision, and/or other physical scarification, and In the beginning everyone in a new mission is
the transmission of rules, goals, activities, folk equal and all are focused on the primary pur-
lore, values, beliefs, and so on; (3) incorporation pose. There is little organized authority, but soon
the public acknowledgment of the new status. Cer- participants and leaders see the need for self-
emonial recognition of the changed social status maintenance, a structure to maintain the mission
legitimizes the permanently altered status with all vision and purpose. Often a constitution is
its rights and obligations to the larger society. adopted and purpose becomes clearer when
The attendant rituals reflect a symbolic enact- structure supports that purpose. A danger is that
ment of death and rebirth. The physical distress the mission might become an end in itself no
(frequently physical mutilations) of the initiation longer focused on the original purpose. Extreme
rites makes a difference between the old and the institutionalization leads to processes and meth-
new life. Thus male or female (clitoridectomy) ods taking precedence over the original purpose.
circumcision is quite common. The more painful A groups social base usually begins with peo-
the ritual, the more a person values the new staple brought together by a common cause or
tus. There may be universal symbolism to genital through a charismatic leader. At one end of the
operationsa ritual slaying with a rebirth into a continuum the social criteria for membership in
490
Interagency Cooperation
the group are minimal. Gradually, criteria pro- factors that cause the demise of one organization
ceed from flexibility, to stability, and finally to can be commuted to related organizations.
criteria that are rigidly proscribed at the other Resources, time, personnel, and material are
end of a continuum. At this end, rigidity may re- expended on minor issues that do not contribute
sult in a wethey confrontational style. to the groups stated purpose. Huge amounts of
Positive Aspects of Institutionalization. Sta- time in discussion and funds may go into a triv-
bility is necessary for the functioning of efficient ial project having little to do with the groups
and flexible organizations. Unformalized organi- stated purpose. War stories of church committee
zations, being unfocused and unwieldy, require battles over the proposed color of the sanctuary
much time and energy to function. Formalization carpet exemplify the result of lost balance.
brings greater efficiency while maintaining flexi- The process of institutionalization may con-
bility, as long as formalization does not become tinue past the stability stage, causing the mission
too rigid. to become rigid and inflexible. Inflexibility
Groups, including mission groups, tend to de- causes an organization to lose its ability to objec-
cline over a period of time. Institutional structively evaluate itself.
tures and processes can aid in an organizations When a mission begins to die it may be due to
long-term survival. Institutionalization can bring excessive emphasis upon programs rather than
order out of chaos. Using the organizations focusing on the people. Missions which have
structure as a means to an end, having members maintained the same membership for long peri-
who enlist new members in the groups cause, ods of time, where people know each other well,
strong and renewed leadership, and a specific may end up focusing on programs rather than
purpose that challenges the members are all fac- people. Extreme institutionalization, with its in-
tors in the long-term survival and balanced insti- ward focus, often ignores new people and their
tutionalization of a mission organization. potential.
Some degree of structure is necessary to pur- Normally, we think of too much structure as the
posefully plan and expedite a given task. This is problem but inadequate structure can also be a
most readily seen in the hundreds of plans devel- problem. The most fundamental function of in-
stitutions is probably to protect the individual
oped over the twentieth century to fulfill the
from having to make too many choices (P. Berger,
GREAT COMMISSION. The purpose must be seen as
1976, 187). Too little institutional structure can be
having value if people are to be drawn to its ac-
the cause of instability.
complishment. For missions and churches, both
Conclusion. Institutionalization is a process
the purpose and the procedure to accomplish the
that can contribute to or detract from a missions
purpose should have Scripture-based value.
vision and purpose. Negatively, the final stages of
Attaining a groups purposes requires mobi- the process of institutionalization lead to rigidity,
lization of human and material resources. Insti- detraction from the purpose, deterioration in the
tutional processes show the need for continual leadership processes, and death. Rightly imple-
development of LEADERSHIP. The institutional mented, processes of institutionalization in mis-
process deals with leaders who are faithful to the sion can lead to fulfilled purpose, efficiency, flex-
groups purpose and direct their efforts to its ac- ibility, and dynamic leadership. The mission in
complishment. which institutional structure focuses on purpose
Organizational structure is a product of insti- and people, promotes leadership renewal, and
tutionalization. Besides the benefits already men- encourages membership participation will find
tioned, predictability is an important feature. the groups purposes enhanced.
Knowing what to expect and being able to pre- MIKEL NEUMANN
dict events contribute to a persons comfort with
and support of an organization, especially in cul- SEE ALSO Association, Socio-Anthropology of.
tures that do not allow for ambiguity. Bibliography. P. Berger, B. Berger, and H. Kellner,
Negative Aspects of Institutionalization. The Homeless Mind; L. Broom and P. Selznick, Sociol-
Structure replaces purpose when the group has ogy; P. Heibert, Exploring Church Growth, pp. 15767;
turned totally inward and has lost its vision and C. N. Parkinson, Parkinsons Law.
purpose. The missions structure has become an
end in itself. Parkinson notes, Work expands to Interagency Cooperation. While the days of
fill the time available for its completion. . . . The mission agencies acting as lone rangers continue
number of officials and quantity of work are not to diminish, there is still progress to be made. A
related to each other at all. . . . Administrators are number of external factors will continue the push
more or less bound to multiply (1957, 11, 12, 15). toward cooperation: the dwindling number of
Transference is the process whereby the seeds full-time missionaries; the increase of short-
of death in the institutionalization process are termers; churches doing their own selecting,
transferred to other missions or churches. Be- training, sending, and mentoring; the diminish-
cause social structures are organic in nature, the ing appreciation for denominations; ministry
491
Interagency Cooperation
overlap between agencies (reduplicating support cultures. International communication deals

personnel); the difficulty of fundraising for work- with comparative mass media communication in
ers and agency maintenance. More by necessity different nations and to communication between
than design, interagency cooperation provides a nations. Global communication is a term usually
solution for survival and ministry. limited to the technology and transfer of infor-
Interagency cooperation includes a number of mation without regard to national borders.
risks for those who wish to participate. Agency Two general categories of communication mod-
boards, leaders, and personnel will worry about els, mechanistic and humanistic, are useful to
a number of issues: Will they lose the agencys more fully understand the dominant, but differ-
distinctive for existence? Will the agencys mis- ing, approaches to intercultural communication,
sion statement and core values be compromised? Mechanistic Models. Mechanistic models are
How can the different philosophies of ministry most clearly seen in the development of infor-
be unified? Should they? If certain positions in mation theory used in telephones, computers,
the agency are no longer necessary, what hap- and related devices. The behavioristic perspective
pens to those who filled them? What energy costs (from behavioristic psychology) stresses stimulus
will be necessary to maintain productive cooper- and response. The transmissional perspective
ation? Who funds what? And of deeper concern, (Berlo and DeVito) suggests ten components of
will their agency die? communication: source, encoding, message,
The trust factor figures large in interagency co- channel, noise, receiver, decoding, receiver re-
operation. To offset some of the above concerns, sponse, feedback, and context.
courting should precede the wedding contract. Use of a mechanistic model has led to empha-
When they eventually say, I do, they say yes to sis on sending out a message without great atten-
commitment, character, a common vision, costs, tion to who is actually receiving and compre-
cooperation, and communication over concerns, hending the message. It has also stimulated
and no to competition and comparison. development of electronic translation units that
The rewards of interagency cooperation must are said to make intercultural communication
move beyond survival. And they can. From the possible. Equivalent words from one language
perspective of agency personnel, the pooling of are given in a second language. Applied to inter-
personnel and finances can meet their needs from cultural communication, a mechanistic model
recruitment to retirement much more adequately. frequently overlooks significant areas, such as
From the perspective of ministry projects and cultural assumptions, context, and experience.
programs, interagency cooperation can expand Though frequently followed in intercultural min-
the kingdom of God in ways no single agency can. istry, mechanistic approaches to communication
Some of these efforts may be short-term, some have little, if any, biblical support as a pattern for
long-term. But all processes should be driven by either evangelism or discipling.
the unitydiversity of the participants, thereby Humanistic Models. Humanistic models em-
glorifying the creative God behind them. phasize the human element in communication.
TOM A. STEFFEN The transactional view of communication recog-
nizes that knowledge of the receiver or listener is
SEE ALSO Globalization; Partnership. part of shaping the message form. Communica-
Bibliography. L. Bush and L. Lutz, Partnering in Min- tion is seen as sharing. Symbols are used to stim-
istry; The Direction of World Evangelism, IJFM 11:1 ulate the formation of meaning in another per-
(1994); J. H. Kraakevik and D. Welliver, eds., Partners in son, and consequently the sharing of meaning
the Gospel: The Strategic Role of Partnership in World; through a context-sensitive process. The interac-
W. Sandy, Forging the Productivity Partnership; W. D. Tay- tional approach recognizes the reciprocal nature
lor, ed., Kingdom Partnerships for Synergy in Missions. of communication, in which a circle that in-
cludes feedback and alteration represents the
Intercession. See PRAYER. communication process. Both the transactional
and interactional views of communication are
Intercultural Communication. Interaction consistent with biblically based INCARNATIONAL
among people of diverse cultures. Since cultures MISSION. A Christian view of communication
have different symbols, different contexts, differ- must also recognize the presence and work of the
ent social rules, and different expectations, devel- Holy Spirit in the communicative process.
opment of shared understanding is often exceed- Most humanistic models developed in the
ingly difficult. Thorough study of COMMUNICATION Western world assume that sharing of informa-
patterns to identify these differences and adapt to tion is the primary aim of communication. How-
them is the foundation of effective CROSS- ever, East Asian societies that are deeply influ-
CULTURAL MINISTRY. enced by Confucianism (China, Korea, Japan
Intercultural communication is distinct from especially) view communication as primarily to
cross-cultural communication, which compares establish and maintain harmony. Balance and
a particular behavior or behaviors in differing harmony in human relationships are the basis of
492
Intercultural Communication
society. Interpersonal communication is guided a symbolic perception of harmony, and (3) a be-
by social rules specific for each situation, de- lief that events have meaning as evidences of uni-
pending on age, status, and intimacy. Thus, com- versal principles. An Eastern view of communi-
munication is an infinite interpretive process cation emphasizes the implicit aspect.
(Jandt, 1995, 29) where everyone concerned Western Perspectives. By contrast, the Western
seeks to develop and maintain a social relation- perspective on communication emphasized its
ship. Communication is a way to seek consensus, role in establishing and maintaining individual
not essentially to transmit information. Difficul- political, social, and economic freedom. Commu-
ties in intercultural communication will arise nication is used to manipulate circumstances and
from the fundamentally different purposes in people so that personal goals can be achieved.
communicating between East and West, as well Communication is utilized to reach personal or
as from the more obvious differences in style, group goals, the explicit or utilitarian approach.
context, and vocabulary. Intercultural communication is difficult at the
Communication and Culture. Is communica- explicit or utilitarian level because of language
tion synonymous with culture, or an aspect of difference, nonverbal misinterpretations, and
culture? CULTURE is a code we learn and share, personal attitudes. These problems can be iden-
and learning and sharing require communica- tified and overcome, but mature understanding
tion. Every act and every cultural pattern involve may still not be achieved. Effective intercultural
communication. It is not possible to know a cul- communication demands recognizing and over-
ture without knowing its communication, and coming difficulties at both the explicit and im-
communication can only be understood by plicit levels.
knowing the culture involved. If culture existed Signal or Symbol System. Twelve systems of
without communication, culture would be un- signals are used by every culture. In fact, almost
knowable. Communication, on the other hand, all of human communication occurs by use of one
functions only as an expression of culture. Cul- or more of the twelve systems: verbal (or spoken
ture and communication are inseparable, This language), written, numeric, pictorial, artifactual
fundamental level is implicit to communication. (three-dimensional representations and objects),
It is a part of being alive, of being in any kind of audio (including silence), kinesic (what has been
community. called body language), optical (light and color),
Communication arts focuses on specific com- tactile (touch), spatial (the use of space), temporal
munication modes such as graphic and fine arts, (time), and olfactory (taste and smell).
drama, music, journalism, and literature. Spe- Even though the same signal systems are used
cific ways a particular mode (communication in every culture, the many significant differences
art) is developed depends on the purpose and in their usage make clarity of understanding be-
cultural context. This is explicit or utilitarian tween members of different cultures difficult to
communication, a skill to be acquired and used achieve. One culture may emphasize the impor-
for particular purposes. tance of the verbal (the spoken word), while an-
Problems in intercultural communication other emphasizes the unspoken use of body lan-
occur at both implicit and explicit levels of com- guage, the kinesic system. Another culture may
munication. It is difficult implicitly because of have highly developed pictorial communication,
differing assumptions about God, humanity, the while still another has an intricate system of com-
world, and the nature of reality as well as differ- munication involving numbers. The individual
ent values and different experiences, When these signals may have totally different signification in
differences are ignored, assuming similarity indifferent cultures, for example, a gesture may
stead of difference, communication across cul- mean approval in one culture and be considered
tural boundaries will be ineffective or even nega- obscene in another or a word may indicate appre-
tive in its effects. ciation in one setting but rejection in a different
Eastern Perspectives. The Eastern perspective culture. Effective intercultural communication at
on communication is historically based on the the explicit-utilitarian level demands learning
goal of achieving harmony between humanity both the relative importance of the various signal
and nature. Through communication the indi- systems in different cultures as well as learning
vidual seeks to rise above personal interests to the meaning intended by various signals.
become one with the universal essence by use In summary, intercultural communication is a
of ritual, meditation, and myth. Todays patterns process depending on increasing involvement of
of communication used in Eastern nations as dif- the parties seeking to communicate. Only through
ferent as communist China, Japan, and Korea de- involvement can both implicit and explicit com-
rive from this common background. Kincaid and munication contribute to shared understanding.
Cushman point out three characteristics shared Such involvement is demonstrated in the life of
by Eastern social and political systems: (1) sub- Christ, who became flesh and lived among us
ordination of the individual to a strong hierar- (John 1:14). It is also the pattern for missionary
chical authority, (2) a subjugation maintained by service (John 17:18). Paul clearly modeled this
493
Intercultural Communication
kind of intercultural communication as he ex- structures, and know how these are practiced by
plains in 1 Corinthians 9:1923. members in the indigenous community.
DONALD K. SMITH Mastering the Basics of Conflict Resolution.
Conflict is inevitable in any kind of community.
SEE ALSO Interpersonal Communication. Every community also has its basic assumptions
Bibliography. W. B. Gudykunst and Y. Y. Kim, Com- and requirements for conflict resolution. An in-
municating with Strangers An Approach to Intercultural tercultural worker cannot hope to be effective un-
Communication; G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organiza- less she or he masters the patterns of conflict res-
tions: Software of the Mind; F. E. Jandt, Intercultural olution that are practiced within the local
Communication: An Introduction; D. L. Kincaid, Com- community.
munication Theory: Eastern and Western Perspectives; Understanding Basic Values and Personality.
L. A. Samovar and R. E. Porter, Intercultural Commu- The bringing up of children is one of the most
nication A Reader; D. K. Smith, Creating Understanding:
A Handbook for Christian Communication Across Cul-
important activities in any culture. Through this
tural Landscapes. process adults impart to children the basic values
that are essential in the cultural setting, and
channel the unique personalities of children into
Intercultural Competency. To live and work ef-
proper cultural behaviors. Understanding this
fectively interculturally, a person must engage in process of shaping children into mature adults is
CULTURAL LEARNING with the goal of becoming ef- crucial for competency in a culture (see ENCUL-
fective in the broad range of behaviors that are TURATION). Learning the values that parents im-
part of becoming competent in any culture. Since part to their children and the process through
the members of a culture have a whole lifetime in which they channel unique personalities into ap-
which to learn its inner workings and complexi- propriate adult behavior is crucial for effective
ties, an intercultural worker will never have the cultural learning.
competency of someone born in that culture. Yet, Understanding Beliefs and Worldview. All
with careful and intentional learning, a mission- human beings actively reflect on their cultural
ary can master a broad range of skills required experience and articulate the meaning of these
for effective COMMUNICATION, interpersonal rela- experiences in their beliefs and WORLDVIEW. Once
tionships, and continuous learning in a ministry an intercultural worker has a good working
setting. knowledge of the language, and has acquired
The goal of intercultural competency is to gain competencies in the other aspects of culture
sufficient understanding of the broad range of re- above, then exploration of beliefs and worldview
quired cultural behaviors so that one is sensitized is essential to gaining a whole picture of culture.
to intercultural tensions, aware of cultural ex- Effective Communication and Contextualiza-
pectations and practices, and continually learn- tion of Work and Ministry. The desired outcome
ing the finer points of communication in each of intercultural competency is effective commu-
area of cultural practice. nication in every area of culture. The goal of cul-
There are seven distinctive areas in which a tural competency is to contextualize work and
cross-cultural worker should seek to achieve ministry in the cultural system that is known and
competence in any culture. practiced by people in the local community. The
Language Fluency. The mastery of a language intercultural worker must intentionally frame
of a culture is essential to effective communica- communication and ministry within the cultural
tion. Intercultural workers should master the systems available to local cultural participants.
grammatical structures of the local language, and This requires that intercultural workers rethink
vocabulary in all the areas of communication what they do and how they do it, and reframe it
that are essential to their work. into the language, economic, social, and value
Understanding the Rules of Labor and Ex- systems of the local culture.
change. Every culture has adopted economic Many missiologists define cultural competency
practices and values that govern the organization with reference to incarnational ministry (see IN-
of labor and exchange within a community. Since CARNATIONAL MISSION). The example for incarna-
all intercultural workers are involved in some tional ministry is the Lord Jesus Christ. In Philip-
form of labor and exchange relationships with pians 2:67, Paul speaks of Jesus as being in
people in the community, understanding their very nature God, yet not clinging to that identity,
rules and values with regard to work are essential but taking the very nature of a servant, being
for effective intercultural service. made in human likeness. Lingenfelter and May-
Understanding Authority Relations in Fam- ers (1986, p. 15) characterize Jesus as a 200%
ily and Community. Every community defines person. They then draw the analogy that the in-
structures to govern relationships between indi- tercultural missionary must become at least a
viduals and groups. The intercultural worker 150% personideally, retaining their own cul-
should seek to understand the rules and roles tural identity at least at the level of 75%, and yet
that are significant in family and community adding a new identity of 75% of the culture in
494
Interdenominational Foreign Mission Association of North America (IFMA)
which they serve. The challenge of incarnational IFMA doctrinal and operational commitment.
ministry is becoming more than we are, and (3) Fellowship is maintained with evangelical
learning and incorporating the culture of our groups whose doctrinal or operational stances
hosts into our lives, and participating effectively make cooperation difficult. (4) Communication is
in ministry within their cultural context. Yet in- maintained with groups whose doctrinal stances
carnational ministry is not enough. As Christians (such as the inclusivism of the WORLD COUNCIL OF
we are engaged in lives of pilgrimage; as Peter CHURCHES) make fellowship impossible.
says, as aliens and strangers in the world, . . . Nondenominational, interdenominational, or
live such good lives among the pagans that, independent missions have been popularly called
though they may accuse you of doing wrong, FAITH MISSIONS because their financial structures
they may see your good deeds and glorify God on are based on prayer and trust in God to supply fi-
the day that He visits us (1 Peter 2:1112). nancial needs. There is no guaranteed salary for
SHERWOOD G. LINGENFELTER missionaries in faith missions. Most member
missions have adopted the principle of full in-
SEE ALSO Cross-Cultural Ministry. formation without solicitation. While some
Bibliography. P. G. Hiebert, Anthropological Insights IFMA members do solicit funds, the IFMA re-
for Missionaries; S. G. Lingenfelter and Marvin K. May- quires of them active faith in God for the provi-
ers, Ministering Cross-Culturally: An Incarnational sion of needs without strong fund solicitation.
Model for Personal Relationships. The primary concern of the original founding
members of IFMA (e.g., SUD, AIM, CIM) was the
Interdenominational Foreign Mission Associ- unreached inland peoples. Throughout IFMA his-
ation of North America (IFMA). In March of tory, member agencies have been innovative in
1917, Paul Groef, a Wall Street broker and mem- their efforts to evangelize the HIDDEN PEOPLES of
ber of the board of the South Africa General Mis- the world; they have pioneered and specialized in
sion, called together leaders of key faith missions such ministries as education, medicine, radio
for the purpose of strengthening effectiveness and television, gospel recording, Bible transla-
and outreach. Representatives of the South tion, and aviation. The IFMA has focused inter-
Africa General Mission (now AFRICA EVANGELICAL nally on the need for closer cooperation of the
FELLOWSHIP), The China Inland Mission (now nondenominational mission agencies in these en-
OVERSEAS MISSIONARY FELLOWSHIP or OMF Inter- deavors and externally on presenting a unified
national), the Central American Mission (CAM front against the encroachment of various forms
International), and the AFRICA INLAND MISSION or- of theological liberalism.
ganized the Interdenominational Foreign Mis- The first full-time executive officer of IFMA,
sion Association (IFMA) to enable missions lead- John Percy, was elected to the office of general
ers to get together for prayer, fellowship, and the secretary in 1956. He was succeeded by Edwin
exchange of ideas and information. The other Frizen Jr. in 1963, who was in turn succeeded by
charter members were the Sudan Interior Mis- John Orme in 1991. The official board has no ad-
sion (now the SOCIETY FOR INTERNATIONAL MIN- ministrative authority over member missions,
ISTRIES), the Inland South America Missionary but does elect fifteen board members for the pur-
Union (South America Indian Mission), and the poses of accreditation, networking for special
Womens Union Missionary Society of America. projects, and coordination between churches,
From the 1920s to the 1950s, roughly ten new schools, and mission agencies.
agencies were added to the IFMA each decade. Among member agencies, the direction of the
From the 1950s to the 1980s, the number in- work in the field is done from the field, not by
creased to fifteen per decade. From 1981 to 1991, home directorates or executive staff. Thus indi-
the number jumped by thirty-five members. Cur- vidual missionaries have not only a voice, but
rent membership comprises over one hundred also a vote in the organization and conduct of
agencies, representing over ten thousand mis- mission affairs. In some agencies the missionar-
sionaries sent from North America. Another five ies themselves elect the general director and
thousand from other countries are affiliated with other officers. In others, the board of directors
the member agencies. elects the general director.
Mission agencies can maintain one of four lev- Nondenominational missions characteristically
els of relationship with the IFMA: (1) Association have been open to cooperation with like-minded
is reserved for member agencies, with member- evangelical missions. In a number of instances,
ship requirements including agreement with the cooperation has led to mergers. Every three years
basic historical fundamentals of conservative the IFMA meets with the EVANGELICAL FELLOW-
evangelical Christianity and with the IFMA Con- SHIP OF MISSION AGENCIES (EFMA) in a joint lead-
fession of Faith. Additionally, member agencies ership gathering. The two associations jointly
are expected to maintain a noncharismatic ori- sponsor the annual IFMA/EFMA Personnel Sem-
entation. (2) Cooperation is the level of relation- inar. From 1964 to 1997, the two associations
ship for all nonmember groups which share the cosponsored the Evangelical Missions Quarterly
495
I-J-K Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:49 AM Page 496
Interdenominational Foreign Mission Association of North America (IFMA)
and Pulse. In 1966, they cosponsored the CON- courage the creation of centers of research; and
GRESS ON THE CHURCHS WORLDWIDE MISSION. to stimulate publications in missiology. The
Through the executive director of IFMA, com- IAMS journal, Mission Studies, is sent to all
munication and relationships are also main- members and other subscribers twice each year.
tained with the National Association of Evangeli- The association also sponsors four study projects
cals (NAE), the WORLD EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP that are carried on by work groups: biblical stud-
(WEF), and other major entities working in ies and mission; documentation, archives, and
world evangelization. bibliography; healing and mission; and patristics
Through their history, the IFMA members have and mission. The IAMS is not a sending or pro-
considered both husband and wife as full mis- motion agency, but an association for the study
sionaries. This is in contrast with some boards of mission. Its major achievement has been to
that have appointed only the husband as a mis- create a global network for the advancement of
sionary. Among IFMA mission agencies, single scholarship among individuals, organizations,
women have pioneered in many ministries, in- and centers engaged in the study of world mis-
cluding EVANGELISM and CHURCH PLANTING. sion and Christianity in the non-Western world.
Headquartered in Wheaton, Illinois, the IFMA Offices of the general secretariat are in Hamburg,
supplies personnel staffs with the know-how for Germany.
missionary recruitment, selection, and profes- GERALD H. ANDERSON
sional development, and business and financial
Bibliography. G. H. Anderson, MS 1 (1984): 23;
staffs with refresher seminars in management, G. H. Anderson and A. Camps, MS 12 (1995): 34; O. G.
taxes, and accounting. Other offerings include Myklebust, MS 3 (1986): 411; Introducing IAMS (pro-
conferences and small group seminars that en- motional brochure).
hance leadership and management skills as well
as forums enabling mission leadership to stay International Conferences for Itinerant Evan-
abreast of world issues and current theological gelists (Amsterdam 1983, 1986). An amazing
and missiological trends. step of faith on the part of BILLY GRAHAM, the con-
JOHN ORME ference for itinerant evangelists was fully spon-
Bibliography. E. L. Frizen Jr., 75 Years of IFMA: sored and well organized by hundreds within the
19171992; J. H. Kane, Faith Mighty Faith: A Handbook circle of the evangelistic association that bears his
of the Interdenominational Foreign Mission Association; name. Graham, however, was not at all sure of the
M. Rupert, The Emergence of the Independent Mission- outcome of a conference designed solely to minis-
ary Agency as an American Institution, 18601917. ter to the coming generation of itinerant evangel-
ists worldwide. When it was first conceived, no
International Association for Mission Studies one was even certain of their numbers, much less
(IAMS). This association describes itself as an how to contact them. Werner Burklin, the German
international, interconfessional, and interdiscipli- executive of Youth for Christ, was assigned the
nary professional society for the scholarly study task of tracking them down by visiting numerous
of Christian witness and its impact in the world. countries and interviewing all sorts of church lead-
Olav Myklebust in Norway first proposed such an ersalways with the request for information on
organization in 1951. After preliminary meetings promising young evangelists, women as well as
of European and North American missiologists in men, who would be most likely to profit from such
Birmingham, England, in 1968, and Oslo, Nor- a gathering. At first, the response was slow, but it
way, in 1970, the IAMS was inaugurated in 1972 gathered momentum and in the end 3,827 came
at Driebergen, The Netherlands. In 1996, when its from 133 countries, largely (70 percent) from the
ninth international conference met in Buenos non-Western world. More than half were without
Aires, Argentina, the association had 465 individ- formal training, and for the majority the confer-
ual members and 75 corporate members, of ence was their first exposure to evangelists from
which approximately 200 were from Asia, Africa, other countries. It was later discovered that there
Latin America, and the Pacific region. were at least 10,000 such itinerant workers serving
Stated objectives of the association are to pro- throughout the world.
mote the scholarly study of theological, historical At the opening session Graham, while promis-
and practical questions relating to mission; to ing to avoid heavy theology, set forth four specific
disseminate information concerning mission goals for the individual conferees: (1) mainte-
among all those engaged in such studies and nance of the purity of the gospel; (2) adherence
among the general public, and to publish the re- to biblical ethics in home life, personal morality,
sults of biblical research; to relate studies in mis- and financial accounting; (3) cooperation with
sion to studies in theological and other disci- local churches; and (4) effectiveness in giving
plines; to promote fellowship, cooperation and evangelistic invitations. From July 12 to 21, 1983,
mutual assistance in mission studies; to organize there were two plenary sessions daily, and a myr-
international conferences of missiologists; to en- iad of workshops. One warning was blunt: Avoid
496
International Fellowship of Evangelical Students (IFES)
being self-appointed gurus, sent by nobody and In response to the strongly felt needs of their
accountable to nobody. Since the sixth Assembly constituencies, most ICETE associations began
of the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES was meeting with, or early developed, accreditation schemes to
almost concurrently in Vancouver, Grahams clos- facilitate academic recognition for their member
ing address pointedly called on WCC leaders to schools. Most also developed a range of support
renew their commitment to biblical evangelism services, and promoted contact and cooperation
and world mission. Then he turned to the Ams- among member schools. Most ICETE associations
terdam delegates and stressed the indispensables have also embraced nonformal and extension the-
to effective evangelism: a robust prayer life and ological education. ICETE itself adopted the
an unrelenting devotion to Bible study. He con- Manifesto on the Renewal of Evangelical Theo-
fessed that the greatest failure in his life was that logical Education (1983, 1990) to encourage fresh
he had spoken too much, studied too little. approaches. A principal achievement of ICETE
Hardly had the conference ended when the full- since its inception has been the lively interconti-
time convention staff began interviewing dele- nental dialogue fostered through a sequence of in-
gates to conserve the evident gains of this costly ternational consultations: Hoddesdon, England
venture ($8.7 million). Many called for a repeat (1980); Chongoni, Malawi (1981); Seoul (1982);
in the near future, and a second conference was Wheaton (1983); Katydata, Cyprus (1984); Unter-
convened in 1986. weissbach, Germany (1987); Wheaton (1989);
Having been forced to turn away some 6,000 London (1991); Bangkok (1993); and Sopley, En-
possible participants at Amsterdam 83, the ca- gland (1996). The papers of several of these gath-
pacity for Amsterdam 86 was expanded to in- erings are published in an ICETE monograph se-
clude 8,160 evangelists and 2,000 other partici- ries, Evangelical Theological Education Today.
pants. They came from 173 countries, more than Evangelical schools in Africa first established
any other conference in history at that time. Si- an alliance in 1966 under the acronym AEBI-
multaneous translation was made available in 25 CAM. In 1970 the Asia Theological Association
languages, enabled by a team of 112 translators. was formed, and in 1973 what is now the
The primary purpose of Amsterdam 86 was to Caribbean Evangelical Theological Association
encourage, to equip, and to motivate the evan- was founded. In 1976 AEBICAM was superseded
gelists of the world (CT, 1986, 41). In light of the by the Accrediting Council for Theological Edu-
goal, it was appropriate that 78 percent of the cation in Africa (ACTEA), and in 1979 the Euro-
participants came from Two-Thirds World coun- pean Evangelical Accrediting Association was es-
tries. The total conference cost was $21 million, tablished. In March 1980 these bodies joined
paid for by contributions raised through the with the older (1947) Accrediting Association of
Billy Graham Evangelistic Association. In the Bible Colleges (North America) to form ICETE.
late 1990s, the BGEA began planning for a final Subsequently ICETE has been joined by the
Amsterdam Conference to take place in August South Pacific Association of Bible Colleges
of 2000 with an estimated budget of some $35 (founded 1969) and the Association for Evangel-
milllion. ical Theological Education in Latin America
ARTHUR F. GLASSER (AETAL; founded in 1992 as the successor to
AETTE, which was founded in 1968). The first
Bibliography. Christianity Today 27 (June 17, 1983): general secretary of ICETE was Paul Bowers
4647; (Sept. 2): 2831, 4246; 30 (Sept. 5, 1986):
4143; D. Foster: Billy Graham, A Vision Imparted: Am-
from ACTEA. He was succeeded by Robert
sterdam 83, A Pictorial Report. Youngblood, who was in turn followed by Roger
Kemp of Australia.
PAUL BOWERS
International Council for Evangelical Theo-
logical Education (ICETE). In a little noticed Bibliography. W. P. Bowers, ed., Evangelical Theo-
phenomenon of modern global Christianity, in logical Education: An International Agenda, 2nd ed.;
most parts of the Two-Thirds World the evangeli- R. Kemp, ERT 19:3 (July 1995): 31415; idem, ed., Text
cal theological schools have taken the initiative to and Context in Theological Education.
link themselves in vigorous indigenously directed
alliances. Such alliances first began to emerge in International Council of Accrediting Agencies
the 1960s and early 1970s. In 1980 these conti- (ICAA). See INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR EVANGEL-
nental movements organized themselves into a ICAL THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.
global federation, now known as the Interna-
tional Council for Evangelical Theological Edu- International Fellowship of Evangelical Stu-
cation (ICETE, formerly ICAA). ICETE functions dents (IFES). The International Fellowship of
under the auspices of the WORLD EVANGELICAL Evangelical Students was founded in August
FELLOWSHIP (WEF). Its constituency includes 1947 at the Phillips Brooks House in Harvard
continental alliances of theological institutions University. Representatives of ten countries (Aus-
representing all major regions of the world. tralia, Britain, Canada, China, France, Holland,
497
International Fellowship of Evangelical Students (IFES)
New Zealand, Norway, Switzerland, United stitutions within their countries, their influence
States) committed themselves to creating a net- is often very significant among future national
work of indigenous university student move- leaders in government, business, and the profes-
ments that would have the primary purpose of sions. Since students in IFES movements are
seeking to awaken and deepen personal faith in given opportunities to develop their own spiritual
the Lord Jesus Christ and to further evangelistic leadership gifts while in school they are also well
work among students throughout the world. To equipped to provide leadership within their own
help accomplish this, the IFES stated their desire church context and frequently become leaders of
to strengthen existing national evangelical stu- other missionary endeavors as well.
dent groups and provide for fellowship through The first elected leader (general secretary) for
international conferences on a regional and the IFES was the Australian C. Stacey Woods,
worldwide basis. who served for twenty-eight years in that capac-
As of 1996, the IFES had expanded to 134 ity. He was followed by Chua Wee Hien from Sin-
countries with another 36 countries identified for gapore until 1991. The current general secretary
pioneering work in the future. Most of the re- is Lindsay Brown from Wales. The IFES office is
maining countries are in the Islamic world of located in Harrow, England.
North Africa, the Fertile Crescent, and the Re- ROBERT A. FRYLING
publics in Central Asia. There are more than
three hundred thousand students worldwide that Bibliography. D. Johnson, A Brief History of the In-
ternational Fellowship of Evangelical Students; P. Low-
are associated with IFES, with the largest student
man, The Day of His Power.
movement being the Nigerian (NIFES) move-
ment with more than thirty thousand students
involved in their discipleship and evangelistic International Missionary Council (IMC). The
ministries. International Missionary Council was an out-
Because the IFES is committed to indigenous growth of the WORLD MISSION CONFERENCE at Ed-
national leadership, a key strategy is the develop- inburgh in 1910. Organized in 1921 under the
ment of national staff workers in each country. leadership of JOHN R. MOTT, JOSEPH H. OLDHAM,
As of the 1995 quadrennial World Assembly of the and A. L. Warnshuis, its purpose was to encour-
IFES only 27 countries of the 134 did not have age and assist churches and mission societies in
some national staff workers. These developing their missionary task, understood as sharing with
student movements are frequently assisted in people everywhere the transforming power of the
their ministry by staff from other countries until gospel of Jesus Christ. It hoped to bring about
they can support their own staff personnel. united efforts wherever possible.
The IFES also seeks to strengthen its move- Its membership consisted mainly of national
ments through intentional training strategies, lit- and regional interdenominational mission or-
erature, and media resources. Regional training ganizations, such as the Committee of German
personnel are appointed to serve various lan- Evangelical Missions and the Foreign Mission
guage and geographical groupings through spe- Conference of North America. It encouraged the
cific training conferences for both staff and stu- development of national Christian councils in
dent leaders. Publishing houses and the Asia, Africa, and Latin America, in which the
development of national authors for Bible stud- churches eventually played a stronger role than
ies and books are major dimensions of a strategic the mission organizations. Thus the churches be-
and growing literature ministry. came the centers for planning, rather than the
Perhaps the most significant emphasis within mission structures. It eventually grew to include
the IFES is the ever present pioneering and mis- thirty-eight such councils. The IMC saw itself as
sionary endeavors. The North American URBANA a center of information and consultation,
missions conference sponsored by IFES mem- thought, and study, holding conferences where
ber movements, InterVarsity USA and InterVar- the results of research could be shared. It also
sity Canada, has challenged nearly 200,000 del- published the International Review of Missions.
egates during its triennial conventions with the At its first meeting in JERUSALEM in 1928, half of
call of God to the world mission of the church. the 231 delegates came from Asia, Africa, and
Similar conventions have taken place in Taiwan, Latin America. Some called it the first truly global
Nigeria, Kenya, India, and Australia. These con- meeting in history. Its message was basically op-
ventions not only raise missionary concerns and timistic despite growing secularism. Theological
vision for the delegates but they provide oppor- divergence was evident as the concern for social
tunities for evangelical missionary agencies and issues caused some anxiety among conservatives,
church groups to work together in helping col- but its final word was Our message is Jesus
lege and university students find their role in Christ. He is the revelation of what God is and
world missions. what man through Him may become. In Him we
Because student groups within the IFES carry find God incarnate. Seeking to move beyond pa-
out their ministry among the top educational in- ternalism, Jerusalem recognized the equality of
498
Interpersonal Communication
the younger churches, a term then coming into Churches. Its stated purpose was to further the
use. It also established an international commit- proclamation to the whole world of the gospel of
tee on the Christian approach to the Jews. Jesus Christ to the end that all men may believe
The 1938 meeting brought 471 delegates, in- and be saved.
cluding 77 women, from 70 nations, to TAM- However, for reasons having to do both with
BARAM, India, near Madras. A major issue was the structure and theology, the CWME disappeared
relationship of Christianity to non-Christian reli- in the 1990s, becoming a subunit in Programme
gions. HENDRIK KRAEMER wrote his preparatory Unit No. 2 (Churches in Mission, Health, Educa-
volume, The Christian Message in a Non-Christian tion, and Witness) of the WCC. The CWME, the
World, stressing discontinuity between Christian- successor to the IMC, no longer exists as a sepa-
ity and other faiths against those who saw value rate entity.
in non-Christian religions as a preparation for PAUL E. PIERSON
the gospel. Resisting some calls for SYNCRETISM,
the council reaffirmed the authority of Scripture SEE ALSO Ecumenical Movement.
and the truth and grace of God in Jesus Christ. Bibliography. H. Hoekstra, The World Council of
Other issues addressed were the need to improve Churches and the Demise of Evangelism; R. W. Hogg,
the preparation of leadership for the younger Ecumenical Foundations; S. Neill, and R. Rouse, eds., A
churches, and the challenges of communism, na- History of the Ecumenical Movement; R. K. Orchard,
tionalism, and secularism. During World War II, ed., The Ghana Assembly of the IMC, 195758; C. W.
Ranson, Renewal and Advance.
the IMC did a magnificent job of gathering re-
sources to care for orphaned European missions
in various parts of Asia and Africa, cut off from Internet. See INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY and
their homelands and support, making possible TECHNOLOGY.
their continued ministry. The WHITBY, Ontario
meeting in 1947 was an opportunity for the re- Interpersonal Communication. Though com-
newal of fellowship after the war and called all munication may be intrapersonal (talking to one-
churches to rediscover the nature of their obedi- self), it is usually interpersonal communication
ence in proclaiming the gospel to a broken and (communication between persons) that we refer
revolutionary world. The slogan Partners in to when we speak of communication. Whether
Obedience was adopted; it was intended to sym- the communication is between members of the
bolize the full equality of older and younger same family or between those of different lan-
churches, to overcome paternalism and depend- guage communities (INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICA-
ency, and stress unity. TION), it always involves persons and thus is in-
At WILLINGEN, Germany, in 1952, new theolog- terpersonal. Even public communication, such as
ical winds were blowing amidst growing pes- lectures or sermons, can be seen as interpersonal,
simism about the church and its mission in a since they consist of a large number of one-to-
revolutionary age. The question was asked, What one (i.e., speaker to each listener) interactions.
was to be the nature of the missionary obligation Though communication via electronic or print
of the church as many traditional mission fields media is not usually seen as interpersonal, there
were closing and the churches in the West were are important interpersonal aspects to these
increasingly aware of the role of churches in forms as well, especially if the receptors know the
mission? communicator(s) personally.
At the 1958 GHANA meeting the Theological Ed- Since EUGENE NIDA first introduced the con-
ucation Fund was launched to upgrade institu- cept into missiology in Message and Mission
tions in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. But the (1960, rev. ed. 1990), it has been customary in
most important issue was the decision to merge missiological circles to speak of communica-
with the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES (WCC). tional interaction as consisting of a source (or
JOHN MACKAY and others believed the merger communicator) conveying a message to one or
would put mission at the very heart of the WCC. more receptors. This is often referred to as the
Others, especially MAX WARREN of the CHURCH S-M-R theory of communication. The key insights
MISSION SOCIETY, spoke strongly against it. He brought by this perspective concern the place of
said that while mission calls for almost infinite the receptor in the communication process.
flexibility and a readiness to take initiative, offi- All interpersonal communication involves gaps
cial bodies have great hesitation about taking between people and the techniques used to bridge
risks. Thus he predicted that the voluntary prin- those gaps. Traditional approaches to communi-
ciple that was so important in missions would be cation have tended to focus attention either on
lost with the merger. But WCC leaders promised the source of messages or on the vehicles used to
that mission and evangelism would be central to convey them. The primary vehicle, of course, is
its life and work. Consequently, in 1961 the IMC LANGUAGE, and much attention has been devoted
became the COMMISSION on WORLD MISSION AND to the place of language in the communication
EVANGELISM (CWME) of the World Council of process, as if words contained the meanings peo-
499
Interpersonal Communication
ple attempt to communicate. But, as Berlo and On the other hand, exciting PEOPLE MOVEMENTS
others have demonstrated, meanings reside nei- have often resulted when messages of Gods love
ther in the external world nor in language or and power have been presented in ways that
other vehicles we use in the communication were accurately interpreted by the receptors from
process. Though we can pass messages from per- within their frame of reference.
son to person, meanings reside only in persons, CHARLES H. KRAFT.
never in the vehicles used to convey the messages.
Bibliography. D. K. Berlo, The Process of Communi-
Meanings are created by receptors on the basis of cation; J. F. Engel, Contemporary Christian Communi-
their perceptions of what the communicator in- cations; C. H. Kraft, Communicating the Gospel Gods
tends by the messages he or she is sending. Way; idem, Communication Theory for Christian Wit-
What goes on within the receptor(s) mind is, ness; E. A. Nida, Message and Mission; D. K. Smith, Cre-
therefore, the most important part of any com- ating Understanding; V. Sgaard, Media in Church and
municational interaction. Once the communica- Mission.
tor has spoken or written a message, it is up to
the receptor(s) to interpret the meaning. And this Interserve. Interserve is an international, inter-
interpretation is done on the basis of the recep- denominational, and evangelical association of
tors own understandings, whether or not these mission boards in a dozen sending countries that
correspond with the understanding of the source. was founded in 1852. It emerged from the con-
This fact creates difficulties in interpersonal com- cern of some visionary Victorian women in Lon-
munication, even between people who live in the don for the oppressed women in India. They
same culture and speak the same language. It is, founded The Indian Female Normal School and
however, complicated greatly when the source Instruction Society, with a vision: If we can give
and the receptor(s) are from different cultures. the women of India the power to read, and the
For peoples patterns of perception and interpre- Book to read, God will bless his word. In 1873,
tation are strongly affected by their culture. In- at a time when there were only two qualified fe-
tercultural communication is a form of interper- male doctors in England, they extended the work
sonal communication, for it always involves one to include medical as well as literacy work in the
or more communicators attempting to convey zenanas (enclosed female quarters in India), and
messages to one or more receptors from another the name was changed to the Zenana Bible and
culture. Medical Mission. For many years it remained an
This understanding of communication has entirely womens mission to women (men were
enormous implications for the communication of admitted to ZBMM only in 1950) and registered
the gospel and the CONTEXTUALIZATION of Chris- remarkable achievements.
tianity. It means that we need first to learn as In a century and a half it has grown to encom-
much as possible about how our receptors are pass four hundred cross-cultural missionaries
perceiving the messages we are attempting to from many nations. It entered Nepal in 1954,
communicate. Then we need to do our best to Pakistan in 1958, and is now working in sixteen
formulate our messages in such a way that the countries stretching from North Africa to
receptors can perceive and interpret what we are Bangladesh and northward to the Central Asian
saying accurately and reconstruct the meanings Republics and eastward to China and Mongolia.
appropriately. Failures in this area have led to The society became internationally structured in
heretical understandings of Christian doctrines 1967 with its headquarters no longer in London,
even though the missionaries were orthodox and but in Delhi and later in Cyprus, and with na-
doing their best to speak the truth. tional sending councils as far apart as Ireland
Missionary history is full of examples of mes- and Korea. In India, the first receiving country
sages that were spoken accurately in terms of now became a sending country, the wheel has
the communicators perspective but were per- come full circle.
ceived inaccurately by the receptors. When mis- Though originally a medical mission, and from
sionaries to India, for example, invited people to 1957 known as the Bible and Medical Missionary
be born again, they were not heard accurately Fellowship (BMMF), the society has become a
by people who are seeking to escape from the general mission including not only doctors,
endless cycle of rebirth. Nor are those in Asia for nurses, and paramedics, but also teachers, engi-
whom the number four is TABOO attracted to a neers, foresters, administrators, childrens work-
message that focuses on four spiritual laws. ers, theologians, pastors, and those working
Latin American CHRISTO-PAGANISM, Melanesian among the handicapped and underprivileged. For
CARGO CULTS, many AFRICAN-INITIATED CHURCH this reason another name change, from BMMF
MOVEMENT doctrines, and a plethora of other to Interserve (short for International Service Fel-
aberrant forms of Christianity are the products lowship), took place in 1987.
of receptor understandings of missionary mes- The society does not start its own churches or
sages that did not correspond with what was inform a denomination from among those converted
tended by the communicators. through its ministry. It works with and through
500
Invitation
other churches in the area or helps pioneer new understanding of the distinction between this pe-
congregations where none exist, but always in co- riod and that which preceded and followed it, the
operation with others. It has been a pioneer in diverse nature of the Jewish society, faith and
forming multi-mission umbrella consortia for culture of the time, the expectation of the immi-
work in many areas, including the United Mission nent arrival of the Final Age (the last period of
to Nepal (UMN) in 1954, the International Assis- human history), and the complex elements of na-
tance Mission (IAM) in Afghanistan in 1966, tionalism, religion, and culture, that interplayed
HEED (Health, Education and Economic Develop- with each other. Of particular importance were
ment) in Bangladesh in 1974, and Joint Christian the effects upon Judaism of the various reactions
services (JCS) in Mongolia in 1994. to such crises as the defeat and deportation by
Interserve was one of the first missions to inau- the Babylonians, the entrance of Hellenistic
gurate a short-term volunteer program in 1969, (Greek) culture, and Roman domination. One
now successfully adopted by many missions. It also must note the nature and importance of the
was considered an expensive soft option when Greco-Roman culture, the dominant force of the
first introduced and likely to divert people from civilized world at that time.
serious long-term commitment. Many who go Cross-cultural missionaries live among peoples
overseas, however, use it as a test run before mak- they hope to reach for the gospel in order to un-
ing a longer commitment. Believing that mission derstand their LANGUAGE, CULTURE, and WORLD-
must serve all six continents not just from the VIEWS and thus be able to communicate accu-
West to the rest, the society adopted a policy of rately with them. Similarly, growing familiarity
mission in its home-based countries, particularly with the intertestamental world, both Jewish and
among ethnic minorities. This has been particu- Greco-Roman, is essential for a better under-
larly successful in the United Kingdom, where a standing of the New Testament. It is particularly
team of forty mission partners works in the pro- important for the Bible translator who needs to
gram Ministry to Asians in Britain (MAB), mak- know the culture and society of the biblical world
ing it the largest team to engage in this ministry even as he or she seeks to learn those of the peo-
to those of other faiths in Britain. ple for whom the translation is intended (see
ARTHUR PONT BIBLE TRANSLATION).
Bibliography. K. Makower, Widening Horizons: The In seeking to familiarize oneself with the New
Story of INTERSERVE; J. C. Pollock, Shadows Fall Apart: Testament world it is imperative to be aware of
The Story of the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission. the distinct nature of its faith, institutions, and
life. Documents which come from after the New
Intertestamental Studies (also Second Temple Testament period, Rabbinic Judaism, such as
or Commonwealth Jewish era). Investigation of the Mishnah, Talmud, Midrashim, should be rec-
the period between the Old and New Testaments. ognized as later compilations and used only with
Technically the period dates from the destructions great care as sources for information about the
of Jerusalem and its temple by the Babylonians in intertestamental period (this includes the fre-
586 B.C. and by the Romans in A.D. 70. This places quently consulted works of Alfred Edersheim).
the first part of the Post-Exilic period as both the Modern missiology properly places great em-
last of the Old Testament era and the beginning of phasis on the challenge of ministry in unfamiliar
the Second Temple Judaism. settings; hence, the importance of cross-cultural
During this time the Hebrews were ruled suc- CONTEXTUALIZATION. Intertestamental studies re-
cessively by the Persians, the Greeks under mind us that the deportation of the Hebrews to
Alexander the Great, Ptolemies (from Egypt), and Babylon in the sixth century B.C. and the con-
the Seleucids (from Syria), by their own Mac- frontation with Hellenistic culture in the fourth
cabean or Hasmonean rulers, and finally, begin- century B.C. required the intertestamental Jews to
ning in 63 B.C., the Romans. The major sources wrestle with the same sort of problems. Early
of informationthe Old Testament Apocrypha, Christianity also faced these issues as it moved
Pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea Scrolls, Jewish from a wholly Jewish environment into the
writers such as the historian Josephus and Philo Greco-Roman world. An understanding both of
the philosopher, the New Testament, and Greco- the successes and failures in meeting the cross-
Roman writersprovide data about the histori- cultural challenges in the intertestamental period
cal events, religious beliefs and practices, cultural could be of considerable value for those facing
situation, as well as challenges, sufferings, hopes, similar issues today.
and aspirations of the times immediately preced- J. JULIUS SCOTT, JR.
ing and contemporary with the New Testament.
With the recent discovery and study of the new Invitation. Beginning with Gods Where are
data of the period, especially the Dead Sea you? (Gen. 3:9) and ending with The Spirit and
Scrolls (c. 1947), the investigation of this period the bride say[ing], Come! (Rev. 22:17), the Trini-
has received new information, perspectives, and tarian God persistently invites those he created to
impetus. Of particular interest is the reinforced return to their Creator and Redeemer. His invita-
501
Invitation
tion comes to people in a multitude of ways, such view that tends to superimpose method on con-
as dreams, visions, proclamation, calamity, testi- tent and relationships. When this how-to think-
mony, and ultimately in his very incarnation. He ing shapes the Christian invitation some of the
will pursue, chastise, hide, and wait, in order to power and mystery of our relationship to God is
get a response. lost. The human response to God cannot be
God is an inviting God. Those who respond to shaped by technique. But certainly all responses
his invitation in return invite others. But some to God are influenced by culture and tradition.
are especially called to invite others. He sent God, the Creator and Redeemer, is the seeking
Abraham to Canaan and the world. He sent God. He invites all of humankind to return to
Moses to tell Pharaoh and his court that Yahweh him. His invitation extends throughout time and
was the living God. He sent the prophets to an- to all the peoples of the earth (Matt. 28:1820;
nounce to Israel and the nations that God was 2 Peter 3:9).
just and compassionate. He sent his only Son HAROLD E. DOLLAR
into the world, making all these invitations pos-
Bibliography. D. J. Bosch, Transforming Mission;
sible. He sent his Holy Spirit upon his awaiting W. Conn, Christian Conversion; V. J. Donovan, Chris-
disciples, empowering them to invite their fami- tianity Rediscovered; J. H. Kroeger, Missiology 24:3
lies and friends to repent and turn to the living (1996): 36981; T. Presler, Missiology 18:3 (1990):
God. He sent his apostles to the nations to invite 26778; D. Teeter, Missiology 19:3 (1990): 30513;
all peoples to come and feast at his eschatologi- A. Tippett, Let the Earth Hear His Voice, ed., J. D. Dou-
cal banquet. glas; D. Watson, I Believe in Evangelism.
Gods invitation always has specific content.
Abraham believed that his seed would be as nu- Iran (Est. 2000 pop.: 74,644,000; 1,648,000 sq.
merous as the stars in heaven (Gen. 15:6). Israel km. [636,293 sq. mi.]). The Islamic Republic of
was to renounce all allegiances to other gods Iran is home to over sixty-five different ethnic
(Exod. 20:13; Josh. 24:15). According to Paul, groups speaking approximately fifty different lan-
the Christian invitation must explicitly announce guages. About 99 percent of the population pro-
that Jesus Christ died and was raised again fess Islam. The official state religion is the Ithna-
(1 Cor. 15:13). Those who turn to the living God Ashariya branch of Shiism, making Iran the
must then declare their allegiance through Chris- world center for Shiite Islam, to which 89 per-
tian baptism and obedience (Matt. 28:19). cent of the people adhere.
Although there are continual attempts to state Only 0.4 percent of the population is affiliated
explicitly how one responds to Gods invitation, with Christianity. The Orthodox churches are the
ultimately, the response remains a mystery. Abra- oldest and largest in Iran. The Armenian Apos-
ham responded to Gods invitation and obeyed tolic Church traces its founding back to the first-
him by leaving his home, land, and family. Ruth century apostles Thaddaeus and Bartholomew.
would not leave Naomi, declaring her allegiance The Ancient (Assyrian) Church of the East traces
to Naomi and her God. Paul responded to a vi- its origin to the era before Nestorius. The Russ-
sion of the risen Christ by becoming an apostle. ian Orthodox Church, whose projects in Tehran
While Scripture gives many other examples of in- include a school, library, and club, was estab-
dividuals and groups responding to Gods invita- lished in 1863. The Greeks came to Iran between
tion, there seems to be a reluctance on the part of 1917 and 1936, worshiping originally with the
the biblical writers to give any clear guidelines on Russian Orthodox until a separate church was es-
how people should respond. While not detailing tablished in Tehran in 1943.
the how, Johns Gospel stresses the what. Each Roman Catholic missions began with the
respondent is to confess that Jesus is the Christ. Chaldean Catholic Church, which gained its first
Luke gives many case studies of preaching and converts in 1552; today it is the largest of the
response in LukeActs. The content of the invita- Catholic churches with about 65 percent of the
tion to turn to God is clear, along with specific Catholic population. The Latin Church mission-
calls for the listeners to repent and be baptized in aries arrived in Iran in the 1200s and 1600s, fol-
the name of Jesus. But, apart from these general lowed by the Armenian Catholic Church, which
statements, there is little information on the re- dates its first venture in Iran to 1605 and now
sponse. Sometimes Luke talks about believing numbers approximately two thousand.
and baptism; sometimes he simply says, they Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregationalist
followed Paul (Acts 2:38ff.; Acts 13:43). missionaries of the American Board of Commis-
Throughout history, and especially in its West- sioners of Foreign Missions (ABCFM), the first
ern tradition, the church has often fallen into the Protestant group in Iran, organized the Mission to
trap of giving specific guidelines on how conver- the Nestorians in 1834. Resistance from the
sion should take place. Methods of issuing Gods Nestorian Church turned the missionaries atten-
invitation and outlining specific steps of response tion to the Assyrians, who were more willing to
multiplied during the twentieth century. This ten- convert, resulting in the Evangelical Church
dency can be traced in part to a scientific world- (1855). They, along with the Assemblies of God,
502
Ireland
who were active in 1924 and again in 1966, are the In 1886 the Archbishop of Canterbury estab-
two largest Protestant churches in the country. lished his mission to the Assyrian population in
There are reports that more Iranians have the north who had suffered greatly at the hands
come to Christ since the Islamic revolution of of both Kurds and Turks. In 1891 SAMUEL ZWE-
1979 than in the years prior to it. All such devia- MER with James Cantine of the Reformed Church
tions or defections are liable to persecution, even in America chose the southern port city of Basra
though constitutional rights are guaranteed for as their first station and started a school and
Christians, Zoroastrians, and Jews. Protestant medical work. They later expanded north to As-
churches tend to be small, and since the end of mara and then to other parts of Iraq. Toward the
the war with Iraq, pressure on the evangelical end of the twentieth century, films, satellite TV,
Christians has increased. radio, and tons of Bibles and Christian books
GARY LAMB shipped in from Jordan were used by the Holy
Spirit to encourage a vibrant and revived evan-
Iraq (Est. 2000 pop.: 23,753,000; 438,317 sq. km. gelical movement. Iraq is experiencing an exodus
[169,234 sq. mi.]). In the earliest days of the of many of the small Christian minorities from
church, Christian missionaries from Edessa, the Iraq to all parts of the world. However, a good
crossroads of the old Silk Road east to China and number of keen young people are studying in
south to Egypt, moved down the Euphrates seminaries in Jordan and Egypt and have plans
River. A large Christian population prospered to return to Kirkuk, Baghdad, and Basrah. Many
from the second century. Mawiyya, the first of the people displaced after the Gulf War have
Christian Arab queen, was leader of the Tunukh been converted in Jordan and many of these will
tribe in 373. The whole tribe had become Chris- return to Iraq. Such events are a harbinger of an
tian through contact with monks who dwelt in expected expansion of the gospel in this land.
the desert. Around 340 during the persecutions of GEORGE E. KELSEY
Shapur II, waves of refugees poured into Iraq Bibliography. R. B. Betts, Christians in the Arab
from Persia and they moved down the Arab side East; S. Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia; W. H.
of the Arab Gulf and established missionary Storm, Whither Arabia?; J. S. Trimingham, Christianity
monasteries. Among The Arabs; S. M. Zwemer, Heirs to the Prophets.
The Nestorian Creed first reached the Arabs
through the settled communities in Mesopotamia Ireland (Est. 2000 pop.: 3,616,000; 70,284 sq. km.
at about 410 when a Nestorian bishop used Hirta [27,137 sq. mi.]). The Christianity that took root
on the east of the Euphrates as his center. Con- in Ireland in the fifth century owed much to the
verts, known as the Ibad, spread to the settled character of both its messenger and the indige-
Lakhmid nation of al Hira, whose members were nous people. PATRICK arrived in 432 with a Chris-
fully Christianized by the seventh century. In tian message that did not carry the price of Ro-
Mesopotamia, the Nestorian population, though manization. The early Celtic church was fiercely
tolerated by the Persians, felt the heavy hand of independent, eschewed the authoritarian Roman
religious and racial discrimination from the im- approach, and promoted an incarnational theol-
perial government of the Sassanids. Nestorian ogy in its spirituality and mission (see also CELTIC
theology was condemned by the Council of Chal- MISSIONARY MOVEMENT).
cedon in 451. The Nestorians provided some of With the collapse of the Roman Empire, the
the finest scholars, scientists, and surgeons in the Irish church became the guardian and vanguard
earliest years of their presence. They sent out of the gospel in a fragmented Europe. The exploits
missionaries from the eighth to fourteenth cen- of its missionaries and monasteries served to es-
turies, who carried the gospel east and south and tablish the islands reputation as the land of saints
nearly converted the Mongol nation (see also and scholars. Foremost among these early mis-
NESTORIAN MISSIONS). However, they did not sionaries were Columcille or COLUMBA OF IONA (to
manage to evangelize Turkistan and this led to Scotland in 557) and COLUMBANUS (to Gaul in 590).
their collapse. When Columcille died on Iona in 597, Augus-
Iraqs political control is in the hands of the mi- tine had just arrived in England. Celtic and
nority Sunni Muslims. Kurdish people make up Roman approaches came into confrontation. In
about 20 percent. The form of socialism in Iraq 1170, Henry II authorized the Norman invasion
today is more important than religion. The Con- from England, having secured a mandate from
stitution of Iraq guarantees complete freedom of Pope Adrian IV, the only English pope! Faced
religion and worship as well as the legal right to with a weakened Celtic church, Romes lordship
register a change of religion. This has not trick- was finally established in Ireland. Medieval
led down to the masses yet. Three percent are Christendom, as with the CRUSADES, again acted
Christians and now there are nearly forty groups on a coercive model of mission that has left a bit-
in twelve denominations. ter legacy.
503
I-J-K Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:49 AM Page 504
Ireland
There was no indigenous Reformation in Ire- churches are increasingly aware of what can be
land. Under Henry VIII the government of both learned from the global church. While there are
church and state became Protestant (Anglican) few Christians from other countries working in
and loyalty to the Roman church became part of Ireland, many who have returned from overseas
the peoples defiance of their English rulers. are now transferring their skills and experience
Protestantism took root through settlements, es- to the task of mission in their home country.
pecially the seventeenth-century plantation of Ul- DAVID PORTER
ster from England and Scotland.
Bibliography. E. M. Hogan, The Irish Missionary
Protestant ascendancy followed victory in the
Movement: A Historical Survey 18301980; N. W. Tag-
Glorious Revolution of 1688 and was strength- gart, The Irish in World Methodism, 17601900;
ened by penal laws, which kept non-Anglicans J. Thomson, ed., Into All the World: A History of the
out of government and most positions of influ- Overseas Work of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland
ence. Religion and political power were now in- 18401990.
separable.
In the eighteenth century many Protestant Dis- Isaiah. See OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETS.
senters moved to America. There the Ulster Scots
made a significant contribution to the religious
Islam, Muslim. Islam is the largest non-Chris-
life of the New World. The Anglicans turned to
evangelizing their Irish Catholic neighbors. tian religion in the world. It is the only faith to
Catholic Ireland, concerned with its own survival, supplant Christianity in large geographical re-
had itself played no part in the Roman churchs gions, and has proved the most resistant to Chris-
missionary enterprise since the early medieval pe- tian missions since its rise in the early seventh
riod. Emancipation, famine, and revival brought century. Although the Arab world remains the
change that would impact the missionary en- heartland, a majority of Muslims lives in Asia
deavor throughout the nineteenth century. the largest numbers in Indonesia, Bangladesh,
With emancipation the Catholic Church saw Pakistan, India, and Central Asia.
tremendous growth in all kinds of vocations, in- Early Development. Muhammad (A.D. 570632)
cluding the missionary orders. The great famine was born in Mecca, a commercial and religious
of 184594 produced massive Catholic emigra- center of Arabia, where he reacted against the
tion and the church took seriously the need to polytheism and injustices of his day and received
provide spiritual support throughout the Irish di- what Muslims believe were revelations from God,
aspora. These developments have been well doc- later recorded in the QURAN (the Recitation).
umented, unlike the Protestant missionary en- The faith that emerged incorporated elements
deavor from this period. from local Judaism, Christianity, and Arabian
The Protestant churches were quick to identify monotheism. In addition, much of the pagan pil-
with the missionary movement. Some, like the grimage to the Ka`bah sanctuary in Mecca was
Irish Presbyterians in India and Manchuria, es- incorporated after the idols of tribal patron
tablished their own missionary enterprise. All deities were removed and only references to
found it necessary to forge links with denomina- Allah (the god) remained.
tional missions in the rest of Britain who were Muslims came to understand their faith as the
quick to form Irish auxiliaries. original revelation that had been given through a
Since then thousands of Irish missionaries have series of prophets, including Moses and Jesus,
contributed to mission throughout the world. The and finally through Muhammad, whose revela-
Ulster Revival in 1859 contributed to the unity and tion corrected any corruptions that had affected
growth of evangelicalism in Ireland and a conse- Jewish and Christian beliefs and practices.
quent interest in the new faith missions. With the The five Pillars of Muslim practice include
partition of Ireland in 1921 the contribution of the first the confession of faith: There is no god but
Protestant church has been mainly from Northern God, and Muhammad is the apostle of God. The
Ireland, known for its evangelical vigor. Irish evan- first half links Muslim and Christian, as the sec-
gelicals have also founded missions such as ond half divides them. The second, the ritual
SAMUEL BILL (18631942), the Qua Iboe Mission in prayer, borrows its name (salat), ablutions, pos-
Nigeria (1887) and AMY CARMICHAEL (18671951) tures, and much of its content (with the excep-
and the Donhnavur Fellowship in India (1927). tion of brief references to Muhammad) from
At the end of the twentieth century, churches in Jewish and Christian sources. The original Mus-
both parts of Ireland faced decline. The majority lim orientation of prayer was toward Jerusalem
of the population in the Republic of Ireland is like the Jews, before it was directed instead to-
under age twenty-five. In Northern Ireland the ward Mecca.
ongoing conflict has eroded the churchs credi- The third, almsgiving, is designated by an Ara-
bility. Both parts of Ireland face the economic maic loan word zakat, which the Jewish rabbis
and social deprivation of urban poverty. In the used for charitable gifts. Likewise, the fourth, fast-
desire to make their witness relevant, Irish ing, is indicated by a Judeo-Aramaic loan word,
504
Islam, Muslim
sawm. The practice of abstaining from eating and Various trends have been discernible in the
drinking in the daytime but not at night was a Muslim community up to the present day. One is
Jewish practice. Apparently the fast originally co- the adaptionists, who have advocated a process
incided with the Jewish fast before the Day of of Islamic acculturation. They include todays
Atonement, but then it was changed to replace the modernists who advocate religious, legal, educa-
pre-Islamic Arab sacred month of Ramadan. tional, and social reforms. The second are the
Although the fifth pillar, the yearly pilgrimage conservatives, who feel that the boundaries of le-
to Mecca, was the adoption and reinterpretation gitimate religious interpretation ceased in the
of a pagan practice (see also PILGRIMAGES), it in- ninth century after the four orthodox schools of
corporates some elements that God used in his Sunni law were established.
schoolhouse for the children of Israel. Its name, Finally, there are the fundamentalists, who re-
hajj, is the same word the Israelites used for a fes- ject the accretions of Islamic history and seek to
tival in Jerusalem in Psalm 81:4 (3 in English). return to the fundamentals of the Quran and
The circumambulation of the sanctuary replicates practice of Muhammad (Sunna), believing that
the Feast of Tabernacles (cf. Ps. 26:6). The wear- they exhibit a pattern of values and law adequate
ing of special garments and the prohibition of the for modern life. They do not reject modern tech-
cutting of hair while in a consecrated state follow nology but only the secular values that frequently
biblical practices (e.g., Lev. 16:4; Num. 6:5). accompany it. Some have radical social programs
Varieties of Expression. Muslims developed a and others, conservative. Some are militant while
strong sense of community governed by divine others support the status quo. Yet at the threshold
law (Shariah), which in both its quranic form of the third millennium many of the expressions
and subsequent development resembled Jewish of Islam are experiencing resurgence.
oral Torah and rabbinic law. It developed to in- Spread. Islam has been spread by both peaceful
clude all human duties to God and society from and militant means. On the one hand, the Quran
religious observances to family, penal, and inter- states that there is no compulsion in religion
national law. (2:256/257) and enjoins witness in a kind manner
An Islamic law developed to guide the outer (2:143/137; 16:125/126). On the other hand, it calls
Muslims to fight against polytheists and hyp-
paths of Muslims duties; mysticism (see SUFI, SU-
ocrites (9:5, 3852) and even Jews and Christians
FISM) developed to guide the inner path of piety,
until they submit and pay tribute (5:29), after
with emphasis on the experience and devotional
which the latter two are to be protected.
love of God. Being more inclusive in nature, it
A distinction needs to be made between the ex-
borrowed freely from Christians and Hindus and
pansion of military and political power and con-
others and facilitated the spread of Islam from
version, which involves spiritual allegiance. The
North Africa to Southeast Asia through a net- conversion of conquered people, if it occurred,
work of orders or brotherhoods. Its expressions was often a slower process. The adoption of
range from devotional dimensions of many or- Islam ranged from total conversion, to allegiance
thodox (or orthoprax) Muslims, to beliefs and for expediency because of its advantages, to
practices of some orders that are removed from forced submission.
formal Islam. One hundred years after Muhammads death in
In the latter cases it blends into folk Islam, 632, the Muslim Arab armies had conquered
that mixture of indigenous animistic elements North Africa, Spain, Syria, and the Persian (Sas-
into the beliefs and practices of many who con- sanian) Empire. By 870, Islam had become the
sider themselves to be Muslims. This modifies dominant integrating faith of a vast empire of
the traditional bridges and barriers to Christian many cultures extending from North Africa into
mission among Muslims. Central Asia. During this period the basic Shariah
The major division within formal Islam is be- law developed, to which many Muslims have
tween the Sunnis (85 percent worldwide; see turned, up to the present day.
SUNNI, SUNNISM) and the Shiis (15 percent world- Between 870 and 1041, various regions of the
wide; see SHIITE, SHIISM). It was occasioned by empire assumed a measure of independence. Is-
differences over who should lead the community lamdom continued to expand partly by military
after the death of Muhammad. The Sunni major- means but more often by trade. Berbers in North
ity followed the Arabian pattern for choosing a Africa became at least nominally converted to
chief: the elders elected a caliph as a political Islam and, through their caravan trade across the
leader. The Shiites, reflecting ideas closer to Sahara, provided the means for Islams penetra-
those of divine kingship of the previous empires tion into black Africa. On the eastern side of the
of West Asia, believed leadership should pass to Muslim lands the Muslim Ghaznavids in the
the senior male of Muhammads family, called an Afghan mountains conquered northwestern India.
imam. He was not only to be a political leader From 1041 to 1405, the Turkic Seljuqs and
like the Sunni caliph, but also a religious leader Mongols invaded the Islamic lands from Central
as a vehicle of divine guidance. Asia. The CRUSADES also took place during this
505
Islam, Muslim
period. Though they have poisoned Muslim atti- Third, the obstacles are political: since Islam
tudes ever since, they were initially a response to applies to every area of life including the politi-
the Byzantine emperors request for help against cal, non-Muslims are normally considered sec-
the expansion of the Seljuk Turks into Western ond-class citizens whereas Muslims are a major-
Anatolia as the Kipchak Turks in the Ukraine had ity. Despite the ancient churches in many Muslim
cut off Christian Russia from them. lands, Muslims commonly associate Christianity
The Islamic empires continued to expand and with the West.
consolidate between 1405 and 1683. The Ot- Fourth, the frequent association of Christianity
tomans captured Constantinople and ended the with the West has often raised cultural barriers:
Byzantine Empire but were not able to capture Western forms of worship and church structure
Vienna in 1683. Islam continued to follow the have been utilized without the realization that al-
trade routes into Sub-Saharan Africa, especially most all Muslim forms of worship have been
through traders who were also teachers. adopted or adapted from Jews and Christians. Fi-
In the subsequent centuries there has been nally, the barriers are historical: much of the con-
Muslim activism and revival and great biologi- tact between Muslims and Christians militarily,
cal growth. The major expansion into new areas politically, and religiously has been hostile.
has been in Africa and the West. In Africa, Islam J. DUDLEY WOODBERRY
and Christianity continue to grow rapidly south-
ward by conversion growth at the expense of SEE ALSO Black Muslims AND Islamic New Reli-
A FRICAN T RADITIONAL R ELIGIONS . Islam has be- gious Movements.
come a significant presence in Europe and Bibliography. K. Cragg, The Call of the Minaret;
North America through immigration. In the K. Cragg and M. Speight, Islam from Within: Anthology
African American community in the United of a Religion; B. D. Kateregga and D. Shenk, Islam and
States where it has grownsometimes in mod- Christianity: A Muslim and a Christian in Dialogue; I. M.
ified formit has provided a vehicle of ethnic Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies; B. Musk, The
Unseen Face of Islam: Sharing the Gospel with Ordinary
pride and social betterment.
Muslims; A. Shimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam;
Contemporary Muslim mission has been or- I. I. van der Werff, Christian Mission to Muslims: The
ganized both to win converts and to counteract Record (Anglican and Reformed Approaches in India and
Christian missionary efforts. The conferees at the the Near East 18001938); J. O. Voll, Islam: Continuity
Muslim World League Conference in Mecca in and Change in the Modern World; R. V. Weekes, Muslim
1974 called for the government takeover of mis- Peoples: A World Ethnographic Survey; J. D. Woodberry,
sion hospitals, schools, and orphanages, the ban- ed., Muslims and Christians on the Emmaus Road.
ning of Christian literature in Muslim countries,
and cutting off financial support from countries Islamic New Religious Movements. New Reli-
allowing missionaries to Muslims. On the other gious Movements (NERMs) is not an Islamic
hand, Muslim missionaries are being trained at term, but like other clearly defined religious tra-
centers like al-Azhar in Cairo. Saudi Arabias ditions, Islam has experienced frequent move-
King Fahd bin Abdul Aziz Koran Printing Com- ments of renewal and innovation. These move-
plex is printing millions of Qurans in various lan- ments generally push some principal tenet or
guages for free distribution. The Organization of doctrine of Islam to the outer edges of acceptable
the Islamic Conference has expended billions for interpretation. They most often center on a key
Islamic institutions around the world. Other or- figure who claims to have received or embodied
ganizations like the Islamic Society of North new religious insight. Sufi (mystical) Orders have
America include among their goals and those of occasionally moved in this direction. Shiite
their member organizations propagating the Islam, with an inherently strong emphasis on the
faith by various means. special spiritual state and insight of the Imams,
Christian Missions. Muslims have been the is particularly productive soil for the growth of
most resistant faith community to Christian Islamic NERMs. Islamic NERMs often develop
evangelism for a number of reasons (see also out of attempts to synthesize orthodox Islam
MUSLIM MISSION WORK). Aside from the spiritual with indigenous ethnic, cultural, and folk reli-
obstacles, the hindrances are first, sociological: gious values and practices.
group solidarity leads to family and community Often such movements develop so distinctly
ostracism and persecution of the convert. The that they abandon their Islamic identity com-
Law of Apostasy can lead to death. pletely. The Druzes, a closed community of some
Second, they are theological: since Islam is the six hundred thousand persons living in Israel,
only world religion to rise after Christianity, Mus- Lebanon, and Syria, began as a twelfth-century
lims believe that all that is of value in Christian- Islamic NERM within the Fatimid Ismaili sect of
ity is already in Islam, and they commonly hold Cairo. Druze beliefs are characteristically gnos-
that the Bible has been corrupted. (The Quran is tic. With the claim of divinity for the founder, its
understood to deny the Trinity and Christs incar- own line of prophets, and distinct sacred litera-
nation, sonship, and crucifixion.) ture, the Druzes stand well outside the broad Is-
506
Israel
lamic tent. More recently, a mid-nineteenth- Isle of Man (United Kingdom Dependent Area)
century reform movement of Shiite Islam in Iran (Est. 2000 pop. 79,000; 588 sq. km. [227 sq. mi.]).
developed into the modern BAHAI faith. The sect Located in the Irish Sea between Great Britain
claimed special spiritual status for the founder, and Ireland, the inhabitants rely on offshore
Baha Ullah, and quickly left behind all tradi- banking, manufacturing, and tourism for their
tional Islamic religious identity. livelihood. The population was Christianized be-
Two of the more significant contemporary fore A.D. 600, probably by missionaries from
movements that maintain an Islamic self-identity Iona. During the English Reformation, most of
are the Ahmadiyyah and The Lost Found Nation the Christian community (almost 99% of the
of Islam (Black Muslims). The Ahmadiyyah was population in 1980) came under the Anglican
founded by Mirza Ahmad in late-nineteenth- Church. The second largest Protestant group are
century India in response to the political, eco- the Methodists, who trace their origin to visits by
nomic, and religious imperialism of the Christian JOHN WESLEY in the late eighteenth century.
West. Mizra Ahmad developed his own distinct A. SCOTT MOREAU
doctrines of Jesus, claimed that contemporary
Christianity was the apocalyptic Antichrist, and
Israel (Est. 2000 pop.: 6,062,000; 21,056 sq. km.
finally claimed that he was the Mahdi and the
[8,130 sq. mi.]). When the church begins to think
Second Coming of Jesus. The Ahmadiyyah
adopted aggressive missionary techniques and theologically and missiologically about herself,
are stridently anti-Christian. There are approxi- her origin, nature, vocation, and relationship to
mately 500,000 Ahmadis worldwide, with the the world around her, then it is inevitable that
greatest strength in Pakistan and West Africa. she think about Israel and the churchs relation-
They view themselves as the true Muslims, but ship to the Jewish people. The churchs search for
are regarded by the vast majority of Sunni Mus- self-identity cannot bypass an examination of Is-
lims as heterodox. raels identity, since their roots are intertwined.
Ahmadiyyah missionaries to American inner The church was not planted on earth in a vac-
cities in the 1920s and 1930s had some influence uumshe exists in a context. The first context is
in the emergence of a distinctly African American that of the loving purposes of God himself, since
Islamic NERM, the BLACK MUSLIMS. Elijah our life and mission flow from him. God began
Muhammad (Elijah Poole) began the movement his particular work of creating a people to be his
in Detroit sometime in the mid-1930s. The move- special servants not with John the Baptist, but
ment was primarily a black separatist one with with Abraham. Christians have interpreted this
many doctrines and practices that were not only relationship in different ways.
outside Islamic norms, but seem to have little The maximalist view, associated particularly
connection to Islam at all. Clergy were termed with Covenant theologies, speaks of the Old Tes-
ministers and houses of worship were called tament church just as confidently as it does of
temples rather than mosques. On the death of the New Testament church. There is no essential
Elijah Muhammad in 1975, his son assumed lead- difference between Israel and the church, and the
ership and gradually directed the Nation to aban- focus is on historical and theological continuity.
don most of its eccentric doctrines and adopt The radically minimalist view, associated with
more authentic Islam. Most African American the theology of Arius, denies that Israel has any-
Muslims moved in this direction and the move- thing to do with the church. The Christian
ment has continued to grow, now numbering over church has totally replaced Israel in the heart
one million. Louis Farrakhan led a smaller faction and plans of God.
that retained the name Nation of Islam and Along the continuum between these two ex-
many of its heterodox beliefs. This continuation tremes lie various other views. One of these
of the original movement is quite small, number- would affirm that Israel is indispensible for the
ing under fifty thousand. The Black Muslim church. If God had left the Hebrew slaves in
movement has had some success outside the Egypt, not only would there have been no Israel
United States, particularly in Trinidad. and Passover celebration, nor would there have
Islamic NERMs continue to arise, but due to the been any church and Easter. Our very vocabulary
intense social and religious pressure of Islamic so- is that of Israels relationship to God. Non-Jews
cieties and occasional political pressure from need to learn the meaning of terms like Messiah,
sympathetic governments, most either remain election, and covenant in their Israelite and Old
small and underground, move completely outside Testament context. The same is true of the im-
the Islamic context, or die out rather quickly. ages used of the church in the New Testament
JAMES D. CHANCELLOR (e.g., chosen race, holy nation, remnant), which
come from the context of Israel.
SEE ALSO New Religious Movements. Another view, in the various forms of DISPEN-
Bibliography. C. Glasse, ed., The Concise Encyclope- SATIONALISM, claims that the church only began
dia of Islam; Y. Y. Haddad, The Muslims of America. on the Day of Pentecost, although it was always
507
Israel
a part of Gods historical and missiological pur- finally allowed that attitude to degenerate even
pose, and that it will cease from its historical further into actual persecution of Jewish people.
function at the rapture. Before and after this pe- Neither Israel nor the church can claim to be
riod of history, Gods primary dealings were and identical with the kingdom of God, which is
will be with and through Israel. There are, in ef- greater than both, and Pauls metaphor of the
fect, two servant peoples of God in this view, both olive tree (Rom. 11:1624) shows that Christ is
serving within a covenant relationship with God. the all-important root of the life and destiny of
Ultimately, though, Israel will come to recognize both. The churchs relationship to Israel is sui
Jesus as her Messiah. generis, and both are irrevocably linked within
Contemporary Christian scholarship is faced the one missionary movement of God to the
with another version of this view which holds world. Christians cannot, therefore, relate to Jew-
that there are these two peoples of God, but that ish people in the same way that they do to any
there are two distinct convenants (see TWO- other people. The church has no vocation apart
COVENANT THEORY). According to this position, Is- from that of Israel and the New Testament has no
rael will never acknowledge Jesus as Messiah, identity apart from the Old Testament.
and rightly so, since her way with God is estab- Therefore, even in maintaining that the
lished independently of Jesus. This view, which is church is distinct from Israel, and that the
growing rapidly in certain church quarters, pre- church is the central agent in Gods mission to
sents a strong challenge to Christian missiology. the world today because of the centrality of
To return to what might be considered a con- Jesus in Gods purposes, it remains a major task
sensus about biblical teaching concerning Israel, of missiology to wrestle with the fact that the es-
the choice of Israel was to serve Gods purposes sential calling and nature of the church cannot
for all of his creation and to help bring about the contradict that of Israel.
redemption of creation. By definition this made WALTER RIGGANS
Israel a special people, being Gods representative Bibliography. R. R. De Ridder, Discipling the Na-
and messenger on earth, and her relationship tions; S. Motyer, Israel in the Plan of God: Light on
with God was paradigmatic for the offer of God Todays Debate; M. J. Pragai, Faith and Fulfilment: Chris-
to all nations. The church carries on this call as tians and the Return to the Promised Land; W. Riggans,
the assembly of people, Jewish and non-Jewish, Towards an Evangelical Doctrine of the Church: The
who have welcomed and committed themselves Church and Israel; D. W. Torrance, ed., The Witness of
to Jesus of Nazareth as Gods unique servantin- the Jews to God.
deed Gods own Son. Christian mission has been
founded on the conviction that Gods purposes al- Israels Role. Israel in the Old Testament refers
ways centered on the coming of the Son of God. to the patriarch Jacob (Gen. 32:28), to the nation
This is what lies behind Pauls anguish in Ro- God founded at the exodus from Egypt (Hos.
mans 911. The most natural person to be in 11:1; Amos 3:1), or to the northern kingdom that
the kingdom of God should be the Jewish person. split off from Judah after the death of Solomon
There is something especially tragic when the (1 Kings 12). Here the role of Israel will refer to
very people of God dont recognize Gods greatest how Gods call of the descendants of Jacob to be
gift and challenge to them to go on as the minis- a holy nation contributed to Gods plan for world
ters of Gods grace to the world. evangelization.
On the other hand, only Israel can, and does, The Old Testament teaches that God is the Lord
claim priority over the church in matters of bib- of all the earth, not of only one nation. He created
lical theology: Israel asserts that she knew God all things (Gen. 1; Isa. 40:28) and sustains his
first, that she produced and preserved the foun- world daily (Ps. 104:1030; cf. Heb. 1:3). As the
dational Scriptures of the church, that she owner of the earth, the Lord distributed it to all
learned and passed on the central perspectives the nations, but he set aside Israel as his own por-
and principles that emerge in the New Testa- tion (Deut. 32:89). This did not mean that Israel
ment, that she taught the world about the need was more worthy than any other nation; Gods
for the coming Messiah, and that, in short, she is sovereign choice of Israel was based on his prom-
the mother of Christianity. ise to Abraham and the patriarchs (Deut. 7:68).
What has happened historically is that in re- How does Gods choice of Israel relate to his
acting against this claim to priority by Israel, desire to bring salvation to the world (see Isa.
Christians by and large have forgotten that their 2:24; 19:1825; 25:68; 55:17)? When the Lord
proper root is nonetheless in Israel; they have established the covenant at Sinai, he selected Is-
been embarrassed at Israels refusal to acknowl- rael to be his treasured possession . . . a king-
edge that Jesus is her long-awaited Messiah; they dom of priests and a holy nation (Exod. 19:36).
have developed a theology that discards Israel The covenant with Moses linked with the ABRA-
from the plans of God; they have allowed that HAMIC COVENANT in that the Lord was ready to es-
theology to support a view that saw Gods own tablish a nation in the land he promised to Abra-
love for Israel replaced with contempt; they have ham (Gen. 15:1321). The Lord began his work
actively shared in that contempt; and they have of reconciling the nations by choosing one nation
508
Italy
who would be his people, and he would be their Italy (Est. 2000 pop.: 57,254,000; 301,268 sq. km.
God (Exod. 6:7). [116,320 sq. mi.]). The Italian Republic occupies
Many have debated whether Israels responsi- a long, mountainous peninsula in the Mediter-
bility to the nations was to be accomplished pas- ranean Sea, and also includes the islands of Sar-
sively by obedience to the terms of the covenant dinia and Sicily. Given its rich political, cultural,
or actively by spreading the truth of God through- and religious heritageexemplified not only in
out the world. The designation kingdom of the earlier Roman Empire but also in the influ-
priests might seem to imply a more active role, ence of Rome, Milan, and Florence in medieval
but even Israels priestly role may be viewed as and modern European historyItaly has been a
primarily her obedient service (Exod. 19:5) to the dominant force in shaping Western culture. Italy
Lord. The nations would see Gods acts of justice was united as a single state in 1870 and has been
and mercy in his people and recognize him as the a republican democracy since 1946. The moun-
Lord of all the earth (see Deut. 4:58; Ps. 98). The tainous terrain has helped preserve regional dif-
prophets stressed Israels failure to obey the Lord ferences within the peninsula, with the wealthier
and its consequences for his reputation among and more liberal segments of the population in
the nations. When the Lord drove Israel out of the the north and the poorer and more conservative
land, his holy name was profaned among the na- groups located in the south. Roughly 67% of Italy
tions where Israel had gone (Ezek. 36:22). His is urbanized, with Rome having a population of
name will be vindicated when he fulfills his prom- 3.5 million.
ise to gather all Israel back to the land and give When the apostle Paul arrived in Rome in A.D.
them a new heart (Ezek. 36:2232). 60 he found Christian believers already there
Israels role in Gods plan was not entirely pas- (Acts 28:1315). It is unclear who first brought
sive, however. First, resident aliens were granted the gospel to Rome. In the ensuing centuries,
the right to become a part of the covenant com- however, given its link to the apostle Peter, the
munity (Exod. 12:4849). Even those who did not church at Rome was to exert increasing influence
choose to identify with Israels religion were still upon the Christian movement. The bishop of
to be treated justly and fairly (Exod. 22:21). Ruth, Rome came to be recognized by the Western
despite her Moabite background (cf. Deut. 23:3), Church (which officially split with the Eastern
was incorporated into the people of God (Ruth Church in 1054) as having special authority, cul-
4:1112). minating in the papacy of the Roman Catholic
Second, individuals within the nation might Church.
find themselves in situations where, like the Is- Roman Catholicism has been closely identified
raelite slave of Naamans wife, they could direct with Italian history and culture. Although it is an
others to the source of salvation (2 Kings 5:14, autonomous state, the HOLY SEE, the headquar-
1519). Some, like the prophet Jonah, were even ters of worldwide Roman Catholicism, is located
called to deliver Gods message directly on for- in Rome. Roman Catholicism ceased to be the
eign soil (Jonah 1:12; cf. 1 Kings 17:824). state religion in 1984, but it remains enormously
Third, the prophet Isaiah pointed to the min- influential in Italy today. Ninety-nine percent of
istry of the Servant of the Lord or the Messiah, the population are baptized Roman Catholics
who would fulfill all that Israel failed to be and the cultural identification with Catholicism
(42:17; 49:19; 50:49; 52:1353:12). The Ser- remains strong. Yet there is growing ambivalence
vant was not only to bring Israel back to the Lord as well, as increasingly people dissociate them-
and atone for sin through his own death (Isa. selves from the established church (David Barrett
53:6); he was also to be a light to the nations, reports that only 6% of the population take com-
taking the salvation of the Lord to the ends of munion every Sunday, 50% of the children are
the earth (Isa. 49:6). given no catechetical instruction, and 30% of the
The Lord called Israel to be his holy people, people do not receive the sacrament of extreme
representing his name among all the nations of unction before death).
the earth. They failed in that role, but Gods plans The earliest Protestant presence in Italy was
were not thwarted. His written Word, the Scrip- the Waldensian church, inspired by Peter Waldo
tures, came to the world through Israel (see Rom. in the twelfth century. The Evangelical Walden-
3:12), and also the living Word of God, Jesus sian Church is the oldest Protestant denomina-
Christ, had his physical origins through that nation in Italy. Methodist missionaries to Italy ar-
tion (Matt. 1:117; Luke 3:2338). rived in 1859, with Baptists arriving in 1863 and
THOMAS J. FINLEY other groups following soon after. The Assem-
blies of God arrived in 1908 and experienced sig-
SEE ALSO Old Testament Theology of Mission. nificant growth. Today they constitute the largest
Bibliography. A. T. M. Cheung, JETS 29 (1986): Protestant church in Italy. Recent decades have
26575; A. R. Cole, Exodus: An Introduction and Com- seen many other missions organizations working
mentary; R. DeRidder, Discipling the Nations; D. Sher- in Italy. However, Protestant evangelicals today
iffs, Themelios 15 (1990): 4960. comprise only about 1% of the total population.
509
Italy
Although overt persecution of Protestants (once erant mission work because of limited personnel
not uncommon) is decreasing, the public percep- and resources.
tion of Protestant churches as sects or cults Since World War II, new pioneer situations have
remains strong. Evangelicals must contend not emerged that are based on political circumstances
only with the influence and prestige of the rather than geographical ones. Independent na-
Roman Catholic Church, but also with the in- tions born in the aftermath of the European colo-
creasing influences of SECULARIZATION and the nial era established laws regulating foreign na-
growing fascination of the occult. tionals in their countries. Often significantly sized
EDITORS population segments or people groups within
these countries were historically resistant to Chris-
Itinerant Mission. Itinerant mission work is tian influence, especially if it seemed to be con-
usually done for short periods and rapidly trolled by foreign agencies. These governments
changes its mode of operation. Because of vari- tended to repeal or restrict visas and residence
ous handicaps, an itinerant missionary likely has permits that had been issued to those suspected to
a short-term presence in the targeted context and be foreign Christian missionaries.
works until interrupted by government interven- Doing mission in these new types of frontier
tion or the realization of the missions objectives. territories requires utilization of short-term visa
The roving nature of the work mitigates against options or seeking long-term visas under the aus-
establishing institutions and requires focused pices of secular humanitarian, disaster relief, or
evangelistic and mission goals. international commercial enterprises (see CRE-
The apostle Paul engaged in itinerant mission ATIVE ACCESS COUNTRIES). TENTMAKING describes
work. He went to specific locations to accom- the way the apostle Paul supplemented his in-
plish the clear objectives of proclaiming the come while doing itinerant mission work (Acts
gospel and establishing new churches. He was 20:3334). Modern tentmakers employ their skills
usually on the move and his tasks required him and talents to achieve as permanent a status as
to appoint leaders and then set out for new terri- possible in politically restricted countries by
tories and regions beyond those where he had al- working for these secular enterprises. Often they
ready worked (Rom. 15:20; 2 Cor. 10:16). draw their livelihood from their secular work,
Historically, itinerant types of mission and though this is not inherent to the tentmaking
evangelism result from various sociopolitical re- concept. Because their visa status is still short-
strictions. As migrant Christians rove throughout term, the duration of the work is equally short.
the world and engage in witnessing, they perform Itinerant missionaries must achieve their evan-
unintentional itinerant mission work. Intentional gelistic, discipling, and church-planting objec-
itinerant mission efforts may result when people tives with optimum results in as expeditious a
migrate into new geographic areas. In the pio- manner as possible.
neer sections of the United States during the KEITH E. EITEL
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, circuit-
riding preachers did itinerant ministries to serv- SEE ALSO Nonresidential Missionary.
ice areas where there were not enough gospel la- Bibliography. R. Allen, Missionary Methods St.
borers for the rising population. At the same Pauls or Ours; D. Barrett and T. M. Johnston, Our
time, itinerant work was necessary for those Globe and How to Reach It; V. D. Garrison, The Non-
opening up frontier missions in the interior sec- residential Missionary.
tions of Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Pioneer-
ing situations normally require self-imposed itin- Ivory Coast. See CTE DIVOIRE.
510
Jackson, Sheldon (18341909). American pio-

neer missionary and mission organizer to the
American West and Alaska. Born to a newly con-
verted Presbyterian family, Jackson came to faith
early in life. Graduating from Princeton Semi-
nary, he was ordained in 1858. Rejected from for-
eign missions for medical reasons, he accepted a
home mission assignment at a Choctaw school in
Spencer, Oklahoma. After one year he accepted
an assignment as a church planter and organizer
Jj
in Minnesota, where he served, with the excep-
tion of a two-month stint among the Union forces Greek, he soon learned Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic,
in the Civil War, until 1869. His nine years in Hungarian, Bohemian, Polish, and Swedish. He
Minnesota included constant travel and organi- wrote his diary in seven languages.
zational work, a hallmark of his life and ministry. In 1856 Jaeschke traveled to India to work
Taking latitude with the nature of a new as- with Tibetan refugees. He translated most of the
signment which included much of the Rocky New Testament, several books, and tracts into Ti-
Mountain area, Jackson pioneered the work for betan. His German-Tibetan and English-Tibetan
the Presbyterian Church in Alaska, for which he dictionaries became standard works. The Tibetan
was called the Apostle of Alaska. Over the grammar in English he prepared was used by
course of his life he traveled well over one mil- numerous missionaries working among the Ti-
lion miles by foot, horse, stagecoach, and ship. betan people.
The same spirit that made him tireless in his Failing health brought Jaeschke back to Ger-
travels also led to a life of controversy. Serving in many in 1868. Much of his writing and transla-
dual capacity as a missionary and educational tion work was completed during his final years
representative of the U.S. government, Jackson in Herrnhut. His Heimgang (lit. Home going)
faced constant battles in both circles. He is re- occurred in 1883. Jaeschke epitomizes the Mora-
membered by early biographers for actions vian focus of missionary effort to downtrodden
which fended off the extinction of indigenous people. He stands as a brilliant linguist who did
peoples in Alaska through projects such as rein- not waste his talents but who used them for the
deer importation and planting churches and ed- glory of God.
ucational institutions which continue to this day. MICHAEL SPRADLIN
A. SCOTT MOREAU
Bibliography. J. T. Hamilton and K. G. Hamilton, A
Bibliography. R. L. Stewart, Sheldon Jackson; J. A. History of the Moravian Church; A. H. Frank, BDCM,
Lazell, Alaskan Apostle: The Life Story of Sheldon
pp. 32627.
Jackson.
Jaeschke, Heinrich Augustus (181783). Ger- Jaffray, Robert (18731945). Canadian mission-
man missionary linguist in India. Jaeschkes fore- ary to China and Indonesia. A missionary strate-
bears migrated from Moravia (the modern Czech gist and statesman, he used his fathers Canadian
Republic). In Herrnhut (lit. The Lords Watch) newspaper experience to develop mission sta-
they maintained their Moravian faith under the tions. Through his monthly Bible Messenger Jaf-
protection of Count ZINZENDORF. fray disseminated training materials for Can-
Jaeschke taught in the boys academy in Chris- tonese Christian workers and later produced
tiansfeld, Denmark, and was soon preaching in other colloquial-language versions. While super-
Danish. By 1842 he was teaching languages at the intending CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY ALLIANCE
pedagogium at Niesky, Germany (near modern work in the troubled Guangxi province in China,
Poland). Besides fluency in German, Danish, and Jaffray also established new mission work in
511
Jaffray, Robert
French Indo-China and later in the Dutch East created and eternal, made up of eternal souls
Indies. (jivas) and eternal elements (ajivas).
Arriving in Guangxi in 1897 Jaffray was soon Jainism shares with Hinduism belief in karma
appointed to Wuzhou city, his missionary base (moral retribution) and samsara (transmigration
for over thirty years. Convinced that the power of of the soul), although these concepts are inter-
the gospel had no cultural limits, Jaffray sent preted in highly fatalistic terms within the theo-
Christian messengers among primitive tribes as retical pessimism integral to the Jaina system. It
well as civilized peoples. Workers stayed in an thus posits a very negative view of life in which
area until a church was functioning, and then set humanity is trapped within an essentially painful
up local Bible schools and presses so that Chris- and evil cycle of human existence. Moksha (liber-
tian life could expand in that cultural setting. By ation) from bondage to this cycle of birth and
this means an indigenized and independent death is through a process of fourteen stages of
church quickly developed. This strategy pro- spiritual evolution, involving rigid, self-denying
duced startling results in evangelism throughout ascetic practices. The five great vratas (vows) pre-
Guangxi and Indo-China. scribing these ascetic practices are: not to kill, not
In 1931 Jaffray moved to Makassar in the to lie, not to steal, to abstain from sexual inter-
Celebes to open new fields in the East Indies. course, and to renounce all worldly attachments.
Here for the first time he employed Chinese work- Ahimsa (nonviolence) is one of the central be-
ers as foreign missionaries. As in the case of Indo- liefs and practices of Jainism. This cardinal prin-
China, encounters with many peoples including ciple of Jainism received worldwide attention as
the Dyaak headhunters were accompanied by un- the essential ethical basis of the Indian move-
usual events of apostolic character. This ministry ment for national independence as articulated
also grew until the Japanese invasion in 1942, and practiced by its chief architect, Mahatma
when many missionaries were imprisoned, and Gandhi, who was himself deeply influenced by
Jaffray himself died as a war prisoner in 1945. Jain thought and values. The deep reverence for
LAUREN PFISTER life among the Jain community is reflected in a
lifestyle which includes strict vegetarianism and
Bibliography. A. W. Tozer, Let My People Go!The noninvolvement in vocations such as farming,
Life of Robert A. Jaffray. cattle breeding, and the armed forces. Large
numbers of them have thus turned to careers in
Jain, Jainism. Jainism is the religion of the Jain finance, commerce, and banking, making them
community and describes the way of life of those one of the wealthiest and most influential com-
who follow the Jina (spiritual victors), human munities in India.
teachers who have attained infinite knowledge Although Jainism has a very limited following
and preach the doctrine of moksha (liberation), of about 4.5 million adherents and the vast ma-
also called tirthankaras (builders of the bridge jority of them live in India, its influence has been
across the road of suffering). One of Indias most powerful and far-reaching. The latter half of the
ancient non-Vedic traditions, widely regarded as twentieth century witnessed the emergence of an
the earliest heterodox offspring of HINDUISM, enterprising and influential Jain diaspora in
Jainism is often confused with BUDDHISM with North America, Britain, Africa, and the Far East.
which it bears some superficial similarities. The Jain concern for peace, vegetarianism, and
Down through the centuries the Jains, however, the environment contributes to the movements
have succeeded in maintaining their distinctive universal appeal. The opportunity that Jainism
identity and the integrity of their belief system presents for Christian missions is highlighted by
and way of life within the highly accommodative the fact that there appears to be no specific
climate of Hinduism. Christian ministry directed toward the Jain com-
Although the beginnings of Jainism are community to date.
monly associated with Vardhamana Mahavira, IVAN SATYAVRATA
who lived in the sixth century B.C., the Jain liter- Bibliography. C. Caillat, ER, VII:50714; P. S. Jaini,
ature does not recognize him as founder or The Jaina Path of Purification; S. Stevenson, Heart of
prophet, but as the twenty-fourth tirthankara. Jainism; M. Tobias, Life Force: The World of Jainism.
Jains today have deified him as the last and
greatest savior with ideas of sinlessness and om- Jamaica (Est. 2000 pop.: 2,543,000; 10,990 sw.
niscience attributed to him. As a religious move- km. [4,243 sq. mi.]) While a reported 70 percent
ment, Jainism seems to have arisen as a reaction of Jamaicans are at least nominally Protestant,
to Brahminical Hinduism, and due to its rejec- the islands rich cultural texture is reflected in its
tion of the authority of the Vedas, is often per- religious heterogeneity. A largely (93%) Afro-
ceived as a heresy of Hinduism. The Jaina system Caribbean society, in David Martins opinion,
is opposed to the idea of God as a supreme per- found expression for its inherent diversity in a
sonal being. The universe itself is regarded as un- variety of religious movements. These reflect sig-
512
Japan
nificant social class differences between the tra- new faith, but they soon began to fear it as a for-
ditional Anglican, Methodist, and Moravian eign ideology and a disruptive order of organized
churches and more popular Baptist, Holiness, religion. In 1587 Hideyoshi abruptly issued a de-
and Pentecostal groups. Included also are Sev- cree to expel all missionaries from Japan and fi-
enth-Day Adventists, the largest Protestant com- nally in 1614, the Tokugawa government pro-
munity, a large Roman Catholic minority (10%), scribed Christianity altogether. Suppression,
and powerful spiritist movements. The largest of persecution, and martyrdoms followed. The
these, the Rastafarians, has a larger following Twenty-six Martyrs of 1597 and the Great Mar-
(80,000 adherents)and a larger political role tyrdom of 51 Christians in 1622, both in Na-
than all but the largest Christian denominations. gasaki, were but a few examples. The Shimabara
EVERETT A. WILSON Uprising of 163738, when about 40,000 were
massacred, marked the end of the Christian
SEE ALSO Caribbean. Century.
Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin America, The Modern Imperial State (18681945). The
14921992; D. Martin, Tongues of Fire: The Explosion of reintroduction of Christianity occurred at the end
Protestantism in Latin America; J. Rogozinski, A Brief of the Tokugawa regime when Western powers
History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib broke Japans seclusion policy and won commer-
to the Present; W. Wedenoja, Perspectives on Pentecostal- cial treaties. One outcome was the presence of
ism: Case Studies from the Caribbean and Latin America. foreign residents in Japanese ports, among them
pastors and chaplains to serve the religious needs
Japan (Est. 2000 pop.: 126,472,000; 377,801 sq. of the expatriates. Notable figures were such mis-
km. [145, 869 sq. mi.]). Christian mission, which sionaries as J. C. HEPBURN (Presbyterian), G. H. F.
has made a substantial impact upon Japan, VERBECK (Dutch Reformed), B. T. Petitjean
began in 1549 when Jesuit missionary FRANCIS (Catholic), and Nicolai (Russian Orthodox). Hep-
XAVIER landed in Kagoshima. In the 450 years burn, serving as medical doctor, distinguished
since then, generally speaking, Christianity in himself in the Japanese language and Bible trans-
Japan saw marked growth during transitional pe- lation and later founded a Christian school. Pe-
riods and exerted considerable influence upon titjean of the Paris Foreign Missionary Society
the formation of society. Subsequently, its growth met a group of the self-proclaimed Christians in
was curtailed when the society gained stability 1865 and this incident led to the so-called redis-
and traditional culture and religious powers covery of about 60,000 Hidden Christians
began to counter the Christian influence. Fur- (Kakurekirishitan). They had long survived the
thermore, it has remained a minority religion of government sanction and kept the faith of their
foreign origin. seventeenth-century forefathers.
Roman Catholic Mission (15491639). Histo- The Meiji Restoration of 1868, which restored
rians often call the 15491639 period the Chris- the political power of the emperor and lifted offi-
tian Century of Japan. This period between cial sanctions against Christianity in 1873, opened
Xaviers arrival and the beginning of the National a new era for Christian mission. Both Roman
Seclusion (16391854) was turbulent, yet it wit- Catholic and Russian Orthodox missions were
nessed the emergence of new national expecta- well organized and successful. In 1912 there were
tions for a unified state, accumulation of capital, about 66,000 Catholic and 32,000 Orthodox Chris-
rational and scientific thinking, the importance tians in Japan. On the other hand, Protestant
of the individual, and a worldwide vision beyond Christianity marked dynamic inroads into Japan
the national boundary. Christianity satisfied and counted nearly 90,000 members in 1913. In its
some of these expectations and recorded a re- formative stage, many of its Japanese leaders,
markable expansion. The number of Kirishitan such as Uemura Masahisa, Uchimura Kanz, and
(Christians) was estimated at about 300,000 by Nitobe Inaz coming from the former warrior
the end of the sixteenth century. class, were characterized as intellectual, inde-
Xaviers initial ministry, which resulted in pendent, non-denominational, and Bible-oriented.
2,000 Christians, was followed by other Jesuit Indeed, the first Protestant church, formed in 1872
missionaries, and many Christian communities by the early converts, was named the Church of
sprang up in Kyushu and Chugoku, as well as in Christ in Japan, thus avoiding any denomina-
the capital, Kyoto. In 1563 the first Christian tional character of the Western missionaries.
baron, Omura Sumitada, received baptism and Uchimuras NON-CHURCH MOVEMENT (Mukyokai)
was followed by half a dozen more barons and idea was another unique but extreme example.
many of their subjects, thus adding considerable While a Christian influence was widely felt
impetus to the Christian cause. As Christianity upon the society, by far the most noticeable area
became a significant movement, the successive was that of education. Missionaries and national
line of leaders aspiring to unite the country, like leaders considered education an effective means
Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Toku- of evangelism and schools known as Mission
gawa Ieyasu, initially showed great interest in the Schools flourished. But the rise of nationalism
513
Japan
and the religious revival of Confucianism and hart, A Century of Protestant Christianity in Japan;
Shintoism turned the tide. The promulgation of J. Phillips, From the Rising of the Sun: Christians and
the Constitution (1889) which made Shinto the Society in Contemporary Japan.
state religion and the Imperial Rescript of Edu-
cation (1890) forced Christian schools to reorient Japanese Mission Boards and Societies. Japans
their education. A more decisive blow to them Christian missionary outreachsurprisingly sub-
was Directive No. 12 of the Education Ministry stantial for a country whose Christian population
(1899) which prohibited religious education and remains at about 1 percent of the totalcan be
worship even as extracurricular activities in connected to its historical position in relation to
schools under government accreditation. other countries. In the preWorld War II period
Nationalism also challenged Christianity on the Japanese Christian missionaries went out to vari-
issue of the imperial cult of Shintoism as a test of ous colonies within the expanding Japanese Em-
loyalty to the State. Since 1890 the Catholic pire (e.g., Taiwan) after its 189495 victorious war
Church had permitted Christians to participate in with China, to Korea after its annexation in 1910,
patriotic rites at the Shinto shrines and the Protes- then to protectorates granted by the League of Na-
tant churches followed. In 1941 some 30 Protes- tions after World War I (e.g., parts of Micronesia).
tant churches were forced by the government to In other words, Japanese churches sent mission-
form the United Church of Christ in Japan. aries to work within Japanese-controlled domains.
After World War II (1945 ). The crushing de- The current period of missionary outreach is
feat of Japan brought a drastic change in the reli- very much associated with Japans postwar eco-
gious scene, and Christianity experienced a period nomic growth, beginning in the 1960s. The
of resurgence. Shinto ceased to be the state reli- United Church, Overseas Medical Co-operative
gion, and the new Constitution (1946) guaranteed Service, Holiness Church, and Evangelical Mis-
freedom of religion to all. As General MacArthur sionary Society spearheaded the earlier postwar
of the Occupation authorities called for 1,000 efforts. Much of this outreach was to Japanese
missionaries U.S. foreign missions of various people living abroad. Currently there is more of
church backgrounds poured their missionaries an international quality to the missions move-
into Japan. Consequently more than 200 Protes- ment, in terms both of the sending-equipping
tant denominations were established. agencies in Japan and of the places in which the
Two distinctive features characterized post 269 (1993) missionaries from Japan are working.
World War II Christianity in Japan, namely ecu- Various international mission boards and soci-
menism and internationalism. The formation of eties have offices in Japan (e.g., Wycliffe) for rais-
the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES in the AMSTER- ing up personnel, finances, and prayer support.
DAM ASSEMBLY (1948) incited many ecumenical There are organizations for coordinating commu-
concerns and movements in the mainline Protes- nication between mission agencies and through-
tant Churches under the National Council of out the Christian community in Japan. There are
Churches. On the conservative side of Protes- interdenominational missionary training centers
tantism, evangelical churches in Japan took an (e.g., Immanuel Bible Training College in Yoko-
active part in the LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD hama), at least one of which is associated with an
EVANGELIZATION (1974) and have since followed accredited university (Tokyo Christian University
its ecumenical guidelines. Roman Catholicisms in Chiba). Some boards and societies partner with
SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL (196265), which faced churches in specific areas (e.g., Africa, the Philip-
the challenging issues of the modern world, has pines, Australia). Some focus on ecumenical part-
influenced the Catholic Church in Japan in such nership, while others emphasize social issues
areas as interreligious DIALOGUE and fellowship such as peace and hunger.
with Asian churches. J. NELSON JENNINGS
To all appearances, the dawn of the twenty-first
Bibliography. L. M. Douglas, ed., World Christianity:
century still finds Christianity in Japan in disper- Oceania; OW; J. H. Kane, A Global View of Christian
sion and on the periphery of Japanese society. Ac- Missions: From Pentecost to the Present; R. V. J. Wind-
cording to the 1997 Japan Christian Yearbook, the sor, ed., World Dictionary of Missionary Training Pro-
number of Christians was 1,084,737, only 0.862% grams, 2d ed.
of the total population. Although Christian influ-
ence in Japan goes far beyond the boundaries of Japanese New Religious Movements. The mod-
the church, the reality surrounding Christianity in ern era has seen the emergence of a large number
Japan is not bright, yet its challenging, as well as of NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS in Japan which, al-
promising, future may life ahead. though heavily influenced by the traditional
TADATAKA MARUYAMA Japanese religions, are manifestly different from
Bibliography. O. Cary, A History of Christianity in SHINTO, BUDDHISM, and CONFUCIANISM. Develop-
Japan; N. S. Fujita, Japans Encounter with Christianity: ment of these new movements falls into three dis-
The Catholic Mission in Pre-Modern Japan; C. W. Igle- tinct stages: the period of social upheaval during
514
Javouhey, Anne-Mary
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries families and their own health. These conditions
following modernization and the Meiji Restora- produced deep frustrations for everyonefor the
tion of 1868; the immediate aftermath of World men who become known as workaholic, their
War II; and the period beginning in the 1970s and wives who were often left alone to raise the fam-
continuing to the present. ily, and the children who tried to cope with new
During the first period new religious move- family structures as well as school pressures.
ments such as Tenrikyo, Kurozumikyo, and Omo- Across the social spectrum, then, there was a
tokyo appeared, whose founders tended to be widespread search for meaning and fulfillment.
shamanistic figures drawing heavily on the Shinto The religious movements of this third stage,
tradition. Prior to World War II, however, their ac- such as Agonshu, AUM Shinrikyo, and Shuukyo
tivities were severely restricted by the Japanese Mahikari Kyodan, tried to fill this spiritual void.
government, which had established Shinto as the Many of these groups combine mystical experi-
state religion with the emperor as the supreme ence, occult practice, and a pseudoscientific per-
figure. Omotokyo, for example, was heavily perspective. The most famous movement, AUM
secuted because of its claims that its shamanistic Shinrikyo, was founded in 1984 by Shoko Asa-
leader, Degushi Onisaburo, was a living god
hara, who imitated the style of a Tibetan guru and
whose authority outranked even the emperors.
attracted many young people with his unique
The founders of the new religions that came
mixture of meditation, mystical experience, and
into prominence after World War II were mostly
Buddhist laymen and laywomen who advanced utopian eschatology. In accordance with this un-
their own novel interpretations of Buddhist usual eschatology, in March 1995 cult members
teachings. The postwar Japanese Constitution diffused highly toxic sarin gas into the subways
guaranteed complete freedom of religion, provid- of Tokyo, killing twelve people and injuring six
ing these Buddhistic offshoots the social space in thousand.
which to grow. These groups emphasized earthly Unfortunately the Christian church in Japan
prosperity based on the ritual of ancestor wor- has not been particularly effective either in re-
ship (see ANCESTRAL PRACTICES). Soka Gakkai, one sponding to the widespread frustration and sense
of the most successful of these movements, of spiritual emptiness in contemporary Japanese
claims over ten million adherents and exerts con- society or in reaching those involved in new reli-
siderable political influence. gious movements. Japanese Christians must de-
Japan was undergoing rapid modernization velop a deeper understanding of Japans particu-
during the first two stages. Japanese society lar social context and its own religious traditions,
faced significant changes in social values and which are quite different from those of the West.
mors. The new religions addressed the very real HISAKAZU INAGAKI
concerns of poverty, disease, and social unrest
Bibliography. H. Hardacre, Kurozumikyo and the
with practical and tangible answers. In the third
New Religions of Japan; H. MacFarland, The Rush Hour
stage, beginning about 1970, Japanese culture ex- of the Gods; S. Murakami, Japanese Religion in the Mod-
pressed a new fascination with mystical and oc- ern Century; C. Offner and H. Van Straelen, Modern
cult phenomena. Some profound transforma- Japanese Religions: With Special Emphasis upon Their
tions in Japanese society led to these new Doctrines of Healing.
religious quests.
By 1980 Japan had emerged as a postindustrial Javouhey, Anne Marie (17791851). French mis-
society characterized by the revolution in infor-
sionary to Africa and Latin America. Born in Jal-
mation technology. As the rapid economic
langes, France, she was a devout Catholic and
growth of the postwar era began to slow down
made it her life mission to care for the poor and
people began to discover that simple acquisition
of material goods did not satisfy. Their country to educate children. That ambition moved her
having achieved the goal of becoming an eco- beyond church walls into the mission field.
nomic superpower, the Japanese people found Her journey took her to several religious com-
they had no clear purpose in life. In an effort to munities, but she found their way of life incom-
fill the spiritual vacuum many people began to patible. Finally, Augustine Lestrange, a Cister-
experiment with YOGA, mystical meditation, and cian, urged her to found her own congregation.
the OCCULT. Furthermore, the intense pressures On that advice, in 1812 Javouhey bought a for-
faced by young people as well as adults fostered mer Franciscan friary at Cluny and the Congre-
widespread disillusionment with life. A rigorous gation of St. Joseph of Cluny was born. She
and highly competitive educational system, with quickly opened a school in Paris. In 1817 she
little sympathy for those less gifted, often left stu- founded a missionary school for native children
dents emotionally spent and empty. Japans eco- on the island of Reunion.
nomic miracle had been achieved at tremendous In 1828 the French government asked Javouhey
cost, as company employees had to spend long to oversee the colonization of Mana in Guyana; in
hours on the job, usually at the expense of their 1834 she was again asked by the French govern-
515
Javouhey, Anne-Mary
ment to educate six hundred Negro slaves about SEE ALSO Cults, Cultism.
to be freed.
Bibliography. R. M. Bowman, Jr., Jehovahs Wit-
Her dedicated and innovative work in Guyana nesses, Jesus Christ, and the Gospel of John; R. Franz,
sparked international interest. In 1843 she left Crisis of Conscience; D. A. Reed, How to Rescue Your
Guyana to further the work of her congregation Loved Ones from the Watch Tower.
in other parts of the world. By the time of her
death, she had at least nine hundred blue-robed Jerusalem Conference (1928). The 1928
Sisters of St. Joseph all over the globe. Jerusalem Conference of the INTERNATIONAL MIS-
Anne Marie Javouheys life mission was to min-
SIONARY COUNCIL, the first major meeting of the
ister to the poor and needy. Through that ambi-
IMC after its foundation at Lake Mohonk seven
tion, the world became her mission field.
years earlier, marked a considerable widening of
KATHY MCREYNOLDS
the missionary agenda. Here missionary agencies
Bibliography. M. Mott, BDCM, p. 330. sought to respond to the challenges of an increas-
ingly secular and pluralist world, albeit from a
Jehovahs Witnesses. The Watch Tower Bible thoroughly christological perspective. This is
and Tract Society (WTBTS), more commonly clearly demonstrated by the concerns of the seven
known as Jehovahs Witnesses (JWs), was sections of the conference: (1) the Christian mes-
founded by Charles Taze Russell in 1884. Head- sage in relation to non-Christian systems of
quartered in New York City, it has grown to over thought and life; (2) the relationship between
13 million adherents in 232 countries. In 1995 younger and older churches (for the younger
over 5 million active publishers (proselytizers) churches were swiftly emerging with competent
invested 1.15 billion hours witnessing. Growth leadership anxious to press their own points of
fluctuates between 5 percent and 7 percent an- view); (3) religious education; (4) Christian mis-
nually, with the greatest gains in predominately sion in relationship to racial conflict (on which
Roman Catholic countries and the former Soviet J. H. OLDHAM, one of the IMC secretaries, had
Union. The key to WTBTS growth is the constant written four years earlier in Christianity and the
emphasis on the imminence of the worlds end. Race Problem); (5) Christian mission and indus-
Based on the presupposition that God has al- trial difficulties; (6) Christian mission and rural
ways worked through an organization and that problems; and (7) international missionary coop-
WTBTS has been chosen for this age, all other eration. Through these sections the conference
faiths are deemed false religions, soon to be de- emphasized a strong call to Christian service.
stroyed. The organization, designated mother, Several new organizations emerged out of the
is as essential to spiritual life as God the Father. Jerusalem Conference. The Department of Social
Although JWs profess to hold to scriptural in- and Economic Research and Counsel sought to
errancy, much of the New Testament is applied follow up on issues interfacing Christian mission
solely to the anointed class (the 144,000 [Rev. and industry. The International Committee on
7:4] who will spend eternity in heaven). The or- the Christian Approach to the Jews, a first initia-
ganization alone has authority to interpret Scrip- tive in DIALOGUE, was founded in 1930; while an
ture, assigning itself the central role in prophecy. American expert on rural problems, K. L. Butter-
Primary teachings of WTBTS include an ag- field, sought by his travels to follow up on issues
gressively anti-trinitarian stance, annihilationist of rural mission, realizing that the overwhelming
position on hell, rejection of all national or reli- majority of humanity lived in rural communities.
gious celebrations, extreme pacifism, refusal of Farther afield, the Jerusalem Conference helped
blood transfusions, and the kingdom of God as a stimulate evangelistic endeavors such as the
divinely instituted government headed by Christ Kingdom of God Movement in Japan, and the
and the organization. Their Christology begins Five Year Forward Movement in China.
with the creation of Michael the Archangel who JOHN A. Y. BRIGGS
incarnated as Jesus of Nazareth, died on a tor-
ture stake, rose spiritually, returned to heaven as SEE ALSO World Council of Churches Confer-
Michael, and mediates only for the 144,000. ences.
The WTBTS continues to evolve doctrinally in Bibliography. Conference Papers: Report of the
order to avoid problems related to false prophe- Jerusalem Meeting of the IMC; B. Mathews, Roads to the
cies and to expedite the transition of leadership City of God: A World Outlook from Jerusalem, 1928;
from the elderly anointed class to those who will K. S. Latourette, HEM, I:36669; P. A. Potter, DEM, pp.
reside on earth forever, the great crowd. 69093; T. Stransky, DEM, pp. 52629; A. J. van Der
JWs constantly challenge the church to more Bent, DEM, pp. 32536.
effectively teach church history and theology,
thereby equipping Christians to respond to those Jessup, Henry Harris (18321910). American
who come bearing a different gospel. missionary to Lebanon. Born in Montrose, Penn-
WENDY PETERSON sylvania, he was educated at Yale College and
516
Jesus and Mission
Union Theological Seminary. He was ordained in Gods will was ratified by the voice from on High,
the Presbyterian Church in 1855. While at Yale This is my Son whom I love; with him I am well
he became interested in missions, and traveled to pleased, accompanied by the descent of the
Beirut in 1856 to begin service with the AMERICAN Spirit of God (Matt. 3:1317). After calling four
BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS. In 1857 he married fishermen to ministry, he began his next day in a
Caroline Bush, who died in 1864, leaving three solitary place, while it was still dark, in prayer.
children. His second wife, Harriet Dodge, passed His disciples wondered why he was there and
away in 1882, leaving five children. He then mar- said everyone was looking for him. His reply was,
ried Theodosia Lockwood. Let us go somewhere elseto the nearby vil-
Jessups writings reveal that at a time when lagesso I can preach there also. That is why I
most missionaries to the Middle East were ignor- have come (Mark 1:3539). Later he would say,
ing Muslims and evangelizing non-Protestant the Son of Man did not come to be served, but
Christians, he and his colleagues accepted the to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for
more difficult challenge of bringing the gospel to many (Mark 10:45) and the Son of Man came
the followers of Muhammad. For thirty years he to seek and to save what was lost (Luke 19:10).
was the pastor of the Syrian Church of Beirut and This sense of calling finds expression in the
superintendent of its school. He served as the sec- graphic words of Luke, as the time approached
retary for the Asfuriyeh Hospital for the Insane, for him to be taken up to heaven, Jesus resolutely
and was editor of the Arabic journal Al-Nashrah. set out [literally, set his face] for Jerusalem
He was one of the founders of the Syrian Protes- (Luke 9:51). And what sustained Jesus in those
tant College, which eventually became the Ameri- last terrible hours on earth was his determination
can University of Beirut. Perhaps his most no- that the will of God be done (Matt. 26:3944).
table achievement was the founding of the Beirut Jesus realization that he was to be the Savior of
Female Seminary, the first of its kind and a true the world and his sense of calling to that task as
venture of faith, since no one on either side of the the will of God for him is what gave shape to his
Atlantic would support female education. He died life and ministry up to the very end.
April 28, 1910, and was buried in Beirut. Elements Shaping Jesus Concept of Mission.
LARRY POSTON
There is no reasonable way that we can probe the
Bibliography. H. H. Jessup, Fifty-Three Years in Syria. mind of Jesus to determine exactly how this real-
ization took precise shape, but we can look at
Jesuit Orders. See ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS. three elements that went into the idea itself. The
first of these is Jesus understanding of the nature
Jesus and Mission. The concept of mission is of God. For Jesus, God is compassionate, merci-
central to an understanding of Jesus because ful, and loving. God is repeatedly called Heav-
Jesus and his mission are virtually synonymous. enly Father and all that is best in fatherhood is
So identified was Jesus with his mission that it to be found in God. Our Heavenly Father knows
became his very life. My food, said Jesus, is to our deepest needs and is seeking to meet them
do the will of him who sent me and to finish his (Matt. 6:2532). And if human fathers, evil as
work (John 4:24). they are, know how to give good gifts to their
Jesus Sense of Calling to Mission. Any dis- children, how much more will your Father in
cussion of Jesus understanding of mission must heaven give good gifts to those who ask him!
begin with Jesus own profound sense of calling. (Matt. 7:11). The parable of the prodigal son, in
There is no indication in Scripture that Jesus which the father is really the key figure, pictures
ever struggled with what he should do with his him as never giving up on the lost son and seeing
life or that he tried various options before settling him while still far off and lovingly welcoming
on his chosen path. From the very beginning, he him home. This love of God prompted him to
was committed to the will of God as revealed di- send his own Son into the world so that the
rectly to him and mediated through his reading world might be saved (John 3:16, 17). The theme
of the Old Testament. Matthew sees this as oper- that God sent the Son is repeatedly emphasized
ative even before Jesus birth in the words of the by Jesus in the Gospel of John (5:36; 6:57; 7:29;
angel to Joseph, You are to give him the name 8:42; 11:42; 17:3, 8, 21, 23). The very essence of
Jesus, because he will save his people from their love is to give. God, as love, sent his Son as a gift
sins (Matt. 1:21). The only episode recorded in to the world to provide the gift of salvation to
our Gospels from Jesus first thirty years shows those who would believe. Because Jesus under-
his early sense of calling. Just before he entered stood God as love and himself as the expression
into adult life, Jesus knew what he was to do: of that love, he saw his mission as being sent by
Didnt you know I had to be in my Fathers God to be the Savior of the world. So the nature
house? (Luke 2:49). At his baptism, Jesus told of God as love shaped Jesus understanding of his
John it was necessary in order to fulfill all right- mission as the embodiment of Gods loving pur-
eousness. That act of acceptance by Jesus of pose on earth.
517
Jesus and Mission
The second idea that shaped Jesus understand- Israel, who was also Gods servant, but ultimately
ing of mission was his identification with the peo- by Jesus who was to the highest degree both Israel
ple of Israel. One aspect of Gods original covenant and Servant. The Servant as portrayed by Isaiah
with Israel was that Israel should be a blessing was to suffer for the sins of the world, establish
and that all the peoples of the earth should be justice, provide salvation for the nations, be a light
blessed through her (Gen. 12:2, 3). Although this to the Gentiles, give sight to the blind, proclaim
was interpreted by Israel essentially to mean that the truth, be a covenant to the world, dispense
Gentiles who desired salvation could attain it by Gods Spirit, make intercession for sinners, and
becoming a part of her, there were glimmers of a make peace for all people. Here in prophetic word
concept that Israel should go to the other nations is the mission of Jesus made plain, as he himself
taking the message to them. Jonah is an example knew. When he began his ministry in Galilee, in
of that, as is the message of Amos to the sur- his hometown of Nazareth, he selected Isaiah
rounding nations (Amos 1:9, 11, 13; 2:1). In large 61:12 to read in the synagogue. After reading the
part, however, universal salvation was seen as es- passage he said, Today this Scripture is fulfilled
chatological, when Israels God would be properly in your hearing (Luke 4:20, 21). The whole of
acknowledged as supreme over all the earth. It Jesus life was lived out in fulfillment of the proph-
was this point Jesus picked up on in his correla- esied mission of Gods Suffering Servant.
tion of eschatology and mission by postulating Jesus fundamental mission on earth was re-
both a present and a future dimension to the king- demptive and revelatory of Gods saving will for
dom. Inasmuch as the eschatological reality was the world. He embodied and revealed the loving
present in and through his own earthly ministry, nature of God that graciously gives. He also took
future reality was being brought to bear on the up into himself the covenant made with Israel,
present. The knowledge of God which, in the fu- fulfilling Israels task of mediating Gods salvation
ture, will cover the earth like the waters cover the to the world and came as Gods specially anointed
sea (Hab. 2:14) is now beginning its coverage in Servant, the sin-bearer for all.
the mission of Jesus and will continue in the ex- Jesus Mission and His Followers. Jesus knew
tension of that mission through his followers. that the task of mission was not his alone, but
Hence, the task of the church is to reach the ends was to be transmitted to his followers. In fact, he
of the earth and then the end will come when God says it was necessary for him to depart so that
draws history to a close in his own predetermined they, through the Holy Spirit, could reach their
way (Matt. 24:14). own full potential (John 14:12; 16:7). This inclu-
An aspect of Jesus identification with Israel sion of his followers may be seen in Jesus min-
that is often overemphasized and sometimes mis- istry from the very beginning. Jesus first formal
understood is his apparent confinement of his calling of the future leaders of his movement
earthly mission to Israel alone (Matt. 10:6; (Peter, Andrew, James, and John) was specifically
15:24). But this must be seen in the light of his to missionI will make you fishers of men
prophetic mission of judgment to Israel. He was (Matt. 4:19). When he finally settled on twelve to
offering them their final call that in the mystery represent and lead the group that followed him,
of God was to be rejected and from which would he named them apostlesthose who are sent
come the salvation of the world (Rom. 11:710, (Mark 3:14)emphasizing the nature of their
2536). This is seen most clearly in Jesus expla- calling. Their ultimate mission was not to stay in-
nation of his parables. Drawing upon Isaiahs call definitely with him, but to go and proclaim the
to make the heart of Israel calloused and their Good News of the kingdom (Luke 9:2). Indeed,
ears dull (Isa. 6:9, 10), Jesus said his teaching the choice of twelve to lead was in itself a state-
was to have this effect also (Matt. 13:1015). ment regarding mission. Jesus was establishing a
What he was doing fulfilled Isaiahs prophecy, but New Israel and with that a renewed focus on Is-
its ultimate fulfillment was to be that blessedness raels place in the history of salvation, the histor-
had arrived which the prophets foresaw as es- ical mediator of Gods salvation to the world.
chatological salvation, including the Gentiles When the training of the twelve was sufficient,
(Matt. 13:16, 17). Hence, Jesus could also minis- Jesus sent them in his own name (and power) on
ter to the Gentiles as well, without any contra- missions of their own, duplicating his own work
diction of his being sent to the lost sheep of the (Matt. 10:17, 8). That was in Galilee. Later, in
house of Israel (Matt. 15:24). Judea, seventy-two were sent out in similar fash-
The third idea that specifically influenced Jesus ion (Luke 10:1). After Jesus resurrection, the
concept of mission was that of the Suffering Ser- apostle John epitomizes this concept of mission
vant as found in the Book of Isaiah. There is a colin Jesus own words, As the Father has sent me,
lection of prophetic psalms in Isaiah (42:17; I am sending you (John 20:21), where a double
49:17; 50:49; 52:1353:12; 61:13; see also Mark sense of mission is emphasized. Jesus had been
10:45; Luke 24:26) that speaks of Gods righteous sent by the Father and he sends out his followers
Servant who would bring redemption to the to fulfill the mission the Father had given to him.
world. These prophecies were partially fulfilled by The Gospel story ends in the words of the so-
518
Jew, Judaism
called GREAT COMMISSION, Go and make disciples agencies, the film has been seen by over one bil-
of all nations (Matt. 28:19). lion people. At showings where an invitation to
It would be fair to say that the major focus of receive Christ could be offered, 50 million deci-
Jesus, in his relation to his disciples, was to pre- sions had been indicated by 1997.
pare them for mission. This idea was enunciated The widespread acceptability of the film to the
over one hundred years ago by A. B. Bruce in The Christian community is probably due to its scrip-
Training of the Twelve, where he saw the whole of tural base. Jesus speaks no words outside of
Jesus life as being directed to that end and more those found in the Bible. A related factor is the
recently by Rainer Riesner in Jesus als Lehrer. The films accuracy. Five years of research went into
disciples sought to follow Jesus as far as was hu- the preparation for the production. More than
manly possible and he set the example for them. four hundred scholars evaluated the script. Each
Conclusion. Jesus sense of urgent divine mis- scene was filmed as close as possible to the loca-
sion penetrates the New Testament from begin- tion where the original action took place two
ning to end and ultimately goes back to Jesus thousand years ago. The biblical approach and
himself. He was imbued with a sense of divine the selection of the actor to portray Jesus were of
calling, he gathered his followers to support him primary importance. After scores of screen tests
in that mission, he commissioned them to pro- Brian Deacon, a Christian Shakespearean actor
claim the good news that he was bringing, he from England, was selected for the role of Jesus.
sent them out on preaching missions in his All of the remaining actors came from Israel,
name, he accomplished the task given to him by where the film was made.
his Father and left the fledgling church with the The enthusiastic acceptance of the film by so
formidable task of going into all the world with many viewers from such diverse cultures is due
the gospel, promising to be with them to the end to four primary factors. First, the film is a docu-
of the age. drama of first-century Palestine. Many relate to
WALTER A. ELWELL this presentation because they live in that rural
SEE ALSO Christology. type of culture where people still fish and farm
for a living. Second, the film reaches people who
Bibliography. A. B. Bruce, The Training of the Twelve; cannot read. Third, that many people have never
R. E. Coleman, The Master Plan of Evangelism; idem, seen a film in their own language gives the film a
The Mind of the Master; F. Hahn, Missions in the New strong impact. Fourth, most non-Westerners are
Testament.
concrete thinkers. They receive Jesus not only be-
cause he is the Savior, but because he has power
Jesus Film. In recent decades the Jesus film has over nature, evil spirits, sickness, and death.
emerged as one of the primary tools for evangel- PAUL E. ESHLEMAN
ism throughout the world. The film is a two-hour
motion picture based on the Gospel of Luke. A vi- Bibliography. P. E. Eshleman, I Just Saw Jesus;
sion of Campus Crusade for Christ founder BILL idem, The Touch of Jesus.
BRIGHT, it was developed in cooperation with the
Genesis Project and produced by John Heyman Jew, Judaism. Judaism, the religion of the Jew-
in 1978. ish people, includes the totality of Jewish life and
The initial theatrical release was handled by thought. As a religious civilization Judaism em-
Warner Brothers. Having opened in 2,000 theaters braces the historic and cultural experience of the
in North America, the Jesus film was soon sold to Jewish community from earliest times to the
television cable networks throughout the world. present. Judaism has significantly influenced the
By 1998 it had already been dubbed in more than formation of both Christianity and Islam.
450 languages spoken by 85 percent of the worlds The terms Hebrew, Israelite, and Jew
population. Another 200 versions were in process. come from the Jewish Scriptures, which Chris-
The eventual goal of over 1,000 languages will po- tians read as the Old Testament. God calls the
tentially allow over 98 percent of the world to hear first Jew, Abraham, promising him offspring,
the gospel in their mother tongue. land, and blessing (Gen. 12:13; see ABRAHAMIC
The Jesus Film Project, a ministry of Campus COVENANT). This covenant has universal signifi-
Crusade for Christ, coordinates showings in cance for the nations, and particular relevance to
more than 220 countries. A variety of methods Abrahams physical descendants. Under Moses,
are used, including 35-millimeter showings in the Hebrews were redeemed from slavery in
commercial theaters; 16-millimeter showings in Egypt and called into a covenant relationship at
rural areas when portable screens, projectors, Sinai that embraced personal and social ethics as
and generators need to be provided; national, re- a reflection of their spiritual relationship with
gional, and local television releases; and video- Yahweh. The election of Israel has a missionary
cassettes placed in rental shops and libraries or dimension in that Israel is called to be a priestly
delivered home to home by church workers. Dis- people and a light to the nations as she bears
tributed by more than 700 ministries and church witness to God.
519
Jew, Judaism
Biblical Israels identity developed in reaction alternative patterns of liturgy, belief, and lifestyle.
to the idolatry and polytheism of her neighbors. Patterns of emigration at the beginning of the
Yet the history of the Jewish people shows how twentieth century led to increased assimilation.
failure to live according to the covenant led to de- ZIONISM, a secular nationalism with religious as-
struction and the loss of the ten northern tribes pects, was motivated by European and Russian
(722 B.C.). Judah, the remaining tribe, gave its anti-Semitism. It became a viable project that re-
name to the southern kingdom. After the exile sulted in the formation of the state of Israel
(586 B.C.) the term Jew (Yehudi) referred to sub- (1948). Eligibility for citizenship in Israel has
jects of the Babylonian/Persian province of been challenged in a number of cases of Jewish
Judah. Judaism survived in exile and restoration believers in Jesus, giving rise in a secular context
by becoming a religion of the book, the Torah, a to the traditional Who is a Jew? question.
concept wider than that of law, with a more More than anything else Zionism has provided
general sense of revelation and instruction. an antidote for the effects of anti-Semitism
Transmission and application of the Torah, espe- (Nazism) and the trauma of the Holocaust. How-
cially as found in Pentateuch, were reinforced by ever, the Jewish community today is character-
the development of the synagogue as an institu- ized as much by post-Holocaust disillusion-
tion for prayer, study, and community life. ment as by a vibrant faith in the God of Israel.
By the time of Jesus the Jewish people had frag- From a Christian perspective the creation of the
mented into a variety of groups (Pharisees, Sad- state of Israel (1948) renewed the eschatological
ducees, Zealots, Essenes), with a majority living hopes of many premillennialists, and the re-
outside the land of Israel. After the destruction of newed use of Hebrew as a spoken language pro-
the temple (A.D. 70) the successors of the Phar- vided new impetus for literature production and
isees, the rabbis, had a normative influence on the the development of worship resources.
development of later belief and practice. They Theology. While Judaism has always avoided
codified the laws of the Pentateuch into the Mish- credal formulation, stressing orthopraxy over or-
nah (repetition, c. A.D. 200) and reformulated thodoxy, the ethical and religious values of Ju-
the religion without direct need of temple, land, daism can be summarized in the Ten Command-
or sacrifice. The term Judaism (ioudaismos) sig-
ments and the Thirteen Principles of Faith of
nifies the self-definition of Jewish groups in their
Maimonides (11351204), which gave Judaism a
struggle against the influence of Hellenism.
credal form in the Thirteen articles of faith,
In the period of rabbinic Judaism (A.D. 200
combining a biblical theism with Aristotelian
500) Judaism became a religion of the dual Torah,
philosophy. The identity markers of Sabbath, cir-
the written and oral law, culminating in the com-
cumcision, and the food laws (kashrut) have con-
pletion (c. A.D. 500) of the Talmud (teaching), an
extended commentary and discussion of the laws tinued to be important distinctives of the Jewish
(halachah). The sages distanced the religion from people, as have celebration of the Jewish festi-
that of the Jewish Christian sects (Ebionites, vals, especially Passover and the Day of Atone-
Nazarenes) by inserting the Birkat Haminim ment (Yom Kippur). In recent years women have
(Blessing of Heretics) into the synagogue liturgy taken a more active role, with the ordination of
(c. A.D. 110), forcing Jewish Christians to identify women rabbis in the Reform and Liberal syna-
themselves or withdraw. gogues, but the traditional model of the womans
In the medieval period the Jewish people de- role is still the most common.
veloped strategies for survival in the frequently Judaism revolves around the core themes of
hostile environments of Islam and Christianity God, Israel, and the Torah, as summarized in the
(the CRUSADES). Attempts at conversion led to Shema, the confession of faith of Deuteronomy
public disputations over messianic prophecies, 6:4. A further central topic is that of the land,
such as that between Nachmanides and Paulo Eretz Israel. Belief in the coming of the Messiah,
Christiani in Spain (1263). Such encounters were while one of Maimonides principles, is inter-
often held under duress, and with an agenda of preted in various ways, but generally with the
forced conversion. Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah) conclusion that Jesus was not the Messiah be-
thrived, with a resurgence of messianic expecta- cause he failed to fulfill the required messianic
tion (Shabbetai Zevi 1665). prophecies, though it may be argued that the con-
In the period of emancipation (17001900) ra- cept of the Messiah was redefined by Judaism to
tionalism and humanism enabled Jews who specifically rule out the radically new formulation
came out of the ghettos to be actively involved in of the messianic program given by Jesus. The ad-
European society. Thinkers such as Spinoza, ditional social cost of becoming a Christian has
Lessing, Marx, Freud, and Einstein, often influ- prevented many Jewish people from accepting
enced by their Jewish backgrounds, made signif- Jesus with a willing heart. Memories of the me-
icant contributions to secular knowledge. Others dieval forced conversions (Inquisition) make it es-
distanced themselves in ultraorthodoxy (Ha- pecially painful for Jewish people to think of be-
sidism). Reform and Liberal Judaism developed traying their people through conversion.
520
Jewish Missions
Mission. From its beginnings Christianity has on his itinerary. As the number of Gentile Chris-
defined itself and its mission in response to its tians grew, the Jewishness of Jesus and the
Jewish origins, in proclamation of its Jewish gospel was ignored by the church or transformed
Messiah, Jesus. In the patristic and medieval pe- so that no one could recognize the Jewish nature
riods, debates between Jews and Christians on of Christianity. There arose a common teaching
the messianic prophecies were frequent, but they that the Jews were rejected by God and the
often degenerated into polemics fed by the anti- church alone was the heir to all the covenant
Judaism (loosely referred to as anti-Semitism) promises. Despite the hostile climate, some Jews
derived from a misreading of the New Testament continued to find their way to Christ in all ages.
and fed by the institutional aims of the church. The medieval disputations cannot properly be
With lamentably few exceptions the Jewish peo- called missions. Though arguments from Old
ple were despised, rejected, and persecuted by Testament messianic passages were presented
the church, and the teaching of contempt, the that are still used in Jewish apologetics to this
idea that the suffering of the Jews is due to their day, much of the case presented by the Christians
rejection of Jesus, has continued to feed both re- was to deny the validity of the Jews as the chosen
ligious and secular forms of racial prejudice. people of God.
In the light of this some Christians have re- The first period of modern Jewish missions
nounced the call to evangelism, seeing their mis- was from 1790 to 1914. Beginning with the
sion to Israel today as one of support and recon- Pietists of eighteenth-century Germany, there
ciliation, with DIALOGUE rather than evangelism as was a considerable amount of interest in Jewish
the method (see also JEWISH MISSIONS). Following missions in the Protestant church. Jewish mis-
the proposal of Franz Rosenzweig that Jesus sion organizations were established in the
brought the new covenant for Gentiles (non-Jews) Lutheran, Anglican, Baptist, and Presbyterian
but that Jewish people already have a revelation churches, as well as through independent mis-
of God in the Torah, some have adopted a TWO- sion societies. These groups worked among the
COVENANT THEORY with a necessary redefinition of Jews of Europe and (what was then called) Pales-
Christology, seeing the uniqueness of Christ as an tine. By the end of the nineteenth century, Amer-
anti-Semitic formulation untenable by Christian- ican Jewish missions came into their own.
ity today. The distinctives of Jewish missions in this first
Despite this an increasing number of Jewish period were: (1) Jewish missions were regarded
people have become believers in Jesus in recent in the church as a valid endeavor; (2) the method
years. Jewish attitudes to Jesus have changed of outreach was through literature distribution,
from antipathy to a desire for a Jewish reclama- reading rooms, door-to-door visitation, and con-
tion of Jesus, a significant factor in the increas- verts homes, schools, and hospitals; (3) the
ing understanding of the Jewish context of the apologetic was based on Old Testament prophecy
New Testament and Jesus himself. Also, the ef- and sometimes employed rabbinic literature, but
forts at CONTEXTUALIZATION of the gospel have little actual contextualization took place.
seen much fruit, as the growing number of mes- Two key changes took place in Jewish missions
in the twentieth century. First, between the two
sianic synagogues and organizations like Jews for
World Wars and increasingly after the Holocaust,
Jesus have successfully challenged the notion
a weakening of evangelical theology led many de-
that you cannot be Jewish and believe in Jesus.
nominations to replace the concept of mission
The network of mission agencies and others in-
with that of dialogue. Significant exceptions
volved in Jewish evangelism has been strength-
were the Lutheran ChurchMissouri Synod, the
ened by the work of the Lausanne Consultation
Presbyterian Church in America, and, most re-
on Jewish Evangelism (LCJE). Today, perhaps
cently, the Southern Baptist Convention.
more than at any time in the past two thousand
The second change was in the approach of
years, it can be said that Jewish people are com- Jewish missions. Jewish people in the Western
ing to know their Messiah. nations were no longer poor immigrants nor
RICHARD S. HARVEY
were they mostly religious. But not until 1970 did
Bibliography. I. Epstein, Judaism, A Historical Pre- Jewish missions change accordingly. Moishe
sentation; C. D. Harley, Christian Witness to the Jewish Rosen, who went on to found the Jews for Jesus
People; L. Jacobs, Encyclopaedia Judaica, 10:38397; organization, pioneered a new methodology that
J. Jocz, The Jewish People and Jesus Christ; P. Johnson, A included (1) the use of contemporary literature
History of the Jews; D. Stern, Messianic Jewish Manifesto. oriented to the secular Jewish person; (2) greater
visibility and boldness in approach; (3) a height-
Jewish Missions. Christians endeavor to bring ened contextualization in outreach as Jewish
Jews to faith in Christ. The apostles first pro- Christians expressed their faith in a Jewish frame
claimed the messiahship of Jesus to their own of reference.
Jewish people. Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, In response, countermissionary organizations
evangelized in the synagogues first in each city were formed, most notably Jews for Judaism.
521
Jewish Missions
Though their successes in winning Jews away John of Montecorvino (c. 12471330). Italian
from Christ were few, they succeeded in creating Franciscan missionary to Persia and China. Born
a climate of hostility toward Jewish missions and in Montecorvino in southern Italy, John was a
messianic Jews. Nevertheless, their efforts for the Franciscan missionary to Persia prior to his path-
most part helped focus attention on the issue. breaking missionary work in China. In 1270, after
The heart of Jewish missions remains the ex- the opening of China to trade with the West, the
ample and teaching of the New Testament. This Mongol emperor, Kublai Khan, asked the pope to
core is best encapsulated by the apostle Paul in send a hundred missionaries. Although conflict
Romans 1:16 and Romans 911. Since 1970, within the papacy delayed the response to this re-
Jewish people have been coming to Christ in markable request, in 1289 John of Montecorvino
record numbers. Today it is estimated that be- started his journey to Peking with a letter from
tween 0.5 percent and one percent of Jewish the pope to Kublai Khan. During his journey,
people are Christians. Recent happenings of note John preached for a year in India before traveling
up the coast of China and arriving in Peking in
include the indigenous work being done in Israel
1294. By 1300 he had learned the Chinese lan-
by Jewish believers and increased access to
guage and had established a thriving church. A
Russian Jews with many opportunities to tell the
1305 letter describing his work caused wide-
gospel. spread excitement in the West. In 1307, Pope
RICH ROBINSON Clement V named John the archbishop of China
Bibliography. W. T. Gidney, The History of the Lon- and dispatched several bishops to join him.
don Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the During his successful thirty-five years of serv-
Jews, From 1809 to 1908; A. Huisjen, The Home Front ice in China, John translated the New Testament
of Jewish Missions; M. Rosen and W. Proctor, Jews for and Psalms into the Mandarin language and
Jesus; A. E. Thompson, A Century of Jewish Missions. gained thousands of converts. His ministry also
involved repeated conflicts with the Chinese
John, Griffith (18311912). Welsh missionary to Nestorian Christians, whose church he did not
China. A Welsh Congregationalist associated with recognize (see NESTORIAN MISSIONS). In view of
the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, Griffith John the arduous journey from Europe to China, few
worked for fifty years in Central China, living to European missionaries were able to join him,
see the fall of the Qing dynasty. Noted for stirring and the churches he established were destroyed
preaching and missionary travels into dangerous after the emergence of the Ming Dynasty in 1368.
areas, John also was a prolific writer and notable ALAN SEAMAN
Bible translator. Bibliography. J. Zubal, The Catholic Missions in
Arriving in Shanghai in 1855, John and several China during the Middle Ages.
other missionaries later had direct contact with
ill-fated Taiping leaders. Before the Taiping insur- John XXIII (18811963). Italian pope and con-
gents were destroyed, John moved into Hankou vener of Vatican II. Born in northern Italy, he was
City of Hubei province in 1861. A courageous itin- ordained in 1904, became a doctor of theology,
erant evangelist, he risked his life numerous times and served in the Vatican diplomatic corps
in preaching to Chinese crowds and selling Chi- (192553) before becoming cardinal and patri-
nese tracts he and others had authored. arch of Venice, and then an unexpected choice as
In 1875 John experienced a personal spiritual pope. The self-styled pope who keeps pressing
renewal. He later countered vicious anti-Chris- on the accelerator convened the SECOND VATICAN
tian pamphleteering by Hunan literati with his COUNCIL (196265) to address the churchs strat-
own writings, literature distributions, and per- egy in meeting the needs of the modern world.
sonal evangelism. He lived to see the opening of He jarred long-entrenched prejudice against non-
that province to numerous stable Chinese con- Catholic Christians, inviting them to send ob-
gregations. During the 1880s he translated por- servers to the Council. He made post-Reforma-
tions of the Bible into Mandarin in a popular lit- tion history by welcoming to the Vatican the
erary style. Well known across China for his archbishop of Canterbury. He capitalized on his
Chinese pamphlets and books, he received an earlier sojourns in eastern European capitals by
improving relations with communist states and
honorary degree from Edinburgh and a special
with the Eastern Orthodox Church, and showed
interview with the famous Chinese statesman,
himself to have a marked social concern. Johns
Zhang Zhidong (18371909), before returning to
Journal of a Soul was translated into English in
England because of a fatal illness. 1965.
LAUREN PFISTER But while he sent a breath of fresh air sweep-
Bibliography. N. Bitton, Griffith John: The Apostle of ing through conservative circles and initiated di-
Central China; R. W. Thompson, Griffith John: The Story alogues which are still continuing, the pontiffs
of Fifty Years in China. tolerance did not take in major changes in his
522
Jonah
churchs basic theological doctrines. eighth century B.C.), and it was feared throughout
J. D. DOUGLAS the ancient world. For nearly a century, the As-
syrian kings had been sending troops into the
Bibliography. P. Hebblethwaite, Pope John XXIII:
Shepherd of the Modern World; G. Zizola, The Utopia of
northern areas of SyriaPalestine and demanding
Pope John XXIII. that the local populations submit to Assyrian sov-
ereignty and pay a heavy tribute. Refusal to do so
often resulted in the destruction of cities and
Johnson, Richard (17551827). English mis-
even nations, with many cruel acts of terror and
sionary to Australia. Born in Yorkshire, England,
havoc that devastated the populations. Knowing
Johnson studied at the Hull Grammar School
this, it does not seem so strange that Jonah at
and the University of Cambridge. He was or-
first tried to escape the call of God to preach re-
dained by the Church of England as a deacon
pentance to such a cruel people. The intensity of
(1783) and priest (1784), and served as a curate
Jonahs feelings becomes clear later when he
in two parishes. The influence of William Wilber-
overtly expressed his anger at God for having
force and John Newton led to Johnsons appoint-
mercy on the dreaded enemy, even to the point
ment in 1787 as chaplain to a convict fleet that
that he asked the Lord to take his life (4:3).
was sent to a penal colony in New South Wales
The irony of Jonahs bitterness, though, stands
(Australia). Although his role was never clearly
out even stronger when the reader considers that
defined, he ministered to both convicts and
the Ninevites were not the only object of the
British military personnel. As an evangelical An-
Lords mercy. God had previously spared Jonah
glican, he sometimes clashed with high church
from the belly of the great fish, and Jonah con-
government officials, particularly over the effi-
cluded his prayer of thanksgiving with the words,
cacy of attempting to convert the indigenous
Salvation comes from the LORD (2:9). Jonah
population. In addition to being the only chap-
could be grateful for his own salvation, but he
lain for several years, Johnson also functioned as
could not accept that God would grant salvation
a magistrate and schoolmaster. He left his mark
to his bitterest enemy.
as a pioneer missionary in a very difficult setting.
The Lord then tried to show Jonah the incon-
He showed an evangelistic burden and genuine
gruities of his viewpoint through the lesson of the
love for the aborigines, even if he was not always
vine (4:611). Jonah cared about the vine because
sensitive to their culture. Health problems forced
of how it involved him personally, so wouldnt it
Johnson to return to England in 1800. Following
be reasonable for God to be concerned in a per-
curacies in Norfolk and Essex, he finished his ca-
sonal way about a great city with many innocent
reer with a seventeen-year stint (181027) as rec-
people and animals in it (4:11)?
tor of the combined parish of St. Antholins and
We do not learn Jonahs opinion about Gods
St. John the Baptist church in London.
rhetorical question, but our responses to that
JAMES A. PATTERSON
same question will indicate something about our
Bibliography. N. K. Macintosh, Richard Johnson, attitude toward Gods plan to bring his salvation
Chaplain to the Colony of New South Wales: His Life and to the ends of the earth. First, are we self-
Times, 17551827. centered in our faith? Are we concerned only
about ministry that will have some relationship
Jonah. The Book of Jonah makes its point and benefit to us personally? Will it reach the
through interaction and dialogue between the racial or ethnic group that we identify with? Will
prophet and the Lord rather than through direct it improve our life? Will it avoid our having to ex-
statements of prophecy or theology. It concerns press love for a group that we would rather hate?
more than simply a prophet who ran from Gods Second, an underlying question is even more
call or the miraculous mass repentance of the pressing: To what extent have we opened our
city of Nineveh. Certainly it is greater in scope lives to the grace, compassion, and love of God
than the miracle of the big fish that swallowed ourselves if we are unwilling to love those who
Jonah, even though that incident sometimes at- can do nothing for us in return or who have of-
tracts more attention from those who study it fended us deeply? Ultimately, the Book of Jonah
than even the main theme of the book. and Jesus parable of the unforgiving servant
Jonah ran from Gods call, something that was (Matt. 18:2335) are hauntingly similar.
meant to make the reader wonder why he would The human heart is unlike the heart of God.
do it. The answer surprises modern readers: It That is the message of the Book of Jonah. Jonah
was because Jonah was afraid that the Ninevites recognized that the Lord is a gracious and com-
would take the message of judgment seriously passionate God, slow to anger and abounding in
and repent (4:12). To the original readers, love, a God who relents from sending calamity
though, Jonahs line of reasoning may not have (4:2). But Jonah could not express that same love
seemed strange. himself. He knew the gospel and had experienced
Assyria was the major imperial power of it for himself, but his heart remained closed to
Jonahs day (approximately the first half of the his enemies. He was the reluctant missionary
523
Jonah
who preached and saw results (chaps. 1 and 3), Jones, Eli Stanley (18841973). American mis-
but only because Gods Word is effective to ac- sionary to India. Born in Maryland, Jones went
complish its purpose (Isa. 55:11). to India under the Methodist Missionary Board
The reader also notices Jonahs blindness to in 1907. By 1930 his appointment was expanded
Gods grace in his own life. In his grace, God has to evangelist-at-large for India and the world.
chosen to work through human instruments to Following his initial service as pastor of an En-
carry out his plan for proclaiming the gospel glish-speaking congregation in Lucknow and
throughout the world. Jonah should have been then work among the outcastes, Jones changed
grateful that God chose to involve him, but he his focus to evangelizing the upper-caste intel-
could see no further than the limits of his own lectuals. It was in this context that he emerged
provincial outlook. as a leading advocate of indigenizing, or Indian-
The example of Jonah calls us to expand our izing, the gospel message. For Jones this in-
thinking about missions. If Jonah could be effec- volved both de-Westernizing the gospel and im-
tive even in his closed-heartedness, how much mersing it in Indian cultural and philosophical
more effective he could have been if he had been forms and structures. He drew a sharp distinc-
more open to Gods work of love? To the extent tion in his view of evangelism between the mes-
that we see ourselves in the proud and bigoted sage of Christ and the Western institutional
Jonah, we can begin to appreciate more the mir- church. His first book, The Christ of the Indian
acle that God has been gracious to us. Also we Road (1925), expounded the need to present
can begin to pray that God will change our hearts Christ in an Indian settingto give Christ to
so that we will have his heart for the world rather India and India to Christ. Two of his notable
than our own. adaptations for indigenized evangelism were the
THOMAS J. FINLEY Round Table philosophical discussions with In-
Bibliography. T. D. Alexander, Jonah: An Introduc-
dian intellectuals and the establishment of Chris-
tion and Commentary; J. Baldwin, The Minor Prophets: tian ashrams (adapted from the Hindu communi-
An Exegetical and Expository Commentary, II:54390; ties or families). During his missionary career,
J. R. Kohlenberger, Jonah and Nahum; J. Walton, Jones view of evangelism evolved from the indi-
Jonah; J. Verkuyl, Contemporary Missiology. vidualistic-conversion emphasis of his Wesleyan-
Holiness heritage to a blend of individual con-
Jones, David (17071841). Welsh missionary to version and the redemption of social, economic,
Madagascar. Born in Cardiganshire, South Wales, and political structures. Thus, E. Stanley Jones
he was educated in his homeland at Neuaddlwyd missionary legacy is that of an ardent evangelist,
and Gosport. He was ordained as an Independent a protoliberationist, a vocal ecumenist, and an
in 1817 and appointed by the LONDON MISSIONARY innovative indigenizer.
SOCIETY to sail for Madagascar in 1818 with DONALD R. DUNAVANT
Thomas Bevan, a fellow student. During the ini- Bibliography. E. S. Jones, The Christ of the Indian
tial foray into Madagascar a fever killed most of Road; idem, Christ at the Round Table; R. W. Taylor, The
the party, including Jones wife, and seriously Contribution of E. Stanley Jones.
weakened his own health. Following recuperation
and remarriage in Mauritius, Jones returned to Jones, Lina Maude (18901979). New Zealand
Madagascar in 1821 to establish schools and re- missionary in the Solomon Islands. Born on
duce the Malagasy language to writing. David March 2, 1890, Jones was the daughter of a
Griffiths and he developed a phonetic system Methodist fitter and turner who had come to
using Roman characters that allowed the Mala- New Zealand from England and based himself in
gasy to write their own language. Despite resist- the Railway Workshops in Christchurch. Lina,
ance to this by some English colonists, Jones per- the fourth of five children and an enthusiastic
sisted in his work and eventually gained many athlete, was trained as a teacher. In 1923, in-
converts. He and his colleagues also successfully spired by a letter from a Methodist missionary
translated the Bible into Malagasy. Antiforeign read to an Easter Bible Class camp, she volun-
uprisings and persecution forced Jones to fur- teered to the Foreign Mission Board of the
lough in Great Britain in 1830. Later attempts to Methodist Church. She was sent to the Western
reestablish his work in Madagascar met with op- Solomon Islands where the opinionated and able
position from local rulers. He died in Mauritius Australian, John F. Goldie, controlled a mission
following an accident, but the church survived, supervised by New Zealand. Based in Munda and
thanks in part to copies of Jones translation of Bilua, in 1924 she began junior classes called
the Bible that were hidden during the intense per- kinda at Kokeqolo. It was the first provision of
secution of the 1830s and 1840s. general education in the Solomons. She became
JAMES A. PATTERSON active in mission administration, and was the
Bibliography. E. H. Hayes, David Jones, Dauntless Pi- first woman to attend the Annual Synod. Strong
oneer: An Epic Story of Heroic Endeavor in Madagascar. and determined, conservative in outlook, she was
524
Journals of Mission and Missiology
committed to improving conditions for the Is- an increasing interest and openness among Jor-
landers. The missionaries were evacuated during danians and refugees from the Gulf War (1991)
World War II, and Lina worked in the Foreign crisis. The vast majority of the population is still
Missions Office in Auckland. She returned to the classified as unreached with the gospel.
Solomons in 1945, and helped in the translation NORMAN E. ALLISON
of the New Testament and a dictionary into Ro-
Bibliography. J. H. Kane, A Global View of Christ
vianan. Retiring to Auckland, New Zealand, in Missions: From Pentecost to the Present; W. F. Smalley,
1950, she worked constantly to increase interest Alliance Missions in Palestine, Arab Lands, Israel,
in foreign missions, until her death on June 11, 18901970.
1979. Within the limits permitted to women in
denominational missions she exercised a broad Joseph, Justus (c. 183587). Indian churchman
influence. and prophet. Born in Travancore Kerala into a
PETER LINEHAM devout Hindu Brahmin home, Justus Joseph to-
Bibliography. D. N. Beniston, The Call of the gether with his family converted to Christianity
Solomons: The New Zealand Methodist Womens Re- and was baptized by Joseph Peet in 1861. The
sponse; G. G. Carter, Valuable-Beyond-Price: The Story of family adopted Christian names: the father,
Sister Lina M. Jones 18901979. Venkateswara Bhagvathar, became known as Jus-
tus Cornelius, and his eldest son Raman as Jus-
Jordan (Est. 2000 pop.: 6,407,000; 91,861 sq. km. tus Joseph. Spotting the young mans leadership
[35,468 sq. mi.]). The Hashemite Kingdom of potential, CHURCH MISSION SOCIETY (CMS) mis-
Jordan is an Arab nation located in the northwest sionaries trained him for the ministry; Peet
corner of the Arabian Peninsula. About 6 percent taught him English and Greek. Ordained by the
of the land area of Jordan is arable, and more Anglican bishop of Madras in 1868, he became
than 90 percent is desert. Village life in Jordan vicar at Kannit.
dates from at least 8000 B.C. at Jericho. The area Beginning in 1873, a spiritual awakening oc-
was a frequent invasion route for Assyrians, curred among CMS and Syrian congregations.
Egyptians, Babylonians, and Persians. The Ot- Two evangelists from Tinnevelly (Tamil Nadu),
toman Turks conquered the area in 1517, and im- followers of JOHN CHRISTIAN AROOLAPPEN, intro-
posed a social structure that forms a strong cul- duced Joseph and his brothers to the teachings of
tural element even today. the Plymouth Brethren. Features of the revival
More than 96 percent of the population are that followed included intense conviction of sin,
Arabs. The bulk of the population is descended visions, speaking in tongues, indigenous Chris-
from Bedouin ancestry. Islam is the state reli- tian music, rejection of caste, and the restoration
gion, almost entirely Sunni Muslims. The Chris- of apostles and prophets. In the belief that the
tians are less than 5 percent, the majority from Holy Spirit had commissioned him to herald
the Greek Orthodox community. Christs coming within six years, Joseph left the
The history of missions in Jordan is varied. Po- Anglican Church in 1875. With several thousand
litical divisions have changed and are still chang- followers, he founded the Revival Church, better
ing, thus the beginnings of modern Protestant known as the Six Years Party. Missionaries
mission work in Jordan dates back to the time sharply denounced its excesses and nonconfor-
when the area was known as Palestine. Great mity. Although discredited in 1881 when the
Britain has played an important political and re- prophecy failed, Justus Joseph had contributed
ligious role in the area for over a century. The An- to church growth. His activities reflected the
glicans entered Palestine in 1860 and continue to struggle of indigenous Christians for leadership
have a strong work. The Evangelical Church of in mission churches.
the C&MA is the national church resulting from GARY B. MCGEE
the work of the Christian and Missionary Al- Bibliography. W. J. Richards, Church Missionary In-
liance beginning in 1890, and becoming more telligencer and Record 7 (Nov. 1882): 66067; Indian
firmly established in the 1920s. Assemblies of Evangelical Review 4 (April 1874): 397410.
God began working in 1929, and several other
boards and denominations began work after Journals of Mission and Missiology. A wide
1940. Today there are an estimated 103 Protes- range of periodical literature reports on and in-
tant missionaries in Jordan from approximately forms of the missionary activity of the Christian
20 denominations and agencies. Church. Virtually all mission boards and agencies
Although Islam is the state religion, Christians publish newsletters to keep their missionaries
have been granted a greater degree of freedom and supporters informed of their activities. These
than in most dominant Muslim countries. Even newsletters can be found in library collections of
though the majority of missionary efforts have related schools or mission libraries (see MISSION
been focused on the revitalization of Orthodox LIBRARIES.) They are listed in publications such
and Roman Catholic minorities, there has been as the Mission Handbook.
525
Journals of Mission and Missiology
Several bulletins inform the Christian commu- Christian Witness is the official publication of the
nity of newsworthy events and trends related to Advent Christian General Conference of America.
mission. Mission Frontiers, published by the U.S. Alliance Life is published by The Christian & Mis-
Center for World Mission, emphasizes the cutting sionary Alliance. The Covenant Companion is
edge of missionary activity. Pulse, published by produced by the Evangelical Covenant Church.
the Evangelism and Missions Information Ser- The Evangelical Beacon is published by the Evan-
vice of the Billy Graham Center, provides articles gelical Free Church of America. Foursquare
and news items on topics that impact missionary World Advance is published by the International
work. The Lausanne Committee for World Evan- Church of the Foursquare Gospel. Light & Life is
gelization communicates with the members of its the official publication of the Free Methodist
network through LCWE Newsletter. The AD 2025 Church of North America. The Messenger is pro-
Global Monitor, produced by Global Evangeliza- duced by the Evangelical Mennonite Conference.
tion Movement Research in the United States, at- Several Roman Catholic journals are produced
tempts to measure the progress of world evange- in various parts of the world. Indian Missiological
lization. The Christian Research Association in Review is published by the Sacred Heart Theologi-
the United Kingdom provides a similar service cal College in Indore. The Japan Mission Journal is
through Quadrant. produced at the Oriens Institute for Religious Re-
The WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES maintains the search in Tokyo. The Instituto Espaol de Misiones
oldest English language missiological journal, In- Extranjeras (IEME) publishes Misiones Extranjeras
ternational Review of Missions. Other major En- in Madrid. Neue Zeitschrift fr Missionswis-
glish language journals published by institutions senschaft = NouvelIe Revue de Science Missionaire
include the International Bulletin of Missionary is published at the Missionshaus Bethlehem, Im-
Research by the Overseas Ministries Study Center mensee, Switzerland. Spiritus, the responsibility of
(OMSC), Evangelical Missions Quarterly by the several organizations, is published in Paris. And fi-
Evangelism and Missions Information Service of nally, Zeitschrift fr Missionswissenschaft und Reli-
the Billy Graham Center (EMIS), Exchange by the gionswissenschaft is the publication of the Interna-
Interuniversity Institute for Missiological and Ec- tionalen Instituts fr missionswissenschaftliche
umenical Research (IIMO), Mission Focus by the
Forschungen (IIMF).
Mission Training Center, Associated Mennonite
Major historical journals regularly carry arti-
Biblical Seminary, and the Bulletin of the Scottish
cles on the history of mission. The American Bap-
Institute of Missionary Studies by the Institute. A
tist Quarterly, Anglican and Episcopal History, The
title which attempts to investigate new trends in
Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History,
world evangelization is the International Journal
The Journal of Presbyterian History, The Mennon-
of Frontier Missions.
Several journals are produced by scholarly so- ite Quarterly Review, Methodist History, and
cieties and reflect the specific perspective of each Restoration Quarterly are some examples.
society. The American Society of Missiology Two major publications focus on ecumenical
(ASM) produces Missiology. The International As- studies: The Ecumenical Review, published by the
sociation of Mission Studies (IAMS) publishes World Council of Churches, and The Journal of
Mission Studies. Missionalia is the product of the Ecumenical Studies, published by Temple Uni-
Southern African Missiological Society (SAMS). versity and sponsored by a number of ecumeni-
Missio Apostolica is the journal of the Lutheran cal societies.
Society of Missiology. There are several related areas of study that are
A number of non-English journals are impor- important to missiology. The social sciences, es-
tant for mission studies. Norsk Tidsskrift for Mis- pecially ANTHROPOLOGY, provide the background
jon is produced by the Egede Institute. Perspectives to understand specific cultures. The field of COM-
Missionnaires, the work of several organizations, MUNICATION is essential to understand the impact
is published in Switzerland. Svensk Missionstid- of both written and oral transmission of the
skrift is the publication of the Svenska Institutet gospel message. General education and Christian
fr Missionsforskning. Zeitschrift fr Mission is education in particular have always been vital
published by the Deutschen Gesellschaft fr Mis- parts of Christian outreach. Theology began in
sionswisenschaft and the Basler Mission. the context of evangelism and missions, and con-
Some publications are dedicated to informing tinues to have an important role as Christianity
their own tradition. Mission Bulletin, produced develops within the diverse cultures of the world.
by The Reformed Ecumenical Council, contains World events and POLITICS are especially impor-
information about Reformed missions. Anvil: An tant to understand how local events have im-
Anglican Evangelical Journal for Theology and pacted missionary activity. WORLD RELIGIONS and
Mission focuses on Anglican missions. NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS provide the religious
Some denominations report missionary activi- context for the mission activity of the church. A
ties in their general publications. This is espe- large number of popular and scholarly periodi-
cially common for younger churches. Advent cals related to these areas of study are available.
526
Judaism
Keeping up with the literature of mission stud- witnessing (Acts 24:10), sacrifice of ourselves for
ies is a challenge for all missiologists. There are others (Phil. 2:1718), and our routine activities
three major ways that journal publications assist such as eating and drinking (Eccl. 9:7).
the specialist in this task. First, most journals in- The mission of the church is to lead the nations
clude book review sections complete with a list of to the Source of true joy. God is the joy of the
books received but not reviewed. Missiology, In- whole earth (Ps. 48:2). He is the proper object of
ternational Review of Mission, International Bul- all appropriate rejoicing (1 Sam. 2:1) because he is
letin of Missionary Research, Evangelical Missions the ultimate source of every good and perfect gift
Quarterly, and Missionalia carry the largest num- (James 1:17). Just as believers love in response to
ber of reviews. They rely on the community of Gods love for them (1 John 4:19), so they rejoice
mission scholars and practitioners to review all in God because God rejoices first in doing good to
of the major works in the field. them (cf. Jer. 31:4; Isa. 62:5; Zeph. 3:17).
A second type of assistance is comprehensive The church is to present to the world a God of
bibliography. Several major journals intentionally joy. The tendency of sin leads people to rejoice in
provide this service. Missiology and International
the work of their hands (Acts 7:41). True and last-
Review of Mission contain classified annotated
ing joy is found by rejoicing in the work of Gods
bibliographies of new publications in each issue.
hands. Ultimately only what he does will last for
While Missiology covers only books, other jour-
nals include articles in their coverage. Some bib- all eternity (Ps. 127:1-2; John 15:5). The truth
liographies are published as separate titles. Bibli- that joy can be found in Gods person, work, pro-
ographia Missionaria is an annual published by visions, rule, and presence is to be shared with
the Pontifical Missionary Library of the Congre- the world.
gation for the Evangelization of Peoples, and Lit- A life of joy is a preoccupation with God who
eraturschau zu Fragen der Weltmission is an an- alone gives meaning and purpose to all of life and
nual supplement of the Zeitschrift fr Mission. every task and relationship (2 Cor. 3:18). One
The third type of guide to the literature indexes cannot experience fullness of joy if he or she is
current periodicals. Missionalia has long been an preoccupied with security, pleasure, or any other
important guide to periodical literature. Theology self-interest. All blessings are to lead us back to
in Context, published in both German and En- the ultimate source (James 1:17; cf. Phil. 4:10).
glish editions, attempts to provide access to the How is the church to carry out its mission so
literature of the Third World. As with all areas of as to reflect joy? Practicing Gods presence (Ps.
religious studies, the Religion Indexes published 16:89) and abiding in Christ (John 15:11) are the
by the American Theological Library Association divine means. This involves the experience of an-
provide the most comprehensive subject index to swered prayer (John 16:24) and telling others
the literature of mission studies. how to fellowship with God (1 John 1:4). It in-
KENNETH D. GILL volves the continual seeking of Gods rule (Matt.
Bibliography. G. H. Anderson, CDCWM, pp. 31213; 6:33) and Person (Ps. 40:16; 70:4; 105:3) as well
Mission Handbook. as responding to his discipline (Ps. 90:15). It also
involves an outlook of faith during trials (Matt.
Joy. A state of mind that accompanies any pleas- 5:12; 2 Cor. 12:9; Heb. 10:34) as well as a per-
urable experience. Scripture acknowledges this spective of hope (Rom. 12:12). As one imitates
natural joy as well as a supernatural joy. The lat- Jesus in loving righteousness and hating lawless-
ter can be defined as a delight in life that runs ness (Heb. 1:9) joy is a by-product. Fellowship
deeper than pain or pleasure. This kind of joy is with other believers is an aid to joy (Rom. 12:15;
not limited by or tied solely to external circum- 1 Cor. 12:26) as well as true ministry to others
stances. It is not a fleeting emotion but a quality (Prov. 12:20). Suffering need not hinder ones joy.
of life that can be experienced in the midst of a In fact, suffering for Christ can even be a cause
variety of emotions. for rejoicing (Acts 5:41).
Joy is described as a gift of God (Neh. 12:43; Ec- Our chief joy is to be a vital interest in Gods
cles. 5:20; 8:15; Gal. 5:22; 1 Thess. 1:6). It is a nat- purposes, program, and presence (Ps. 137:6).
ural outcome of fellowship with God (Ps. 16:89). Today it is the building of his church (Matt.
It can be experienced in sorrow and trials (Hab. 16:18). Our chief responsibility is to exalt Christ
3:1719; Rom. 5:3; 2 Cor. 6:10; 1 Peter 1:6). and let him have the preeminence (John 3:29;
The joy that God gives is described as great Col. 1:18). In Christ the God of joy can be known
(Jude 24), unspeakable (1 Peter 1:8), continual and enjoyed.
(1 Thess. 5:16), full (John 16:24), increasing (Isa. WILLIAM D. THRASHER
9:3), and eternal (Isa. 51:11; 61:7; John 16:22). It
is to be a part of true worship (Ps. 100:2), service Bibliography. J. Piper, Let the Nations Be Glad.
(Deut. 28:47), giving (2 Cor. 9:7), prayer (Phil.
1:4), obedience (Isa. 64:5; Luke 19:6; Heb. 13:17), Judaism. See JEW, JUDAISM.
527
Judgment
Judgment. Even in the postmodern relativistic catalysts for self-reflection and spiritual growth
West, where judgment is repugnant, the chilling into Christs image (2 Thess. 1:35; Col. 3:10).
details of ethnic cleansing or child abuse haunt Gods present judgment is not simply directed to-
us with the questions, When will the wicked be ward individuals (Rev. 2:5; 3:1521). Believers
judged? Will justice ever be established? need to attend to Gods chastisement of every
Sin and Justice. Created for God, humanity Christian institution, even the missions move-
proclaimed its autonomy. This rebellion against ment, so that we learn to embody Christs humil-
God is the root of human evil and injustice to oth- ity (2 Cor. 6:211; 1 Cor. 4:916).
ers (Rom. 1:2032; 8:7). History is the narrative of The Christians Judgment of Others. The
human deceit, treachery, and persecution. Per- proclamation of God in Jesus Christ necessarily
haps our actions are not so obviously wicked, but carries judgment against sinners. Furthermore,
are hidden behind false smiles and vain civility. correction is essential to forming a church where
Or maybe we were like those who were unwilling the fellowship of believers self-consciously build
to defend Jesus publicly when the crowd called up each other into Christs body (Eph. 4:16).
for his crucifixion. Sins of commission as well as When preaching is easily turned aside, believers
omission have just as deadly repercussions in so- are obliged to help other believers recognize their
ciety. So history prompts the constant refrain, sinfulness (Matt. 18:1517; Gal. 5:266:2). When
Where is the God of justice? (Mal. 2:17). Jesus cautions, Do not judge, or you too will be
God made us accountable to himself, the judged, he is not precluding preaching or re-
Moral Judge of the cosmos (Rom. 2:1516). We proof (Matt. 7:14). However correction must be
know wrongs must be righted. Even without con- in his name, so that even the admonisher re-
sidering restitution, we have a sense of what is mains subject to his Lord. Believers must never
necessary to begin righting a wrong. The offender attempt to impose Gods final judgment, but to
should be forced to suffer this wrong in order to overcome evil with good (Rom. 12:1921). For
recognize the full depth of this injury. That is the God alone is the holy Judge.
purpose of retributive punishment as expressed TIMOTHY R. PHILLIPS
in the Old Testament law of retaliation: those
who injure their neighbor, whatever they have SEE ALSO Church Discipline; Providence of God.
done must be done to them: fracture for fracture, Bibliography. L. Morris, The Biblical Doctrine of
eye for eye, tooth for tooth (Lev. 24:1920). Judgment; T. C. Oden, Pastoral Theology: Essentials of
The Final Judgment. Scriptures ultimate an- Ministry, pp. 20619; D. M. Paton, Christian Missions
swer for evil is that God, the holy Judge of all the and the Judgment of God; M. R. Talbot, Reformation and
earth, will call every human to account for his or Revival 5:4 (Fall 1996): 11734.
her life on the Day of Judgment (Pss. 5:46;
31:18; Matt. 12:36; Rom. 2:611; 1 Peter 4:5). Judson, Adoniram (17881850). American mis-
This life has grave moral significance! Nothing sionary to Myanmar. Born in Malden, Massachu-
can be hidden from God, not even our secret setts, and one of Americas best known mission-
thoughts (Rom. 2:16). Every deed will be de- aries, he and his wife, ANN HASSELTINE JUDSON
clared, from idle words to the failure to help the (17891826), sailed for India from Salem, Mass-
hungry (Matt. 16:27; 25:3146; Rev. 22:12). We all achusetts, on February 19, 1812, with the first
face a future judgment of either exoneration or American foreign missions contingent. Though
condemnation, receiving a welcome to heaven or sponsored by the Congregationalist AMERICAN
the sentence of HELL. BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS,
But all have sinned (Rom. 3:23; see also DE- the Judsons became Baptists while en route to
PRAVITY OF HUMANKIND). So Gods judgment will Asia. This decision led to their founding the first
fall on all, except those saved by Jesus work. For mission to Burma (now Myanmar) and the for-
Christ, the final Judge, has already suffered the mation of what became the American Baptist
judgment for those who have faith in Christs Missionary Union to support them and other
blood (John 3:18; 5:24; Rom. 3:25; 2 Cor. 5:21). missionaries.
And what God has already forgiven, he will not Gifted linguistically, Judson labored to learn
recall (Jer. 31:34; Isa. 43:25). So those in Christ Burmese, a complex language. In 1834 he com-
will stand without accusation (Rom. 8:3334; pleted the Burmese Bible and his Dictionary,
Eph. 5:27). It is precisely the gospels offer of REC- English and Burmese in 1849. A church was es-
ONCILIATION with God that occasions missions. tablished despite Judsons horrendous seventeen-
Gods Judgment of Those He Loves. Scripture month imprisonment, the death of his first wife
also teaches that God uses contemporary cir- (1826) and child (1827), the death of Sara Board-
cumstances to test our hearts, discipline us, and man Judson (1845), his second wife, and his own
direct us toward his righteous ways (Deut. 8:15; persistent ill health. Returning to America in 1845,
1 Cor. 11:2932; Heb. 12:517; Rev. 3:1719). God Judson advanced the expanding foreign missions
will not let his people continue in SIN without movement. In 1846 he married Emily Chubbeck, a
judgment. So failures and persecutions should be novelist, and returned to Burma. On a voyage to
528
Justice of God
improve his health he died near the Andeman Is- wide mission of the Christian church has gener-
lands on April 12, 1850, and was buried at sea. ated vigorous debate within evangelical circles.
The son of a Congregationalist clergyman, Opinions differ over whether social justice is-
alumnus of Brown University (B.A., 1807) and sues should be strictly distinguished from the
Andover Seminary (B.D., 1810), Judson is re- mandate to evangelize the lost and instead be
membered for a Burmese church of seven thou- considered by individual Christians subsequent
sand members at his death, his translation work, to conversion; whether social action should be
and his contribution to the launching of Ameri- understood as providing a bridge to evangelism
can foreign missions. by presenting opportunities for the verbal procla-
THOMAS A. ASKEW mation of the gospel of eternal salvation; or
lastly, should the concern for social justice be
Bibliography. C. Anderson, To the Golden Shore: The
Life of Adoniram Judson; R. Torbet, Venture of Faith;
seen as an integral part of the broader mission of
F. Wayland, A Memoir of the Life and Labors of the Rev. the church in the world. In other words, is social
Adoniram Judson, DD. justice the by-product of the mission of evangel-
ism, the means toward accomplishing that fore-
Judson, Ann Hazeltine (17891826). American most task of evangelism, or a legitimate goal of
pioneer missionary in Myanmar. Judson was mission?
truly a lady of firsts: the first American woman Background to the Debate. Evangelical mis-
missionary, the first missionary wife who felt her sions historically have demonstrated an interest
own call to missions, the first woman missionary in matters of social import. Mission activity, at
who wrote on missionary life and the conditions least to some degree, has been directed at the
of mission work (and who became the leading fe- eradication of personal vices, the establishment
male missionary author of the early nineteenth of hospitals and orphanages, the promotion of
century), the first missionary woman who ad- literacy, and the provision of emergency relief
dressed the specific concerns of women, and the from natural disasters. Critics, however, would
first wife of Adoniram Judson. suggest that these laudable efforts are but ges-
The Judsons sailed to India thirteen days after tures of charity, which focus on the individual
their marriage in 1812, and eventually established and ignore the systemic realities that perpetuate
mission work in Burma. Ann learned the lan- social ills. They posit that such endeavors also
guage quickly and began a womens Sunday class are limited by a missiological perspective that is
to study the Scriptures that her husband was condemnatory of society and wary of close con-
translating. The difficult living conditions contact with a fallen world. Many locate the seedbed
tributed to constant illness, and she was forced to of this reticence to engage the larger context in
leave Burma on several occasions for medical rea- the fundamentalist-modernist controversies of
sons. Her first child, a son, died at seven months the early part of the twentieth century.
of age. Her courage was sorely tested when war Nevertheless, in some evangelical circles there
broke out between England and Burma, and has been a broadening of the theology of mission
Adoniram was imprisoned. Pregnant and alone, over the last fifty years to embrace a more holistic
she got food and clothing through to him and framework (Van Engen; see HOLISTIC MISSION).
kept him alive. When Adoniram was sent on a This development represents a recuperation of
death march, Ann followed, carrying her new- evangelical roots in, for example, the influence of
born, and eventually became so ill that guards al- JOHN WESLEY (170391) and Methodism on En-
lowed Adoniram to care for her and the baby. The glish society, the successful efforts by William
British liberated the Judsons in 1826, but both Wilberforce (17591833) and others to abolish the
Ann and the baby girl died soon afterwards. slave trade in the British Empire, and the two
JUDITH LINGENFELTER
GREAT AWAKENINGS in the United States in the eigh-
teenth and nineteenth centuries which were con-
Bibliography. B. Miller, Ann Judson: Heroine of cerned with improving the moral life of believers
Burma; H. M. W. Morrow, Splendor of God. and fomenting Christian education and anti-slav-
ery sentiments (see ABOLITIONIST MOVEMENT).
Justice of God. The evangelistic commitment of This debate concerning the relationship of jus-
evangelical missions has continuously stressed tice issues to mission can also be placed within a
the centrality of the cross of Jesus Christ as pay- wider global discussion. In the first place, reflec-
ment for the penalty for sin. This atoning work tion on the topic can be set against the backdrop
satisfies the requirements of the justice of God for of the history of missions around the globe.
eternal life. The Bible reveals, however, that the Some missiologists denounce what they consider
justice of God encompasses more than the spiri- to be the complicity of mission agencies with the
tual dimension. His demands extend into the con- European colonization of the TWO-THIRDS WORLD
crete realities of human social existence. For the and the surfacing of contemporary North At-
last several decades this aspect of the justice of lantic economic neo-colonial attitudes in mission
God and the relevance of this justice to the world- structures and operation (Costas). More nuanced
529
Justice of God
approaches would suggest a chronological con- that, even as sin has both vertical and horizontal
vergence and some ideological affinities of early dimensions, the justice of God involves every di-
missions with that colonizing activity and do rec- mension of human existence.
ognize certain theological limitations. These re- The call of Abram. The divine commitment to
sponses offer a more positive evaluation of pio- the various spheres of justice reflected in Gene-
neer and modern missionary efforts (Escobar sis 111 serves as the framework for the call of
and Driver; Scott; Sanneh; Nez and Taylor). Abram. Part of this charge is that he be a chan-
Second, the relationship between justice and nel of blessing to the world (Gen. 12:3). This
mission has received attention at several inter- blessing involves worship and confession of the
national evangelical congresses. An increasing true God, as well as trusting obedience (e.g.,
awareness of Christian social responsibility has Gen. 12:78, 14:1824, 15:6, 18:1719; see ABRA-
been encouraged by these gatherings, beginning HAMIC C OVENANT ). The patriarchal accounts in
with Wheaton and Berlin in 1966, through Lau- Genesis demonstrate that the notion of blessing
sanne (1974) to Manila (1989). The WORLD EVAN- has a social dimension grounded in the charac-
GELICAL FELLOWSHIP has sponsored various con- ter of God. For instance, Abraham intercedes for
sultations and regional congresses to wrestle Sodom on the basis of divine justice (Gen.
with justice. These meetings have witnessed the 18:2232), a justice which demands chastise-
growing input of theologians from developing ment, but that is tempered by mercy.
countries, who daily face the harsh realities of The exodus and Sinai. God responds to the cry
poverty and war, and of those whom some label of the Israelites in Egypt because of Gods
radical evangelicals (e.g., Ron Sider and Jim covenant, but action on their behalf also is moti-
Wallis). Several recently published missiology vated by compassion for their suffering of cruel
texts underscore the centrality of the justice of infanticide and oppressive labor (Exod. 2:2325).
God for mission (Scott; Dyrness; Bosch). For While they are miraculously delivered in part to
certain missiologists this trend is cause for be free to worship the Lord (Exod. 5:3), they are
alarm, because the primacy of evangelism is per- called as well to create a new type of society in
ceived to be under threat. They liken this direc- the Promised Land. The Law given at Sinai
tion in missiological reflection to some of the (Exod. 2040) and presented in the rest of the
theological options taken by the WORLD COUNCIL Pentateuch reveals that God is founding an alter-
OF CHURCHES since its watershed assembly at Up- native community with a different kind of spiri-
psala of 1968 (Beyerhaus). tual ethos and social ethic. The Lord desires jus-
Foundational Biblical and Theological tice among his own people, and their laws are to
Themes. The following brief survey establishes be a model and testimony to the surrounding na-
that the demand for justice, both spiritual and tions (Deut. 4:58).
social, is dear to the heart of God. This all- The Servant Songs of Isaiah. The themes of sal-
encompassing justice should be central to the vation and justice are repeated throughout these
mission of the people of God in the world and in- messianic passages (Isa. 42:19; 49:113; 50:411;
carnated within the community of faith. Differ- 52:1353:12). The ministry of the Servant will be
ent missiological positions, of course, will appre- to establish a reign of righteousness and peace in
ciate this mandate in their own particular ways. faithfulness to the God of Israel, a striking an-
The Fall and spread of sin. God announces in tithesis to the idolatry, war, and oppression that
the garden that to eat the forbidden fruit will serve as the backdrop to this portion of Isaiah.
bring death (Gen. 2:1617). Later revelation indi- This hope embraces all the nations of the earth
cates that transgression brought spiritual death and is secured by the voluntary self-sacrifice of
(Rom. 5:1221), and the provision of covering the Servant.
through the death of an animal (Gen. 3:21) fore- Luke 4:1620. This inaugural sermon of Jesus
shadows the Laws sacrifices for sin and ulti- ministry is based on Isaiah 61:12a (and 58:6b).
mately the sacrifice of the Lamb of God, Jesus That Isaianic passage, which describes a mes-
Christ (e.g., Isa. 53:713; John 2:9; Heb. 910; sianic jubilee for the nation of Israel, is now
Rev. 5:614). The first human death recorded given a richer significance, even as Jesus declares
after the Fall in Genesis 3 is fratricide. Cain kills its fulfillment. On the one hand, the mention of
Abel. Later, Lamech boasts of his intention of un- the poor, prisoners, the sick, and the oppressed
controlled revenge (Gen. 4:29, 2324). Cain is anticipates the special targets of his ministry. A
judged by God, and the impetuosity of Lamech is closer look at Lucan theology indicates that these
contrasted with calling on the name of the Lord terms have spiritual implications, too. His deeds
(Gen. 4:1016, 26; cf. 5:24). The Lord condemns and words are good news to those who are open
the pervasive violence with a universal Flood to God and his Christ (6:2026), whose bondage
(Gen. 6:11) but afterward delegates the authority can be demonic (4:3335; 9:1, 3743; 11:1428)
to maintain justice to human agents and struc- and their blindness spiritual (1:79; 7:47; 24:47).
tures (Gen. 9:56; Rom. 12:1713:5). These early His person and work exemplify the grace and ex-
chapters of the first book of the Bible disclose igencies of divine justice, and in his death it finds
530
Justification
propitiation (Rom. 3:2526; Heb. 2:17; 1 John of works, but that from the human perspective,
2:2, 4:10). he was shown to be a righteous man (justified)
John 20:21. Some propose that the words of by his works. The works were a result of his faith
Jesus in John 20:21 (cf. John 17:18; Mark in God. His faith justified Abraham (Gen. 15:6;
12:2831 and parallels) should be taken as the Rom. 4:13), his works openly demonstrated that
commission which defines Christian mission: the faith, and therefore, in the eyes of people he was
life and ministry of Jesus are a paradigm to be shown to be righteous (justified, James 2:21; see
imitated (Stott). This perspective does not devalue also, e.g., Deut. 25:1).
evangelistic proclamation, which others consider There is also a technical sense of the word in
the defining prescription in the other GREAT COM- theological propositions. This is the forensic or
MISSION passages (Matt. 28:1820; Mark 16:1518; legal declaration of one being declared just be-
Luke 24:4549), but argues rather for a more fore God. Paul is the primary theologian of this
comprehensive understanding of missiona ho- doctrine in the New Testament. He begins by
listic vision which would incorporate both the pointing out that the doers of the law shall be
spiritual and social spheres of Gods justice. justified (Rom. 2:13). The context is that it was
Finally, mention should be made of the theme not enough to claim to do the law, one must do
of the KINGDOM OF GOD. The dynamic rule of God the law to be justified before God. He continues
is inseparable from the justice of his character. his argument by pointing to the condemnation of
Throughout history he expresses the demand for the whole human race (both Jews who trusted in
justice and intervenes to effect it in the various their ability to do the law, and Gentiles who did
spheres suggested in the preceding survey. The not have the law) because there is none right-
future establishment of a kingdom of justice, in eous (in Gods sight), . . . none who does good (by
all of its breadth, is an integral part of the bibli- Gods standard) (Rom. 3:1018). Therefore, by
cal hope. the works of the law no flesh will be justified in
M. DANIEL CARROLL R. His sight (Rom. 3:20; Gal. 3:2, 16; 3:11). How-
ever, there was one Man who did keep the law,
Bibliography. M. Arias and A. Johnson, The Great fulfilling its every demand. This law doer was
Commission: Biblical Models for Evangelism; P. J. Bey- Jesus Christ, the Second Adam, God who became
erhaus, Gods Kingdom & the Utopian Error; D. J. man (Rom. 5:1519). In this sense, justification is
Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theol-
recognition of fulfilling the requirements of the
ogy of Mission; O. E. Costas, Christ Outside the Gate:
Mission Beyond Christendom; W. A. Dyrness, Let the
law and is an actualization of justice in declaring
Earth Rejoice: A Biblical Theology of Holistic Mission; him righteous.
S. Escobar and J. Driver, Christian Mission and Social Theologically speaking, justification as it ap-
Justice; E. A. Nez, C. and W. D. Taylor, Crisis and plies to other humans must be imputed because
Hope in Latin America: An Evangelical Perspective (rev. it cannot be earned and is not intrinsic to human
ed.); L. Sanneh, Encountering the West: Christianity and nature. It is given as a gift to those who believe
the Global Cultural Process; W. Scott, Bring Forth Jus- (Rom. 3:28) and this gift is available only by
tice: A Contemporary Perspective on Mission; J. R. W. Gods grace (Rom. 3:24). It is a divine act with a
Stott, Christian Mission in the Modern World; C. E. Van purely legal nature and not an infusion of moral
Engen, Earthen Vessels: American Evangelicals and For- quality into the character of the one justified. As
eign Missions, 18801980, pp. 20332.
the first Adam sinned and brought condemnation
to the human race (Rom. 5:1214), the second
Justification. Justification is primarily a foren- Adam lived righteously and provides justification
sic term implying the results of Gods work of de- for those who trust in him (Rom. 5:1819). The
claring his elect to be righteous. The terms justi- fact that the Righteous One died in the place of
fication and righteousness are related in that they unrighteous humankind (Rom. 5:69) provided
are both from the root dikai, having to do with the way in which God could declare righteous his
both penalty (or punishment) and justice. Justifi- fallen creatures yet remain righteous in himself.
cation is a primary topic in the writings of Paul, Thus, he is both just and the justifier of the one
who discusses the issue more than any other believing (Rom. 3:26). Thus Paul calls Christians
writer in the New Testament. Pauls mission was to mission and gospel proclamation. How can
to preach the gospel to the peoples of the earth they learn without someone preaching to them?
with a view to their being justified by grace And how can they preach unless they are sent?
through faith in Jesus Christ (Rom. 1:17). (Rom. 10:1415).
There is both a generic use of the term justifi- The status of being justified does not in any
cation and a technical use. Basically, the idea of manner assume that the one justified will cease
justification is to be set right or to pronounce from sin or that his or her character has become
just. Thus, people may be justified among them- intrinsically righteous. Sinlessness is no more
selves as in James 2:21, was not Abraham our possible after being justified than before. When
father justified by works? James is not declaring sin does arise in the life of a believer, the Father
that Abraham was righteous before God because will discipline his children (Heb. 12) but it does
531
Justification
not affect his or her justification because it was ten the message of justification and has set out to
attributed upon faith not works. Paul raises the conform the world to standards they neither un-
rhetorical question as to who could bring charges derstand nor appreciate. It is typical of many
against the elect since God is the one who justi- Christians to stand back and condemn the life-
fies (Rom. 8:33). If God has declared the sinner styles of the unregenerate and the social evils in
righteous, no one can bring condemnation to the world without understanding that that is all
him or her. Justification is based upon the death non-Christians know. In this open depravity, the
and resurrection of Jesus and ones personal faith wickedness of humankind has highlighted the
in that provision (Rom. 5:1, 9; 4:25). helpless condition of fallen humans. This pro-
For those carrying the message of justification vides a powerful environment for those who have
to the world, the key elements must not be lost. experienced the grace of God to declare the love
The sin and darkness of the lost is well docu-
and provision of God. The Word of God offers a
mented in both Scripture and the human condi-
solution to the helplessness of humankind. The
tion. The need of the lost is to understand their
insufficiency and Gods gracious provision of jus- mission of the church is to proclaim this oppor-
tification by grace through faith. The bad news is tunity to be set right with God (justification).
that all have sinned (Rom. 3:23) and that the ED GLASSCOCK
wages of that sin is death (Rom. 6:23). The good Bibliography. P. Enns, The Moody Handbook of The-
news (gospel) is that God has provided for sin- ology; R. W. Lyon, BEB 2:125254; L. M. Peterson,
ners by his own grace and righteousness (Rom. ZPEB, 3:76473; G. Schrenk, TDNT; D. W. Simon, DoB,
5:89). The church seems at times to have forgot- 2:82629.
532
Kagawa, Toyohiko (18881960). Japanese evan-

gelist and social activist. Born in Japan as the il-
legitimate son of a nobleman, Kagawa became a
Christian through the friendship of two Presby-
terian missionary families. As a seminary student
in Kobe, he moved into the citys Shinkawa slum
district to live and work with its people. His nov-
elistic account of this experience, Crossing the
Death Line (1920), gained him fame.
After completing his B.D. at Princeton Theo-
Kk
fourth chapter on prophetic theology. A grass-
roots influenced document, it contrasts state
theology (which is a defense for the status quo
of racism, capitalism, and totalitarianism) and
logical Seminary, Kagawa returned to minister at church theology (which is critical of apartheid
a church in Kobe. He also encouraged the organ- in a limited manner) with prophetic theology
ization of labor unions to meet the needs of which is a call to confrontation and action. The
Japanese laborers and the formation of farmers document reflects the concern of LIBERATION
and consumers cooperatives. After the great 1923 THEOLOGY and PRAXIS as the sign of the reality of
Tokyo earthquake, he and his family moved to the gospel. There was a worldwide response and
Tokyo to continue his ministries from there. He reaction from Christian groups critical of apar-
carried out evangelistic campaigns, and in 1930 theid. A measured response came from a group
started the Kingdom of God Movement to reach of evangelicals (Evangelical Witness . . .) who ap-
groups that had hitherto been unevangelized. preciated the concerns but questioned the legiti-
As Japan entered into military conflict with macy of violence to overthrow the apartheid
China in 1931, Kagawas pacifism repeatedly got regime. The Karios Document itself was critical
him into trouble with the government. Hostilities
of what it termed church theologys condem-
with America beginning in 1941 saddened him
nation of violence to oppose apartheid while ig-
further. After Japans defeat, he declined a role in
noring the violence done by the government on
politics, and despite ill health, continued in his
a daily basis in support of apartheid. The docu-
pastorate and kept writing books and articles on
the relation of the Christian faith to many topics. ment highlights the difficulty Christians have
Controversies arose over his wartime radio had throughout the ages deciding when rebel-
broadcasts and his disparaging comments about lion is appropriate.
Japans outcaste community. He carried on with JAMES J. STAMOOLIS
his pastoral and evangelistic work until his Bibliography. The Kairos Document: Challenge to the
death. Often better known abroad than in Japan, Church, rev. ed.; Evangelical Witness in South Africa: A
his legacy combines ministry, evangelism, and Critique of Evangelical Theology and Practice by Evan-
social action, and continues to challenge Chris- gelicals Themselves.
tians in many countries.
JAMES M. PHILLIPS Kalley, Robert Reid (180988). Scottish pioneer
Bibliography. C. H. Davey, Kagawa of Japan; T. Ka- missionary in Madeira and Brazil. Born to a
gawa, Before the Dawn; R. Schildgen, Toyohiko Kagawa: wealthy family in Glasgow, Kalleys agnosticism
Apostle of Love and Social Justice. gave way to conversion in 1834. Initially he was
accepted to work with the LMS in China; how-
Kairos Document. A political and theological ever, his marriage to Margaret Crawford violated
commentary on apartheid in South Africa first mission policy and he resigned from the society
published in 1985. The country was under a before setting sail. In 1838, he and his wife went
state of emergency which allowed the govern- instead to Madeira, a Portuguese island in the At-
ment to suspend certain civil rights. A second lantic Ocean. His evangelistic strategy there in-
edition, more widely distributed, was published cluded medical work, school development, and
one year later with a significant revision of the preaching. Many came to Christ, but the islands
533
Kalley, Robert Reid
Catholic officials, threatened by Kalleys success, Kardecism. Kardecism is one of the most im-
expelled him in 1846. portant popular religions in Brazil with an esti-
Some two thousand of those who had come to mated 20 million followers, including 7 million
Christ migrated from Madeira, and over the next regularly involved in spiritistic activities in the
several years Kalley visited among them in the nearly three thousand spirit centers all over the
Caribbean, the United States, Europe, and the nation. The founder of Kardecism was Hippolyte
Middle East. He also worked in southern Ireland, Leon Denizard Rivail. Rivail was born in France
Malta, and Lebanon. After the death of his first on October 3, 1804. After studying in Switzerland
wife, he remarried (Sarah Wilson) in 1852. The under the auspices of Pestalozzi, he returned to
couple later settled in Brazil (1855), where he de- Paris and started a primary school, applying
veloped a COLPORTAGE work, compiled a hymnal, Pestalozzis pedagogy. After an initial period of
planted churches, and worked to establish free- investigating the so-called rotating tables phe-
dom of religion in the Brazilian Constitution. In nomenon, which had caused much controversy
1858, he established Igreja Evanglica Fluminese, in the nineteenth century in the United States, he
considered the oldest Protestant church in Brazil. came to have his first spiritistic experiences in
In 1876 they retired to Edinburgh, where he con- his own home. With the participation of his two
tinued to serve evangelical causes until his death daughters as mediums he commenced his con-
in 1888. tacts with the spirit world. The spirit he con-
A. SCOTT MOREAU tacted told Rivail that at his incarnation, he was
a druid called Allan Kardec, from which name
Bibliography. W. B. Forsyth, The Wolf from Scotland; the term Kardecism is derived.
idem, DSCHT, p. 451; W. Mitchell, BDCM, pp. 35152; Despite being baptized in the Catholic faith
H. C. Moore, Through Flood and Flame: Adventures and and having been in contact with liberal Protes-
Perils of Protestant Heroes. tantism, Kardec was unprepared to deal with and
discern the spirits that from then on would be de-
Kane, J. Herbert (191092). American missiolo- livering their deceiving messages. On March 25,
gist and missionary to China. Born in Canada and 1856, while in a trance, he started receiving rev-
later naturalized as an American citizen, Herbert elations from a spirit called The Spirit of Truth,
Kane graduated from Moody Bible Institute in which claimed to be the fulfillment of John
1935. He and his wife Winifred went to China in 16:1213. Kardec was informed that his mission
1935 with the CHINA INLAND MISSION (CIM). After was to be the codifier of the final revelation given
language study, the Kanes were assigned to by God to humankind. After Moses and Jesus,
Fouyang in Anhui province where they spent God has finally sent his Spirit. With the assis-
most of their missionary career. Under Kane and tance of ten mediums he could receive the mes-
his missionary and Chinese colleagues Fouyang sages that came to be part of the Kardecist cor-
became one of the most spiritually productive pus, including the book of Spirits, the book of the
areas of the CIM work. The Kanes remained in Mediums, and, the most widely known among
China during much of the Japanese occupation, them, the Gospel according to Allan Kardec.
but were finally evacuated in 1945. They returned The main beliefs of Kardecism are the possi-
to China in 1946, but again needed to evacuate in bility and importance of communicating with the
1950 after nineteen months under communist spirits of the dead (necromancy); the belief that
domination. by the process of reincarnation each person pro-
After his return from China, Kane received fur- gresses in the spiritual realm; and the belief that
ther education (B.A. Barrington College; M.A. once someone has achieved a higher stage of
Brown University) and then began a career teach- spiritual development, he or she passes into an-
ing missiology at Barrington College (195163), other spiritual sphere in another world. By prac-
Lancaster Bible College (196367), and Trinity ticing charity and accepting suffering as a purg-
Evangelical Divinity School (196780). Barring- ing element necessary for spiritual growth, each
ton College conferred the honorary degree of Doc- human being should reach progressively higher
tor of Humane Letters on him in 1971. stages of maturityhence the heavy emphasis on
Kane served as president of the AMERICAN SOCI- good works for the salvation of the soul in Karde-
cist spiritism. This emphasis is reflected in the
ETY OF MISSIOLOGY (1976) and authored over ten
numerous orphanages and philanthropic centers
books on missions, the most noted being Under-
all over Brazil. God is seen as a distant being ac-
standing Christian Missions. These activities and
cessible only through his agents, the spirit
his teaching expertise led his colleagues to de-
guides. The Bible has to be correctly interpreted.
scribe him as having an encyclopedic knowledge
Jesus is seen as a spirit who has reached the
of missions. highest position in the development scale. The
RALPH R. COVELL
revelation brought to Kardec by the self-entitled
Bibliography. J. H. Kane, IBMR 11:3 (July 1987): spirit of truth is claimed to be the fulfillment of
12932; idem, Twofold Growth. Jesus promises in the Gospel of John. The devil
534
Kato, Byang Henry
and his demons do not exist. The universe is in- change, however, when he baptized three men,
habited by millions of spirits in different stages including a Shinto priest, in 1868. With these
of spiritual development. By contact between the three men as a foundation, the church began to
living and the dead and the process of reincarna- grow. By 1880, the Russian Church elevated
tion, human beings will finally achieve their sal- Nicholas as bishop of Japan for the almost 5,000
vation. The long journey of spiritual transforma- believers he had baptized. Although no other
tion obviously presupposes the existence of good Russian missionaries had come to help, by 1896
and bad spirits, but this fact is to be understood the Orthodox Church had grown to over 23,000.
as a normal situation that reflects the constant By the fiftieth anniversary of his arrival in Japan,
evolutive state of this planet and its inhabitants. the church consisted of 33,017 Christians in 266
Kardecism has a tremendous appeal to the communities, 43 clergy, 121 lay preachers, 200
Brazilian people. The daily socioeconomic strug- teachers, a seminary with 94 students, and 2
gles and the tragedies of life are readily under- girls schools with 80 students.
stood by them as an inevitable and necessary Together with his astounding accomplishments
product of the karma process of soul develop- as a missionary and bishop, his other main con-
ment. Also, the overlapping of two worlds, the tribution was the translation of the entire New
visible and invisible, implies the presence and in- Testament and most of the Old Testament, as
terference of good and bad spirits in human life. well as many liturgical services into Japanese.
Through a message that demands a lifestyle of LUKE A. VERONIS
charity combined with interacting with the good
spirits of the dead, Kardecists hope to achieve Bibliography. N. Gorodetzky, IRM 31(4): 400411;
salvation in the sense of spiritual development. I. Kondrashov, Theological Journal of the Moscow Patri-
archate 11 (12): 6973, 7276; L. A. Veronis, Missionar-
Kardecism is an important and growing reli- ies, Monks, and Martyrs: Making Disciples of All Nations.
gious force in Brazilian society, having nominal
Catholics as the main source of new followers.
The evangelical church in Brazil has so far been Kato, Byang Henry (193675). Nigerian evan-
the only force to successfully oppose Karde- gelical church leader. Born in Kwoi, Nigeria, and
cisms growing influence. raised in traditional religion, Kato became a
The church in Brazil as well as missionaries Christian under the influence of a local African
who serve there face a great challenge in reach- teacher. After theological training in Nigeria, he
ing the millions involved in this spiritistic prac- received a B.D. from the University of London in
tice. Those seeking to reach Kardecists for Christ 1966, and was elected general secretary of his de-
should be aware of the distortions in Kardecs nomination, the Evangelical Churches of West
teaching about reincarnation taken from the Africa. In February 1973 Kato was chosen to
books of Isaiah, Malachi, and John. More impor- head the Association of Evangelicals of Africa
tant, however, the church must recognize Karde- (AEA). Nearly three years of whirlwind activity
cists as people who are sincere seekers of truth. followed, throughout Africa and internationally,
Thus, Christians should pay special attention to including a Th.D. from Dallas Theological Semi-
engaging in pragmatic expressions of love, all of nary, a major address at the LAUSANNE CONGRESS
which are to be done in the power of the Holy ON WORLD EVANGELIZATION (1974), election as vice
Spirit girded with a deep prayer commitment for president of the WORLD EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP
those they are seeking to reach. (WEF), and appointment as chairman of the
JARBAS DA SILVA WEF Theological Commission. All this was sud-
denly cut short by Katos accidental death in De-
S EE ALSO Latin American New Religious cember 1975, at the age of thirty-nine.
Movements. While Kato spoke and wrote prodigiously, he
remains best known for his monograph Theologi-
Karma. See SOTERIOLOGY IN WORLD RELIGIONS. cal Pitfalls in Africa, which called for a Christian-
ity that would be both truly African and truly bib-
Kasatkin, Nicholas (18361912). Russian Or- lical. Katos continental influence stemmed not
thodox missionary to Japan. Kasatkin was born least from his articulate affirmation of African
in the Smolensk province of Russia. Graduating identity, combined with his evident commitment
at the top of his class, he was urged by his supe- to a centrist evangelical theology. As the first
riors to pursue a life in academia. He chose in- African to lead the alliance of evangelicals in
stead to go as the first Russian Orthodox mis- Africa, Kato infused that community with a vital-
sionary to Japan, arriving there on June 2, 1861. izing sense of identity and direction, encouraged
The first seven years of ministry proved frus- relevant theological engagement, and through his
trating as Nicholas struggled with the Japanese vision and wide personal contacts formatively
language and customs, the xenophobia and per- impacted the following generation of African
secution of the government, and the failure to evangelical leadership.
baptize even one convert. Things began to PAUL BOWERS
535
Kato, Byang Henry
Bibliography. P. Bowers, ERT 1 (April 1981): 3539; Bibliography. M. Keller, Twenty Years in Africa; T. W.
C. Breman, The Association of Evangelicals in Africa; Miller, Canadian Pentecostals: A History of the Pente-
B. Kato, African Cultural Revolution and Christian costal Assemblies of Canada.
Faith: Biblical Christianity in Africa.
Kentigern (c. 518603). Celtic missionary in Scot-
Kazakstan (Est. 2000 pop.: 17,694,000; 2,717,300 land. The grandson of a pagan king, Kentigern was
sq. km. [1,049,150 sq. mi.]). Containing massive born at Culcross in Scotland and was educated at
oil and mineral reserves, Kazakstan is, geograph- the monastery there. Around the year 550 he
ically, the largest of the Central Asian republics of founded the diocese at Glasgow, where he served
the former Soviet Union. During Soviet times, as bishop. Kentigern was driven from Scotland
Kazakstans population was almost evenly di- during the persecution after the fall of the Chris-
vided between Slavic and Turkic peoples, but tian king Rhydderch. He went to Wales, where he
since independence in 1991 many Slavs have left; founded a monastery at Llanelly and was instru-
ethnic Russians, however, still dominate the mental in many conversions. When Rhydderch
north. While most ethnic Kazaks profess nominal was restored to his throne in 570, Kentigern re-
allegiance to Islam, the majority are more ani- turned to Scotland, leaving the work in Wales to
mistic than Muslim. Evangelical Christians make his assistant Asaph, who became the first bishop of
up less than one percent of the population, and the Welsh see.
nearly all are Slavic or German, although by the During the remainder of his life, Kentigern is
late 1990s there were at least 2,500 known Kazak said to have established several churches in the
believers and 16 predominantly Kazak congrega- kingdom of Strathclyde, founded a college of
tions. There is a measure of religious liberty, and monks, and sent out numerous missionaries.
many churches have experienced significant Known widely in Scotland as Saint Mungo
growth. (Celtic for my dear friend), Kentigern is the pa-
RAYMOND P. PRIGODICH tron saint of Glasgow, where he is reputed to be
SEE ALSO Commonwealth of Independent States. buried in the Cathedral of Saint Mungo. Al-
though the details of his life were recorded much
later in twelfth century hagiographies, it is clear
Keller, Mirian Wittich (18891953). Canadian that Kentigern was an energetic evangelist and
missionary to Africa. Born Marian Weller in church planter who did much to establish Celtic
Parry Sound, Ontario, she graduated from Nor- Christianity in southwest Scotland.
mal Training School and later from Toronto ALAN SEAMAN
Business College. After returning home, Keller at-
tended Pentecostal meetings, where she was bap- Bibliography. A. Forbes, Lives of S. Ninian and
tized in the Holy Spirit in 1909. Called to mis- S. Kentigern; J. Shepard, Introduction to the History of
sions, she moved to the United States to attend the Church in Scotland.
the Rochester (N.Y.) Bible Training School. There
she met Karl Wittich, a Baptist minister; follow- Kenya (Est. 2000 pop.: 32,577,000; 580,367 sq.
ing their marriage in 1913 they went to German km. [224,080 sq. mi.]). Kenyas Christian history
East Africa (present-day Tanzania) as independ- began in 1498, when the Portuguese explorer
ent Pentecostal missionaries. Vasco da Gama landed in the East African
Karl died within months of their arrival; Mar- coastal city of Malindi. By the sixteenth century
ian, nonetheless, persevered four more years be- Augustinian friars had carved out a Christian
fore going back to Canada. Returning to British community of nearly six hundred African con-
East Africa (present-day Kenya), she met and verts in Mombasa and Malindi. This work was
married Otto Keller, an American Pentecostal destroyed in 1631 by a resurgent Islam.
missionary, in 1918. Together they pioneered the The modern history of Christianity in Kenya
Nyangori Mission Station at Kisumu. By 1923 dates from 1844 with the coming of the CMS
when they affiliated with the Pentecostal Assem- missionary J. LUDWIG KRAPF and slightly later
blies of Canada (PAOC), they had established J. Rebmann. Building on that foundation were
twenty-five district schools. When Otto died in the Methodists (1862), Church of Scotland Mis-
1942, three mission stations had been established sion (1891), and African Inland Mission (1895).
with two hundred branch churches and over five The Holy Ghost Fathers arrived in 1883.
hundred national ministers. The pioneering ef- The years of COLONIALISM (18961963) were a
forts of the Kellers and other PAOC missionaries time of growth for the mission-related churches
laid the foundation for the Pentecostal movement such as the Presbyterian Church of East Africa,
in Kenya and in particular the now sizable Pen- the Anglican Church of the Province of Kenya,
tecostal Assemblies of God, Kenya, with its ele- and the Africa Inland Church, but equally as sig-
mentary and secondary school system and min- nificant was the emergence of African independ-
isterial training schools. ent churches. A new emphasis on education of
GARY B. MCGEE the local population led to the formation of Al-
536
Keswick Convention
liance High School (1962), which in turn led to a unbroken fellowship with God and victory over
flood of similar institutions around the country. all known sin. Sin was always possible, but not
Within these schools a conflict arose between necessary. The biblical themes that were felt to
missionaries and Kikuyu Christians in 1929 over need wide promotion were personal surrender to
female circumcision. In the wake of this crisis a Christ and buoyant faith in his Word.
number of Kenyas independent churches were The first gathering took place in 1875 at
born. By the late 1990s Kenya contained well Keswick in Englands Lake District. From the out-
over two hundred independent churches claim- set the conventions attracted hundreds despite
ing 11 percent of the population. The African In- the sharp criticisms they provoked among some
dependent Pentecostal Church and the African prominent evangelical theologians (Keswick pro-
Orthodox Church, both centered among the motes sinless perfection!). For twelve years
Kikuyu of Central Kenya, constituted the largest Keswick excluded all reference to missions de-
of the indigenous churches (see also AFRICAN INI- spite the growing evidence that when young
TIATED CHURCH MOVEMENT). Christians deliberately surrendered themselves to
In the 1950s yearnings for political independ- Christ, they increasingly sensed a drawing to mis-
ence expressed itself in the Mau Mau rebellion. sionary service in the world for which he died.
The Revival Brethren opposed the Mau Mau and Fortunately, when this was officially recognized,
brought added vitality to the historic churches in a portion of each convention, usually the morning
a difficult time. The rebellion alerted both colo- of the closing day, was devoted to missionaries
nial powers and church leaders that the time for and overseas nationals speaking to the claim of
African leadership in church and state had ar- Christ to his peoples willing service in the cause
rived. A new emphasis on theological education of the evangelization of the world. Over the years
was one response of the churches to this new po- Keswicks influence on missions has been enor-
litical climate. mous, particularly on the STUDENT VOLUNTEER
After independence from Britain in 1963, church MOVEMENT and on the WORLD MISSIONARY CON-
growth escalated. The percentage of Christians in FERENCE at Edinburgh (1910).
Kenya jumped from an estimated 50 percent of the
Through promotion by such prominent Chris-
population in the 1960s to approximately 80 per-
tians as Bishop G. Handley Moule, J. HUDSON
cent in the early 1990s, though SYNCRETISM re-
TAYLOR, G. Campbell Morgan, DWIGHT L. MOODY,
mains a concern. Organizations such as the Evan-
ROBERT E. SPEER, JOHN R. MOTT, ARTHUR T. PIER-
gelical Fellowship of Kenya and the National
SON, Donald Grey Barnhouse, BILLY GRAHAM, and
Council of Churches of Kenya (NCCK) sought to
many others, and through the proliferation of
unite churches for evangelism, social action, and
conventions throughout the world, Keswick has
political justice. In urban areas like Nairobi (2 mil-
lion in 1995) new Christian movements of a strong gained and retained high regard among evangeli-
charismatic nature arose in the 1990s to challenge cals. It began the pattern of sending missioners
both historic churches and African independent to missionaries to bring them spiritual renewal
churches. while on the field; even today Keswick speakers
MARK SHAW continue to minister regularly in many parts of
the world. Current activities include the publish-
ing of annual reports, the radio broadcast of
Kerygma. See THE GOSPEL.
Keswick Week, a tape library service for na-
tional churches, and a hospitality fund to enable
Keswick Convention. An annual gathering in furloughed missionaries and overseas nationals
England begun modestly in the 1870s by evan- to attend conventions in the United Kingdom. In
gelicals concerned about their increasing polar- 1892 Keswick sent out AMY CARMICHAEL, its first
ization, even bitter controversies, at a time when missionary, and thereby inaugurated a pattern of
liberalism and AGNOSTICISM were making serious supporting workers serving in a wide range of so-
inroads into their churches. More, they were en- cieties overseas. Indeed, for almost a century
couraged by the unexpected national impact of
Keswick represented evangelical ecumenicity at
the first (1874) Moody/Sankey revival meetings in
its best, although at present it does not command
London coupled with the public cry for more au-
its former dominant position. This is doubtless
thenticity in evangelical Christian living. The de-
due to the emergence of more contemporary re-
cision was taken to convene a conference that
newal movements and to the change in style
would seek to promote Scriptural holiness
among evangelicals through the dynamism and
under the banner All One in Christ Jesus. The
underlying conviction of Keswicks founders was growth of the charismatic and house church
that through the gospel Christ offered his people movements, particularly in England.
ARTHUR F. GLASSER
the possibility of living victoriously by his in-
dwelling presence and power. In their eyes Scrip- Bibliography. J. C. Pollock, The Keswick Story; C. F.
ture held out the prospect of Christians enjoying Harford, ed., The Keswick Convention.
537
Keysser, Christian
Keysser, Christian (18771961). German mis- Second, in 1907 he started the early dawn
sionary to New Guinea. Born in Bavaria, Ger- prayer meeting every day for the troubled coun-
many, Keysser attended high school in Nuremberg try and the church. This early dawn prayer meet-
and the Missionary Institute in Neuendettelsau. In ing in every Korean church has continued until
1899 he sailed for New Guinea, where he was today and has been instrumental in the rapid
based primarily at the Lutheran mission station in growth of the Korean church over the years.
Sattelberg. Keysser remained there for over twenty Third, he was one of thirty-three Korean patri-
years as a church planter, linguist, and encourager ots who signed the Declaration of Independence
of indigenous Christian music. At times he also on March 1, 1919, in Seoul against the Japanese
served as a botanist, zoologist, ethnographer, ge- annexation of Korea and was imprisoned for
ographer, and explorer. Difficulties with the gov- three years. He died in the pulpit while he was
ernment in New Guinea caused him to return to preaching.
Germany in 1920. In his homeland he taught mis- BONG RIN RO
sions at Neuendettelsau, completed a dictionary of
Bibliography. S. H. Moffett, TCDCB, pp. 2012.
the Kate language (1925), earned a Ph.D. at the
University of Erlangen (1929), and wrote volumi-
nously on missionary principles and practices. He Kim, Helen (18991968). Korean evangelist and
contributed significantly to the field of missionary missions advocate. Kim, former president of
anthropology by focusing on the tribal mind in Ewha University (193961), was the best recog-
New Guinea and advocating group conversion and nized Christian woman educator in Korea in the
discipleship. His ethnic unit approach emphasized past generation. After graduating from Ewha
that evangelization should bring minimal cultural University in 1918, she began to teach there and
disruption and should create genuine Christian served for the university for fifty years, training
communities with a burden for missions. thousands of young women with Christian prin-
Keyssers missiological theories provoked a wide- ciples. She was the first Korean woman to re-
ranging debate. On one side was JOHANNES HOEK- ceive a Ph.D. degree, awarded by Columbia Uni-
ENDIJK, who extensively criticized Keysser. On the versity in New York in 1931.
other, DONALD MCGAVRAN openly acknowledged She also served the country as a diplomat for
Keyssers importance for his own thinking about Korea at the United Nations and a roving ambas-
church growth. sador for many years. During the Korean War
JAMES A. PATTERSON years, President Syngman Rhee asked her to be
in charge of administration for the Red Cross
Bibliography. D. McGavrans preface to the English and later of the Office of Public Information. She
translation of Keyssers A People Reborn.
received many honorary awards, including the
Ramon Magsayay Award for Public Service (the
Kil, Sun-Joo (18691935). Korean revivalist. Kil Philippines), the Certificate of Order of Cultural
was born in South Pyung Yang province in North Merit of the Republic of Korea, the Upper Room
Korea and grew up during a very critical period Citation for Leadership in World Christian Fel-
of Korean history. After Japan defeated China in lowship, the Order of Diplomatic Merit, First
the Sino-Japanese War (189495) over the con- Class for her contribution to educate more
trol of Korea, the Koreans knew that it was a women better.
matter of time before Japan would annex Korea. Kim was a dynamic spiritual leader with a
As a young man Kil was very interested in reli- tremendous emphasis on evangelism, social con-
gion, and studied Confucianism and Buddhism cern, and missions. After attending the World
extensively. In 1892 he entered the Anguk-Sa Student Christian Federation Conference in
Buddhist monastery for three years for prayer Peking in 1922, she was used as an instrument to
and meditation but found no solution to his spir- start the Korean YWCA. In 1961 Ewha University
itual longing until he met a missionary named sent three graduates as the first women mission-
James Lee, who led him to Christ in 1895. aries to Pakistan. After her retirement, she spent
Kil made contributions to the church and the her energy for the evangelization of Korea.
country largely in three areas. First, he was one of BONG RIN RO
the seven graduates of the first graduating class of
the Presbyterian Seminary in Pyung Yang. He be- Bibliography. S. H. Moffett, TCDCB, p. 202; C. C.
came the first installed Korean pastor of a Korean Ok, BDCM, p. 364.
church, the historic Chang Tae Hyun Presbyterian
Church in Pyung Yang. He led many revival meet- Kim, Joon-Gon (1925 ). Korean evangelist and
ings in different parts of the country in spite of his missions advocate. His Christian testimony dur-
poor eyesight and persecution. He preached over ing the Korean War has touched many lives
13,600 times during this thirty-five-year ministry around the globe. When he was the chaplain and
and became one of the key spiritual leaders for principal of Soongsil High School (195156) in
the first Great Revival of 1907. Kwangju City, North Korean communist soldiers
538
Kingdom of God
captured the city in the summer of 1950 and ried about the crowds that they issued a warrant
killed his wife and father in front of his eyes and for Kimbangus arrest. Kimbangu eluded them
severely beat him. Later, he led the murderer to for three months before giving himself up. His
Christ. initial death sentence was commuted to life im-
He has been recognized by the Korean church prisonment in part at the urging of missionaries.
for organizing a number of mass Christian gath- Kimbangu spent the rest of his life as a model
erings in Korea. In 1974 he organized Explo 74 prisoner, dying in 1951. The EJCSK, not offi-
at Youido Plaza in Seoul, August 1317, when cially recognized until 1959, is estimated to be
700,000 people gathered at the opening night to over 5 million strong. It is led by Kimbangus
hear BILL BRIGHT. He was also the chairman for youngest son, and is an example of a contextual-
the 1980 World Evangelization Crusade August ized denominational framework that missionar-
1115 with 2.7 million people on August 14. ies would do well to study.
Under his leadership 3,000 Koreans traveled on a A. SCOTT MOREAU
short-term mission project in Manila in 1990.
Bibliography. M. L. Martin, Kimbangu: An African
When the GLOBAL CONSULTATION OF WORLD EVAN- Prophet and His Church; G. Molyneux, African Christian
GELIZATION 95 (GCOWE) was held at the Torch
Theology: The Quest for Selfhood.
Center in Seoul, May 1726, with 4,000 partici-
pants from 185 countries, he served as the chair-
Kingdom of God. Terminology. No explicit use
man of the Korean Preparation Committee.
of the precise phrase kingdom of God occurs in
Under Kim, Campus Crusade has conducted
the Old Testament, but if one looks at the Old
the annual Jesus Jamboree for university stu-
dents during the summer at which over 10,000 Testament prophets through the teaching of
young people camp out for spiritual training at Jesus and the totality of New Testament faith,
the Taechon beach. His Korean staff of over 350 one finds it is predicted as a future reality (the
works on different university campuses, and he is messianic age) in the ongoing redemptive pur-
known as the father of Korean Christian student pose of God. In contrast, the New Testament uses
movement. this term or its equivalent (kingdom of heaven)
He is a man of vision for evangelism, church more than a hundred times. This was the domi-
growth, missions, and social concern. His con- nant theme in the ministry of Jesus and his use
tribution to the Christian student movement in of the term seems to have oscillated between the
Korea has inspired many other countries. He re- primary concept of the rule or reign of God and
ceived his education from Chosun University, the secondary sense of the realm over which he
Fuller Theological Seminary, and Chun Buk will exercise this rule (Luke 17:21 and Mark
University. 14:25). Jesus on no occasion intimated that the
BONG RIN RO
kingdom actually existed prior to the beginning
of his ministry (Luke 16:16). Gods kingship is
Bibliography. S. H. Moffett, TCDCB, pp. 2023. not unlike his providential care of his total cre-
ation: Dominion belongs to the Lord and he
Kimbangu, Simon, (18891951). Zairian Inde- rules over the nations (Ps. 22:28). But his king-
pendent church founder. The Church of Jesus ship is also eschatological: In the time of those
Christ on Earth though the Prophet Simon Kim- kings (i.e., at a certain juncture in history) the
bangu (EJCSK), largest of the several thousand God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will
AFRICAN INITIATED CHURCHES, is the result of only never be destroyed . . . it will itself endure for-
three months of public ministry by Simon Kim- ever (Dan. 2:44).
bangu. A Baptist catechist and evangelist when Old Testament History and Eschatology.
God called him to a healing ministry, Kimbangu Gods kingship is identified with Israel, a people
initially resisted and fled from his home to Kin- with whom he established a covenantal relation-
shasa. Through circumstances God drew Kim- ship that also involved a redemptive purpose: All
bangu back to his home area, and in 1921 again peoples on earth will be blessed through you
called him to heal. This time Kimbangu re- [Jacob] and your offspring (Gen. 28:14). Israel is
sponded, and was promptly accused of being a to be a light to the nations within the sequence
sorcerer by a woman he had healed. Changing of history, extending the knowledge of Gods sal-
her mind after hearing his explanation of what vation to the ends of the earth (Isa. 42:6; 49:6).
had happened, she helped spread the news of In order that God might accomplish this he
what God had done. Within two months people promised a NEW COVENANT that guaranteed Israel
were coming by the thousands, leaving jobs, an imperishable communal existence (Jer.
emptying hospitals, and even bringing bodies of 31:3137) and a messianic hope that would make
the dead to be raised. possible the realization of her redemptive mis-
While missionaries on the scene reported few sion (33:1422; Isa. 42:19). Israels obedience in
genuine healings, within three months of the ini- history will be related to the establishment of an
tial healing the Belgian authorities were so wor- eschatological order beyond history the age to
539
Kingdom of God
comein which Gods kingly rule will be fully discipleship and his service (I will make you
manifested (Hab. 2:14) and in which his new fishers of men), it follows that involvement in
order will bring perfection to all creation. the kingdom of God (living under his rule) in-
Messianic Hope. This involves three separate cludes public proclamation and evangelism
and specific strands of prophetic expectation, (Mark 1:1620).
and all three are related to Gods redemptive pur- When Jesus returned to Galilee news about
pose for the nations. First, a distinctly earthly him spread throughout the whole countryside
kingdom shall arise within history through a (Luke 4:14). His earlier renewal ministry in
Messiaha physical descendant of David who Judea had opened synagogues to him. Everyone
will bring renewal to Israel and to all the world praised him (v. 15). But when he began to iden-
(Isa. 9:6, 7; 11:112:7). Second, this kingdom will tify himself with the Servant role prophesied by
also come as an abrupt intrusion into history, not Isaiah and intimated that the gospel of the king-
unlike an apocalyptic visitation accompanied dom was also for non-Israelites, he encountered
with cosmic upheaval. The key personage is like- violent opposition (vv. 1630). From this time
wise a Messiah and is described as one like a on, whereas the common people heard him
Son of Man possessing authority, glory, and gladly, the religious leaders became increasingly
sovereign power. His kingdom will never be de- hostile, a hostility that culminated in his being
stroyed. He will be worshiped by all peoples, turned over to the Romans for crucifixion.
nations, and men of every language, and will be- The good news of the kingdom that Jesus
stow on the saints of the Most High this ever- preached and expounded is admittedly complex,
lasting kingdom to be theirs forever and for- since it represented movement toward the fulfill-
ever (Dan. 7:13, 14, 18, 22). The third strand ment of the Old Testament redemptive purpose
focuses on a Servant of the Lord, neither openly in the present age as well as a radical reinter-
messianic nor evidently supernatural, but one pretation of that hope with reference to the age
who is an innocent, willing person who vicari- to come. In the present age, despite their rebel-
ously suffers without protest and dies in order to lion against God, sinful human beings through
make his people righteous. The Old Testament repentance to God and surrender to Jesus rule,
does not conflate these strands of prophetic rev- can experience the new birth and enjoy a fore-
elation, hence an aura of incompleteness charac- taste of the liberating kingdom. This included the
terizes the Old Testament and inevitably arouses forgiveness of sin, peace and acceptance with
anticipation of more to follow (Luke 2:25, 38). God, vital linkage with the Holy Spirit, valid in-
But it must never be forgotten that in essence sight into the Word of God, and joyous anticipa-
God will visit his people, and his kingdom will tion of the powers of the coming age (1 Cor.
not be the result of historical forces, such as 2:1215; Rom. 5:1, 2; 8:15, 3539; Heb. 6:4, 5).
human achievement. Even so, it is significant that Jesus never de-
New Testament: The Gospels. The ministry of fined explicitly the term kingdom of God.
Jesus in the New Testament began in the context When he spoke of the kingdom as having drawn
of John the Baptists renewal movement in Israel. near, he was affirming that it was an earthly rule
Expectations were aroused by his announcement in the world and its ongoing history. But when he
of the coming of the kingdom and of One who stated that the kingdom is dynamically moving
would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with through human history and sweeping over peo-
fire (Matt. 3:112). Then Jesus came forward ple violently, he seemed to imply that it is some-
and publicly identified with Israel through sub- thing more than Gods personal reign over indi-
mitting to Johns baptism. During this act of obe- viduals (Matt. 12:28; 11:12). He appeared to be
dience he was both approved by his Father and referring to a new world, a new state of affairs, a
anointed for ministry by the Holy Spirit (Mark new community that finds concrete expression in
1:911). Almost immediately thereafter the Holy the world, even though it is both transcendent
Spirit sent him out into the desert to confront and spiritual. It is also political in that its full re-
and demonstrate his superiority over the devil alization puts it on a collision course with all
(1:12, 13). In the months that followed his min- human rule and authority.
istry was virtually identical with that of John; This note of spiritual conflict must not be re-
both spoke of the coming kingdom. The Baptists garded lightly. Satan is determined to thwart the
imprisonment brought this renewal ministry to progress of the kingdom. Jesus calmly asserts,
an abrupt end. From that time on Jesus went to however, that divine authority and rule have been
Galilee and preached: The time has come. The given him by the Father (Luke 10:32; Matt. 11:27;
kingdom of God is near. Repent and believe the 28:18). Furthermore, he will exercise this rule
good news (Mark 1:14). By this he was an- until Satan, sin, and death are brought to a com-
nouncing the glorious fact that the kingdom of plete end (Mark 9:1; 13:26; 14:62 with Luke
God was now accessible to all those who would 11:2022).
submit themselves to his rule. And since Jesus The mystery of Jesus person and the spiritual
immediately thereafter began to call people to nature of his kingdom were so new and revolu-
540
Kingdom of God
tionary that he could only disclose these realities kingdom had already truly come, Jesus disciples
gradually. To most Jews the kingdom of God should manifest the signs that confirmed its
would come as a stone that would shatter all god- presence. This is as urgent as the final apocalyp-
less nations (Dan. 2:44). But Jesus did not preach tic display of power that will compel every knee
judgment and separation; these were eschatolog- to bow and every tongue to confess that Jesus
ical realities. He came as a sower scattering the is Lord (Phil. 2:10, 11).
good news of the kingdom and looking for re- Although the kingdom is wholly of God, he is
ceptive people. He spoke in parables. These tan- pleased to share the keys of the kingdom with
talized his hearers and compelled them to come his people that under his direction their preach-
to a full stop, then reflect and ask questions. The ing of its good news might be determinative of
more his disciples began to discern who he was, those who participate in his eschatological har-
the more they began to understand his teaching. vest (Matt. 16:19). Because the kingdom tends
Conversely, the more people resisted him, the through its proclamation to draw into its midst
more his teaching reduced itself in their minds to both the good and the bad, the eschatological
hard sayings devoid of significance (John 6:60). judgment will separate the wicked from the right-
All they heard were stories, riddles, and para- eous (the parable of the net; Matt. 13:4752). On
doxes (Mark 4:11, 12). this basis the Lord distinguished the church from
The parables speak of the nature, growth, and the kingdom (Matt. 16:18).
value of the kingdom, largely under the theme of At the Last Supper when Jesus instituted the
mission. There are the growth parables in Eucharist, he gave his disciples a cup he identi-
which the parable of the sower is so central that fied as my blood of the covenant, which is
Jesus pointed out that failure to understand this poured out for many (Mark 14:24), thereby es-
parable would render a person unable to under- tablishing linkage between that supper, the new
stand any parable (Mark 4:13). Then follows a covenant, and the coming kingdom. In this fash-
parable of the growth process in the hearts of ion he established the necessity of his death as a
those who respond to the message of the king- ransom for many (Mark 10:45). It was his death
dom (4:2630). This process eludes understand- that made the coming apocalyptic kingdom de-
ing and external control. When spiritual maturity
pendent upon what would take place in history.
begins to manifest itself the parable of the wheat
God did not abandon history; the eschatological
and the weeds brings to the fore a second sow-
kingdom invaded history in Jesus life-death-
ing (Matt. 13:3643) so important that the Lord
resurrection and continues to work in history
himself is the only Sower. This follows because
through the people of the kingdom (Matt. 24:14;
the field is the world and the distribution of his
Mark 13:10; Ladd).
servants in it is a responsibility he grants to no
other. This implies a deliberate surrender of one- Acts. The resurrection of Jesus gave to his dis-
self to him, a willingness to be sent into the lo- ciplesthe believing remnant in Israela new
cale and ministry that he has appointed. sense of their oneness as they received further in-
The kingdom is like a buried treasure and its struction in the kingdom and awaited its coming
acquisition merits any cost or sacrifice (Matt. (Acts 1:3, 6). Peters Pentecost sermon reinter-
13:4446). Its form is hidden, representing the preted the Old Testament hope by speaking of
hiddenness of God, working in the hearts of his Jesus exaltation, confirming him as Lord and
people scattered throughout the world. Although Messiah (2:3036). In the Book of Acts the
insignificant in its beginnings (a mustard seed or signs of the kingdom are everywhere present:
bit of leaven), on the day of historys consumma- Jesus by his Spirit is in the midst of his people,
tion it will be like a great tree or a bowl of dough the gospel is proclaimed, signs and wonders ac-
fully leavened. The kingdom represents Jesus company the witness, evil spirits are exorcised,
present invasion of Satans kingdom to release conversions are frequent, and much suffering is
people from bondage (Luke 11:1422). He desires experienced as a result of efforts to do Gods will
that they enjoy in part a foretaste of the age to in a world that rebels against him (Matt. 5:10).
come, as they enter into the life he imparts to Pauline Epistles. Paul builds on Peters rein-
them (John 3:3). This includes the forgiveness of terpretation of Jesus messianic reign and de-
their sins (Mark 2:5) and the gift of Gods right- scribes it as a present relationship (Col. 1:13) and
eousness (Matt. 5:20). The only acceptable re- a spiritual experience (Rom. 14:17), as well as an
sponse that a person can make is to put oneself eschatological inheritance (1 Cor. 6:911; Eph.
deliberately under Christs rule by repentance, 5:5). Jesus must reign until he has put all his en-
faith, and submission. emies under his feet and destroy death, the last
Jesus also intimated that the kingdom would enemy (1 Cor. 15:25, 26). The end will only come
be consummated in power and glory, and in- when he hands over the kingdom to God the Fa-
structed his disciples to pray for that Day when ther after he has destroyed all dominion, author-
the will of God would be carried out on earth ity and power (v. 24). His ultimate goal is that
even as it is in heaven (Matt. 6:10). Because the God may be all in all (v. 28).
541
Kingdom of God
Revelation. The final revelation of God con- societies, which focus on individuals, communi-
cerning his kingdom is of its eschatological con- cation often springs from the interaction between
summation with the devil finally consigned to the individualsfriends, business associates, people
lake of fire (Rev. 20:10). Just prior to this we find with common interests. Postindustrial societies,
reference to the second coming of Christ with its with an emphasis on team building, demand
rapid sequence of his total triumph over all his complementary skills; each person contributes to
foes, his binding of Satan, the resurrection of his the whole, which may be a neighborhood, club,
saints, his millennial reign, and the final con- association, or group bound by occupation.
summation of human history (19:1120:15). Similarly, an appreciation for the nature of
Rather than detail the elements of this contro- groups within a society can be utilized in present-
versial section, the Spirit presses on to the por- ing the gospel and assisting church growth within
trayal of Gods ultimate goal: the age to come a cultural context. Each group has its own criteria
with its new heaven and new earth, and his refor membership. These are often based on kinship
deemed people from all the families, tribes, lan- (nuclear family, extended family, clan), territory
guages, and peoples at long last seeing his face (neighborhood, city, state), economic position
(21:14; 22:15). (caste, occupation), or language (dialect, tribe). As
ARTHUR F. GLASSER with kinship relations, each group has an identity
(terminologically defined), a status (set of ex-
Bibliography. G. R. Beasley-Murray, Jesus and the pected behavior patterns), and roles (the actual
Kingdom of God; J. Bright, The Kingdom of God; patterns of the groups behavior). A groups under-
A. F. Glasser, Kingdom and Mission; G. E. Ladd, Jesus
and the Kingdom; H. Ridderbos, The Coming of the
standing of themselves and othershow far the
Kingdom. boundaries extend before others are recognized as
being outside the groupcan be of great assis-
tance to missionaries attempting to discover how
Kinship. Kinship relations have long been a many translations of Scripture should be made
major part of anthropological study. For kinship within a particular region or which groups will in-
(interpersonal) relations and social (intergroup) teract with a newly founded church.
relations combine with the economic, political, To build an effective missiological strategy, it is
and religious aspects of culture to structure important to determine whether a given society
human behavior. The relative importance people places greater value on individual or group iden-
from different cultures (kinship, peasant, indus- tity. One should also analyze whether the society
trial, and postindustrial) place on these relations is tightly or loosely structured. Societies fall into
will vary widely and impact their behavior. four general categories: (1) authoritarianindi-
Despite this diversity, all human relationships vidual-oriented and tightly structured; (2) indi-
can be understood within a framework of iden- vidualistindividual-oriented and loosely struc-
tity, STATUS, and role. Identity is specified by the tured; (3) hierarchistgroup-oriented and tightly
use of a kinship term to designate particular in- structured; and (4) collectivistgroup-oriented
dividualsthe term serves as their identity. Sta- and loosely structured. Determining the nature of
tus relates to the cultural expectations associated a particular society is vital for sound develop-
with particular identitieshow people expect ment and implementation of an evangelistic
those so identified to behave. Role is the actual strategy. Should the approach focus on individu-
behavior of people with a particular identity; this als or whole groups (see INDIVIDUALISM AND COL-
behavior reflects the basic nature of the relation- LECTIVISM)? And if groups, which ones would
ship. Thus kinship terms define cultural sets of make the most appropriate targets, and why?
rights and duties that are acted out in real life Should Christianity be presented as a means for
through specific behavior patterns. people to relate more effectively with other
By fitting into relationships with people on the groups or as a means of building interpersonal
basis of cultural expectations, missionaries serv- relationships?
ing in a particular society may be able to remove An understanding of relationships will also
much of the mystery associated with their pres- give insight into the nature of LEADERSHIP pat-
ence. By adapting to local cultural expectations, terns within a society. What determines who is to
outsiders can learn much about appropriate be- be a leadera general election, appointment
havior and use that knowledge to build relation- (and by whom?), or a birthright? How is leader-
ships that may serve as a launching pad for com- ship expressed? What are the responsibilities of
municating the gospel. In kinship societies, with leaders within the group and beyond? How do
their focus on close egalitarian relationships, out- leaders actually perform their duties? The frame-
siders must build intragenerational relationships work of identity, status, and role is once again
with members of the society and use that bonding helpful for understanding rights and duties as
to communicate. In peasant societies relation- people exercise leadership. Is leadership the pre-
ships are more hierarchical and intergenerational, rogative of an individual, such as a judge, or is it
often resembling a family structure. In industrial delegated to a group, such as the panchayat
542
Kivengere, Festo
under an Indian banyan tree or a palaver in Bibliography. A. B. Kinsolving, Lucien Lee Kinsolv-
Africa? Understanding the leadership patterns ing, Missionary Bishop of Brazil.
within a society is crucial as a church selects a
pastor or gives responsibilities to a group of eld- Kiribati (Est. 2000 pop.: 87,000; 726 sq. km. [280
ers. What gives them the right to serve, and what sq. mi.]). Located in Oceania, and formerly the
are the implications of following cultural pat- Gilbert Islands, Kiribati gained independence
terns in contrast to ignoring them? from Britain in 1979. The first Protestant mis-
Throughout Scripture there are many patterns sionary, HIRAM BINGHAM of the ABCFM, began
of kinship and social interaction as well as ex- work in Abaiang in 1856. As of 1993, the popula-
pressions of leadership. Therefore we should not tion was over 97 percent Christian, including
argue that there is a biblical pattern since there 51.5 percent Catholic, 44 percent Protestant, and
are many. Rather, Scripture can be brought to 2.1 percent marginal Christian groups. It is esti-
bear (both positively and negatively) on the sta- mated that evangelicals comprise just over 6 per-
tus and roles of individuals and groups within cent. Protestant churches present include Kiri-
each cultural context. Clearly research in the area bati Protestant (Congregational) Church, Church
of kinship and social structure is important for of God (Cleveland), Seventh-Day Adventist, and
the introduction of the gospel and its ongoing Assemblies of God.
impact as the church develops and grows. A. SCOTT MOREAU
R. DANIEL SHAW
SEE ALSO Micronesia.
Bibliography. T. Brewster and B. S. Brewster, Bond-
ing; M. Douglas, In the Active Voice, pp. 183254; W. H. Kivebulaya, Apolo (18641933). Ugandan pio-
Goodenough, The Relevance of Models for Social An- neer missionary. Apolo Kivebulaya is revered in
thropology; S. Lingenfelter, Transforming Culture: A
the Church of Uganda (Anglican) as an example
Challenge for Christian Mission; R. D. Shaw, Missiology
par excellence of the African evangelists who
18 (1991): 291304.
ministered during the colonial period. He was
from a rural Baganda family in northwestern
Kinsolving, Lucien Lee (18621929). American Uganda. Kivebulaya spent his younger years in
missionary to Brazil. Born in Middleburg, Vir- various kinds of military service under the
ginia, Kinsolving attended the Episcopal High British administration, including pacification ef-
School of Virginia where his gift for speaking was forts into the Toro Kingdom, where afterward he
developed. Upon graduation he accepted ap- took up residence.
pointment to a church school in a wild portion of Kivebulaya took the name Apolo when he was
Kentucky, birthing his vision for mission. After baptized by an Anglican missionary in 1895 in
two years at the University of Virginia, he trans- Kampala. He resided in Toro and ministered
ferred to the Virginia Theological Seminary there as a church teacher which included literacy
where he was ordained a deacon in 1889. The as well as instruction in the catechism. The town
seminary sent him during the summers to lead of Mboga became his evangelistic headquarters.
Episcopal churches in Upper Virginia where his From there he made excursions across the bor-
earnest preaching crowded the churches with der into the former Belgian Congo. While contin-
eager congregations. uing this mission he also ministered to the small
Stirred by the seminarys deep interest in Brazil, congregation at Mbogo. His second missionary
Kinsolving was ordained and sent through the venture was from 1897 to 1899 to the pygmy peo-
American Church Missionary Society to Brazil in ple who live in the Ituri forest.
1889. Within six months he was conducting serv- Apolos sincere commitment to evangelism is
ices in Portuguese. After his marriage to Alice one reason why he never married. Having been or-
Brown in 1891, he became rector of the Church of dained a deacon in 1900 and priest in 1903, Apolo
our Savior in Rio Grande do Sul. Eloquent and Kivebulaya was further honored in 1922 by being
far-sighted, Kinsolving was a respected leader appointed to office of canon. In this way the An-
among the Brazilians. Under his leadership, the glican Church recognized his long and faithful
Episcopal church became a self-supporting con- ministry, which was an example for all national
gregation led by an indigenous clergy. Elected to evangelists, especially those who extend the gospel
the bishopric by the independent Egreja Episcopal beyond the areas of their own ethnic origins.
DEAN S. GILLILAND
Brasilera, Kinsolving was consecrated in the U.S.
and took charge of the Brazil mission in 1899. Bibliography. D. B. Barrett, CDCWM, p. 325;
Kinsolving was prevented from returning to A. Luck, African Saint: The Story of Apolo Kivebulaya.
Brazil after suffering a stroke. He died in 1929 at
the age of sixty-six. Kivengere, Festo (191988). Ugandan evangel-
GARY LAMB ist, church leader, and missionary in Tanzania.
543
Kivengere, Festo
Born in southwestern Uganda, Kivengere came a fall through which they became alienated from
to Christ in January 1935 through the influence God) and were despised by the Buddhist major-
of CMS missionaries. He was educated at ity. In some ways they were uniquely prepared
Mukono Teachers College (193639), London for the gospel, and under the ministry of Ko Tha
University Institute of Education (195759), and Byu and others hundreds soon came to Christ.
Pittsburgh Theological Seminary (196467). After By 1856 over 11,000 church members were re-
his training at Mukono, he taught and led local ported. Ko Tha Byu is revered today as a fiery
evangelistic teams on weekends and through evangelist and pivotal leader in the mass move-
these efforts emerged as a powerful preacher. ment among the Karens to Christianity. A special
In 1945 he responded to a call and went to day in the Karen church calendar honors his
Tanzania as a tent-maker for thirteen years. In memory.
1962, he started a free-lance evangelistic ministry HAROLD A. NETLAND
and traveled widely around the world. In 1971,
Bibliography. F. Mason, The Karen Apostle: Or Mem-
with Michael Cassidy, he formed Africa Evange- oir of Ko Tha-byu; J. Robbins, Boardman of Burma;
listic Enterprise. M. Wylie, The Gospel in Burmah.
Kivengere was ordained in the Church of
Uganda in 1966 and consecrated bishop on May Koran. See QURAN.
5, 1972. He was courageous and direct with both
church and state issues. He opposed the growing
state oppression of the church, his courage being Korea, North (The Democratic Peoples Repub-
lic of Korea) (Est. 2000 pop.: 25,979,000; 120,538
seen in his stance against Ugandan Presidents
sq. km. [46,540 sq. mi.]). Korea was partitioned
Amin and Obote for their atrocities. He was the
into two sections at the Yalta Conference in 1945.
recipient of several of international awards in-
North Korea was to be controlled by the Rus-
cluding The International Peace Prize (1977) and
sians and South Korea by the United States until
The Cross of St. Augustine (Anglican).
the time a joint election was held which would
Kivengeres writings include: When God Moves
unite the divided country. To date, however, this
(1973); The Spirit Is Moving (1976); I Love Idi
joint election has not taken place. In the mean-
Amin (1977); Revolutionary Love (1983); and
time North Korea established the Democratic
Hope for Uganda and the World (1980). He died of
Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK) under com-
leukemia on May 18, 1988, and was given a state
munism, while South Korea established the Re-
funeral in Uganda.
public of Korea (ROK). Kim Il-Sung ruled 23
LAZARUS SERUYANGE
million people in North Korea from its inception
Bibliography. A. Coomes, The Authorized Biography until his death on July 8, 1994. He was succeeded
of Festo Kivengere. by his son, Kim Jung-Il.
The earliest mission efforts in Korea are re-
Ko Tha Byu (17781840). Myanmar evangelist. ported to have been by Koreans who, after visit-
Ko Tha Byu was the first convert to Christianity ing China and being exposed to Catholic influ-
among the Karen people of Burma (now Myan- ences, returned with the gospel to their homes.
mar). Born in a village near Bassein in southern The first missionary priest to enter Korea was
Burma, he led a violent life as a young man and, James Choo, a Chinese worker who arrived in
by his own admission, had committed about 1794. Catholic mission work suffered persecution
thirty murders prior to his conversion. Under the and martyrdom until the signing of the Korean
influence of ADONIRAM JUDSON, he was dramati- Treaty with the United States in 1882. Protestant
cally converted and his life transformed. mission work did not begin until 1884 with the
From 1828 to 1831 Ko Tha Byu accompanied arrival of Horace N. Allen. At the time of the
George Boardman, an American Baptist mission- communist takeover, however, the church in
ary, in his ministry among the Karen people in Korea was the second largest in Asia, eclipsed
the villages around Tavoy, in southern Burma. He only by the church in the Philippines, with two-
was baptized by Boardman during this time. thirds of the total Christian population residing
Boardman died in 1831, but not before seeing the in the north. Prior to 1945, among the Protestant
beginnings of a mass movement among the churches, the Presbyterians had the strongest
Karens toward Christianity. Ko Tha Byu contin- presence, followed by the Methodists, Salvation
ued evangelistic ministry among the Karen vil- Army, and Seventh-Day Adventists.
lages until his death. He proved to be a highly ef- After being established in power, the govern-
fective evangelist, carrying the Christian faith ment in North Korea adopted a policy of gradual
into the areas around Rangoon and Bassein. The extermination of all religions. Although religious
Karens were largely ANIMISTS (although they did freedom was guaranteed in the Constitution, gov-
believe in the Creator God and had a story about ernment persecution against the Christian church
544
Korea, South
was so severe that all public churches were closed became a beggar nation of the world. Since
until 1988, when permission was given to build the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed to
Bong Soo Church, the first Protestant church to end the war on July 27, 1953, Pammunjoon has
be built in Pyongyang since the inception of become the focal point of dialogue between
North Korea. In 1992 another Protestant church, North and South Korea.
Ban Sock Church, was erected in memory of Mrs. After the fall of Syngman Rhees government
Kang Ban-Sock (deaconess), who was Kim Il- precipitated by the student demonstrations
Sungs mother, at the location which she used as throughout South Korea on April 19, 1960, the
the site of a daily dawn prayer meeting. The gov- country was ruled by three military generals:
ernment also allowed the Roman Catholics to Park Chung-Hee (196279), Chun Doo-Hwan
build Chang Choong Catholic Cathedral in Py- (198087), and Ro Tai-Woo (198893). The civil-
ongyang. Kang Yang-Sup, Chairman of the North ian government of President Kim Young-Sam
Korean Christian Federation, stated in early 1997 (199398) replaced the military regime in 1993.
that there were about 520 house churches with The rapid economic development in South
12,000 Protestant Christians and one Roman Korea began at the end of the Vietnam War. The
Catholic cathedral with 800 members in North per capita GNP grew explosively over that time,
Korea, though many question the reliability of from $105 in 1965 to $10,076 in 1995. This eco-
these statistics. nomic growth and resulting prosperity has
Though politically divided, North and South brought enormous changes in the lifestyle of the
Korea are still deeply emotionally and religiously people. Sexual revolution, divorce, drugs, and
tied. For example, the North Korean Church Re- crime are more rampant than before, especially
construction Department of the Korean Christian among the younger generation.
Council in South Korea launched a nationwide The rapid church growth in Korea has been so
prayer movement to reconstruct over 2,000 dis- well known throughout the Christian world that
banded churches in North Korea by encouraging the Korean church has become a model for
each local church in South Korea to adopt a dis- church growth in other countries. The first Amer-
banded church in the north. Through this adop- ican Protestant missionaries came to Korea in
tion the South Korean Christians pray for the 1884; there were approximately 12 million
restoration of the adopted church in the north Protestant Christians and 38,000 churches in
and designate portions of their offerings for the South Korea in 1997. In Seoul alone there were
reconstruction of that disbanded church until the 6,800 churches in 1995, and 23 out of 50 mega-
hoped for reunification between north and south churches in the world are found in South Korea.
can take place. In the mid-1970s six new churches were planted
BONG RIN RO in Korea daily. During the Billy Graham Crusade
in Seoul in May 1973, more than 1.1 million
Bibliography. W. J. Kang, Christ and Caesar in Mod- Christians met together at one time at the Yoido
ern Korea; H. S. Kim, ed., North Korean Church History Plaza in Seoul. A still larger crowd of Christians
Since the Liberation of Korea (in Korean); B. R. Ro and met again for the World Evangelization Crusade
M. L. Nelson, eds., Korean Church Growth Explosion. in August 1980 in Yoido Plaza.
Many church leaders around the world have
Korea, South (Est. 2000 pop.: 47,149,000; 99,263 asked why the Korean church has grown so
sq. km. [38,325 sq. mi.]). Since 1970, South much and so rapidly. There are both historical
Korea has been known as a nation of economic and spiritual factors for the rapid growth of the
miracles in Asia or a nation of church growth church. Historically, Korea, which had been col-
explosion in modern times and has drawn the onized by the Japanese Empire for 36 years
attention of many nations of the world. In fact, (191045), wished to get her political independ-
many church leaders in South Korea believe that ence from Japan. The Koreans welcomed the
the Koreans are a chosen people (1 Peter 1:9) Western powers into Korea to drive out Japanese
for Gods redemptive purpose today. imperialism. Therefore, the Korean gentry read-
A tragic partition of Korea at the 38th parallel ily accepted Western influences and the Christian
was drawn by the super powers at the Yalta message which Western missionaries brought to
Conference in 1945. South Korea established Korea. The political situation in Korea was just
the Republic of Korea (ROK) on August 15, the opposite of that of China where Western pow-
1948 with Dr. Syngman Rhee as the first presi- ers, including Western Christianity, were re-
dent. The Korean War, which started on June jected. Western missionaries in Korea also
25, 1950, when North Korean soldiers invaded brought new Western medicine and popularized
South Korea, lasted for over three years and re- education by establishing schools for the lower
sulted in half a million deaths and millions of class of people using the simple Korean script
casualties. As a result of the war, South Korea rather than the difficult Chinese characters.
545
Korea, South
There are a number of spiritual factors for 1907. In 1909, Suk-Jin Han was sent to Japan, and
the explosive growth of the Korean church: three ordained missionaries were sent to Shan-
(1) strength of the local church by Spirit-filled tung, China in 1913 (Rhodes, 1934, 39295): Tai-
and hard-working pastors; (2) strong emphasis Ro Park, Pyung-Soon Sa, and Young-Hoon Kim.
of prayer through daily early dawn prayer Also, the Korean church did the work of missions
meetings, all night prayer meetings, and prayer in such places as Siberia, Hawaii, Mexico, Mongo-
mountains for the spiritual renewal of Chris- lia, Manchuria, and America, working with both
tians; (3) grass-roots evangelism organized by the Korean diaspora and the nationals, in spite of
the local churches to achieve the Christianiza- losing their sovereignty, language, and names and
tion of Korea; (4) well-organized cell group suffering severe persecution under Japanese Colo-
Bible studies; (5) abundant supply of Christian nial Rule (190745). From 1902 to 1945, the Ko-
workers through theological education; (6) ris- rean church sent a total of 120 missionaries.
ing number of Korean cross-cultural mission- The contemporary face of the Korean church
aries; (7) faithful stewardship in tithes and per- and its involvement in missions has gone
sonal service for the church; and (8) innovative through a drastic change from those early days.
contextual expressions of Christian faith to The Korean War (195053) divided Korea and
make Christianity be a national religion. the strength of Korean Christianity moved from
The Korean church hosted the First Asian Mis- North to South. Samuel I. Kim has noted that
sions Congress in August 1991 in Seoul with from 1953 to 1976 there were a total of 234 mis-
1,300 participants from all over Asia, and the sionaries sent from South Korea, working in
GLOBAL CONSULTATION ON WORLD EVANGELIZATION Thailand, Taiwan, Japan, Vietnam, Hong Kong,
(GCOWE 95) with 4,000 participants at the Torch Indonesia, Pakistan, Nepal, Ethiopia, Okinawa,
Center in Seoul in May 1995. These missions Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Brunei, and America
meetings enlarged the vision of the Korean (1976, 124). But it was not until the early 1980s
church for world evangelization, particularly for that there was an explosive increase in the num-
the evangelization of the UNREACHED PEOPLES in ber of Korean Christians sent as missionaries.
10/40 WINDOW countries of the world. The num- The Antioch News documents the explosion of
ber of Korean missionaries has sharply increased numerical growth of Korean missionaries sent by
since 1979, when there were 93 missionaries, to denominations, local churches, and para-church
1996 with an estimated 4,402 missionaries work- and mission organizations (excluding those sent
ing in 138 nations (see also KOREAN MISSION to America; Kim, 1998, 6). The numbers in-
BOARDS AND AGENCIES). The prayer target of the creased from 323 in 1982, to 1,645 in 1990, 3,272
Korean church is to send 10,000 Korean misin 1994, and 5,804 in 1998.
sionaries (including 1,000 second-generation Ko- With this rapid growth has come the dilemma
rean missionaries sent out by over 3,000 Korean of how Koreans can most effectively be trained
churches in North America) by A.D. 2000. and enabled to work with other missionaries for
BONG RIN RO
the kingdom and the task of world evangelization.
Issues of Concern and the Korean Mission-
Bibliography. W. J. Kang, Christ and Caesar in Mod- ary Effort. There is no doubt that Korean Chris-
ern Korea; J. T. Kim, Protestant Church Growth in tians have a strong evangelistic spirit. They want
Korea; B. R. Ro and M. L. Nelson, eds., Korean Church to plant churches and do missions. But too often
Growth Explosion. their understanding of missions is limited to
soul saving and the ministry of the Word. Ko-
Korean Mission Boards and Societies. The rean missionaries need a better balance of both
story of church growth in Korea has been well the ministries of the word and deed, without
known throughout the world, but its missionary making a sharp separation between the two. But
work has not been as widely reported. From the to do this requires that Koreans think again
beginning, the Korean church has been a mis- about the place of God in missions, or the theol-
sionary church, particularly since the Presbyter- ogy of missions.
ian Church in Korea was set up as a self-govern- Second, with the explosion of growth in num-
ing, independent church in 1907. As of March bers of Korean missionaries since the early
1998, there were over 5,800 Korean missionaries 1980s, too many missionaries have been sent
in 152 countries (Kim, 1988, 6). without being properly selected or trained. There
Rise of the Missionary Movement in the Ko- is an urgent need to give immediate attention to
rean Church. In 1907, during the culmination of this deficiency in working with missionary can-
Koreas first great awakening, seven men were or- didates, moving them from their monocultural
dained by the first Presbyterian Church in Korea background to being cross-cultural people.
and one of them, Ki-Poong Yi, was sent as a mis- Third, it is sad to see how the abundance of fi-
sionary to the Island of Quelpart (Chaejudo) in nances has kept many Korean Christians from a
546
Krishna Pillai, H. A.
childlike dependence on God in their ministry interfaith dialogue was sharper and far more ad-
and from cooperating with other missionaries, vanced than that of his contemporaries.
denominations, and churches in their missionary STEPHEN HOKE
efforts. Korean missionaries tend to use their fi-
Bibliography. L. A. Hoedemaker, ML, pp. 50815;
nances to recruit nationals and new converts to H. Kraemer, From Missionfield to Independent Church;
work together in evangelizing and planting Ecumenical Review 18 (Jan. 1966): 9699.
churches. However, they may do so at the cost of
corrupting these innocent people, a reality ob- Krapf, Johann Ludwig (181081). German pio-
served earlier by JOHN L. NEVIUS in China and neer missionary in Ethiopia and Kenya. Born
more recently seen in the Philippines. and educated in the German village of Derendi-
Finally, the early Korean missionaries cooper- gen, Krapf joined the CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY
ated and worked together with the Western mis- (CMS) in 1838 after spending a brief period as a
sionaries and the host churches as partners. Lutheran pastor. His first assignment was in
Presently, however, there are a growing number Ethiopia (Abyssinia). Fascinated by the Galla
of Korean missionaries who work independently (Oromo) tribe of southern Ethiopia, he called
with little or no consultation with other mission- them the Germans of East Africa. His controver-
aries and national churches in their location of sial support of British intervention in Ethiopia
ministry. Missionaries of all nations need each led to his departure in 1843. In that same year
other, and Korean missionaries in particular Krapf married. After he and his wife Rosine were
must learn (or perhaps relearn) to partner and to refused admittance into Ethiopia in 1844, they
work cooperatively for the kingdom. sought to reenter East Africa through the gate-
The Korean church, as a missionary church, way of Mombasa. Soon after receiving permis-
can make great and unique contributions to the sion from the sultan of Zanzibar to begin work
missionary movement of the church in the among the non-Muslim tribes of the coast,
twenty-first century if it can solve these dilemmas. tragedy struck with the death of his wife and
TIMOTHY KIHO PARK newborn child. Krapf persevered and concen-
Bibliography. C. K. Kim, ed., Antioch News, 3:22 trated his energies on the study of Swahili.
(March 1988); S. I. Kim, New Forces in Missions, pp. In 1846 Johannes Rebmann arrived and as-
12130; H. A. Rhodes, ed., History of the Korea Mission: sisted Krapf in establishing the first CMS station
Presbyterian Church U.S.A. 18841934. in what is now Kenya. Krapf envisioned this cen-
ter at Rabai, among the Giriama, as the first link
Kraemer, Hendrik (18881965). Dutch ecu- in a chain of mission stations that would reach
menical leader, missiologist, and missionary to across Africa and connect with the West African
Indonesia. Born in the Netherlands, Kraemer lost Christian communities of Freetown, Badagri,
both parents by the age of twelve and was raised and Abeokuta. Pursuing this vision, Krapf ex-
in an orphanage. Through independent Bible plored the interior of East Africa into the geo-
study he experienced a personal conversion to graphical heart of Tanzania and Kenya. His re-
Christ, and at sixteen decided to become a mis- ports of snowcapped mountains on the equator
sionary. After study in Egypt, he served with the were met with derision in Europe.
Dutch Bible Society in Indonesia. Following a furlough in 1850, Krapf returned
Kraemer returned to accept a position at the to Rabai, but ill health forced his permanent re-
University of Leiden (193747). During this pe- turn to Germany in 1853. Though he later visited
riod he was very active in Dutch church life, to East Africa briefly in 1861 (to help Thomas
the point of being a hostage under the Nazi oc- Wakefield establish a Methodist station at Ribe,
cupation. Later he became the first director of north of Mombasa) and in 1867 joined Robert
the Ecumenical Institute in Bossey (near Napiers punitive expedition to Ethiopia as an in-
Geneva). After his retirement he was guest lec- terpreter, his missionary work in East Africa was
turer at Union Theological Seminary in New over. A brilliant linguist who published a Swahili
York for a year (195657). New Testament, grammar, and dictionary, Krapf
Kraemer is remembered both as a pioneer with is best remembered for his book Travels, Re-
a vision and as a scholar. His book Christian Mes- searches and Missionary Labors in Eastern Africa
sage in a Non-Christian World had profound influ- (1860), which is the principal source for his life
ence on twentieth-century missiology. Although and work.
he was a true scholar in the fields of Eastern lan- MARK A. SHAW
guages, Islam, and the history of religions, his
legacy is as a missionary and a missionary the- Krishna Pillai, H. A. (18271900). Indian con-
ologian whose awareness of the problematic na- textualizer and poet. Born in a village near
ture of present and future Christian missions and Palayamcottai in South India, he was raised in
547
Krishna Pillai, H. A.
an orthodox Vaishnavite family. He strictly ob- Bibliography. G. Pakendorf, Missionalia 21 (1993):

served the caste rituals, was thoroughly versed in 22935.
Vaishnavite literature, learned Sanskrit, and stud-
ied Tamil prose. By age eighteen he had memo- Kuhn, Isobel (190257). Canadian missionary to
rized major portions of the Ramayana. China and Thailand. Perched on steep mountains
Appointed Tamil pandit in the Mission College extending from Tibet into southwestern China,
at Sawyarpuram in 1852, Krishna Pillai for the Isobel Kuhn spent her mature life with her family
first time came in close contact with Christians in missionary outreach to the Lisu tribespeople in
and began to read the Bible. Previously he had Yunnan province. Her gift of writing poignant
opposed Christianity. On March 29, 1858, he spiritual lessons from candid illustrations de-
trusted Christ alone. In his own words, on that scribing the impoverished Lisu, their Christian
very day the old signs on my forehead were culture, and their sacrificial lives greatly influ-
cleared off. The laws of jati (caste) . . . I snapped. enced evangelical audiences in the 1950s.
He was baptized on April 18, 1858. An English literature student before conver-
Krishna Pillai was a gifted poet. He adapted sion, the Canadian Kuhn attended Moody Bible
Hindu myths and symbols to communicate the Institute before traveling to China with the China
biblical concept of Gods salvation through Inland Mission (now OVERSEAS MISSIONARY FEL-
LOWSHIP). She learned Chinese before trekking
Christ. His epic poem Rakshanya Yathirigam
(comparable to Bunyans Pilgrims Progress) ex- over dangerous mountain paths to the Salween
presses the Christian faith in classic Tamil form. valley Lisu villages in 1934.
Krishna Pillai brought to the service of Christ Following the precedence of J. O. Frazer, the
Kuhns always sent out trained Lisu evangelists
his deep knowledge of the HINDU background
and Bible teachers first into new areas to secure
and of the great Tamil culture in which he had
spiritual footholds. In this way the Lisu Chris-
grown up. His published Tamil works include
tians quickly indigenized their faith. Lisu peoples
The Pilgrimage of Salvation (epic), The Joy of Sal-
in Burma (now Myanmar) and Thailand were
vation (a collection of prayers), and The Assur-
also reached by this means, the latter field be-
ance of the Religion of Salvation (a Christian
coming the Kuhns home after the 1949 Maoist
apologetic). revolution in China. Before dying of cancer Kuhn
ROGER E. HEDLUND
wrote extensively about the Lisu, not living to see
Bibliography. A. J. Appasamy, Tamil Christian Poet: the full Lisu Bible published in 1962.
The Life and Writings of H. A. Krishna Pillai; D. D. Hud- LAUREN PFISTER
son, Indian Church History Review 2 (1968): 1543;
Bibliography. I. Kuhn, Nests above the Abyss; idem,
idem, Indigenous Responses to Western Christianity.
Stones of Fire; idem, By Searching.
Kropf, Albert (18221910). German missionary to

Kumm, Karl Wilhelm (18741930). German-born
South Africa. Born in Potsdam in 1822, he decided
British missionary to Egypt and founder of Sudan
to become a missionary due to the influence of United Mission. Karl Kumm was one of the great
pietists literature and preaching. He studied at the faith mission pioneers in the interior of Africa. His
Berlin Missions seminary and in 1845 took up an first wife Lucy (d. 1906), daughter of Fanny and
assignment at its station Bethel in British Kaf- Grattan Guinness, had followed her mother in
fraria (now Ciskei) in the Eastern Cape. He minis- using her literary talent to further the cause of the
tered among the Xhosa for sixty-one years, was su- regions beyond (Congo, South America, India).
perintendent of the Berlin Missions Kaffrarian Karl, born in the (former English) German terri-
synod for forty-three of these, and also pastored a tory of Hannover, attended the East London Train-
congregation of German settlers in Stutterheim ing Institute and joined the North Africa Mission
for many years. He translated the entire Bible, a in 1898 to work in Egypt, where he married Lucy
hymn book, Luthers Shorter Catechism, and other in 1900. The Kumms took up Grattan Guinness
works in Xhosa, penned a major anthropological vision to reach the Sudan Belt stretching from
treatise in 1889 which is an indispensable histori- Dakar to Khartoum, founding the Sudan Pioneer
cal source on the Xhosa, and a decade later pro- Mission, based in Eisenach, Germany. After dis-
duced the Kaffir-English Dictionary, which re- agreements they moved to Britain and started the
mained for decades the standard Xhosa dictionary. Sudan United Mission in 1904 to reach the Sudan
A determined and uncompromising confessional- Belt from Nigeria. The SUM became one of the
ist Lutheran, Kropf demanded careful instruction largest faith missions, with the unusual feature of
of potential Christians before baptism and intense combining interdenominational and denomina-
catechizing and preparation for confirmation, and tional branches. Twelve churches resulting from
so the number of converts was not many. the SUM in Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad, and Sudan
ULRICH VAN DER HEYDEN count more than 3 million members. Kumm es-
548
Kuyper, Abraham
tablished home bases in Denmark, South Africa, their children, Zwemer observed, If we should
New Zealand, and Australia, where he married hold our peace, these very stones would cry out
Gertrud Cato. A British citizen from 1910, Kumm for evangelization of Arabia!
moved to the United States in 1914 to lead the Subsequently, development of the regions oil
SUM branch there. fields has attracted large numbers of Christian
KLAUS FIELDER immigrants to Kuwait and the other Persian
Bibliography. G. Grattan, Lucy Guinness Kumm, Her
Gulf principalities. Eastern rite Catholics (Mar-
Life Story; K. Kumm, From Hausaland to Egypt through conites, Melkites, Chaldeans, and others) com-
the Sudan; P J. Spartalis and K. Kumm, Last of the Liv- pose the largest single Christian community,
ingstones: Pioneer Missionary Statesman. followed by various Orthodox bodies and non-
Chalcedonian Christians, including Armenians
Kunst, Irene (18691934). German-born Hungar- and Indian Mar Thomists. After Iraqs invasion
ian missionary to China. Kunst was the only of Kuwait in 1990, many were expelled. At the
daughter of a marriage of German and Swedish time of writing, exact figures of their strength
heritage (though her parents divorced while she are unavailable; Christians may number over
was a child). She came to Christ through the 100,000, or just over 5 percent of Kuwaits esti-
preaching of Andrew Moody, but her desire to join mated 1.8 million people.
the foreign mission movement was suspended so Constitutionally, Kuwait guarantees religious
that she could care for her blind mother. freedom. By implicit agreement with the Kuwaiti
After her mothers death in 1903, Kunst was in- authorities, the Christian churches make no overt
vited by a CIM missionary to apply to the mission attempt to convert Muslims. Christians exercise
school at Liebenzell. She was appointed to China influence through the Council of Churches of
in 1904, and thereby became the first Hungarian Kuwait, founded in 1960, and private schools,
woman missionary. During her first ten-year term seven of which are under Christian management.
in China, she worked at a school for the blind, be- PAUL R. DEKAR
coming director of the school in 1913. Home on Bibliography. R. Betts, Christians in the Arab East. A
furlough when World War I broke out, she stayed Political Study; A. Horner, A Guide to Christian
in Budapest and ministered to Chinese refugees Churches in the Middle East; J. Wilson Jr., IBMR 10:3
until 1921. During her second term, she planted (1986): 11721.
and cared for eight mission stations. She died of
typhoid while serving her third term. Kuyper, Abraham (18371920). Dutch theolo-
Throughout her missionary career, Kunst gian and political leader who influenced missio-
fanned the flame of revival and missions com- logical reflection. Kuypers multifaceted life was
mitment in Hungary. In one of her last letters she a major influence in the political and ecclesiasti-
penned, The Lord has led me in a wonderful cal life of the Netherlands. During his first pas-
way: I was born in Germany, Hungary became torate in Beesd, he moved from the theological
my homeland, I was newly born as a Lutheran; I liberalism of his university training to an ortho-
wanted to go to Africa and the Lord led me to dox Calvinism. In 1880 he founded the Free Uni-
China. versity of Amsterdam to be a center of higher ed-
A. SCOTT MOREAU ucation, especially for the clergy, and to be true
Bibliography. A. M. Kool, God Moves in a Mysterious to conservative Calvinism. He founded the Re-
Way: The Hungarian Protestant Foreign Mission Move- formed Free Church of the Netherlands in 1886
ment (17561951). and developed a Dutch neo-Calvinism. Kuyper
maintained that divine sovereignty must be ex-
Kuwait (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,818,000; 17,818 sq. km. ercised over three realmsstate, society, and
[6,880 sq. mi.]). Home to no indigenous Christian church. His promotion of a Christian democ-
community after the Arab conquest of the sev- racy immersed him in the political life of Hol-
enth century, Kuwait was one of the cities visited land, first as a member of Parliament and then
by the important twentieth-century North Amer- as prime minister from 1901 to 1905. The Kuy-
ican missionary to Muslims, SAMUEL MARINUS perian model of integrating divine sovereignty
ZWEMER (18671952), of the Dutch Reformed over the three realms can be seen, for example,
Church in the United States, and his wife Amy when as a member of Parliament he demanded,
Wilkes (d. 1939). Under auspices of the Arabian as both a statesman and a churchman, that Hol-
Mission, they first entered Kuwait in 1903. They land christianize its colonial holding, the Dutch
visited on other occasions. In 1949 Zwemer West Indies, through the promotion of Christian
spoke in Kuwait at the sixtieth anniversary of the missions, churches, and Christian schools. As a
society. He went on to other cities in the region. result, mission schools multiplied and Christians
After a visit to the graves of missionaries and sought, with a measure of success, to compel the
549
Kuyper, Abraham
government to provide greater opportunity for Sunni Islam, the folk Islam they practice has
missionaries and to apply the principles of the strongly animistic overtones. Evangelicals make
faith to the administration of the colonies. up less than 0.25 percent of the population, the
DONALD R. DUNAVANT overwhelming majority being Slavs and Ger-
Bibliography. F. Vandenberg, Abraham Kuyper. mans. Growing numbers of Kyrgyz have been
coming to Christ, however, resulting in the estab-
Kyrgyzstan (Est. 2000 pop.: 5,143,000; 198,500 lishment of several ethnic Kyrgyz congregations.
sq. km. [76,641 sq. mi.]). Kyrgyzstan is a moun- Religious liberty has been declining, making
tainous Central Asian republic of the former So- evangelism increasingly difficult and necessitat-
viet Union, bordering China. While nearly three- ing creative strategies.
quarters of the population is of Turkic origin, a RAYMOND P. PRIGODICH
sizable but shrinking Slavic minority remains. Al-
though most Kyrgyz claim nominal allegiance to SEE ALSO Commonwealth of Independent States.
550
L-M Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/8/03 3:59 PM Page 551
Land, Land Reform, Land Rights. The subject

of land is an underrated issue in mission; it is
hardly mentioned in textbooks and is largely ig-
nored in training courses.
Historically, missionaries from the West often
associated with the powerful and privileged in
order to get permission to stay in a country. This
agreement was often conditioned by an expecta-
tion of noninvolvement in questions of power
and land ownership. The colonial mentality of
Ll
trial development, the Green Revolution, and ur-
banization.
One of the happiest experiences in the Old Tes-
tament was the equitable division of land within
missions in the early part of the twentieth cen- Israel, to be passed down the family line in per-
tury meant that missionaries were more identi- petuity (Num. 26:52-56; 33:54; Ezek. 47:14). Sev-
fied with the conquerors and exploiters than the eral biblical ethicists suggest that a key human
struggling classes. In the words of Desmond Tutu right God desires is for every household not to be
of South Africa: Before the missionaries came permanently deprived of land.
they had the Bible and we had the land. They Few evangelicals have a gospel that would re-
said Let us pray, and when we opened our eyes, solve conflict between warring factions or reset-
we had the Bible and they had the land! tle the homeless after a major disaster. Fewer ex-
Many missions purchased land for cathedrals press Good News to the poor by confronting the
and churches, schools, hostels, and hospitals as injustices of wealthy landowners and huge agri-
the physical base to reach people. Missionary business that make peasant farmers or freehold-
compounds, by contrast, have often been places ers into day laborers on what was once their own
of privacy and protection that conflict with a land. Niall OBrien calls this land reform in
genuinely incarnational ministry. The need for reverse.
land as a base for mission consumes energy and Evangelical missions have not given sufficient
money. The complexities of foreigners buying attention to issues of justice and righteousness as
land, with payoffs to power holders and tradi- they pertain to questions about land. This is es-
tional owners, established patterns for later deal- pecially urgent since land reform efforts con-
ings. Regular payments for maintenance and tinue to fail because of the obstruction of power-
labor can reinforce the perception that mission- ful, vested interests. Even where missionary
ary groups are powerful and patronizing. agriculturalists have made an impact working
This perception affects how the gospel is re- with farmers to reclaim marginalized land, the
ceived. Land ownership by missions can con- incentive to do this is restricted by the awareness
tribute to a mentality that isolates national Chris- that too much improvement may draw fresh in-
tians from the common life of their community; terference from the rich.
to become a Christian is thus to become an alien. Landless people in the cities are a greater chal-
And when the mission passes ownership of their lenge. They live in vulnerable places along ex-
land to the national church, this may become a pressways, river banks, and canals, where the
millstone around the neck, the opposite to the haves would not reside. Resettlement is rarely
experience of the early church (Acts 4:3435). satisfactory because it takes the urban poor away
In contrast to the relative wealth of traditional from the locations in the city where they survive
missions, millions of landless people have little on what the wealthy discard.
time to consider the gospel in their daily struggle One recent hopeful shift in mission is the move-
to survive. About one out of every five human be- ment toward incarnation, the willingness of evan-
ings in the world lives in the city in significant gelical Christian groups to live in urban slums and
poverty. These people are internally displaced or shanty towns. Serving the poor by identifying in
refugees because of regional, racial, and religious their daily struggle has brought hope that people
conflict, natural calamity, or the effects of indus- on the margins of life can meet a Jesus who is not
551
Land, Land Reform, Land Rights
confined to temples made by human hands or the words (Exod. 17:14; Deut. 6:9; Jer. 30:2). He in-
white washed sectors of the city. spired the authors of Scripture to preserve his
Many tribal people groups will only be reached message in three particular languages (Hebrew,
by the love of Christ as unresolved questions Aramaic, Koine Greek). That God saw fit to use
about their traditional lands are taken seriously. languages as different from each other as He-
This, and the global increase in refugees who are brew and Greek demonstrates the innate ability
landless for reasons of drought, desertification, of human language to express the essence of
war, or floods presents great challenges for mis- Gods revelation. While no human words can
sion in the twenty-first century. fully describe God, God used ordinary languages
Evangelicals need a biblical worldview that re- to describe himself. Gods use of Hebrew, Ara-
lates land rights and land reform to the Good maic, and Greek appears to have less to do with
News of Gods kingdom. The drawback is that the wonders of those particular languages than
good news about land to the poor and vulnerable with the fact that the audience he wanted to ad-
is often bad news to the rich and powerful. dress understood them. When people understood
JOHN STEWARD more than one language, God chose the language
of hearth and home over that of the classroom
Bibliography. J. Bonk, Missions and Money; M. Dun-
can, Costly Mission; S. Mott, Biblical Ethics and Social and book learning (Acts 26:14), the language of
Change; N. OBrien, Revolution from the Heart; H. Sny- the homeland over the language of formal reli-
der, Earthcurrents; C. Wright, Living as the People of gion (Acts 2:512). The Scriptures provide nu-
God: An Eye for an Eye. merous instructions on the godly use of language
(Exod. 20:16; Josh. 1:8; 1 Tim. 4:1213).
Language. Learned system of arbitrary symbols There are over 6,500 distinct languages spoken
(verbal or manual) used by a society to commu- in the world today, with countless more dialects
nicate and to express their identity. Language is of these languages. Paul used several languages
distinctly human; animal communication sys- in his ministry (Acts 21:3722:1). Missionaries
tems are typically random sounds (bird calls) or still need to overcome language barriers to com-
set analogs (the dance of bees). Language is ac- municate the gospel. Agencies such as the Sum-
quired through interaction with other people, but mer Institute of Linguistics focus on the study of
is based on what appear to be innate patterns in language and provide training to help missionar-
the human brain. ies learn and analyze languages.
Language is marked by structure and pattern. PETER JAMES SILZER
Language consists of units within layers of larger SEE ALSO Linguistics; Sociolinguistics.
units. Each language employs a small subset of
the total possible sounds and combinations of Bibliography. L. K. Pike, Linguistic Concepts;
sounds to create words which follow a relatively M. Silva, God, Language and Scripture; C. A. Wilson and
small number of phrase and clause patterns, yet D. McKeon, The Language Gap.
is capable of expressing an infinite set of utter-
ances. These patterns facilitate communication Language Learning. See SECOND LANGUAGE AC-
between speakers of the language and can aid QUISTION.
outsiders seeking to learn a second language.
The ability to use language is common among Language Schools. Language schools have per-
all people and can be seen as one aspect of being formed a great service to the missionary cause,
created in Gods image. People use language to facilitating many new missionaries acquisition
convey, receive, and record information. Lan- of language (see SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION).
guage also encodes the physical environment Some smaller schools primarily offer access to
(Gen. 2:19) and social culture, providing impor- trained tutors. Larger schools provide teachers,
tant insights for mission workers. Language dif- a curriculum, a means of evaluation of progress,
ferences can be used to include or exclude others. and a camaraderie in the learning among the
Humans have typically used these distinctions students.
for ungodly purposes (Judg. 12:56; 2 Kings In evaluating a language school, the new mis-
18:2628; Matt. 26:73). Genesis 11 illustrates how sionary can take into account the learning phi-
even language unity can be misused. In Acts 2 losophy of the school, the curriculum, the train-
God miraculously overcame language barriers, ing and experience of teachers, the teachers
setting a pattern of using language as a mission- patience and attitudes, the medium of instruc-
ary tool. tion, the class size, the learning ethos, the em-
God used language in creation (Gen. 1), sent phasis placed on conversation and communica-
the Word to live as a human (John 1), and em- tion, the attention given to culture learning and
powers his Word to change lives (Heb. 4:12). God involvement, the location of the school, the di-
revealed himself through human language and alect being taught, the dialect commonly used in
repeatedly commissioned written records of his the locality of the school, the expected outcomes,
552
Las Casas, Bartholmew de
the reputation of the school, the flexibility in somewhat in recent years, political control re-
dealing with differences in ability levels and mains tight and the church is closely monitored.
learning styles of students, the training given to In spite of the economic liberalization begun in
learners to enable them to continue learning in- 1986, the country remains one of the worlds
dependently after completion of the course, the poorest, with an estimated annual income per
intensity (number of contact hours, length, and person in 1993 of roughly $295 (though growing
extent) of the course, and the cost (tuition, books, at almost 5% per year).
living expenses, transportation). The first missionary to reach Laos was Jean
In order to achieve the greatest benefit from the deLeria, a Jesuit, who came from Cambodia in
course, students must remain fully engaged in the 1642. He was forced to leave after five years of
learning process both in and out of the classroom. work and no results. Unsuccessful attempts were
This engagement includes active participation in made again in 1683 and 1866, but it was not until
the classroom, willingness to try, willingness to be 1878 that a mission was developed in the north-
corrected for mistakes, discipline, and ample in- west part of the country. It ended when twelve
vestment of time and energy. In addition, the priests were martyred in 1884. From then until
learner should also regularly spend time outside 1940, missionaries came from neighboring Thai-
the classroom relating to people in the language land and worked in the south along the Mekong
group. By daily involvement in the community, River. In 1950, owing to a general lack of success,
listening to people, and talking with them, the attention was given over to tribal peoples in the
learner will reinforce the things learned in the mountains.
classroom and make them his or her own. Im- The first Protestant missionary to reach Laos
mersion in the language and culture can be fur- was Daniel MacGilvary, a Presbyterian who made
ther enhanced by living with a local family who itinerant evangelistic trips from Thailand.
speak the language in their home. Gabriel Contesse of the Swiss Brethren was the
The new missionarys careful attention to lan- first Protestant missionary to settle in Laos, ar-
guage learning will lay a foundation for effective- riving in 1902 and concentrating his efforts in the
ness in ministry for years to come. south. After initial attempts at widespread evan-
BETTY SUE BREWSTER gelization, he and his successors changed their
Bibliography. H. D. Brown, Breaking the Language focus to literature development and translating
Barrier; J. D. Brown, The Elements of Language Cur- the Bible into Lao, which was completed in 1932.
riculum: A Systematic Approach to Program Develop- G. Edward Roffe of THE CHRISTIAN AND MISSION-
ment; E. A. Nida, Learning a Foreign Language; L. J. ARY ALLIANCE arrived in 1929, focusing his efforts
Dickerson, ed., Helping the Missionary Language largely in the north. A dramatic people move-
Learner SucceedProceedings from the International ment took place there in 1950 when a thousand
Congress on Missionary Language Learning.
Meo, a northern hill people, came to Christ over
a period of several weeks. This laid the founda-
Laos (Est. 2000 pop.: 5,602,000; 236,800 sq. km. tion for what became the Evangelical Church of
[91,429 sq. mi.]). Bordered by Thailand, Cambo- Laos, the largest Protestant denomination in the
dia, Vietnam, China, and Myanmar, Laos is com- country. OMF missionaries arrived in 1957 and
prised of four major ethnolinguistic groups (Eth- worked alongside the Swiss Brethren. Though
nologue lists ninety-two distinct languages). Protestants generally have had limited success
While animistic beliefs are widespread across the among the majority Lao people, they have seen
population, Theravada Buddhism (59%) and tra- results from working with the refugees who were
ditional religions (33%) dominate the overall re- forced to flee in the face of the genocidal perse-
ligious adherence of the people, with Christians cution of the mid-1970s.
numbering less than 2 percent of the population. EDITORS
After the Communists took over with Vietnamese
help in 1975, more than 10 percent fled the coun- Bibliography. D. Barrett, WCE; H. Cordell, Laos;
try to Thailand. Many of those have since emi- P. Johnstone, OW; G. E. Roffe, The Church in Asia, pp.
grated to North America, Europe, Australia, or 391409; H. Toye, Laos: Buffer State or Battleground.
New Zealand. This former French colony (1890
to 1953) is currently governed by a single-party Las Casas, Bartholmew de (14741566). Spanish
communist regime, the Lao Peoples Revolution- missionary to Latin America. The son of a mer-
ary Party. chant who had traveled on Columbuss second voy-
Recent historical events include the killing of age, Las Casas himself arrived in the Caribbean in
more than 2 million by the Khmer Rouge gov- 1502 and after a return to Spain and further stud-
ernment under Pol Pots leadership. As much as ies, was ordained in 1507. Initially serving as an en-
two-thirds of the church fled or was martyred comendero (recipient of a grant which gave control
(including more than 90% of the trained leader- over Indians who were to provide labor and goods
ship). Many more have lost their faith. Even in exchange for protection and religious instruc-
though economic restrictions have been eased tion) in Spains colonial encomienda system, a con-
553
Las Casas, Bartholmew de
version experience in August of 1514 led him to tions that identify more with the CARIBBEANSuri-
work for reform. Freeing his own slaves, he re- name, Guyana, and the French colony, Guyane.
turned to Spain in 1515 to advocate for the Indi- The races and peoples within each country are
ans. He then launched a lifetime of attempts to ini- also very diverse. The original tribal peoples
tiate projects which would foster peaceful whom the Europeans met over 500 years ago still
colonization, with varying success. He joined the compose a significant percentage of the popula-
Dominican Order in 1523. tion. Called Indians (so named by mistake, be-
His projects mostly met with opposition and cause Columbus concluded erroneously that he
failure, but his powerful and fertile writings were had arrived in India) pre-Columbian (before
far more successful and the chief source of last- Columbus) peoples are found primarily in Mex-
ing influence. His thinking shaped the papal bull ico (11% of 102 million people), Guatemala (50%
Sublimis Deus (1537), which recognized the Indi- of 12.2 million), Peru (45% of 26 million),
ans as rational beings with the same rights as Ecuador (21% of 12.6 million), Bolivia (55% of
Europeans. He also played a key role in the de- 8.3 million), and Chile (9% of 15.3 million). The
velopment and passing of a set of laws in 1542 black people (originally coming as African slaves
which, among other things, limited the power of and later as Caribbean immigrants) form a sig-
nificant percentage of Latin America, particularly
the encomenderos and prohibited slavery of the
in the Caribbean and in a black ribbon on the
indigenes.
Pacific Ocean coast, as well as in Brazil (6%
After retirement and final return to Spain in
black and 38% mulatto). People of pure Euro-
1547, Las Casas engaged in major debates with
pean and Asian blood live in all the nations.
Juan Gins de Seplveda over the legitimacy of However, most of the population is a mixture of
the Spanish conquests in the New World the races, called mestizos.
(155051). One of his most significant contribu- Over 160 million Brazilians speak Portuguese,
tions was in developing the discussion on what a result of the colonization by Portugal. Most of
would become the contemporary concept of the remainder of 312 million people in the other
HUMAN RIGHTS. eighteen nations speak Spanish, either as mother
A. SCOTT MOREAU or trade tongue. But millions of Latin American
Bibliography. G. Gutirrez, Las Casas: In Search of pre-Columbian peoples also speak their historic
the Poor of Jesus Christ; J. Klaiber, BDCM, p. 384; H. R. language.
Parish and H. R. Wagner, The Life and Writings of Bar- Latin Americas population is growing at the
tolom de las Casas; A. Saint-Lu, NCE, 8:394-5. annual rate of 1.8 percent per year, and will dou-
ble in 38 years. By the year 2010 it is projected to
Latin America. This continent must be studied have some 589 million people and by the year
in light of its unique geography, historical devel- 2025 the estimate surges to 691. In 1997, 72 per-
opment, peoples, religions, and cultures, as well cent of the continent was considered urban; 34
as its current, changing social environment. Only percent under the ages of 15 years and only 5
from that perspective can one fully understand percent over age 65. It is helpful to compare
the Latin spiritual mosaic, in particular, its vi- Latin Americas annual GNP of $3,310 to that of
brant evangelical Christianity. Latin America is the less developed world ($1,120), the more de-
veloped world ($19,310), and the entire world
very diverse, with each country displaying its
($4,920).
own unique features.
A Historical Panorama. Modern Latin Amer-
Geography and Population. Latin America
ica must be understood from the perspective of
(Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking) is composed
its particular history and its four major time
of nineteen nations, having 15 percent of the segments: (1) pre-Columbian times (ancient
worlds land mass and about 8 percent of the past to 1492); (2) the conquest and colonization
global population. Starting with Mexicos northern (14921821); (3) the genesis and crisis of the
border, one travels 7,000 miles down to the bottom new nations (18211930); and (4) the modern
tip of Chile, just north of Antarctica, and at its period (193092).
widest 3,200 miles from Perus Pacific coast east- The demarcation date for the mutual discovery
ward through Brazil to the Atlantic. Two of the is 1492, when the Latin/European history begins
nineteen countries are found in the Caribbean in this newly discovered (for the Europeans)
(Cuba and the Dominican Republic), while the world. Evidence points to a crossing of the
other island nations enjoy their different her- Bering straits some time prior to 20,000 B.C., and
itagesEnglish, French, and African. Puerto Rico gradually the population moved down the conti-
is a North American Commonwealth island, and nent. Vast civilizations had come and gone by the
while it shares many historical, religious, and cul- time Columbus landed, but in 1492 three major
tural values with the other nations it must be stud- ones remained: the Aztecs in Central Mexico, the
ied within its own Caribbean and U.S. realities. On Maya in southern Mexico and Guatemala, and
the northern flank of South America are two na- the Inca in the Andean region. Estimates of the
554
Latin America
Indian population in 1492 range widely between country (Cuba) had voted for some form of dem-
15 million to an unrealistic 100 million. ocratically elected government. The 1990 collapse
The colonial history produced a mixed legacy. of Russian and European Marxism robbed the in-
On the positive side the Europeans brought a sys- tellectual left of socialist/Marxist political models,
tem of education; they introduced new technol- which contributed to the 1990 electoral defeat of
ogy; they transferred two major languages the Nicaraguan Sandinistas. Peace accords have
Spanish and Portuguese; they evangelized been signed in El Salvador and Guatemala, and
bringing a new religionRoman Catholic Chris- political stability has even opened space for for-
tianity; they introduced an entire social structure mer Marxists to run for and win public office.
to organize and expand Spanish culture and so- Much faith continues to be placed in the hands
ciety. On the negative side, the Spanish have been of the new political technocrats, the market econ-
criticized severely for social and cultural evils in- omy, privatization, microeconomic development,
herent in the conquest and colonization. Euro- and growing stability of trade agreements within
peans delivered diseases against which the Indi- Latin America as well as with the United States
ans were defenseless and which killed millions, and Pacific Rim nations. The military have cur-
and brutal slave labor wiped out uncounted num- rently retreated to their barracks. But dark signs
bers. Early on there was a battle to determine loom over the continent: endemic corruption, the
whether these primitive peoples had souls or violent drug industry, political systems drastically
not. If not, then they were a higher level of ani- needing overhaul, the uncontrolled growth of
mals for slave work. In Mexico alone, one esti- poverty, the breakdown of the family, and the
mate states that the Indian population dropped fragmentation of fragile human social systems.
from 16,871,408 to 1,069,255 between 1532 and The privatization of former state industries is cre-
1608. A few valiant priests defended the Indians, ating immediate high unemployment, as are the
such as BARTHOLOMEW DE LAS CASAS, who battled cuts in traditional social programs and services.
until the Indians were declared to be human. Un- New liberationists and leftist intellectuals severely
fortunately, this humanity did not extend to criticize the extremes of this neo-liberalism.
Africans, who were then imported as slaves to The Spiritual Mosaic. Latin America is histori-
work the colonial economy. cally and nominally Roman Catholic and Rome
Following independence from both Spain (be- still considers Latin America within its religious
tween 1820 and 1821) and Portugal (independ- world, which in 1900 was almost entirely Catholic.
ence in 1822; with Brazil becoming a federal re- The continent has a general concept of God and
public in 1889), the new nations struggled for the Bible, of the Virgin Mary, and of Jesus Christ
viability and political/economic development (particularly his passion story). With certain no-
from 1824 to 1880. It was relatively easy to defeat table exceptions, such as Uruguay and Argentina,
Spain and gain autonomy, but nearly impossible Latin America is God-conscious and favorable to
to organize and administrate stable republics. The Christianity in the broad sense of the word.
map was redrawn, but the nations were in crisis, However, probing deeper into the worldview,
with political foundations unprepared for West- most Latins are presuppositionally spiritistic. This
ern democracy. Into that leadership/power vac- is particularly true of the pre-Columbian peoples,
uum emerged the dictators, who took personal who for centuries worshiped their nature gods.
charge of their nations from the early nineteenth Even with nominal conversion to Catholicism,
century even into the mid-twentieth century. their basic WORLDVIEW is spirit-controlled. Africa-
The 18801930 period was marked by relative originated spiritism is widespread, but in partic-
peace and limited national development, with so- ular most visible in the Macumba and Umbanda
cial positivism experiments (Brazil and Mexico cults of Brazil (see also LATIN AMERICAN NEW RELI-
are case studies) with its scientific technocracy. GIOUS MOVEMENTS). Some 35% of Brazilians are
National infrastructure was developed, the active spiritists, and partial practitioners raise
armies grew stronger, and central governmental that population to 60%. Whether they come from
control extended. During this period the contro- the lowest social class or the movie stars or lead-
versial role of the United States emerged as the ing politicians, spiritism attracts Brazilians. Any-
Western Hemispheres superpowergenerating one in Latin American Christian ministry must
an ongoing lovehate relationship between Latin understand this worldview and be equipped to
America and the United States. minister in the context of POWER ENCOUNTER
The modern period, starting in 1930, gradually both evil and Triune God-provided.
increased social and political stability. During the Another aspect of the cultural and spiritual mo-
1960s and 1970s the right-wing military con- saic is the continental spirit of Indianism, cur-
trolled most of the nations, with democracy fad- rently on a continental rise. On the positive ledger,
ing even as violence and poverty increased. Fun- it celebrates the God-given values and cultures of
damental political and economic structures did these pre-Columbian peoples, recognizing their
not begin to change substantially until the late ethnic riches as well as their economic and politi-
1980s and into the 1990s. By 1995, all but one cal power in partial counteraction to centuries of
555
Latin America
abuse. Yet there are warning signs also, particu- The second wave began in the early to mid-nine-
larly the revival of traditional spiritism and pre- teenth century, when the major denominations
Columbian nature-worshiping religions. from Britain and the United States established
Contemporary Latin Catholicism reveals a churches and educational/social institutions
broad diversity of streams: the historic, tradi- throughout the continent. During this period the
tional sacramentalist, hierarchy-ruled, in some Latin political context was changing, the religious
nations allied with the oligarchy; a progressive influence of Spain diminishing, and commerce
wing with socialist to Marxist sympathies, at- with England and northern Europe growing
tempting to articulate a new theology of libera- stronger. All of this favored a new religious open-
tion; a biblical studies circle that has generated ing, though in some countries persecution was
solid Scripture resources; the charismatic re- experienced.
newed Catholics (many drawn back into Catholic Europeans focused primarily on the Southern
mysticism but others still related to charismatic Cone nations, but the United States denomina-
evangelicals); the large majority of Catholics who tions spread throughout the region. Early on the
would practice some form of popular religiosity, COMITY agreements guided territorial expansion.
converging traditions, personal emotions, and Churches were established in every country.
syncretistic folk religious practices; nominal However, some of these denominations gradually
Catholics who are simply that because of family developed a primary social and educational em-
tradition but the underlying value system is secu- phasis, and today these historic denominations
lar. Many evangelicals have interfaced with the represent classic Latin Protestantism, but their
more biblical and charismatic sectors. Liberation churches are not growing.
theology was primarily conceived, birthed, and The third wave came with the arrival of North
given life within Latin Catholicism, generating a American and European FAITH MISSIONS. Even
vast amount of publications and influencing D. L. MOODY and Ira Sankey ministered in Mex-
global theology. Since the collapse of Russian and ico City in 1894. These new societies sent thou-
European Marxism, liberation theology is a move- sands of cross-cultural missionaries with evan-
ment seeking new articulation. Evangelicals gelistic and church-planting passion as early as
1890; Bible institutes were started to train pas-
would be wrong to dismiss it, for as long as a ma-
tors and evangelists; Christian radio and publish-
jority of people live in poverty, Christians of all
ing ministries expanded. The churches grew with
stripes will attempt to speak for the poor.
vibrancy in almost every nation, and today they
Latin Catholic leaders are grappling with the
represent the majority of non-Pentecostal/charis-
new rules on an open religious playing field, a
matic evangelicals on the continent.
new experience for them. While Catholicism in
The fourth wave came shortly after the Asuza
Europe and North America has lively religious Street Revival (1906), for inherent in that Spirit
pluralism, this is not yet the case in Latin Amer- movement was its empowered commitment to
ica. Pope John Paul II has made twelve trips to world evangelization with new distinctives. Pen-
the region, has labeled evangelicals as sects, tecostal denominations arrived and grew, and
and has challenged his Church to affirm Catholic some of the historic churches were swept into
doctrine and reevangelize the continent. these new movementsChilean Methodists split
The Evangelicals. The Protestant gospel ar- and the Methodist Pentecostal Church of Chile
rived in Latin America in five movements. The was formed. Every Pentecostal denomination in
first wave came with the new settlers in the early the United States established its Latin counter-
nineteenth century from northern Europe: Ger- part, although some of them may now be larger
many, Holland, France, and Britain. A short-lived than the parent body. In Brazil alone there are
Lutheran Welser colony settled in Venezuela from over 15 million affiliated with the Assemblies of
1528 to 1546, and French Huguenots tried to es- God.
tablish from 1555 to 1557 a Brazilian base. These Today we witness the fifth wave of Latin Amer-
colonists brought their Protestant faith, but ican evangelical, autochthonous churches. A good
largely kept it to themselves, and tended to wor- number are massive, but most are smaller in size.
ship in their European language within the immi- They are autonomous, contextualizing theology
grant and trade communities. Even some Protes- and missiology, with most forming their own na-
tant pirates got involved and helped settle what tional and international denominations. It might
became the three Guianas. Early in the nine- be safe to estimate that they represent 30 percent
teenth century Moravians immigrated to this New of all Latin evangelical churches. In Mexico City
World and established churches and communi- they represent 55 percent of the churches, in
ties. We honor the great Bible colporteurs, such as Lima 37 percent, and in Guatemala 25 percent of
JAMES DIEGO THOMSON, Joseph Monguiardino, all churches. Mostly independent Neo-Pentecostal
and FRANCISCO PENZOTTI, agents of the British and (charismatic) churches, they are generally led by
American Bible Societies, for their unique min- strong centralizing leaders who have emerged
istry, which for some meant MARTYRDOM. from the ranks of committed laity. The focus is on
556
Latin America
emotional, celebratory worship and preaching, such as Baptist, Methodist, Brethren, and inde-
with a strong emphasis on evangelism and church pendent non-Pentecostal. It is fair to state that
planting even beyond national borders. They have Latin evangelical churches characterized as prac-
been charged with being a Protestant version of ticing supernaturalists are the ones demonstrat-
Latin popular religiosity. Undoubtedly, they chal- ing growth and vibrancy. Their worship is strong,
lenge all other variants of Latin evangelicalism. utilizing the spectrum of instruments, with words
Growth in Numbers. How much have Latin and music now primarily written by Latins.
American evangelical-Protestant churches grown Whither Latin American Evangelicals? This is
in recent years? One measure comes from com- a unique continent-wide moment for Latin evan-
paring data in the 1993 edition of Patrick John- gelicals, attempting to speak for transcendental
stones Operation World with those from the 1986 absolutes in a world of RELATIVISM, political neo-
edition. But it is impossible to justify all terms liberalism, philosophical POSTMODERNISM, and
and statistics. Essentially the Protestant churches moral deconstructionism. While Latin evangeli-
have grown from a total community of roughly cal leaders rejoice in their numerical growth,
50,000 in 1900 to an estimated 64 million in 1997 they also express profound concern about its
(see also Nez and Taylor). health, citing shallow ethical depth, the moral
Data from 1993 reveal the diversity of evangel- relativism, the emphasis on emotional celebra-
ical strength in these 19 nations, with numbers in tion more than authentic community, and the
percentage of total population: Argentina, 7.5 growth of biblical illiteracy in both pew and pul-
percent; Bolivia, 8.5 percent; Brazil, 18.9 percent; pit with devalued biblical study and exposition.
Chile, 27.1 percent; Colombia, 3.4 percent; Costa Here is a series of issues in dialectical tension
Rica, 9.8 percent; Cuba, 2.7 percent; Dominican that will mark the future of Latin evangelicals.
Republic, 5.8 percent; Ecuador, 3.7 percent; First, the battle between profound renewal and
El Salvador, 20.8 percent; Guatemala, 22.1 per- maturity versus nominalism and cultural evan-
cent; Honduras, 10.1 percent; Mexico, 5.1 gelicalism. Numerical growth is thrilling to many,
percent; Nicaragua, 16.3 percent; Panama, 16.1 encouraging to all, even though statistics are im-
percent; Paraguay, 5.5 percent; Peru, 6.8 percent; precise. But the hard questions must be asked:
Uruguay, 3.5 percent; Venezuela, 5.1 percent. For
What is church? What is growth? What
the continent the total is 11.1 percent. Using the
about the problem of former evangelicals? In-
1997 population total of 472 million, the esti-
ternal weaknesses and open heresiesfrom other
mated 15 percent of evangelicals generates a force
regions as well as Latin speciesseep into the
of some 64 million believers.
churches and sap their vitality. The churches
A measured guess suggests there are some
must face head-on the crisis of the disintegrating
300,000 evangelical churches in Latin America.
Perhaps only 25 percent of them have a formally Latin family structure and articulate better an-
trained pastor-leader. Some 75 percent of the swers in light of urbanism and modern lifestyles.
churches are Pentecostal-charismatic, and 25 per- The Spirit of God must renew stagnant evangeli-
cent non-Pentecostal/charismatic. But churches cal churches. Studies in Costa Rica and Chile
of both categories are growing as long as they have documented the disturbing percentage of
evangelize actively. The largest percentages of former evangelicals. Some have returned to the
evangelical populations are found in Guatemala, Catholic fold and others have moved into priva-
Chile, Brazil, and El Salvador; the lowest in Mex- tized religion or even nonbelief.
ico, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Uruguay, and Second, the struggle between evangelical mu-
Paraguay. tual acceptance and interdependency versus iso-
Some Clarifying Items Regarding Religious lationism and critical divisionism. A limited
Terminology. In Latin America the words Protes- sense of unity in the Latin churches is manifested
tant and evangelical are generally used inter- locally, nationally, and continentally. Whether
changeably, with preference for the latter. The subtle or open, it pits Pentecostal against Pente-
terms Pentecostal and charismatic sometimes costal, charismatic against charismatic, Pente-
describe the same reality, but at other times Pen- costal against charismatic, and non-Pentecostal
tecostal is used more of the older denominations, versus charismatic, non-Pentecostal against non-
like Assemblies of God or Church of God. Charis- Pentecostal, traditional denomination against
matic has a broad use that runs from Spirit-filled Third Wave church. CONELA (The WORLD EVAN-
Catholics to independent churches of Pentecostal GELICAL FELLOWSHIP related regional body) has
persuasion. Perhaps 75 percent of all Latin evan- the potential to unite evangelicals on a continen-
gelicals would consider themselves charismatic or tal basis, but it awaits visionary leadership that
Pentecostal. But all Latin charismatics consider understands the nature and influence of national
themselves also evanglicos! The concept of re- and regional fellowships and will provide crucial
newal or of a renewed church seems to apply to services to the churches. Meanwhile, a few na-
the charismatic theology and practice that is mov- tional movements will increasingly and effec-
ing through non-Pentecostal denominations tively impact their nations.
557
Latin America
Third, the tension between relevancy and bibli- accountability as well as inadequate pastoral
cal CONTEXTUALIZATION versus the superspiritual- ministry to public servants.
ization of the faith. A hermeneutical struggle is Sixth is the polarized polemics between
found in every Christian community: How is Catholics and evangelicals versus mutual respect.
Scripture to be applied and experienced in a radi- Catholic leaders know they are losing influence
cally changing Latin American society? Christians and space in Latin America, and this has created
must be equipped to face the insidious enemies an internal crisis for the hierarchy. The Roman
filtering in through SECULARISM (the rejection of a Church is adjusting to the new religious plural-
theistic point of reference); materialism (con- ism. And some evangelicals still suffer from the
sumer society and massive debt); MODERNITY (glo- ghetto mentality of a persecuted minority. But
rification of technology and progress); and now the fact is that evangelicals are still being perse-
the surprisingly rapid invasion of postmodernity cuted for their faith, whether the Chamula Indi-
with its deconstructionist influences (questioning ans of southern Mexico (religious persecution) or
of technology and progress, the newer religious the Quechua believers in Peru (political persecu-
pluralism, rejection of transcendental truth). tion). The spiritual/social value called hispanidad
Latin theological leaders, pastors, and those (which identifies Latins intrinsically as Catholics)
preparing for ministry must be equipped for the has created other conflicts on the continent.
challenge of ongoing contextualization in light of North Europeans and North Americans must
historical needs and the new ideological face of not confuse their Catholicism with that of Latin
Latin America. The Latin American Theological America. These are two different models, and to
Fraternity has done a valiant job in this area. All impose experience and expectations of the first
leaders and believers must be equipped to con- upon Latin evangelicals is wrong.
front the evil powers of the occult, so openly and Seventh is the tension between monocultural
influentially influencing the entire spectrum of evangelization versus cross-cultural mission,
society. whether national or international, continental or
Fourth is the effective equipping of leadership intercontinental. The number of evangelical
for ministry versus informal volunteerism. Most churches with cross-cultural vision is still low.
Latin formal educational delivery systems are This must change as they are challenged bibli-
costly to create, fund, staff, and produce gradu- cally and then mobilized to broader mission. In
ates. They do have their strategic place but need Latin America, church-based missions will con-
serious self-examination. Few formal institutions tinue to carry the day, but leaders must break old
offer program degrees beyond the masters de- molds and attitudes. Missiological literature
gree. Most Latins travel to the United States or must be developed by Latin writers and theolo-
Europe for doctoral study. In this critical time for gians, as well as by the practitioners.
the Latin churches, women and men with the Latin-driven movements and organizations,
highest credentials and strongest gift mix are such as COMIBAM (Cooperation of Missions of
needed. Formal schools serve a very small seg- Iberoamerica), must be supported as they mobi-
ment of church needs, and in the gap more and lize beyond emotionalism and create the impera-
more smaller programs or training alternatives tive missions infrastructure for the movement to
are emerging. There are two major entry points be truly visible and viable. This challenge focuses
to ministry in Latin America; one coming on three areas: the precandidate phase of screen-
through formal theological study and the other ing, primarily by the local church; the prefield
emerging on the march of regular lay ministry. training (informal and formal) phase; and the
How these two currents relate to and influence field ministry phase, which requires adequate su-
each other in the future will profoundly shape pervision, shepherding, and strategizing.
the Latin churches. Eighth, and finally, is the spirit of interdepend-
The fifth tension is the involvement in the ent partnership versus control and neopaternal-
crises of society and political governance versus ism by expatriate organizations. Many interna-
forms of spiritualized isolationism. For decades tional organizations have vested interests in
evangelicals eschewed political involvement as Latin America, whether they be funding bodies,
part of the devils work. This has radically denominations, parachurch organizations, or for-
changed, with a number of evangelicals now in eign mission agencies. Control must pass to Latin
the political arena. But the jury is mixed on this grassroots, and decisions must be made by those
involvement, for some Christian politicians have directly affected by the decisions. On the conti-
sold their integrity and yet crassly serve their de- nent more and more expatriate missionaries
nominational interests. Some Latins want to es- serve under Latin leadership. Expatriate mis-
tablish evangelical parties, though these have no sionaries from all nations continue to be wel-
hope of winning elections. Too many evangelicals comed, provided they come with the genuine
in politics are naive, have been manipulated, or spirit of servanthood and serve where they are
lost their spiritual convictions while in power. In truly needed in light of global missiological pri-
part this has come from the absence of spiritual orities. The fact is that many international mis-
558
Latin American Mission Boards and Societies
sion organizations are searching for their identity North America, Europe, and Australia, or have
and role in Latin America today, particularly with gone as technicians and professionals to work in
the emphasis on the non-Latin unevangelized na- the Muslim world. There are thousands of evan-
tions and people groups. gelicals from Latin America working in Japan,
Summarizing. Latin America is a multihued many of whom get involved as missionary volun-
continent facing an uncertain future in the global teers in that country. Second, organized denomi-
and borderless economy. Its God-given vast natu- national mission boards following the model of
ral and human resources have yet to be developed North American missions developed especially in
and wisely utilized, although political conditions Argentina, Puerto Rico, Mexico, and Brazil.
are healthier today than ever before. National, re- Mainly denominations that were financially strong
gional, and continental development will take and well organized have managed to continue this
place as genuine political reform is institutional- model.
ized in a way that truly grapples with the causes After World War II, a large number of conser-
and characteristics of an ever-prevalent poverty vative evangelical faith missions came to Latin
and social crises. Within this textured context we America and some of them created a third pat-
find the evangelical churches and leadership fac- tern for the channeling of missionary vocations
ing unique challenges, and empowered by the among Latin Americans. Organizations such as
Spirit they will impact their world. the Latin America Mission, Wycliffe Bible Trans-
WILLIAM DAVID TAYLOR lators, Operation Mobilization, and Youth with a
Mission incorporated Latin Americans into their
Bibliography. M. Berg and P. Pretiz, Spontaneous international mission force, generally relying on
Combustion: Grass-Roots Christianity Latin American North American or European funds and leader-
Style; E. L. Cleary, and H. Stewart-Gambino, eds., Con-
flict and Competition: The Latin American Church in a
ship. Student movements associated with the In-
Changing Environment; E. Dussell, ed., The Church in ternational Fellowship of Evangelical Students
Latin America, 14921992; The Economist Intelligence (IFES) pioneered missionary conventions to
Unit, Economist Country Profiles; G. Gustavo, A Theol- challenge students to become involved in mis-
ogy of Liberation: History, Politics and Salvation; rev. ed. sions in their own countries or abroad. The First
P. Johnstone, OW; D. Martin, Tongues of Fire: The Ex- Latin American Missionary Congress gathered
plosion of Protestantism in Latin America; E. A. Nez five hundred university students and graduates
and W. D. Taylor, Crisis and Hope in Latin America: An from all over Latin America in Curitiba, Brazil, in
Evangelical Perspective, rev. ed.; D. Stoll, and V. Bar- January 1976. Sponsored by the IFES related
rard-Burnett, eds., Rethinking Protestantism in Latin Alianza Bblica Universitaria do Brasil (Inter Var-
America.
sity of Brazil), this congress produced the De-
claracao de Curitiba (a missiological manifesto)
Latin American Mission Boards and Societies. and several of the participants volunteered for
Very early after the arrival of evangelicals in Latin missionary service in rural Latin America, An-
America a missionary impulse among Latin Amer- gola, and Italy. Operation Mobilization was also
icans took them as missionaries to remote areas of active in providing vision and missionary educa-
their countries as well as to other countries and tion to Latin American young people, recruiting
continents. The roots of missionary work in pietist selected volunteers for work and travel in the
and revivalist movements emphasized the priest- ships Doulos and Logos. Mexican university
hood of all believers and created structures that fa- graduates related to these movements started
cilitated it, in open contrast to the priest-centered Proyecto Magreb, later on PM International,
life of predominant Roman Catholicism. There are to reach the Muslim world from a base in Spain.
records of spontaneous missionary activity of In July 1987, several organizations and individu-
Chileans from the Methodist Pentecostal revival of als sponsored COMIBAM in So Paulo, Brazil.
1911, going as missionaries to Argentina begin- COMIBAM and the Latin American Theological
ning in 1925. Argentinean Baptists sent Maximino Fraternity are working successfully to bring mis-
Fernndez as a missionary to start work in siological components into theological education.
Paraguay in 1919. Puerto Rican Baptists sent San- Even churches and countries that went through
tiago Soto-Fontnez as a missionary to El Sal- critical days because of political violence have
vador, and Eduardo Carlos Pereyra from Brazil been the source of a missionary thrust such as
crusaded for the cause of missions among Presby- AMEN (Evangelical Association for Mission to
terians in his country. These cases are examples of the Nations) in Peru, an indigenous faith mission
two missionary patterns that originated in Latin that sent missionaries to England and France in
America. First, the migration pattern to and from the 1970s and used Kerygmaa folk music
neighboring countries became a vehicle used by teamto generate interest and funds for their
tentmakers as a way of carrying on missionary venture. Indigenous sending agencies have also
work. This has developed significantly in recent developed in Costa Rica and Guatemala. In this
years, when for political or economic reasons fourth pattern, leadership, funding, and manage-
thousands of Latin Americans have emigrated to ment is entirely in Latin American hands though
559
Latin American Mission Boards and Societies
funds may also be raised from churches planted The African Influence. Though pervasive
by its missionaries in North America and Eu- among the spiritistic groups, in many cases the
rope. There are an increasing number of Latin African influence on Latin American religion is
American missionaries going to Spain either to subtle and African rites and symbols are usually
work there or to use it as a base and training combined with other belief systems. The disrup-
ground to prepare missionaries to Muslim coun- tion brought about by the slave trade, the trauma
tries of North Africa and Central Asia. Research of abuse, and the lack of written religious doctri-
completed in late 1977 shows a total of four hun- nal systems resulted in many of the African pop-
dred Latin American mission sending agencies ulations dislocated into Latin contexts borrowing
and approximately four thousand missionaries. from other cultures and adding new religious
In recent years Roman Catholics have intensi- practices as a means of dealing with their over-
fied the promotion of missionary vocations whelming and tragic circumstances. So it comes
through Missionary Congresses that meet every as no surprise that in the new world, both Chris-
other year. This has been coordinated by DEMIS, tian (Protestant and Roman Catholic) and in-
the Missions Department of the Conference of digenous American religious practices would to
Latin American Bishops (CELAM). Among varying degrees be amalgamated with their own,
Catholic missiologists there is concern because seen in such systems as Kardecism and Santera
while almost 50 percent of the Catholics of the and the pervasiveness of mediums, shamans, and
world live in Latin America, only 2 percent of priests across the various groups.
their total missionary force comes from that re- On a country by country basis, by far the great-
gion. The Comboni order from Italy has been the est impact of African religion is found in Brazil.
most active in missionary education and promo- The earliest Afro-Brazilian movements to be
tion. Some of the problems of channeling mis- identified were the Candombl in the northeast
sionary fervor into action that Protestants face and the Macumba in the southeast. More re-
are solved among Catholics through the tradi- cently groups known as Xang, Tambor de Mina,
tional missionary orders such as Jesuits, Francis- and Nag in the northeast, and Pajelana,
cans, and Dominicans. These are truly interna- Catimb, and Batuque in the northeastern and
tional in membership, leadership, and fund central regions have been described. All exhibit
raising, and facilitate the inclusion of Latin particular cultural traditions which indicate that
Americans in their ranks, in order to do mission- they started with African slaves brought into
ary work in other parts of the world. local settings.
SAMUEL ESCOBAR Details of the origin and development of the
Afro derived groups are typically scarce but they
Bibliography. W. D. Taylor, ed., Internationalizing have some elements in common. Cultic rituals
Missionary Training; J. D. Woodberry, C. Van Engen, are performed at centers named after West
and E. J. Elliston, eds., Missiological Education for the
African deities. There is typically a hierarchical
21st Century.
structure with an overseer who has authority
over the others. Mediums consecrated to the
Latin American New Religious Movements. deities offer assistance to those who need help
Across Latin America widely diverse religious from the deity. This help sometimes involves
groups have proliferated over the past century. In POSSESSION PHENOMENA and rituals. Finally, ani-
addition to the significant growth of evangelical mal sacrifices are performed in some of the
and Pentecostal forms of Christianity, there has groups.
also been substantial non-Christian or syncretis- Examples of Significant Spiritistic Move-
tic religious renewal in three forms: (1) the ments. While a large number of the newer spiri-
resurgence in popularity of indigenous religions, tistic religious movements exist in Latin America,
(2) the incursion of North American cults into four may be noted as examples: Abakua, San-
Latin contexts (e.g., MORMONS and JEHOVAHS WIT- tera, Candombl, and Umbanda (the latter two
NESSES), and (3) the rise of syncretistic spiritual- under the umbrella term Macumba). In most of
ist groups. It is the final form which is most im- these groups the members consider themselves
portant in terms of NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS in Christians. Their syncretistic approach allows
Latin America, encompassing the greatest num- them to keep their feet planted in two worlds:
ber of people and ranging from Afro-Cuban Ak- Christian teachings meet their ultimate concerns,
abua and Santera to Brazilian KARDECISM and while spiritistic practices are geared to meet the
Umbanda. There are parallel movements in the daily realities of life (both achieving success and
Caribbean such as Trinidadian Shango, Haitian warding off disasters).
Voodoo (or vodun), and Jamaican Rastafarian- Abakua is one of four main African-derived
ism (see CARIBBEAN NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS). Cuban movements (others are Santera, Mayombe,
Typical of each is the amalgamation of beliefs and Regla de Arara). It originated in 1834 and is
and practices from indigenous American, named after its founder. Adherents follow patterns
African, and European spiritistic belief systems. of secret societies, with two main branches (one of
560
Latvia
which excludes Caucasians from membership). Bibliography. R. Bastide, The African Religions of
Elements derived from Yoruban tradition include Brazil; C. L. Berg and P. E. Pretiz, The Gospel People of
possession dances; Christian elements include cru- Latin America; J. J. Considine, M.M., The Religious Di-
cifixes and pictures of Christ and Mary. Abakua in- mension in the New Latin America; Y. Maggie, ER,
1:1025; E. Nida, PA 13:4 (1966): 13338; W. R. Read,
fluence has spread through Cuban emigration to
V. M. Monterroso, S. Rostas, and A. Droogers, eds., The
Miami and New York City. Popular Use of Popular Religion in Latin America; G. E.
Santera (or Lucum) originated in Cuba and Simpson, Black Religions in the New World; L. E. Sulli-
has spread widely among Hispanic populations van, Icanchus Drum; H. W. Turner, Bibliography of New
in Miami, New York, and Los Angeles. It is yet Religious Movements in Primal Societies, vol. 5, Latin
another example of the blend of Christianity and America.
West African religions, along with recognition of
a supreme being which embraces belief in a mul- Latourette, Kenneth Scott (18841968). Amer-
titude of lower saints or spirits who interact with ican church historian of global Christianity and
humans. Santera is well known for its emphasis missionary to China. Born in Oregon City, Ore-
on magic. Rhythmic drumming, possession phe- gon, Latourette received his B.A. and Ph.D. from
nomena, divination, and animal sacrifices char- Yale University. While at Yale he joined the STU-
acterize the religious ceremonies. DENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT and the Yale Mis-
Macumba is a cover term used for two Brazil- sion, to which he committed himself for mission-
ian spiritistic movements, Candombl and Um- ary service in China. He served in China from
banda. Both can trace their origin from African 1910 until 1912, at which time he was invalided
slaves brought into Brazil in the 1550s. Can- home. After teaching at Reed College and Deni-
dombl is the largest of the Macumba cults, a se- son College, Latourette returned to Yale in 1921,
cretive combination of Yoruban religious tradi- succeeding H. P. BEACH as the D. Willis James
tion, Roman Catholicism, and European culture. Professor of Missions. He served Yale over the
Patterned in fashion similar to many Latin Amer- next thirty-two years, retiring in 1953.
ican movements, Candombl includes lengthy Among his many professional activities La-
initiation rites involving animal sacrifice, posses- tourette served as president of the American So-
sion phenomena, and appeals to the spirits ciety of Church History, the American Historical
(orixa) for protection and retribution against Association, the American Baptist Convention,
ones enemies. It is especially prominent in the and the Association for Asian Studies. Addition-
Brazilian state of Bahia. ally, he was an active participant in ecumenical
Umbanda is the most widespread form of affairs.
spiritism and has its largest membership in Latourettes greatest legacy was a single idea,
Brazil. It arose in Rio de Janeiro in the 1920s and controversial at the time, that Christianity was a
spread quickly throughout the country. There is multicultural global movement continuing to
no official organization to join and most Umban- grow and expand in the midst of the secularism
dists consider themselves members of the Roman of the modern world. Latourette was a pioneer of
Catholic Church in good standing. Catholic a truly global approach to church history. He
saints are given the names of African deities so sought to develop his ideas in a series of publica-
an outsider cannot know if an adherent is pray- tions. His three hundred articles and thirty
ing to the saint or the African deity. The move- books, including two multivolume histories, es-
ment is actively opposed by the Church. tablished Latourette as one of the most prolific
Missiological Implications. Since many of the
church and mission historians of the twentieth
followers of Latin American spiritistic religious
century.
movements consider themselves Christians,
MARK SHAW
reaching them for Christ is a complex process.
Helping them see the implications of Christs Bibliography. W. R. Hogg, ML, pp. 41627; K. S. La-
lordship over the spirit realm and finding new tourette, The History of Christian Missions in China;
ways to deal with oppressive circumstances in idem, History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 vols.;
life is difficult at best, and simplistic solutions idem, Beyond the Ranges: An Autobiography.
which deny the power of their spiritistic practices
will only continue to keep such practices under- Latvia (Est. 2000 pop.: 2,471,000; 64,600 sq. km.
ground. The sensitive missionary will work to [24,942 sq. mi.]). Commanding a major East
understand the role of the spiritistic practices in West trade route, the Indo-European Latvians
meeting the social, physical, emotional, and reli- have been a target of numerous conquering
gious needs of the adherents. As a result, he or armies. Medieval Germans built the Hanseatic
she will attend not only to issues of ultimacy but city of Riga on the Dvina River. Christianity came
also to the pragmatic issues of daily living in with the Germans, but probably did not reach
helping believers engage Christs power over all the peasants until eighteenth-century Herrnhut
areas of life. revivals. Twentieth-century Soviet policies made
EDITORS Latvia a Soviet military center, bringing severe
561
Latvia
persecution to many evangelicals. Independence However, many of the fundamental issues dis-
(1991) has opened new doors but also brought cussed at Lausanne I were also discussed at
considerable challenges to modernize industry, Lausanne II. For example, reaching the poor; in-
the economy, and the church. ternationalization of cross-cultural ministries;
STEVEN J. PIERSON universalism in a pluralistic society; the nature
of the gospel and social concern.
SEE ALSO Baltic States. Lausanne II was strongly influenced by politics
Bibliography. A. Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Esto- in China and Russia in ways that were not pres-
nia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence; ent at Lausanne I. Seventy Russians and other
V. Mezezers, The Herrnhuterian Pietism in the Baltic: leaders from Central Europe were full of opti-
And Its Outreach into America and Elsewhere in the mism about the work of the gospel in their coun-
World. tries. On the other hand, the Chinese delegates
were represented by a section of empty chairs. At
Laubach, Frank Charles (18841970). American the last minute, China had refused papers for 300
literacy pioneer and missionary to the Philip- pastors to visit Manila. Lausanne II produced a
pines. Born on September 2, 1884, in Benton, declaration on the Beijing Massacre.
Pennsylvania, Laubach was baptized as a Another strong emphasis at Lausanne II was
Methodist at age ten. He was educated at Prince- the presence of the AD 2000 Movement, leaders
ton University and Union Theological Seminary, of which predicted that 50 national AD 2000
and in 1915 graduated from Columbia University Plans would emerge from the congress, and 100
with a Ph.D. in sociology. Ordained as a Congre- such plans by 1995. At the same time, congress
gationalist minister, Laubach then served as a participants discussed the hurdles standing in the
missionary to the Philippines from 1915 to 1931. way of world evangelization: lack of workers,
In 1929 he experienced a spiritual recommitment lack of prayer, government pressures, war, suffer-
which led to a keen interest in evangelizing the ing, poverty, traditional religions, illiteracy, and
Islamic Moro people of Mindanao. animism.
Laubach is best known for his pioneering work There were 53 major speeches and 450 work-
in LITERACY, which involves a technique he devel- shops on the program, plus countless video pre-
oped while working among the Moros in 1930. sentations. In addition to plenary sessions, there
The Laubach literacy method uses simple illus- were 90 special interest tracks, plus country and
trated charts that associate sounds with phonetic regional meetings. Participants were asked to
symbols, primers to encourage facility in reading, sign The Manila Manifesto at the conclusion of
and an each one teach one approach to develop the congress. This document largely reflected the
indigenous instructors. During the remainder of earlier Lausanne I document, The Lausanne
his life, Laubach made yearly tours that eventu- Covenant.
ally provided literacy materials for 235 languages JIM REAPSOME
in over one hundred countries. He established a
nonprofit organization, Laubach Literacy, Inc., Lausanne Congress on World Evangelization
and authored thirty-five books. Throughout his (1974). The First International Congress on
career, Laubach continued to focus on literacy as World Evangelization convened in Lausanne,
a means for evangelism among the vast number Switzerland, in July 1974. For ten days, 2,430
of illiterates, whom he termed the silent billion. participants and 570 observers from 150 coun-
ALAN SEAMAN tries studied, discussed, and fellowshiped around
the churchs evangelistic and missionary man-
Bibliography. D. Mason, Apostle to the Illiterates; date. Invitations were extended on the basis of
H. Roberts, Champion of the Silent Billion. seven for every one million Protestants in the
country, plus two for every ten million unreached
Lausanne Congress II on World Evangeliza- people in the country. For example, India re-
tion (Manila, 1989). Three thousand five hun- ceived seventy invitations in the first category
dred and eighty-six church and mission leaders and 150 in the second. The United States had by
from 190 countries gathered in Manila, the far the largest representation (more than 500),
Philippines, in July 1989, for Lausanne II, the plus innumerable American missionaries repre-
second International Congress on World Evange- senting countries where they worked.
lization convened by the Lausanne Committee The Congress Convening Committee included
for World Evangelization. Compared to Lau- 168 men and 5 women from 70 countries. Each
sanne I, participants at Manila tended to be country had its own national advisory committee
younger (over half were under forty-five years of to select participants. They were approved by the
age) and included more women (25 percent). For Congress Planning Committee, made up of 28
most participants, it was their first international men and one woman from 17 countries (10 of
congress. them from the U.S.). Officially invited visitors in-
562
Lausanne Movement
cluded some Roman Catholics and administra- convened another consultation in Pattaya, Thai-
tors from the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES. The land, in 1980, and held Lausanne II in Manila in
congress operated on a $3.3 million budget. 1989.
Evangelist BILLY GRAHAM put his prestige, influ- LCWE believes that: (1) cooperation and shar-
ence, and organization behind the congress. ing are better than competition; (2) the whole
Participation began months before the con- gospel includes demonstration by deeds as well
gress convened. Eleven major papers were circu- as proclamation by words; (3) biblical theology
lated in advance and comments solicited. Those and mission strategy must be consistent; (4) its
who gave papers responded in their presenta- own neutrality creates space for all evangelicals
tions. Small group discussions were organized to work together, regardless of their church or
under four major divisions: (1) national strategy faith tradition.
groups; (2) demonstrations of evangelistic meth- LCWE is a volunteer network of individuals
ods; (3) specialized evangelistic strategy groups; and groups that affirm The Lausanne Covenant,
and (4) theology of evangelization groups. and are committed to support the work of world
The plenary program was built on seven Bib- evangelization, wherever it is done in a way that
lical Foundation Papers and five Issue Strategy is true to the Bible. Its network includes some
Papers. There were seven other major addresses, thirty committees in different countries and re-
three panels, two special multimedia programs, gions of the world. It is supported financially by
and a closing communion service. Among the people in its network, and by the gifts of those
major speakers were Billy Graham, JOHN R. W. who believe in its work.
STOTT, Susumu Uda, DONALD MCGAVRAN, Harold LCWE organizes small international consulta-
Lindsell, REN PADILLA, Michael Green, GEORGE tions on subjects that are critical to completing
PETERS, RALPH WINTER, Gottfried Osei-Mensah, the task of world evangelization. More than thirty
PETER BEYERHAUS, Samuel Escobar, Malcolm such consultations have brought together key
Muggeridge, FRANCIS SCHAEFFER, Henri Blocher, people to achieve an approach that is both bibli-
and E. V. Hill. cal and strategic. More than fifty regional, na-
Participants were asked to sign a 3,000-word tional, and international conferences have been
document, The Lausanne Covenant. Early on, held in response to expressed needs.
it had been submitted in draft form and revisions Publications have included a number of papers
requested. Hundreds of submissions were made and books on subjects pertinent to world evange-
by individuals and delegations. By adjournment, lization, as well as a quarterly magazine, World
2,200 participants had signed it. A poll of partici- Evangelization (now discontinued), which in-
pants showed that 86 percent of the 1,140 who cludes news and analyses of current issues aris-
responded favored post-congress fellowship, and ing for those who want to make Christ known to
79 percent favored the appointment of a contin- the world. Making Christ Known. Historic Mis-
uation committee of 25 people. This committee sion Documents from the Lausanne Movement,
evolved into The Lausanne Commmittee for 19741989, edited by JOHN STOTT, was published
World Evangelization. in 1997.
JIM REAPSOME More recently, LCWE sees itself as the Barn-
abas factor in the church. As such, it encourages
Lausanne Covenant. See LAUSANNE MOVEMENT. churches to (1) trust new and younger leaders;
(2) undertake work among people different from
Lausanne Movement. The Lausanne Committee themselves; and (3) stay with people who have
for World Evangelization (LCWE) was organized different ideas until they find each other in a new
following the LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD way.
EVANGELIZATION in Lausanne, Switzerland, in The long-term staying factor in the movement
1974. It is an international movement commit- has been The Lausanne Covenant. It has been
ted to encouraging Christians and churches translated into more than twenty languages. It
everywhere to pray, study, plan, and work to- has been adopted by hundreds of churches and
gether for the evangelization of the world. parachurch agencies as their basis of operations
The congress in Lausanne was called by Ameri- and cooperation. It has led to the formation of a
can evangelist BILLY GRAHAM. Some 2,300 Chris- number of national and regional movements in
tian leaders from 150 nations, representing a wide Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa, North America,
cross-section of denominational affiliations, at- and Latin America. It has stimulated many coop-
tended the congress. The congress produced an in- erative movements, mostly ad hoc, short-term,
fluential document, The Lausanne Covenant, and noncompetitive. It has spun off related
and authorized the Lausanne Continuation Com- movements such as the Lausanne Consultation
mittee to continue the work begun at the congress. on Jewish Evangelism and the Chinese Coordi-
This committee became the Lausanne Committee nating Committee for World Evangelization. It
for World Evangelization. Subsequently, LCWE has been the basis for a variety of consultations,
563
Lausanne Movement
the findings of which have been published as national campaign against slavery until his death
Lausanne Occasional Papers. on November 26, 1892.
The issues addressed by the covenant in 1974 A. SCOTT MOREAU
are still very much alive in the world of church Bibliography. A. Hastings, BDCM, p. 387; F. Renault,
and missions at the end of the century. For ex- Cardinal Lavigerie, Churchman, Prophet, and Missionary.
ample: (1) the relationship of evangelism and so-
cial concern; (2) unity, diversity, and cooperation
Law, Legal Thought. If we think of law broadly
among Christians; (3) the uniqueness of Christ; as those binding expectations or rules which gov-
(4) the validity of missions; (5) the work of the ern behavior within a particular society, then it is
Holy Spirit in evangelism; (6) religious liberty clear that every society has some notion of law.
and human rights; (7) the relationship of the Without it society could not exist. Such regula-
gospel to culture. tions might be explicit and codified in written
LCWEs organizational structure is made up of form, as in many Western societies, or they might
what it calls the current partners of the Lau- be implicit and passed on as oral tradition, as in
sanne Movement. This international grassroots many non-Western societies.
committee includes members from Argentina, Further cultural differences concern the un-
Asia, Australia, Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, En- derstanding of the nature of law itself. As in
gland, Estonia, Europe, Finland, France, Ger- many Western societies, law might be regarded
many, Ireland, Italy, Kenya, Korea, the Nether- as an expression of an objective, universal norm
lands, Nigeria, Norway, Scotland, Spain, Sweden, which applies to everyone, including all govern-
the United States, and Wales. ment officials (e.g., even the king was subject to
International structures include the Chinese the Persian law in Esther 8:8). In many non-
Coordinating Committee for World Evangeliza- Western cultures the law is understood in less ob-
tion, the Health and Healing Network, the Jewish jectivist ways, so that the law becomes a tool
Committee, and the Tentmakers Exchange. Spe- which the ruler can use and manipulate to en-
cial interest members include the Intercession force his or her will upon the people.
Working group, the Theology and Strategy Work- Not only must the missionary understand how
ing Group, and groups focusing on disabled peo- moral and legal norms are understood and en-
ple, women, strategic evangelism partnerships, forced within a particular culture, but he or she
research, tentmakers, and information technol- must also understand the biblical-theological con-
ogy (www.lausanne.org). cepts associated with law. Many terms with strong
JIM REAPSOME legal implications are used in Scripturecovenant,
law, testament, sin, redemption, reconciliation,
Lavigerie, Charles Martial Allemand (1825 atonement, righteousness, judge, court, engage-
92). French cardinal, founder of the White Fa- ment, marriage, adoption, succession, endorse-
thers, and missionary to Africa. Lavigerie was or- ment, seal, deed, and so on. Theological concepts
dained as a priest in 1849 and took two doctor- and doctrines in Western theology have been influ-
enced by Roman jurisprudence. Thus some under-
ates (1850 and 1853) before teaching at the
standing of the ideals of Roman jurisprudence is
Sorbonne. While there he also accepted the di-
necessary for grasping biblical theology.
rectorship of the Oeuvre des Ecoles dOrient. His
Problems of understanding can arise when bib-
travels in that capacity providing disaster relief in
lical concepts are communicated in cultures
Lebanon and Syria in 1860 solidified in him a which lack the basic assumptions behind certain
heart for missionary work. biblical terms. For example, the biblical notion of
On November 11, 1866, while serving as covenant is problematic in some Asian Bud-
bishop of Nancy, Lavigerie dreamed he was in a dhist cultures, in which love is understood in
strange land with dark-skinned people speaking terms of a warm but quite ambiguous relation-
a language he did not understand. One week later ship. The covenant of salvation may be misun-
he received a request to allow his name to be derstood in terms of the religious command-
submitted for the vacant archbishopric of Al- ments of Buddhism, and the love of God may be
giers. He agreed, was appointed to the post, and thought of as a kind of Buddhist magnanimity or
installed in 1867. Immediately he instituted a benevolence. Similar problems attend the judicial
policy of the regeneration of Africa by Africans. elements of the concepts of sin and salvation.
His African work was characterized by vision, en- It is important that as part of their cross-
ergy, and drive. In 1868 he founded the White Fa- cultural preparation missionaries include the
thers and in 1869 the Missionary Sisters of Our study of comparative law and legal thought.
Lady of Africa as missionary societies to carry Based upon this, and with a good understanding
out his African vision. He was elevated to the po- of biblical teachings, missionaries can explore
sition of cardinal in 1882, and given the title creative ways of communicating the truth about
archbishop of Carthage and primate of Africa in Gods law in particular cultural contexts.
1884. In this capacity he waged a vigorous inter- KUNIO SAKURAI
564
Leadership
Lawes, William George (18391907). English pi- Central African Trading Company, which began
oneer missionary to Niue and Papua New Guinea. operations in the region in 1878.
Born in Aldermaston, Berkshire, England, Lawes Laws educational, humanitarian, and (later)
attended a village school. After studies at Bedford political contributions were many, but he never
College he was ordained a Congregational minis- lost sight of his main task. He came to see that if
ter in 1860. He married Fanny Wickham in 1860 Africa were to be won for Christ it would be won
and in 1861 they went to Niue, where he devel- by the Africans themselves. By 1897 huge con-
oped centralized political structures, started a gregations gathered once or twice a year for four
training institution, and contributed to the trans- or five days to hear the gospel.
lation of the New Testament. He was joined in Laws visited North America, Germany, and
1868 by his brother Frank, who worked at Niue Nigeria, was United Free Church moderator in
until 1910. After furlough (187274), Lawes went 1908, and (so highly was he regarded) served on
to Port Moresby in Papua, where he was the first the legislative assembly of Nyasaland (now
European resident missionary on the mainland. Malawi).
He worked closely with his colleague and friend J. D. DOUGLAS
JAMES CHALMERS in extending the mission, al- Bibliography. W. P. Livingstone, Laws of Livingsto-
though teaching and translation increasingly oc- nia: A Narrative of Missionary Adventure and Achieve-
cupied him. In 1882 he began training Papuans as ment; H. McIntosh, Robert Laws: Servant of Africa.
teachers and in 1894 established the Vatorata
Training College. An able linguist, he championed Leadership. The history of Christian missions is
the use of the Motu language and completed the replete with examples of key people appointed by
translation of the New Testament in 1890. He op- God to carry the gospel to the unreached. It is
posed colonization and reluctantly assisted the natural to look for these people in any given pe-
British annexation in order to protect Papuans riod and to consider their leadership as norma-
against exploitation. Glasgow University awarded tive. However, the study of leadership in missions
him an honorary D.D. in 1895 and he was a Fel- has revealed a number of patterns of leadership
low of the Royal Geographical Society. He retired that go beyond the role of an individual person or
to Australia in 1906. group. Leadership is a process in which leaders
ALLAN K. DAVIDSON influence followers in given contexts to achieve
the purposes to which they were called. The
Bibliography. J. King, W. G. Lawes of Savage Island
and New Guinea; D. Langmore, Missionary Lives:
unique aspect of leadership and mission is the
Papua, 18741914. nature of their interaction under the guidance of
the Holy Spirit in understanding and obedience
to the MISSIO DEI.
Laws, Robert (18511934). Scottish missionary History. Beginning with the apostolic leader-
to Malawi. Born in Aberdeen and apprenticed to ship at Pentecost (Acts 2), God has raised up
his cabinetmaker father, his aim to follow in people to lead his work to the ends of the earth
DAVID LIVINGSTONEs footsteps led to successful (Acts 1:8). With authority delegated by the Lord
study in arts, theology, and medicine, and ordi- Jesus Christ (Matt. 28:18), the first missions were
nation in the United Presbyterian Church. Or- loosely organized bands, both apostolic and lay,
dained in 1875, he joined a mission to Central driven by a deep commitment to Jesus and a
Africa in an area later known as Livingstonia, lifestyle that stood in contrast to the decaying
and began work near remote Lake Nyasa. Laws culture around them. Although there are notable
was woodcutter, physician, builder, stoker on the examples of individual leaders, no formal leader-
mission boat, and peacemaker. He founded mis- ship structures existed apart from those of the
sion stations at strategic lakeside and interior growing church.
sites, and (a strong advocate of education) With the emergence of monasticism (see
opened his first school in 1876; by the time he MONASTIC MOVEMENT) in the fourth century, the
left Africa (1927), there were over seven hundred majority of missionaries came from the ranks of
primary schools plus facilities for further educa- devout monastics following the patterns of lead-
tion in theology, medicine, agriculture, and tech- ership established in the monasteries. Charac-
nical subjectsand a Christian community of teristic of these missionaries was their strict
sixty thousand with thirteen ordained African vows and obedience, which spread by establish-
pastors. ing new monasteries, the dominant form of mis-
Finding that traders and tribal chiefs did a sions through the seventeenth century. By the
thriving business in which guns and gunpowder eighteenth century, the Protestant REFORMATION
were exchanged for elephant tusks and human had given birth to new patterns of leadership in
bodies (black and white ivory), Laws used Liv- mission, including a return to an emphasis on
ingstones remedy: development of healthy trade. the role of laity. Four major types of leadership
Scottish supporters of the mission formed the characterized the emerging Protestant missions:
565
Leadership
(1) the educated and ordained clergy of the missions planted churches based on their home
major Protestant church traditions, such as countries, providing both structure and models
Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Congregational; for leadership. The movement toward seminaries
(2) the eldership or council rule of the pietists and and the recruitment of faculty ensured a direct
Anabaptists; (3) the new leadership models of the correspondence with the theological distinctives
renewal movements such as the Methodists, Bap- of the denomination. The second group, those
tists, and various independent groups; and (4) vi- whose polity was based on eldership, were in
sionary individuals whose commitment to the many ways able to include growing Christian
task and charismatic personalities drew others to leaders in their fellowships based on a mentoring
follow. model supplemented by Bible schools. Their
The fourth type of leadership often led to an- commitment to community gave a rationale for
other Protestant innovation, the interdenomina- training that included both practical and theo-
tional missionary society. During the so-called logical aspects. The groups that emerged from
GREAT CENTURY OF MISSION (17921914), there the revivals, such as the Methodists, began with
was an explosion of voluntary societies that a direct correlation to the selection and training
brought together both clergy and laity. The dom- of leadership that grew out of their movements.
inant leadership characteristic of the new soci- The churches planted by the interdenominational
eties was the pragmatic concern for the spread of societies have a variety of leadership models
the gospel, which stood in contrast to the care- based on both denominational and indigenous
fully defined roles of traditional church struc- traditions. A wide variety of selection and train-
tures. As the movement grew and new societies ing models have been used; however, Bible
emerged, the influential leadership positions schools that served the missions became major
were filled by clergy and lay leaders who had pre- contributors to leadership development.
viously held no significant positions in their Churches that grow out of mission societies
churches. These voluntary societies also set struggle with the issues of CULTURE and leader-
themselves apart from the church structures by ship. The more individualistic missionaries tend
the appointment of leaders from specialized toward the selection and training of individuals
fields, such as medicine, or individuals whose to fill the roles. By initially working under the di-
strong commitment to the cause distinguished rection of the missionary, in either practical or
them as proponents. Another departure from the church-related work, the local leader is then ed-
church structures was the openness to women in ucated through mission schools and Bible col-
positions of leadership. leges (see THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN NON-WEST-
Mission leadership continued to change and ERN CONTEXTS). Due to the affiliation with the
adapt during the twentieth century as the end of expatriate missionary, the ascribed STATUS of
the colonial era spread. The success of interde- the national pastor is often a new form within
nominational missions in the establishment of the culture. The issues of power and function be-
churches and ministries, particularly in the come significant in the growing role of church
Southern Hemisphere, created a multiplicity of leadership. Often misunderstandings arise be-
national church and parachurch leadership roles. tween the local community and the mission and
Leadership began to transition from the hands of church, based on the lack of credible models
expatriate missionaries to those of the national within the culture coupled with the external re-
leaders, leading to an era of integration and na- sources provided by the missions. Unwittingly,
tionalization. The shift in the roles of the field missions create a powerful new model for lead-
councils and field leaders, while often difficult, re- ership, which becomes a much-sought-after role.
sulted in the emergence of partnerships between The irony is that among interdenominational
national church leaders and mission liaison offi- missions particularly, the lay people who brought
cers. A similar trend toward nationalization was the gospel end up creating a clergy-dominated
widespread among parachurch ministries, often church, struggling with the role of the laity.
leading to increased pressure to recruit leadership A concomitant to the issue of culture is the
from within the national church structures. Fi- emergence of indigenous forms and functions of
nally, denominational and renewal movements church leadership. Collectivist societies have a
have also flourished and moved toward national- more contextualized form of leadership involved
ization following the same patterns as their misin all aspects of life. One result of this view of
sion counterparts. The result of this shift has been leadership is the involvement of clergy in politics,
a major focus on global leadership development even to the point of holding elected offices and
at the end of the twentieth century. engaging in business. As churches grow and con-
Mission and Church Leadership. Critical is- tinue to influence society, leadership either takes
sues emerged as the four major types of missions on new areas of influence or becomes increas-
began to plant churches, especially for the inter- ingly irrelevant within the context.
denominational societies. The first was the na- As national churches have worked through the
ture of leadership in the church. Denominational issues of independence and interdependence, a
566
Leadership Theory
growing realization of the responsibility for formal and nonformal programs to address
world mission has impacted them. Not only have these areas proliferated at the end of the twenti-
non-Western churches taken the responsibility eth century. Perhaps the most encouraging de-
for selection and training of church workers, but velopment has been the rediscovery of the role of
also a growing number have assumed the role of mentoring in the development of leadership, a
missionary sending churches. The missions vary realization with antecedents in the early monas-
in leadership approaches, although the move- tic period.
ments are often tied to renewal within the As has been the case in every major epoch of
church, making the dominant model that of vi- missions history, the need for innovative leader-
sionary leaders. ship is vital. A theologically appropriate response
Contemporary Issues. The central concern of to the challenges of diverse colleagues, con-
mission leadership has always been the ability to stituencies, and contexts remains the task of
prayerfully understand and obey the mission of leadership and missions at the beginning of the
God. It is not surprising that this essentially the- twenty-first century.
ological task is at times pressured by the com- DOUGLAS MCCONNELL
plexities of managing the multicultural organiza-
tions that have emerged. The pragmatic concern SEE ALSO Leadership Theory.
for the spread of the gospel that led to the cre-
ation of mission societies continues to be the Bibliography. J. R. Clinton, The Making of a Leader;
R. L. Hughes, R. C. Ginnett, and G. J. Curphy, Leader-
dominant characteristic of mission leadership.
ship: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience; K. S. La-
This raises some of the greatest opportunities tourette, A History of Christianity, 2 vols.; S. Lingenfel-
and challenges today, especially in the relation- ter, Transforming Culture; S. Neill, A History of Christian
ships between missions and churches. Missions; D. Robert, American Women in Mission: A So-
It was inevitable that the growth of mission social History of their Thought and Practice; J. O. Sanders,
cieties would lead to increasing pressures on Spiritual Leadership; H. A. Snyder, The Radical Wesley
leadership, both internally and externally. Inter- and Patterns for Church Renewal; R. A. Tucker,
nal concerns focus primarily on the recruitment, Guardians of the Great Commission: The Story of
preparation, support, supervision, and care of Women in Modern Missions; A. F. Walls, The Missionary
missionaries. As missions have grown numeri- Movement in Christian History.
cally, their structures diversify to cope with the
range of issues, establishing a need for expertise Leadership Theory. Leadership poses a central
in each of these primary areas. In tension with issue for mission because a primary focus of the
these internal issues are the external concerns of MISSIO DEI is influencing people to submit to the
building and maintaining a supportive con- lordship of Christ. Leadership is primarily an in-
stituency, locating and establishing ministry with fluence process. Clinton expands on this: Lead-
all the concomitant relational and resource is- ership is a dynamic process over an extended pe-
sues, and developing strategies appropriate to the riod of time, in various situations in which a
political, social, cultural, and spiritual context. A leader utilizing leadership resources, and by spe-
necessary characteristic of mission leadership cific leader behaviors, influences the thoughts
continues to be the ability to assess the changing and activity of followers, toward accomplishment
world situation and move toward the future of person/task aims, mutually beneficient for
while retaining the unique vision God has given. leaders, followers and the macro context of
As the complexities of missions have grown so
which they are a part (Clinton, 25).
has the range of solutions, to the point where
In a multi- or cross-cultural context two addi-
new specialized roles and organizations have
tional sets of variables arise, such as WORLDVIEW
emerged to cover many of these challenges. The
development of leadership to meet the increas- (of the leader, followers, and the community) and
ing demands, including selection and training, the interaction of key leadership variables (e.g.,
remains a major challenge for missions. Despite the leader, followers, situation, kinds and uses of
the changing times, the need for spiritual leaders power and values).
remains the same throughout the ages. It is the Christian leadership shares much with local
duty of those in authority to identify people for secular leadership in terms of cultural values and
positions of leadership who have been prepared patterns. However, it clearly differs from secular,
by God to influence missions with all their com- business, or political leadership in terms of its
plexities, toward the purposes of God. A study of biblical value base, the use of spiritual power, ac-
the patterns by which leadership emerges reveals countability to Christ, and goal in the missio dei.
three essential areas of development: the spiri- An understanding of leadership serves several
tual formation of the individual (see SPIRITUAL key functions. It at least provides a way to ex-
FORMATION), the formation of knowledge through plain the influence process; a way to predict what
the education process, and the formation of nec- is likely to occur; a basis for action; and the foun-
essary skills through experiential learning. Both dation for the means to develop more leaders.
567
Leadership Theory
Western leadership theories are useful in mis- larly relevant to missiologists and intercultural
sion. However, as with all culturally based theo- educators: those related to adult learning, cogni-
ries, any leadership theory may have a limited tive styles, and MORAL DEVELOPMENT. This article
usefulness because the undergirding values, as- deals with the first two.
sumptions, and worldview may not be appropri- Adult Learning Theories. Carl Rogers (1969),
ate either biblically or contextually. Theories Malcolm Knowles (1980), and PAULO FREIRE
based on Western conceptions of motivation and (1981) have developed interrelated theories of
aimed at capitalistic production may not fit in adult learning. Rogers focused on learning in
more communally oriented non-Western min- which
istry settings. Many Western theories depend on
perspectives that do not include issues of spiri- the whole person in both his feeling and cog-
tual power or differences in worldview. nitive aspects [is involved] in the learning event.
However, at least four different theoretical ap- It is self-initiated. It is pervasive. It is evaluated by
the learner. He knows whether it is meeting his
proaches may help improve patterned leadership
need, whether it leads toward what he wants to
behaviors (leadership styles): (1) leadership per- know, whether it illuminates the dark area of ig-
spectives from the traditions built on the Ohio norance he is experiencing (p. 5).
State University research around a leadership grid
(e.g., Hersey and Blanchard, Management of Orga- Later Rogers (pp. 188202) applied these prin-
nizational Behavior); (2) personality profiling using ciples in a concrete teaching situation by de-
insights from psychology (e.g., the Meyers-Briggs scribing a revolutionary program for graduate
Test and the Personality Profiles test commonly education. Students are selected because of their
known as the DiSC test; see Voges and Braund); problem-solving ability, empathy, spontaneous
(3) using metaphors to describe patterned leader- curiosity, and originality. After being introduced
ship behavior (e.g., Bennett, Metaphors for Min- to the institutions resources, they choose a spon-
istry); and (4) using values as the key guides or sor and additional faculty members to consult
constraints for leadership behavior. with them regarding their work. Though most of
Each perspective provides a different view of their activity is carried on through independent
basic leadership functions such as envisioning, study, they are able to join student/faculty en-
motivating, coordinating, decision making, prob- counter groups. As the program progresses, stu-
lem solving, task structuring, encouraging, and dents submit cumulative evidence that they are
other leadership functions. competent and well informed in their fields. Fi-
Western leadership theory has been undergoing nally, a decision regarding fitness to receive a
continuous development through the last two cen- doctoral degree is made by a committee of schol-
turies. Through the nineteenth century the Great ars and professionals from inside and outside the
Man theories emerged in which leaders were university. Although Rogers illustration focuses
thought to be born to be leaders or emerge out on advanced graduate study, he believes his
of the demands of the social context. However, learning principles are applicable to other levels
through the twentieth century attention to traits, and contexts as well.
leadership behavior, interaction with followers, Malcolm Knowles developed an andragogical
broader contextual issues, and values all served to approach to learning in which adults have a felt
show the complexities involved. need to learn. Trusting and free environment is
Christian leaders involved in mission should be created, and progress toward mutual goals is
especially careful not to naively adopt local non- made as learners actively share their discoveries
Western indigenous models of leadership or and life experiences (pp. 57, 58). These condi-
management. As with Western models they typi- tions of learning are created through successive
cally contain assumptions which may run planning and decision making phases: (1) the es-
counter to biblical values. However, the local tablishment of a climate conductive to adult
leadership perspectives should serve to inform learning; (2) the creation of an organizational
the development of contextually appropriate structure for participative planning; (3) the diag-
Christian leadership patterns. nosis of needs for learning; (4) the formulation of
EDGAR J. ELLISTON directions of learning objectives; (5) the develop-
Bibliography. D. Bennett, Metaphors for Ministry; J. R. ment of a design of activities; (6) the operation of
Clinton, Handbook I: Leaders, Leadership and the Bible; the activities; (7) the rediagnosis of needs for
P. Hersey, K. Blanchard, and D. Johnson, Management of learning (evaluation) (p. 59).
Organizational Behavior; K. Voges and R. Braund, Un- Brazilian educator Paulo Freire (1971) adds a
derstanding How Others Misunderstand You. communal and societal dimension to adult edu-
cation. He sees learning as a process of consci-
Learning Theories. Among the many learning entization that frees persons to reflect on their
theories that have been developed by psycholo- cultural situation and engage in social action to
gists and educators, three stand out as particu- transform it. Freire describes this kind of educa-
568
Lebanon
tion in a letter to coordinators of community American and Indian cultures in relation to

study groups (cultural circles) in Chile: bounded set and fuzzy set categories.
Peter Chang applies cognitive style theories to
A cultural circle is not a school, in the tradi- missiological issues. He challenges the imposition
tional sense. In most schools, the teacher, con- of Western, linear thought patterns in non-West-
vinced of his wisdom, which he considers ab- ern contexts. He asks whether the observation/in-
solute, gives classes to pupils, passive and docile, terpretation/application cycle of inductive Bible
whose ignorance he also considers absolute.
study and grammatical-historical exegesis, with
A cultural circle is a live and creative dialogue
in which everyone knows some things, and does
their embodiment of Western scientific principles,
not know others; in which all seek, together, to are the only valid approach to achieving biblical
know more (p. 61). understanding. He also questions whether ab-
stract, technical, and depersonalized theologies
When self-actualizing, andragogical, and con- add to the understanding of the Bible stories from
scientizing principles of adult learning are trans- which they are distilled.
formed into action, they can contribute to both Chang sees implications in learning style theo-
methodological and structural renewal of the ries for theological education. Typically, theologi-
programs and institutions in which they minister. cal schools are compartmentalized into Old Tes-
This makes them especially applicable in mis- tament, New Testament, theology, and practical
sions contexts where a primary agenda is indi- theology departments, where courses are taught
vidual and social change. by disciplinary specialists. These persons are not
Cognitive Style Theories. Differences in think- always qualified to prepare the general practi-
ing and learning styles have been observed both tioners needed in ministry. Chang also observes
within and across cultures. Some persons have a contrasts between American and Chinese sermon
greater tendency toward global, intuitive, and vi- organization along linear and nonlinear dimen-
sual thinking. Others prefer linear, analytic, and sions: American sermons are like steak, potatoes,
verbal modes. and peas served in separate piles on a plate; Chi-
nese sermons are like chop suey, with everything
These contrasts extend across centuries and
mixed together. Chang concludes, Our exegesis,
across disciplinary boundaries. Some biblical
theology and theological education are reflecting
scholars see cognitive style contrasts in Hebrew
the . . . dominance of [the] left hemisphere [of
and Greek thought. Contemporary neurophysiol-
the brain]. It is high time that we should appre-
ogists have observed specialized functions of the
ciate and exercise more non-linear thinking to
right and left hemispheres of the brain. Thought
upset the lopsidedness and work out a more bal-
patterns of left-brain dominant persons tend to
anced approach (p. 286).
be verbal and structured, while those with right-
LOIS MCKINNEY DOUGLAS
brain dominance are likely to be visual and fluid.
Learning theorists such as David Kolb (1984) see Bibliography. E. Bowen and D. Bowen, Internation-
learning styles not as fixed personality traits but alizing Missionary Training: A Global Perspective, pp.
as possibility-processing structures resulting 20616; P. Chang, ERT 5:2 (1981): 27986; C. D. Dodd,
Dynamics of Intercultural Communication; P. Freire,
from unique individual programming of the
Convergence, 1:6162; P. G. Hiebert, Anthropological Re-
basic but flexible structures of human learning flections on Missiological Issues; M. S. Knowles, The
(pp. 9597). H. A. Witkin and other cross-cultural Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to
researchers attribute cognitive style differences to Andragogy, rev. ed.; D. A. Kolb, Experiential Learning;
factors in the physical and social environment C. R. Rogers, Freedom to Learn.
such as childrearing practices and demands for
sensitivity to visual or kinesic cues (see Bowen Lebanon (Est. 2000 pop.: 3,289,000; 10,400 sq.
and Bowen). km. [4,015 sq. mi.]). Lebanon is a war-torn coun-
Concerns about thinking styles overflow into try in the Middle East. While Lebanon (4,015 sq.
broader considerations of cognition and culture. mi.) borders Israel to the south and the Mediter-
Edward T. Hall contrasts monochronic cultures, ranean Sea to the west, it is truly engulfed by
characterized by linear thought patters and doing Syria. Not only surrounded by Syria geographi-
one thing at a time, with polychronic cultures, cally to the north and east, this tiny country is
where thought patterns are holistic and people also dominated by Syrias military presence.
attempt to do several things at once (see Dodd, Historically the church has been present in
8789). Hall also describes differences between Lebanon since the first century. A wide variety of
high-context cultures, in which procedures and Christians are found in Lebanon, including six
rules are made explicit, and low-context cultures, types of Catholics, the Orthodox, the Nestorian,
in which persons expect to be told what to do in and various Protestant denominations. Since
a given situation (see Dodd, 8992). Paul G. civil war broke out in 1975, almost one-third of
Hiebert (pp. 10736) links thinking styles to the population has been lost either through death
WORLDVIEW differences in his contrasts between or emigration, the latter composed primarily of
569
Lebanon
Christians. As a result, the countrys former ma- a Chinese missionary career. Soon after marrying
jority of Christians has now become a minority Mary Isabella Legge (181752), they left London
to the Muslim population. in early 1839 to work at the LONDON MISSIONARY
Protestant work began in Lebanon in 1823 SOCIETYS Anglo-Chinese College (181856). There
under the leadership of PLINY FISK, who was sent Legge became intimately familiar with the Chi-
out by the AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS nese classical traditions, resulting in the publica-
FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS (ABCFM). Today the work tion of The Chinese Classics (186173) at the mis-
is carried out by many Protestant bodies, includ- sion press in Hong Kong. This monumental work
ing Adventists, Armenians, Baptists, Christian included lengthy prolegomena reflections on
and Missionary Alliance, and various Pentecostal comparative religion, ethics, and philosophy as
groups. well as Christian apologetic evaluations of Con-
Lebanon maintains freedom of religion and is fucian traditions. Later made the first university
a sending point for mission organizations into professor of Chinese at Oxford (187697), Legge
other Middle Eastern countries. This once di- produced six other volumes of Confucian and
verse and tolerant nation is now a land of divi- Taoist texts (187991) for F. Max Mullers larger
sion and intolerance, facing an uncertain future Sacred Books of the East series.
in light of a violent past. Legges approaches to Chinese translation and
JAMIE FLOWERS missionary strategy anticipate culturally sensitive
Bibliography. H. G. Dorman, Jr., CDCWM, pp. methods, but it was derided as accommodating
34041; Lebanon: A Country Study; G. Otis, Strongholds to non-Christian culture. Leggism consequently
of the 10/40 Window. became a standard nineteenth-century term in
Chinese missionary literature for missionary
Lee, Calvin (18971987). Chinese church planter strategies seeking religious and cultural bridges
and orphanage founder. Born in a village outside within Chinese literature. A missionary agitator
Guangzhou, China, he accepted Christ as a against the sale of opium and British militarism
teenager in high school. From there he studied at in China, Legge also promoted general education
Lingnam University in Guanzhou, and later grad- for both sexes in Hong Kong and Oxford.
uated from Wheaton College. He also attended LAUREN PFISTER
Princeton Seminary, majoring in biblical lan- Bibliography. N. Girardot and L. Pfister, The Whole
guages. He then served the Chinese church, Duty Of Man: James Legge and the Victorian Translation
teaching at the Bible Institute of Changsha, the of China; J. Legge, The Confucian Classics with a Trans-
Alliance Bible Institute in Wuzhou, and the Can- lation, Critical and Exegetical Notes, Prolegomena, and
ton Bible Institute in Guangzhou. As pastor of Copious Indexes; idem, The Religions of China.
the Wanshan Church in Guangzhou, he estab-
lished both an elementary school and a high Leprosy Mission Work. Leprosy (Hansens dis-
school, from which a significant number eventu- ease) affects an estimated 10 to 15 million people
ally entered the ministry. During the Japanese oc- worldwide, though the World Health Organiza-
cupation in World War II, seeing the suffering of tion (WHO) reported in 1994 that the numbers of
the homeless youth, Lee established the Morning people afflicted with this disease had dwindled to
Star Orphanage, meeting the needs of over five 2.5 million. It occurs mainly in tropical, subtrop-
hundred. ical, and temperate regions of Southeast Asia,
With the fall of China to the Communists in Africa, and South America. Most newly diag-
1949, Lee resided in Hong Kong as writer and ed- nosed victims are recent immigrants from Asia
itor of the Life Bimonthly magazine, as well as and South America.
planting four churches in Kowloon and Hong The infectious bacilli, Mycobacterium leprae, is
Kong. Lees mission focus was demonstrated in of the same family that causes tuberculosis. It is
teaching, writing, and establishing schools and thought to be transmitted by skin-to-skin contact
churches. His holistic commitment and breadth and nasal discharges. Only about 5% of the per-
was amply demonstrated by his arduous efforts sons exposed to the bacterium contract the dis-
in ministering to the homeless, the discouraged, ease, so it is not considered highly contagious.
and the sick. His vision, concern, and relating of Two main forms of the disease are known: tu-
theology with praxis are the lasting highlights of berculoid and lepromatous. The tuberculoid
his life and ministry. form mainly involves the skin and nerves. The
HOOVER WONG lepromatous form is a more generalized infection
that involves skin, mouth, nasal passages, upper
Legge, James (181597). Scottish missionary to respiratory tract, eyes, nerves, adrenal glands,
China. He was a second-generation Chinese mis- and reproductive organs. Various skin eruptions
sionary in Malacca (183943), Hong Kong, and may cover the entire body, but numbness is more
Guangdong province, China (184373). Legge en- patchy and less severe than in tuberculoid lep-
tered Highbury College in England to prepare for rosy. In advanced stages, however, lepromatous
570
Lew, Timothy Tingfang
leprosy can cause ulcers, eyebrow loss, collapse migrant laborers in the South African mines,
of the nose, enlarged earlobes and facial features, contributing approximately 45 percent of total
and blindness. domestic income.
Equally devastating to the person who con- The great Basotho leader, Moshesh, requested
tracts the disease is the social stigma that ac- missionaries after his people fled into the Drak-
companies it. Not surprisingly people fear what ensberg Mountains for refuge from the Zulu con-
they cannot control or understand. The practice queror, Chaka. The PARIS EVANGELICAL MISSIONARY
of isolation was the most convenient way of deal- SOCIETY responded, beginning work among the
ing with leprous people until the mid-twentieth Basotho in 1833 at Morija, where a printing press
century, though it was also dehumanizing. was established in 1841, then a girls school, in-
Jesus love for and ministry to people with lep- dustrial school, and a Bible school by 1880. The
rosy is documented in the Bible and illustrates Basuthos were receptive to the gospel, assuming
the strongest motivation for helping people with responsibility for the churches in 1865 and coop-
this disease (Luke 17). Organized missionary erating effectively in evangelism with the Paris
work among leprous people was motivated by Mission. By 1880, there were nearly 6,000 mem-
Jesus example since the fourth century. bers. By 1990, the Basotho church sought other
Important missiological issues developed unreached areas and began a mission among the
among mission groups in the late 19th and 20th Barotse in present-day Zambia. The Lesotho
centuries, particularly among Protestant mission Evangelical Church (a result of the Paris Mis-
organizations. Missionaries, especially in Asia sion) today includes nearly 30 percent of the pop-
and Africa, witnessed the terrible plight of people ulation. It is an active member of the All Africa
afflicted with leprosy and were moved with com- Conference of Churches and the WORLD COUNCIL
passion for them. The lostness of their souls OF CHURCHES.
was of primary importance, so strategies of evan- Roman Catholic missionaries came in 1862.
gelism developed to win them to Christ and to es- Today, Catholics are nearly 45 percent of the total
tablish churches. Among the strategies employed population. The Catholic Church currently em-
was the practice of holding medical clinics to de- phases institutional development, including a po-
tect and treat the disease. One exemplary issue litical party.
that arose was whether to hold general meetings The third largest group is the Church of the
for evangelistic purposes first and then conduct Province of South Africa (Anglican) that began
medical clinics. Such strategies were efficient for work in 1875, today including about 10 percent
evangelistic purposes but often seen as manipu- of the people. African indigenous churches are
lative or coercive. also about 10 percent and traditional religionists
It spite of such issues missionary work among about 2 percent of the population. Methodist,
people with leprosy continued. Hospitals were Dutch Reformed, and Pentecostal groups also
built and research conducted in India, Thailand, work in Lesotho.
and Africa. New methods of reconstructive sur- Missionaries counseled Moshesh to request
gery were learned and new and more effective British protection following conflict in 1858,
drugs developed. The former social stigma of the 1864, and 1867 with white settlers (Afrikaaners)
disease has become less in developing regions of moving north. Great Britain granted independ-
the world as people have learned more about the ence to Lesotho on October 4, 1966.
disease and have seen that it can be treated and From the beginning, the Paris Mission stressed
controlled. Governments, observing the selfless indigenous leadership, identifying strongly with
work of Christian missionaries, were influenced the Basotho nation. Preservation of their terri-
to change official policies of exclusion and adopt tory, development of a strong church and educa-
more humane treatment of their own people af- tional system, a SeSotho (the language) literature
flicted with this disease. beginning with the Bible and hymnal, and a
THOMAS N. WISELY country that claims 98 percent of its people to be
professing Christians, are visible results of
Lesotho (Est. 2000 pop.: 2,338,000; 30,355 sq. Mosheshs request for missionaries.
km. [11,720 sq. mi.]). Lesotho (formerly Basu- DONALD K. SMITH
toland) is a landlocked, mountainous constitu- Bibliography. V. F. Ellenberg, A Century of Mission
tional monarchy entirely surrounded by the Re- Work in Basutoland: 18331933; K. W. Latourette, A
public of South Africa. Its 2.3 million people History of The Expansion of Christianity, The Great Cen-
include 90 percent Sotho, about 7 percent Zulu tury The Americas, Australasia and Africa.
and Xhosa, with tiny White and Asian popula-
tions. There are two official languages, Sesotho Lew, Timothy Tingfang (Liu Tinfang) (1890
and English. Literacy is nearly 75 percent. The al- 1947). Chinese educator and indigenous church
most total lack of resources and resulting poverty leader. Lew was born in Wenchou, China, and at-
force roughly 60 percent of the men to become tended St. Johns University in Shanghai. Mission-
571
Lew, Timothy Tingfang
aries sponsored him to go to the United States, Christianity displacing other religions, but this
and he attended the University of Georgia and Co- was relatively subdued in comparison to his em-
lumbia University. Upon receiving his Ph.D. in brace of Darwinianism and cultural relativism.
1920, he returned to China to teach in three uni- For Clarke, GENERAL REVELATION in nature and
versities. Outgoing, Westernized, and energetic, history assumed an ascendancy over special rev-
Lew was a leader in the Yenching (University) elation through Christ and the Bible.
Christian Fellowship, a group of Chinese church By the 1920s, the missiological consequences
leaders exploring indigenous church life and the- of liberalism became more visible and wide-
ology. Lew edited Life Journal for the fellowship spread, especially in American Protestant circles.
(192024), and translated many hymns into Chi- While theological moderates dominated most de-
nese. He edited Hymns of Universal Praise (1936), nominational mission boards, liberal concepts of
a milestone in Chinese hymnody. His slogan was mission gained strength in nondenominational
catholic appreciation, maintaining numerous agencies like the STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT
contacts in both Christian and secular circles. and the Young Mens Christian Association. On
SAMUEL LING the theological front, Daniel Johnson Fleming, a
missions professor at Union Theological Semi-
Liberal Theology. In the nineteenth century, nary in New York, advocated a fulfillment the-
some European and American Protestants re- ory that called on missionaries to adopt a shar-
sponded to the intellectual challenges of the EN- ing and listening strategy toward other religions.
LIGHTENMENT, BIBLICAL CRITICISM, and Darwinian-
Although he recognized the validity of evangel-
ism, Fleming appeared to place a higher priority
ism by calling for significant readjustments of
on the practice of consistent Christian ethics for
traditional Christian doctrines. The resulting lib-
commending the gospel.
eral paradigm included (1) a stronger emphasis
At several points, Fleming anticipated the con-
on Gods IMMANENCE; (2) a more optimistic as-
clusions of the Laymens Foreign Missions In-
sessment of human nature and technology; (3) a
quiry, which investigated the Protestant mission-
greater skepticism about many elements of
ary enterprise in the early 1930s. This project,
Christian supernaturalism; (4) a marked propen-
funded by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., was divided
sity to subordinate dogmatic concerns to the into a team of fact-finders and a Commission of
pragmatic demands of building the KINGDOM OF Appraisal under the leadership of Harvard
GOD on earth; and (5) a greater willingness to ac- philosopher WILLIAM ERNEST HOCKING. The Com-
commodate the Christian message to modern mission dropped a theological bombshell with
culture. This new theological agenda sparked in- the publication of Re-Thinking Missions in 1932.
tense controversy and sounded alarms about the Re-Thinking Missions suggested many practical
loss of Christian distinctives. H. Richard Niebuhr changes in the field operations of foreign mis-
eventually challenged the liberal credo by char- sions, but controversy centered primarily on the
acterizing it as a God without wrath bringing first four chapters, which were penned by Hock-
man without sin to a kingdom without judgment ing. In essence, he proposed a radical restructur-
through a Christ without a cross. ing of the missionary enterprises doctrinal base.
By the late nineteenth century, the impact of A liberal perspective clearly surfaced in his syn-
theological revisionism began to penetrate the cretistic outlook on the issue of Christianity and
missionary enterprise. In particular, a conflict other faiths, his ambiguous CHRISTOLOGY, and his
among American Congregationalists concerning reinterpretation of the evangelistic mandate. In
the eternal destiny of the unevangelized led some short, Hocking and his Commission contended
to modify claims about the absoluteness and fi- that the aim of missions was to seek with people
nality of the Christian faith. A new interest in of other lands a true knowledge and love of God,
COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS, epitomized by the expressing in life and word what we have learned
Chicago meeting of the WORLDS PARLIAMENT OF through Jesus Christ, and endeavoring to give ef-
RELIGIONS in 1893, further reinforced this devel- fect to his spirit in the life of the world.
opment. In addition, some advocates of a social The liberalism that emanated from the Lay-
gospel critiqued the individualistic methods of mens Inquiry did not immediately sway the mis-
traditional missiology and urged an approach sions movement. The AMERICAN BOARD OF COM-
more in line with liberal concepts of corporate MISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS endorsed many
salvation. of the Hocking Commissions prescriptions, but
William Newton Clarke, professor at Colgate most mainline denominational boards joined
Theological Seminary, was one of the first to ar- fundamentalist and evangelical agencies in at-
ticulate an explicitly liberal approach to foreign tacking the theological shortcomings of Re-
missions. In A Study of Christian Missions (1900), Thinking Missions. Archibald Baker, of the Uni-
Clarke sensed a looming crisis in the missionary versity of Chicago, and some missionaries
movement that precluded naive hopes for imme- enthusiastically supported Hockings ideology,
diate world evangelization. He still spoke of but they apparently represented a minority view-
572
Liberation
point. In fact, a neo-orthodox surge in Europe morrow; G. Wacker, Earthen Vessels: American Evangel-
produced deep skepticism about Re-Thinking icals and Foreign Missions, 18801980, pp. 281300;
Missions, seen most notably in HENDRIK KRAE- T. Yates, Christian Mission in the Twentieth Century.
MERs The Christian Message in a Non-Christian
World (1938), which he prepared for the INTERNA- Liberation. Originating in Latin American
TIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCILs meeting in TAM- Roman Catholic circles, discussion on the mean-
BARAM, India, in 1938. ing of liberation after Vatican II shifted from the
After World War II, the ecumenical missionary eternal destiny of a person to the sociopolitical
movement increasingly manifested the impact of context. The exodus event in which God freed Is-
a Hocking-style liberalism. These trends acceler- rael from slavery is seen as the archetype event
ated with the absorption of the International governing the Old Testament. In it God liberated
Missionary Council by the WORLD COUNCIL OF Israel and showed himself to be a liberating God.
CHURCHES in 1961. Since that time, several WCC The announcement of Jesus that he has come to
conferences have revealed the triumph of a lib- preach to the poor, to proclaim release to the
eral mission theology, even as the actual contri- prisoners, and to free the oppressed (Luke
bution of ecumenical denominations to world 4:1820) is seen as the corresponding New Testa-
missions has waned considerably. ment archetype. Liberation in this context has
In 1968 the WCC held its Assembly in Uppsala, taken on a specific orientation: it is the struggle
Sweden. The writings of JOHANNES HOEKENDIJK, a on the part of the oppressed or marginalized for
Dutch missiologist, profoundly influenced the de- their own freedom once they have become aware
liberations of this gathering. A strong critic of of their bondage and the role the oppressors play
traditional church structures, Hoekendijk had in the maintenance of that bondage. The forms
previously called for a new conception of evan- of bondage may be political, economic, social,
gelism that focused on social engagement and racial, or gender related, and a host of liberation
transformation. In turn, Uppsala essentially jetti- theologies call those who are oppressed to rise up
soned personal evangelism, redefining mission and engage in the process of attaining their own
to include humanization and a wide range of freedom and dignity. It is maintained that while
secular activities. Ecumenical missiology had the oppression may be personal, it will always re-
openly embraced the notion that the world sets quire redressing structural issues, since the very
the agenda for the church. fabric of human societies tends to engender in-
Similarly, conferences of the WCCs COMMIS- equities and injustices. A significant driving bib-
SION ON WORLD MISSION AND EVANGELISM further lical metaphor energizing the sociopolitical liber-
demonstrated just how far liberal missiology had ation motif is the establishment of the KINGDOM
veered from more evangelical models. CWME OF GOD as a liberating force in oppressive soci-
sessions in MEXICO CITY (1963), BANGKOK (1973), eties and situations; the resulting focus is often
MELBOURNE (1980), SAN ANTONIO (1989), and SAL- on the horizontal level (among people) rather
VADOR, Brazil (1996), set forth the following than the vertical one (people with God). In this
tenets: (1) the priority of orthopraxis over ortho- struggle it is assumed that God is on the side of
doxy (see PRAXIS); (2) a this-worldly understand- the oppressed.
ing of salvation as the liberation of the poor and As developed over the decades since the SEC-
oppressed from all forms of injustice; (3) the va- OND VATICAN COUNCIL (196265) in Roman
lidity of interreligious DIALOGUE as a form of wit- Catholic and ecumenical Protestant circles, most
ness; (4) the necessity of CONTEXTUALIZATION and of the reflections on and praxis toward liberation
a more dialogical relationship to culture; and were reactions to understandings of DEVELOP-
(5) the further widening of the scope of mission MENT, political environments, and the theological
to include feminist concerns (see FEMINIST THE- ideologies of the past. Often, though not always,
OLOGIES) and ecological awareness (see ECOLOGY, oriented in Marxist thought, the tools for under-
ECOLOGICAL MOVEMENT). While the continuities standing liberation are not limited to theology
with the older liberalism are unmistakable, these but include ANTHROPOLOGY, ECONOMICS, and SOCI-
more recent developments point to the increas- OLOGY. Development, it is noted, maintains or
ingly radical agendas of contemporary ecumeni- even exaggerates the gap between the rich and
cal missiology (see ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT). the poor. Further, it is typically the developed
JAMES A. PATTERSON who set the agenda rather than those who are
marginalized. This, it is maintained, is not gen-
Bibliography. D. J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: uine liberation but only a continuing form of op-
Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission; A. Glasser et al., pression. Political struggles against Western hege-
eds., Crucial Dimensions in World Evangelization;
H. Hoekstra, The World Council of Churches and the
mony in COLONIALISM were perceived to be
Demise of Evangelism; W. R. Hutchison, Errand to the struggles for liberation, but all too often the new
World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Mis- regimes which arose in Third World settings after
sions; A. P. Johnston, World Evangelism and the Word of independence simply kept the old inequities in-
God; D. McGavran, ed., Crucial Issues in Missions To- tact. Liberation struggles that began initially
573
Liberation
against colonial rulers have slowly begun to turn than genuine liberation. The collapse of Marxism
against the new oppressive regimes that are often as a political ideology in Europe demonstrated
backed by one or the other competing global that despite the rhetoric, under Marxist regimes
powers, unconcerned with the masses. Even so, the general population was often worse off than
new forms of economic colonialism in which the under free market economies. Liberationists also
West economically dominates other countries tended to place sole responsibility on the efforts
still require liberation efforts, such as the call for of people in the struggle for dignity and freedom
forgiving all Third World international debt. The- in part because they disregarded the continuing
ologically it was noted that any system which did and pervasive effects on sin both in the individ-
not attack the oppressive status quo was ideolog- ual and in cultures and political systems. Politi-
ically suspect in and of itself, as it did not em- cal structures established and carried out by
body the aim of true liberation, which is a holis- fallen humans will always move in the direction
tic release of people from all oppression and of dehumanization, and thus Gods desire to cre-
injustice. ate new people, new heavens, and a new earth as
This orientation toward liberation was built in part of his redemptive program. Human work to-
several new theological directions. First, the de- ward liberation, while laudable and potentially
velopment of an OPTION FOR THE POOR was a con- serving as a type of firstfruits of which God will
scious decision to see the poor as the favored of ultimately accomplish, will always fall short of
God who are to be the architects of their own lib- Gods ultimate goal of SHALOM, which will only be
eration and who enjoy a privileged position in established when God finalizes his kingdom.
part because their WORLDVIEW is not tainted by Pauls picture in Romans 6 is that we are slaves
the desire to remain in power. Second, the so- who can choose to serve sin or God. The picture
ciopolitical liberation of Israel through exodus is a dichotomistic one in which economic or po-
was a paradigm of Gods liberating desire for hu- litical liberation is not our ultimate goal. Instead,
mankind (though consideration of Israels con- our ultimate goal is freedom from sin because of
quering actions in entering Canaan are rarely en- our choice to become slaves to the Master of the
tertained in the discussions). Third, SIN was universe. Jesus said that those he set free were
defined in social terms and not limited to per- truly free. This freedom is not a type of antino-
sonal, individual rebellion toward God. In paral- mian libertarianism, but freedom gained through
lel fashion, SALVATION was defined as redemption holding to his teaching and knowing the truth as
of the whole person rather than some isolated in- a result (John 8:3136). Liberation in this sense
terior soulish element of the person, and is not an abandonment of obligations to serve
human beings are to take responsibility for their our Creator, but freedom from the oppression
own liberation. Additionally, because of the vio- and degradation of sin in our lives and freedom
lence waged against the poor by oppressors, it to proclaim that release to others as well.
was asserted we cannot automatically rule out A. SCOTT MOREAU
violence in overcoming them in the struggle for
liberation. Finally, true Christian praxis was de- Bibliography. K. C. Abraham, DEM, pp. 6046;
fined in terms of a lifestyle of moving peoples G. Gutierrez, A Theology of Liberation; J. A. Kirk, Liber-
and societies toward justice for all members, and ation Theology; A. Nuez, Liberation Theology; J. Pixley
mission was recast as committed solidarity with and C. Boff, The Bible, the Church and the Poor.
the oppressed in their struggle.
Evaluation. The very fact that evangelical mis- Liberation Theologies. Any attempt to provide
siology has moved in a more holistic direction in an overview of liberationist missiology must rec-
recent years is evidence that some of the critique ognize the variety of movements labeled under
brought by liberation theologies and the para- that rubric. Each broad category of liberation
digm of liberation has forced evangelicals to turn theologyLatin American, African, Asian, or
to the Scriptures for deeper examination and North American Black, Hispanic, or Feminist
recognition of their own ideological biases in ap- also manifests internal diversity among its lead-
proaching the Bible (see also HOLISTIC MISSION). ing exponents and practitioners and has its own
In this sense evangelicals have gained significant history of development. In addition, different
insights on liberation from its advocates. movements of liberation theology have been
In spite of this, important considerations openly critical of one another, pointing to per-
weigh against taking the contemporary liberation ceived limited perspectives and commitments.
paradigm wholesale. Many who chose to focus The questioning of Latin American and Black lib-
on the socioeconomic and political arenas did so eration theologys sensitivity to gender issues by
because of an incipient or even an outright UNI- feminist and womanist theologians is an example
VERSALISM in regard to salvation. Those who ad- of this mutual challenging. This diversity does
vocated radical VIOLENCE in the struggle for lib- not negate, however, the reality of a significant
eration tended to downplay the reality that degree of commonality among liberation theolo-
violence often leads only to more violence rather gies (Hennelly). The following discussion will
574
Liberation Theologies
focus primarily on Latin American liberation the- and now. In other words, the church is to be both
ology as representative to some degree of the its sign and servant.
larger concerns of these several movements. The concentration on the context has not
Fundamental Commitments. To comprehend meant an abandonment of the mystical elements
the particular orientation and contributions of of Christian faith or of the issue of the eternal
liberationist missiology requires an appreciation fate of the human soul. Yet, these topics are re-
of its fundamental commitments. Above all else, defined in line with liberation theologys social
liberation theologies highlight systemic issues of and ecumenical orientation. Evangelization is
injustice and attempt to speak for the oppressed linked to the sharing of the liberating word and
within a given context. The particular issues and life of Gods kingdom of justice.
groups, of course, are defined by the brand of lib- The Scope of Mission. According to liberation
eration theology under discussion; accordingly, theology, the mission of the people of God must
concern can center on socio-economic class, begin within the church. The church needs to be
race, and/or gender. In Latin America, special at- evangelized by the poor in the sense that it
tention has been given to the first of these. should judge whether its ethos, message, liturgy,
The serious consideration of the Latin Ameri- and structures reflect the divine obligation to so-
can social context for missiological reflection and cietys exploited. In Latin America, especially in
action has sought to provide a comprehensive Roman Catholic circles, this liberationist concept
framework from which to define and evaluate the of the nature of the church generated a new for-
mission of the church. For example, the histories mulation of Christian communion, the base ec-
of the Roman Catholic Church and Protestant de- clesial communities. This way of being the
nominations and missions are located within the church was to be the catalyst for fulfilling the
economic and political trajectories of Latin Amer- calling to be the instrument of the kingdom of
ica in order to discover either complicity and op- God within the world (Boff; Cook, 15056). Mis-
pressive regimes and systems or the models of sion, therefore, is all-encompassing. The church
service to the masses of the poor (Dussel; see is to reshape itself even as it reaches into the sur-
POVERTY). The social sciences (including diverse rounding society.
The Future of Liberation Theologies. Much
elements of certain types of MARXISM) assume an
has changed in Latin America over the last
important role in the analysis of the Latin Ameri-
decade, causing liberation theologians to reassess
can context and in the articulation of visions of an
their understanding of the context and the
alternative social and ecclesiastical reality. In con-
churchs mission. The failure of the Sandinistas
trast to more traditional approaches, the doing of
to rebuild Nicaragua, the inability of the conti-
liberation theology begins from the perspective of
nents other revolutions to establish a different
the weak. This starting point from the underside socio-economic reality, and the global collapse of
of history and the preferential OPTION FOR THE Marxism are among a number of factors that
POOR determines how the mission of the people have forced liberationists to reconsider the
of God is subsequently defined and evaluated (El- churchs task in the world.
lacuria and Sobrino). On the one hand, some liberationists claim
Key Themes. A particular interpretation of the that the emerging capitalist hegemony under-
concept of the KINGDOM OF GOD is foundational to scores even more the themes that liberation the-
liberationist missiology. The kingdom is an es- ology has always championed, even if socialism
chatological hope of total liberation that is real- no longer appears to be a viable option (see also
ized in part today within history, wherever some ECONOMICS). The poor are becoming poorer, and
sort of freedom from oppression is concretely the powerful nations continue to take advantage
achieved. The interpretation of other theological of the less fortunate. In addition, these circum-
and biblical items coheres with this point of view. stances provide the opportunity to probe other
The historical Jesus is the basis of the PRAXIS of dimensions of mission (such as popular or FOLK
mission: his preaching of the kingdom of God, RELIGION, ECOLOGY, and indigenous rights), as
his earthly ministry to the marginalized (see MAR- well as to join with other groups who are being
GINAL, MARGINALIZATION), his death and resurrec- pushed to the periphery in the global economy
tion are pointers to the virtue of self-sacrifice and (Cook, 24576; Irarrazaval).
the divine vindication of his solidarity with the Nevertheless, others are less sanguine about
poor. The mission of the church, then, has the ex- the future. Berryman details how liberation
ample of Jesus to follow in its own striving to hopes in Central America broke down. He dis-
proclaim and incarnate the good news of Gods closes how insignificant were the numbers of
commitment to the poor. The church, although it those actually involved in the base communities
is not itself the kingdom, must be both the place and admits that this minority voice, though im-
where the reign of God is visible, as well as an ac- portant, tended to be elitist and idealistic and
tive participant with other human beings in the misread the heart of the poor. What remains for
partial realization of that kingdom in the here mission in the new situation are more limited
575
Liberation Theologies
pastoral projects of solidarity among those who settlers, and, unfortunately, through the first half
suffer (Berryman, 1994). At the same time, Berry- of the 19th century, little attention was paid to
man studies the phenomenon of the burgeoning evangelizing the indigenous peoples.
evangelical presence in Latin America. While Methodists were among the settlers who arrived
critical of some of what he sees, Berryman rec- in 1822, though the first Methodist missionary
ognizes that evangelicalism has been able to tap (Melville B. Cox) did not come until 1833; the
into the deeply felt needs of the masses and Basel Evangelical Society sent missionaries in
sometimes exhibits some of the same social con- 1828 (who departed in 1832), the Presbyterians
cerns as liberation theology, even if these are and Congregationalists arrived in 1833, the
manifested differently. Any rethinking of libera- African Episcopal Church in 1835, the (American)
tionist missiology cannot ignore this evangelical Episcopal Church in 1836, and the Lutherans
component of Latin American religious life began work among the Loma and Kpelle along the
(Berryman, 1994, 145218; 1996). St. Paul River in 1860. Roman Catholics went
M. DANIEL CARROLL R. through three failed attempts (1842, 1884, 1903)
before establishing an enduring mission in 1906.
Bibliography. P. Berryman, Stubborn Hope: Religion,
Politics, and Revolution in Central America; idem, Reli- Progress among the indigenous peoples did not
gion in the Megacity: Catholic and Protestant Portraits come until the last part of the 1800s, when a fresh
from Latin America; L. Boff, Church: Charism and wave of African Americans arrived after the Amer-
PowerLiberation Theology and the Institutional ican Civil War and the emancipation of slaves in
Church; G. Cook, ed., New Face of the Church in Latin the United States. For example, two American
America: Between Tradition and Change; E. Dussel, ed., black denominations, African Methodist Episcopal
The Church in Latin America, 14921992; S. Escobar, Church (1873) and AME Zion Church (1876), sent
Themelios 19:3 (1994): 1517; I. Ellauria and J. Sobrino, missionaries. Pentecostal missionaries first came
eds., Mysterium Liberationis: Fundamental Concepts of
in 1908 and worked extensively among Grebo
Liberation Theology; A. T. Hennelly, Liberation Theolo-
gies: The Global Pursuit of Justice; D. Irarrazaval, Missi- peoples of the interior, developing three Bible
ology 25:1 (1997): 6168. schools to train indigenous pastors. The Seventh-
Day Adventists initiated work in 1927, Baptist
Liberia (Est. 2000 pop.: 3,565,000; 111,369 sq. Mid-Missions in 1931, and WEC International in
km. [43,000 sq. mi.]). Located on the west coast 1938 (founding the Liberia Inland Mission
of Africa between Sierra Leone and Cte dIvoire, church). In 1954 the Sudan Interior Mission (SIM)
Liberia (Land of Freedom) is home to some six- founded ELWA (Eternal Love Winning Africa), the
teen major ethnic groups (speaking thirty-four first mission radio station in Africa. Prior to being
distinct languages) and a minority population of destroyed twice in the recent civil wars, it offered
descendants from American freed slaves repatri- broadcasts in 44 languages to all of Africa and the
ated to Liberia as settlers. Middle East.
Initially intended to be a resettlement colony Prominent Liberian Christians include WILLIAM
for ex-slaves from the United States modeled WADE HARRIS, the charismatic West African evan-
after Britains experiment in Freetown (Sierra gelist whose primary work was outside of his
Leone), Monrovia (named after American Presi- own country and EDWARD W. BLYDEN, one of the
dent James Monroe) proved to be an extremely most significant pioneers in African Christian
unhealthy location. Many of the early settlers theology. Today it is estimated that Liberia is
succumbed to tropical diseases. The first group roughly 37 percent Christian (8% evangelical)
to arrive came in 1820 under the auspices of the and 13 percent Muslim with roughly 49 percent
American Colonization Society (chartered in following traditional religions. Traditional adher-
1816). The first two black American missionaries, ents focus attention on ANCESTRAL PRACTICES and
Baptists LOTT CAREY and Colin Teague, arrived in affiliation as the core of their religious system.
1821. Several settlements were eventually estab- WITCHCRAFT and SORCERY are also prominent, and
lished and joined together as a nation in 1847, associated practices have been exacerbated by
giving Liberia the distinction of being the first the recent ethnic conflicts.
African country south of the Sahara to achieve The multiple civil wars which have plagued
independence. Joseph Jenkins Roberts (180976), Liberia through the 1990s resulted in an esti-
a settler from Virginia, was elected as the first mated 750,000 fleeing for refuge in neighboring
president. Politically, Liberia was led by the mi- countries, potentially destabilizing the larger re-
nority Americo-Liberians until the coup which gion. The economy has been devastated, and
put Samuel Doe in power in 1980. with the vast bulk of the business people fleeing
Many of the several thousands of colonists who the country the ability to rebuild economically
arrived over the following decades were already once the instability ends looks bleak.
affiliated with denominations and joined or es- A. SCOTT MOREAU
tablished their own denominational churches in Bibliography. D. Barrett, WCE; P. Falk, The Growth
the new settlement. Church work focused on the of the Church in Africa; P. Gifford, Christianity and Poli-
576
Liechtenstein
tics in Does Liberia; S. Jacobs, ed., Black Americans and organized by homesick nominal Christians. Cor-
the Missionary Movement in Africa; P. Johnstone, OW. porate worship must be very discrete.
MIRIAM ADENEY
Libraries, Mission. See MISSION LIBRARIES.
Bibliography. P. Johnson, OW; D. Barrett, WCE; K. S.
Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity.
Libya (Est. 2000 pop.: 6,387,000; 1,759,540 sq.
km. [679,358 sq. mi.]). Libya is one of the least Liddell, Eric Henry (190245). Olympian and
evangelized countries. The Sahara Desert con- Scottish missionary to China. Born in Tientsin,
sumes 90% of the land area. However, because a China, in 1902 to missionary parents Liddell
great reserve of oil was discovered in 1959, came to epitomize muscular Christianity when
Libyas per capita income is higher than that of he won two gold medals at the 1924 Olympics.
most of its neighbors. This enables Libya to im- He refused to participate in the 100-meter race
port 75% of its food and to provide subsidies and because it was held on a Sunday, so he ran the
handouts to its citizens. Wealth also attracts large 400-meter instead and won. The 100-meter race
numbers of foreign laborers and professionals. having proved inconclusive, was rescheduled and
Possibly as many as 30% of Libyas 6.4 million once again he won.
people are expatriate. Educated at Blackheath and Elthan College,
No Christian witness to Libyans is allowed. A Heriot-Wall College for Science, and Edinburgh
militant Muslim reform order founded in 1842, University, Liddell received a bachelors degree in
Sanusiya (Malikite rite), has influenced the ruling chemistry, physics, and mathematics. In 1925 he
junta in the direction of passionate fundamental- went to China to teach at the Anglo-Chinese Col-
ism in belief and austere simplicity in lifestyle. lege, in Tientsin. In 1930, feeling a great call to
Islam is the religion of the state, according to the mission work in China, he applied to the LONDON
Constitution of 1970. Allah Akbar (God is great) is MISSIONARY SOCIETY. He was accepted, but re-
the national anthem. Islamic social theory is seen mained at the college to replace a colleague who
as a necessary antidote to communism and capi- had died. He found his theological studies con-
talism. In a 1971 decision, the government de- stantly interrupted by numerous invitations to
creed that all laws are to be subordinated to the speak to Christian youth groups, but was finally
Sharia (Muslim religious law) even if that means ordained in 1938 during his first furlough from
suspending existing laws. The Jamiat al-Dawah al- China. Friends reported that he rarely spoke of
Islamiah is the government-sponsored department his Olympic victories, but he did once tell a friend
that fosters Islamic missions internationally. in China that he had had to leave Europe because
In 1829 the London Society for Promoting the adulation he received there would have turned
Christianity among the Jews began Bible distri- any mans head. In 1943 he was interned at Weih-
bution in the large Jewish community in Tripoli. sien, Shantung, where he died in 1945 of either a
In 1889 the North Africa Mission established a brain tumor or a cerebral hemorrhage.
small dispensary to serve Muslims. This was shut KATHLEEN L. LODWICK
down by the Italian colonial government in 1936,
reopened in 1945, and terminated in 1969 when Bibliography. S. Magnusson, The Flying Scotsman;
the present government came to power. Since C. M. Swift, Eric Liddell.
then, neither Catholic nor Protestant missionar-
ies have been permitted, although a few Catholic Liechtenstein (Est. 2000 pop.: 33,000; 160 sq.
nuns are allowed to work in hospitals. km. [62 sq. mi.]). The principality of Liechten-
In this restricted context, ministry through stein is one of the smallest independent states in
radio, printed and audio and video material, and the world. This territory received its name in
frienship with Libyans overseas takes on new 1719 when Prince John of Liechtenstein pur-
importance. Radio companies beaming a Christ- chased and united the Lordship of Schellenberg
ian message to Libya include the Far East and the County of Vaduz. Surrounded on three
Broadcasting Company, Trans-World Radio, and sides by Switzerland, it is not surprising that
High Adventure (Lebanon). One of the most use- Liechtensteins six parishes were from the start in
ful programs is produced by the Radio School of 451 a single deanery under the diocese of the
the Bible. Incorporated in France, this is the Church in Switzerland. While sweeping political
media ministry of the Arab World Ministries. Be- changes such as the Reformation brought great
sides radio programs, this ministry creates and reform to Switzerland, it did not affect Liechten-
coordinates publications, Bible correspondence stein which remains 87 percent Catholic today.
courses, and THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION BY EXTEN- Liechtensteins major Protestant Church is the
SION curricula. Interdenominational Evangelical Church formed
Possibly one hundred fellowship groups meet in 1881 by immigrating textile workers from
in Libya today, largely serving Korean, Filipino, Lutheran or Reformed Churches. The church en-
Pakistani, and European expatriates. Some are tered a patronage agreement with the Protestant
577
Liechtenstein
church in Switzerland in 1954, the same year This emphasis on affirming the gospel mirrors
that a Lutheran congregation was formed be- the often-practiced strategy of using social min-
longing to the Association of Evangelical Lu- istry as a bridge to share the gospel. Social min-
theran Churches in Switzerland and the Princi- istry can help break down suspicion, open doors
pality of Liechtenstein. for ministry in closed countries, and provide a
While freedom of religion is guaranteed to all hearing for the gospel. The construction of dams
under the Constitution of 1921, the Roman by the Basel missionaries in northern Ghana pro-
Catholic Church is the State Church and thus en- vided an opportunity for the gospel to be shared to
joys the full protection of the State. Under this the people there. Other missionary efforts through
guarantee, the state supervises religious education. medicine, agriculture, engineering, nutrition, and
GARY LAMB education have illustrated this principle.
Proponents cite many benefits to utilizing the
Bibliography. R. A. Meier, Liechtenstein, World Bib- approach of lifestyle evangelism. They note there
liographical Services, V. 159; WCE. is a greater possibility for on-going follow-up, not
only in continually clarifying the gospel message
Lifestyle Evangelism. Youre the only Jesus over a period of time but also in discipling per-
some will ever see. People dont care how much sons who trust Christ as their Savior. Lifestyle
you know until they know how much you care. evangelism advocates also argue that a consistent
You have to earn the right to be heard. These Christian lifestyle helps break down the accusa-
sample statements help explain the evangelistic tion of hypocrisy and encourages nonbelievers
strategy known as lifestyle evangelism. Advocates to consider the reality of Christ, noting how re-
argue that EVANGELISM must be seen as a process cent visible scandals in the Christian community
of planting the seeds of the gospel through verbal have caused many people to wonder: Does
WITNESS, watering and cultivating through Chris- Christ really make a difference? Is there any sub-
tian example and lifestyle, and finally reaping the stance to all this talk?
harvest of new converts. While affirming the benefits of a lifestyle
Great emphasis is placed on the role of the wit- approach, some people caution against letting
nesss life in the evangelism process. Proponents the pendulum swing too far away from an em-
point to the incarnation as an illustration of the phasis on verbal witness. They warn against the
importance of this approach to ministry. When danger of lifestyle evangelism becoming all
God wanted to communicate with humans, they lifestyle and no evangelism, all deeds and no
argue, God did not send tracts from heaven. In- words. They are concerned that Christians fol-
stead, God communicated with us by becoming lowing a lifestyle evangelism approach may
a person and living among us (John 1:7). place great effort in building relationships with
The focus of lifestyle evangelism, then, is using nonbelievers but never get around to sharing
the channels of relationships to share the gospel the gospel verbally. Some are concerned that an
through both words and deeds. The latest phase overemphasis on deeds could lead in the direc-
tion of the social gospel of the 1920s, where an
of the movement, stimulated by Steve Sjogrens
emphasis on repentance and faith might be lost
Conspiracy of Kindness, emphasizes utilizing acts
altogether. Perhaps the strongest critique of the
of service to give an opportunity for verbal wit-
lifestyle evangelism movement has come from
ness of salvation in Jesus Christ.
Mark McCloskey, in Tell it OftenTell it Well.
While not the first book to appear on the topic, McCloskey notes that while lifestyle evangelism
Joseph Aldrichs book Lifestyle Evangelism has certainly has strengths, the New Testament
popularized the concept of lifestyle evangelism in would seem to point toward a more comprehen-
American evangelicalism. Related terms used by sive approach to evangelism, including taking
other proponents include friendship evangelism, the initiative to share the gospel message with
incarnational evangelism, and relational evangel- persons with whom you have no prior contact.
ism. Since the early 1980s numerous books have He argues that there are too many lost people to
been written and witnessing programs developed depend primarily on evangelism which is rela-
around the basic concept of lifestyle evangelism. tional in approach. Not everyone has Christian
Jim Peterson, missionary to Brazil, argued in friends or neighbors who can live out the mes-
1980 for the importance of lifestyle evangelism sage in deeds as well as share with words. There-
on the mission field. He emphasized a twofold fore, he advocates a comprehensive evangelistic
missionary strategy: (1) the proclamation of the strategy that includes witnessing through exist-
gospel to nonbelievers; (2) the affirmation of the ing relationships but that goes beyond them to
gospel, which involves a process of modeling and include any person with whom we might come
further explaining the Christian message. Peter- into contact.
son found that in his mission field context, deeds To summarize, the lifestyle evangelism move-
of love helped clarify the gospel message to those ment has reminded the church of the importance
he was trying to reach. of living a Christian life before others, that the
578
Linguistics, Linguistic Theory
walk of believers matters as well as their talk. communitas a difficult challenge today. While
Concerns raised by friendly critics need to be many in modern and postmodern society undergo
heard as well, in that Christians should guard liminality in terms of alienation because of fast-
against overstressing the walk whereby they be- paced changes, this fragmented, individualized
come silent witnesses. Some have taken the liminality lacks the power to create communitas.
principles of lifestyle evangelism to an extreme, On the other hand, it has been suggested that
saying I just let my life do the talking. A Chris- the concept of liminality can be used to develop
tians life can only reinforce the message; it can- a contemporary, multicultural theology of mar-
not substitute for it. Verbal witness gives clarity ginality. Liminal agents can be viewed as a cre-
to believers walk by pointing people past them to ative minority in Gods plan of salvation, and the
their Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ. Christians church can become in part a marginal commu-
cannot expect the nonbeliever to know that nity of liminality and a creative agency for trans-
Christians are a reflection of the good news until forming the world. This powerful ideal must,
they know what the good news is. As Paul af- however, be informed by the significant distinc-
firmed, For we do not preach ourselves, but tion between voluntary and involuntary liminal-
Jesus Christ as Lord, and ourselves as your ser- ity. For example, missionaries voluntarily choose
vants for Jesus sake (2 Cor. 4:5). If believers do a liminal state, while their children experience
not point people toward Christ, they are only the liminal state involuntarily. Likewise, the first
calling attention to themselves. Overall, the and second generations of immigrant families
lifestyle evangelism movement has helped pro- suffer from the conflicting dynamics of voluntary
vide an apologetic for Christianity to an increas- and involuntary liminality.
ingly secular world, thus following the command Crucial missiological questions arise here: How
of Christ in Matthew 5:16, let your light shine do cross-cultural missionaries who choose limi-
before men, that they may see your good deeds nality through missionary zeal process liminality
and praise your Father in heaven. in the midst of an intense phase of transformation
TIMOTHY K. BEOUGHER on the field? In contrast, how do their children
process their involuntary liminality to become
Bibliography. J. Aldrich, Life-Style Evangelism; J. Pe-
terson, Evangelism as a Lifestyle; C. Van Engen, You are voluntary creative agents of transformation? Fi-
My Witnesses. nally, how in this complex urban world does ones
liminal experience form communitas as a creative
Liminality. Derived from the Latin word limen, force of transformation?
liminality suggests a threshold, chasm, or mar- The answers to all three questions are inherent
gin. Anthropologists utilize the term to refer to in the questions themselves. Sorting out the di-
an ambiguous phase that is uncharacteristic of verse experiences of liminality is the key to pro-
the past and future states; it is a state of in- cessing and maximizing it. While embracing the
betweenness, a transitional stage of life in which call of all Christians to the sojourning state of lim-
one is torn away from familiarity. The liminal inality, an understanding of its diverse contexts
state has been likened to invisibility, ambiguity, furthers the challenge of generating a creative mi-
darkness, death, limbo, and being in the womb. nority full of potential to transform a dehumaniz-
French folklorist and ethnographer Arnold van ing world. By acknowledging the commonalities
Gennep speaks of three different stages of pas- and multiplicities of liminality, Christianity can
sage in the life cycle: preliminal rites of separa- strengthen its missionary calling to the world.
tion, liminal rites of transition, and postliminal Thus, liminality becomes not merely a state of
rites of incorporation. transition, but a state of potentiality as well.
YOUNG LEE HERTIG
Some anthropologists have observed a sacred
dimension of liminality that compensates for the Bibliography. A. van Gennep, The Rites of Passage;
lack of secular power. The liminal severance from J. Y. Lee, Marginality: The Key to Multicultural Theology;
STATUS and authority, the exclusion from a social V. Turner and E. Turner, Image and Pilgrimage in Chris-
structure dominated by power and control, re- tian Culture.
quire sacred power. So within the placeless, time-
less, nonclassifiable milieu of liminality emerge Linguistics, Linguistic Theory. Linguistics, also
such major categories of culture as MYTH, SYM- called linguistic science, is concerned with the
BOL, and RITUAL. Liminality is therefore a state of study of human LANGUAGE. Linguists are not nec-
both transition and potentiality. essarily polyglotspersons who are fluent speak-
In tribal societies liminality is often character- ers of several languages. Rather, they are special-
ized by a homogeneous communitas, a nonstruc- ists whose goals are to discover the rules of
tural equality among those involved. However, language structure, the regularities relating lan-
such homogeneity is not found in the complex ur- guages both past and present, patterns in the ac-
banized world. The multiple states of liminality quisition of languages, and principles underlying
caused by race, class, and gender differences make the use of languages by their speakers.
579
Linguistics, Linguistic Theory
Linguists whose focus is on language structure While each of these subfields has contributed
examine aspects such as grammar, vocabulary, to the area of missions, the greatest impact has
and pronunciation in order to develop an in- been that of applied linguistics. Insights from
creasingly adequate understanding of the nature this area have been of particular value in dealing
of all human language. Those investigating the with real-world issues in BIBLE TRANSLATION, LIT-
relationship among languages explore topics ERACY work including the development of new al-
ranging from features that occur in all living lan- phabets, and missionary language learning (see
guages (language universals) to the classification SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION).
of related languages into groups or families. A number of twentieth-century theoretical and
While some specialists in language acquisition applied linguists have made significant contribu-
focus on the cognitive processes employed by tions to missions. Referring to the founder of the
children as they acquire their native tongue, oth- Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) and
ers examine the psychological and linguistic WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS, Ruth Tucker
processes of children and adults engaged in (p. 351) notes that The one individual most re-
learning additional languages. Those who responsible for the twentieth century surge in Bible
search language use observe the roles language translation work has been WILLIAM CAMERON
plays in human interaction, such as differences TOWNSEND. Following Townsends early lead, SIL
between male and female speech, the importance continues to be at the forefront of applied lin-
and functions ascribed to national languages ver- guistics in the areas of translation and literacy
sus regional and minority languages, and atti- work. SIL personnel are currently deployed in
tudes of speaker toward non-native use of their over fifty countries, where much of their work is
language. with lesser known language and people groups
The discipline of linguistics traces its roots to and with previously unwritten languages.
the third and fourth centuries B.C. when Plato, Other highly respected scholars in Bible trans-
Socrates, and Aristotle dialogued about the na- lation include KENNETH L. PIKE, EUGENE A. NIDA,
ture of human language. The Greek philosophers and WILLIAM A. SMALLEY. Spanning decades of
of this era are credited with establishing many of involvement in missions, these pioneers have
the grammatical categories that are still used in written numerous books and articles in the areas
descriptions of modern-day languages, such as of linguistics, cultural anthropology, and trans-
nouns and verbs as well as verb tenses such as lation theory and practice. In addition, they have
past, present, and future. Until the past one hun- served as translation consultants for many hun-
dred years, however, the focus of linguistic in- dreds of projects throughout the world. Their
quiry was almost entirely on the written form of contributions, however, extend well beyond the
the language. This emphasis changed in the missions community to the broader field of gen-
twentieth century, when anthropologists began to eral linguistics.
study the conversational use of American Indian Pike, Nida, and Smalley have also had a major
languages, thus laying the foundation for much influence on missionary language learning
missionary activity in linguistics and language through their many publications as well as
learning. More recently, linguistics has become a through the development and administration of
highly respected academic discipline studied in prefield training programs for missionary candi-
universities and colleges throughout the world dates. Other prominent applied linguists include
(Finegan and Besnier, 1989). Donald N. Larson and E. Thomas and Elizabeth
The field of linguistics contains a number of S. Brewster. These specialists have shaped our
somewhat overlapping subfields, and new ones view of on-the-field language acquisition and
continue to develop. These include historical lin- provided tools to help missionaries become more
guistics (the study of how languages change over effective self-directed learners. They have also
time, including the present-day relationships written textbooks for missionary language learn-
among languages), psycholinguistics (the study of ers, conducted prefield training programs, and
the psychological processes involved in language worked as language- and culture-learning con-
use and the study of the how first and second sultants for mission agencies, language schools,
languages are acquired), anthropological linguis- and individuals in many countries of the world.
tics (the study of the relationship between lan- LONNA DICKERSON
guage and culture), SOCIOLINGUISTICS (the study of
how people use language in social interaction), Bibliography. D. Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclope-
and applied linguistics (the application of linguis- dia of Language; E. Finegan and N. Besnier, Language:
tic insights to practical concerns such as lan- Its Structure and Use; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ.
guage learning/teaching methods and proce-
dures, translation and literacy, the diagnosis and Literacy, Literature Mission Work. Literacy is
treatment of language disorders such as dyslexia, a threshold to another world. The printed page
and the development of computerized speech can communicate to hundreds of millions of
production) (Crystal, 1987). people. Accordingly, in the world of missions, nu-
580
Little, Paul E.
merous organizations have been established to takes years of learning and practice. Because the
focus on literature. There are more than 300 sig- Bible is often the first book to be printed in a lan-
nificant literature organizations at national and guage, many missions have focused on literacy as
international levels. An example of an interna- a primary aim. Governments make huge invest-
tional agency is the Christian Literature Crusade ments in schools and literacy programs to help
with bookstores around the world. OVERSEAS people to read. Even so, it is estimated that less
MISSIONARY FELLOWSHIP has publishing houses in than half the worlds people are readers. The non-
several countries. Christian Communications literate are usually the poor and less privileged;
Limited operates several bookstores in Hong but even in countries with high literacy, reading
Kong and has expanded into other countries is decreasing because of television.
where Chinese churches exist. Among the literacy methods used by mission
Books have a long history. Clay tablets the size organizations we can mention the Laubach
of shredded-wheat biscuits were used in Babylon method (see LAUBACH, FRANK CHARLES), which
as far back as 2400 B.C.; papyrus was used in could be called a disciple-making model. It is also
Egypt as early as 4000 B.C. The single most im- known as the each one teach one method. The
portant development for book publishing was the Gudaschinsky method, widely used by WYCLIFFE
invention of the printing press with movable BIBLE TRANSLATORS, could be called the reading
type. Recently, a major step has been taken as to learn method. The Freire method aims at
personal computers become desktop publishing consciousness raising (see FREIRE, PAULO REGLUS
machines. NEVES). Each of these methods reflects the back-
Print is the oldest mass medium and has been ground in which it was first developed. Today
used in all aspects of Christian work. Indeed, it other methods are being introduced, including
seems impossible to imagine Christian mission the use of audiocassettes as the teacher.
without printed material. Our teaching is pre- VIGGO SGAARD
sented in books, magazines, and pamphlets.
Follow-up to evangelistic crusades and mass SEE ALSO Illiteracy.
media programs are primarily done by letters Bibliography. J. Chaplin, Adventure with a Pen;
and packages of printed material. The quarterly Training Exchange: A Resource Directory for People in
magazine Interlit helps missions use literature Publishing; R. E. Wolseley, Still in Print: Journey of a
more effectively. Writer, Teacher, Journalist.
More than 22,000 new Christian book titles are
published each year, and there are more than Literature Mission Work. See LITERACY, LITERA-
23,000 periodicals. The great majority of books TURE MISSION WORK.
published by Christians are for Christians; only a
small portion are suitable for evangelistic use. Of Lithuania (Est. 2000 pop.: 3,692,000; 65,200 sq.
course, the Bible is by far the worlds number one km. [25,174 sq. mi.]). Originally settled by Indo-
best-seller. Europeans, Lithuania became the largest Euro-
Of special interest are magazines published for pean state of the Middle Ages. Among the last of
evangelistic purposes. For example, Breakthrough, the pagan nations, Christianity officially arrived
a Chinese magazine published in Hong Kong, through an alliance with Poland in 1386. By the
reaches the young. In the Middle East, Magalla seventeenth century, Vilnius had become a major
reaches Arabic-speaking people in several coun- Jewish center. In 1795 Lithuania was given over
tries. Step, published in Nairobi, has a higher cir- to Russia. German occupation in World War II
culation than any other magazine in Africa. devastated both Lithuania and the Jewish popu-
Several organizations are devoted to the publi- lation. More recently, Lithuania led the success-
cation of tracts, which have had extensive use. ful 1991 Baltic independence movements. The
The use of tracts has declined in the West over church in Lithuania has remained predominately
the last few years, though recently comics have Catholic since the Middle Ages.
been produced for similar purposes. In the West STEVEN J. PIERSON
the usual perception is that comics are for chil-
dren, but in many countries they are widely used SEE ALSO Baltic States.
by adults. Various BIBLE SOCIETIES have produced Bibliography. E. Christiansen, The Northern Cru-
whole series of Bible comics for semiliterates. sades: The Baltic and the Catholic Frontier, 11001525;
Mission agencies also use literature extensively P. Jones and N. Pennick, A History of Pagan Europe;
for promotional purposes. A forerunner to direct A. Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia,
mail was the missionary prayer letter, which was Lithuania and the Path to Independence.
sent to supporters. During the last few years, di-
rect mail has become a major fund-raising Little, Paul E. (192875). American evangelist.
method for Christian organizations. Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he graduated
In comparison to other MEDIA, literature makes from the University of Pennsylvania (1950) and
big demands: one must be able to read, which joined InterVarsity Christian Fellowship to work
581
Little, Paul E.
with students on campuses in Illinois. He soon Bibliography. W. R. Hogg, Ecumenical Foundation;

developed a special interest in international stu- K. S. Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Chris-
dents and moved to New York City to develop a tianity, vol. 4, The Great Century.
ministry there.
Later, he was promoted to serve as regional di- Livingstone, David (181373). Scottish pioneer
rector of InterVarsity in Dallas, Texas, and then missionary and explorer in Africa. Born in Blan-
he became InterVarsitys national director of tyre, Scotland, he left school at age ten, but a pro-
evangelism. During this time he was best known found spiritual experience made him resolve to
as a campus evangelist, but world missions and become a medical missionary, convinced that the
overseas evangelism attracted him as well. He God who had called him would see him past all
spoke on more than two hundred campuses in the daunting obstacles. He qualified in medicine,
the United States, Canada, Latin America, Eu- trained in theology, and in 1840 set out for South
rope, and Africa. He was program director of the Africa under the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY.
International Congress on World Evangelization, Aiming to reach the smoke of a thousand vil-
Lausanne, Switzerland, in 1974, and directed In- lages where no missionary had ever been, he
terVarsitys student missions conference at UR- penetrated ever farther north, beyond the Kala-
BANA, Illinois, in 1970. He taught evangelism at hari Desert. There the only foreigners were Arab
Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, and Portuguese traders, and Boers who believed
Illinois, from 1964 until his death in an automo- the Africans had no souls and exploited them
bile accident in Ontario, Canada. Based on his mercilessly. Livingstone had to contend with
considerable experience as a campus evangelist, drought, fever, wild animals, superstition, and
he wrote How to Give Away Your Faith (1966), slavery, which he called the open sore of Africa
Know Why You Believe (1967), and Know What
and helped stamp out. He learned languages,
You Believe (1970). Still in print, his books have
treated medicine men with courtesy as having
been published in more than twenty languages.
something to teach him, got to know the African
JIM REAPSOME
mind as few did, and recommended the training
Bibliography. J. W. Reapsome, BDCM, p. 404. of national workers to relinquish their depend-
ence on Europeans.
Liverpool Missionary Conference (1860). In the In 1852 he began a six-thousand mile journey
wake of the revival of 185860 in England, a few that took nearly four years. He headed the gov-
earnest Christians unrelated to missionary soci- ernments Zambesi Expedition (186874), after
eties called for a conference of mission leaders. which he advocated the use of Lake Nyasa in
The concern was that all Christians of the United honorable trade to make slave dealing unprof-
Kingdom be stirred up to greater zeal in the work itable. On furlough in 1867 he electrified a dis-
of the Lord. Fortunately, the London Secretaries tinguished Cambridge audience. I direct your at-
Association responded to the challenge and ap- tention to Africa, he said, I go back . . . to try to
pointed one of its members to plan such a gather- make an open path for commerce and Christian-
ing. Somehow this man was able to persuade the ity. Do you carry out the work I have begun.
missionary societies to support the project, and From this developed the Universities Mission to
from March 19 to 23, 1860, Liverpool was the Central Africaan Anglo-Catholic society that
venue of a conference of 126 mission members, of owed much to a Scottish Congregationalist. His
whom 37 were field missionaries. explorations brought him both secular acclaim
The high percentage of mission directors who and criticism from some missionary circles, but
attended this conference devoted their time to whether explorer or missionary Livingstone al-
policy discussion and produced not a few recom- ways had right priorities. The Lords Lo, I am
mendations that significantly shaped mission re- with you alway was the word of a gentleman of
lationships for years to come. Papers were read the most sacred and strictest honor. When Liv-
on missionary recruitment, the training of con- ingstone died in what is now Zambia his atten-
verts, and the planting of native churches under dants bore his body 1,500 miles to the sea, and
native leaders. They called for the establishment one of them was present at the funeral in West-
of a journal to treat Christian missions at large
minster Abbey.
and for a new cadre of missionaries drawn from
J. D. DOUGLAS
the sons of the wealthy and learned. Large
crowds attended the evening meetings, which Bibliography. W. G. Blaikie, The Personal Life of
were opened to the public. Lord Shaftesbury, David Livingstone; T. Jeal, Livingstone; C. Northcott,
who chaired the final session used the word ec- David Livingstone: His Triumph, Decline, and Fall; A. C.
umenical to describe it. Something was begin- Ross, Livingstone: The Scot and the Doctor; G. Seaver,
ning to catch on! Liverpool 1860 is of signifi- David Livingstone: His Life and Letters.
cance in that it initiated the pattern of world
missionary conferences that continues today. Loewen, Jacob A. (1922 ). Russian-born Cana-
ARTHUR F. GLASSER dian linguist and missionary in Colombia,
582
Love
Panama, and Africa. Born in Russia to a Ger- appreciation or affection. Older women are to
man-speaking family which immigrated to teach (or train or advise) younger women to be
Canada in 1930, Loewen grew up exposed to husband lovers (philandrous) and children lovers
both cultural variations and a strong Mennonite (philoteknous) indicating that affection toward the
faith. He attended Missionary Medical Institute husband and children was to be developed and
(194243) and the SIL institute in Briarcrest, thus was to exceed the conditional type of emotion
Saskatchewan (1943), after which he served as a related to familial relationships. Scripture declares
home missionary under the West Coast Chil- that the Father loved the Son in this way (John
drens Mission in British Columbia. After his 5:20) and believers are to love in this same affec-
marriage to Anne Enns in 1945, he attended tionate manner (John 16:27). Philos is not a lesser
Tabor College and they were sent to Colombia type of love than agapem but is of a different nature.
with the Mennonite Brethren to develop a writ- It entails feeling good toward another person or a
ten language for the Waunana (194757). Reli- thing. One may be fond of someone or something
gious persecution resulted in his move to com- and it can be a healthy and wholesome sentiment.
plete his Ph.D. in linguistics at the University of It expresses joy in being with or involved with
Washington. Accepting a position at Tabor Col- someone or something.
lege in 1959, he continued his linguistic and In agapem the idea of sacrifically giving oneself
church development work intermittently over the on behalf of another is the primary emphasis.
next twenty-five years working on Bible transla- This form of love is not an emotional response to
tion in Panama with the ten dialects spoken by a person, place, or thing, but rather a volitional
the various groups of Choco. act toward a person or group of persons who may
Loewen joined the American and United Bible or may not be lovely. This is the word used to de-
Societies in 1964, as a translation consultant re- scribe Gods attitude toward the world (John 3:16)
sponsible for South America (196470), and West and toward the sinners whom he redeemed
Africa (197984). He focused on research and (1 John 4:9). The love was not simply a verbal ex-
writing after his retirement in 1984. pression but a dramatic demonstration of selfless
Loewen brought a solid commitment of apply- giving on behalf of those who were cut off from
ing anthropological insights to understanding God and even declared to be his enemies (Rom.
people as a foundation in the missionary task. 5:8). This love is beyond human capacity but is to
His voluminous writings have significantly influ- be exhibited by those who call God Father (1 John
enced missionary ANTHROPOLOGY and COMMUNI- 4:7). Jesus also indicated that this love would ful-
fill all the law when exercised toward God with all
CATION, especially the importance of understand-
of ones heart, soul, and mind, and toward ones
ing and utilizing BELIEF SYSTEMS and MYTH in the
neighbor (Matt. 22:3640; Gal. 5:14). The reason
CONTEXTUALIZATION of the Christian message.
for this sweeping statement is that if one is sacri-
A. SCOTT MOREAU
ficially giving himself/herself to God and neigh-
Bibliography. J. A. Loewen, Culture and Human Val- bor, then ones acts would not do anything offen-
ues; idem, IBMR 22:2 (1998): 6972. sive or harmful. This fits within the intent and
heart of what the law was all about.
Logos Christology. See CHRISTOLOGICAL CONTRO- In missions, the declaration of Gods love must
VERSIES. be demonstrated and not just verbalized. Whether
in wholesome affection or sacrificial giving, the
London Missionary Society. See COUNCIL FOR
message of Gods character and action toward sin-
WORLD MISSION. ful humankind must be demonstrated. Those who
carry Gods love must illustrate this through acts
consistent with the loving behavior of the culture
Lost, the. See UNEVANGELIZED. in which the message is being presented.
Since Jesus placed the act of loving one an-
Love. Biblical love is often a concept that has other as living testimony to identify the true dis-
been confused with cultural views of love. In ciples, those in ministry must protect the love re-
Scripture, love is a description of God, a sacrifi- lationship among fellow workers. Interpersonal
cial act toward the undeserving, a fulfillment of relationships among missionaries are certainly
the Law, and the trademark of a true disciple of observed by those hearing the message of John
Christ. Love should be characteristic of Christian 3:16 and Romans 5:8. But if those who proclaim
mission. The Old Testament word is ahab. In the the message do not reflect such attitudes among
New Testament, two major concepts of love are themselves, the verbal witness can be under-
expressed in two different words: philos and mined. Since loving one another is a command
agapem. (John 15:17), it is evident that it is not left to
Philos expresses fondness or an attraction to human emotions nor is it merely a good thing. It
someone or something. It is a highly emotive word is a moral obligation to give of oneself to others.
which is similar to the English terms fondness or To do this is to be a witness of ones connection
583
Love
with Jesus and to verify that one is truly on a fectly manifest the love of God in himself and the
mission for Jesus Christ who came as a demon- divine intention of blessing for the nations.
stration of Gods love for sinners. This love, how- Gods love for sinful humanity resulted in his
ever, is not from human effort but flows from a giving/sending the eternal Son to become the
Spirit-filled life (Rom. 5:5; Gal. 5:22). promised Messiah (John 3:16). Jesus expressed
ED GLASSCOCK this love of God for fallen humanity by his own
loving obedience to the Father (John 14:31; Phil.
Bibliography. J. P. Baker, NDT, pp. 398400; W. Gn-
thern and H.-G. Link, NIDNTT, 2:53851; G. B. Funder- 2:58), showing compassion for the hungry, the
burk, ZPEB; 3:98996; J. Stott, The Mark of the Christ- sick, the demonized, and the tax-collectors and
ian; C. Van Engen, Gods Missionary People. sinners. To them he brought relief from their
suffering and forgiveness of their sins through
Love of God. The Christian mission stems from faith in him. This was a sign and foreshadowing
the saving love of God for humanity. This divine of the future reign of God in blessing, power, and
love is to be associated with the related concepts righteousness. His atoning death, a ransom for
of his compassion, mercy, blessing, and grace, es- many (Israelites and Gentiles alike), was the
pecially as revealed in Christ. crowning expression of Gods love for sinners.
Since God is love (1 John 4:8) both within His resurrection guaranteed the final fruition of
himself in the intra-trinitarian self-giving and in this love in the full implementation of the reign
his special revelation, his love must be reflected (kingdom) of God at his PAROUSIA. That age (or
in the act of creation, especially of human beings. world) to come will be the final realization of his
Humans were originally Gods priest-kings (Gen. purpose for creation; then it will be fully subdued
1:2628; 2:917). Their task was to consecrate under his vice-regent, Jesus Christ, and his Body,
their assigned rule and realm to him in loving the church.
obedience, with a view to realizing Gods ultimate The interim between his resurrection and his
eschatological goal for his creation (Dumbrell, coming is the appointed time for the Christian
1994). missionthe sending of the apostles and others
Their rebellion neither frustrated the divine bearing the gospel to all the nations till the close
plan for the world nor negated his love for hu- of the age (Matt. 28:1620; Luke 24:4648; Acts
manity, his image in the world. Even at the point 1:8). This fulfills the promise to Abraham (Gen.
of excluding them from Eden, the realm of divine 12:3) in accordance with the love of God ex-
blessing, he extended hope for salvation (Gen. pressed in the giving of the Son (John 3:16).
3:16). When the necessity of a general judgment In this way the risen Christ builds the commu-
was typified by the Flood, the Lord graciously nity which has experienced Gods love in him
preserved a remnant. He also promised that his through the Spirit (Rom. 5:58). Described in
covenant of creation would stand (Gen. 6:18; bridal imagery (Eph. 5:2133; Rev. 21:2, 9) the
8:179:17), thereby also expressing his love (Matt. church is not only the creation, through world
5:45; Acts 14:17). mission, of Gods saving love; it is also the com-
From among the disobedient nations, but in the munity reflecting this love in its life (e.g., Phil.
chosen line of Shem (Gen. 9:2627; 11:2027), 2:18; 1 Peter 1:22; 1 John 3:1124; 4:712). As
Abraham was chosen both to receive blessing and such it is the global fulfillment of Israels voca-
to be a blessing (Gen. 12:13), ultimately through tiona living sign of the scope of Gods saving
Christ (Gal. 3:8) (see also ABRAHAMIC COVENANT). love and its instrument, embracing men and
In fulfillment of this promise of blessing to hu- women of all peoples and legal statuses (Phil.
manity, and with a view to bringing his creation 2:1416a; 1 Peter 2:912, 17; Gal. 3:28).
to its goal, God delivered Israel from Egypt. Re- The final destiny of those who respond to the
deemed Israels vocation may also be called her reconciling love of God made known to them by
mission, for she is called with the world in view the Christian mission is the enjoyment of the
(Exod. 19:5). Her role as a priestly kingdom and final issue of this love for the creation: the life of
holy nation is to bear witness to the true and liv- the world (age) to come, the reign (kingdom) of
ing God by her distinctiveness in worship and God in all the fullness of his blessing. This will be
moral life as a community under the Law or Mo- creation perfected at lastlife in all its fullness
saic covenant. Chosen Israel was thus called to where the bride of the Lamb who loves us and
model for the nations the blessings of the divine frees us by his blood, will see the face of him
love experienced through obedience to Yahweh as who is now also on the throne (Rev. 1:5, 6; chs.
king (Exod. 19:5b6a; cf. 1 Peter 2:9). At best Is- 21, 23).
rael fulfilled this calling very imperfectly, but at The love of God revealed on the cross has been
certain high points, like Solomons dedication of the core of the message and a fundamental mo-
the temple (1 Kings 8:4143, 60) Israel was keenly tive for the Christian mission from the time of
aware of her proper, Abrahamic role in the world. the apostles (2 Cor. 5:1421) until the present day.
Only the Messiah (Christ), however, would per- JOHN A. MCINTOSH
584
Lutheran Mission
SEE ALSO Kingdom of God. lims, and producing the earliest works of his pro-
lific career. He believed that opponents of Chris-
Bibliography. B. C. Berkouwer, The Church; W. J.
Dumbrell, The Search for Order: Biblical Eschatology in tianity must eventually succumb to the argu-
Focus; A. Glasser, Crucial Dimensions in World Evange- ments he painstakingly developed.
lization; H. N. Ridderbos, Paul; C. Van Engen, Growth Another passion was the establishment of mis-
of the True Church. sionary training colleges, the first being founded
on Majorca in 1276. After teaching for several
Loyola, Ignatius. See IGNATIUS OF LOYALA. years at the University of Paris, he made his first
missionary journey to Tunis in 1292. He was al-
Luce, Alice Eveline (18731955). English mis- most immediately arrested and expelled, but in
sionary to India and the United States. Born in 1307 he returned to North Africa, only to be im-
Cheltenham, England, into the home of an Angli- prisoned for six months in Bugia. His third tour
can vicar, she was educated at the Cheltenham was in 131415, again to Bugia, but after pro-
Ladies College and London Bible College. She reducing at least five influential converts he was
ceived further training in nursing and became stoned to death by an angry crowd.
competent in five languages. In 1896 she sailed to Besides his literary output of apologetical and
India and served as a missionary for sixteen years devotional worksestimated at more than 250
under the CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY. Lull is notable for being among the first to advo-
Her identification with the Pentecostal move- cate the conversion of Muslims as opposed to
ment began in India when, convinced of the au- military crusades against them.
thenticity of the baptism of the Holy Spirit, she LARRY POSTON
prayed until she received it (about 1910). Two Bibliography. E. A. Peers, Ramon Lull: A Biography.
years later illness forced her to return to home-
side work in England and Canada; she resigned Lutheran Mission. Lutheran world mission as
from CMS for medical reasons. She then began an empirical fact began with the sending of
work among Hispanics in Mexico, Texas, and Lutheran missionaries to Tranquebar, South
later California, and was ordained in 1915 by the
India, by the DANISH-HALLE MISSION (1706). This
Assemblies of God (AoG). In 1926 she founded
marked the first recorded sending of Protestant
the Berean Bible Institute of San Diego (now the
missionaries to a non-Western nation. Important
Latin American Bible College) for training pastors
antecedents are found in the work of Martin
and evangelists and served there until her death.
Luther and the sixteenth-century Reformation.
Luces pioneering work of training an indige-
Several periods of Lutheran mission activity
nous clergy for the evangelization of the Hispanic
must be distinguished.
population provided the way for many young
Although GUSTAV WARNECK (18341910), the fa-
people to minister effectively to their own people.
ther of nineteenth-century continental missiol-
Author of several books, including The Messenger
ogy, criticized Luther as being indifferent to mis-
and His Message (1925) and The Little Flock in the
sion because the Reformer had not supported
Last Days (1927), she also prepared curricular
materials for the Bible Institute and contributed regular overseas mission endeavors, later schol-
regularly to various AoG publications. Her work ars demonstrated that Luthers theology and un-
laid the foundation for AoG missionary strategy derstanding of church and kingdom were thor-
and largely explains their successful Hispanic oughly missionary. For Luther, mission meant
evangelism in the United States. reestablishing the church on its true evangelical
FLORENCE R. SCOTT
foundation in Jesus Christ and the gospel. Always
the work of the Triune God, the goal of mission is
Bibliography. V. De Leon, The Silent Pentecostals; the coming of the kingdom. Gods dynamic Word
G. B. McGee, AG Heritage 5 (1985). penetrates every barrier of culture, religion, or
geography and awakens faith. The church, mis-
Lucifer. See SATAN. sionary in its very nature, is Gods instrument
sending out his Word into the world. Every bap-
Lull, Ramon (c. 12351315). Missionary to tized believer has both a right and a duty to wit-
North Africa. Ramon Lull was born on the island ness to Christ.
of Majorca. A dissolute early life was followed by For Luther, Gods mission continues through
marriage to Blanca Picany, who bore him two the apostles and the church to the ends of time
children, but not until the age of thirty did he and space, resulting in universal proclamation
give his life to Christ after seeing visions of the though not world conversion. Because of the
crucifixion. cross and the opposition of Satan, true believers
The conversion of infidels became his passion. will always remain a minority. The community of
He spent nine years at the University of Palma believers, proclamation of the gospel, baptism,
studying Arabic, disputing with Jews and Mus- the Lords Supper, lay witness, and a regular min-
585
Lutheran Mission
istry are central features of this understanding of and sending missionaries to Asia and Africa. The
mission. No special missionary office is needed. BASEL (1815) and RHENISH (1828) mission societies
A highly restricted view of mission prevailed were typical. After 1840, however, Lutherans in
during the period of Lutheran orthodoxy Europe and North America began organizing mis-
(15801675). Lutheran rulers were obligated to sion work on strictly confessional lines with the
evangelize their non-Christian subjects (Jews, aim of propagating pure Lutheran doctrine, min-
Muslims, pagans), but any wider applicability istry, and sacraments overseas. The Dresden (later
of the GREAT COMMISSION was in effect denied. Leipzig) Lutheran mission was an early example.
The Lutheran theological faculty at Wittenberg Some Lutherans (e.g., BRUNO GUTMANN in Tran-
in 1651 maintained that Lutherans had no ob- zania, CHRISTIAN KEYSSER in Papua New Guinea,
ligation to send missionaries beyond their ter- and Johannes Warneck in Indonesia) developed
ritories to convert the heathen, as Jesuits and Lutheran mission concepts that combined the
other Catholics had done. A Lutheran layman, gospel, social structures, and indigenous cultural
Justinian Welz (162168), who proposed a new forms. Lutheran missions in the late nineteenth
Protestant society for sending missionaries century reflected a mixture of Lutheran confes-
overseas, was condemned as a heretic. sional piety and student volunteer enthusiasm.
Lutheran pietism, under the leadership of European COLONIALISM and Americas ascendancy
Philipp Spener (16451705), introduced profound as an imperial power also contributed to popular
changes into Lutheran missionary thinking, reaf- support for Lutheran mission around 1900.
firming the universal validity of the Great Com- With the outbreak of World War I, Lutheran
mission and recognizing the need for special world missions faced a crisisthe wartime sepa-
agents to carry out mission in non-Christian ration of Lutherans into opposing camps. Ger-
lands. At the University of Halle, August Francke man Lutheran missionaries working in British
(16631727) recruited two dedicated theology stu- colonial territories were interned, with the result
dentsBARTHOLOMAEUS ZIEGENBALG and Heinrich that their fledgling mission communities were or-
Pltschauas missionary pastors for the Danish phaned. North American and Swedish Lutheran
crown colony of Tranquebar under the sponsor- mission groups, working closely with the Contin-
ship of King Frederick IV. Thus were laid the uation Committee of the EDINBURGH MISSIONARY
foundations for the first overseas Protestant mis- CONFERENCE (1910), later the INTERNATIONAL MIS-
sion venture. Ziegenbalg, a gifted Scripture SIONARY COUNCIL (1921), managed to save Ger-
scholar, translated Luthers Small Catechism and man orphaned missions from seizure as wartime
the New Testament into Tamil, researched the booty. Lutherans raised large sums of money and
customs and beliefs of South Indian Hinduism, assumed trusteeship responsibilities for these
and engaged in dialogue with Hindu and Muslim missions affected by war.
holy men. The Lutheran mission soon became a This inter-Lutheran rescue operation, with its
joint ecumenical venture with the Society for Pro- parallel in World War II, became a primary in-
moting Christian Knowledge (Anglican), tran- spiration for international Lutheran cooperation.
scending both nation and denomination. It led to the formation of the Lutheran World
Contemporaneous with the Danish-Halle Mis- Convention (1923) and the Lutheran World Fed-
sion, but different in emphasis, were missions of eration (1947), uniting more than 120 member
the Moravian Brethren under the leadership of churches encompassing 60 million Lutherans on
Count NICHOLAS LUDWIG VON ZINZENDORF (1700 six continents. The policies of the LWF Commis-
1760) at Herrnhut (see MORAVIAN MISSIONS). sions on World Mission (1952) and Church Co-
Lutheran in background and trained at both operation (1970) called for formation of united
Halle and Wittenberg, Zinzendorf opposed intro- Lutheran churches in mission areas, autonomy
duction of Western ecclesiastical norms and and representation for all member churches
warned Moravian missionaries not to judge con- small or largein the world body, international-
verts by the standards of Herrnhut. He hoped ization of the missionary force, and sharing of in-
that the Brethren might act as a midwife to international resources for cooperative programs
clusive unity among Christians of all confessions, of mission, service, training, and development.
but failed to realize this goal. Western Lutheran churches and mission soci-
The ENLIGHTENMENT of the eighteenth century eties maintain both bilateral and multilateral re-
and the French revolutionary movement had dev- lationships with partner churches in Asia, Africa,
astating consequences for missions, undercutting Oceania, and Latin America. Lutherans tend to
theological clarity and motivation. But among favor integration of missions into the life of the
Lutheran pietists and Moravian circles commit- church, though some independent mission soci-
ment to mission endured and blossomed anew in eties still exist. In Germany and Scandinavia, for-
the evangelical awakening of the late eighteenth merly independent mission societies are now the
and nineteenth centuries. Lutheran and Re- mission departments of regional or national
formed Christians joined hands in forming evan- churches. The ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT has com-
gelical mission societies for recruiting, training, pelled Lutherans to rethink earlier attitudes of
586
Luzbetak, Louis J.
confessional exclusiveness. While supporting ec- man and French are official languages, so most
umenical ventures, Lutherans remain divided in of the 425,000 nationals have learned at least two
their views about church unity and inclusive languages.
church fellowship. There is freedom of religion in Luxembourg.
World Lutherans, after nearly three centuries of The Roman Catholic Church is the state church,
global mission effort, remains predominantly a with a membership of approximately 97 percent
Western phenomenon with 37 million Lutherans of the population. Protestants are a minority
in Europe and nearly 9 million in North America. making up just over 1 percent of the population,
Between 1950 and 2000, however, there was as- most of them foreign. The foreigners seem to be
tonishing growth in the TWO-THIRDS WORLD: hard to reach because of their mobility and lack
8 million in Africa, slightly less than 5 million in of interest in spiritual things. Next to the
Asia, and 1.4 million in Latin America. The largest Catholics, the largest group among the national
of the younger Lutheran churches are found in population is the JEHOVAHS WITNESSES.
Indonesia, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Madagascar, India, MARKUS WAGNER
Brazil, Papua New Guinea, South Africa, and
Namibia. The participation of these bodies in the Luzbetak, Louis J. (1917 ). American missio-
Lutheran world communion, and in LWF inter- logical anthropologist and missionary to New
national programs for mission, service, develop- Guinea. Born in Joliet, Illinois, to a devout
ment, theological study, and interfaith dialogue, Catholic family which had emigrated from Slo-
has altered the historically Western character of vakia, Luzbetak knew early in life that the mis-
Lutheranism and raised anew the question of sion of Christ was his only option. He entered the
Lutheran identity amid change and diversity. Divine Word Seminary at Techny, Illinois, as a
JAMES A. SCHERER freshman in high school, and over the next four-
Bibliography. E. T. Bachmann and M. B. Bachmann, teen years (until his ordination), this group be-
eds., Lutheran Churches in the World: A Handbook; D. J. came a second family to him.
Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theol- After two years of theological studies in Grego-
ogy of Mission, chap. 8; H. W. Gensichen, Living Mis- rian University (Rome), he was asked to study
sion: The Test of Faith; J. A. Scherer, Gospel, Church and anthropology at the University of Fribourg under
Kingdom: Comparative Studies in World Mission Theol- WILHELM SCHMIDT, who assigned him to research
ogy; idem, Justinian Welz: Essays by an Early Prophet of
Mission; idem, Mission and Unity in Lutheranism. the Caucasus region in the southwestern Soviet
Union. Because of the Cold War, Luzbetak was
unable to enter the Caucasus for his fieldwork,
Luxembourg (Est. 2000 pop.: 425,000; 2,586 sq. and consequently went to New Guinea, where he
km. [998 sq. mi.]). The Grand Duchy of Luxem- worked from 1952 to 1956.
bourg is an independent European country bor- There he observed that the gospel did not
dered by Belgium, Germany, and France. Its reach the peoples hearts because it lacked cul-
large iron and steel industry has produced a very
tural relevancy. He dedicated himself to bring an-
high standard of living. Because of its central lo-
thropological insights to the missionary task to
cation Luxembourg has been subject to foreign
make the gospel/culture encounter more signifi-
invasions and domination for much of its history,
cant. This dedication profoundly influenced his
which includes periods of Burgundian, Spanish,
teaching career.
French, Austrian, and Prussian control. In 1815,
Luzbetaks service was rich in ecumenical ex-
it regained national independence and, after its
posure; his gracious spirit accommodating him
autonomy was strengthened, developed demo-
across evangelical, ecumenical, and Catholic con-
cratic institutions. Luxembourg was declared a
texts. He taught at the Catholic University and
neutral country until giving up its neutrality to
Georgetown University, served as president of Di-
join various economic, political, and military or-
vine Word Seminary (Epworth, Iowa), director of
ganizations in 1948. Having already formed a
the Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate
close economic union with Belgium in 1921,
(CARA) and editor of Anthropos (Germany). He
Luxembourg became one of the founding mem-
was an official Catholic observer at Lausanne
bers of the European Economic Community.
With many offices and banks of that organization (1974) and the Willowbank Consultation, as well
being located in Luxembourg, one-quarter of the as the second president of the AMERICAN SOCIETY
OF MISSIOLOGY. His most widely recognized books
working population are foreigners.
Luxembourgs native population is primarily of are The Church and Cultures: An Applied Anthro-
French and German descent. The predominant pology for the Religious Worker (1963) and The
spoken language is Letzeburgech, which is a mix- Church and Cultures: New Perspectives in Missio-
ture of German and French. In fact, it is such a logical Anthropology (1988).
mixture that neither French nor German natives A. SCOTT MOREAU
can understand it. The people of Luxembourg Bibliography. L. J. Luzbetak, IBMR 16:3 (1992):
wanted something distinctly their own. Both Ger- 12428.
587
Mabille, Adolphe (183694). Swiss missionary in

Lesotho. Born in Switzerland into the family of a
teacher who was active in the Free Church of the
Canton of Vaud, he studied at Yverdon and Basel
and worked as a French teacher in the Nether-
lands and then England where he was converted
and decided to become a missionary. In 185659
he studied theology in Paris in preparation for
service with the PARIS EVANGELICAL MISSIONARY SO-
CIETY in its work in Lesotho. Before leaving he
Mm
guages, and the Cantonese dialect is by far the
predominant spoken language. In 1999 its sover-
eignty reverted back to China, two years after a
similar arrangement for Hong Kong. The church
married Adle Casalis (18401923), the daughter has remained small through the years. Roughly
of Eugne Casalis, founder of the Lesotho mission 80 percent of the population is Buddhists and
and at the time the societys director. Born in 6 percent Roman Catholic, while Protestants
Africa, she taught him the language while they number less than 1 percent.
were traveling to the field. At the societys Morija The Roman Catholic Church established work
station he worked as an evangelist, opened a Bible in Macau in the mid-sixteenth century. By 1576
school to train indigenous catechists (the first mis- the first bishop, Melchoir Carneiro, was installed
sionary to do so in southern Africa), and directed to oversee the parish. Originally the church was
a publishing enterprise that brought out the Sotho primarily for the Portuguese population, but it
Bible he had translated as well as a dictionary, opened its doors to the Chinese in the nineteenth
hymnbook, and numerous tracts. He served as an century. The church experienced rapid growth
adviser to the paramount chief Moshoeshoe after 1949 when many Catholic refugees came
(Moshesh) I and mediated conflicts between the from China for safe haven. It was at St. Paul
Sotho and Boers (Afrikaners) who were encroach- Seminary of Macau that MATTEO RICCI, the pio-
ing on their territory. This eventually led to the es- neer Roman Catholic missionary, received his
tablishment of the British protectorate of Basu- training. There are now about twenty churches
toland in 1868. A totally committed laborer, he serving the Catholic community in Macau.
died of exhaustion at Morija in 1894 In 1807 the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY sent
ULRICH VAN DER HEYDEN AND RICHARD V. PIERARD ROBERT MORRISON, the first Protestant mission-
ary to China. He was stationed in Macau, con-
Bibliography. E. W. Smith, The Mabilles of Basu- centrating on language acquisition and the trans-
toland (1939). lation of the Bible into the Chinese language. He
gave his life for the sake of the gospel and was
Macau (Portuguese District/Region) (Est. 2000 buried in Macau. There are now fifty-five Protes-
pop.: 45,000; 16 sq. km. [6 sq. mi.]). The island of tant churches of various denominations. The ma-
Macau lies on the southeastern coast of China. It jority of the believers are grassroots people. The
has been under Portuguese administration since church faces a critical need for leadership in
the sixteenth century, and was an important trad- both the clergy and the laity. In addition, there is
ing port for southern China until the British es- a high turnover rate among the pastors since
tablished Hong Kong in 1841. Due to the recent very few are home grown. The majority come
influx of Chinese immigrants, which have more from neighboring Hong Kong. In 1982 the
than doubled the population in a decade, Macau Macau Bible Institute was established to meet
has been revitalized. this critical need.
The total area of Macao is roughly six square In recent years many mission agencies, both
miles, and the population is comprised of 95 per- Chinese and Western, have made a renewed ef-
cent Chinese, 3 percent Portuguese and other fort to reach the masses, especially new immi-
Europeans, and 2 percent other Asian. Por- grants. The results have been steady but slow.
tuguese and Chinese are the two official lan- JOHN D. L. HSU
588
L-M Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:51 AM Page 589
Mackay, John Alexander
Bibliography. R. D. Crement, ed., Macau: City of Com- The first missionary sent by Canadian Presby-
merce & Culture; G. Law, Chinese Churches Handbook. terians, MacKay settled in Tamsui in 1872 after
graduating from Princeton Theological Seminary
Macedonia (Est. 2000 pop.: 2,247,000; 25,713 sq. and studying theology in Edinburgh under
km. [9,928 sq. mi.]). Macedonia, a former ALEXANDER DUFF. Breaking with many missionary
province of Yugoslavia, is a landlocked country in conventions, MacKay married a Formosan
the Balkans surrounded by Greece, Albania, Ser- woman, maintained training schools for boys,
bia, and Bulgaria. Over 50 percent of the people girls, and women, and established a hospital and
are ethnically Macedonian and 20 percent are Al- scientific-cultural museum.
banian. Sixty-three percent of all Macedonians His regular strategy was for a group to enter a
are Christian while 30 percent are Muslims. The village temple compound, gather a crowd by
vast majority of the Christians belong to the Or- singing hymns, follow it by dental work, and then
thodox Church. The largest of the Evangelical preach. Once a congregation was established, na-
groups are the Methodists (3,000 members) and tional preachers and Bible-women were em-
the Gypsy Evangelical Movement with over 1,000 ployed rather than foreign missionaries. Before
adherents. dying of throat cancer MacKay saw sixty chapels
TODD M. JOHNSON established in northern Formosa, leaving behind
an encyclopedic knowledge of the peoples yet to
Mackay, Alexander Murdock (18491890). be reached.
Scottish pioneer engineer-missionary to Uganda. LAUREN PFISTER
Son of a Free Church of Scotland minister,
Mackay resisted the pressure to follow in his fa- Bibliography. G. L. MacKay, Chinese Recorder 23
thers footsteps and trained as an engineer in Ed- (1892): 52429; idem, From Far Formosa: The Island, Its
inburgh and Berlin. In 1876 he left for East People and Missions.
Africa as part of a CMS group sent in response to
information that King Mutesa of Buganda was Mackay, John Alexander (18891983). Scottish
willing to receive missionaries. missionary to Peru and Mexico; ecumenical
After three years Mackay was the only survivor leader. Born in Inverness, Scotland, he was seri-
in an area where tribal differences were being ously convicted of the correlation between his ac-
reinforced by Protestant and Catholic missions ademic preparation and Gods call to be a Chris-
and Arab and Western politics. He developed tian missionary. He studied in Scotland, the
good relationships at court, translated Matthews United States, Spain, Peru, and Germany. At the
Gospel into Luganda, and worked with Africans core of my movement from one academic center
to build roads, houses, machinery, and boats. He to another, Mackay wrote, I sought the cultural
opposed Catholic missions, and encouraged preparation that seemed most expedient to equip
British intervention. After the death of King me for effective missionary service.
Mutesa in 1884 and the martyrdom of Catholic After their marriage on August 16, 1916,
and Protestant Christians in 1886, he was forced Mackay and his bride, Jane Logan Wells, sailed
to move to the south of Lake Victoria where he for Lima, Peru, as the first missionaries sent by
died at Usambiro. the Free Church of Scotland to Latin America.
Mackays spiritual depth and practical skills There they ministered from 1916 to 1932nine
were popularized by his sisters biography and years in Lima and seven years in Montevideo and
admired for generations. Mexico City. Afterwards, Mackay served as pres-
JOHN ROXBOROGH ident of Princeton Theological Seminary and be-
Bibliography. J. W. Harrison, The Story of the Life of came a central figure in the founding of the
Mackay of Uganda. WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES.
As a Christian traveler on the road, his dis-
MacKay, George Leslie (18441901). Canadian covery of the incarnational approach to the
missionary to China. Arguably one of the most human situation based on John 1:14 became the
successful Chinese missionaries in the nineteenth core of his missionary legacy and to this ap-
century, G. L. MacKay worked out of Tamsui in proach he dedicated his entire life and mission-
northwestern Formosa, now called Taiwan. An ary work among academic audiences. He theo-
indefatigable promoter of indigenous clergy and rized: I learned early in my career . . . that if I
medical outreach, he supported cultural aware- was to be taken seriously and to succeed in influ-
ness while challenging spiritism with scientific encing others in the direction of the Christian
knowledge and methods. His pioneering work faith, it was essential to establish close ties of
among Chinese lowlanders and tribal high- friendship with them, and learn to understand
landers involved active missionary apprentice- their cultural background and aspirations.
ship of Chinese and Malay tribal students. ELIAS S. MEDEIROS
589
Mackay, John Alexander
Bibliography. S. Escobar, IBMR 16:3 (1992): 11622; mission built schools and churches. People were
H. M. Goodpasture, Journal of Presbyterian History 48 attracted by the sermons and singing, both tradi-
(1970): 26592; J. A. Mackay, CT, January 2, 1970, 35. tional Malagasy cultural forms, but seven years
passed before a convert was baptized.
Macomber, Eleanor (180140). American pio- After Radama Is death in 1828, traditionalists
neer missionary to Myanmar (formerly Burma). took power and a great persecution ensued until
Her first missionary venture came in 1830 when 1863. Bibles were destroyed, missionaries were
she was sent by the Baptist Missionary Board of banned, and Christians were martyred. The
America as a teacher among the Ojibwas in church grew tenfold with indigenous leadership;
Michigan. After nearly four years her health the martyrs faithful witness partially accounted
failed and she was forced to return to New York. for this growth.
In 1836 she became associated with the Burma Queen Ranavalona II came to power in 1869.
Mission. In the autumn of that year she was ap- She destroyed the national idols and invited the
pointed to Dong Yhan to work among the missionaries to return. The next thirty years saw
Karens. Her strategy was to begin immediately some of the fastest church growth in mission his-
the worship of God in their midst. With little tory as much of the nation came into the church.
knowledge of the language, she gathered people The LMS returned, took over the churches from
on the Sabbath to hear the gospel. Weekdays local leadership, and invited the Quakers to join
she invited people for morning and evening their work in 1867. By the early twentieth cen-
prayers, often asking questions at the close. She tury the church was nominal.
soon had a school of a dozen pupils, and a The SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL
church was formed in less than one year. With a began in 1864. The Norwegian Mission arrived in
select group of converts, she traveled widely to 1866, and the American Lutherans as a branch of
other villages. While away from her remote post the Norwegians in 1888. The Lutheran Church
she became ill and died nine days later. She left today is a large nationwide church.
behind a band of disciples well grounded in the The French conquered the nation in 1896. The
Christian faith. French Reformed Church took up the slack of
Macomber was one of very few single women the British missionaries as the French colonial
sent to a foreign mission field in her era. She ven- government forced them out. During the period
tured beyond the limited role for women and, in of French rule (18961958) the Roman Catholic
her relatively short tenure, laid the foundation Church, the only official church, gained strength.
for a permanent Christian presence among Beginning in the south, the area of Lutheran
Burmese tribes. work, in 1894 and continuing to the present, re-
FLORENCE R. SCOTT
vival movements have been characteristic of the
Bibliography. D. C. Eddy, Heroines of the Missionary Malagasy church. The revival encompasses parts
Enterprise; R. P. Beaver, All Loves Excelling: American of all major denominations today.
Protestant Women in World Mission. In 1960 the LMS, Quakers, and French Re-
formed combined to become the United Church
Macumba. See LATIN AMERICAN NEW RELIGIOUS of Madagascar, an influential church today. Sev-
MOVEMENTS. eral smaller churches began in the twentieth cen-
tury: Seventh-Day Adventists (1926), Malagasy
Madagascar (Est. 2000 pop.: 17,259,000; 587,041 Baptists (1932), Evangelical Mission of Tana-
sq. km. [226,657 sq. mi.]). Larger than France narive (1952), Jesus Saves (1962), and the United
and Belgium combined, Madagascar, located off Pentecostal Church (1969).
Africas southeastern coast and the worlds fourth From 1972 until 1991, the nation was under a
largest island, is nearly 1,000 miles long and 350 strong socialist government that sent thousands
miles wide. The more than 17 million people and of young people to socialist nations, the Soviet
their culture are of Indo-Malaysian origin with Union in particular, for military and university
later African, Arab, and Western influences. education. Many came to Christ in those nations
After failed Protestant and Catholic mission at- and returned with a strong witness that con-
tempts in the sixteenth century, the first enduring tributed to revival.
Christian work began on August 18, 1818, when Since 1991, many evangelical organizations,
David Jones and Thomas Bevan, LONDON MIS- both Western and indigenous, have opened work
SIONARY SOCIETY (LMS) missionaries, arrived in in Madagascar. Malagasy Christians have served
Tamatave. Within six months the Bevans and as missionaries in North and South Africa and in
Jones wife and child died. Jones began work in Europe. Many have taken significant leadership
the interior Merina kingdom under King Radama roles in the Lutheran World Federation, The All
I, who desired to modernize his kingdom. Africa Council of Churches, and the World Coun-
Bible translation (completed in 1835) and cil of Churches.
printing were given highest priority although the MIKEL NEUMANN
590
Mahayana Buddhism
Bibliography. H. Brandt, comp., Madagascar; Mana is closely related to energy fields as defined
M. Brown, Madagascar Rediscovered; B. A. Gow, Mada- by the NEW AGE MOVEMENT and as practiced by
gascar and the Protestant Impact; M. Neumann, Factors some healers in physical therapy. Mana is innate
Underlying Accelerated Growth Trends as Reflected in the in an object or person and works apart from
History of the Malagasy Baptist Church; J. B. Vigen, A
human expertise. It accounts for successes or lack
Historical and Missiological Account of the Pioneer Mis-
sionaries in the Establishment of the American Lutheran thereof. It can be controlled by the right rituals but
Mission in Southeast Madagascar, 18871911. is dangerous to the ignorant. Charms, which at-
tract beneficial supernatural forces, and amulets
which ward off evil supernatural influences, are
Magic, Magick, Magical Beliefs and Practices.
thought effective because they are invested with
Magic refers to RITUAL strategies people use to
concentrated mana. Many societies prefer to think
control unknowable supernatural forces. White
of mana as life-force, a personal power which may
magic is used for good and black magic for evil
be transmitted magically to another in very much
purposes. Magical practices involve the use of rit- the same way as mana flows from one object to
ualsthe right chant or words recited, the right another. Magical practices and beliefs are found in
sign used, the right object worninducing su- all societies. Among others, even Western sports-
pernatural powers to respond in expected ways, men practice magical rituals to ensure success
much like a scientist controls chemical reactions. over their rivals. Frequently societies influenced by
Magic is used where uncertainty, the elements of concepts of magic and mana transfer these con-
chance, and anxiety pervade. Usually the rituals cepts to Christian practices such as Communion,
employed grow out of exceptionally good previ- ordination, healing, speaking in tongues, liturgies,
ous performances. Magic has a utilitarian value and holy places, resulting in syncretistic beliefs
available to all who know the right rituals. Mag- and practices.
ick is used by religious practitioners of the art to PHILIP M. STEYNE
distinguish their form of practice from sleight of
hand. In magic the techniques are believed to SEE ALSO Occult, Occultism.
harness supernatural powers in charms, fetishes, Bibliography. B. Malinowski, Magic, Science and Re-
and other direct attempts to achieve success. The ligion; M. Bouisson, Magic: Its Rites and History; P. M.
belief is in forces which may be controlled Steyne, Gods of Power.
through other supernatural forces in ritually pre-
pared objects, or specific spiritual powers invited Mahayana Buddhism. Form of Buddhism dom-
to take up residence in prepared objects, such inant in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. It
as fetishes. Magic objects may be secured from arose between 150 B.C. and A.D. 100 in reaction
persons of high social status, superior physical against THERAVADA BUDDHISM for its literal inter-
and/or spiritual power, a powerful animal, or pretation of Buddhas teachings as well as its nar-
some object which appears unnatural. There are row concern for personal salvation through
several forms of magic but primarily two are strenuous monastic disciplines achievable only
widely used. Homeopathic or imitative magic by a few. The term Mahayana (Greater Vehicle)
like produces likeis built on the idea that two expresses the ideal of universal enlightenment in
things which resemble each other in one way will contrast to Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle), which
also resemble each other in other ways. The de- aims at salvation for oneself. Its followers thus
sired end is depicted or acted out and is magi- have a deep sense of mission. Even as they seek
cally transmitted to the intended target, as in the their own salvation, they do so mainly for the
use of effigies. Contagious magic assumes that sake of others. Mahayana represents a radical
things once associated with each other continue reinterpretation of the most fundamental con-
the relationship after separation. Any substance cepts in Buddhismthe concepts of Buddha,
or material object previously in contact with an Arhant, Emptiness, and Nirvana.
individual, when subjected to magical rituals, is In Theravada, the Buddha is regarded merely
believed to act upon the person in a similar way, as the historical human sage who attained his
whether to injure, seduce, or secure success. The own enlightenment, the merits of which cannot
use of shorn hair, fingernail clippings, waste, or be transferred. However, in Mahayana, the con-
clothing may thus be used to inflict injury upon cept of the Buddha becomes that of the absolute
a person. Being embodying ultimate truth and infinite com-
The concept of mana is part of the worldview of passion. The historical Sakyamuni was thought of
societies which accept magic as an effective way to as nothing but one of the many earthly appear-
deal with the uncertainties and anxieties of life. ances of the transcendent Buddha. There were
Mana, a Tahitian term, refers to an impersonal, ex- Buddhas before and after him. Amitabha is an ex-
tranatural force which permeates all things to ample. Thus Mahayanists do believe in a divine
varying degrees and may magically flow from one Being, faith and devotion to whom constitutes an
object or person to another, much like electricity essential part of salvation. While Theravada em-
flows through cables, to effect a desired intention. phasizes self-effort for liberation, Mahayana em-
591
Mahayana Buddhism
phasizes the gift of merit from Buddha. Thus the empty. Nonattachment is the ultimate principle
idea of grace is implicit. for salvation.
Equally important is the idea that Buddhahood Buddhism spread to China in the first century
is attainable by all. Mahayana teaches that every A.D. It first encountered stiff resistance. For more
human person possesses the Buddha nature. than two centuries, Buddhism remained foreign.
With proper help, one is capable of becoming a Kumarajiva (A.D. 344413) and his followers
Buddha. This leads to the development of the made significant contributions in the indigeniza-
idea of Bodhisattva in the place of the Theravada tion of Mahayana Buddhism in China. They used
Arhant. An arhant is the worthy one who has the best literary style and the most prominent
achieved enlightenment for himself or herself, philosophical ideas of the time for the propaga-
ready to be released from the cycle of rebirth to tion of Buddhism. Translation of carefully se-
enter into nirvana. A Bodhisattva has likewise lected Buddhist texts proved to be highly signifi-
achieved liberation from rebirths, has even cant. Mahayana Buddhism took on a distinctively
achieved transcendence, but puts off nirvana in Chinese character and evolved into several
order to remain in the world for the sake of de- schools such as the Tien Tai, Hua-yuen, Pure
livering others. The merits of his or her virtues Land, and Chan. Taoist influence is quite evi-
and wisdom can be transferred. A Bodhisattva dent. Buddhism was introduced into Japan from
has to go through ten stages of purification to be- China, and it began to prosper there in the sev-
come a Buddha. However, once the seventh stage enth century A.D. PURE LAND BUDDHISM and ZEN
is reached, he or she has already assumed a true BUDDHISM became most prominent. Whether in
Buddha nature. Progress to Buddhahood is then China or Japan, it is the practical aspects of Bud-
irreversible and sacrificial benevolence for others dhism that seem to be most emphasized.
is spontaneous. A Bodhisattva may be regarded CARVER YU
as the agent of salvation to those who have faith SEE ALSO Buddhism.
in him or her. This explains the rise of the cult of
various Bodhisattvas. The cult of Avalokitesvara Bibliography. K. K. Chen, Buddhism, the Light of
(Kuan-yin for the Chinese, and Kannon for Asia; idem, Buddhism in China; E. Conze, Buddhist
Thought in India; W. T. De Bary, ed., The Buddhist Tra-
the Japanese) is a good example. Self-reliance for dition in India, China and Japan; D. T. Suzuki, Outlines
salvation in Theravada is thus transformed into of Mahayana Buddhism.
salvation through faith in a transcendent agent in
the Mahayana. Malawi (Est. 2000 pop.: 12,144,000; 118,484 sq.
Mahayanists on the one hand regard all empir- km. [45,747 sq. mi.]). A century of missionary
ical phenomena, including their constitutive ele- work by Malawians and foreigners made Malawi
ments, as void and empty; on the other, however, a Christian country. Islam, which came to
they affirm the reality of the indescribable Ab- Malawi twenty years earlier (c. 1840), became a
solute. Only the Absolute is real, all empirical en- minority (17%). Traditional religion, though
tities are illusions. The Madyamika School much of it is still an everyday option for Muslims
(founded by Nagarjuna, circa A.D. 15250) fol- and Christians, is no longer an organized religion
lows the Middle Way. They first expose the self- (5%). Even the officials at the territorial rain
hood of all things as void or empty. All phe- shrines are usually Christians or Muslims.
nomenal entities are like shadows without Malawi was first put on the Christian map by
substance of their own. There is no coming into DAVID LIVINGSTONE (1858), who also settled the
being or disappearing, no differentiation or iden- first mission (Universities Mission to Central
tification. However, they do not therefore affirm Africa) at Magomero in 1861. This Anglican mis-
absolute nothingness. They affirm the reality of sion could not stay long, but returned to Malawi
the Absolute. The Yogacara School (founded by from Zanzibar (1882). Early missionary work in
the brothers Asanga and Vasubandu in the fifth Malawi was dominated by Presbyterians (Free
century A.D.) affirms the reality of the Absolute Church of Scotland, Livingstonia, 1875; Church
Mind. Only Consciousness is real. All appear- of Scotland, Blantyre, 1876; Dutch Reformed
ances of external reality are nothing but false Church, South Africa, Nkhoma, 1889). These
imaginations of the mind. All of these can be churches formed the Church of Central Africa
eradicated only by rigorous meditation. For both Presbyterian (1926).
schools, nirvana is therefore complete identifica- With Malawi being seen as a Presbyterian/An-
tion with the Absolute. Once this is achieved, one glican territory, evangelical and Catholic mis-
sees that the only reality is the Absolute; all the sions were seen as intruders. The early evangeli-
rest is revealed to be nonreality. Since the Ab- cal missions (except South Africa General
solute is indescribable, true knowledge is there- Mission, 1900) all go back to JOSEPH BOOTH, a
fore unutterable. All knowledge that can be con- Baptist from Melbourne: Zambezi Industrial Mis-
ceptualized and expressed must also be empty. sion, 1892; Nyassa Industrial Mission, 1893;
Even the principle of sunyata (emptiness) itself is Churches of Christ, 1896; Seventh-Day Baptists,
592
Malaysia
1900; Seventh-Day Adventists, 1902 (now the the wars saw splits from Livingstonia Mission like
third largest denomination). Blackamans Church. Other AICs developed from
In the early years black missionaries from the evangelical churches and some were the result
Lovedale (South Africa) played a role (William of individual efforts. Since 1980 around 50 charis-
Koyi, pioneer among the Ngoni), as did black matic churches (like Living Waters) arose.
Americans (like Thomas Branch and his daughter, Malawians have early been missionaries out-
Mabel, in Malamulo). Both groups were eventu- side Malawi, like Grace and Lewis Mataka Ban-
ally phased out due to changing racial concepts. dawe (Mihecani, Mozambique), Leonard Ka-
As elsewhere in Africa, the schools were the mungu (Anglican priest in Zambia), and Leonard
greatest single mission attraction, with Overton Muocha to Mozambique. Christianity strongly in-
Institution, Livingstonia (ROBERT LAWS and his fluenced political developments. Without Blan-
wife Margaret), providing the highest education tyre Mission protesting against British plans to
in the region. Next in attractiveness came the make the South Portuguese, Malawi would not
medical services, most missions developing at exist in its present shape. Joseph Booth was a
least one major hospital and a number of dispen- missionary who not only criticized aspects of
saries. Medical work offered specific scope for COLONIALISM, but refuted the whole concept
women like Pauline Murray of Nkhoma. Origi- (Africa for the African, 1897), demanding inde-
nally almost all medical work and training was pendence for Malawi by 1920, John Chilembwe,
provided by the missions, and even today the who founded Providence Industrial Mission of
churches do a third of all medical work. Ani- the American National Baptists Inc. (1900),
mated by Livingstones concept of opening up the staged an armed uprising against colonial rule in
interior of Africa to Christianity and commerce 1915. Missions supported and criticized the colo-
to fight the slave trade, Scottish Christians estab- nial authorities. Many churches supported the
lished the African Lakes Company, and missions struggle for independence (and some of the dic-
like Blantyre, Livingstonia, and Nkhoma empha- tatorships that followed). In 1992 the Catholic
sized the teaching of industrial skills. Very soon bishops published their Lenten pastoral letter,
much of the missionary work was done by starting the demise of the one-party system.
Malawians, like Albert Namalambe, the first Liv- KLAUS FIEDLER
ingstonia convert in Cape Maclear, or Mungo
Chiuse of Blantyre Print, or Sara Nabanda at Bibliography. H. Langworthy, Africa for the African:
Mvera Hospital, along with teachers, evangelists, The Life of Joseph Booth, Blantyre; I. and J. Linden,
women leaders, and church elders. While the Catholics, Peasants and Chewa Resistance in Nyasaland,
18891939; J. McCracken, Politics and Christianity in
UMCA granted ordination to Malawians very
Malawi 18751940: The Impact of the Livingstonia Mis-
early (1898), the first ordinations in the Presby- sion in the Northern Province; I. A. Phiri, Women, Pres-
terian missions took place in 1912, 1914, and byterianism and Patriarchy: Religious; Experience of
1925, the Seventh-Day Adventists ordained Chewa Women in Central Malawi; H. Reijnaerts, A. Niel-
Kalinde Malinki in 1928, and the first Catholic son, and M. Schoffeleers, Montfortians in Malawi: Their
priest (Cornelius Chitsulo) was ordained in 1938. Spirituality and Pastoral Approach; A. C. Ross, Blantyre
The time between the wars saw a slowdown of Mission and the Making of Modern Malawi; R. K. Ross,
mission expansion, with some new missions like Christianity in Malawi: A Source Book; G. Shepperson
African Methodist Episcopal Church and Apos- and T. Price, Independent African: John Chilembwe and
tolic Faith Mission coming in through Malawian the Origins, Setting and Significance of the Nyasaland Na-
tive Rising of 1915.
initiative. Though the number of Christians was
still small, it was clear by then that Christianity
had won much of Malawi. The time after the war Malaysia (Est. 2000 pop.: 22,299,000; 329,758 sq.
was marked by the independence of the old mis- km. [127,320 sq. mi.]). Early Christian presence
sion churches and the coming in of new missions may be traced to Nestorians and to traders in
like Baptists, Free Methodists, and Lutherans, Melaka prior to the Portuguese conquest in 1511.
and a growing number of African Instituted The British acquired Penang in 1786, and in 1795
Churches (AIC; see AFRICAN INITIATED CHURCH took over Melaka, which had been conquered by
MOVEMENT). Almost all churches continue to grow the Dutch in 1641. Roman Catholic priests from
(through population growth and Christianization Thailand established the Major Seminary in
of the remaining non-Muslims), with about 30 Penang in 1810. The LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY
percent of Christians being Catholics, 20 percent (LMS) was based in Melaka and Penang from
Presbyterians, 15 percent evangelical, and 15 per- 1815, but most Protestant missions collapsed
cent belonging to various AICs. Women play a after 1842 when it became possible to enter
major role in the churches with organizations like China. Catholic leadership remained, but was di-
Mvano, Chigwirizano, and Dorika. But very few vided between Portuguese and French. Open
churches ordain women. AIC missions started in Brethren ministry dates from 1860 and Methodist
1900 (Chilembwe). Charles Domingo began the from 1885. Presbyterianism grew through Chi-
Seventh-Day Baptists (1910). The years between nese churches in Johore and expatriate congrega-
593
Malaysia
tions in Penang, Ipoh, and Kuala Lumpur. Mis- economic circumstances, like Malaysia itself, the
sions to Sengoi indigenous people began in 1932. churches are beginning to see that they have a
Pentecostalism became a larger influence through contribution to make on a larger stage.
the CHARISMATIC MOVEMENT of the 1970s, but JOHN ROXBOROGH
North American and Ceylonese Pentecostal mis-
Bibliography. D. Ho, Church in Asia Today: Chal-
sionaries had been active from 1935. lenges and Opportunities, pp. 22698; R. Hunt, L. K.
Migration was an important factor in church Hing, and W. J. Roxborogh, eds., Christianity in
growth. In Sabah, the BASEL MISSION began work Malaysia. A Denominational History; W. J. Roxborogh,
among migrant Hakka Chinese in 1882, many of A Bibliography of Christianity in Malaysia; G. Saunders,
whom were Christian. Tamil migrants to Malaya Bishops and Brookes: The Anglican Mission and the
included Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans, and Brooke Raj in Sarawak 18481941.
Methodists. Migration increased after the Boxer
Rebellion, particularly to Sitiawan and Sibu, still Maldives (Est. 2000 pop.: 297,000; 298 sq. km.
strong Chinese Methodist centers. Mar Thoma [115 sq. mi.]). The archipelago called the Repub-
and Syrian Orthodox Churches were established lic of Maldives, which lies 450 miles southwest of
in the 1930s following migration from the Kerela Sri Lanka, with its unique flora and fauna, is an
Coast of India. almost perfect tropical oasis. However, some en-
In Sarawak the rule of Rajah Brooke included vironmentalists are predicting a greenhouse del-
support for an Anglican ministry from 1847 and uge by the year 2020 that will completely cover
Catholics were later admitted. In 1828 the Aus- the 1,192 islands, none of which rise more than
tralian Borneo Evangelical Mission began work three meters above sea level.
with modest resources which nevertheless re- Inhabited by Sri Lankans from 500 B.C. on,
sulted in the largest indigenous church in there is an ancient tradition about a people called
Malaysia today, the SIB. the Redin, a sun-worshiping people whose pagan
World War II saw the removal of expatriate heritage of beliefs and customs involving spirits,
leadership and a path toward INDIGENOUS or jinnis, is still evident today. The Redin, who
CHURCHES was more clearly set. The Malayan may have arrived in 2000 B.C., supposedly left the
Christian Council (MCC), founded in 1948, coor- islands about 500 B.C. or were absorbed by Bud-
dinated mission groups during the Malayan dhists from Ceylon and by Hindus from India.
Emergency. Chinese relocated into New Vil- Later, the Maldivians converted to Sunni Islam.
lages were served by missionaries, some for- Because the islands were so small and building
merly in China, who worked alongside local materials were limited, each subsequent people
Christians in social and medical work. However, group built its important structures on the foun-
after independence in 1957, many churches be- dations of the previous inhabitantsthis explains
came overly dependent on expatriates. In the why many Maldivian mosques face the sun and
1970s churches developed structures independ- not Mecca.
ent of Singapore as well as of overseas support. The government is based on Islamic law and
Recent growth in independent churches is an- uses its authority to enforce religious and civil
other sign of a desire to establish a Malaysian Islam in order to promote national unity. We
Christian identity. know of no officially recognized Maldivian Chris-
Christian commitment to education has been tians. Although restricted and unreceptive to the
strong through Anglican, Catholic, and Methodist gospel thus far, Maldivians have made significant
schools, now part of the government education contacts with Christians through international
system. Social concern is expressed through commercial and sports events (e.g., the 1990 In-
medical work, and organizations such as dian Ocean Island Games in Madagascar). These
Malaysian CARE. The Salvation Army and contacts should be pursued by culturally sensi-
YMCA/YWCA make distinctive contributions. tive Christians who can use such meetings as op-
Since 1983 the National Evangelical Christian portunities to help the Maldivians go beneath the
Fellowship (NECF) has provided a focus for surface of Islam and consider biblical answers to
evangelical and independent congregations. The questions and fears stemming from their ani-
Christian Federation of Malaysia incorporating mistic background.
the Christian Council of Malaysia (formerly CLINT AKINS
MCC), Roman Catholics, and the NECF was
formed in 1986. The Sabah Council of Churches Bibliography. C. Maloney, People of the Maldive
and Association of Churches of Sarawak fulfill Islands.
similar functions in East Malaysia.
Malaysia is a multi-religious context where Mali (Est. 2000 pop.: 12,559,000; 1,240,192 sq.
Western theological preoccupations are not al- km. [478,838 sq. mi.]). Mali, the seventh largest
ways relevant. Lay leadership has developed country in Africa, is located in West Africa. Its
strongly in most churches. Although there are population of over 12 million is comprised of
many challenges through changing political and thirty-three ethnic groups. Although the official
594
Mallory, Kathleen
language is French, the trade languages of Bam- every ethnic group. This new commitment was
bara, Fufulde, and Songhai are most commonly clearly demonstrated by the scores of young peo-
used. The economy is based on agriculture, which ple who dedicated themselves to full-time Chris-
involves 80 percent of the population and is de- tian service during a Youth Congress held in the
pendent on exports of cotton, peanuts, and cattle. capital city, Bamako, in 1995.
While a mere 2 percent of the land is arable, 66 The 1995 organization of a Malian mission
percent of the country is covered by the ever- agency, Cidenya Komite, and the commissioning
encroaching Sahara Desert, which is spreading of a Malian couple as missionaries to a presently
southward at a rate of eighty miles per year. unreached people group, signifies the movement
Although now one of the poorest countries in of the evangelical church of Mali from a body
the world, Mali has a rich heritage. In the four- that receives missionaries to one that is partici-
teenth century, the borders of its vast and enor- pating in the fulfillment of the Great Commission
mously wealthy empire stretched inland from the by sending missionaries themselves to those who
Atlantic coast to the famed desert cities of Gao are unreached.
and Timbuktu. Colonized by France in the late In expressing their concerns for the future, na-
1800s, Mali became part of the French Sudan. tional church leaders see an urgent need for pro-
Following independence in 1960, the country was grams that will provide well-trained leaders ca-
governed by presidents under one-party rule until
pable of guiding the growing numbers of
a 1991 coup dtat overthrew the regime in power
fledgling Christians to spiritual maturity, practi-
and multiparty democracy was instituted.
cal development projects that can assist people to
Islam penetrated the land through a combina-
regain economic stability, and health-care proj-
tion of economic and military persuasion. At
times it waxed fervent, as during the Fulbe jihads ects that provide medical assistance and basic
of the 1800s, but for the most part was simply teaching, giving evidence of Christian love and
accepted and adapted to the existing culture. The concern for those in need.
Islamic sociopolitical system extolled by North There has been a notable sense of disillusion-
African reformers has generally been given a ment with Islam and an increasing openness to
lukewarm reception by the more ethnically di- the gospel at the grassroots level of the populace
verse sub-Saharan nations. However, pressure since the drought years of 197387. Some have
has been increasing in recent years, as money attributed this to a lack of response by the Is-
and arms are offered by oil-rich Islamic nations lamic nations to the peoples desperate plight,
in an attempt to convince governments to insti- while Christian organizations poured in relief
tute sharia (Islamic law) or to finance rebel grain by the hundreds of tons. Nevertheless,
groups that seek to overthrow the existing gov- Islam remains firmly entrenched at levels of au-
ernment in order to establish an Islamic state. thority, and opposition to Christianity, though
Several attempts have been made in Mali, but not always overt, is staunch. Property and posi-
Malian presidents, both past and present, have tions easily obtained by Muslims are often un-
resisted, reaffirming the freedom of religion that available when sought by Christians. It is ex-
is guaranteed by the countrys Constitution. pected that as the Malian church grows in
Protestant missionary efforts in Mali began in strength, such opposition will increase. Never-
1919 with the entry of the Gospel Missionary theless, the church has been encouraged by the
Union, followed by the Christian and Missionary open atmosphere in the new democratic state,
Alliance in 1923. In the early 1950s they were and looks to the future with hopeful anticipation.
joined by the Evangelical Baptists and the United JUDI BRODEEN
World Mission. In 1980 other mission organiza-
tions began entering the country, and by 1993, Bibliography. K. Shillington, History of Africa;
L. Vanderaa, A Survey for Christian Reformed World
309 missionaries from 35 different agencies were
Missions of Missions and Churches in West Africa.
ministering in Mali.
The growth of Christianity has been steady,
and a significant response has been seen among Mallory, Kathleen (18791954). American mis-
the Dogon, the Bwa, and other groups. Drought sions promoter and leader. She grew up in a
and desertification, with the subsequent increase Christian home of Southern Baptist parents in
of disease due to inadequate nutrition, lack of Selma, Alabama, and was educated at Womans
potable water, illness triggered by dust and heat, College of Baltimore. Her engagement to a young
and decreased economic stability, have signifi- physician ended with his death of tuberculosis.
cantly impacted the church. These circumstances While attending the Alabama Baptist Convention
make it difficult to support pastors and ministry (1908) with her father she was awakened to
projects, and tend to promote dependence on world missions. Her work began with the various
outside sources. Nevertheless, a new vision is ris- womens auxiliaries to the Southern Baptist Con-
ing among Christiansa sense of urgency to vention of Alabama. In 1912 she was elected the
bring the gospel message to the unreached of corresponding secretary of the denomination-
595
Mallory, Kathleen
wide Womans Missionary Union, headquartered Management. Global mission in the postWorld
in Baltimore, later in Birmingham (1921). War II world has increasingly taken on strategic
Kathleens organizational and business acumen forms. David Barrett and others have docu-
was reflected in the performance of her multi- mented the exponential growth of world evange-
tudinous tasks, including increasing organiza- lization plans featuring closure strategies. With
tional efficiency, establishing policy, raising funds increased specialization in global mission has
for special causes, taking care of voluminous cor- come the use of resources from the world of or-
respondence, and traveling widely. She edited the ganizational studies in an attempt to maximize
monthly magazine Royal Service and wrote nu- the efforts of missionaries and sending agencies.
merous publications. Current research does provide specificity in the
Under her leadership the Union expanded in the use of terms. LEADERSHIP and management are
Orient, South America, Europe, and Africa. She words that are often used interchangeably, but
encouraged its counterpart among African Amer- these functions have specific though interrelated
icans in the National Baptist Convention. Over the character. Leadership focuses on doing the right
years she was the recipient of numerous honors. things while management focuses on doing
Her legacy among Baptist women was to keep the things right. Leadership motivates people to want
Great Commission at the forefront through her to do while management focuses on getting peo-
emphases upon Christian stewardship. ple to do.
FLORENCE R. SCOTT
The application of management principles to
mission agencies necessitates the facilitation or-
Bibliography. A. W. Ussery, The Story of Kathleen ganizationally of at least three questions that
Mallory. form an integrated system. First, Who are we? As
a mission agency, organizational identity is cru-
Malta (Est. 2000 pop.: 377,000; 316 sq. km. [122 cial to long-term effectiveness. Second, What is
sq. mi.]). Island republic in the Mediterranean our business? What are the definable features of
between Italy and Tunisia, and the site of the the mission agency and the parameters of the ac-
apostle Pauls famous shipwreck (Acts 2829). It tivities that provide uniqueness for the agency?
was also the home of the Hospitallers or Knights Lastly, How do we get our business done? What
of Malta (15301798). One-tenth the size of particular tasks are chosen to fulfill our busi-
Rhode Island and with a population of some ness? Management of the tasks/functions that
334,000, Malta won independence from Britain flesh out these three questions constitutes a stew-
in 1964. About 97 percent of its indigenous peo- ardship of ministry that facilitates mission efforts.
ple are Roman Catholics, most of whom attend Particular management tasks provide cohe-
Mass, and community and cultural life center siveness to this integrated system of evaluative
around the national church. A challenge to this questions. The task of formulating mission state-
rigid regime was made by the Labour Party in ments gives the management of a mission organ-
the immediate post-independence years, and per- ization self-identity and purpose. The task of
haps also by Vatican II reforms, but the Maltese strategic planning functions to enflesh the mis-
church remains one of the most conservative in sion statement with specific goals that best focus
the agencys purpose. The task of personnel man-
the world, disallowing both divorce and civil
agement is an ongoing function. Starting with
marriage.
CANDIDATE and continuing with LANGUAGE and
The countrys Constitution guarantees freedom
CULTURE training, pre-field and reentry prepara-
of worship to other religions, but the latter effec-
tion, the management of personnel in mission or-
tively serve only the expatriate community. Scope
ganizations is increasingly complex. Manage-
for evangelistic outreach is in practice severely ment of on-field funding, childrens education,
limited and even tacitly discouraged by mainline health, and safety issues is continuous. Conflict
Protestant bodies themselves. management is a task that finds necessary usage
J. D. DOUGLAS among missionary personnel, agency leadership,
Bibliography. B. Bluet, The Story of Malta. and missionnational relationship.
The how function of any mission agency ne-
Malvinas. See FALKLAND ISLANDS. cessitates the organizing task, which arranges the
work of the organization in ways most likely to
bring about desired results. In Western agencies,
Man, Isle of. See ISLE OF MAN. organizational flow-charts, job-ministry descrip-
tions, and levels of personnel participation all be-
Man. See HUMANKIND, DOCTRINE OF. come part of the ongoing management scheme.
The controlling function of managing organiza-
Mana. See MAGIC, MAGICK, MAGICAL BELIEFS AND tions requires proper measurements statistically
PRACTICES. and fiscally. Controlling informational feedback
596
Marginal; Marginalization
is necessary to most efficiently carry out the pur- statement of Jesus kingship over all the earth,
poses of the mission agency. Marches for Jesus stand as significant events in
Current research is highlighting the need to be- mission at the end of the twentieth century.
come a learning organization. To remain efficient A. SCOTT MOREAU
in managing the purposes that the agency has de-
Bibliography. S. Hawthorne and G. Kendrick,
fined for itself, mission efforts must implement Prayer-Walking: Praying on Site with Insight; March for
processes of continuous improvement. Mission Jesus Web site (http://www.mfj.org).
agencies must continually commit themselves to
being organizations of life-long learning seeking
Marginal, Marginalization. Marginalization is
to implement an ongoing facilitation of the plan,
the process by which individuals and groups
do, check, and act cycle, so that change can be ef-
come to live on the margin of a culture, not fully
fected smoothly and maximum efficiency of the
able to participate in its socioeconomic, political,
stated mission of the agency can continue at op-
or religious life, due to cultural, political, reli-
timum levels.
gious, or socioeconomic differences. The process
BYRON D. KLAUS
of marginalization may be the result of historic
SEE ALSO Institutionalization; Planning. injustices that have developed over a protracted
period of time. These injustices are usually pro-
Bibliography. D. Augsburger, Conflict Mediation
duced by a dominant group or ideology that is
Across Cultures; E. Dayton and D. Fraser, Planning
Strategies for World Evangelization; P. Drucker, Manag- systematically and intentionally exclusive. Me-
ing the Non-Profit Organization; P. Hersey and K. H. dieval Europe is an example of a time and context
Blanchard, Management of Organizational Behavior; that manifested marginalization in interwoven
K. ODonnell, ed., Missionary Care, Counting the Cost of patterns of socioeconomic, political, and religious
World Evangelization; P. Senge, The Fifth Discipline: The life. To be outside the dominant group/ideology
Art and Practice of Organizational Learning. was to be systematically excluded from any kind
of voice or alternative to the place/purpose as-
March for Jesus. Modeled after the biblical signed by the dominant group. Seventeenth-
image of Jesus triumphal procession into century England, the entire history of Latin Amer-
Jerusalem, the first prayer and praise marches ica and the Caribbean, colonial histories on all
were organized to take worship experiences into continents, apartheid in South Africa, immigra-
the streets. In May of 1987, several groups joined tion histories in the United States, and even the
together to organize a rally in London. In spite of current struggles in the Mexican state of Chiapas
inclement weather, some 15,000 turned out. The all reveal the realities of the intentional marginal-
following year saw 55,000 join in, and the organization of groups and individuals.
izers, including song-writer Graham Kendrick, Marginalization is the most negative result of
developed plans for multiple marches throughout shifting cultural contexts. The failure of assimila-
Britain. Marches for Jesus were held in 45 cities tion stimulates the development of marginaliza-
in 1989, and over 600 in 1990. That same year, tion. In assimilation the goal is not to maintain
the first Marches for Jesus were held in the an isolated cultural identity, but to establish and
United States in Austin, Texas, with some 1,500 maintain relationship with other groups. When
participating. The following year two marches this course is freely chosen, it creates the arche-
were held in Texas (Austin and Houston) where typal melting pot. If a dominant group forces
22,000 were involved. The organization went na- assimilation, it is termed a pressure cooker.
tionwide, and on May 23, 1992, there were some Variant forms of marginalization include separa-
142 marches around the United States. Interna- tion. Willful separation from a dominant culture,
tionally there were 25 marches in European such as that practiced by the Amish or Hutter-
countries. The movement became a global event rites, has generally been respected. However, if
in 1993 when, on June 12, an estimated 1.7 mil- separation is initiated and controlled by a domi-
lion Christians in some 850 cities participated in nant society, the situation is termed segregation.
every continent. The largest single march was in The results of such a cultural dissonance may in-
Sao Paulo, where some 300,000 took part. June clude an inferiority complex, ambivalence,
25, 1994, was the first official global March for moodiness, lack of self-confidence, and discon-
Jesus, with 10 million in 178 nations participat- nectedness. These characteristics can be experi-
ing. In 1996, an estimated 2 million took part in enced individually or corporately.
the march in Sao Paulo alone. The classic definition of marginality maintains
The tone of the marches has been typically that a strict separation between dominant and subor-
of love and unity across denominational barriers dinate where unity is a goal between the groups
and a focus on worship. Rather than confronting living in a region. The dominant group uses the
non-Christians, the marchers seek to celebrate goal of unity for control of the subordinate
the reality of their love for Jesus in a tangible and group. This process of reaching unity progresses
positive way. As a display of Christian unity and through four stages. The first stage is contact, in
597
Marginal; Marginalization
which the minority or possibly immigrant group marginalization with new models of cultural
experiences being truly marginalized and alien identity for the marginalized. They offer a defi-
and may even experience this initial contact in nition of marginal that has a new identity. The
the form of racism. The second stage of the new marginal person overcomes marginality
process is competition, in which new or immi- without ceasing to be a marginal person. The
grant groups threaten the position of already ar- new marginal person transcends and lives in but
rived and more established groups. For example, beyond. In such a model, the once negative
in U.S. history, immigration of Chinese and Irish word becomes a symbol of a creative nexus that
laborers in the nineteenth century created com- joins diverse and often contradictory worlds to-
petition and great animosity between dominant gether and creates a mosaic rather than a melt-
and subordinate groups. The third stage is ac- ing pot. Such a reshaping of an understanding of
commodation, in which education, socialization, marginalization assumes the reality of a pluralis-
and intermarriage tend to soften the sharp lines tic world. If we use the shifting cultural context
between dominant and subordinate groups. The in the United States as an example of the new un-
fourth and final stage is called total assimilation, derstanding of marginal, we would find that
where it is anticipated that the subordinate group Anglo-American does not necessarily mean a
will be fully assimilated in the dominant group. white person. True Americans in a pluralistic
Many marginalized groups increasingly reject world are more than black, red, brown, or white.
the melting pot ideal because the retention of To be American is to be part of a whole as a dis-
ones cultural heritage becomes limited. Robert tinct, identifiable, indispensable section of a
E. Parks classic theory on assimilation of the beautiful mosaic. All Americans bring their eth-
races is being replaced by the belief that eventual nic backgrounds, whether from the majority or
assimilation of the races and cultures is not pos- minority perspective, to the whole. Every Ameri-
sible or even desirable. Assimilation is increas- can can be viewed as a marginal person who lives
ingly viewed as an ideal only for homogenous na- in multiple worlds as a part of a pluralistic soci-
tional groups (for example, on the European ety. The new marginality transcends the historic
Continent). The viewpoint of those previously understanding of marginalization as it strives to
marginalized is now being taken into considera- be truly in both or in all worlds as a unique entity
tion and particularly focused around racial and culturally.
gender categories. In other words, who defines BYRON D. KLAUS
the marginal has great impact on how that Bibliography. L. Boff and V. Elizondo, Option for the
group acts out its understanding. Poor: Challenge to the Rich Countries; G. Cook, The Ex-
Marginalized groups have continually pro- pectation of the Poor; C. Dodd, Dynamics of Intercul-
duced revolutionary leaders like Karl Marx who tural Communication; J. Ellul, Jesus and Marx; J. Y. Lee,
proposed explanations of the evil of marginaliza- Marginality: The Key to Multicultural Theology; J. Mar-
tion that incited millions to revolution. Given the tin and T. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in
debilitating dynamics of the process of marginal- Contexts.
ization that have systematically stripped dignity
from people, it is understandable why violence Marks, John Ebenezer (18321915). English
has so often been a response. missionary to Myanmar (formerly Burma). Born
Christian history is replete with examples of in London to a family with Jewish roots, Marks
theologians who have addressed the impact of launched a career in education as a schoolmaster
marginalization on peoples. FRANCIS OF ASSISI, in Hackney, England. The SOCIETY FOR THE PROP-
Martin Luther, and August Francke would be AGATION OF THE GOSPEL (SPG) appointed him as a
representative of such persons. Recent examples missionary to Burma, where he arrived in 1860
would include contextual theologians like GUS- after a difficult voyage. He began his overseas
TAVO GUTIRREZ who championed theology from ministry at an Anglican boys school in Moul-
the underside in response to a dominant theolog- mein. In 1863 he was ordained as a deacon and
ical perspective that has been perceived to have transferred to Rangoon, where he opened an-
grown insensitive to the interconnectedness of other boys school that eventually became known
gospel and culture in concrete ways (see GOSPEL as St. Johns College. The blessing of the king of
AND CULTURE). The contextual theologies have cri- Upper Burma assisted Markss efforts to establish
tiqued the perceived abstract theologies of the another school in Mandalay in 1869, although
West (north) (see LIBERATION THEOLOGIES). The al- the monarchs support proved to be short-lived.
ternative theological systems have attempted to In addition, Marks founded schools at some of
bring dignity to those on the underside (subordi- the SPG river stations (186768) and St.
nate groups) by speaking of Gods interaction Michaels School in a Rangoon suburb (1878). Al-
with humanity in concrete ways such as caring though he helped translate the Book of Common
for the poor or the overthrow of unjust systems. Prayer into Burmese and also served as a chap-
Non-Western scholars like PAULO FREIRE have lain, his major achievements were in educational
argued for responding to historical examples of missions. Utilizing the English public school as
598
Marriage, Marriage Practices
his model, Marks influenced 15,000 schoolboys marital relationship cannot occur in isolation
over a thirty-five-year period. Poor health forced from the community at large.
his retirement from educational pursuits in 1895 Therefore, some missiological questions arise
and a return to England in 1898, where he pro- concerning marriage and marriage practices.
moted the SPG. How can we recover the ideals of marital rela-
JAMES A. PATTERSON tionship without the ideal community of Eden?
What interplay takes place between the biblical
Bibliography. J. E. Marks, Forty Years in Burma.
text and culture? How may members of one cul-
ture interact meaningfully about marriage prac-
Marriage, Marriage Practices. Marriage is a tices with members of another culture?
nearly universal cultural institution. Marriage Biblical Marriage in Contemporary Settings.
practices, forms, and rituals are also universal The biblical paradigm of marriage from the cre-
concerns. In considering this topic, therefore, it ation account is the ideal to which all marriage
is particularly important to begin with a biblical practices ought to be compared. It is the ideal
understanding of marriage. par excellence. But the ideal was disrupted by the
What Is Biblical Marriage? The creation ac- fall. Therefore, against the ideal of relationship,
count culminates in Gods creation of human be- partnership, oneness, and difference, are the real-
ings in his own image (Gen. 1:27). This initial life crises which confront modern marriages.
creation of man and woman together as the em- Three basic patterns of marriage are recog-
bodiment of the IMAGE OF GOD functions as the nized by anthropologists: monogamy, polygyny
foundational paradigm of marriage. (commonly called polygamy), and polyandry. A
Gods creation, humankind, is first spoken of fourth pattern is finding acceptance in limited
singularly and inclusively, him, this him communities, that of same-sex marriage.
meaning both man and woman. But him gives Monogamy, the marriage of one man and one
way to them, a plural which unites and distin- woman, with an exclusive sexual relationship, is
guishes them as male and female. These the most common idealized form of marriage.
few words eloquently describe human beings as Cultural variations of its enactment include reli-
creatures made in Gods own image, as alike and gious rituals, civil ceremonies, and common law
similar (him) and as unique and individual acceptance. The choice of partner may be up to
(male and female). A biblical understanding the individual or at the discretion of the extended
of marriage addresses each of these aspects. family. Monogamy is generally recognized to up-
God blesses and provides for the man and hold the creation model of one husband and one
woman, and pronounces his work to be very wife restated by Jesus (Matt. 19:46). Polygamy,
good. The instruction to be fruitful presupposes one man with two or more wives, is attested to in
the sexual union of the man and the woman and the Old Testament and continues to be practiced
the complementary nature of maleness and fe- in some cultures today. Polyandry, one woman
maleness. Alone, neither the man nor the with two or more husbands, is the least common
woman accomplishes the apparent intentions of of the traditional marriage patterns. Same-sex
God in creation. It is together that they are marriages, involving two males or two females,
blessed and together that they are commissioned have recently been suggested as analogous to
for productivity in raising children and working monogamous relationships, though there is no
in Gods world. This point is reinforced in Gene- biblical support for this type of marital union.
sis 2, where God explicitly pronounces, It is not Several principles can be offered as founda-
good that the man should be alone. The creation tions for the challenges related to marriage and
of woman completes the creation of humankind the diversity of marriage practices found in the
and cannot be separated from the creation of the world today.
man. The man and woman are joined; they are 1. An initial acceptance of observed marriage
one flesh. They are created in relationship and patterns. The monogamous standard of Western
for relationship. culture has not always existed and is currently
What Went Wrong? Gods ideal for a harmo- threatened by high divorce rates and multiple
nious relationship for man and woman, however, marriages resulting in what some have called se-
quickly broke down through the fall (see also FALL rial polygamy. Previously accepted marriage pat-
OF HUMANKIND). The initial and fundamental sin terns in the West have included polygamy,
in Genesis 3, involving a declaration of independ- arranged marriages, common-law marriages, and
ence from God, set off a cycle of human power marriages of convenience. It is important to re-
struggles. It resulted in the eviction from an ideal member that God works over time in the trans-
community and the introduction of conflicting hi- formation of all cultures and their practices.
erarchy replacing complementary harmony. 2. Understanding. The marriage practices of a
The difficulty of marital relationships, there- culture have a significance for that culture which
fore, along with other human relationships, must be understood if that culture is to be fully
began with the loss of the ultimate community. A understood. How men and women relate to one
599
Marriage, Marriage Practices
another, and the meaning of their interactions Whangoroa, New Zealand, in 1814. On Christ-
provide important insights about individuals as mas Day, Marsden proclaimed the glad tidings
well as cultures (see GENDER ROLES). It is likely from Luke 2:10 in what was the first Christian
that some aspects of the relationships we observe service in New Zealand. Marsden, the Apostle to
will be useful in evaluating and critiquing our New Zealand, made seven journeys to New
own relationships and practices. We must learn Zealand and witnessed a mighty work of God.
before we would be teachers. DOUGLAS MCCONNELL
3. Issues of justice and mercy. In understanding
and appreciating expressions of marital commit- Bibliography. I. H. Murray, Australian Christian Life
from 1788: An Introduction and Anthology.
ment in our culture as well as in other cultures,
we must not overlook the critical issues of justice
and mercy. We must remain sensitive to the fact Marshall Islands (Est. 2000 pop.: 63,000; 181 sq.
that around the world women tend to be op- km. [70 sq. mi.]). A group of 34 atolls with 1,156
pressed by men. The gospel is liberating good islands in Oceania halfway between Hawaii and
news of Gods justice to those who are oppressed. Papua New Guinea, the Marshall Islands became
Mercy recognizes that change is difficult, and a constitutional government in free association
often can occur only slowly with much hardship. with the United States following the Compact of
When practices must be changed in order to con- Free Association enforced as of October 21, 1986.
form to the creation ideal, then special care must In 1993 the population was estimated to be 94
be taken to protect those who might be injured percent Christian (80.3% Protestant, 10%
or experience hardship as a result. Established Catholic, and 3.7% marginal, including Mormons
families should never be divided. Rather, we and Jehovahs Witnesses), of which some 35 per-
should enable change to occur over generations cent was evangelical. The largest Protestant de-
and with the full knowledge, consent, and partic- nominations are the Assemblies of God, the
ipation of those affected. United Church of Christ, and Reformed Congre-
Missionaries working within polygamous con- gational.
texts have learned this lesson over the years, A. SCOTT MOREAU
many times through trial and error. For example,
when a man with many wives becomes a Chris- SEE ALSO Micronesia.
tian, what direction does the missionary provide
concerning the mans many wives (see POLYGAMY Marshman, Joshua (17681837). English mis-
AND CHURCH MEMBERSHIP)? The issues are ex- sionary to India. Born in Westbury Leigh, Wilt-
ceedingly complex, and missionaries must be pa- shire, Marshman apprenticed briefly with a
tient and loving in processing these and other re- bookseller in London, and then worked in his fa-
lated issues. thers weaver shop. Despite limited formal educa-
ADRIENNE FORGETTE AND YOUNG LEE HERTIG tion, he moved to Bristol in 1794 to teach at the
Bibliography. J. Chittister, There is a Season. Broadmead School and study at the Bristol Acad-
emy. Accounts of WILLIAM CAREYs mission efforts
in India inspired Marshman to consider a mis-
Marsden, Samuel (17641838). English chap-
sionary call, and he volunteered for appointment
lain and missionary to Australia and New
Zealand. Born in Yorkshire, England, he was pro- by the Baptist Missionary Society (BMS). In 1799
foundly impacted by Charles Simeon during his he and his wife, Hannah, along with WILLIAM
studies at St. Johns College, Cambridge. Samuel WARD and others, arrived at the Danish trading
Marsden and his young family arrived in Sydney colony of Serampore, near Calcutta. As one of
on March 10, 1794. Marsden, Australias second the famed SERAMPORE TRIO, Marshman con-
preacher, began his influential ministry in Syd- tributed significantly to educational endeavors,
ney and Parramatta, founding the first perma- in spite of some resistance from the BMS. He
nent church building in Australia: St. Johns, Par- and his wife founded boarding schools to serve
ramatta (1803). A tireless worker, Marsden was both Europeans and Indians. In 1818 Marshman
involved in farming, magisterial duties, educa- established Serampore College, which he hoped
tion for orphans, and supervision of a factory for would aid in the development of indigenous
female convicts. The tragic loss of two of his churches by training native pastors. He also de-
children and an attempt on his life by an angry voted countless hours to Bible translation proj-
convict did not supplant Marsdens missionary vi- ects in several languages, including Bengali, San-
sion for the Pacific. On his only furlough to En- skrit, and Chinese. Although not esteemed as a
gland, Marsden shared his burden for New great preacher, Marshman itinerated in areas be-
Zealand, recruiting lay workers to join him. Un- yond Serampore and organized several mission
daunted by the stories of violent encounters, stations. He also wrote for the Friend of India on
Marsden, accompanied by eight Maoris and doctrinal and social issues.
three English missionary families, arrived in JAMES A. PATTERSON
600
Martinique
Bibliography. E. D. Potts, British Baptist Missionar- Martin, William Alexander Parsons (Wap Mar-
ies in India, 17931837; A. C. Smith, The Mission Enter- tin, 18271916). American missionary to China.
prise of Carey and His Colleagues. Born in Livonia, Indiana, on April 10, 1827, Mar-
tin was raised in a family with a strong missionary
Martin of Tours (31697). Early French monas- zeal. In his last year at New Albany Theological
tic missionary. Born into a pagan military family, Seminary he decided to be a missionary to China.
Martin became a Christian at an early age and In 1849, he was accepted as a missionary of the
received instruction and preparation for baptism. Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions.
He entered the army in his teens but obtained his Martins first publication was his translation of
discharge after a night in Amiens when, as a vi-
the Bible into the dialect of Ningbo. His Evidence
sion instructed him, he divided his coat with a
of Christianity proved to be a popular religious
beggar. Martin traveled with his friend Hilary to
text in China, Japan, and Korea. Realizing that
try to convert his parents. After entering monas-
tic life in Milan, he rejoined Hilary and settled in the Qing officials and Chinese literati needed to
Tours as a hermit, eventually founding the know international law to restrain continuing
monastery at Ligug. In 372 he was tricked into European encroachment, Martin translated and
becoming the Bishop of Tours. He refused to sit published Henry Wheatons Elements of Interna-
on the bishops throne, but chose a crude stool tional Law (1864). Between 1869 and 1894 he
and continued to live as a hermit in a cell outside taught at and administered the Tong Wen Col-
the city, then founding another monastery in lege, an advanced institute for the study of West-
Marmoutier. Sulpicius Severus wrote of many ern knowledge. From 1872 to 1875 he also edited
miracles attributed to Martin. The bishop was ac- the Zhongxi Wenjianlu, a monthly magazine in-
tive in winning non-Christians and traveled ex- troducing modern science and technology.
tensively outside his diocese on various errands Among his works on Chinese culture and con-
in the interests of the faith. He introduced a temporaneous events are the Hanlin Papers: Es-
parochial system. Although impeccably orthodox, says on the History, Philosophy, and Religion of
he protested against the persecution of heretics the Chinese (1880, 1881, 1894) and The Awaken-
and raised important issues regarding church- ing of China (1907). Through his life and work,
state relations. Martin established himself not only as a mission-
JOHN EASTERLING ary, but also as a source of reform ideals for the
Bibliography. S. Severus, Life of St. Martin; J. H. Chinese gentry. He died in Beijing at the age of
Corbett, Journal of Medieval History 7 (1981): 113. eighty-nine after sixty-six years of service for the
Chinese.
Martin, Walter R. (192889). American apolo- TIMOTHY MAN-KONG WONG
gist, evangelist, and author. Martin became a Bibliography. R. Covell, W. A. P. Martin: Pioneer of
Christian under the ministry of Frank Gaebelein Progress in China; W. A. P. Martin, A Cycle of Cathay,
at the Stony Brook School and received a bache- 3d ed.
lors degree from Shelton College and a masters
degree from New York University and Biblical Martinique (French Overseas Department) (Est.
Seminary. Widely considered the father of the
2000 pop.: 397,000; 1,091 sq. km. [421 sq. mi.]).
American countercult movement, in the 1950s
The northernmost Windward Island whose pop-
Martin almost single-handedly challenged evan-
gelical Christians to develop biblically faithful ulation consists almost entirely (93%) of Afro-
and apologetically solid approaches to those in- Caribbean descendants of African slaves. Its geo-
volved in cults, non-Christian religions, and the graphical distinctive is the volcano Pele, whose
occult. Toward this goal he founded the Christian eruption in 1902 killed 30,000 inhabitants of
Research Institute in 1960. Saint Pierre. As on its companion island of
Martins first book, Jehovah of the Watch Tower Guadeloupe, the population is 85% Roman
(1953), was followed by many other books, book- Catholic and incorporated into French life as an
lets, and tapes, including the standard reference overseas department of France. Evangelical
work The Kingdom of the Cults (1965), which re- Christians make up about 5% of the population,
mains in print in a revised edition. It has sold with Seventh-Day Adventists reporting the largest
over 500,000 copies. Martin was also well known Protestant membership.
for his call-in radio program The Bible Answer EVERETT A. WILSON
Man, which began in 1965. An outgoing and ar-
ticulate defender of the faith, he impacted world SEE ALSO Caribbean.
missions through his trips to Africa, Europe, Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer-
Latin America, Australia, New Zealand, and the ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His-
Far East to warn of the challenges of cults. tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to
DOUGLAS GROOTHUIS the Present.
601
Martyn, Henry
Martyn, Henry (17811812). English missionary death-style is subsumed. The first Christian-era
to India and Iran. Born in Cornwall, England, he martyr known is Stephen (Acts 7) who, interest-
graduated from Cambridge. After rebelling ingly, was put to death by witnesses for his wit-
against God, he followed in the train of DAVID ness. In Revelation 3:14, the last word is given
BRAINERD and WILLIAM CAREY. Their missionary concerning Jesus Christ who is the faithful and
work motivated him to launch a brief but highly true witness. The word does away with any dis-
significant career in India and Iran. He emulated tinction of what a true believer might live and die
Brainerds deep levels of piety and Careys hard for. Death does not stop the witness given. It
labor in Bible translation. Martyn fell madly in merely adds an exclamation point of truth, faith-
love, but maintained his vow of celibacy for the fulness, and love for the glory of God. It is the
sake of becoming a missionary. After becoming supreme witnessing act. Neither personal gain
an Anglican priest, he signed on with the East nor personal opinion provides the motive for
India Company as a chaplain and went to India such a death.
in 1805. There he met Carey, who started him in Church Growth and Martyrdom. Tertullian
Bible translation work. He had to serve the work- also wrote, For who, when he sees our obstinacy
ers and their families for his employer, but he fer- is not stirred up to find its cause? Who, when he
vently pursued preaching at military posts has inquired, does not then join our Faith? And
which included Indiansstarting schools, and who, when he has joined us, does not desire to
translating the New Testament into Arabic, Per- suffer, that he may gain the whole grace of God?
sian, and Urdu, the three primary languages of Current estimates are that roughly 150,000 Chris-
the Muslim world. tians are martyred each year, down from a peak
Although he was not in good health, he sailed of 330,000 prior to the demise of communist
to Iran to do further translation work. He tried to world powers. Some project that the numbers
make it back to England overland, but died in will increase to 600,000 by A.D. 2025, given cur-
Turkey. His model of sacrificial devotion, and his rent trends in human rights abuses and growth
journal, inspired many students and missionaries of militant religious systems.
in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Those inflicting contemporary Christian mar-
JIM REAPSOME tyrdom include political regimes with counter-
Christian agendas (e.g., official atheistic powers,
Bibliography. D. Bentley-Taylor, My Love Must Wait: such as China and the former Soviet Union); so-
The Story of Henry Martyn.
ciopolitical regimes enforcing religious restric-
tions (e.g., Egypt, Sudan); ethnic tribal regimes
Martyrdom. The role of martyrdom in the ex- bent on eliminating minorities (e.g., Sudan,
pansion of the church is the common thread that Rwanda, and Burundi) and religious regimes
links the church of all ages with its suffering Sav- (e.g., Muslim countries in which Sharia is the of-
ior. Tertullian, third-century leader in the church ficial legal system).
of North Africa, wrote to his Roman governors in Conclusion. Martyrdom will continue to be as-
his Apology, As often as you mow us down, the sociated with the progress of gospel proclamation
more numerous we become. The blood of the until the KINGDOM OF GOD is established. Jesus
Christians is seed. But martyrdom is not unique said, Do not suppose that I have come to bring
to Christianity. People have sacrificed their lives peace to the earth. I did not come to bring peace,
throughout the ages for a variety of reasons. To but a sword (Matt. 10:34). The sword was not to
define the distinctive meaning of Christian mar- be used by his disciples against others, but could
tyrdom requires investigation of the Bible and be expected to be used against them. Paul said,
church history. All this is evidence that Gods judgment is right,
Definition. The word martyr is an English and as a result you will be counted worthy of the
word transliterated from its Greek equivalent kingdom of God, for which you are suffering
(martyrus). It is closely associated with the word (2 Thess. 1:5). Finally, as Augustine wrote in City
witness as used in the Scriptures. The Old Testa- of God: Despite the fiercest opposition, the terror
ment Hebrew equivalent is moed, which is used of the greatest persecutions, Christians have held
in reference to the place where God establishes with unswerving faith to the belief that Christ has
his covenant with his people. risen, that all men will rise in the age to come,
In the New Testament, the ideas of truth and and that the body will live forever. And this belief,
Scripture are integrated into the verb form mar- proclaimed without fear, has yielded a harvest
tureom. Jesus uses it to establish his witness as throughout the world, and all the more when the
truth (Matt. 26:65; Mark 14:63; Luke 22:71). John martyrs blood was the seed they sowed.
the Baptist links Jesus, truth, and Scripture. Luke J. RAY TALLMAN
speaks of witness to the whole world (Acts 1:8).
The word martyr also extends its meaning to SEE ALSO Persecution.
include Christ-like values, such as faithfulness, Bibliography. R. Daniel, This Holy Seed; S. Bergman,
truth, witness, and lifestyle. Eventually, even Martyrs: Contemporary Writers on Modern Lives of Faith;
602
Mass Communication
J. Hefley and M. Hefley, By Their Blood: Christian Mar- and Prisma in Mexico are reaching the secular
tyrs of the Twentieth Century; WCE. market.
Desktop publishing and computer typesetting
Marxism. See COMMUNISM, MARXISM. have revolutionized literature production, espe-
cially in non-Western alphabets.
Mass Communication. It has been said that the Electronic Media. Radio began as wireless te-
Reformation would have been impossible with- legraphy at the turn of the century, with the first
out Gutenbergs invention of printing with mov- commercial audio broadcasts in the U.S. starting
able type, which made literature available to the in 1919. Only ten years later, Ruben Larson and
common person. The various forms of mass Clarence Jones began efforts to use the fledgling
MEDIA also seem to have been providentially pro- medium to reach the world with the gospel (see
vided by God for world evangelization, and have also RADIO MISSION WORK). Against the best tech-
played a major role in modern missions. nical advice at the time, which said radio would
Print. The father of modern missions, not work in the mountains or near the equator,
WILLIAM CAREY, set the tone with his emphasis on they were led to locate in Quito, Ecuador, where
publication and distribution of the Scriptures and the Voice of the Andes, HCJB, went on the air on
other literature. He and his colleagues produced Christmas Day, 1931. It became a voice heard lit-
nearly 40 translations of the Bible or portions erally around the world. Today HCJB and its af-
thereof in languages of South Asia, along with a filiated stations broadcast in 39 languages, reach-
ing Europe and the Far East as well as Latin
great number of tracts and other Christian mate-
America. In addition to the outreach within and
rials. A fellow member of the SERAMPORE TRIO,
from Ecuador, World Radio Missionary Fellow-
WILLIAM WARD, was an experienced printer and
ship (WRMF), HCJBs parent organization, oper-
newspaper editor who operated a mission press.
ates a string of stations along the Texas border
Similarly, other pioneers saw BIBLE TRANSLA-
which reach the northern areas of Mexico, one of
TION and literature distribution as a key to reach-
the few Latin American countries that restricts
ing the masses for Christ (see LITERACY, LITERA-
gospel broadcasting.
TURE MISSION WORK). ROBERT MORRISON, who
A second missionary radio giant began just
arrived in Canton, China, in 1807, not only trans- after World War II. John Broger, a former Navy
lated the entire Bible into Mandarin, but also officer, and Robert Bowman and William Roberts,
published the Shorter Catechism and part of the both involved in pioneer radio ministries in the
Book of Common Prayer, along with a number of U.S., formed the Far East Broadcasting Company
pamphlets. Two of Morrisons colleagues were (FEBC) in December 1945. Although they had
printers, and one, William Milne, set up a press planned to set up a station in China, the Lord di-
in Malacca. rected them to Manila, where DZAS, The Call of
Early efforts to evangelize the Middle East in- the Orient, began transmitting in 1948. Today
cluded a printing press in Malta, donated in 1822 FEBC and its associate organization, FEBA (Far
by the Old South Church of Boston, to publish East Broadcasting Associates), operate over 30
tracts and Scriptures for distribution in the re- stations in the Philippines, Saipan, South Korea,
gion. Similar stories could be told of almost every the Seychelles, and other locations, broadcasting
place in the world. in some 100 languages.
By 1921, according to Arthur J. Brown, some Trans World Radio, founded by Dr. Paul Freed,
160 presses run by Protestant missions were grew out of a vision for reaching Spain with the
churning out 400 million pages per year. Today gospel via radio. Freed was able to lease a fre-
there are major Christian publishing houses in quency in the international city of Tangier, in
almost every corner of the globe. Most missions North Africa. The Voice of Tangier went on the air
and national churches use literature extensively in 1954 with a 2500-watt war surplus transmitter,
for evangelism as well as education of believers. broadcasting to Europe. With Moroccos inde-
Books, periodicals, Sunday school materials, pendence in 1959, operations were moved to
pamphlets, and tracts continue to be published Monte Carlo. Today TWR broadcasts from high-
by the millions in hundreds of languages. Mis- power stations in Monaco, Guam, Bonaire,
sionary organizations which work primarily with Swaziland, Cyprus, Sri Lanka, and Albania, as
the printed page include Christian Literature well as leasing time on commercial stations in
Crusade, Every Home for Christ, Operation Mo- various countries. Recording studios all over the
bilization, the various BIBLE SOCIETIES, and many world provide programming in over 90 languages.
more. Among many recent innovative efforts is Other major international radio ministries in-
Amity Press, set up by the United Bible Societies clude ELWA, in Liberia, West Africa, founded in
in China with government approval, which has 1954 by SIM International; IBRA (Sweden); and
printed over seven million Chinese Bibles and Voice of Hope in Lebanon. Another high-power
New Testaments. Also, several evangelistic maga- international station in Africa, RVOG, the Radio
zines such as Step and African Challenge in Africa Voice of the Gospel, operated by the Lutheran
603
Mass Communication
World Federation, was confiscated by the revolu- conditions can severely affect propagation, and
tionary government of Ethiopia in 1977, after 14 ever more powerful transmitters are required to
years of outreach and a $2 million investment. keep up with the competition.
Also in 1977 the government of Burundi closed Perhaps an even greater challenge is to provide
Radio Cordac, a joint effort of several missions. attractive, culturally relevant programming, par-
The recent civil war in Liberia resulted in major ticularly with television, where dubbed versions
damage to equipment and forced temporary of U.S. shows have more often than not been the
evacuation of ELWA staff. norm. Keeping the home constituency satisfied
In addition to the large international and may conflict with ministry effectiveness; witness
multi-lingual radio ministries, an estimated 3,200 dictation-speed Bible readings for people learn-
local stations worldwide are operated by mis- ing Englishin the King James Version.
sions, local churches, or lay Christians. Thou- Recordings. Gospel Recordings was founded
sands of hours of gospel programming also go in 1941 by JOY RIDDERHOF, a former missionary
out each week on secular stations. Recent politi- to Honduras, to let people throughout the world
cal changes in both western and eastern Europe hear Gods Word in their own language. By 1955
have opened new doors for local gospel broad- over one million 78 rpm records have been pro-
casting in many countries where a few years ago duced. Victrola-type players were simplified to
it was totally impossible. the finger-operated, cardboard Cardtalk which
One new thrust in international radio outreach required no batteries or repair parts. The vinyl
is The World by 2000, a joint project of WRMF/ record has been largely replaced by cassettes, and
HCJB, FEBC, TWR, and ELWA, whose purpose is there are now gospel recordings in over four
to provide programming in the language of every thousand languages.
major unreached people group. The initial goal Cassettes are being used in many areas of the
was 144 new languages. Satellite networks like
mission field for both evangelism and teaching,
the HCJB/TWR ALAS (WINGS) make program-
particularly in areas of low literacy. Unlike radio,
ming available to local Christian and secular sta-
the message can be listened to repeatedly and at
tions. If and when direct satellite broadcasting
any hour. Rugged, hand-cranked players are
becomes feasible, missionary broadcasters will
available for remote areas.
undoubtedly be at the forefront.
Missionary radio pioneer HCJB also built the Film. The lantern slides used by missionaries
first missionary television station (see also TELE- in the early part of the century were replaced by
VISION EVANGELISM). The Window of the Andes
16mm films and then video. Moody Science films
went on the air in Quito in 1961. Latin America, and dramatic movies produced by groups such as
with relatively free access, has seen a prolifera- Billy Graham have been widely translated and
tion of Christian TV channels, while in parts of distributed. There has been some effort toward
Africa and Europe evangelicals have been able to culturally relevant productions using Third
get time, sometimes free of charge, on govern- World artists and settings. Cinema vans draw
ment stations. Organizations like the U.S.-based large open-air crowds in Africa, Latin America,
Christian Broadcasting Network (700 Club) buy and other parts of the world. Deserving special
time on hundreds of TV outlets and cable serv- mention is the JESUS FILM, the most widely seen
ices worldwide. Evangelists such as BILLY GRA- movie in cinematic history, which has been
HAM and LUIS PALAU have held continent or dubbed into more than 450 languages and seen
worldwide media crusades; the Graham one- by more than one billion people.
hour program, Starting Over, aired in April STEVE SYWULKA
1996, was seen by an estimated 2.5 billion people Bibliography. B. Armstrong, The Electric Church;
in over 200 countries, using 48 languages. B. Siedell, Gospel Radio; V. B. Sgaard, Everything You
Radio and television are powerful tools which Need to Know for a Cassette Ministry.
have taken the gospel to hundreds of millions of
people, many in limited-access countries or iso- Mass Evangelism. See CRUSADE EVANGELISM; MASS
lated locations. The estimated total of 1.2 billion COMMUNICATION; and TELEVISION EVANGELISM.
receivers means radio has the potential of reach-
ing well over 90 percent of the worlds popula-
tion. The widespread use of radio by the govern- Mass Movements. See PEOPLE MOVEMENTS.
ments of countries like Russia and China for
internal communications has paved the way for Masters Degrees in Missions and Missiology.
missionary broadcasts to those peoples. In this day of increasing specialization in min-
Nevertheless, like all media, radio and TV have istry, many individuals choose to study on the
their limitations. Potential audience is usually masters level in missions or missiology, either as
very different from actual listeners. The effective- part of their prefield preparation or as one facet
ness of short-wave has declined as local stations of their continuing development as practicing
become more widespread. Further, atmospheric missionaries.
604
Masters Degrees in Missions and Missiology
In the North American context, the Association Some seminaries have developed schools of
of Theological Schools (ATS) recognizes three world missions or missions departments with spe-
kinds of masters degree programs that include cialized faculty assigned to these administrative
specializations or special emphases in missions structures. Other schools have elected to integrate
or missiology: basic programs oriented toward their specialized missions faculty with the other
ministerial leadership (M.Div., M.A. in [special- theological faculty to minimize separation of the
ization]), basic programs oriented toward general missions emphasis from the rest of the school. In
theological studies (M.A. [academic], M.A.R., some cases seminary leadership has chosen teach-
M.T.S.), and advanced programs primarily ori- ers with extensive cross-cultural experience for
ented toward theological research and teaching most of the basic biblical, theological, and min-
(Th.M./S.T.M.). The M.Div. is a three-year pro- istry-centered areas in order to provide the maxi-
gram, built on the undergraduate degree. M.A. in mum integration of the missions focus into the life
(specialization) programs are often two years in of the school and its curriculum.
length. The academic M.A. generally requires two The wise applicant will study catalogues from
years of full-time study, with advanced standing a variety of denominational and nondenomina-
if the applicant holds an undergraduate degree in tional schools to appreciate the differences and
Bible/theology/missions. In some schools the to choose the best program in light of present
length of the degree is reduced to a one-year pro- and future ministry responsibilities.
gram by such advanced standing. The Th.M. gen- In North America the three-year M.Div. pro-
erally requires twenty-four to thirty-two semester gram (typically ninety to ninety-six semester
hours of study, plus thesis, beyond the M.Div. hours) gives general preparation for local church
In Europe the masters degree is a specializa- and parachurch ministries, with strong emphasis
tion built on an undergraduate degree in a re- on Bible, theology, and ministry-related course-
lated area. Generally, schools in non-Western work (evangelism, discipleship, preaching, teach-
countries have developed their programs of study ing, counseling, pastoral duties, etc.). Some semi-
to reflect their connections with Europe or North naries offer a missions track in the M.Div. Typical
America, as well as the standards of the educa- programs would include courses in Evangelism,
Survey of Missions, Biblical Theology of Mis-
tional systems and accrediting agencies of their
sions, History of Missions, Cultural Studies [Cul-
regions.
tural Anthropology, Cross-Cultural Communica-
As in all theological education, denominational
tion], Church Growth or Church Planting, plus
distinctives are present in masters-level pro-
electives in missions. Generally the M.Div. pro-
grams in missions and missiology. Some semi-
gram includes a practicum or internship in cross-
naries or graduate schools give more emphasis to
cultural ministry.
the social sciences and their relation to intercul- The two-year M.A. in (specialization) (typically
tural understandings. Others place a stronger sixty to sixty-four semester hours) provides a
emphasis on the biblical and theological founda- missions or missiology emphasis generally com-
tions for missions, with less attention given to the parable to the M.Div. missions track programs.
social sciences and their integration into the mis- Programs vary in their admissions and gradua-
sionary effort. Some schools provide studies of a tion requirements, though. A few accept only
more theoretical nature while others offer exten- those with previous cross-cultural experience.
sive practical ministry experience. Most schools, Some stipulate a working knowledge of a second
however, attempt to maintain a balance with the language. All have a required theological and bib-
integration of biblical truth and social science re- lical core, plus stipulated courses as part of the
search with theoretical studies and ministry prac- missions/missiology concentration. All require
tice. Program concentrations are variously enti- some kind of integrative experience at the end of
tled Missions, Missiology, World Mission, the program: practicum or internship, compre-
Cross-Cultural Studies, Inter-Cultural Studies, hensive exams, or thesis, or a combination of two
Missions and Evangelism, Urban Ministry, or of the three.
Church Growth. A few specialized programs exist The academic masters degree (M.A., M.A.R.
in Muslim or Chinese Studies, as well as TESOL/ M.T.S.) (typically forty to seventy-two semester
TOEFL/TESL and Inter-Cultural Studies. hours) is similar to the professional M.A. in (spe-
The Association of Theological Schools permits cialization). However, the applicant must hold the
seminaries to admit as many as 10 percent of the bachelors degree (in North America). Generally
students in the M.Div. and M.A. in (specialization) this program does not have a practicum or intern-
professional masters degrees without possession ship. The integrative exercise is a thesis (prefer-
of the baccalaureate degree or its educational ably) with possible substitution of extra course-
equivalent if their life experience is adequate to work and comprehensive exams for the thesis.
prepare them for graduate theological study. This The Th.M./S.T.M. degree tends to permit
provision might open doors of opportunity for greater flexibility in the choice of coursework in
older missionaries or missionary candidates. missions or missiology. The thesis and compre-
605
Masters Degrees in Missions and Missiology
hensive exams assure that the graduate has com- of heaven. Much, but not all, of Mauritiuss pop-
petence in both content and research methodol- ulation would likely share Twains observations.
ogy. Many excellent seminaries or graduate Mauritius boasted one of the most successful
schools around the world provide specializations African economies in the 1980s, making a transi-
in missions or missiology. Never before in the tion from an agricultural economy (sugar) to an
history of missions have there been so many op- industrial/commercial one (textile and tourism).
portunities for quality and variety in graduate Although the structural transition between these
level preparation for cross-cultural ministry. two types of economies may have taken place
W. KENNETH PHILLIPS with relative ease, the fact that most of the older
churches (Catholic and Anglican) have been in
SEE ALSO Degrees in Mission and Missiology.
decline indicates that a socioreligious transition
Bibliography. V. Hiscock, Directory of Evangelical may not have supported the economic shift.
Bible Schools and Theological Seminaries in Europe; Churches may want to reassess their role in this
W. R. Hogg, Missiology15:4 (1987): 487506; O. G. society moving from a traditional to modern
Mykleburst, Mission Studies, 6 (2), 87107; idem, The structure. This reassessment may have a bearing
Study of Missions in Theological Education; J. Scherer,
Missiology 13:4 (1985): 44560; idem, Missiology 15:4
on church growth and the reformulation of mis-
(1987): 50722; J. A. Siewert, Directory of Schools and siological questions for outreach to sociologically
Professors of Mission in the USA and Canada; T. Stef- displaced Mauritians.
fen, EMQ, 29 (2), 17883; Theological Education, 32 Even though only 27 percent of the Mauritian
(2), 1693; R. N. Windsor, World Directory of Mission- population would class themselves in the Cre-
ary Training Centres. ole ethnic grouping, the Creole language of
Mauritius is the native language of the vast ma-
Mauritania (Est. 2000 pop.: 2,580,000; 1,025,520 jority of the Mauritian people, and Creole is the
sq. km. [395,953 sq. mi.]). The 99 percent Muslim first language of over half of the almost 1.2 mil-
majority of Mauritanians are mostly Sunnis of lion people who inhabit this volcanic island situ-
the Malekite rite who follow Qadiriya (Sufi) ated east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean.
Maraboutism. Mauritania is inhabited by the This Creole ethnic/language situation points to
Berbers, an indigenous people converted to Islam two opposing missiological concerns revolving
in the tenth century; the Arabs, who arrived in around Creole dominance. (1) Unfortunately,
the fifteenth century; and blacks in the southern few of the 161 missionaries (including Catholic
region. The Constitution protects Islam as the and Protestant) speak or minister in Creole, thus
state religion and as such prohibits conversion diminishing the prospect of incarnational min-
from Islam. The country is united by Islam al- istry in the largest linguistic group of the island.
though some Mauritanians do follow pre-Muslim (2) A significant degree of sensitivity should be
customs. shown to the Hindu population (65% of the na-
The Roman Catholic Church arrived in Mauri- tional population) who often feel that one must
tania at the turn of the century and remains the become a Creole in order to become Christian.
only organized Christian body. Almost all of the Despite this disparagement the Assemblies of
Roman Catholics are foreigners, the majority of God have seen a significant number of Hindus
which are transitory French government officials. come to Christ.
Mauritania comprises the single diocese of Missiological thinking for Mauritius can be en-
Nouakchott, which in 1992 held approximately hanced by examining the writings of the great
4,500 adherents, the majority of which ere non- Mauritian writer, Malcolm de Chazal (190281).
nationals. The bishop also participates in confer- One needs to ask how much de Chazals tech-
ences of Senegal, Cape Verde, and Guinea Bissau. nique of corresponding between words and
Due to the Islamic majority, most mission efforts things, and between language and nature deal
are directed toward immigrant workers from with the real spiritual questions being asked by
other African countries. the Mauritian people. (Flowers are both know-
While Protestants have attempted works in ing and innocent, with experienced mouths but
Mauritania, the last group, WEC International, childlike eyes. They bend the two poles of life
withdrew in 1965. The small congregation that into a divinely closed circle, Sens-Plastique, p. 7.)
does exist is comprised of expatriates in the CLINT AKINS
capital.
GARY LAMB
Mayers, Marvin Keene (1927 ). American mis-
Bibliography. D. B. Barrett, WCE; The Europa World sion scholar and missionary to Guatemala. May-
Yearbook. ers began his career translating the Bible for the
Pocomchi of Guatemala, Central America, under
Mauritius (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,179,000; 2,040 sq. the Summer Institute of Linguistics. Since 1965,
km. [788 sq. mi.]). Mark Twain said that God he has taught anthropology, intercultural com-
made Mauritius so that we could have a glimpse munication, and linguistics to thousands of mis-
606
McGeorge, Mary
sionaries. He chaired the department of sociol- In 1868 poor health forced McDougalls return to
ogy and anthropology at Wheaton College his homeland, where he served the Church of
(196874), served as director of Texas Summer England for eighteen more years as vicar, canon,
Institute of Linguistics (197682), and was the and archdeacon.
founding dean of the School of Intercultural JAMES A. PATTERSON
Studies, Biola University (198389). Bibliography. C. J. Runyon, Memoirs of Francis
Mayers developed three anthropological con- Thomas McDougall, D.C.L, F.R.C.S., Sometime Bishop of
cepts that have been incorporated into the aca- Labuan and Sarawak, and of Harriette His Wife.
demic world: biculturalism, trust bond, and
basic values. Biculturalism is working in two McGavran, Donald A. (18971991). American
different cultures at the same time (ones own missionary to India and founder of the CHURCH
and that of the host country) seeing both cultures GROWTH MOVEMENT. McGavran was born in India
as valid before God. The trust bond is the foun- of missionary parents. Influenced by the STUDENT
dation for building cross-cultural relationships, VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT, he returned to India in
asking, Is what I am doing, thinking, or saying 1924 to serve with the Disciples of Christ in a va-
building or undermining trust? The basic values riety of missionary capacities: educator, field ex-
concept blends biblical principles with those ecutive, hospital administrator, evangelist, Bible
from the behavioral sciences. translator, church planter, and researcher. Pas-
Mayers introduced a course into the academic sionately interested in the causes of church
community based on activity oriented learning growth, McGavran studied this issue first in
that has become a model for such courses India, then in a variety of other places.
throughout Christian higher education. Returning to the United States in 1957, Mc-
Among his writings, Christianity Confronts Cul- Gavran established the Institute of Church Growth
ture has been recognized as one of the major con- in Eugene, Oregon, where he was joined by Aus-
tributions to missions in the past century and tralian anthropologist ALAN TIPPETT. From 1964 to
Ministering Cross-Culturally has become a stan- 1980, he published his ideas in the Church Growth
dard reference book for alerting North American Bulletin, which he founded. In 1965, he became
Christians to cross-cultural differences in their founding dean of the School of World Mission of
own communities. Fuller Theological Seminary, which provided a
MARGUERITE KRAFT forum to popularize his ideas. McGavran advo-
Bibliography. M. K. Mayers, Christianity Confronts
cated a return to classical mission with its stress
Culture: A Strategy for Crosscultural Evangelism; M. K. on evangelism and church planting. He under-
Mayers and S. A. Grunlan, Cultural Anthropology, A scored the importance of employing the social and
Christian Perspective; M. K. Mayers and S. G. Lingen- behavioral sciences as missiological instruments.
felter, Ministering Cross-Culturally: An Incarnational Many of the theses written by his students were
Model for Personal Relationships. published and disseminated widely among the
mission community.
McDougall, Francis Thomas (181786). English In his writings, McGavran sought to identify
missionary to Borneo. Born in Sydenham, En- the factors that facilitate and those that impede
gland, McDougall studied medicine at the univer- church growth. Investigating various PEOPLE
sities of Malta and London. Later, in 1842, he MOVEMENTS within society, he used his findings to
completed a B.A. at Oxford, where he was pro- identify principles for church growth. McGavran
foundly affected by a campus revival. After a three- also emphasized the importance of allowing per-
year stint as an ironworks superintendent in South sons to become Christian without forcing them to
Wales, he was ordained to the Anglican priesthood cross cultural barriers (see HOMOGENEOUS UNIT
in 1845 and served three short curacies. PRINCIPLE). He was committed to the establish-
In 1847 McDougall accepted an appointment ment of a church movement within every seg-
with the Borneo Mission Society for a pioneer ment of the human mosaic.
ministry in North Borneo. There he conducted McGavran was also instrumental in restructur-
evangelistic, medical, and educational efforts, pri- ing the EVANGELICAL MISSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. He
marily among native Dyaks and immigrant Chi- continued to teach on a reduced schedule and to
nese. In 1853 he arranged for the transfer of his write extensively until the end of his life.
KEN MULHOLLAND
work to the SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE
GOSPEL. He was appointed bishop of Labuan and Bibliography. D. A. McGavran, The Bridges of God;
Sarawak in 1855, and became the first Anglican idem, Why Churches Grow; idem, Understanding
bishop to be consecrated in Asia. In addition to Church Growth, 3rd ed.
administrative duties, he prepared a prayerbook
and catechism for the churches of his diocese. He McGeorge, Mary (185092). Irish missionary to
and his wife persevered valiantly through the loss India. Born in Newry, County Down, Ireland, her
of five children and their own physical ailments. home and school life prepared her well for a uni-
607
McGeorge, Mary
versity career. Her call to serve the Zenana mis- later became the Medical Mission Sisters. They
sions in India came through the urging of an Irish implemented McLarens vision and became an
Presbyterian minister-friend who recognized in established community of medical missionaries
her the qualifications for such a task. From 1879 after the ban against priests and nuns participat-
to 1884 she studied medicine at the London ing in medical work was revoked in 1936. Roman
School of Medicine for Women. While waiting for Catholics acknowledge McLaren as the one who
her licentiateship and overseas appointment, Mc- began medical missions in their denomination.
George gained valuable experience as house sur- The Medical Mission Sisters currently have over
geon. In late 1885 she sailed to Bombay. 700 members in more than thirty countries.
She lived in the manufacturing city of Ahmed- MARGOT EYRING
abad, where her medical work focused on the
Bibliography. M. Cavanagh, DSCHT, p. 526; J. H.
needs of women and children. Assisted by a na- Aherne, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Religion, 2:2202.
tional, she saw scores of patients at the dispen-
sary on a daily basis. She was able to visit nu-
McPherson, Aimee Semple (18901944). Amer-
merous outlying villages where she found many
ican Pentecostal evangelist. Born in 1890, at the
neglected, diseased, and suffering people. She be-
age of eighteen Aimee fell in love with both God
lieved that her dispensary work opened the
and Robert Semple, the Pentecostal evangelist
hearts of the women to listen to the gospel as
who led her to the Lord. After marriage both
nothing else could.
were ordained and in 1910 they left for mission-
In 1890 McGeorge left India for furlough in
ary service in Hong Kong. Within weeks of their
England. She devoted her time to promoting the
arrival, Robert contracted malaria and died, leav-
interests of Zenana missions and preparing for a
ing Aimee a very young, pregnant widow. She re-
lifelong missionary tenure. On her return voyage
turned to the United States and worked with the
to India in October 1892, her ship was wrecked
Salvation Army where she met and wed Stewart
during a storm. McGeorge and another mission-
McPherson in 1912. They had a son, but Aimees
ary were among those who lost their lives.
growing preaching ministry took a toll on her
Though there were few outward results from
marital relationship, and she and Stewart di-
her labor, McGeorge left a growing group of be-
vorced in 1921. She endured much controversy
lievers. She also foresaw the time when indige-
in later years over her personal life, and died in
nous workers would do the work that foreign
1944.
missionaries were doing. Her life was an example
Her accomplishments are many: she was a pro-
of one whose early Christian nurturing through
lific writer, the first woman to receive an FCC li-
home and church reaped great benefits for the
cense to operate a radio station, the founder of
missionary enterprise.
the International Church of the Foursquare
FLORENCE R. SCOTT
Gospel, the builder of Angelus Temple in Los An-
Bibliography. C. R. Pitman, Missionary Heroines in geles, and the founder of the Lighthouse for In-
Eastern Lands: Womans Work in Mission Fields. ternational Foursquare Evangelism (L.I.F.E.)
Bible College. Her Angelus Temple Commissary
McLaren, Agnes (18371913). Scottish medical met the physical needs of over 1.5 million people
missionary pioneer in Pakistan. Born and raised during the Depression, and she was a tireless
in Edinburgh, even membership in an influential fighter on behalf of the poor. A gifted communi-
Liberal family could not secure McLaren admis- cator, she instilled in her followers a strong vision
sion to medical school in Scotland. Therefore, for evangelism.
she pursued training in France. McLaren was the JUDITH LINGENFELTER
first female medical graduate in Montpellier and
received licensure for the United Kingdom. She McQuilkin, Robert C. (18861952). American
then practiced in Nice. Upon her conversion to educator and missions promoter. McQuilkin was
Roman Catholicism in 1898 at age 60, she be- born to Irish immigrant parents of Presbyterian
came a Dominican tertiary. heritage. His only attempt to enter missionary
McLaren developed a vision to provide profes- service was frustrated when the ship on which he
sional medical services for women in India was scheduled to sail caught fire in the Philadel-
through religious physicians. Her proposal to the phia harbor and sank.
Vatican for developing a community of women In 1923, McQuilkin accepted a position as
medical missionaries was denied approval five dean of the newly founded Southern Bible Insti-
times. In 1910, McLaren founded St. Catherines tute in Columbia, South Carolina, and later be-
Hospital for women in Rawalpindi, Pakistan came its first president, a position which he held
(near the border of India). She recruited female until his death in 1952. Under his leadership the
staff, including Anne Dengel, an Austrian physi- school became Columbia Bible College. In 1936,
cian. This particular sponsorship resulted in the the college added a graduate division, the first
establishment of a group of lay associates who evangelical graduate school of missions.
608
Media
McQuilkin played a key role in encouraging tions are built around specific media. The all-per-
students to form the Student Foreign Missions vasive influence of the media challenges Chris-
Fellowship. In 1940, he founded Ben Lippen tians to investigate and use the media effectively
School, a college preparatory boarding school in mission. Attitudes to Christian use of media
that served many missionary families. All five of span from almost uninhibited praise to nearly
McQuilkins children served as missionaries. His total rejection.
son Robertson, after twelve years in Japan, Media Classification. In popular usage the
served as president of Columbia Bible College term media refers to the whole complex of
and Seminary from 1969 to 1990. broadcasting, particularly television, and its
McQuilkins emphasis on victorious Christian many uses. Marshal McLuhan defined media as
living and world missions was epitomized in the extensions of the human body, the microphone
motto, To know Him and to make Him known. becoming an extension of the voice and the cam-
Under his leadership Columbia became a leader era an extension of the eye.
in training evangelical missionaries. Media can be classified according to the con-
KEN MULHOLLAND text of use. Personal media are media used by a
single person or in an interpersonal situation.
Bibliography. M. McQuilkin, Always in Triumph. Group media signify media that are used to en-
hance or stimulate interaction with or among a
Mears, Henrietta Cornelia (18901963). Amer- group of people. Mass media are understood as
ican Christian educator, publisher, and missions media that aim at communicating with multiple
motivator. Born in Fargo, North Dakota, Mears audiences at the same time.
grew up in Minneapolis. After completing a de- Media Types and Ministries. Printed media in-
gree in education at the University of Minnesota clude books, newspapers, magazines, brochures,
and working as a high school teacher, she moved and anything using the alphabet. In the past,
to California in 1928 to accept a position with the print media have been chosen by churches and
First Presbyterian Church of Hollywood. For missionary organizations as their primary com-
over thirty years she served as the churchs direc- munication tools, and worldwide literature or-
tor of Christian education, developing a large and ganizations such as David C. Cook have been es-
influential Sunday school program. In 1933 tablished. Magazines such as Breakthrough in
Mears founded Gospel Light Publications, which Hong Kong and Step in East Africa have exten-
became one of the largest publishers of biblically sive readership. Today, however, print is increas-
based material for Sunday schools. She also es- ingly being challenged by the electronic media.
tablished the Forest Home Camp Grounds as a Audio media include radio, cassettes, records,
conference center in the late 1930s and co- CDs, and any other media that use sound only.
founded the National Sunday School Association Radio has been used extensively by churches and
in 1946. missions around the world and it demonstrates
Although not a missionary herself, Mears in- many possibilities for evangelism and Christian
fluenced world missions in a variety of ways. nurture. Major international radio organizations
The widespread use of Gospel Light materials include Far Eastern Broadcasting Company,
overseas led her to found Gospel Light Interna- Trans Word Radio, and HCJB (see RADIO MISSION
tional in 1961 to assist missionaries with obtain- WORK). The use of audiocassettes includes possi-
ing and publishing Christian education materials bilities for this unique and versatile medium that
in foreign languages. In addition, her emphasis are possibly greater than any other medium
on leadership training brought a sense of profes- available for Christian mission. Hosanna in the
sionalism to nonformal Christian education pro- U.S. produces several million cassettes a year
grams in the United States and abroad. Mears that are increasingly used in Christian mission.
frequently traveled internationally to speak and Video media include television, film, slides,
conduct training seminars, and encouraged video, and DVD (Digital Video Disk). The video
over four hundred young people into full-time medium is having an enormous impact on soci-
Christian service, including many who became eties around the world. It is changing entertain-
missionaries. ment patterns as well as family life, and it is im-
ALAN A. SEAMAN pacting classroom instruction and educational
methods. We could argue that video has caused a
Bibliography. E. Baldwin and D. Benson, Henrietta communication revolution that may be on the
Mears and How She Did It; E. Roe, ed., Dream Big: The same level as that experienced at the invention of
Henrietta Mears Story.
the printing press.
Television has an all-pervasive influence and
Mecca. See PILGRIMAGES. the extensive use of television makes it one of the
strongest forces in society. The average person in
Media. The media play a significant role in the industrialized world spends several hours in
Christian mission, and several mission organiza- front of the television set each day. Christian
609
Media
leaders need to be aware of both the possibilities sion (ICMC) which has evangelical roots, and
of using television in Christian ministry, but also the World Association of Christian Communica-
the possible dangers that extensive exposure to tion (WACC), which was formed on an ecumeni-
television can have on church, society, and fam- cal basis and covers organizations and churches
ily life. from around the world. The National Religious
Film is a medium with unique possibilities in Broadcasters is a major organization in the U.S.
Christian mission. Few media are more persua- Issues: Media and Gods Communication Ap-
sive than film. A prime example of film use is the proach. The challenge for the future is to make
JESUS FILM. Video is challenging or replacing film the use of media in church and mission conform
as movies are recorded on video cassettes and to patterns that are consistent with Scripture.
made available for home use. From the creation of the world God has commu-
Computer media. The computer is impacting nicated to humanity. Passages such as Romans
all media, but its specific uses for E-mail and the 1:20 and Psalm 19:14 speak of Gods communi-
internet have changed the way people stay in cation through creation. In the New Testament,
touch, advertise their services, and get their en- we see God revealing himself through his Son
tertainment. Many Christian ministries are using (John 1:14: Heb. 1:13a).
web pages on the internet for church activities, A study of Gods communicational activities
counseling services, and marketing products. For yields significant guidelines for media use. God
those with access to computers, this medium will uses communication symbols that are under-
increase in significance in the decades to come stood by us within our specific cultural contexts.
(see also INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY). He uses language, culture, and human form. He
Drama and art. Music, painting, and dance- is working for an interactive relationship. Our
drama all deserve much more extensive treat- use of media must follow similar patterns, and
ment. We cannot envision a radio or television media programs need format, music selections,
program without music. Music is central to content, and form of presentation that are ap-
church services and evangelistic approaches. The propriate for the intended audience.
artist is important in all media work. Dance- Specific Challenges to Media Users. As in all
drama and other folk media are today being re- aspects of Christian mission, the commission to
discovered by many churches, and we are experi- communicate is the mandate. There is a clear goal
encing exciting new uses of drama and of being prophetic and to present the gospel in
traditional music (see also ETHNOMUSICOLOGY). such a way that people will want to listen, under-
Media People. Different groups of people are stand, follow, and commit themselves.
involved in media. There are media theorists who Christian communication is person-based. Jesus
study the theological, missiological, and theoret- showed us the example by becoming a real
ical basis for Christian use of the media. Media human being, participating in our affairs (Phil.
strategists define and plan the use of a medium in 2:7; John 1:14). In him, the message and the
the total context of a local church or mission en- medium became one. This person-centeredness
terprise. There are also artists and media special- must be carefully guarded in media communica-
ists who produce programs. Finally, the media tion. Credibility of a piece of literature is associ-
users or generalists distribute and use the pro- ated with the way it is distributed and with the
grams for a given audience. person who is giving it out. We need to make our
Media Research. There has been relatively lit- use of media be person-centered.
tle in-depth study of the effects of media in mis- The audience (receptors) has priority, and media
sion, and few controlled experiments. This is in programs need to be receptor-oriented. Jesus il-
sharp contrast to secular use of media, where lustrated receptor orientation by creating para-
huge sums of money are used on research, and bles out of everyday life of the listeners. In a para-
where a significant body of material is available. ble, the audience become players, and as such
The lack of research in Christian media has re- each one discovers new truths and principles.
sulted in counting media activities rather than There must be a close relationship with the
measuring media results. local church. It is the local church that provides
Marketing organizations will collect extensive permanent structures for effective communica-
data on the availability and usefulness of individ- tion. If churches are to function as a base for
ual media channels in a given context. Diffusion media strategies and have a sense of ownership,
studies have, likewise, analyzed the effects of var- they need to be involved in the decision-making
ious media. Christian communicators can use with respect to media employment and program
the available methods for testing media products. design.
Christian Media Organizations. Media users The effective use of media is based on the prin-
have established associations where their spe- ciple of process. COMMUNICATION itself is a process,
cial interests are treated. Among the organiza- but the listener will also be living through an on-
tions with cross-media and global perspectives going DECISION-MAKING process. During this
are the International Christian Media Commis- process the needs of the audience will change
610
Medical Mission Work
and the communicator must adapt his or her Reformed Church in America as well as a physi-
programs and use of media accordingly. cian. His granddaughter, IDA SCUDDER, one of 42
Good information is mandatory if effective missionaries in four generations of that family
communication through media is to take place. who collectively contributed more than eleven
Research provides us with information on which hundred years of missionary service, founded the
decisions can be based, and it makes media com- Vellore Medical College in India in 1900. Edith
munication possible. The main concern is not the Brown, an Englishwoman, laid the foundation for
number of research methods used, but the fact the first Asian womens medical school, Ludhiana
that the needs of the audience have been studied Christian Medical College, and Peter Parker, the
and that products (radio programs, brochures, first American missionary to China in 1834,
books, videos, etc.) are adequately tested before started a modern teaching hospital. By 1933 six of
broadcasting or distribution. Chinas twelve medical schools were financed by
Finally, media use needs to be rooted in the cul- missionary societies.
tural context of the audience. As the gospel is In the mid-twentieth century there were many
clothed in the new culture it penetrates that cul- prominent missionary physicians, particularly in
ture with the true life of Christ. Then, from Africa. HELEN ROSEVEARE served with the WORLD-
within that culture, it blooms to new tunes and WIDE EVANGELIZATION CRUSADE in the Congo and
new instruments. An intercultural understanding during the bloody civil war was raped and beaten
will lead us to investigate local and traditional repeatedly by Simba Rebels who occupied the
media and art forms. A number of groups in Nebobongo mission compound where she
Asian countries, such as India, Thailand, and In- worked. Paul Carlson, who worked at the Wasolo
donesia, have demonstrated the viability of using mission station in the Ubangi Province of Congo,
traditional forms of dance and drama in evangel- was captured and tortured before being killed in
ism. The Balinese church has incorporated local the streets of Stanleyville. Carl Becker, who spent
cultural themes in the architecture of church nearly fifty years in the Congo under the Africa
buildings. These are helpful examples of develop- Inland Mission, was perhaps best known for his
ing appropriate media within a culture to com- compassionate treatment of four thousand resi-
municate the gospel more effectively. dent patients at an 1100-acre leprosy village in
VIGGO B. SGAARD the early 1950s. Stanley Browne, a boy with an
encyclopedic memory from a modest south Lon-
SEE ALSO Mass Communication. don home, became one of the worlds leading
Bibliography. J. F. Engel, Contemporary Christian specialists in leprosy control and prevention. The
Communication: Theory and Practice; C. H. Kraft, Com- Salvation Army Nurses Fellowship, born out of
munication Theory for Christian Witness, rev. ed.; the blitz in bomb-scarred London during the Sec-
M. McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of ond World War, rapidly grew to become an inter-
Man; D. K. Smith, Creating Understanding Across Cul- national organization. Their midwives traveled
tural Landscapes; V. B. Sgaard, Everything You Need to by bicycle or paddle-boat or trudged on foot. Pay-
Know for a Cassette Ministry; idem, Media in Church ment for services might be a love-gift of an egg,
and Mission: Communicating the Gospel. or a posy of wild flowers, or maybe a handful of
grain (Carr, 1978, 30). Between 1850 and 1950
Medical Mission Work. The term medical mis- there were more than 1,500 medical missionaries
sion originally referred to a medical post, such from Britain alone serving in the developing
as a clinic or dispensary for the poor, which was world (Aitken, Fuller, and Johnson, 1984, 158).
supported by a Christian congregation. By the Issues in Medical Missions. The place of med-
middle of the nineteenth century, the meaning of ical missions in the larger context of world mis-
the term had broadened, referring primarily to sions has been repeatedly examined. Mission so-
the medical branch of Protestant overseas mis- cieties, particularly those formed by churches in
sions which paralleled the rapid growth of med- Great Britain and Europe in the nineteenth cen-
ical science (Grundmann, 1997, 184). tury, had as their highest priorities spreading the
The literature of medical missions, including the gospel through evangelism and educating indige-
publications of the mission societies which prolif- nous populations through schools. Medical mis-
erated during the nineteenth century, was domi- sionaries were to be first preachers, then med-
nated by biographical accounts of physicians and ical men, if time remained for that (Gelfund,
nurses who were compelled by the urgency of 1984, 19). Nevertheless, a characteristic feature
human suffering and the desire to fulfill the GREAT of this evangelical movement became the estab-
COMMISSION. John Thomas joined WILLIAM CAREY lishment of health services where none existed.
in India in 1773 and fought the practices of aban- The 1928 INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL
doning sick babies to death by exposure and the meeting in Jerusalem clearly stated that Medical
burning of Hindu widows on the funeral pyres of work should be regarded as in itself an expres-
their dead husbands. The first American medical sion of the spirit of the Master, and should not be
missionary, John Scudder, was a minister of the thought of as only a pioneer of evangelism or as
611
Medical Mission Work
merely a philanthropic agency (Lowe, 1886, 18). prevention and control of endemic diseases, and
More recently compassionate ministries, such as education. Emphasis was placed on coordinating
medical missions, have been described as part of efforts with other sectors of community and na-
holistic ministry which defines evangelism and tional development that impact health, such as
social action as functionally separate, relationally housing, communications, public works, and
inseparable, and essential to the total ministry of agriculture. MAP International, a Christian relief
the Church (Yamamori, 1997, 7; see also HOLIS- and development organization, and the Christian
TIC MISSIONS). Medical Society led missions and medical min-
Financially maintaining institutions built in istries policymakers in the development of a dec-
the pioneering phase of medical missions has laration identifying how the Alma-Ata conference
been increasingly difficult. Mission hospitals ac- might affect the structure of Christian health care
cepting government subsidies forfeited in princi- ministries. This facilitated the movement of the
ple their religious freedom and ability to operate medical missions community away from hospital-
autonomously. National churches and govern- based ministries and toward community-oriented
ments, however, have often not been able to as- ministries. The Christian Medical Commission in
sume the burden of these institutions, particu- Geneva, through its influential Contact magazine,
larly that of paying staff salaries. encouraged the development of holistic integrated
Adequate staffing for hospitals has been a health programs throughout the world.
perennial concern. Frenetic levels of activity in David Van Reken has described the progres-
overcrowded facilities have often characterized sion of medical missions as moving from the pi-
mission hospitals and dispensaries because of the oneer doing phase through a teaching era in
pressing human need they address with limited which training schools were founded, and into an
resources. Predictably, there is a high level of ex- enabling period. In this final phase doing and
haustion, burnout, and turnover among the staff teaching continue, but goals of community devel-
due to the medical work, staff experience frustra- opment, national rather than mission ownership
tion at the lack of time for spiritual ministry, and leadership, collegial rather than teacher-
family priorities, and personal rejuvenation. student relationships, and sustainable indigenous
The appropriateness of technology for health growth are emphasized (Van Reken, 1987, 6).
care services is a key issue. Remote hospitals Another trend is an increase in short-term
with irregular power supplies often seek and re- medical missions with agencies such as Medical
quest sophisticated medical equipment for radi- Group Missions, in which participants provide
ology services, surgery, intensive care units, and service in their areas of specialization or as edu-
laboratories. Government and mission funds dis- cators. Early retirement and mid-career job
proportionately support institutions rather than changes have also resulted in professionals pur-
health promotion at the community level. Addi- suing second careers as medical missionaries.
tionally, physicians functioning as surgeons or TENT MAKING MISSION, receiving compensation
family practitioners soon come to realize that the for work done in the field, is also a trend, as are
sicknesses they are treating could be better ad- group practices for physicians in the U.S. which
dressed through adequate sanitation, a clean are structured to encourage their staff to engage
water supply, and good nutrition. in medical missions. Board certification is in-
Political instability, antagonistic postures to- creasingly normative, as is a masters degree in
ward Christian ministries by governments and public health. Continuing education conferences
religious groups such as Islam, the inability of in- are provided annually by the Christian Medical
stitutions to significantly impact morbidity and and Dental Society, alternately held in Malaysia
mortality rates in their areas of service, and diffi- and Africa.
culties in integrating health ministries with affil- The future of medical missions increasingly
iated local churches are all significant issues in lies in partnering with the church, as Gods cho-
medical missions (Van Reken, 1987, 1619). sen channel for the restoration of wholeness and
Directions and Trends in Medical Missions. the transformation of society, and in promoting
An important influence on medical missions was effective community-based health care, grounded
the International Conference on Primary Health in the discipline of public health, which gen-
Care, held in the former U.S.S.R. in 1978 at Alma- uinely impacts morbidity and morality rates
Ata, which focused global attention on health care while encouraging positive health behaviors.
at the community level. It defined primary health EVVY CAMPBELL
care as that which is accessible, acceptable, af-
fordable, and linked to community initiatives. SEE ALSO Health, Health Care and Missions.
Further, primary health care included preventive, Bibliography. J. T. Aitken, H. W. C. Fuller, D. John-
promotive, curative, and rehabilitative aspects son, The Influence of Christians in Medicine; S. G.
and focused on clean water, adequate sanitation, Browne, Heralds of Health: The Saga of Christian Med-
immunization programs, maternal/child health, ical Initiatives; I. Carr, Tender Loving Care: The Salvation
promotion of food supply and proper nutrition, Army Nurses Fellowship at Work; Y. Cheung, Mission-
612
Melanesia
ary Medicine in China: A Study of Two Canadian Protes- wave of settlers driven by commerce and oppor-
tant Missions in China Before 1937; D. E. Fountain, tunity. A surprising outcome of Cooks explo-
Health, the Bible, and the Church; C. Grundmann, ration of Australia, New Zealand, and the islands
DMTHP, pp. 18487; M. Gelfund, Christian Doctor and of the Pacific came in response to his journals
Nurse: The History of Medical Missions in South Africa
which became the reading material for a gener-
from 17991976; J. C. Hefley, The Cross and the Scalpel:
New Directions and Opportunities for Christian Health ation of young Christians destined to be part of
Care Ministries: A Declaration and Study Guide; J. Lowe, the GREAT CENTURY OF MISSIONS. The earliest mis-
Medical Missions: Their Place and Power; R. A. Tucker, sionaries to the South Pacific were part of the
FJIJ; M. Yates, In Central America and the Caribbean LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY (LMS) group arriv-
with Medical Group Missions: Mission-Dollar Vacations; ing in Tahiti in 1797. One of the young Chris-
D. E. Van Reken, Mission and Ministry: Christian Med- tians who studied Cooks journals was JOHN
ical Practice in Todays Changing World Cultures; WILLIAMS, a man destined to impact not only the
WHO/UNICEF, Primary Health Care: Report of the In- islands of Polynesia, but to take the gospel as far
ternational Conference on Primary Health Care Alma- as Vanuatu in Melanesia. Williams commitment
Ata, USSR, 612 September 1978; T. Yamamori, Fur-
thering the Kingdom Through Relief and Development:
to including indigenous missionaries in his out-
Where and How Is It Happening? reaches characterized Melanesian missions in
the early days.
Following the early thrust of the LMS in
Medium. See SHAMAN, SHAMANISM.
Melanesia were the English Methodists who en-
tered Tonga and Fiji in the mid-1820s. Methodism
Melanesia. Melanesia, MICRONESIA, and POLYNE- spread rapidly through Tonga and Fiji initially
SIA are the three major groupings of islands in and from there to other islands of Melanesia. The
the Pacific. The islands of Melanesia from east to Roman Catholic missions arrived in Tahiti in
west include Norfolk Island; Fiji; Vanuatu; New 1836 and in the Melanesian islands of Fiji and
Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands; the Solomon New Caledonia in the years from 1840 to 1851.
Islands and the Santa Cruz Islands; New Guinea Another thrust of missions came from the Angli-
(Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya), the Admi- cans in New Zealand and the work of GEORGE
ralty Islands, and the Bismarck and Louisiade SELWYN, the first Anglican bishop and founder of
archipelagos. The year 2000 estimated combined the Melanesian Mission. Other missions appeared
population of the islands exceeds 6 million. in Melanesia during this period including the
Due to the rugged terrain of many of the islands Presbyterians who primarily focused on Vanuatu.
and the vast distances of water between them, By the decade of the 1870s, New Guinea became
Melanesia is one of the most diverse regions in the a significant target for a host of missions begin-
world. It is estimated that in excess of a thousand ning with the LMS in 1871 and the Sacred Heart
languages exist in the New Guinea region alone. Fathers from France in 1884. Within a few years,
Melanesian societies are based on kinship and by the Neuendettelsau Mission (1886) and the RHEN-
comparison to other areas of the world, are small- ISH MISSIONARY SOCIETY (1887) established works
scale, ranging from as few as seventy on the in the northern part of the island which was
smaller islands to several thousand in the New under German rule. Missions to The Solomon Is-
Guinea Highlands. Traditional economies were lands appeared during this same period. One of
based on rudimentary agriculture, hunting, fish- the significant missions to reach the Solomon Is-
ing, and indigenous wealth which included prima- lands was the South Seas Evangelical Mission
rily pigs and portable valuables. Trade networks (formerly the Queensland Kanaka Mission).
were established between the islands by means of The period from 1900 to 1942 was one of sig-
deep sea canoes which navigated the Pacific and nificant expansion of missions in Melanesia.
through inland waterways and bush tracks linking Major efforts were launched by Protestant groups
the populated areas. including the Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists,
The diversity of Melanesia encompasses their and Congregationalists as well as new works by
traditional religious beliefs and practices. In gen- interdenominational faith missions such as the
eral, however, Melanesian religions are theistic in Unevangelized Fields Mission and the German
that they emerge from a belief in a god. One over- Liebenzell Mission. The Roman Catholic mis-
all effect of the widespread theistic religions with sions continued to expand and develop through-
their solid commitment to the centrality of rela- out the region. The Seventh-Day Adventists en-
tionships was that Christianity spread rapidly. tered Melanesia establishing works in a number
Although some contact with Western explorers of islands. The end of this period of active expan-
took place prior to the second half of the eigh- sion coincided with the war in the Pacific.
teenth century, the major movement was a direct Following the war, news of the isolated islands
result of the voyages of the British explorer, Cap- full of unevangelized peoples reached the ears of
tain James Cook from 1772 to 1779. With the the churches in the West. The result was a resur-
opening of Australia as a colony, the expansion gence of new missions, particularly those of the
of the British Empire brought the predictable specialized ministries such as Missionary Avia-
613
Melanesia
tion Fellowship and the Summer Institute of Lin- conference was that of the Christ who is at the
guistics. Smaller independent missions also dot- center of all things, and who is crucified outside
ted the Melanesian landscape, particularly those the gate. This emphasized the movement of
from North America. This growth and expansion grace from the center to the periphery, and thus
of missionary efforts continued through the early the significance of the poor in any evangelistic
1980s. The early characteristic of a partnership strategy, for the situation of the poor is no longer
between indigenous and expatriate missionaries a social ethics question; it is a gospel question
was less a feature of the rapidly expanding mis- (EMILIO CASTRO).
sions in the twentieth century. One important at- Melbourne also developed the concept of the
tempt at greater cooperation in missions was the poor being, as others also, not only sinners, but
formation of the Evangelical Alliance which es- also the sinned against. That is, the poor are
tablished combined works in education, medi- those whose essential humanity is threatened
cine, and the Christian Leaders Training College and indeed compromised by the social political
in Papua New Guinea. and economic forces that challenge the god-like
The growth of churches in Melanesia paral- image within them: the destroyer of the body
leled the periods of missionary expansion. The may not be able to kill the soul, but it can, and
beginnings of church independence were seen in too often does, rape and maim the soul (Ray-
Tonga and Samoa as early as 1885, but did not mond Fung). Putting sinned-againstness on the
reach Melanesia until the Methodist Church evangelistic agenda enables human sinfulness to
worked through the issues of finance and control be addressed anew.
in Fiji during the first decade of the twentieth Clark Pinnock, after pressing the evangelical
century. Other churches followed a similar claim for an urgent proclamation of the message
process of growth and independence. of salvation to all peoples in the power of the
A number of challenges and opportunities face Spirit, admitted the great value of evangelicals
the churches and missions of Melanesia at the sharing in ecumenical discussions: The un-
end of the twentieth century. The more serious reached peoples are in large part also the poor of
challenges include widespread nominalism, a the earth which forces the evangelical agenda and
lack of adequate resources to deal with the chal- the ecumenical agenda together. I believe that
lenges of modernity, particularly among the Melbourne has bridged the gap between Bangkok
youth; tribalism which undermines the churchs 72 and Lausanne 1974 to an important degree
ability to demonstrate reconciliation; and a need (International Review of Missions, July 1980, 348).
to develop more leaders to address the theologi- Many of the evangelicals present shared that per-
cal issues unique to Melanesia. As with any pe- spective, but others were critical of a lack of doc-
riod of great challenge, great opportunities are trinal precision within the conference proceed-
also present. One of the most dynamic situations ings, especially with regard to the atonement.
is the resurgence of interest in missions among Some were also critical of a perceived lack of
the evangelical churches of Melanesia. This evangelistic urgency in a conference that all too
movement began in the early 1980s and culmi- easily took on the form of a mini WCC Assembly.
nated in a South Pacific missions conference JOHN H. Y. BRIGGS
held in Suva, Fiji, in 1989. One result of the con-
ference was the launch of The Deep Sea Canoe, SEE ALSO World Council of Churches Confer-
a combined mission movement designed to bring ences.
Melanesians back into an active role in world Bibliography. Your Kingdom ComeMission Per-
missions. spectives: Report on the World Conference on Mission
DOUGLAS MCCONNELL and Evangelism, Melbourne, Australia, 1215 May, 1980.
Bibliography. C. W. Foreman, The Island Churches of

the South Pacific; D. Hilliard, Gods Gentlemen: A His- Member Care in Missions. The concept of
tory of the Melanesian Mission, 18491942; K. S. La- member carethat mission members need to be
tourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, vol. cared for in important wayshas its roots in the
5; Melanesian Institute, Point; G. W. Trompf, Melane- New Testament. The GREAT COMMISSION was
sian Religion; C. J. Upton, EB, 5:86470; D. L. White- given alongside the GREAT COMMANDMENT, with
man, Melanesians and Missionaries. love for one another being the hallmark of Chris-
tian discipleship (John 13:3435). Scores of one
Melbourne Conference (1980). The theme of another injunctions in the New Testament sum-
the conference was not a doctrinal affirmation mon Christians to demonstrate this care for
but a prayer, Your Kingdom Come. Its four other believers, including care for missionaries,
sections focused on: (1) Good News to the Poor; in many ways. Even Jesus, the missionary proto-
(2) the Kingdom of God and Human Struggles; type, indicated that he needed caring compan-
(3) The Church Witnesses to the Kingdom; and ionship when he said, My soul is overwhelmed
(4) ChristCrucifed and RisenChallenges Hu- with sorrow to the point of death. Stay here and
man Power. One of the images central to the keep watch with me (Matt. 26:38). And the apos-
614
Mennonite Missions
tle Paul was fervent in expressing his gratitude Bibliography. L. M. Gardner, JTP 15 (1987): 30814;
for having been refreshed by the ministry of One- K. S. ODonnell, JTP 25 (1997): 14354; idem, Mission-
siphorus (2 Tim. 1:1618). ary Care: Counting the Cost for World Evangelization.
Todays missionaries need care as well. The
sending church, mission administrators, and Mennonite Missions. Mennonites trace their
field colleagues are all responsible to provide spiritual ancestry and the origins of their concern
quality care for the missionarywhether at for mission to the Anabaptist wing of the Refor-
home or abroad, frontliner or support staff, adult mation in sixteenth-century Europe. These An-
or child or perhaps even adult MKfrom the abaptists had a deep sense of the responsibility of
missionary familys first days with the mission all Christians to evangelize, to share their new-
through retirement or termination of service found faith spontaneously in voluntary witness
(and sometimes beyond). Often member care (see ANABAPTIST MISSIONS). Already in 1527, Ana-
specialists are utilized: pastoral counselors or baptist leaders met in Augsburg and appointed
mental health professionals with specialized in- missionaries to go out by twos and threes across
terest and experience in caring for missionaries; central Europe. As they were driven in ever
specialists from either inside or outside the mis- widening circles by their sense of Gods call and
sion. These caregivers target the physical, psy- by increasingly ruthless persecution, these An-
chological, and spiritual well-being of missionar- abaptists began new congregations wherever they
ies, seeking to promote overall health and went. Within these congregations members were
wholeness (and, concomitantly, greater effective- taught that the GREAT COMMISSION was Christs
ness in ministry as well). command to all believers at all times and they
Member care generally begins with assessment acted accordingly. They also believed that in the
to help missions select, prepare, and place mis- suffering of their church in persecution God au-
sionaries with a view toward maximizing the fit thenticated their missionary witness. However,
when most of the early leaders died as martyrs
between the missionary and his or her tasks,
and the later church discovered that it would
team mates, and host culture (see also FIELD AD-
only be tolerated by the authorities if it was silent
JUSTMENT). Member care goes on to offer prefield
and abstained from mission activity, Mennonites
and FURLOUGH seminars on topics such as educa-
turned their attention inward, content to practice
tional options for MISSIONARY CHILDREN, stress
their faith as the quiet in the land, living as
management, BURNOUT prevention, conflict reso-
much as possible separate from the society
lution, and coping with transition. Member care around them, passing on their faith only to their
includes training missionaries to support one an- own children.
other on the field. Reentry debriefing at the be- Only in the nineteenth century did Mennonites
ginning of furlough can help missionaries make recover their concern for mission, this time
the most of furlough. Reentry seminars for MKs through contact with Christians from other tra-
transitioning into college is another facet of ditions rather than from a recovery of the mis-
member care. So is providing on- or off-field sionary zeal which had been at the core of the
counseling for missionaries for preventive rea- Anabaptist faith. For example, early in the nine-
sons or in times of crisis, difficult transitions, or teenth century Mennonites in Europe were major
burnout. Helping missionaries exit the mission supporters of the English Baptist Mission in Ser-
with grace is a must of caring for the mission- ampore, India. When Mennonites themselves be-
ary at retirement or service termination. came missionaries, their understanding of mis-
Member care is an emerging specialized inter- sion was like that of evangelical Protestants of
disciplinary field with a constantly expanding that era and the churches which they planted
network of professionals, organizations, care were indistinguishable from the Protestant
centers, literature, and research. Standards of churches around them.
care and professional ethics have yet to be devel- In 1847 Mennonites in the Netherlands organ-
oped, as does the development of training mod- ized their own Sending Society and in 1851 sent
els and good training opportunities. More robust Pieter Jansz to Java as the first Mennonite to
research is needed. Also needed is greater interserve overseas in mission. He was soon followed
nationalization, developing better and more cul- by other Dutch Mennonites and then, in 1871,
turally appropriate member care for missionaries the Sending Society opened a new field in Suma-
of the newer sending countries. ODonnell aptly tra, which was staffed with workers from the
summed up the standing and significance of this Mennonite settlements in Russia. Although di-
young interdisciplinary field when he wrote, rection of the Society remained in the Nether-
Member care has grown in prominence and is lands, in later years the major financial support
now generally understood to be a biblical refor its work came from Russian Mennonites.
sponsibility and a central component of mission Abraham Friesen of the Mennonite Brethren in
strategy. Russia went to Hyderabad, India, under the
JEANNE L. JENSMA American Baptist Mission Union in 1889 and
615
Mennonite Missions
began what became the Mennonite Brethren book, in that year there were 856,000 Mennonites
Church in India. worldwide organized into 171 church confer-
Among North American Mennonites interest in ences or denominational bodies in 61 countries.
missions grew under the influence of the Evan- Of these, 449,100 or 52 percent were found in
gelical Awakening and was a major concern in the North America and Europe, the countries where
formation of the General Conference Mennonite the traditional mission fields were located. This
Church in 1860. At the founding sessions both compares with 67 percent in Europe and North
home and foreign missions were commended to America and 33 percent in the rest of the world
the congregations and three treasuries were set as recently as 1978.
up to receive funds. The candidacy of Samuel S. In addition to cooperative mission projects
Haury resulted in the formation of a mission among Mennonite denominations in Europe and
board which commissioned him to work among North America, cooperation among these de-
the Arapahoe in Oklahoma in 1880. The first nominations and churches and sending agencies
North American Mennonite to serve overseas was in Africa, Asia, and Latin America for new mis-
Eusebius Hershey of the Mennonite Brethren in sion efforts beyond their own church areas has
Christ Church (now part of the Missionary increased greatly since the 1970s. During this
Church), who went to Sierre Leone in 1890. same period Mennonites have also worked
Concern for mission among North American closely with so-called indigenous churches
Mennonites accelerated rapidly near the close of (churches which are not the direct result of West-
the nineteenth century. Mission committees and ern mission activity) in Africa and Latin America
boards were organized in the various Mennonite
in helping them to train leaders, particularly for
denominations, and by the early years of the
Bible teaching. What real partnership means in
twentieth century missionaries sent out by Men-
these various settings is a major agenda item for
nonite sending agencies were at work in India,
Mennonites in mission at the end of the twenti-
China, and the African continent. Also in this
same period, Mennonites, who were almost en- eth century.
tirely a rural people in North America, organized The second half of the twentieth century has
urban missions in a number of major North been a time of intense Mennonite theological in-
American cities. In addition to denominational terest in the sixteenth-century Anabaptists and
missions, Mennonites also organized mission their understanding of what it means to follow
agencies which included more than one Mennon- Christ. In the process there has come a new ap-
ite denomination. Most notable among these were preciation for the centrality of mission in the An-
the China Mennonite Mission Society organized abaptist faith and a new concern for making that
for work in Shandong in 1901, and the Congo In- faith central to Mennonite mission. As a result,
land Mission (now the Africa Inter-Mennonite Mennonites have come to an awareness that they
Mission) which began work in what is now Zaire may have something important to contribute in
in 1911. By 1957 there were 638 missionaries worldwide mission discussions and are playing
working under North American Mennonite mis- an increasingly active role in such conferences
sion boards in 28 countries around the world. and study groups.
After the close of World War II, Mennonite ROBERT L. RAMSEYER
concern for and involvement in worldwide mis- Bibliography. Mennonite Encyclopedia, D. G. Lichdi,
sion grew rapidly. While between 1850 and 1939 ed., Mennonite World Handbook; W. A. Shenk, Anabap-
Mennonites had established only 24 mission pro- tism and Mission.
grams, in the 1940s they established 18 more, in
the 1950s 42, in the 1960s 17, in the 1970s 28,
Mentoring. See DISCIPLE, DISCIPLESHIP.
and between 1980 and 1986 15 more.
In addition to more traditional mission sending
agencies, North American Mennonite churches Mercy of God. The English word for mercy is a
also work together in the Mennonite Central translation of several different Hebrew and Greek
Committee, an agency formed in 1920 for famine words. For our study, three Greek words are of pri-
relief in Russia. After World War II, Mennonite mary importance: eleos, oiktirmon, and splanchna.
Central Committee ministries expanded rapidly These three terms fall within the general semantic
with emergency relief aid and then development range of the English word mercy and hence can
aid in many parts of the world. Now known as a be visualized as a group of overlapping linguistic
relief, service, and development agency for min- circles variously translated as mercy, compassion,
istry in the name of Christ, the Mennonite Central or pity.
Committee had over one thousand volunteers The biblical concept of mercy is both a feeling
serving in fifty countries in 1987. and an action. It refers to the deep feelings of
Globally, Mennonite churches are loosely or- pity and the practical rendering of aid. Indeed, it
ganized into the Mennonite World Conference. might be more accurate to say that mercy is a
According to the 1990 Mennonite World Hand- feeling that leads to action.
616
Merensky, Alexander
The mercy of God is related to mission in at helpful and unnecessary bifurcation (see also
least three ways. It is an integral part of the mes- HOLISTIC MISSION).
sage we proclaim; it provides motivation for our Mercy ministry was a significant part of Christs
service; and it describes the manner in which we earthly ministry and remains an important aspect
carry out the GREAT COMMISSION. of the churchs mission. In fact, Jesus has given
First of all, Gods mercy is an integral part of numerous deed gifts to the church that are ex-
our message. The gospel describes the breaking plicitly related to mercy ministry: service, giving,
in of the divine mercy into the world of human mercy, helps and administration (Rom. 12:68;
misery in the person of Jesus of Nazareth. His 1 Cor. 14:28; 1 Peter 4:1011). Jesus expects his
mercy is the basis of our salvation. He saved us, ministry of mercy to continue through his church.
not because of the righteous things we have Both word and deed, evangelism and mercy min-
done, but because of his mercy (Titus 3:5). istry are emphasized in Scripture. They are like
The Bible describes God as rich in mercy the proverbial two wings of an airplane.
(Eph. 2:4) and full of mercy (James 5:11). He is However, mercy ministry does not just seek the
the Father of compassion and God of all com- interdependence of word and deed. It also ad-
fort (2 Cor. 1:3). It is because of his great mercy dresses ones attitudes. On two occasions, after
(1 Peter 1:3) that we are saved. Thus, the mercy of seeing the critical and condemning attitudes of
God underlies the whole message of the Bible. the Pharisees, Jesus rebukes them by quoting
Second, mercy provides motivation for our min- from the Old Testament: I desire mercy, not sac-
istry. Paul appeals to Gods mercy as the basis for rifice (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). The scrupulously legal-
service. It is the experience of mercy that keeps us istic Pharisees were preoccupied with external re-
pressing on in the work. To the church at Rome he ligious rituals but knew little of Gods tender
says, I urge you, brothers, in view of Gods mercy, mercy or heartfelt compassion.
to offer your bodies as living sacrifices (Rom. Furthermore, Jesus contrasts mercy with a
12:1). To the church at Corinth he writes, There- judging, condemning, and unforgiving spirit. Be
fore, since through Gods mercy we have this min- merciful, just as your Father is merciful. Do not
istry, we do not lose heart (2 Cor. 4:1). judge, and you will not be judged. Do not con-
Third, mercy describes the manner in which demn and you will not be condemned. Forgive
we carry out the Great Commission. Jesus is our and you will be forgiven (Luke 6:3637). Thus,
model of mercy ministry. He felt deep compas- mercy is an attitude that describes how we are to
sion both for those who were spiritually lost and carry out our mission. In the words of James,
for those who were physically needy (Matt. 9:36; mercy triumphs over judgment! (James 2:13).
20:34). But these deep feelings of compassion (lit- RICHARD D. LOVE
erally, moved in his bowelswhat today would Bibliography. E. R. Achtemeier, IDB, III:35254;
be called the heart) always led Jesus to action. It H. H. Esser, NIDNTT, II:593601; J. W. L. Hoad, NBD,
was his mercy that moved him to heal the sick p. 761; T. J. Keller, Ministries of Mercy.
and feed the hungry (Matt. 14:14; 15:32).
Through word and deed, Jesus engaged in holis- Merensky, Alexander (18371918). German mis-
tic ministry, meeting the full range of human sionary in South Africa. The son of a Prussian
needs. He was not just a teacher or an evangelist. forest administrator, Merensky was born in Pan-
His was a life poured out in deeds of mercy, min- ten near Liegnitz in Silesia (Germany) in 1837
istering to the whole person. and studied at the BERLIN MISSIONARY SOCIETYS
Jesus also taught about the importance of seminary. In 1859 he was posted to South Africa
mercy. In the parable of the good Samaritan, and undertook a new work in the Transvaal
Jesus illustrates the meaning of the second great (South African Republic) among the Pedi, a
command to love your neighbor as yourself. He Northern Sotho people who lived north of Preto-
describes the compassionate ministry of the ria. In 1864 a conflict among the indigenous
Samaritan as an act of mercy. He then concludes tribes forced him to relocate and establish a new
this parable with the command, go and do like- station, Bothshabelo near Middelburg, which be-
wise (Luke 10:37). Thus, mercy ministry is a came the center of Berlins Transvaal mission. As
command for the entire church. the field director he developed workshops to
The ministry of mercy is primarily a ministry train craftsmen, a printing plant, schools, hospi-
of deeds, focused on meeting the physical needs tals, and a seminary to train African evangelists.
of humanity. Because of this, it is often con- He mastered several African languages, studied
trasted with evangelism. EVANGELISM is seen as the history, culture, and religion of the people
the spiritual work of the church while mercy and published the results in Europe, and took
ministry is merely physical. It can be cogently ar- part in geographical research expeditions. Forced
gued that evangelism has a logical priority over to leave the South African Republic after the
mercy ministry because of the eternal conse- British defeat in 1882, he became one of the lead-
quences of rejecting the gospel. But this is an un- ing advocates for German colonial expansion. In
617
Merensky, Alexander
1891 he led an expedition into southern Tan- ence (1834). Most of the effort was in HOME MIS-
ganyika which opened the way for the Berlin SIONS for fifty years, with work opening up in
Mission to develop a field there. In his later years Japan and China toward the end of the century.
he continued his scholarly works, was showered Second in the three-way split was the Methodist
with honorary degrees and scholarly society Episcopal (South), which formed its own Mis-
membership, and moderated his enthusiasm for sionary Society in 1844 in Louisville. This board
colonial missions. worked in home missions, not retaining any
ULRICH VAN DER HEYDEN work overseas that had begun before separation.
It was fifty years before mission was launched in
Japan, followed by China and Korea. By 1920,
Metachurch. See SMALL GROUPS.
the Missionary Society had work in the Congo, in
Europe, Mexico, and Brazil. At the time of union
Methodist Missions. The Board of Global Min- M.E. (South) had 169 missionaries. However, the
istries of the United Methodist Church resulted mission enterprise of the M.E. (North) was the
from the union of the Methodist Church and the largest, including all the fields mentioned above.
Evangelical United Brethren Church that took Missionary work of the three groups, both home
place in 1968. To understand mission in this de- and foreign, was organized into one at the time
nomination the mission histories of the two of union (1939), as the Board of Missions and
streams need to be accounted for. Church Extension. In 1952 this became the
Mission from England gave birth to the Board of Mission of the Methodist Church with
Methodist Church, when from 1768 to 1774 JOHN three divisions: The World Division, the National
WESLEY sent eight missionaries to America to Division, and the Womans Division.
promote and nurture the new Methodist move- Church union between the Evangelical United
ment. For years following the America Revolu- Brethren Church and the Methodist Church took
tion the American frontier itself became a mis- place in 1968. This further widened the mission
sion field for Methodist itinerants. The church areas of the newly organized United Methodist
followed the expansion to the west and an official Church. The Department of World Mission, and
Missionary Society was formed in 1819. Soon af- the Womans Society of World Service of the
terwards evangelists took the gospel into Canada E.U.B. denomination had work in China, Japan,
and Nova Scotia. Hong Kong, Philippines, Brazil, Ecuador, Nige-
Mission into the world was taking place when ria, Sierra Leone, and Europe. This presented a
stress arose within the Methodist Episcopal challenging, sometimes difficult task of reorgani-
Church in the United States. A schismatic prob- zation, not only for the new denomination, but
lem over the episcopacy led to the formation of also for ecumenical relationships among the
the Methodist Protestant Church (1830). Soon af- overseas churches.
terwards, a second division around the issue of Following the union, mission administration
slavery resulted in the formation of the Methodist was finally reconstituted as the Board of Global
Episcopal Church (South), while the original Ministries. The structures followed primarily the
M.E. Church continued in the north. These lines Methodist patterns, as the size of the Methodist
of American Methodism pursued their separate Church at the time of union was nearly ten times
mission programs until 1939, when union greater than that of the E.U.B. The total mission-
brought the three branches together, combining ary force was well over one thousand in 1968.
missionary operations under the Board of Mis- Since then, because of transfer of authority to na-
sions of the reorganized Methodist Church. tional churches and changes in missionary roles,
Before the division, the Methodist Episcopal the number of overseas missionary personnel has
Church commissioned Melville R. Cox to Liberia. been greatly reduced.
He became the first official missionary (1833). The contributions of women in all stages of
Soon afterward, work was opened up in Ar- mission history of the United Methodist Church
gentina, Brazil, and Texas (which in 1837 was are of inestimable importance (see WOMEN IN
still Spanish/Mexican territory). M.E. Church MISSION). The divided Methodist Church (until
missions developed quickly after this time in 1939), with their own separate boards of mis-
China, Korea, India, Burma, Singapore, Malaya, sions, were also organized into separate womens
and the Philippines as well as in Europe, the organizations. The Womans Foreign Missionary
Baltic States, and Latin America, including Cuba, Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church had
Brazil, Mexico, and Puerto Rico. The African 473 missionaries and a budget of $1 million
work, which had begun in Liberia, expanded to when union was achieved in 1939. The Womans
Algeria, Tunisia, Angola, Rhodesia, Mozambique, Missionary Society of the M.E. Church (South),
and the Congo. organized in 1878, brought 169 missionaries and
The Methodist Protestant Church, the earliest $400,000 into the union. The Methodist Protes-
of the schismatic groups, established a Board of tant Church was smaller and its Womans For-
Foreign Missions at their first General Confer- eign Missionary Society worked more jointly
618
Mexico City Conference (1963)
with the M.P. Churchs Board of Missions. joined him after 855. The work for which they
Equally effective in fostering missionary educa- are known began in 682 when Rastislav of
tion and in the raising of funds were the womens Moravia requested Greek priests to teach the
agencies of the two churches that formed the Slavic people in their own language. They trav-
Evangelical United Brethren Church in 1946. The eled to Rastislavs court and began training Slavic
United Brethren Church had officially recognized priests. They ran into increasing opposition from
their Womans Missionary Society in 1875. The the Bavarian Catholic missionaries there. They
W.M.S. is remembered for beginning the earliest traveled to Rome in 868 to confer with the pope,
African mission at Totifunk in Sierra Leone. The who approved the work of the brothers and the
Evangelical Association was greatly helped by the Slavic liturgy they created. Methodius was or-
Womans Missionary Society, formed in 1883. dained, and eventually consecrated as archbishop
This Society functioned as a supportive Society of Pannonia and Moravia, which was removed
rather than setting up their separate mission pro- from the authority of the Franks (Germans). This
grams. After the merger in 1968, the Womans produced a violent reaction among Frankish sec-
Society of World Service of the E.U.B. Church ular and religious leaders and in 870 King Louis
was integrated with the Womans Division of the the German imprisoned Methodius in Swabia.
Methodist Church. Pope John VIII secured Methodiuss restoration
United Methodist mission work cannot be in 873, although apparently only after a promise
fully appreciated without recognizing the closely that use of the Slavic liturgy would be curtailed.
allied United Methodist Committee on Relief. The conflicts, however, continued. Methodius re-
This is the arm of the United Methodist Church turned briefly to Constantinople (881882) to
that responds by a diversity of programs to cri- complete the translation of the Bible he and Cyril
sis situations as well as those that call for longer had begun. He died in Moravia on April 6, 885.
commitment, such as community development, After his death, his followers were forced out of
agriculture, and humanitarian services. UMCOR Moravia, with the result that they began evangel-
maintains a separate program and budget, even istic work among the Poles, Bulgars, Bohemians,
though the kinds of projects carried out by the and other Slavic peoples. The ministry of Cyril
Board of Global Ministries and UMCOR are and Methodius is traditionally regarded as the
often very closely related. major means by which the gospel was brought to
In 1984, a second mission agency was formed the Slavic people.
as a voluntary association carrying the name The ROBERT SHUSTER
Mission Society for United Methodists. The pur-
pose of the new society is to emphasize evangel- Bibliography. F. Dvornik, Byzantine Missions Among
ism in the tradition of John Wesley and promote the Slavs: SS. Constantine-Cyril and Methodius.
the centrality of the GREAT COMMISSION as the
basis for mission. With headquarters in Atlanta, Mexico City Conference (1963). The first world
the MSUM carries on its work separately from conference of the newly created Division of
the denominational Board. Missionary personnel World Mission and Evangelism, brought into
of the society are United Methodists who work being through the integration of the INTERNA-
directly with the MSUM or are seconded to other TIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL into the life of the
mission agencies. This additional feature of join- WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES, was held in Mexico
ing with other mission organizations has resulted City in December 1963. Under the title of Wit-
in a diversity of ministries in South and Central ness in Six Continents its four sections focused
America, Central and Southeast Asia, Africa, on: (1) the witness of Christians to those of other
North America, and in the new states of the for- faiths; (2) the witness of Christians to people liv-
mer Soviet Union. ing in a secular world; (3) the witness of the con-
DEAN S. GILLILAND gregation in its neighborhood; and (4) the wit-
Bibliography. W. C. Barclay, History of Methodist
ness of the Christian church across national and
Missions, vols. 13; J. B. Behny and P. Eller, The History confessional boundaries. Taken together these
of the Evangelical United Brethren; J. Cannon, History of clearly set the missionary task in the context of
Southern Methodist Missions; J. T. Copplestone, History what God was doing in the secular world, with
of Methodist Missions, vol. 4; B. L. Goddard, The Ency- less emphasis on the nature of the church itself.
clopedia of Modern Christian Missions. Mexico City abandoned the geographical concept
of Christendom because The missionary frontier
Methodius (c. 815885). Greek missionary to the runs around the world: it is the line that sepa-
Slavic people. Born in Thessalonika (Saloniki) in rates belief from unbelief, the unseen frontier
the Byzantine Empire, he took the name of which cuts across all other frontiers and presents
Methodius upon becoming a monk at the Mount the universal church with its primary missionary
Olympus monastery, where his younger brother challenge. It was the first mission conference at
Constantine (later to take the name of CYRIL) which the Orthodox were formally present.
619
Mexico City Conference (1963)
Work on dialogue with people of other living Andrs Moral, a Moravian lapidary, arrested in
faiths was not significantly advanced at Mexico Mexico City in 1536 for ten Lutheran heresies. So
City, and although the conference endorsed the many followed in his footsteps that a special tri-
idea of Joint Action for Mission, the official his- bunal of the Holy Inquisition was established in
tory records a slow response and inadequate at- Mexico City in 1571. Almost every year Lutheran
tention at Geneva to this emphasis. The confer- and Calvinist heretics were tried and sentenced.
ence was, however, significant in establishing the The last two condemned to death by the Inquisi-
understanding that, in LESSLIE NEWBIGINs words, tion in Mexico were Catholic priests Hidalgo and
the home base of the world mission is world- Morelos, the founding fathers who led the war of
wide, and that the mission field is also world- independence from Spain beginning in 1810.
wide. Accordingly the conference broke new The second wave was more intentional and took
ground in the attention it gave to missionary en- place in independent Mexico. JAMES DIEGO
deavor in the secular world of North America THOMSON was the representative of the British and
and Europe. Foreign Bible Society and of the British and For-
JOHN H. Y. BRIGGS eign School Society. He had traveled extensively
SEE ALSO World Council of Churches Confer- throughout Latin America establishing Lancaster
ences. Schools (schools that utilized the more advanced
students to teach the younger ones and used the
Bibliography. R. K. Orchard, Witness in Six Conti- Bible as one of the principal texts). He arrived in
nents. Records of the meeting of the commission on Mexico in 1827 with the same purpose. Political
World Mission and Evangelism of the World Council of liberals in Mexico became thoroughly committed
Churches, Held in Mexico City, December 8th to 19th
to his cause, such that on his departure in 1830,
1963; N. Lossky et al., DEM, p. 330; L. Newbigin, The
Ecumenical Advance: A History of the Ecumenical Jos Mara Luis Mora, a very influential statesman
Movement, 2:19395. and author, became the official representative of
the Bible Society in Mexico and promoted the
Mexico (Est. 2000 pop.: 102,410,000; 1,958,201 translation of the Scriptures into the Spanish,
sq. km. [756,061 sq. mi.]). Mexico is Latin Amer- Nhuatl, Tarasco, Otom, and Huasteco languages.
icas third largest country in land mass. A civil The third wave was perhaps the most impor-
war la Revolucin took place from 1910 to 1917, tant and has rightly been called Mexicos own
and ended the long dictatorship of Porfirio Daz Protestant Reformation. In 1857 President Ben-
ushering in a new period of equality and democ- ito Jurez and his cabinet implemented the Laws
racy. Nevertheless, the Partido Revolucionario In- of Reform, which separated church from state
stitucional (PRI) has dominated politics through- and, in effect, granted religious liberty in Mexico.
out the century, frequently resorting to fraud and Although the Roman Catholic hierarchy con-
corruption. demed the new Constitution and the liberal
Catholicism was introduced into the country politicians that promoted it, a significant number
through the Spanish conquerors. This resulted in of priests were supportive of these initiatives.
many distortions of the faith and much SYN- These Padres Constitucionalistas were expelled
CRETISM. Nevertheless, there were many sincere from the Catholic Church and formed an inde-
missionaries, including the famous BARTOLOM pendent church with Jurezs support. They un-
DE LAS CASAS. Almost 90 percent of Mexicans are derwent their own Reformation without much
Roman Catholics, although fewer than 10 per- foreign influence. Although this Iglesia Mexicana
cent participate in weekly services. The Catholic de Jess did not survive much past 1870, many of
Church has had a stormy relationship with the its leaders, such as Arcadio Morales and Sstenes
government, including a violent civil war which Jurez, became the founders and leaders of the
claimed over a million lives (191629). Due to the Presbyterian, Methodist, and Anglican churches
current vulnerability of both institutions, they are in the following decades.
seeking a mutually beneficial relationship. The The fourth wave was the arrival of foreign mis-
four main factions within the church are the con- sionaries sent out by denominational mission or-
servative traditionalists loyal to the Vatican, the ganizations, primarily based in the United States,
nationalists, a socially concerned comunidad de beginning in the 1870s. The Methodist, Baptist,
base sector led by a few progressive bishops, and Presbyterian, and other denominations experi-
a growing charismatic wing. enced slow but steady growth during the long
The history of the Protestant Church in Mexico Porfirian dictatorship. Perhaps their most signif-
can be understood as a series of waves, each icant contribution was the 614 schools that they
one building on and going beyond the previous started throughout the country. Evangelical par-
one. The first wave consisted of European immi- ticipation in the Revolution (191017) was wide-
grants who arrived in New Spain. Usually these spread, especially in the military, ideological, ed-
were subjects of Charles V and Phillip II but were ucational, and political arenas. Nevertheless,
from countries other than Spain. The earliest was after the Revolution, Protestant denominations
620
Micronesia
abandoned the public sphere due to legal and Saipan). In the westernmost part, the island of
theological factors. GUAM, an unincorporated territory of the United
Pentecostals constitute the fifth wave. Mexican States, completes the list of Micronesian islands.
migrant workers in the United States returned to It is an island world composed of over 2,000 is-
Mexico after the Revolution and many brought lands scattered over 3 million square miles of the
with them Pentecostal fire. Not only denomina- Pacific with a population of over 260,000.
tions like the Assemblies of God and the Church In 1852, AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS
of God (Cleveland) were begun, but entirely au- FOR FOREIGN MISSION (ABCFM) missionaries, as-
tonomous movements sprouted, such as the Igle- sisted by newly trained Hawaiian couples, en-
sia de Dios en la Repblica Mexicana, the Iglesia tered the eastern part of Micronesia (Marshalls,
Interdenominacional de Portales, the Iglesia de Kosrae, and Pohnpei) and established small is-
Pachuca, the Movimiento de Iglesias Evanglicas land churches. Within the first twenty years mis-
Pentecosts Independientes (MIEPI), and others. sionaries on Pohnpei reached farther west to the
Currently, each of these movements has more Chuuk Islands with the help of local servants of
than five hundred member churches. Christ. Roman Catholic missionaries reached the
Over the past twenty years, a sixth wave has western parts of Micronesia (Guam and the
burst on the scene, the Neo-Pentecostals. With Northern Marianas) in the late seventeenth and
many of their numbers coming from the middle the early part of the eighteenth centuries. They
and upper classes, these groups are much less eventually established churches on Yap and
traditional than other evangelicals. Utilizing Palau, and throughout the rest of the Microne-
lively music by Marcos Witt, Miguel Cassina, and sian islands.
others, these groups emphasize vigorous praise ABCFM missionaries and Hawaiian co-work-
and worship more than doctrine and biblical ex- ers evangelized the northern islands of Kiribati
position. Groups such as El Castillo del Rey (Mon- (Gilberts) in 1857, while the southern islands
terrey), Amistad Cristiana, and Calocoaya (Mex- were reached by English missionaries of the LON-
ico City) minister to tens of thousands in their DON MISSIONARY SOCIETY as the islands had be-
weekly services. come part of an English Protectorate and later an
Comprising about 10 percent of the current English Crown Colony.
population, Mexican evangelicals are involved in In 1898, after Spain lost the Spanish-American
creative social ministries and venturing more and War, the United States took over Guam. The rest
more into the political arena. Religious persecu- of the Micronesian islands became a colonial
tion continues in Chiapas, Oaxaca, Hidalgo, and possession of Germany. Thus, in 1906, German
other states, but this persecution has resulted in Protestant missionaries of the Liebenzeller Mis-
even greater growth. sion (former German branch of the CHINA INLAND
The most rapid and extensive growth of Protes- MISSION) entered the eastern part of Micronesia
tantism in Mexico has occurred during the last in place of the American missionaries. They pro-
forty years in the southern states of Chiapas, Oax- ceeded to strengthen the existing churches and to
aca, Tabasco, Veracruz, Quintana Roo, and Yu- evangelize the unreached islands west of Chuuk.
catn. Large people movements among Mayan During World War I, Japan took over Micronesia
tribal peoples have been common. In Chiapas, from Germany. They replaced German mission-
Tabasco, and Yucatn over 25% of the population aries with workers from the Protestant Church of
is reportedly evangelical Portestant or Pentecostal. Japan. In the 1920s and 1930s the Japanese gov-
LINDY SCOTT ernment allowed German missionaries to return
to the islands, but they placed them under severe
Bibliography. L. Scott, Salt of the Earth: A Socio-Po- restrictions as the islands were fortified for war.
litical History of Mexico City Evangelical Protestants The U.S. liberation of Micronesia during World
(19641991). War II ended the Japanese control and initiated
an American administration in the islands as the
Micronesia. POLYNESIA, MICRONESIA, and MELANE- U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. This al-
SIA comprise the three major divisions of the large lowed missionaries from the original American
Pacific Ocean. It is located north of the equator in Board to return to the eastern part of Micronesia.
the western part of the Pacific. Geographically, Further, German missionaries who had survived
Micronesia includes the large island nation of the war were allowed to continue their work
KIRIBATI (formerly Gilbert Islands, a British pro- under the auspices of the American Board. These
tectorate) located in the easternmost part and missionaries joined their efforts to regather is-
straddling the equator. Then, spread from east to land Christians and to rebuild their lives and
west are the islands of the former U.S. Trust Ter- their churches.
ritory of the Pacificthe MARSHALL ISLANDS, the The United States brought its educational,
FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA of Kosrae, Pohn- monetary, and postal system to the islands of Mi-
pei, Chuuk (Truk), Yap; and PALAU (Belau); and cronesia. They also provided health care and a
the NORTHERN MARIANAS ISLANDS (Rota, Tinian, political program that led the war-torn islands
621
Micronesia
into a period of restoration and growth. Vigorous naries. This has resulted in self-governing and
training programs by the United States equipped self-supporting island churches in the past
islanders with needed skills to rebuild the islands twenty-five years. The mission boards (American
and explore new forms of democratic govern- Board/UCC and Liebenzell) still assist with some
ment. With proper training, they wrote their own funding and personnel at the request of the
Constitutions and democratically elected their churches.
own forms of governments at the municipal, The traditional island churches are also chal-
state, and national levels. In the early 1960s, lenged by other Christian organizations establish-
elected leaders from each island group formed ing their ministries. The Assemblies of God, the
the Congress of Micronesia and a national gov- Seventh-Day Adventists, the Independent Baptists,
ernment in cooperation with the U.S. adminis- Youth with a Mission, Campus Crusade, and more
tration. However, over the past twenty years, recently the Salvation Army have become active
each island group has elected its own style of on various island centers. The Jehovahs Wit-
government, thus ending a united Micronesia nesses, the Mormon Church, and the Bahai are
and resulting in the various island nations: the also offering their services to the Micronesians.
Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated Over the past twenty-five years, enormous
States of Micronesia (FSM) made up of the four changes have challenged the island traditions and
Island States of Kosrae, Pohnpei, Chuuk, and cultural values. Subsistence farming and fishing is
Yap; the Republic of Belau (Palau); and the Com- giving way to a cash economy. Communal living
monwealth of the Northern Marianas. and sharing of resources is being taxed by a greater
All of these young island nations, except the emphasis on the individual. Overseas travel and ed-
Northern Marianas, have chosen to maintain ucation, movies, TV (cable, CNN), videos, and
their close ties with the United States through a other mass media bring incredible challenges to
unique arrangement with the United States, the island people and their cultural values. Ele-
called the Compact of Free Association. Under mentary and high school education for all island
this compact, the United States provides the is- young people adds to the culture change facing
land nations with needed funding for their inter- families, communities, and churches. Drugs, alco-
nal development. They also have freedom to deal hol, and a promiscuous lifestyle challenge the is-
with their internal affairs and are allowed to land communities.
enter the United States without a visa. In ex- Ruralurban drift due to education, jobs, and
change, the United States receives options on adventure has drawn the young educated elite
land use for United States military purposes. The from their islands to the crowded administration
United States also assumes the responsibility for centers of Micronesia, often leaving the very
the defense of the area. The people of Northern young and the older ones back on their islands.
Marianas elected an even closer bond with the Guam, within easy access of most of the islands,
United States, the status of a commonwealth, has become the most attractive urban center for
allowing them to receive greater benefits, espe- islanders from the central and western part of Mi-
cially U.S. citizenship. cronesia. Since the Compact of Free Association
The island of Guam, unincorporated territory was ratified in the early 1980s, Micronesian citi-
of the United States and located within the west- zens have unrestricted entry into the United
ern part of Micronesia, provides the United States. Thus, Guam, Hawaii, and the United States
States with one of the most forward bastions of have become home to many Micronesians. For ex-
defense in the vast Pacific Ocean. There is a large ample, a recent estimate claims that over 9,000
U.S. military presence on Guam. The Organic Act Chuukese have migrated to Guam. Chuukese
of Guam (1950) by the U.S. Congress designated churches have attempted to provide pastoral care
the island as an unincorporated territory of the for their people on Guam. In addition, many
United States, giving its people, the Chamorros, Chuukese have settled in Hawaii and various parts
U.S. citizenship without the privilege of voting of the United States. They have become a signifi-
for the president of the United States. As the cant people group, among whom evangelistic and
Hub of the Pacific, Guam has become the pastoral work is being done.
home for many Micronesians, Asians, and U.S. The continuous cultural change over the years
citizens. The island has also become the honey- has also sparked the rise of nativistic move-
moon capital for Japanese newlyweds. In recent ments (Palau and Chuuk) that urge a return to
years, Chamorros have been seeking to change cultural values and practices rejected and neg-
their island status from a U.S. territory to a com- lected by generations of island Christians. These
monwealth. movements have challenged the churches to be-
During this crucial transition period, the mis- come more sensitive to the unmet needs of is-
sionaries assisted the island churches in develop- landers. Also, the persistent animistic practices,
ing their leadership through local training pro- involving local medicine and magical assistance
grams, centralized pastoral schools, as well as of various kinds through contact with ancestral
overseas education in Bible colleges and semi- spirits and traditional powers, challenge island
622
Middle East
Christians to demonstrate the all-sufficiency of early tradition is that Thomas carried the gospel
Jesus Christ. to India and established seven congregations
One of the most important roles for the island along the Malabar coast.
churches in Micronesia today is to be the Christianity spread through the Hellenistic
prophetic voice of God to the elected leaders of world, largely tending to follow trade lines and
the island nations; to provide a cohesive commu- attracting converts in the great urban centers of
nity of faith and values for island Christians in the Roman Empire such as Antioch, Ephesus,
the face of rapid cultural change; and to demon- Corinth, and Rome. Although conversion to the
strate to many islanders in meaningful POWER new faith was uneven, by the end of the third
ENCOUNTERS the all-sufficiency of the Lord Jesus century Armenia had became the first Christian-
Christ and the power of the gospel. ized kingdom followed, early in the fourth cen-
HERMAN BEUHLER tury, by the Roman Empire. Within two hundred
years after the death of Christ, Syrian Christians
Micronesia, Federated States of (Est. 2000 were carrying the faith into the Persian Empire
pop.: 144,000; 702 sq. km. [271 sq. mi.]). Com- and across the steppes of Central Asia. In addi-
prised of more than six hundred islands in four tion to the tradition that St. Thomas visited
main groups (Truk [Chuuk], Pohnpei, Yap, and South India, there is another account, dating to
Kosrae), in 1993 the population was estimated to the third century, of his visit to northwest India
be 90 percent Christian (40% Protestant, 48% (what is now Pakistan). Earliest evidence of
Catholic, and 2.1% marginal Christian), with 14.5 Nestorian missionary activity in the ancient Chi-
percent being evangelical. The largest Protestant nese capital Changan dates to 635.
denominations included the Protestant Church of Missionary dynamism did not endure. Con-
East Truk, Protestant Church of the Caroline, tributing to this decline was the internal political
United Church of Pohnpei, and the Assemblies of and theological splintering of Christianity. How-
God. Mormons and Jehovahs Witnesses are also ever, in terms of the transformation it brought to
active. the religious geography of the Middle East, the
A. SCOTT MOREAU major factor was the rise of ISLAM. During the pe-
riod from the hijrah, or emigration of the Prophet
SEE ALSO Micronesia. and his family from Mecca to Medina in 622 to
his death in 632, Muhammad created a religious
Middle East. Since World War II, the lands from community held together by his personal pres-
the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian ence and authority. Though it lasted only ten
Gulf have been called the Middle East. Other des- years, Muhammads public mission had an im-
ignations include the Levant and Near East. pact similar to that of Jesus. After his death, his
Though the geographic perimeters vary, the Mid- family and closest relatives by marriage trans-
dle East consists of the states or territories of the formed this community into a political and mili-
Arabian Peninsula, Cyprus, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jor- tary empire. Within thirty years, the rule of the
dan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Turkey. At patriarchal caliphate stretched west through
the core, religiously, it is a largely Islamic world. the richest provinces of North Africa halfway to
However, more than 8 million Christians live in the Atlantic Ocean, east into Asia, and north to the
the region. Despite the fact that massive emigra- eastern shores of the Black Sea. Except for Asia
tion of Christians has eroded the strength of Minor, Muslims ruled all of the ancient Christian
Christianity in some areas, notably Palestine, Roman Empire in Asia.
overall the Christian population is growing. Nonetheless, there remained a significant Chris-
Christian presence in the region goes back to tian minority population throughout the Middle
establishment of the first church in Jerusalem on East. Especially where large Arab Christian popu-
Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit came upon the lations were involved, notably in what is now
disciples of Jesus (Acts 12). From that epicenter Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and Yemen,
the gospel was to spread to Judea, Samaria, and Muhammads successors granted immunity from
the ends of the world (Acts 1:8). Earliest Chris- forcible conversion. For non-Arabs, in what is now
tianity in the Middle East thus had a missionary Iran or Turkey, Christianity remained as a toler-
dynamic. Within the lifetime of Jesus first fol- ated minority, often in a sort of religious ghetto
lowers, Christianity spread to Africa, where no- and subject to special taxes.
table Christian populations have continued to Gradually over the next three centuries Chris-
thrive in Egypt and Ethiopia despite the rise of tianity in Asia went into decline. Under the
Islam in the seventh century; to Europe; and Umayyad Caliphate (661750) and Abbasids
eastward. Christians were first so-named at Anti- (7501258), a numerically large body of Chris-
och (Acts 11:26). Although surviving documents tians persisted faithfully, but its missionary pos-
provide too slender a base to support some sibilities were curtailed and its long-term survival
claims made about the expansion of Christianity was in doubt. The world of Islam also experi-
in Asia during the lifetimes of Jesus apostles, an enced splintering, and ancient centers of civiliza-
623
Middle East
tion came under the sway of new Islamic politi- Protestant outreach, quickened the pulse of Chris-
cal empires. These forced conversion to Islam all tian evangelistic activity and awakened interest in
across Asia with the exception of the Middle work among Jews and Muslims. However, virtu-
East. The Nestorians in China disappeared, and ally no effort to evangelize in the Middle East fol-
the Thomas Christians of southern India were lowed from this. It remained for the evangelical
isolated as a minority-caste community. awakening of the late eighteenth century to gen-
Still Christianity survived under medieval Is- erate missionary activity in the region.
lamic rule. From the perspective of Asian history In the nineteenth century, Protestants under-
as a whole, the most distinguishing feature of the took several initiatives. Animated by Pauls exam-
period was the fall of the Arabs and triumph of ple of preaching first to the Jew (Rom. 1:16), the
the Turks. There are, of course, other perspec- London Society for Promoting Christianity
tives, most notably that of European history among the Jews (Church Mission to Jews, or
which tends to highlight the brief, failed inter- Churchs Ministry among the Jews), founded in
vention known as the CRUSADES. The first crusade 1808 as an offshoot of the LONDON MISSIONARY
began in 1095 with a call by Pope Urban II to the SOCIETY, was the first of some twenty-three such
Christian rulers of western Europe to rescue the societies in Britain alone. Many of these continue
Holy Land from the Turks. This led to creation of to the present. The London Society sent the Rev-
a Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, which lasted in erend Joseph Wolff (17961862), a converted
various forms from 1099 until the fall of Jew, to undertake various exploratory journeys,
Jerusalem in 1187. Properly speaking, the story leading to the start of a medical ministry in
of the succession of Crusades to restore Christian Jerusalem in 1824.
control of the Holy Land belongs to the history of Elsewhere, in 1818, the CHURCH MISSIONARY SO-
the Western church. However, they did leave CIETY (CMS) sent a party of five missionaries to
their mark on the churches of the Middle East. Egypt. The AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR
Negatively, they heightened the breach between FOREIGN MISSIONS (ABCFM) established work in
Eastern and Western Christianity, and tended to Beirut in 1823. Notable work was done in the area
unite Eastern Christians, Jews, and Muslims in of translation of the Bible into modern Arabic and
their disenchantment with arrogant Western establishment of the Syrian Protestant College,
Christians. Positively, they contributed to the which became the American University of Beirut
renaissance of European life, in part through the in 1920. The American Board also began work in
introduction of new architectural forms and Turkey in 1831. The Reverend William Gordell set-
learning to Europe. They also contributed to the tled in Constantinople. The educational work
emergence of two new Catholic missionary or- gradually extended to other centers in Asia Minor
ders, the Dominicans and Franciscans. and Armenia. In terms of conversions, however,
The Castillian Dominic (11701221) sent numerical growth came from adherents of the an-
preaching friars to the Middle East with a sense cient Eastern churches as, perhaps regretfully or
of mission shared by the Franciscans, to strive to unwisely, the mission formed a new Protestant de-
heal the divisions of Christianity and to reach out nomination. In Iran, HENRY MARTYN, en route to
in faithful evangelistic witness to Muslims. England from service in Calcutta, India, between
Among the early Dominican missionaries, Ray- 1806 until 1811, worked on a Persian version of
mond Martin (123084) became a notable the New Testament until his death at age thirty-
scholar of Islam. FRANCIS OF ASSISI (11821226), one, having baptized one convert. Missionaries
never reached the Middle East. However, his per- with the ABCFM who opened a station at Urmia
sonal mission to Egypt impressed Muslims. His in 1835 concentrated on adherents of Eastern
model of sincere Christian witness inspired Is- Christianity, with the same results as noted in
lamic rulers to allow Franciscans to remain in Turkey. By contrast, Swiss missionaries of the
the region, often as custodians of the Holy Sites. BASEL MISSION, who settled in Tabriz in 1813, con-
Between the fourteenth and eighteenth cen- centrated on contact with Muslims. Among its
turies, Christian missionary activity in the Mid- missionaries, KARL PFANDER completed in 1829 the
dle East was limited. Early in this period, the Mizan-al-Haqq (Balance of Truth), a book which
best-known missionary was the Spanish layman, helped pioneer a more tolerant approach to Mus-
RAYMOND LULL (c. 1235), who sought to convince lims, with an inner understanding of Islam not
the Western church of the vital need for peaceful characteristic of earlier missionaries. This ap-
missionary work among Muslims. During his proach began to bear fruit under the ministry of
preaching journeys to Tunis and Algeria in North an Irish Anglican Robert Bruce, who spent ten
Africa, and to Cyprus, he was attacked, arrested, years in the Punjab and, like Martyn, obtained
and expelled many times. He met a martyrs permission to spend a year in Iran on his way
death by stoning in Tunis. back from furlough in Britain to improve his
The Reformation period of the sixteenth cen- knowledge of Persian and of Islam. His years stay
tury, which witnessed the creation of new Roman extended to two, and in 1871, as he prepared to
Catholic missionary orders and some initial leave for India, nine Muslims with whom he had
624
Middle East
studied Islam in Isfahan asked for baptism. He re- have long characterized major streams of Christ-
mained in Iran and was joined by another CMS ian spirituality. Pilgrimage has been a major
missionary with a background in India, Edward manifestation. Another has been Christian ZION-
Craig Stuart. Their ministry bore fruit when the ISM, a phenomenon first expressed during the six-
first Persian, Hassan Barnabas Dehquni-Tafti, was teenth century. Especially within the Anglican
consecrated Anglican bishop on April 25, 1961. and Calvinist traditions, some Protestants began
One additional nineteenth-century initiative is to read the Bible in such a way that they ex-
worthy of note. Even as Christianity arose in pected, as a prelude to Christs second coming,
Jerusalem under the unitive ministry of the Holy that Jews would return to their ancient home-
Spirit, Jerusalem was the setting of an ecumenical land. By the nineteenth century, many Christians,
initiative between 1841 and 1886. In 1841 the influenced by a dispensational hermeneutic (see
Church of England and Prussian Evangelical DISPENSATIONALISM), expressed an accepting atti-
Union jointly established the Protestant bishopric tude toward the desire of many diaspora Jews to
in Jerusalem. The first bishop, Michael Solomon return to the Holy Land and initiated political ac-
Alexander, was a converted Jewish rabbi. He tivity promoting restoration of Jews to the Holy
served from 1842 to 1845. His successor, Samuel Land. In effect, Christian Zionism preceded the
Gobat, a French-speaking Swiss Protestant who emergence of political Jewish Zionism, an ideo-
had served the Church Missionary Society in logical instrument for mobilizing international
Ethiopia, was bishop for thirty-three years, from patronage for a Jewish homeland in the Holy
1846 to 1879. His tenure proved controversial in Land. In Britain, Canada, and the United States,
such areas as liturgy, missionary strategy, and re- Christian Zionists have exhibited considerable
lations with local political and religious authori- activity and influence, anticipating Christs sec-
ties. When his successor, Joseph Barclay, died sud- ond coming by the end of the second millennium
denly after less than two years in office, the joint of the common era. Christian Zionists welcomed
undertaking collapsed, and the British Archbishop the Balfour Declaration, which, on November 2,
of Canterbury appointed a successor on a purely 1917, promised the Jews a national home in
Anglican basis. The demise of the Jerusalem epis- Palestine; capture of Jerusalem a few weeks later;
copacy in 1886, due to conflict in Jerusalem and establishment of the British mandate of Palestine
imperial politics in Europe, contributed to the after World War I; appointment of a Jew, Herbert
continued breach between the Anglican and Samuel, as the first High Commissioner; Jewish
Lutheran churches and the splintering of the emigration to the Holy Land; organization of
Christian community in the Holy Land. Prosely- Jewish para-military forces; creation of the State
tizing activities among Eastern Christians and of Israel in 1948; reunification of Jerusalem
failure to establish any viable Jewish Christian under Israeli control in 1967; and the response of
community among the local inhabitants further the world community to Iraqs invasion of
weakened Christian witness in the Holy Land. Kuwait in 1990. Christian Zionists still engender
This initiative contributed in some measure to the fervent support for the State of Israel. The inti-
continued failure on the part of Western Chris- mate linkage between Christian Zionism and po-
tians to rethink attitudes toward Eastern Chris- litical decision-making remains a political factor
tians and the people of Israel. in Western diplomacy related to the Israeli-Arab
The religious awakening of interest in the Mid- and Israeli-Palestinian conflicts.
dle East coincided with the decline of the Ot- As the era of Western influence in the region
toman Empire and an awakening of European waned after mid-nineteenth century, involve-
imperial ambitions in the region. At times, eccle- ment by indigenous Christians in the wider so-
siastical and political rivalries often contributed cial and religious life of Middle East has in-
directly to conflict, starting with Napoleon Bona- creased. Despite the great diversity of the region,
partes invasion of Egypt in 1798. In 1847, the it is possible to make a few generalizations. On
Roman Catholic Church revived the Latin Patri- the whole, the social influence of Christians is
archate under French auspices. This in turn at- disproportionate to their numbers throughout
tracted Russian interest, allegedly in support of the region. Generally, they are better educated
Orthodox authorities, and contributed in some than the Muslim majority. They are prominent
measure to the outbreak of the Crimean War in in commerce, education, and the professions.
1854. Struggle among European imperial powers Christians fare relatively well economically and
for control of the region intensified in the after- are less likely to number among the poorest of
math of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after the poor. Where Islamic law prevails, and in the
World War I. State of Israel, Christians are generally tolerated
The lands of the Bible have extraordinary sig- provided there is no missionary activity from
nificance for Christians, Jews, Muslims, and the outside. In countries where so-called Islamic
tiny community of Samaritans as well as for fundamentalism is particularly strong, or reli-
other religious communities such as the BAHAI gious nationalism particularly strident, as in
and Druze. Interest in and care for the Holy Land Iran since 1979, Christians have suffered perse-
625
Middle East
cution. Christians exercise considerable political outside the countries of their birth, some per-
power of Cyprus, which remains partitioned, manently, others as a temporary labor force. Mi-
and in Lebanon, where they once formed a ma- gration in the eighteenth and early nineteenth
jority of the population. Religiously, the Chris- centuries flowed from richer countries to poorer
tian churches remain fragmented, notwithstand- ones; now the flow is from less developed re-
ing the longings of ordinary Christians to live as gions to more developed ones. There is a grow-
one body, including gestures to promote unity, ing feminization of both international and inter-
such as the pilgrimage of the Roman Catholic nal migration.
Pope Paul VI in January 1964, and the encoun- However, it is internal migration within the
ters he had with Benedictos I, Greek Orthodox Third World countries that has deeply modified
Patriarch of Jerusalem, and Athenagoras I, Ecu- past patterns. That migration is from rural to
menical Patriarch of Constantinople. urban areas, supporting a continuing trend to-
PAUL R. DEKAR ward ever-larger cities. Budgets are swamped by
human needs and POVERTY has become the domi-
Bibliography. Y. Ben-Arieh, The Rediscovery of the
Holy Land in the Nineteenth Century; R. B. Betts, Chris- nant social problem. Africa today resembles a
tians in the Arab East. A Political Study; S. P. Colbi, A huge refugee camp (Mieth and Cahill, 1993, 15).
History of the Christian Presence in the Holy Land; J. S. Mission Response. Migration has been a major
Conway, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 1 (1986): bridge of God for Christianitys spread in the
12746; K. Cragg, The Arab Christian. A History in the past (Norwood, 1969). Aliens and strangers in the
Middle East; R. T. Handy, ed., The Holy Land in Ameri- world (1 Peter 2:11), Christians have wandered in
can Protestant Life 18001948. A Documentary History; dispersion among the nations (Luke 24:47).
N. A. Horner, A Guide to Christian Churches in the Mid- Christian immigrants planted the church at Rome
dle East; S. M. Jack, Journal of Religious History 19 (De-
and in Gaul. Wandering monks crossed Europe
cember 1995): 181203; S. H. Moffett, A History of
Christianity in Asia.
and followed the ancient silk route through Cen-
tral Asia into China. Even such brutal invasions as
the CRUSADES and the colonial conquests of Africa,
Midway Islands. See MICRONESIA. Asia, and Latin America opened pilgrim paths for
a compromised Christianity. Christians were part
Migration. Migration is as old as the departure of of the transoceanic migrations to Australia and
Adam and Eve from the garden (Gen. 3:2324). North America in the seventeenth and eighteenth
Its uprooting nature drove Cain in fear to the se- centuries. Opportunities for skilled labor abroad
curity of the city (Gen. 4:1314, 17) and scattered today have opened CREATIVE ACCESS COUNTRIES to
the builders of Babels city and tower (Gen. 11:9). TENT-MAKING MISSIONS.
Today, as of old, it has been motivated by famine Migrants have also been the objects of evangel-
and natural disaster, by the search for a better life, ism and compassionate service. Christian min-
and by political conflict and war. istries like the TEAR Fund, World Vision, and
Migration Then and Now. Past or present, World Relief have become involved in social
these migratory movements take many forms, transformation and DEVELOPMENT projects for
some more peaceful in origin. The Berbers of refugees and children at risk. CHURCH PLANTING
Africas past and todays Fulani demonstrate no- has had its successes among the mainline Chi-
madism, a fixed lifestyle of wandering from place nese, relocating after 1949 in Taiwan. The church
to place. Immigration, a relatively free movement has not forgotten that the treatment of strangers
of peoples within and across political boundaries, and aliens is still a criterion of fidelity to Gods
has a long history. With the passage of the 1793 covenant (Exod. 22:21; James 2:1417). In caring
Alien Bill in England its formal control was initi- for strangers, they care for Jesus (Matt. 25:36, 40).
ated and now has become the rule (Kritz, Keely, HARVIE M. CONN
and Tomasi, 1983, xiii).
Out of the displacement of war and sociopolit- SEE ALSO Urbanization.
ical struggle have come the cause/effect patterns Bibliography. M. Kritz, C. Keely, and S. Tomasi,
of Invasion and Displacement Migration. The eds., Global Trends in Migration: Theory and Research
mass intrusions into Israels history by conquer- on International Population Movements; D. Mieth and
ing Assyria and Babylonia are good examples. L. Cahill, eds., Migrants and Refugees; F. Norwood,
They were accompanied by deportation, resettle- Strangers and Exiles: A History of Religious Exiles,
ment, and assimilation. Things have not changed vols. 12.
much. World War II saw the displacement of
some 40 million people in Europe alone. Since Mguez Bonino, Jos (1924 ). Argentinean
the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, over 2 mil- Methodist theologian whose pastoral concern
lion people have fled from Southeast Asia. for the poor, coupled with his lifelong interest in
But there are new twists also. Ease of travel theological and political ethics have been com-
has increased international migration. Currently bined to make him one of the most outstanding
an estimated 125 million people live officially Latin American Protestant theologians. Born in
626
Millennial Thought
Santa Fe, he has degrees from the Facultad ars especially in the Reformed tradition such as
Evanglica de Buenos Aires (1948), Emory Uni- J. H. Alsted (15881638) and Joseph Mede
versity in Atlanta (1952), and Union Theological (15861638) revived premillennialism. During the
Seminary in New York (1960). His major contri- seventeenth century their view was shared by
bution has been as a proponent of the theology many of the leaders of the Puritan Revolution in
of liberation, drawing heavily from Marxist prin- England. However, with the restoration of the
ciples of social analysis and praxis, yet rejecting Stuart kings this opinion was discredited.
parts of them on the basis of his view of Chris- As premillennialism waned, postmillennialism
tian ethics. He makes this clear in his books To- became the prevailing eschatological interpreta-
ward a Christian Political Ethics as well as in tion, receiving its most important formulation in
Doing Theology in a Revolutionary Situation. No the work of Daniel Whitby (16381726). According
less important has been his contribution in the to Whitby, the world was to be converted to Christ,
field of ecumenism, both in his books and arti- after which the earth would enjoy universal peace,
cles and in his participation in the WORLD COUN- happiness, and righteousness for a thousand
CIL OF C HURCHES , in the Protestant-Roman years. At the close of this period, Christ would re-
Catholic dialogue toward unity, and as the only turn personally for the last judgment. Perhaps be-
Latin American Protestant observer at Vatican cause of its agreement with the views of the EN-
II. Another significant contribution has been in LIGHTENMENT, postmillennialism was adopted by
the field of theological education, as president of the leading Protestant theologians of the era. New
the Instituto Superior de Estudios Teolgicos, in England Puritans, continental pietists, and evan-
Buenos Aires and as a visiting professor in sev- gelical revivalists of the eighteenth century all en-
eral institutions in the Americas and Europe. His couraged the emphasis on millennialism. One of
pastoral heart has also led him to translate and the most outstanding missionary spokespersons of
arrange several hymns exalting Christ as Savior this period, JONATHAN EDWARDS (170358), was a
and Lord. devoted postmillennialist.
PABLO E. PREZ During the nineteenth century, premillennial-
ism again attracted attention. This interest was
fostered by the violent uprooting of European po-
Millennial Thought. Belief in the earthly reign litical and social institutions caused by the
of Christ before the end of the world and the French Revolution. Later in the century millen-
eternal state. The most notable form of this doc- nial enthusiasm found renewed support in the
trine is PREMILLENNIALISM, which claims that the Plymouth Brethren Movement. J. N. Darby
Lord will return before the golden age and is (18001882), an important Brethren leader, artic-
based on certain key passages of Scripture, in- ulated the dispensationalist understanding of
cluding Daniel 711, Ezekiel 3739, Matthew 24, millennialism. Its name comes from the practice
1 Thessalonians 4, 2 Thessalonians 2, and espe- of dividing history into a series of ages, usually
cially Revelation 20. There are two other major seven in number, which culminate in the millen-
views, POSTMILLENNIALISM, which states that the nium. A distinction is made between ethnic Israel
Lord will return after the millennium and AMIL- and the church, and there is to be a tribulation
LENNIALISM, which states that the language of period at the end of the church age caused by the
Scripture is too figurative to suggest that there Antichrist. After these events, Christ will return
will be a literal reign of Christ on earth. and rule the world for a thousand years with the
Although these interpretations have never been help of the saints. This belief, popularized by the
without adherents in Western Christianity, in cer- Scofield Reference Bible, the Bible Institute move-
tain periods a particular outlook has predomi- ment, popular evangelists, and mass media
nated. During the first three centuries of the preachers, has become the dominant eschatology
Christian era, premillennialism appears to have of American fundamentalists.
been the dominant eschatological interpretation. Despite the development of DISPENSATIONALISM,
In the fourth century, when the Christian church postmillennialism was the great dynamic for
was given a favored status under the emperor much of the missionary enthusiasm of the nine-
Constantine, the amillennial position was ac- teenth century. America, many claimed, was the
cepted. The millennium was reinterpreted to agent of God to bring in the last times. Timothy
refer to the church. The famous church father, Dwight (17521817) anticipated the day when
Augustine, articulated this position and it be- not a single Catholic cathedral, mosque, or
came the prevailing interpretation in medieval pagoda would be left standing. Other spokesper-
times. sons also merged the language of Manifest Des-
Despite the fact that the Protestant Reformers tiny with millennialism and dreamed of the con-
accepted Augustinian eschatology, their emphasis quest of the world under the same laws and
on a more literal interpretation of the Bible and social characteristics as the Anglo-Saxons who
identification of the papacy with Antichrist called would control all of North America. It was this
attention to the prophetic Scriptures. Later schol- confidence that led JOHN R. MOTT to publish The
627
Millennial Thought
Evangelization of the World in This Generation in New York City. He worked tirelessly for the re-
(1900) and inspired the famous WORLD MISSION- settlement of freed slaves in West Africa, which
ARY CONFERENCE in Edinburgh (1910). helped form the American Colonization Society
However, the new age did not come and more and, ultimately, the nation of Liberia. Mills died
of those involved in the missionary movement in June 1818 as he was returning from Africa
adopted a premillennial view. Rather than trying after consulting about territories available for lib-
to bring Gods kingdom to earth, they turned to erated slaves.
winning individuals to Christ and preaching the DEAN S. GILLILAND
gospel as witness to all nations so that Christ
will return. Two world wars, genocide, economic Bibliography. D. N. Howell, CDCWM, p. 385; K. S.
Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity,
depression, the rise of pluralism, the success of
vol. IV, pp. 70ff.; T. C. Richards, Samuel J. Mills.
liberalism, and the privatization of religion in a
secular society convinced them that only a su-
pernatural, cataclysmic return of Christ would Minjung Theology. Minjung theology is called a
help the world. Yet changes in dispensational theology of the mass of people (minjung), or
doctrine, a renewed emphasis on the Spirit of the Korean version of liberation theology, or a
God by charismatic groups, and the concept of contextualized Korean theology of the poor. It
reaching whole groups of people with the gospel began to appear in 1975 and made its theological
continue to encourage the postmillennial view. impact upon the Korean church and the society
Despite the lively debate over the millennium in the late 1970s and early 1980s, during the op-
there is no divergence of opinion among Chris- pressive governments of President Park Chung-
tians as to the fact of Christs coming. Hee and President Chun Too-Hwan.
ROBERT G. CLOUSE Historical Background. The massive student
demonstrations on April 19, 1960, brought down
SEE ALSO End Times; Eschatology. the government of President Syngman Rhee; po-
Bibliography. R. G. Clouse, The Meaning of the Mil- litical confusion followed afterwards. General
lennium. Four Views; R. G. Clouse, R. V. Pierard, and Park Chung-Hee was able to take over power
R. Hosack, The Millennial Manual; J. A. DeJong, As the through his military coup detat on May 16, 1961,
Waters Cover the Sea: Millennial Expectations in the Rise and ruled the nation with an iron fist until his as-
of Anglo-American Missions 16401819; E. L Tuveson, sassination on October 12, 1979. President Parks
Redeemer Nation: The Idea of Americas Millennial Role;
military government became oppressive and
T. P. Weber, Living in the Shadow of the Second Coming:
American Premillennialism (18751925). cracked down on any opposition to the govern-
ment by limiting the freedom of speech and as-
sembly. Many politicians, church leaders, profes-
Mills, Samuel John, Jr. (17831819). American
sors, and students who opposed the military
mission promoter and organizer. Samuel Mills
regime were imprisoned and severely tortured.
was a visionary, a motivator, and a tireless inspi-
ration during the early days of mission organiza- There was a deep sense of Han (profound agony,
tion in America. He is best remembered for or- sorrow, bitterness, resentment, and righteous in-
ganizing a prayer meeting for missions at dignation) in the souls of many Korean people.
Williams College which, afterward, led to further There were three main reasons many pastors
stimulus for mission at Andover Seminary. Fi- and theologians especially in the 1970s, voiced
nally, this Society of the Brethren, as it was their opposition against the government: oppres-
called, indirectly led to the formation of the sion, socio-economic injustice, and religious in-
AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN difference. In 1974 the Korean National Council
MISSIONS (ABCFM). of Churches published The Declaration of
Mills, the son of a Congregational minister, Human Rights in Korea, and sixty-six Korean
was converted in the revivals that moved through theologians and pastors also produced The The-
the churches in New England at the end of the ological Statement of Korean Christians. In
nineteenth century. Called to mission work, he at- 1975 a renowned poet, Kim Chi-Ha, who was im-
tended Williams College (1806). While concerned prisoned for his writings against the military
with Asia and Africa, the Society of the Brethren regime, wrote his Conscience Declaration. On
did most of their planning around missions to March 1, 1976, twelve prominent leaders pro-
the American Indians. It was during extended duced The Declaration for the Restoration of
study at Andover Seminary that Mills with his Democracy. Following that, a number of liberal
friends, including ADONIRAM JUDSON, presented theologians such as Suh Tong-Nam, Ahn Byung-
themselves for mission work, leading to the for- Moo, Moon Hee-Suk, Kim Yong-Bock, Choo
mation of the ABCFM. Chai-Yong, Hyun Yoon-Hak, and others began to
Samuel Mills spent his life in far-reaching mis- introduce a new theology of liberation for the
sion concerns. He planned to tour South America suffering masses in Korea, known as Minjung
to open up missions. He worked among the poor Theology.
628
Minority, Minority Populations
Doctrines. Minjung theology is founded on many scriptural passages, their exegetical

other Western and Latin American theologies method is inadequate and produces a wrong in-
such as secular theology, theology of hope, liber- terpretation of the original meaning of the texts.
ation theology, process theology, and theology of For example, their interpretation of the Book of
history. It teaches that God is the co-liberator Exodus in the light of Korean Han misses the
with the minjung in history, because God and the messianic-redemptive aspects of the exodus.
minjung are co-sufferers and co-operators in the Second minjung theologians interpretations of
history of liberation of humankind from suffer- major doctrines of the church such as Jesus
ing. Gods reality in our experience occurs only in cross and resurrection, salvation, and eschatol-
Gods liberating activity in and with the minjung. ogy have been severely criticized by evangelical
Like liberation theologians in Latin America, theologians, for their doctrines are not in line
Minjung theologians see the book of Exodus in with the biblical faith of the Christian church.
the Old Testament as the Book of Gods liberation The influence of minjung theology has greatly di-
of an exploited people (Exod. 1:1114) and of minished in Korea since the civilian government
Gods human rights law (Exod. 20:2223:19). of President Kim Yong-Sam was established in
Minjung Christology begins with the Han expe- 1993.
rience of the oppressed people, and relates Jesus BONG RIN RO
messianic movement with socio-political and re-
ligious-cultural dimensions of the oppressed min- SEE ALSO Asian Theologies; Liberation Theolo-
jungs experience. Therefore, minjung theologians gies; Missiology; AND Political Theologies.
interpretations of Jesus ministry in Palestine and Bibliography. Y. H. Hyun, Minjung the Suffering Ser-
his cross and resurrection are all related to the vant and Hope; C. H. Kim, Kim Chi-Ha Collection; Y. B.
liberation concept. Jesus as a social revolutionary Kim, ed., Minjung Theology; N. D. Suh, In Search of
dealt with the poor and oppressed but not with Minjung Theology.
the rich. Jesus not only identified himself with the
minjung, but himself became a minjung at a spe- Minority, Minority Populations. While the
cific time in history. Therefore, he was the per- Bible teaches the basic unity of the entire human
sonification of the minjung. race because of our descent from the same origi-
Jesus was considered to be the liberator of
nal parents, it is obvious that there is tremendous
minjung, and his cross was interpreted as a po-
diversity in the human race as well. This diversity
litical event because of his uprising against the
opens the door for numerous minority groups.
Jerusalem rulers who exploited the minjung in
It was Gods will that humankind should
his time. Therefore, Jesus death signified the
spread out over the earth (Gen. 1:28; 11:9). While
death of suffering minjung. The RESURRECTION
this diffusion was promoted by the rapid devel-
OF C HRIST was the resolution of Han and the
restoration of Gods righteousness. The histori- opment of dialects and languages, once the
cal aspect of Jesus resurrection from the dead is groups became isolated from one another, their
not that important, because his resurrection is a isolation encouraged still further diversity (or va-
social event or a rebirth into a new society with riety) of tongues.
a spiritual body. Therefore, the resurrection faith It is more difficult to explain the variety in the
is the will of humans in the expectation of a new physical appearance of people. Physical anthro-
society and messianic politics. There is neither pologists who take an evolutionary view of
the doctrine of eschatological JUDGMENT nor the human origins can describe this diversity, but
hope of the New Heaven and New Earth. SALVA- can only speculate as to why it has occurred. It is
TION is not by the GRACE OF GOD but is a persons best to say that our original parents, Adam and
self-achieved process of resolving the Han of the Eve, were created with genes that allowed for
minjung. physical diversity over time, and that this diver-
Evaluation. There are both positive and nega- sity might very well have occurred whether or
tive elements in minjung theology. Positively, not humankind fell into sin.
minjung theologians awakened both the church Why, then, do we have minority groups all over
and society to the issues of political oppression the world? The basic reason is found in the age-
and economic injustice in a society where there old tendency of human beings to move. Some
is an increasing gap between rich and poor. The minorities have chosen to become minorities
Korean churches in particular, which had more when they moved into the area of a majority
interest in bigger church buildings and local group. Others became a minority group when a
church affairs, were challenged to have wider more dominant or larger group moved in on
concerns for individual freedom of the oppressed them. European expansionism, the slave trade,
minjung and economic and social justice in the COLONIALISM, the desire for economic better-
nation. mentall these factors have contributed to the
Negatively, first, there is the problem of HER- creation of more and more minority groups as
MENEUTICS. Although minjung theologians use history progresses.
629
Minority, Minority Populations
Most minority groups are ethnic groups. That appearance, the language, the dress, and the cus-
is to say, they have their own language and cul- toms of the minority group? Or will they say, We
ture which is different from that of the majority are all one in Christ, and use that thought as a
group. There are also religious and social mi- club to enforce majority customs and language
norities, but the ethnic minorities tend to be the on all minority groups?
most prominent, especially when ETHNICITY is re- When the apostle Paul wrote, There is neither
inforced by differences in physical appearance. Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free,
The apostle Paul spoke of human diversity there is neither male nor female (Gal. 3:28), he
when he told the Athenians, And he made from did not mean that Jews had lost their ethnic
one man every nation [ethnic group] of men to identity or that men and women lost their sexu-
live on all the face of the earth, having deter- ality when they became Christians. He rather
mined allotted periods and the boundaries of meant that those who are joined to Christ are
their habitation (Acts 17:26). What he said next also joined to one another. Christians should
is also important: That they should seek God, in therefore respect the ethnic differences among
the hope that they might feel after him and find themselves.
him (v. 27). Here Paul suggests that human di- But sometimes a minority group prefers to give
versity contributes to evangelism rather than de- up its identity as much as possible and be amal-
tracting from it. gamated or assimilated to the majority group.
Many missionaries and evangelists have found They may even change their family name in
this to be the case. Although occasionally a mi- order to hide their ethnic background. If that is
nority group is politically, socially, or economi- their choice, it is to be accepted. Amalgamation
cally dominant in a given society, usually the of languages and peoples (as well as separation)
dominant group is the majority group. The mi- has occurred since the dawn of history. The im-
nority group or groups are often considered infe- portant thing is that it is not forced on a group
rior by the majority group. They are given infe- that is not ready for it.
rior work with less pay, they are given inferior The best word on this whole subject was given
schools, they are denied access to decent hous- by Paul: Accept one another, then, just as Christ
ing, and the like. accepted you, in order to bring praise to God
If both the majority and the minority group(s) (Rom. 15:7).
have the same religion, those in the minority po- TIMOTHY MONSMA
sition will likely be more open to religious
change, including a change to Christianity.
Missionaries to India were surprised when dur- Miracles in Mission. Contemporary mission en-
ing the early decades of the twentieth century the deavor cannot and should not seek to avoid the
untouchables of India responded to the gospel in subject of supernatural power and the miracu-
significant people movements even though no lous. Neither, on the other hand, should missions
missionary was attempting to reach them. They today become obsessed with or distressed over
saw in Christianity a release from their servitude the power and activity of evil beings under
and a rejection of the Hindu caste system that Satans control, nor over those who teach about
had permanently locked them into the lowest so- them. The Bible teaches Christs victory over all
cial status. the POWERS (authorities), PRINCIPALITIES (rulers),
In recent years special efforts have been made dominions, and demons (1 Cor. 2:6; 15:24; Eph.
to reach the Kurds of northern Iraq and sur- 1:1523; Col. 1:1520, 2:15; 2 Thess. 2:8; Heb.
rounding nations precisely because they have 2:14). Mission today needs to rest assured that
been persecuted by their Muslim brothers. It is God still can and does work miracles.
thought that God might be using this persecution Areas of Interface between the Miraculous
to prepare them to recieve the gospel. In ancient and Mission. Missions interface with the mirac-
times it was the slaves and lower classes of ulous in evangelism, healing, deliverance, and
Greco-Roman society that especially responded other areas.
to the gospel. The spread of the gospel was not by The Miraculous and Evangelism. All evangelism
a trickle-down diffusion but rather by a welling is miraculous but in missions today individuals
up from the bottom rungs of society. and groups are opened to the gospel in ways that
The existence of various minorities in many so- can only be miraculous. The history of Christian-
cieties and their alienation from the majority ity is replete with accounts of people movements
group might be Gods provision for breaking the that obviously were instigated and promoted by
phalanx of unbelief that the gospel often encoun- the Holy Spirit.
ters. But when minority groups have come to Some contemporary missionaries consider
Christ and begin to form churches, new prob- warfare prayer and the binding of territorial
lems emerge. Within the walls of a church there spirits as a major method in evangelistic activi-
is often a majority group and one or more mi- ties. C. PETER WAGNER defines TERRITORIAL SPIR-
nority groups. Will the majority group accept the ITS as members of the hierarchy of evil spirits
630
Missio Dei
who, delegated by Satan, control regions, cities, ism or other missionary work. The Holy Spirit
tribes, people groups, neighborhoods, and other continues to grant evangelistic fruit where there
social networks and inhibit evangelistic break- are no outward signs of miracles. Signs and won-
through. John Duncan and Edgardo Silvoso re- ders can, however, be instrumental in helping
count how, in Argentina, after prayer, fasting, people become more willing to hear the gospel.
confession, and confronting territorial spirits, the Third, missionaries must accept that healing is
Lord granted a marvelous gospel breakthrough. not always Gods plan for every person. God
John Wimber, who believes in power evangel- speaks through suffering as well as through heal-
ism and miracles in evangelism, does not hold ing. Missionaries should not, therefore, promise
miracles necessary for evangelism. He sees healing as God remains sovereign in granting
proclamation of the gospel as the heart and healing.
soul of evangelism. Fourth, missionaries must also remember that
The Miraculous and Healing. God has used power resides in the gospel itself, not in miracles
healing to reveal the truth of his message (Rom. 1:16; 1 Cor. 1:18). Missionaries must be
throughout history. The Lord has healed through certain never to make miracles seem imperative
the prophets (2 Kings 5:116), Jesus (Mark for missionary effectiveness. They must remem-
1:4041; John 4:4654), the apostles (Acts ber that miracles, like all other Christian deeds,
3:110), New Testament believers (Acts 14:3), and must glorify God rather than calling attention to
Christian missionaries today. God continues to humans. When miracles are used to bring fame
perform miracles of healing, both to meet the and notoriety to humans, these signs are not of
physical needs of suffering people and to reveal God. Christians may be seen doing miracles but
the truth of his message. never be doing miracles to be seen.
Belief in divine healing in no way prohibits Finally, missionaries should remember that
using modern medicine and using modern med- miraculous events are not always of God. Pha-
icine does not indicate a lack of faith in Gods raohs magicians did signs (Exod. 7:1022) as did
power to heal. Missions today should allow God Satan (2 Thess. 2:9). Jesus declared that false
to speak both through modern medicine and prophets would perform miracle (Matt. 24:24).
Gods direct healing action. Missionaries must beware of counterfeit mira-
The Miraculous and Deliverance. Demons (evil cles. Missionaries must remember that signs and
spirits, powers) exist and harm, but do not pos- wonders function to convey truth, especially di-
sess in the sense of owning, human beings, vine compassion. The purpose of signs is that
whether believers or unbelievers. Jesus and New people apprehend the message the signs bring
Testament Christians expelled demons from per- rather than dwell on the signs themselves.
sons (Matt. 8:2834; Mark 5:120; Acts 5:16; EBBIE C. SMITH
16:1618). Contemporary missionaries face ex-
Bibliography. C. E. Arnold, Ephesians: Power and
panding needs and opportunities to oppose evil
Magic; idem, Powers of Darkness; D. Bridge, Signs and
spirits who demonize persons. Deliverance from Wonders Today; J. Dawson, Taking Our Cities for God;
evil spirits has become a growing phenomenon N. Geisler, Signs and Wonders; P. G. Hiebert, Anthropo-
among evangelical missionaries. Demons who at- logical Reflections on Missiological Issues; D. Powlison,
tack people can be expelled and rendered power- Power Encounters; E. Rommen, ed., Spiritual Power
less through Gods power (see also DEMONS, DE- and Missions; T. M. Warner, Spiritual Warfare; C. P.
MONIZATION; EXORCISM; and SPIRITUAL WARFARE). Wagner, Engaging the Enemy; C. P. Wagner, and F. D.
The Miraculous and Other Manifestations. Pennoyer, eds., Wrestling with Dark Angels.
Miracles today are evidenced in tongues, knowl-
edge, visions, and other areas (1 Cor. 1214). Missio Dei. Latin for the sending of God, in the
These manifestations, questioned by some, indi- sense of being sent, a phrase used in Protestant
cate to others the direct action of God. Mission- missiological discussion especially since the
aries must deal honestly and directly with these 1950s, often in the English form the mission of
manifestations. God. Originally it was used (from Augustine on)
Principles Relating to Missions and the in Western discussion of the Trinity for the sent-
Miraculous. Several principles relate to miracles ness of God (the Son) by the Father (John 3:17;
and missionary work. First, missionaries should 5:30; 11:42; 17:18). Georg F. Vicedom popular-
welcome the aid of miracles and other manifes- ized the concept for missiology at the CWME
tations of SIGNS AND WONDERS in missionary min- meeting in MEXICO CITY in 1963, publishing a
istry. In regard to supernatural power and the book by this title: The Mission of God: An Intro-
miraculous, missionaries must be careful never duction to the Theology of Mission.
to be materialists, disbelieving in supernatural Ecumenicals claim a comprehensive definition
powers, nor magicians, thinking supernatural of missio Dei: everything God does for the com-
powers can be controlled by ritual (see MAGIC). munication of salvation and, in a narrower sense,
Second, missionaries must affirm that miracles, everything the church itself is sent to do. Histori-
signs, and wonders are not necessary for evangel- cally, most evangelicals focused on the more im-
631
Missio Dei
mediate purpose of the Triune God in the send- as the world of human affairs and the human
ing of the Son: the task of world evangelization, condition, instead of the church. The mission of
the planting of the church among non-Christians, God (what he sent Christ into the world to do)
and the nurture of such churches. More recently, was to establish SHALOMpeace, integrity, com-
many have acknowledged the holistic nature of munity, harmony and justiceor humanization
the task, though few give it an eschatological refin this world. In other words, the goal was the
erence (see HOLISTIC MISSION). realization of the kingdom of God on earth. He
The difference between the two approaches insisted on redefining the church as a function of
hinges on how the primary and fundamental the apostolate, that is, the church as an instru-
human problem is definedwhether as a broken ment, of Gods action in this world, a means in
relationship with a transcendent God, or as suf- his hands, by which he will establish shalom.
fering, oppression, and broken human relation- This was the basic concept with which the phrase
ships. Views of how the KINGDOM OF GOD is to be missio Dei came to be identified in WCC circles.
fulfilled now or eschatologically, how wide the At the world conference of the World Student
scope of human salvation will prove to be, and Christian Federation in Strasbourg (1960), Hoek-
basic assumptions about the authority and inter- endijk urged that Christians identify with man
pretation of Scripture are also critical (see BIBLE in the modern world, that the church become
and HERMENEUTICS). open, mobile groups (Bassham) to join the mis-
Missio Dei was first used in a missionary sense sio Dei and push for the realization of shalom.
by the German missiologist Karl Hartenstein in These ideas dominated subsequent WCC re-
1934. He was motivated by Karl Barths empha- ports: Witness in Six Continents (Mexico City,
sis on the actio Dei (the action of God), over 1963), World Conference on Church and Society
against the human-centered focus of liberal the- (Geneva, 1966), and especially the Studies in
ology at that time; he was also inspired by Barths Evangelism report, The Church for Others (1967).
1928 lecture on mission, which related it to the These included the radical assertion of the
Trinity. Hartenstein used the term again in his thought-pattern expressed in God-world-
Theological Reflection on the IMCs WILLINGEN church. The latter formula meant that the
CONFERENCE (1952), published in the German re- church should act in partnership with the send-
port. Though the documents of the meeting itself ing God, not by world evangelization and church
grounded mission in the Trinity, it did not use the planting, but by directly promoting political and
term missio Dei. Nevertheless, in its new, trini- economic human good. Since shalom is the goal
tarian-mission(ary) sense the phrase has been of Gods action in the world, and the world sets
widely used since Georg F. Vicedoms book. the agenda, the church must therefore forsake
Missio Dei came to encapsulate an important its existing heretical structures and join in
change in IMC and WCC thinking, from the TAM- Gods action. Traditional Christian missions were
BARAM CONFERENCE (1938) emphasis on the mis- therefore merely transitory forms of obedience
sion of the church to the Willingen stress on the to the missio Dei, and no longer appropriate.
mission of God. The latter meeting quite properly The climax of the impact of Hoekendijks ver-
recognized that the true source of the churchs sion of Gods mission was to be seen at the Upp-
missionary task lay in the Triune God Himself. sala Assembly, in 1968, which fiercely resisted the
The roots of the later, social gospel usage of the admission of words on the need to evangelize the
term lay in two things: first of all, Willingens A non-Christian world.
Statement on the Missionary Calling of the Christians certainly ought to join with others
Church, which exhibited a common theological in the common grace promotion of social justice,
mistake. It properly defined the churchs mis- though not as the church, and not exclusively as
sionary obligation as beseeching all men to be Christians, but with others (Clowney). Evangeli-
reconciled to God, and its concluding section cals have been remiss in not acting strongly or
rightly stressed Gods sovereign rule even in the broadly enough for social justice in this century.
war and tumult of history, the growth of But the WCC adopted an almost purely socio-
human knowledge, and in political and social political concept of the missio Dei. It did so on
movements. However, it failed to distinguish this the basis of broad, modern theological assump-
preserving, common-grace exercise of Gods tions: universal salvation, through the cosmic
power from his reconciling, special, redemptive- Christ; the churchs election being only for the
grace exercise in the history of salvation. Nor did purpose of serving what God was already doing
it state the relationship either between preserving in the world; the ideas of process theology,
and redemptive grace, or between this present Tillichs new being, and Bultmanns demytholo-
age and the age to come (see HOPE). gizing of the New Testament. Taken together,
The second and not unrelated factor was the these meant that the WCC could not affirm that
presence of the Dutch missiologist, JOHANNES C. indeed history must come to an end, with Christs
HOEKENDIJK. Hoekendijk was zealous to have the coming, in order to realize the kingdom/shalom
true arena of Gods saving action be recognized in its fullness. It lacked (and still lacks) commit-
632
Missiology
ment to other vital teachings of the historic ogy. Another significant missiological work of
Christian faith: the transcendence of God (his this period was On Procuring the Salvation of All
distinctness from creation); the reality of an ob- Men (1613) by Thomas Jesu (15641627).
jective, substitutionary atonement to deal with The formal study of missions by Protestants
the fundamental human problem, sin, and its can be traced to the colonial expansion of En-
forgiveness; and the necessity of proclaiming gland, the Netherlands, and non-Iberian Euro-
Christ as the only one to whom one must turn for pean powers. The year Pope Gregory XV created
true shalom in this world and the world to come. the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda of the
In WCC circles today some are questioning the Faith, 1622, a small Protestant college for the
very usefulness of the term missio Dei, and are training of missionaries for Dutch colonies
seeking a new link between mission and church opened as a branch of the University of Leiden.
(Hoedemaker). Evangelicals, on the other hand, Unfortunately, the college was short-lived. (Five
have struggled so far to match the theological years later the Roman Catholic College of Propa-
depth and sophistication of the WCC. They need ganda opened in Rome.) With their growing
to show that the church is called not merely to ex- awareness of other continents and peoples, a few
pansion, not to become a mere collection of con- European Protestant professors of theology
verts (Hoedemaker). It is sent for a faithful min- began manifesting serious interest in missionary
istry of witness summoning the disobedient to questions. Hadrianus Saravia (15311613)
turn to God, looking for success only to the Spirit Dutch Reformed pastor-missionary and later pro-
of God. It must do this from the context of its life, fessor, who after a period in England became an
where God is truly worshiped, the faithful built Anglicanpublished in 1590 his carefully rea-
up, and compassion demonstrated. This whole is soned challenge to the prevailing Protestant view
the true missio Dei, and foreshadows the true that the words of Matthew 28:1920 were meant
shalom to be realized in full at the Lords return. only for the original apostles. The influence of
JOHN A. MCINTOSH Saravia is evident in the inaugural lectures of
GISBERTUS VOETIUS (1589 1676) at the University
Bibliography. N. Goodall, ed., Missions Under the
Cross; Uppsala Report 1968; R. C. Bassham, Mission
of Utrecht, lectures he entitled De plantatoribus
Theology, 19481975; E. P. Clowney, The Church; A. F. ecclesiasticus (On Church Planting). Several
Glasser and D. G. McGavran, Contemporary Theologies other Dutch scholars helped pave the way for for-
of Mission; L. A. Hoedemaker, IBMR 19:4 (1995): mal missiological studies, such as Justus
16670; idem, Missiology, pp. 15771; P. Potter, Life in Heurnius (15871651) and Johannes Hoornbeeck
All Its Fullness; H. H. Rosin, Missio Dei; J. A. Scherer, (161766), the latter a student of Voetius.
The Good News of the Kingdom, pp. 8288; T. Stransky, Though a number of missiological works
DEM, pp. 68789. were published in the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries, no professor of missions was
Missiology. Missiology is the conscious, inten- named and the number of courses in missions
tional, ongoing reflection on the doing of mis- was very limited. This was true in both Europe
sion. It includes theory(ies) of mission, the study and North America until the last half of the
and teaching of mission, as well as the research, nineteenth century.
writing, and publication of works regarding mis- The writings, correspondence, and widespread
sion. Involvement in or the doing of mission, influence of the German Pietist leaders, August
however, preceded by several centuries the schol- Herman Francke (16631727) and Philip Jacob
arly reflection on mission. Apparently it was the Spener (16351705); the Moravian founder NICO-
passionate visionary Spanish activist, RAYMOND LAUS LUDWIG VON ZINZENDORF (170060); the Re-
LULL (c. 12351315), who first critically reflected formed theologian and philosopher JONATHAN ED-
on missions, published his thoughts, and pro- WARDS (170358); the Baptist missionary WILLIAM
posed the establishment of colleges for the lin- CAREY (17611834); and the renowned theologian
guistic and theological preparation of missionar- Friedrich Schleiermacher (17681834)con-
ies to Muslims and Jews. Though such a school tributed to a slowly changing attitude regarding
was established at Majorca in 1276, Lull was un- missions as a scholarly endeavor. However, at-
successful in persuading Christian princes to es- tempts to establish missionary training programs
tablish similar chairs in the major European uni- in European or American universities during the
versities. No complete catalogue of Lulls seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were sel-
voluminous writings exists, but the partial list dom successful. Two serious histories of missions
contains more than 280 titles. Lull may be con- during this period do deserve mention: Robert
sidered the first missiologist in Christian history. Millars History of the Propagation of Christianity
More than two centuries later the Jesuit mis- and the Overthrow of Paganism (1723) and Petrus
sionary to Mexico and Peru, JOS DE ACOSTA Hofstedes two-volume work on the history of
(c. 15391600), published his treatise On Procur- Christianity in the Dutch East Indies (177980).
ing the Salvation of the Indians (1588), a learned The nineteenth century brought tangible
discussion of missionary theology and methodol- change. When Princeton Theological Seminary
633
L-M Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:51 AM Page 634
Missiology
was founded in 1811, it was envisioned not only essays, books, and journals dealing with mission
as a means to prepare young men to be pastors, issues had expanded significantly.
but also as a nursery for missionaries to the hea- During the first three decades of the twentieth
then, a place where students could receive ap- century, the number of courses, professors, and
propriate training to fit them for missionary chairs of mission increased dramatically, only to
work. The first concrete step to make the study of be followed by a leveling off and then a down-
missions an academic requirement, however, oc- turn. Since the 1950s the number of universities
curred in 1835 when John Breckenridge (1797 in Europe and the United States with professor-
1841) was elected professor of pastoral theology ships in missions has decreased, but the corre-
and missionary instruction. Though Brecken- sponding number of seminaries and other
ridge can be regarded as the first Protestant pro- schools, professors, and courses in mission-
fessor of missions, his tenure at Princeton was related subjects has increased substantially in the
brief, 183638, and it would have been unevent- Americas, Africa, and Asia.
ful except for the fact that the course he initiated Roman Catholic missiological studies have fol-
continued as a part of the curriculum until 1854. lowed much of the same path as Protestants since
F. A. E. Ehrenfeuchter, professor of practical the time of Hirscher. Yet the number of outstand-
theology at Gttingen, was one of the earliest Eu- ing missiologists has steadily increased as can be
ropean Protestants to include the subject of mis- seen in the life and work of such giants as Robert
sions in his lectures in the 1840s and 1850s, and Streit (18751930), JOSEF SCHMIDLIN (18761944),
he is credited with publishing the first thorough- Wilhelm Schmidt (18681954), PIERRE CHARLES
going theory of mission in Protestant history, Die (18831954), John J. Considine (18971983), and
praktische Theologie (1859). a host of contemporary scholars.
In Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox cir- Not all mission scholars and thinkers, however,
cles J. B. Hirscher (17881865) urged that the have been professors. Some of the most influential
study of missions be made an integral part of the theorists have been administrators, such as HENRY
study of pastoral theology, and shortly thereafter VENN (17961873) and RUFUS ANDERSON (1796
N. I. Liminsky (182191) published what can be 1880). Others have been missionaries, such as
WILLIAM TAYLOR (18211902), JOHN L. NEVIUS
regarded as the first scientific analysis of mission
(182993), J. HUDSON TAYLOR (18321905), ROLAND
in the Orthodox Church.
ALLEN (18681947), E. STANLEY JONES (18741973),
In 1864 KARL GRAUL (181464), director of the
and HENDRICK KRAEMER (18881965). Some have
Leipzig Mission, proposed that missions be ac-
been missionaries and later teachers, such as
cepted as a legitimate academic discipline in it-
STEPHEN NEILL (19001984) and DONALD A. MC-
self. His memorable lecture, On the Place and
GAVRAN (18971990). Only during the last third of
Significance of the Christian Mission in Scien- his life did McGavran become the founder, dean,
tific Studies of a University Considered as a and professor in the School of World Mission of
Whole, qualified him to teach in the University Fuller Theological Seminary.
of Erlangen. Grauls untimely death prevented his Scholarship in mission of course involves
becoming Europes first Protestant professor of much more than theories, professorships, and
missions, a distinction that was ALEXANDER courses in missions. Equally important are the
DUFFS (180678) when in 1867 he was named societies established for the study and support of
professor of evangelistic theology at the Univer- missions. Often these have been student-led
sity of Edinburgh. Duffs legacy, however, was groups such as the Society of Inquiry on the Sub-
mixed. The installation of GUSTAV WARNECK ject of Missions founded in 1811 at Williams Col-
(18341919) as professor of the science of mis- lege and replicated at Princeton Seminary in
sions at the University of Halle in 1896 signaled 1815, as well as the Student Christian Movement
the momentous changes ahead, for by the turn of and the STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT (1886).
the century three other professorships of mis- Both the SCM and the SVM became interna-
sions had been established, and in the decades tional organizations, and both contributed to a
preceding and following the WORLD MISSIONARY steady stream of mission books and other educa-
CONFERENCE (Edinburgh 1910), the study of mis- tional material. The SVM helped shape Protes-
sions became a part of the curriculum in an in- tant missions from 1890 to 1940, recruited thou-
creasing number of schools in both Europe and sands of young people for missionary service,
North America. and was a major influence leading to the pivotal
The academic study of missions therefore Edinburgh conference of 1910.
inched its way into university and seminary cur- As already implied, much of the scholarly ac-
ricula, first as a part of the study of practical the- tivity in mission resulted directly and indirectly
ology and/or church history, and later as a sepa- from a number of international ecumenical con-
rate department or course of study, partially a ferences on world missions held in New York in
result of the growing interest in the history of re- 1854 and 1900, in London in 1878 and 1888, and
ligions. By the turn of the century the number of in Edinburgh in 1910. The preparatory papers
634
Missiology
and the addresses delivered provided a wealth of Ministries Study Center in New Haven, Con-
material and insight into the thinking and doing necticut. Newer ones include the Mission Ad-
of missions. vanced Research Center in Monrovia, California,
The number of annual missions lectureships the Oxford Center for Mission Studies and the
established in colleges, seminaries, and divinity Center for the Study of Islam and Muslim-Chris-
schoolssuch as the Student Lectureship on tian Religions, both in England.
Missions inaugurated in 1891 at Princeton Semi- Besides the universities and seminaries that
naryincreased steadily in the twentieth century. offer the Ph.D., Th.D., S.T.D., and Ed.D. in mis-
More recent are the Scherer Missions Lectures sion studies, a growing number of institutions
inaugurated in 1995 at the Lutheran School of now have programs leading to a D.Miss. or doc-
Theology in Chicago and the Missiology Lectures torate in missiology (see also DOCTORAL DEGREES
at Fuller Theological Seminary. IN MISSION). Moreover, in the past half-century
During the 1960s some observers were lament- some twelve hundred doctoral dissertations deal-
ing the decrease in books dealing with missions. ing with mission questions have been approved
But in the last thirty years the quantity, variety, by schools in the United States and Canada.
and scope of published works, books as well as
Mention should also be made of the archival
other materials, have increased and the quality
sources available to the serious scholar of mis-
has improved significantly. Besides denomina-
sion. Stephen L. Peterson has analyzed those
tional publications, there are publishing houses
that specialize in producing books about mis- available in North America (IBMR 15 [October
sionsOrbis Books and William Carey Press are 1991]: 15564), and Norman Thomas of the
examples. Moreover, a number of secular pub- United Theological Seminary in Dayton, Ohio, is
lishing houses such as Harper & Row/Collins, directing a massive international project on doc-
Lippincott, Viking Penguin, Macmillan, T & T umentation, archives, and bibliography. Anno-
Clark, Steyler Verlag, and E. J. Brill, as well as tated bibliographies of no less than 10,000 vol-
notable university presses such as Harvard, umes in missiology in all major European
Chicago, Yale, Illinois, and California are pub- languages published from 1960 to 1990 will be
lishing works on missions and missionaries. Uni- available in printed form and on compact disks.
versity publications include not only mission his- Clearly the bulk of what is noted here relates
tory and biography, but also studies of the role of principally to what has been and is taking place
missions and missionaries in anthropology, eco- in the West. But as Christians become more nu-
nomics, and international relations. merous in the Two-Thirds World and as they de-
Currently, there are scores of JOURNALS OF MIS- vote more personnel and resources to scholarly
SION AND MISSIOLOGY being published throughout endeavors, they will make their own missiologi-
the world. These include The International Bul- cal contributions. Mission study centers, for ex-
letin of Missionary Research, the Evangelical Mis- ample, already are functioning in such diverse
sions Quarterly, the International Review of Mis- countries as Japan, Papua New Guinea, South
sion, Missiology, Missionalia (Southern Africa), Korea, Peru, India, Bolivia, and Brazil.
Indian Missiological Review, and the South Pa- A great deal of the aforementioned activity can
cific Journal of Mission Studies. be traced to the increasing impact of professional
Though there has been a steady stream of out- missiological societies such as the DEUTSCHE
standing histories of missions, until the last GESELLSCHAFT FR MISSIONSWISSENSCHAFT (1918),
twenty-five years there were hardly any reference the ASSOCIATION OF PROFESSORS OF MISSIONS (1952),
works other than Edwin M. Bliss, Encyclopedia of the EVANGELICAL MISSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY (1972), the
Missions (1891, 1904) and B. L. Goddard, The INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR MISSION STUDIES
Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Missions (1972), and the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MISSIOLOGY
(1967). The publication of the Concise Dictionary (1973). These societies meet regularly and most
of the Christian World Mission (1972) edited by produce their own journals.
STEPHEN NEILL, GERALD H. ANDERSON, and John
ALAN NEELY
Goodwin, was followed by David Barretts World
Christian Encyclopedia (1982), the A.D. 2000 Se- SEE ALSO Mission Theory.
ries which includes World Class Cities and World
Evangelization (1986), Evangelize! A Historical Bibliography. G. H. Anderson, R. T. Coote, N. A.
Horner, and J. M. Phillips, Mission Legacies; G. H. An-
Survey of the Concept (1987), and Seven Hundred
derson, IBMR 15 (October 1991): 16572; O. G. Myke-
Plans to Evangelize the World (1988). Gerald An- bust, The Study of Missions in Theological Education 1
dersons comprehensive Biographical Dictionary & 2; A. Neely, Toward the Twenty-first Century in Christ-
of Christian Missions (1997) will soon be followed ian Mission, pp. 26983; S. Neill, et al., CDCWM; S. L.
by this work, The Evangelical Dictionary of World Peterson, IBMR 15 (October 1991): 15564; B. R.
Missions. Pierce, Missiology 4 (1976): 7587; J. Verkuyl, Contem-
Several centers for mission research are func- porary Missiology; A. F. Walls, IBMR 15 (October 1991):
tioning, some for decades, such as the Overseas 14655.
635
Missiometrics
Missiometrics. Science of missions which ap- massive new data sources becomes a missiologi-
plies the contemporary scientific method to the cal priority.
phenomena of missions, studying them in ways DAVID B. BARRETT
that are empirical, quantitative, and material.
The term thus parallels a whole series of twenti- SEE ALSO Quantitative Research.
eth-century neologisms describing over two hun-
dred new empirical sciences, ranging from Mission and Missions. Derived from the Latin
econometrics (the use of mathematical and sta- mitto, which in turn is a translation of the Greek
tistical methods in the field of economics to ver- apostellom (to send), the term mission, as an
ify and develop economic theories), to biomet- English term with no direct biblical equivalent,
rics, jurimetrics, and bibliometrics (analysis of has a broad range of acceptable meanings. The
the whole range of books, libraries, holdings, us- Oxford Dictionary gives the earliest occurrences
ages). Since each year churches and missions of the English word in 1598. By 1729, use of the
worldwide regularly measure well over three word in relation to the church focused on the
hundred numerical indicators of their life and GREAT COMMISSION: Jesus Christ gave his disci-
progress, missiometrics is thus presented with a ples their mission in these words, Go and teach
gold mine of annual data waiting for analysis. all nations, & etc. (E. Chambers, Cyclopaedia; or
Based upon biblical concerns and criteria, mis- an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences).
siometrics starts from the fact that the Old Testa- The contemporary secular definition of mis-
ment is a vast storehouse of censuses and statis- sion is simply sending someone forth with a spe-
tical data, and that the New Testament contains cific purpose. That purpose may be defined
a surprising number of empirical mandates such broadly (e.g., to represent the interests of the
as Count the worshipers! (Rev. 11:1, NIV, REB), sender) or very narrowly (e.g., to hand-deliver a
Measure the temple! (Rev. 11:1), Work out the message written by the sender). With the broad-
number! (Rev. 13:18, REB). There are some 23 ness of the term, our concept of the mission of
verbs found in the major English Bible versions, the church will to a large degree depend on our
with another 53 close synonyms, which (together theological orientation rather than an etymologi-
with the 40 Greek biblical words associated with cal analysis.
these synonyms) delineate the domain of the sci- Few would challenge the need for clarity in our
ence of missiometrics. Because the 23 verbs en- definition, for, as Dyrness notes: mission lies at
able us to measure the phenomena of mission, the core of theologywithin the character and
they are therefore the basic dimensions (from the action of God himself. There is an impulse to
Latin dimensio, a measuring) of the science of give and share that springs from the very nature
missiometrics. These biblical imperatives suggest of God and that therefore characterized all his
Christians thus have a significant new method works. So all that theologians call fundamental
metrical investigationassisting them in con- theology is mission theology (p. 11). At the same
temporary obedience to the GREAT COMMISSION. time, however, the difficulty of defining mission
Missiometrics measures anything and every- cannot be overlooked or minimized. Mission is
thing in any way relevant to world mission and never something self-evident, and nowherenei-
global evangelization. Major variables measured ther in the practice of mission nor in even our
each year by churches and missions include best theological reflections on mission, does it
church membership, church growth, places of succeed in removing all confusions, misunder-
worship, church workers, clergy, women work- standings, enigmas and temptations (Bosch, 9).
ers, home missionaries, foreign missionaries, Several questions among the many which
preachers, colporteurs, evangelists, audiences, could be asked illuminate the contemporary dis-
catechisms, catechumens, converts, baptisms, cussion and options: (1) Is mission, most broadly,
collections, finances, Scripture distribution, lit- the whole scope of Gods intention in the world
erature production, church administration, logis- or, more narrowly, the God-given MISSIONARY
tics, communications, broadcasting, computer TASK of the church? (2) If our focus is on the task
usage, e-mail volume, networks, and the like. of the church, is mission limited to one core
Each of the these provides voluminous annual se- component of the churchs work or is it every-
ries of data which, if seriously investigated, can thing that the church does? (3) Is it possible to
result in highly effective mission strategies and determine a focus or priority for mission, and, if
tactics. A major concern in this respect is that so, what should that be? At least until the IMC
Christians involved in world mission be effective WILLINGEN CONFERENCE in 1952, the answers to
and imaginative in utilizing the vast new areas of these questions for evangelicals appeared to be
data and communications now available over the relatively straight forward. Missions was evan-
Internet. Todays world is an enormously com- gelism and the evidence of successful missions
plex entity6 billion human beings grouped into was the extension of the church through the
13,000 ethnolinguistic peoples speaking over crossing of cultural, geographic, and linguistic
12,000 languages. Thus navigating through these boundaries.
636
Mission and Missions
In this century, however, we have seen several ism within it. The CONGRESS ON THE CHURCHS
developments, most of which were birthed in the WORLDWIDE MISSION (WHEATON CONGRESS, 1966)
ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT and brought into evan- was organized to deal with theological and prac-
gelical discussion by people involved in both tical issues. Affirming the scriptural foundation
groups. Two of these developments relate to the for social justice, the declaration of the congress
word mission. First was the recognition that still proclaimed the primacy of evangelism. In the
Gods mission was broader than the activities of same year the WORLD CONGRESS ON EVANGELISM
his Church. MISSIO DEI, coined as a missiological (BERLIN CONGRESS 1966) was also held. Focused
term by Karl Hartenstein in 1934, was used in primarily on responding to shifting definitions of
the 1952 WILLINGEN CONFERENCE to stress that evangelism, the integral relationship of evangel-
mission is Gods not the churchs. Georg Vicedom ism and missions was maintained. In 1970, the
popularized it in the MEXICO CITY CONFERENCE FRANKFURT DECLARATION ON THE FUNDAMENTAL CRI-
(1963) and in his text The Mission of God (1965). SIS IN CHRISTIAN MISSION was developed in re-
Missio Dei focuses on everything God does in his sponse to ecumenical shifts in thinking about
task of establishing his kingdom in all its fullness mission, and it promoted a return to the classic
in all the world. While it includes what the orientation of mission as the presentation of sal-
church does, it is not limited to that, for God vation through evangelism. Calls for broadening
works both in and out of the church. Thus the evangelical perspective came at the Thanks-
themes such as Let the world set the agenda giving Workshop on Evangelicals and Social Con-
were driven by a recognition that God is not lim- cern (Chicago, 1973), which issued the Chicago
ited to his work in and through the church and Declaration of Evangelical Social Concern. This
that his mission is seen wherever kingdom values was essentially an affirmation of Gods total
(especially justice and mercy) are being proclaim on the lives of his people, a confession of
moted, fought for, or instituted. failure in demonstrating Gods justice in society,
The second important development was the and a call for evangelicals to demonstrate repen-
dropping of the s from missions to reflect the tance in a Christian discipleship that confronts
unity of the total biblical task of the church. The the social and political injustice of our nation
dropping of the final s was formalized in ecu- (Padilla, 242). At the LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON
menical discussion when the International Re- WORLD EVANGELISM (1974), John Stott pointed to
view of Missions became the International Review the broadening of the definition of mission and
of Mission in 1970. By 1972, George Peters, an indicated that he saw no reason to resist this de-
evangelical teaching at Dallas Theological Semi- velopment. Building his paradigm on Johns ver-
nary, wrote that mission, in contrast to missions, sion of the GREAT COMMISSION, he proposed that
was a comprehensive term including the up- we see mission as the church sent into the
ward, inward and outward ministries of the world to serve just as Jesus served, including
church. It is the church as sent (a pilgrim, EVANGELISM AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY as partners
stranger, witness, prophet, servant, as salt, as in the missionary task. He did not see fulfilling
light, etc.) in this world (Peters, 11). He main- the Great Commission as completing the directive
tained that missions, on the other hand, is the ac- of the GREAT COMMANDMENT, maintaining both as
tual work and the practical realization of the mis- integral to mission. Lausanne proved to be a crit-
sion of the church. Some evangelicals voiced ical juncture in this respect. By 1989, in fact, the
concerns that dropping the s might lead to the role of the Lausanne Covenant would be noted in
loss of commitment to, and action for, world the official story of Lausanne II as follows: It is a
evangelization and church planting. watershed in placing social justice within the pur-
Evangelical approaches to defining mission poses of the Churchs mission (Articles 4 and 5)
have not been unified. John Stott allowed the (Nichols, 15).
broadening of the discussion, as long as evangel- Since Lausanne, three streams have solidified
ism was seen as a leading partner in the mission- within evangelicalism. One emphasizes the his-
ary task. W. Harold Fuller proposed using mis- toric orientation of mission as evangelism, and
sion for our purpose and passion, while ministry carried on in meetings such as the GLOBAL CON-
refers to all that we do. Arthur Johnston opposed SULTATIONS ON WORLD EVANGELIZATION (GCOWE)
any broadening of mission. Ron Sider argued organized in 1989, 1995, and 1997. The focus of
that social transformation is mission. On a prag- this stream remains the development of thriving
matic level, the reality of the disagreement is church movements among people groups around
seen in the titles used for introductory theology the world.
courses taught in 78 North American institutions: A second stream, following Stott, focuses on
31 drop the final s (Theology of Mission) and integrating a holistic approach to mission, incor-
46 keep it (Theology of Missions) (Siewert). porating evangelism and issues of social justice
Multiple conferences organized from within the and reconciliation (see HOLISTIC MISSION). Con-
EVANGELICAL MOVEMENT have sought to address sultations such as that in Wheaton in 1983, con-
the issue of mission and the primacy of evangel- vened to discuss the nature of the church, gave
637
Mission and Missions
voice to this group and laid a sound theological spur on the church to ministry beyond its own
basis for the mission of the Church, with no di- immediate context. In the process, motivated by
chotomy between evangelism and social respon- mission zeal, the church has often led the way in
sibility (Padilla, 247). mapping new areas of the world and publishing
The third stream, sometimes referred to as the new geographic information.
radical discipleship group, and including evan- Definition. There are many excellent atlases
gelicals such as Ron Sider, Rene Padilla, and (books of maps, usually with graphics and geo-
Samuel Escobar, considers social justice to be graphical information), both contemporary and
mission just as evangelism is, and does not give historical. A mission atlas is one that focuses on
priority to either (see also OPTION FOR THE POOR) . the distinctive mission of the church. This con-
Representatives of the three streams have trasts with secular atlases (which may include
come together from time to time, perhaps most some treatment of Christianity) as well as Bible
notably at the C ONSULTATION ON THE R ELATION - atlases, the mission component of which is often
SHIP BETWEEN EVANGELISM AND SOCIAL RESPONSI- limited to the journeys of Paul. In addition, much
BILITY (CRESR 1982), where the partnership of mission understanding can be gleaned from his-
evangelism and social responsibility and the pri- torical atlases of religion and Christianity, since
macy of evangelism were both reaffirmed, the history of the expansion of the church is es-
though it was noted that some of us have felt sentially missionary.
uncomfortable about this phrase, lest by it we Early Publications. The church has always
should be breaking the partnership (LCWE, been informed by maps. Early mission atlases,
p. 24). WHEATON 83 gave greater weight to the with exquisite hand-drawn maps, can be found in
partnership stream, as well as opening discus- mission archives. The first modern Protestant mis-
sion on transforming societies through struc- sion atlas to be widely distributed was the World
tural intervention as an element of holistic mis- Atlas of Christian Missions (1911), an outgrowth of
sion. Finally, representatives of all three streams the Statistical Atlas of Christian Missions issued in
were also present at the LAUSANNE CONGRESS II conjunction with the 1910 WORLD MISSIONARY
ON W ORLD E VANGELISM (M ANILA , 1989). Again, CONFERENCE in Edinburgh, focusing on missionary
the focus continued to give weight to the idea of work among non-Christian peoples.
partnership with evangelism being primary. This landmark atlas was followed by a wealth
Through the declaration and subsequent ongo- of more specialized and denominational publica-
ing reflection, the second stream gained promi- tions, including The Churchmans Missionary
nence in evangelical mission. Atlas (1912), the Concise C.M.S. Atlas (1913),
The debate continues and consensus over this Atlas Showing Mission Fields of the Christian and
complex issue remains a goal to be reached in Missionary Alliance (1922), and World Missionary
the future rather than a present reality. Atlas (1925), with a related article On Making a
A. SCOTT MOREAU
Missionary Atlas by Charles Fah appearing in
the April 1925 issue of the International Review of
Bibliography. D. Bosch, Witness to the World: The Missions.
Christian Mission in Theological Perspective; W. Dyr- Mission mapping continued in the latter half of
ness, Let the Earth Hear His Voice; LCWE, Evangelism the twentieth century, with the Christian and Mis-
and Social Responsibility: An Evangelical Covenant; sionary Alliance leading the way with two ver-
W. H. Fuller, Church in Africa Today and Tomorrow: Pro-
sions of their substantial Missionary Atlas pub-
ceedings of the A.E.A.M. 4th General Assembly, pp.
28098; A. Johnston, The Battle for World Evangelism;
lished in 1950 and 1964. Also significant is
A. Nichols, ed., The Whole Gospel for the Whole World: Worldwide Evangelization Crusades Atlas of W E
Story of Lausanne II Congress on World Evangelization, C Mission Fields: The Second World Survey of the
Manila 1989; R. C. Padilla, The Best in Theology, Areas of the World Unreached by the Gospel (1961).
1:23952; G. Peters, A Biblical Theology of Missions; Recent Publications. The 1980s and 1990s
D. L. Robert, IBMR 18 (1994): 14662; J. Siewert, Di- brought a resurgence of interest in mission data
rectory of Schools and Professors of Mission, rev. ed.; and mapping, as well as a more holistic view. The
J. R. W. Stott, Mission in the Modern World; first such volume was Target Earth: The Necessity
C. Van Engen, Mission on the Way: Issues in Mission of Diversity in a Holistic Perspective on World Mis-
Theology; G. Vicedom, The Mission of God: An Intro- sion (1989) with computer-generated maps,
duction to a Theology of Mission.
graphics, and data tables, along with commentary
and photographs. Most recently, Bryant Myers
Mission Archives. See MISSION LIBRARIES. through MARC/World Vision has produced two
similar mission atlas booklets, The Changing
Mission Atlases. Mission atlases help the church Shape of World Mission (1993) and The New Con-
see more clearly the work of God, the white har- text of World Mission (1996), which provide brief,
vests, and the neglected peoples. They open our easy-to-read descriptions of the world in which
eyes, touch our hearts, and leave us in wonder at Christian mission takes place. While not strictly
what God is doing in the world. Mission atlases speaking a mission atlas, the new, full-color Atlas
638
Mission Libraries
of World Christianity (1998), edited by Peter Brier- A third type of mission headquarters is signifi-
ley and Heather Wright, does an excellent job of cantly involved in the daily life and activity of the
covering many mission themes. missionary. The home office may decide the
Computerization. As we approach the turn of strategies, procedures, goals, and even methods
the century, the widespread use of personal com- for individual fields. They can provide vision,
puters, connected via the Internet, has enabled help set goals, and encourage missionaries who
unprecedented collaboration in mission research might be facing obstacles in their ministry. They
and mapping, using geographic information sys- may also provide medical and psychological sup-
tem (GIS) software. As a result, more contem- port, emotional care, and spiritual advice (see
porary mission atlas material can be found today also MEMBER CARE IN MISSIONS).
on a computer rather than on a bookshelf. Leaders in mission headquarters are often for-
The Global Ministry Mapping System (CD- mer missionaries, pastors, or key lay leaders
ROM updated annually since 1995) provides GIS from churches. The leaders may also consist of
software with extensive global geographic and individuals or groups of people burdened for a
statistical databases, including the mapping of particular type of ministry. Some headquarters
over seven thousand ethnolinguistic peoples. are led by entrepreneurial leaders who have a vi-
With such tools, practitioners, researchers, edu- sion for ministry but minimal cross-cultural ex-
cators, and managers are producing their own perience.
specialized mission atlases on demand. The re- Recently, larger churches have been bypassing
sult is an explosion of tailor-made individual mis- mission agencies. They totally support their mis-
sion maps but a dearth of mission atlases. sionaries, believing that the expense and extra su-
The World Wide Web promises to provide a pervision of a missions organization is not needed.
rich environment for missions mapping. New While in some cases this may be true, serving
strategic alliances between mission agencies and through a mission agency often provides greater
institutionswith the partners maintaining their long-term stability for the missionary, broader
respective data sets and integrating them with prayer support, and more experienced care.
the wholegive public access to vast amounts of GLENN KENDALL
updated, geographically based mission informa-
tion via the Internet. Mission Libraries. The professionalization of in-
The interactive, multimedia mission atlases of formation science, formerly known as library sci-
the future will make it possible to drill down to ence, during the past century has been a boon to
the specific information desired, listen to sounds mission studies. The spread of Christianity around
and voices of people from other countries, watch the world is considered important as an aspect of
video clips, simulate flying through a three- the history of Western civilization. Thus the re-
dimensional map, and transparently combine sources documenting the history of missions are
local information with networked information to be found in numerous secular and religious
from the Web, all on a personal computer any- repositories. The modern researcher is also aided
where in the world. by the computerization of indexes and the cata-
MIKE OREAR logs of most collections, but printed guides are still
useful as much of the older material remains ac-
Mission Headquarters. The development of cessible only in that form. The collections accessi-
mission headquarters began with the original ble by computer are often available through the
missionaries of the modern missionary move- Internet, making them potentially searchable from
ment. Individuals were burdened and called by anywhere in the world.
God to go overseas. They needed help of people In North America, mission collections are
at home to pray for them and to send finances. found in the libraries of most Christian colleges
There are several philosophies of mission and seminaries. Denominational mission boards
headquarters. Some headquarters are simply a and large mission agencies often maintain fo-
conduit for money to the missionary and provide cused collections related to their work. Regional
tax deductible receipts for the donors. In this libraries and historical societies often contain the
case, minimal help or accountability is offered to mission history of the local area, and large pub-
the missionaries. Other mission agencies have lic libraries also collect the records of local and
developed headquarters that share in decision historical figures. Only a few of the younger de-
making with the missionaries on the field. Typi- nominations in America are caring adequately
cally, in this approach, the mission headquarters for their materials. Examples of these are the As-
or mission board will establish broad areas of semblies of God (Springfield, Missouri), The Mis-
policy and a doctrinal statement. Missionaries sionary Church (Mishawaka, Indiana), and the
are allowed to develop individual strategy and oc- Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee). In the
casionally even define the structural relationships non-Western world, financial resources are inad-
on the field. equate for younger churches to consider preserv-
639
Mission Libraries
ing any of their historical records, let alone the tional members of the National Council of
records of their evangelistic outreach. Churches.
Many university libraries in Europe contain ex- The task of collecting information resources
tensive mission collections. Protestant collections for world evangelization was taken over by evan-
may be found at Uppsala, Hamburg, Tbingen, gelical missionary training centers. Theological
Marburg, Utrecht, Oxford, Cambridge, and Edin- seminaries such as Asbury, Dallas, Fuller, Gor-
burgh. The most notable Roman Catholic collec- don-Conwell, Southwestern Baptist, and Trinity
tions are at Munster, Louvain, Lisbon, and (Deerfield, Illinois) were leaders in developing
Madrid. major missions collections. In 1975, the Billy
Selly Oak Colleges Library in Birmingham, En- Graham Center was established on the campus of
gland, was established to train missionaries and Wheaton College complete with its evangelism li-
houses the Harold Turner Collection in the Center brary and archives. The records of North Ameri-
for the New Religious Movements. ANDREW WALLS can evangelical ministries are combined with
was instrumental in establishing the resources of published evangelism and missions resources
the Center for the Study of Christianity in the from around the world to supplement materials
Non-Western World at the University of Edin- from the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association.
burgh. Partnership House Library in London has Following in the tradition of the Day Missions Li-
incorporated the collections of The Church Mis- brary and Missionary Research Library, the col-
sionary Society and The Society for the Propaga- lections of the Billy Graham Center are intended
tion of the Gospel. The Henry Martyn Mission to provide information resources that will enable
Studies Library is a small but important research the Christian church to undertake strategic re-
center on the campus of Westminster College, search and planning in order to complete the
Cambridge. Other prominent European collec- GREAT COMMISSION.
tions are found at the Vahls Missions Library in Significant ecumenical collections include the
Denmark, the Egede Instituttet in Norway, Hack- WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES Library in Geneva
and the Interchurch Center in New York which
mannsche Bibliothek at Marburg, the Library of
holds the libraries of the United Presbyterian
the Norddeutsche Mission at Bremen, the Rhenish
Mission and Board of Missions of the United
Missionary Society in Wuppertal Barmen, and the
Methodist Church. Other specialized collections
Paris Evangelical Missionary Society.
are found in the YMCA Historical Library in New
The primary Roman Catholic mission libraries
York, the Worlds Alliance of YMCA Library in
are the Pontificia Bibliotheca delle Missioni (Li- Geneva, as well as the libraries of various Mis-
brary of the Congregation for the Propagation of sionary Societies and Bible Societies.
the Faith) and the library of the Pontificia Uni- In the non-Western world, resources for mis-
versita Gregoriana. Perhaps the most prominent sion studies are scarcer. Some important collec-
Roman Catholic collection in America is to be tions can be found at the Morrison Library on
found at the Maryknoll Seminary Library in New China in Tokyo, Serampore University in India,
York. and the United Theological College in Bangalore,
National repositories such as the British Mu- India. The Missiology Project of the Research In-
seum, the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and the stitute for Theology and Religion at the Univer-
Cambridge University Library in the U.K. and the sity of South Africa (UNISA) is taking a leading
Library of Congress in the U.S. are excellent role in collecting resources for the continent of
sources of published materials on missions. At Africa.
the beginning of the twentieth century, two li- KENNETH D. GILL
braries were established to support world evan-
gelization: the Day Missions Library at Yale Uni- Bibliography. S. Neill, G. H. Anderson, J. Goodwin,
CDCWM, pp. 3132; idem, CDCWM, p. 407; F. W. Price,
versity and The Missionary Research Library in
Library Trends 9:2 (1960): 17585; R. D. Shuster, Re-
New York. A direct outgrowth of joint evangelis- searching Modern Evangelicalism: A Guide to the Hold-
tic outreach symbolized by the Edinburgh con- ings of the Billy Graham Center; M. L. Smalley, ed., The
ference of 1910, these centers supported research Day Missions Library Centennial Volume, Occasional
and publishing efforts toward that end. As inter- Publication, no. 2.
est in evangelism waned in mainline Protestant
churches, these publications were taken over by Mission on Six Continents. The COMMISSION ON
other agencies, but the collections were pre- WORLD MISSION AND EVANGELISM (CWME) of the
served for their historical value. Currently Yale WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES held its first world
Divinity School Library continues to collect mis- conference at MEXICO CITY in December 1963. It
sion studies extensively in support of the Day affirmed that the old unidirectional model of
Missions Library. Union Theological Seminary Westerners sending and non-Westerners receiv-
Library in New York now houses the Missionary ing missionaries was past. Disavowing the anti-
Research Library collection and remains the de- quated paternalistic structures, the CWME de-
pository of missions material for the denomina- clared under the caption mission in six
640
Mission Schools
continents, that the emphasis should be that many locations has led some schools to prefer
Gods mission could now originate from every the term International Christian School (ICS),
part of the world. Every part of the world had rather than Mission, or MK School. But the
been implanted with the church and therefore majority of mission schools, whether called an
was capable of sending mission agents to any MK school or an international Christian school,
other part of the world. Mission belonged to the see their function as twofold: serving the mis-
essence of the church, and the paganism (or neo- sions community with an educational program
paganism) of the West constituted as much a for their children that prepares them for tertiary
mission challenge as the paganism of countries education in their home country and reaching
far away from the West ever did. Indeed, the the expatriate community with the gospel
Western world now needed to realize what non- through the provision of an educational program
Western Christians could do to help its people presented from a Christian worldview.
find meaningful faith in God. Many of the more established schools offer a
The new theological emphasis alerted the variety of support services. These include ESL
church in every continent to recognize its mis- programs, programs for students with special ed-
sionary calling within its own environment. It ucational needs, boarding services, and advanced
challenged the traditional one-way traffic in mis- studies programs. Many are now establishing
sion and denied that Westerners were the most programs to support missionaries choosing to
authentic representatives of Christian belief, life, home school their children. In a recent survey of
and practice. As JOHANNES VERKUYL pointed out, 134 mission schools, 49 (or 36 percent) were
it discarded the distinction between mission (in found to offer boarding home services (Overseas
distant lands) and evangelism (in ones own land) Schools Profiles).
and challenged churches everywhere to focus on Mission schools, originally staffed by field
the one world, which is in need of the gospel. An missionaries with varying degrees of expertise in
assumption here was that PARTNERSHIPS and reci- pedagogy, are now predominately staffed by fully
procity are to characterize relationships between trained educational professionals. Most of the
Christians from all parts of the world. larger mission schools are now accredited and
The slogan was a milestone of twentieth- offer university preparatory curricula. Most mis-
century mission theology. It maintained currency sion schools are interdenominational and in-
for a few decades in ecumenical circles. creasingly multinational in student and faculty
A. CHRISTOPHER SMITH composition. Mission schools procure teachers
through missionary sending organizations, al-
Bibliography. R. K. Orchard, ed., Witness in Six though an increasing number are directly hiring
Continents: Records of the CWME of the WCC Mexico staff and offering full or partial stipends.
City 1963; J. Verkuyl, Contemporary Missiology: An Mission schools face significant challenges.
Introduction.
Paramount is the recruitment and retention of
professional staff. This perennial challenge is ex-
Mission Schools. Mission schools serve the mis- acerbated by the proliferation of mission schools
sions community by providing the educational, and the desire of mission agencies to place edu-
social, and spiritual support desired by mission- cators in nontraditional educational settings,
aries for their children. The number and variety such as with clusters of missionary families who
of missions schools have grown dramatically in would otherwise be HOME SCHOOLING their chil-
the past fifteen years. In the 1800s, several mis- dren without support.
sion boarding schools were established in the Mission schools also face the challenge of de-
sending countries as well as areas of high mis- veloping culturally sensitive curricula appropri-
sionary concentration, such as China, Hawaii, ate for the multinational student body of the
and India. Today there are over 140 schools in school. As the missionary force becomes increas-
approximately eighty nations that serve the edu- ingly multinational, so do the student bodies of
cational needs of missionary children. mission schools. A pressing issue for schools is
Mission schools vary significantly in their in- how best to prepare these students for tertiary
stitutional purpose statements. Some serve the education in their passport countries. Mission
children of missionaries exclusively, while others schools also face the ongoing challenge of re-
accept students from the international business, sponding to the increased expectations of mis-
diplomatic, and host country communities. Mis- sionary families for the educational preparedness
sion schools may admit students from outside of their children.
the missions community either on a space-avail- In spite of the educational, professional, and fi-
able basis, according to board-established per- nancial challenges facing mission schools, mis-
centages, or as an equally targeted student group. sion school personnel find the experience of serv-
The variety of mission school purpose state- ing in the international missions context to be
ments and target student groups, as well as the both professionally stimulating and personally
problematic use of the word missionary in fulfilling as they contribute to the development
641
Mission Schools
and discipleship of missionaries children, sup- (18671944) and JOSEPH SCHMIDLIN (18761944),
port the ongoing missionary effort of their stu- insisted that a full-blown theory of mission was es-
dents parents, and experience the joy of seeing sential to mission studies; but British mission
the lost come to know Jesus through their min- thinkers did not respond to the challenge. As a
istry in the mission school. debtor to the European Enlightenment, Schmidlin,
PHILIP RENICKS the father of Catholic MISSIOLOGY, equated practi-
cal mission theory rather narrowly with missiol-
Bibliography. J. Blomberg, EMQ 31:2 (1995):
ogy in 1925. He modeled his Catholic mission the-
21017; Overseas Schools Profiles, 5th ed.; J. Pluedde-
mann, A CSI World Report, 1995. ory on Gustav Warnecks Missionslehre and defined
mission theory comprehensively as the scientific
investigation and statement of the principles and
Mission Theory. Mission theory identifies rules which govern the work of spreading the faith.
principles which are held to be essential to the As the theory of the missionary art, it seeks to an-
successful practice of mission. Over the years, the swer the questions as to why, whither, how and by
term has been used in an elastic manner to en- whom missions should be undertaken. Probably
compass beliefs, goals, policies, strategies, and the last missiologists to develop distinctively Ger-
procedures involved in the tasks of mission. man mission theory were WALTER FREYTAG (1899
Some argue that mission (or missionary) theory 1959) and Georg Vicedom (b. 1903).
occupies an intermediate level between theology During the Victorian period, the key idea in
and policy, because it is shaped not only by theo- Anglo-American mission theory came to be the
logical convictions but also by the fruits of actual concept of the INDIGENOUS CHURCH. This was de-
experience. In that case, mission strategy and veloped simultaneously by two remarkable mis-
mission policy are viewed as being nearly syn- sion statesmen, an American, RUFUS ANDERSON
onymous. (17961880), and an Englishman, HENRY VENN
A comprehensive framework for mission theory (17961873).
has probably never been fully elaborated. In the Anderson decried the popular idea that Chris-
Middle Ages, Franciscan and Dominican monks tian faith and Christian civilization were insepa-
thought carefully about how to do mission effec- rable. He identified the proper aims of mission as
tively, while Roman Catholic thinkers such as JOS being the planting of self-governing, self-sup-
DE ACOSTA (15401600) and Tomas Jesu, wrote porting, and self-propagating churches. In the
perceptively in this cross-cultural area in the six- 1860s, Henry Venn, called for the the euthana-
teenth and seventeenth centuries. The Jesuit sia of missions as the final stage of the mission-
Acosta produced a monumental mission manual to-church process. Since he saw the raising up
in Peru, under the title De Procuranda Indorum of a Native Church as the great object of a mis-
Salute (1577), which was translated as Predicacion sion, he viewed mission as the scaffolding to be
del Evangelio en las Indias (Preaching the Gospel removed once a self-responsible indigenous
in the Indies). Vibrant Dutch Protestants, includ- church had emerged. JOHN L. NEVIUS (182993),
ing Hadrianus Saravia (15311613) and Justus an American Presbyterian missionary to China
Heurnius (15871651), also pondered over the es- and Korea, ROBERT E. SPEER (18671947) and the
sentials of mission. However, Protestant mission Scot, John Ritchie (18781952), did much to fur-
leaders in the nineteenth century did not pay ther general acceptance of indigenous church
much attention to them, if at all. Mission leaders principles in theory and practice until the mid-
such as the SERAMPORE TRIO drew much more twentieth century.
from MORAVIAN and German PIETIST precedents, Important contributions to the development of
from their own experience in pre-Victorian India missions theorizing have come from the pens of
and from the theological well of Jonathan Ed- missiologists such as ROLAND ALLEN (18681947),
wards (170358), in developing their mission ap- a vigorous critic of the Anglo-American mission
proach and philosophy. system who wrote among other classic works The
During Europes ENLIGHTENMENT era, an En- Spontaneous Expansion of the Church and the
glishman named William Orme urged (1828) that Causes Which Hinder It (1927, reissued 1960);
there was a need to develop a theoretical frame- WILLIAM E. HOCKING (18731966), Re-Thinking
work for the mission enterprise. Another con- Missions (1932); HENDRIK KRAEMER (18881965),
temporary of William Carey, during the opening The Christian Message in a non-Christian World
phase of Protestantisms modern missionary (1938); J. C. HOEKENDIJK (191275), Kerk en Volk in
movement, was the German theologian Fried- de Duitse Zendingswetenschap (1967); DONALD A.
rich E. D. Schleiermacher (17681834). Partly in- MCGAVRAN (18971990), Understanding Church
fluenced by Moravians and German Pietists, Growth (1969); and RALPH D. WINTER (1924 ).
Schleiermacher viewed the theory of mission as Jongeneel opines that the term theory of mis-
part of practical theology. sion(s) was replaced by the term theology of
Subsequent pioneers of mission studies in Ger- mission(s), particularly after the Second World
many, such as the Protestant GUSTAV WARNECK War. This appears to be corroborated by changes
642
Mission Theory
in the classification system of the International Gods ultimate saving purpose . . .

Review of Missions [IRM], the premier missio- (1996, 41).
logical journal in mission studies during the first
two-thirds of the twentieth century. The IRMs In light of this, Shenk has distinguished very
classification system was set up by J. H. OLDHAM clearly between the development of mission the-
in 1912 and it operated until 1963, when its cat- ory, which must involve deep theological insight,
egories were radically changed by LESSLIE NEW- and the business of mission strategizing (or plan-
BIGIN in line with the thinking of the CWME ning). Vividly aware that a strategy always re-
MEXICO CITY CONFERENCE (1963). Until then, the flects the culture and historical moment in which
Theory and Principles of Missions had featured it is formulated (1993, 219), he has underscored
as one of its major classification categories. the ambivalence that has characterized dis-
Thereafter, the term theory of mission or mis- cussion of strategy in mission studies. He re-
sion theory sank out of view. Only the term mis- minded Christian thinkers that their best formu-
sion principles was retained in the bibliography lations still fall far short of representing Gods
field of mainstream mission. Thus the concept ways of advancing his kingdom.
of mission theory and what it symbolized evi- Such warning was not intended to deter Gods
dently disappeared from general usage by the people from exploring the unfathomable patterns
mid 1960s. and dimensions of Gods mission. Rather, it is a
In the face of such a trend, serious work has prophetic spur to missiologists to be doubly alert
been done recently in the U.S. to develop a new to the significance of what God is doing in the
level of scholarly discourse on mission theory. world, and the world church, today.
After giving decades of attention to the subject, During the last quarter of the twentieth cen-
Wilbert R. Shenk, in his presidential address to tury, major contributors to our understanding of
the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MISSIOLOGY in June the dynamics of effective, cross-cultural Christian
1995, outlined seven elements necessary for de- witness and service have included the South
velopment of a general theory of mission. He African, DAVID J. BOSCH (192994), especially his
argued that a general conceptual framework Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theol-
would have to do the following: ogy of Mission (1991); the Puerto Rican, OR-
LANDO E. COSTAS (192487), with his Christ Out-
1. Situate the mission process historical- side the Gate: Mission Beyond Christendom
ly and empirically as an inter-cultural (1982); the Gambian, Lamin Sanneh, especially
movement, including the agents and his Translating the Message (1989) and Encoun-
agencies, and the host culture and tering the West (1993); and the Scot, ANDREW F.
peoples. . . . WALLS, a compendium of whose influential writ-
2. Identify and critically evaluate the main ings has been published under the title The Mis-
model(s) by which mission has been sionary Movement in Christian History (1996), of
and may be prosecuted. . . . which his essay Missionary Societies and the
3. Account for the impact of the mission Fortunate Subversion of the Church deserves
on the host culture and the impact of special mention. At the end of the twentieth cen-
the culture on the mission, i.e., as tury, international Christian leaders consequently
reflected in modifications and innova- find themselves challenged by new frameworks
tions the mission makes in response to from which to address missional situations,
the cultural context. under rubrics such as a missiology for the West,
4. Correlate the development of the mod- CONTEXTUALIZATION of the gospel, Two-Thirds
ern world system with the development World missions, mission in the city, and reaching
of the mission, especially the impact of the unreached.
modern communications and the eco- A. CHRISTOPHER SMITH
nomic system. . . . Bibliography. R. Allen, Missionary Methods: St.
5. Trace the influence the various strands Pauls or Ours?; G. Anderson et al., eds., Mission Lega-
of renewal, revival, and revitalization cies; R. P. Beaver, ed., To Advance the Gospel. Selections
[not all necessarily Christian in nature] from the Writings of Rufus Anderson; J. B. Jongeneel,
that touch the churches, often with Philosophy, Science, and Theology of Mission in the 19th
long-range implications. and 20th Centuries, Part I; D. A. McGavran, Under-
6. Maintain a dialectical relationship standing Church Growth, rev. ed.; J. L. Nevius, Planting
between mission praxis and the biblical and Development of Missionary Churches; J. M. Phillips
theological foundation of mission. . . . and R. T. Coote, eds., Toward the 21st Century in Christ-
ian Mission; W. R. Shenk, IBMR 5:4 (1981): 16872;
7. Hold in tension local mission and Gods idem, Missiology 24:1 (1996): 3145; J. Verkuyl, Con-
mission to all people so that theory temporary Missiology. An Introduction; A. F. Walls,
geared to the local context will be devel- Evangelical Quarterly 60:2 (1988): 14155; M. Warren,
oped that will draw forth the fullness ed., To Apply the Gospel: Selections from the Writings of
and richness of the particular in light of Henry Venn.
643
Missionary
Missionary. Few terms within the evangelical was known to Irenaeus and Tertullian. James
missiological vocabulary generate more diverse Scherer argues that there is no New Testament
definitions. For some, everybody is a mission- connection that would utilize apostolic concepts
ary, but STEPHEN NEILL is right in saying that if and functions in the corporate life of the
everybody is a missionary, nobody is a mission- churches of that later period. The functions of
ary. A few argue that a select category of persons the apostolate were merged into the corporate
are honored with this title; but still others dis- ministry of the church.
card it totally and substitute apostolic messen- Roman Catholic usage emerged by 596 when
ger instead. Gregory the Great sent the Benedictine monk AU-
The Biblical Root and Uses. In the New Testa- GUSTINE OF CANTERBURY to lead a missionary dele-
ment the Greek term apostellom (with a related one, gation to the British Isles. The Roman Church
pempom) emerges in two major categories: as a also used the term in reference to their orders (as
broadly used verb, the sending in one form or an- sent ones), starting with the Franciscans in the
other and by different senders (132 times), and as thirteenth century, and later other orders. This
a more specifically used noun, the apostolic per- was established in 1622 when the Congregation
son (80 times). The senders (either verb or noun) for the Propagation of the Faith was instituted.
include a variety of people (including a negative Hoffman writes, According to the letters patent
one, Herod; Matt. 2:16), God (John 20:21), Christ it gave to apostolic laborers overseas, missionar-
(Luke 9:2), the church (Acts 15:27), the Spirit ies were those sent to announce the Gospel of
(pempom in Acts 13:4). The sent ones include the Jesus Christ, to teach the gentiles to observe
Spirit (1 Peter 1:23), Christ (Matt. 10:40; John whatever the Roman Catholic Church commands,
20:21), the apostles (Mark 3:15; Luke 6:1216), to propagate the Catholic Faith, and to forewarn
other authorized representatives of the churches of the universal judgment. Today Catholics use
(2 Cor. 8:23; Phil. 2:25; Rom. 16:7), angels (Rev. the terms missionary, missioner, missionate, and
1:1), and servants or employees (Acts 10:17). The mission apostolate in a variety of ways, including
core New Testament meaning clusters around . . . anyone engaged in some manner in the es-
ideas related to sending and or crossing lines, to tablishment of the Church where it had not been
those being sent, the sent oneswhether messen- established, as well as teachers, medical person-
gers or the Twelve, or the others who serve with nel, agronomists and others serving holistically.
some kind of apostolic authority or function. The Within Catholicism the broadest meaning is now
New Testament affirms that the apostolic mes- also applied . . . to all apostolic Christians col-
senger (the missionary) becomes the person au- laborating with Christ in bringing about the total
thoritatively sent out by God and the church on a redemption of all mankind, and indeed of all cre-
special mission with a special message, with par- ated nature . . . in a word, all those engaging in
ticular focus on the Gentiles/nations. the mission of bringing Christ to all being and all
Other Jewish records show this term (a deriva- being to Christ.
tive of the Hebrew saliah) describing authorized The Protestant REFORMATION, partially in reac-
messengers sent into the diaspora: to collect tion to the Roman positions, minimized the term
funds for Jewish uses; or taking letters from Jews and concept of the missionary. It reemerged with
or Jewish centers with instructions and warn- greater significance within German PIETISM at
ings, including how to deal with resistance. The Halle, itself a reaction to the Reformation excess.
New Testament adopts some of these ideas, as Thus the Moravians used the term for their
well as a broader one from Greek culture with broad-spectrum enterprise, and then it was
the concept of divine authorization. It then in- adopted by CAREY, JUDSON, MORRISON, and LIV-
jects new meaning into the missionary apostles INGSTONE and their successors.
(life-long service, Spirit-empowered, with partic- The Term Used Today. We have mentioned the
ular focus on the missionary task) referring to diverse Catholic uses of this term. In secular cir-
the original Twelve (plus Paul) as well as other cles the term mission still has a variety of uses:
authorized messengers. This is the core of the diplomatic, commercial, or military missions.
Christian apostolic person and function. There is Some Protestants have argued for their own par-
no evidence of this office being authoritatively ticular coinage applied in the broadest way for all
passed on from generation to generation. Christian activity as mission and subsequently
The Term through Church History. Ironically all Christians are missionaries. Some evangeli-
as the Latin language takes over Bible use and cals use the slogan everybody is a missionary to
church life, its synonym, mitto, becomes the reject an apparent special category, but also be-
dominant word. From mitto we derive the En- cause they desire to universalize missionary re-
glish word missionary. Therefore an accident sponsibility.
of linguistic history has replaced the original Singaporean Jim Chew encourages us to sub-
Greek concept with all of its richness and depth. stitute cross-cultural messenger. To him, this
In the immediate post-apostolic era, the term special servant . . . is not a temporary but an
was used of itinerant ministers, and in that form abiding necessity for the life of the church, pro-
644
Missionary Call, The
vided always that the movement of mission is uine lack of materialism. Additionally, that the
multidirectional, all churches both sending and missionary may live a truly incarnate lifestyle
receiving. However, Chew sustains the position does not remove the fact that such a lifestyle is
that missionary is simply a generic term for all by the missionarys choice, and such a type of
Christians doing everything the church does in choice is unavailable for the poor.
service to the KINGDOM OF GOD. We do a disserv- The fact of such disparity may subvert the very
ice to the missionary by universalizing its use. gospel message the mission agencies and mis-
While all believers are witnesses and kingdom sionaries bring, and often leads to hidden resent-
servants, not all are missionaries. We do not ment and eventually open conflict. As the gap be-
glamorize or exalt the missionary, or ascribe tween the rich and the poor continues to grow,
higher honor in life or greater heavenly reward, and as INDIGENOUS CHURCHES begin to find their
and neither do we create an artificial office. own authentic voices, it will become an increas-
This focused conclusion comes from a biblical ing problem that Western missionaries who work
theology of vocations (God has given us diverse in areas of endemic poverty will of necessity have
vocations and all are holy, but not all the same); to face more realistically if they are to be true
a theology of gifts (not all are apostles nor all partners in the global missionary task.
speak in tongues1 Cor. 12:29) and therefore not A. SCOTT MOREAU
all Christians are missionaries; and a theology of Bibliography. J. J. Bonk, Missions and Money: Afflu-
callings (the Triune God sovereignly calls some to ence as a Western Missionary Problem.
this position and task; see MISSIONARY CALL).
These men and women are cross-cultural work-
Missionary Call, The. All Christians are called to
ers who serve within or without their national the service of the church as witnesses for Christ
boundaries, and they will cross some kind of lin- in every part of their lives. But the missionary
guistic, cultural, or geographic barriers as au- call is more than this. It is a special and unique
thorized sent ones. call to full-time ministry. Simply put, the mis-
WILLIAM DAVID TAYLOR
sionary call is the command of God and the set-
Bibliography. D. Mller, NIDNTT; 1:12635; ting apart by the Holy Spirit of an individual
J. Chew, When You Cross Cultures; T. Hale, On Being a Christian to serve God in a culture, a geographi-
Missionary; J. H. Kane, Understanding Christian Mis- cal location, and, very likely, in a language differ-
sion, 3rd ed.; R. Hoffman, NCE 9:907; G. W. Peters, A ent than the missionarys own. The personal
Biblical Theology of Missions; J. A. Scherer, Missionary, recognition of this call comes with a growing
Go Home! conviction that God has set the recipient apart
for this service. The result of this conviction is an
Missionary Affluence. A relatively unexamined intense desire to obey and to go wherever God
element of recent missionary life and work has leads.
been the affluence of Western missionaries in Missionary call is an extrabiblical term, yet it
comparison with the majority of the worlds peo- refers to a sovereign act of God in the life of a
ples among whom they work. The development person to bring that person to a point of decision
of great personal wealth in the West over the past to serve God in a missionary capacity. Since the
few centuries and the cultural assumptions in- phrase is not found in the Bible, there has been
herent with that wealth have been paralleled by some confusion as to what a missionary call en-
the development of like assumptions and expec- tails. In the history of missions, we observe that
tations of appropriate missionary lifestyles and Gods call of his people to missions is as diverse
capabilities. Wealthy missionaries, as Bonk as the missionaries themselves. This means that
rightly points out, find it difficult at best to truly one cannot generate a checklist which, if com-
incarnate Christ among the destitute of the pleted, would produce or prove a missionary call.
world, as the gap between them is simply too big However, such a call is based on concrete cir-
and the wealthy have too much to lose by letting cumstances and experiences such that, after
go of that to which they cling. identifying the call in ones own life, one can look
It does not matter that missionaries, by West- back and observe Gods sovereign guidance and
ern standards, are generally on the lower end of control in the process leading to the call and per-
the socioeconomic scale. What does matter is sonal recognition of it.
that all too often those among whom they work What are proper foundations for receiving a
see the missionaries as having access to personal missionary call? (1) Belief in and commitment to
and institutional wealth of which the indigenous the lordship of Jesus Christ such that it produces
population can only dream. Often, however, it is unconditional love for him and obedience to his
not just a question of the amount of income; even will. (2) A commitment to obey the will of God
missionaries who live at low income levels can in our walk with him. It is understood that if we
still communicate a materialistic worldview, and are not seeking to obey his will in general terms,
those who have wealth can communicate gen- then he will not reveal his specific will for us, as,
645
Missionary Call, The
for example, in a call to missionary service. (3) portunities in a different culture away from the
Openness to the leading of the Holy Spirit. The security and comfort of home; (4) reading mis-
Spirit leads as he wills, according to the unique- sionary biographies and newsletters and books
ness of the individuals gifts and personality. Each and journals on missions; (5) serving under the
Christian must be sensitive to the leading of the oversight and encouragement of a local body of
Holy Spirit in his or her own life, for the Spirit believers who will help in the identification and
leads each person uniquely. (4) Belief in the Word development of spiritual gifts and ministry skills;
of God as authoritative and a commitment to and (6) gaining broad ministry experience, giving
obey the principles and guidance laid down in it. attention to ministry in areas in which God gives
(5) An understanding that the GREAT COMMISSION wisdom, fruit, and joy.
was given by Jesus to all Christians, and there- As revealed through many missionary testi-
fore each person should be involved in helping to monies, a persons missionary call may be im-
fulfill this command. God works sovereignly in pressed on the mind and heart as one listens to a
the normal issues and activities of life to lay these message or a testimony, reads a passage of Scrip-
foundations of faith, obedience, and desire. Their ture, prays for the lost, reads an article or book,
reality in a believers life is an act of Gods sover- hears of a particular or general need, or is per-
eign grace. sonally challenged to go. God is not limited in the
Given the foundations for receiving a mission- means or methods he will use to call his mission-
ary call, there are certain attitudes and activities aries to serve him on the mission field. Comple-
that help prepare one for receiving this call. mentary to this realization must be the recogni-
These are normally developed over time as the tion and confirmation of a local body of believers
Holy Spirit leads the potential missionary to the (Acts 13:2). The church is Christs agent on this
place in life in which he or she is able to respond earth, and he will use the church to confirm the
positively and maturely to Gods call. call and to send the missionary with the needed
One significant attitude is a hatred of sin. A support.
person should strive to mortify sin, to put it to The proof of the missionary call for any indi-
death in the life, and to bring every thought cap- vidual is that God has seen fit to allow the indi-
tive to make it obedient to Christ (2 Cor. 10:5). vidual to serve him on the mission field. There
This attitude, with appropriate actions, shows a are those who feel that they have received the call
persons desire to obey God rather than self. Ad- but are never able to go. This can be the result of
ditionally, the one called should have open eyes, such things as ill health, family obligations, or
seeing beyond his or her own world of relation- lack of resources. The Lord works his sovereign
ships and circumstances, seeing the world as will to further his kingdom in many ways. Those
God sees it, lost and without hope. who are prepared to go but are unable to may
There should also be an open heart, a soft serve a vital part of the missionary endeavor
heart for the lost, like Gods heart (John 3:16; through their work of support and spreading the
2 Peter 3:9). Jesus gave up his life because of vision for missions.
Gods love for the lost (Rom. 5:8), and believers THOMAS L. AUSTIN
are to have this same attitude (Phil. 2:58). There
should be open ears, a sensitive listening to the Bibliography. E. P. Clowney, Called to the Ministry;
Holy Spirit. This is developed through careful lis- H. R. Cook, An Introduction to Christian Missions; J. H.
tening to the Word of God and obedience to its Kane, Understanding Christian Missions.
commands. As Gods commands and guidance
from the Word are carefully applied, we become Missionary Children. With an international mis-
more sensitive to the Spirits quiet leading. And sion force composed primarily of families, mis-
so we are able to hear when he calls. Christians sionary children (better known as MKsmis-
must also have open hands demonstrated sionary kids; see THIRD CULTURE KIDS) become
through an involvement in some kind of work for central players in this movement. Western mis-
the Lord. Finally, we should have the attitude Isa- sions focused on the needs of their own off-
iah demonstrated in his response to Gods call. spring; but with the globalization of mission,
Here am I, send me! (Isa. 6:8). This shows will- MKs now come from all nations and go to all na-
ingness to go anywhere as the Lord commands. tionswhether they want to or not. Missions
As is clear from the above, there are obvious leaders from the newer sending countries (non-
activities that will help prepare Christians for Western, Two-Thirds World) now grapple with is-
Gods call and enable them to move rather than sues that formerly challenged leaders from the
hesitate when such a call comes. These include: older sending nations (Europe, North America,
(1) praying for the lost of the world, for their Australia, New Zealand), such as MK educational
countries, and for the church, the missionaries needs and cultural identity. Korean missionaries
and the ministries in those countries; (2) giving in the Philippines offer a fascinating case study.
to missionaries and to mission programs and Early on they sent their children to a boarding
ministries; (3) going on short-term ministry op- school shaped by U.S. curriculum and values.
646
Missionary Children
However, they saw their children increasingly mount these handicaps. Other idealize their
isolated from Korean culture, some grappling backgrounds or families, though in time the un-
with tensions of internal identity and others unrealistic perceptions will crumble or they hope-
qualified for Korean universities. They finally re- fully will develop a healthy understanding and ac-
sponded by establishing a Korean school. ceptance of their past. (2) Transitioning through
MKs are the youngest, and perhaps the most life. Some of these changes are not unique to
vulnerable of Gods chosen people who are living MKs, but they experience many of them, requir-
as foreigners in the lands. . . . (1 Peter 1:1). Pol- ing constant variation and adjustment. Those
lock has noted that MKs worldwide grapple with who studied in boarding schools present a differ-
the following crucial issues, each with its own ent profile from those who studied in a national,
benefits and particular challenges. (1) Mobility: private, or international school. The vast major-
MKs are adaptable with rich memory banks, but ity transition to their passport culture for the last
also struggle with rootlessness and restless mi- stages of their education, and there they face on-
gratory drives. (2) Relationships: they can grow going significant challenges and change, both
deep people-roots by themselves, but tend to pro- positive and negative. Transitions can be keenly
tect themselves while some drift into insulation. anticipated or feared, either as stepping stones to
(3) Cultural balance: they enjoy a broad knowl- maturity or fraught with uncertainty and laced
edge of cultural diversity as global pilgrims, but with pain. (3) Decisions at diverse crossroads.
they can become hidden immigrants, off- MKs have little control over their early life. As de-
balance in their own passport culture. (4) Lan- pendents of Gods global nomadic families, their
guage: many speak multiple languages, appreci- parents determined where or how to live and
ate learning styles and linguistic nuances, many how to school them. As dependents they live with
become excellent teachers, but they can also suf- the results of these choices. Entering adulthood
fer from language limitation and confusion. the decisions become personalized and critical:
(5) WORLDVIEW: they tend to have broad cultural What is their personal faith and value system?
paradigms, able to think laterally, but can appear How will they live? Will they accept or reject
arrogant, reflecting patriotic ambivalence toward their backgrounds and their parents faith?
their passport nationality. (6) Cross-cultural (4) Processing throughout their lives. At different
skills: MKs are keen observers, adaptable, less stages of their life they will work through process
judgmental, cultural bridges, but can appear to memories, transitions, and key decisions, and it
lack in convictions, be social chameleons and is crucial that they be encouraged to process
socially undeveloped. (7) Leave-taking: MKs proj- these key elements that have so shaped them.
ect sensitive empathy, but saying farewell is al- The adult processing of unresolved grief which
ways a critical passage from nation to nation, can be a haunting element must be addressed
school to school, people group to people group, reasonably and thoroughly. Again the critical
grappling with closure, which on the negative faith factor emerges, and MKs reflect the spec-
side can generate unresolved emotional conflicts. trum of attitudes of the particular spiritual and
(8) Development: most MKs reflect higher per- organizational subculture in which they were
sonal maturity in relational and communication raised.
skills, and are comfortable working cross-gener- The majority of MKs do quite well emotionally,
ationally; but some experience stunted matura- psychologically, spiritually, and career-wise. A
tion and delayed developmental transitions, and small percentage are brilliant or outstanding
many grieve the inability to return home; and leaders. But many are troubled and problematic.
those whose entire education was done in Chris- The prime stakeholders in MK welfare include
tian boarding schools run the risk of growing up the following groups: MKs themselves, their par-
in a sequence of unrealistic bubbles, comfort- ents and close family; home-sending churches
able only in those missionary subcultures. and mission societies; member care (physical
Adult MKs never cease being MKs, and this re- and mental) providers; and educators. Healthy
ality has generated serious analysis of their par- MKs tend to come from healthy families; unfor-
ticular issues. A surprising percentage return to tunately some missionary families are seriously
some aspect of cross-cultural ministry, enter the dysfunctional. New geography and cross-cultural
helping professions, or head into other aspects of ministry never compensate for these dysfunc-
the borderless marketplacewhether in busi- tions. Therefore church and mission leadership
ness, education, governmental foreign service, or must be alert to and address the holistic welfare
relief and development. As adults they grapple of their missionary families.
with the challenges of what it means to be an WILLIAM DAVID TAYLOR
adult MK, including: (1) Processing their memo- Bibliography. A. Daugherty-Gordon, Dont Pig Out
ries. Most MKs share a memory pool that weaves on Junk Food: The MKs Guide to Survival in the U.S.;
them together, but not all come to positive terms D. Pollock, and R. Van Reken, Global Nomads: Growing
with their emotions and story. Many have been Up Among Worlds; W. D. Taylor, Too Valuable to Lose:
damaged in childhood and find it difficult to sur- Exploring the Causes and Cures of Missionary Attrition;
647
Missionary Children
D. Walters, An Assessment of Reentry Issues of the Chil- aptly put it, but with this spin: all the good things
dren of Missionaries. a church does away from home.
An even broader definition of missions and
The Missionary Task. Defining the missionary missionary began to emerge. In the effort to get
task of the church is central to missionary reflec- all disciples fully involved in witness, it was said
tion. But it is more than that. It is also a crucial that everyone is either a missionary or a mission
responsibility of the church, for a church unsure field. All disciples are sent as missionaries to
or misdirected about its mission can hardly their own world. Does it make any difference to
achieve it. And yet rarely in church history has define the missionary task one way or another?
there been agreement on what the missionary Is it helpful to distinguish clearly among the
task of the church is. tasks of the church? Is it necessary? History
Following the early expansion of the Western would seem to teach that it does indeed make a
church, the Middle Ages saw centuries of intro- great deal of difference. In fact, failure to focus
version that all but eliminated missionary activ- clearly on the New Testament understanding of
ity, including later, among the reformers. Then missions seems to have always marked the be-
came the Moravians, followed by what has been ginning of the end of missionary enterprise.
called the GREAT CENTURY OF MISSION. Nine- The original, basic missionary task of the
teenth-century Protestants in Europe and North church was to send certain evangelistically gifted
America gained a new missionary vision and members to places where Christ is not known to
were, for the most part, united in what the mis- win people to faith and establish churches. That
sionary task wasspecifically, they grounded it this is a biblical definition can be demonstrated
in the commission Christ gave the first great misin two ways: (1) the meaning of the term used for
sionary, Paul as Mission to the Gentiles, to missionary and (2) the example of those who
whom I now send you, to open their eyes and to heard Christs final instructions.
turn them from darkness to light, and from the Apostles. The term apostle (literally one
power of Satan to God, that they may receive for- who is sent) was used in several different ways
giveness of sins and an inheritance among those in the New Testament (see APOSTLES). It was used
in the historic root meaning of any messenger
who are sanctified by faith in me (Acts 26:17,
(John 13:16; Phil. 2:25). But another nuance was
18). The twentieth century was, if anything, an
emerging in New Testament times, meaning one
even greater century for missions, but from the
sent as an authoritative representative of the
start the unity of vision began to disintegrate. As
sender. In this meaning it is used supremely of
the conviction weakened that people without
Jesus, sent for our redemption (Heb. 3:1). When
Christ were lost, the definition of mission began
Christ finished his apostleship he passed that role
to change. Missions became mission, mean- on to others, called variously the disciples
ing purpose, and the old passion for classical (though the ones highlighted were among hun-
evangelistic missions was swallowed up by the dreds of other disciples), the twelve (though
other good things a church must do. Conse- there were more than twelve, with Matthias,
quently, from Europe and mainline churches in Paul, and Jesus brother, James, added to the se-
North America the stream of missionaries began lect group), and the Apostles, those sent with
to dry up, until by the end of the century it was a divine authority to establish Christs church.
mere trickle. Thus the term referred to a unique office, the
Upon the gradual withdrawal of traditional founders of the church. But the term was used of
missionaries nondenominational agencies and others, too, people like Barnabas (often included
newer denominations (like the Assemblies of God in the apostolate), Timothy and Silas, Andronicus
and the Christian and Missionary Alliance) took and Junia (Rom. 16:7), Epaphroditus (Phil. 2:25)
up the slack for what may be historys greatest and, indeed, the whole missionary team (1 Thess.
surge of evangelism, following World War II. 2:6). In this use, apostle refers not to an office
How did these forces of the last half of the twen- (the twelve founders), but to a role, the role of
tieth century define the task? As the initial evan- pioneering. Paul describes this role clearly when
gelistic thrust into new territories was successful, he describes his ambition to proclaim Christ
the focus of missionaries typically shifted to serv- where he has not yet been named (Rom. 15:20;
ing the new churches in pastoral, educational, Haldane, Hodge, Murray, and Calvin all clearly
and other helping roles until the de facto defini- identify this apostolic role). All who seemed to
tion of missions became, sending people away be called by Christ or the Spirit to do missionary
from the home church to serve God in some ca- work would be thought worthy of the title . . .
pacity elsewhere, especially cross-culturally. (Plummer, 84). Lightfoot wrote the seminal ex-
Thus the popular understanding of missions position of this meaning of apostle in his ex-
moved gradually in the same direction as the ear- tensive footnote on Galations 1:27. We call these
lier drift, defining missions as all the good pioneer church-starting evangelists, missionar-
things a church does, as DONALD MCGAVRAN so ies, from the Latin translation of the Greek apos-
648
The Missionary Task
tolos. They are sent by the home church to win the first commissioning on the night of the resur-
people to faith and establish churches where rection: As the Father sent me, so send I you
there are none. (John 20:21). If there were any doubt as to the im-
This apostolic role continued after the original plications of this command, John himself gives a
apostles died. Eusebius, writing of the time from commentary in his first letter: As he is, so are we
A.D. 100150 speaks of numberless apostles or in this world (1 John 4:17). But demonstrating
Preaching Evangelists who were living then. He the love of God (1 John 4:717) does not exhaust
described them: the evangelistic assignment. In fact, to live a good
life without telling how we do it is bad news, not
They performed the office of Evangelists to good news. So the second element in the com-
those who had not yet heard the faith, whilst, mission is proclamation and witness, explaining
with a noble ambition to proclaim Christ, they what one has experienced personally: Go into all
also delivered to them the books of the Holy
the world and preach the gospel . . . (Mark
Gospels. After laying the foundation of the faith
in foreign parts as the particular object of their
16:15). This gospel . . . shall be proclaimed to all
mission, and after appointing others as shep- nations . . . and you are witnesses . . . (Luke
herds of the flocks, and committing to these the 24:47, 48), and You shall be witnesses to me. . .
care of those that had been recently introduced, to the uttermost parts of the world (Acts 1:8).
they went again to other regions and nations, But on these four occasions Jesus says nothing
with the grace and cooperation of God. (Schaff, about winning to faith and establishing churches.
68) Only once does he do that: Go therefore and
make disciples of all the nations, baptizing
Thus, from the beginning, there was a missionary them . . . (Matt. 28:19). He even goes beyond
function distinct from other roles in the church. evangelism to the final fruit of evangelism:
It was distinct from the witnessing responsibility . . . teaching them to observe all things that I
all Christians have, even distinct from that of have commanded you . . . (v. 20). Here the pas-
evangelistically gifted Christians winning non- toral and teaching role is included! How tragic if
Christians who live nearby. These, rather, are sent obedient children gathered in his family were not
ones, sent to those out of reach of present gospel the end result of the missionary task.
witness. And their role is distinct also from what In this way, four of the great commissions
other sent ones do. These are missionaries dont even extend to winning people to faithjust
who pastor the young church and who assist it in incarnation, proclamation, and witness. The first
various other ways, but they do not have the apos- step of evangelism, to be sure, but hardly the
tolic function of winning to faith and starting whole of it. And the fifth great commission goes
churches. Failure to distinguish this task from far beyond the initial task of evangelism, encom-
other tasks may have the appearance of elevating passing all the church was meant to be. Thus,
their significance but in historic perspective it Christ is clear enough on the initial stage and the
only serves to blur and diminish the original mis- final stage, but how do we find out what he in-
sionary task of the church. A full team is needed tends for the in between? That is where the ex-
to reach the unreached, of coursethose at home ample of the churches obedience to that com-
who send and colleagues on the field who rein- mission comes in: The Acts of the Apostles. The
force the apostolic thrust in supportive ministries. early history of the church was given, in part, to
But the original missionary task of the church is demonstrate what Christ intended. And the pic-
fulfilled through pioneer apostolic church starting ture emerges clearly and quickly: a select few
evangelists. The first evidence for this is the way were sent out from home churches to places
the term apostle was used in the New Testament where Christ was not known to win people to
and in the years immediately following. But there faith and gather them into local congregations.
is other, even stronger evidence. And that is the missionary task of the church.
The Acts of the Apostles. One function of the Paul and his missionary band first of all lived au-
Book of Acts is to demonstrate clearly what the thentic lives, demonstrating the power of the
missionary task of the church is. Christ gave what gospel. In that context they immediately and con-
we call the GREAT COMMISSION on at least three oc- stantly talked about it, explaining the gospel, urg-
casions, probably on four, and perhaps on five. ing their hearers to accept it. Thus they won peo-
This, along with the demonstration of his own ple to faith and organized churches. Soon the
resurrection, was the only theme to which he re- responsibility for pastoring and teaching was
turned in his several encounters with the disciples turned over to others and, once the missionary
in the six weeks before he ascended. Clearly this task in that place was completed, the missionary
sending was uppermost in his mind. What did band pressed on to regions beyond.
he intend that those sent should do? Acts gives We derive our definition of the missionary
the answer of how those who received the com- task, then, from the New Testament term used to
mission understood it. Evangelism begins with in- define the role, and from the New Testament ex-
carnating the transforming gospel as we see from ample of those who fulfilled that role: the mis-
649
The Missionary Task
sionary task is to go, sent as representatives of thereby breaking the traditional connection be-
the home church, to places where Christ is not tween time and space. Each element could now
known, winning people to faith and establishing be dealt with without reference to the other. Time
congregations of those new believers. and space had become instrumental elements to
ROBERTSON MCQUILKIN be exploited.
2. The disembedding of social systems. Moder-
Bibliography. L. W. Caldwell, Sent Out: Reclaiming
nity severed the nexus between social relation-
the Spiritual Gift of Apostleship for Missionaries and
Churches Today; C. Clark, ERT 13 (October 1989): ships and the context in which they were formed.
34482; J. B. Lightfoot, The Epistle of St. Paul to the Traditionally, relationships were dependent on
Galatians; A. Plummer, DAC, 1:8284; P. Schaff, The and remained embedded in a particular social
Oldest Church Manual Called the Teaching of the Twelve matrix. Modernity disembedded social relations
Apostles; W. Schmithals, The Office of Apostle in the from local culture. Various mechanisms facili-
Early Church. tated this process. (a) Money replaced barter as
the means of exchange. The modern economy
Modality. See SODALITY AND MODALITY. uses money (a symbolic token) to facilitate the
exchange of goods and services. The global capi-
Modernity. A historical development generally tal market moves vast sums of money electroni-
regarded as arising in Europe in the seventeenth cally and instantaneously without any reference
century, modernity is also associated with the to relationships or place of origin. (b) Knowledge
ENLIGHTENMENT, which fundamentally altered so- and training have become increasingly special-
ciety and economy. The Enlightenment, inspired ized, with each area of specialization controlled
by experts and a body of knowledge. Expertise is
by major developments in science and mathe-
the court of appeal in problem solving. In moder-
matics, emphasized the positive potential of
nity daily life is dependent on vast systems based
human reason and the prospect of open-ended
on expert knowledge; health care, electrical
progress if Enlightenment thought were applied
power, transportation, and commerce are all in-
in all areas of life. The Enlightenment was im-
dependent of social relations. Indeed, disembed-
bued with a sense of a universal purpose and
ding is understood as a necessary step in making
mission.
the productive process as efficient and cost-effec-
Modernity emphasized the contrast between tive as possible. Traditional culture emphasizes
traditional society and the emerging new culture. the role of fortune or fate; modern culture puts a
By its intensiveness and extensiveness modernity premium on expert knowledge.
forcibly displaced traditional culture. Its inten- 3. Perpetual reflection and reordering. All hu-
siveness is seen in the way it penetrated all as- mans to some extent reflect on their actions; in
pects of human life, while its extensiveness is ev- modernity reflexivity and skepticism are core val-
ident in its spread worldwide. Traditional society ues. In making decisions, traditional culture
typically focused inward; modernity has been prized and drew authority from the past. Moder-
markedly expansive. nity insists on gathering feedback from all rele-
In traditional society the production of goods vant sources in order to determine the most effi-
depended largely on animal or human power; cient future course. The past is regarded as a
production in modern industrial society is de- drag on progress; innovation is encouraged in
pendent on inanimate sources of energy. The order to achieve greater productivity. The ideal is
view of products and labor as commodities, the a process of continual critical reflection, evalua-
money economy, and urbanization are marks of tion, and reordering. No area or activity is spared
modernity. Modernity also stimulated a range of this routine, which actually undermines stability
institutional developments, including todays na- and security, for the process never reaches a sta-
tion-states and political systems. ble point. In the modern process, knowledge is
The dynamism and the globalizing thrust of always incomplete. The only recourse is to gen-
modernity have been fostered by several develop- erate further information.
ments that mark the transition from traditional Modernity engendered optimism about the fu-
society to modernity: ture. Industrialization and URBANIZATION pro-
1. The separation of time and space. Each tradi- moted economic growth and created new wealth.
tional culture had its own way of measuring Modern societies experienced a rising standard
time. Time was defined by the people in a partic- of living. Even though social scientists have con-
ular place. The invention of the mechanical clock sistently pointed to certain problems that the
changed this. Time could be dealt with independ- modern system creates, they generally assumed
ent of place since the clock made possible a uni- that these negative consequences would, in the
versal basis for measurement. (The latter addi- long run, be more than offset by the positive po-
tion of international time zones unified the world tential. By the mid-twentieth century, however,
further.) In a relatively short period the new basis the problems of modernity were increasingly em-
for measuring time was accepted worldwide, phasized, and pessimism supplanted the earlier
650
Modernization
optimism. Among the causes of this loss of con- The country that is more developed industrially
fidence in modern culture are the consumption shows to the less developed the image of its fu-
of nonrenewable sources of energy at an acceler- ture. Modernization was a synonym for indus-
ating rate; despoliation of the ENVIRONMENT; the trialization, and the modern was considered su-
harnessing of TECHNOLOGY by police states to perior to traditional society.
control entire populations; the failure to achieve The expansion of the colonial powers into
a more equitable distribution of resources among other regions and continents coincided with
the peoples of the world; the rapid growth in modernity and the Industrial Revolution (see
world POPULATION; the rise of TOTALITARIANISM; the COLONIALISM). Each colonial government trans-
violence of two World Wars and many regional or mitted to its colonies a particular model of mod-
local conflicts sustained by the industrial-military ernizationBritish, French, Dutch, Japanese.
complex; the rising incidence of VIOLENCE in in- Colonies were encouraged to modernize accord-
dustrial society; new diseases; the breakdown of ing to the model of their colonial masters. The
social and family structures; and confusion about nations of Africa, Asia, and Latin America were
moral values. Europeanized or Westernized. Following World
The dynamics of modernity have been inher- War II the United States became the dominant
ently globalizing. At the center of GLOBALIZATION Western power, and modernization was equated
is the modern economy. The traditional national with Americanization. The Russian model was
economy that had systems of exchange with followed in the communist bloc. As moderniza-
other national economies has been increasingly tion became a global phenomenon, the domina-
replaced by the global economy. In the global tion and control by foreign powers began to stir
economy, manufacturing is a process of assem- resentment. People wanted modernization with-
bling components from all over the world. The out the label made in . . . , which implied de-
capital markets operate globally through elec- pendence on or being within the political orbit of
tronic hookups. In light of these new conditions, a foreign power.
the meaning and function of the nation-state are The relationship of modernization and DEVEL-
being redefined. OPMENT must be noted. While the term modern-
In the late twentieth century, growing numbers ization has largely fallen into disuse, a consider-
of people asserted that modernity was being dis- able literature developed around it following
placed by a new historical epoch, POSTMOD- World War II. Modernization was understood to
ERNISM, which involves a repudiation of certain be a systemic process that encompassed all as-
Enlightenment values. Science is no longer re- pects of a society, including ECONOMICS. But the
garded as the undisputed authority. Postmodern terms modernization and development were
epistemology affirms that all knowing is based on not applied consistently and frequently were used
faith. The modern split between public and pri- interchangeably. Today DEVELOPMENT is the pre-
vate, objective and subjective, secular and reli- ferred term.
gious, is increasingly rejected in favor of whole- Early studies of modernization drew a number
ness and reconciliation. This changing climate of general conclusions. First, it was recognized
presents new opportunities for Christian witness. that no theoretical models were at hand for
The postmodern attitude is more open to the re- studying this complex process of cultural change.
ligious dimension than was modernity. But a One tack was to analyze the paths to moderniza-
credible witness will begin with respect for mod- tion taken by developed societies. This focused
ern people and an ability to narrate the gospel in attention on the variables influencing whether a
contemporary language. traditional society remained intact or modern-
WILBERT R. SHENK ized: natural resources, educational systems,
geopolitical relationships. These prerequisites for
SEE ALSO Modernization; Pluralism. takeoff toward modernization were widely dis-
Bibliography. P. L. Berger, The Sacred Canopy; idem, cussed in the early literature.
Facing Up to Modernity; A. Giddens, The Consequences of Second, early studies saw the economy as fun-
Modernity; C. E. Gunton, Enlightenment and Alienation; damental. An expanding economy that effectively
D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity; J. R. Middle- tapped a countrys human and natural resources
ton and B. J. Walsh, Truth Is Stranger Than It Used to Be; was essential to modernization.
L. Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Society. Third, early studies recognized that industrial-
ization has been the powerful engine of cultural
Modernization. The process whereby traditional change in the modern period. Industrial develop-
society is transformed according to modern ment entailed the centralization of the means of
processes, values, and goals. Cultures are never production, especially labor, so that goods and
static, but in the modern period innovation be- services could be produced in the greatest quan-
came a primary cultural value. One stimulus of tity at least cost. Thus, URBANIZATION has been a
cultural innovation is intercultural relations. In necessary concomitant of modernization. Con-
the preface to Das Kapital Karl Marx observed: siderable controversy has arisen with regard to
651
Modernization
the emphasis to be given to industry vis--vis Urbanization tends to progress at a more rapid
other sectors such as agriculture. rate than literacy, but media participation is ex-
Fourth, the impact of SECULARIZATION on tradi- tremely high, extending even to rural areas. The
tional society, including religion, proved difficult media have grown in importance as the world
to assess. In the first phase of modernization economic system has evolved.
studies, secularization was regarded as the indis- The modern mission movement was an impor-
pensable ally. It was also assumed that traditional tant agent of modernization worldwide. Some
religio-cultural values were incompatible with caution and dissent would have been justified,
modernization and impotent in the face of secu- for modernization has espoused a technical and
larization. For a society to modernize, the shack- rational approach; it has largely ignored the reli-
les of tradition had to be broken. Traditional gious dimension. A sound missiology, to the con-
mentality, it was argued, must be replaced by a trary, is concerned with the whole person, a sub-
rationalist and positivist outlook. Gunnar ject that began to be addressed by Christian
Myrdals Asian Drama (1968) revamped the dis- development theorists and missiologists from the
cussion by emphasizing the important role of at- 1960s on.
titudes and values, including religion, in mod- WILBERT R. SHENK
ernization. And yet as modernization accelerated
in the 1960s, some of the strongest resistance Bibliography. W. G. Bragg, The Church in Response
to Human Need, pp. 2051; D. Goulet, The Cruel Choice;
was evident in societies controlled by a religious
D. C. Korten, Getting to the 21st Century; D. Lerner, The
tradition that sensed the threat of secularization Passing of Traditional Society; G. Myrdal, Asian Drama,
to its core values. The outstanding example was 3 vols.; N. Wolterstorff, Until Justice and Peace Embrace.
Iran, where a countermodernizing Islamic move-
ment led by Ayatollah Khomeini overthrew the
Moe, Malla (18631953). Norwegian missionary
promodernizing monarchy in 1979 and installed
to Swaziland. Moes parents died when she was a
a regime committed to restoring the country to
teenager, and she and her sister moved from Nor-
its Islamic foundation.
way to Chicago to live with an older married sis-
According to Daniel Lerner, three interlocking
ter. In 1892 evangelist FREDERICK FRANSON,
conditions are required to sustain moderniza-
founder of the Scandinavian Alliance Mission,
tion. The first is geographical and social mobility.
challenged her to go to South Africa, even though
Traditional society is characteristically static. For
she had no formal Bible training. She set out as
a society to modernize, its population must be
ready to relocate in response to new opportuni- one of a band of eight pioneer missionaries
ties. Throughout the modern period people have whose numbers dwindled to three after a year.
been leaving the rural and agrarian world for Moe began her ministry by visiting African
urban and industrialized society. This mobility homes and learning the language, and her de-
has various essential characteristics, but most pendence upon Africans became a hallmark of
important are openness to change and willing- her ministry. She used evangelistic methods
ness to adapt to new situations. many colleagues found unorthodox, like her trav-
The second condition is psychic mobility. Phys- eling Gospel Wagon which she had built at age
ical mobility is prerequisite to psychic mobility. sixty-five to go into new areas. She planted a
Explorations in the fifteenth century began ex- great many churches, and founded a mission sta-
panding the geographical horizon. This was aug- tion at a place she named Bethel, which became
mented by the printing press and publication of her base of operations for over fifty years of min-
books and maps detailing expeditions to various istry in Swaziland.
parts of the world. The mass MEDIA have greatly Colleagues and critics struggled to work with a
expanded and accelerated psychic mobility by woman who was so independent and domineer-
making vicarious experience of diverse realities ing, but her personal characteristics grew from a
possible. singular focus: her life was totally devoted to soul
The third condition is the system of modernity winning, and she was impatient with any imped-
with its dependence on the mass media (see MASS iments that kept her from doing Gods work. She
COMMUNICATION). Traditional society is an oral so- died in Swaziland in 1953 at age ninety.
ciety with certain correlates: the socioeconomic JUDITH LINGENFELTER
sector is rural; the cultural sector is nonliterate;
the political sector is designative. In modern Moffat, Robert (17951883). Scottish pioneer
media-dependent society the socioeconomic sec- missionary to Southern Africa. Born in East
tor is urban, the cultural sector is literate, and Lothian, Scotland, he trained as a gardener, but
the political sector is electoral. after conversion heard Gods call to the mission
The model of modernization thus comprises field. In spite of little formal education he was
four elements: urbanization, LITERACY, media accepted by the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY
participation, and political participation. The re- (LMS), which made room for godly men who
lationships among the four elements will vary. understood mechanic arts. Moffats arrival in
652
Monaco
Cape Town in 1816 brought no welcome from a Moffett, a strong proponent of education for
colonial government that distrusted Noncon- Christians, founded several hundred primary
formist preachers, nor from Boer farmers con- schools for the children of believers and in 1901
vinced that God had made them superior to non- he started the Presbyterian Theological Seminary
white races. Delayed by red tape (he spent the in his living room in Pyongyang with two stu-
time learning Dutch), Moffat in 1817 journeyed dents. The first seven graduates were ordained in
north, befriending an outlawed Hottentot chief 1907. He served as president of the seminary
whose conversion eased official prejudice against until 1924. Among many other early Christian in-
the LMS. Despite the obstacles he pressed on to- stitutions established by him and his missionary
ward remote villages where Jesus name was un- colleagues was a Christian Academy for young
known. He settled at Kuruman (182670) in men which evolved into the first Christian college
modern Botswana. There he evangelized, built in Korea, Soongsil. Moffett served as president
stone houses, irrigated orchards, made soap and from 1918 to 1927.
clothes, and opened a school. Moffat was a great Moffett was very sympathetic to the movement
thanksgiver, with a genius for winning the friend- for Korean independence from Japan, which had
ship of local chiefs, but as a product of his cul- annexed Korea in 1910. His well-known opposi-
ture and time could also exhibit muscular Chris- tion to efforts by the Japanese colonialist powers
tianity in repelling threatening invaders. to subjugate worship of the triune God to the de-
He translated the Bible into Sechuana (1840 ified Japanese emperor through forced atten-
57). His Missionary Labours (1842) and Rivers of dance of Christians at the Shinto shrines led
Water (1863) sold in large numbers. In England eventually to his being driven from Korea on four
(183843) he captivated audiences by his arrest- hours notice in 1936 after forty-six years in
ing accounts, sought and got the support of Korea.
Christian England when the missionary move- BONG RIN RO
ment was gathering momentum, and recruited
Bibliography. A. D. Clark, A History of the Church in
for the Bechuana mission the young David Liv-
Korea; E. N. Hunt, Jr., Protestant Pioneers in Korea;
ingstone, his future son-in-law. But Moffat still L. G. Paik, The History of Protestant Missions in Korea,
had twenty-seven crowded years traveling out 18321910.
from Kuruman with the gospel. Even after retire-
ment he directed attention to Africa. Made D.D.
Moldova (Est. 2000 pop.: 4,510,000; 33,700 sq.
of Edinburgh, the Apostle of the Bechuanas
km. [13,012 sq. mi.]). Moldova is a landlocked,
downplayed his success with I simply did the
ethnically diverse republic of the former Soviet
work of the day in the day.
Union, nestled between Ukraine and Romania.
J. D. DOUGLAS
Moldova was once part of Romania, and nearly
Bibliography. J. S. Moffat, The Lives of Robert and two-thirds of its citizens are ethnic Romanians,
Mary Moffat; W. C. Northcott, Robert Moffat: Pioneer in while slightly more than a quarter of its people
Africa, 18171870; E. W. Smith, Robert Moffat, One of are Slavs, most of whom live in the troubled
Gods Gardeners; J. P. R. Wallis, ed., The Matabele Jour- Transdniester region. The Orthodox Church
nals of Robert Moffat, 18291860. claims the nominal allegiance of at least two-
thirds of the population, while evangelicalses-
Moffett, Samuel A. (18641939), American pio- pecially Baptists and Pentecostalsmake up less
neer missionary to Korea. Moffett was commis- than 2 percent of the population. Although strong
sioned as one of the pioneer missionaries to Orthodox opposition has made evangelical out-
Korea by the Northern Presbyterian Mission in reach difficult at times, the evangelical move-
the United States to Korea, arriving in Seoul on ment is growing. Particularly encouraging has
his twenty-sixth birthday (January 25, 1890). been a significant movement to Christ among the
After his arrival, while engaging in language minority Gagauz people, a Turkic ethnic group.
study, he directed and upgraded into a school an RAYMOND P. PRIGODICH
orphanage for boys which had been founded by
HORACE G. UNDERWOOD in 1886. In 1893, he SEE ALSO Commonwealth of Independent States.
moved permanently into the northern provinces
of Korea, establishing long-term residence in Py- Monaco (Est. 2000 pop.: 34,000; 1.95 sq. km.
ongyang. Through strategic planning and wide [0.75 sq. mi.]). Money is power in Monaco, one
itineration he raised up a growing network of vil- of the worlds smallest nations. Images of Grand
lage and city churches, established a Bible train- Prix automobile racing and wealthy tax-dodging
ing class system for all believers, and served as exiles stereotype this principality surrounded by
pastor of the Central Presbyterian Church of Py- France and the Mediterranean Sea.
ongyang until 1907. He was elected to be the first Missionaries to Monaco face many challenges.
moderator of the Presbyterian Church of Korea Material distractions dull spiritual sensitivity; in-
at its organizing Presbytery in September 1907. deed, a focus on the power of money dominates
653
Monaco
relationships. Further, although Monaco boasts Even though evangelicals would not agree with
freedom of worship, public evangelism is forbid- all of their theology, this movement produced
den. Institutional religion, in the form of the thousands of men and women of prayer and de-
Roman Catholic Church, is deeply engrained. As votion, who were the most important ambassa-
in neighboring France, the occult is powerful. Fi- dors of the gospel for fourteen centuries.
nally, Monacos population is highly transient, PAUL E. PIERSON
few being native Monegasque. Although some
come to faith and then move on, becoming a SEE ALSO Celtic Missionary Movement.
blessing to others, the frequent turnover is an ob- Bibliography. D. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Par-
stacle to evangelism and church development. adigm Shifts in Theology of Mission; S. Neill, HCM.
Monaco, however, has provided a base for an
incredible contribution to missions. The name of Money. The fact and scale of Western money
Monte Carlo is synonymous in much of Europe,
constitutes a major barrier to cross-cultural
the Middle East, and North Africa with Trans
transmission of the gospel, all the more so be-
World Radio and Radio Monte Carlo, established
cause chains of affluence may prevent discern-
in 1960. Christian programming in over twenty
ment of their evil effects. For example, a major
languages is transmitted daily into countries
where local Christian broadcasting is in large cause of conflict according to the Epistle of
part prohibited. James is covetousness. Historically, Western
DAVID GREENLEE Christian missionary outreach was undertaken in
tandem with an insatiable quest in the West to
Bibliography. P. Freed, Towers to Eternity, rev. ed. control global resources, a process which began
during centuries of the slave trade and colonial
Monastic Movement. Most missionaries from the expansion of the West, and which continues
fourth to the eighteenth centuries were monks, through multinational corporations and interna-
even though mission was not part of the original tional agencies such as the World Bank and In-
purpose of monasticism. The movement devel- ternational Monetary Fund. These chains also
oped in the late third century, drawing men and lead to the worship of false gods. In a pastoral
women into celibate communities of work and message to North American churches, Bishop
worship. Their primary focus was the achievement Oscar Romero of El Salvador (191780) wrote in
of personal salvation through prayer and ascetic 1979 that the idolatry of wealth and private prop-
practices. But some penetrated new areas, win- erty inclines persons toward having more and
ning pagan peoples to the faith, reducing lan- lessens their interest in being more. It is this
guages to writing, and translating the Scriptures. absolutism that supports structural violence and
In the West, Celtic monasticism, beginning in oppression of people (Voice of the Voiceless, 173).
the fifth century, was intentionally missionary Elsewhere Romero wrote that the god of money
and played a great role in evangelizing the British forces us to turn our backs on the God of Chris-
Isles and parts of the Continent. In the thirteenth tianity. As people want the god of money, many
century the Franciscans initiated missions to reproach the church and kill movements that try
Muslims and with the Dominicans established a
to destroy false idols.
chain of mission stations across Central Asia all
The analysis of James and the prophetic warn-
the way to China. The Jesuits in the sixteenth
ings of Romero are but two portrayals of how
century joined them as the primary missionary
money is a problem to those throughout the
agencies of the Roman Catholic Church, espe-
cially in Latin America, India, and Japan. world struggling to incarnate the gospel. Mission
In the East the NESTORIANS were ardently mis- activity cannot take place without money, but
sionary, even though considered heretical. They money poses at least three challenges. First, the
moved across Central Asia, introduced literacy affluent, including those who live privileged lives
among illiterate tribes, and reached China in 635. among the poor, must take into account teach-
Most of their work did not survive. Sent by Con- ings of the Bible on the subject of the poor, the
stantinope, CYRIL and METHODIUS went to the wealthy, and the consequences of acquisitiveness.
Slavic peoples in the ninth century, devised an al- Second, Western missionaries have worked from
phabet that became the basis of modern Slavic positions of power and MISSIONARY AFFLUENCE.
languages, translated the Scriptures, and estab- The relative wealth of Western Christians engen-
lished the church. In the tenth century monks ders strategies which create dependency among
took Christianity to Kiev, then to Moscow. They younger churches and harm the poor. Finally, af-
also did heroic work among Aleuts in Alaska be- fluence leads the relatively wealthy Christians of
ginning in the eighteenth century. The monks the West to aid and abet the processes which
from the East emphasized the use of vernacular have plunged poor nations into a succession of
languages in liturgy and Scripture, while the traumas and may contribute to future crises (see
Western church insisted on Latin. also WEALTH AND POVERTY).
654
Moninger, (Mary) Margaret
Formidable as these challenges might seem, In 1990 the communist government was re-
many Christians are attempting to surmount nounced and a new multiparty system was in-
them. The following illustrations are suggestive. stalled in 1992. With freedom of religion now
Individually, Christians coming to grips with the guaranteed in the Constitution, spiritual revival
call to follow Jesus are simplifying their lifestyles has taken place. Many Mongols are returning to
and counting the benefits of self-denial. Mission their Buddhist and Shamanist roots, but others
boards have changed policies relating to how are turning to Christ and Christian churches are
missionaries live. Church agencies have sought to appearing on Mongolian soil for the first time
be more responsible in investment and develop- since the early 1900s. In less than a decade the
ment policies. Whether as individuals or corpo- church grew from less than ten known indige-
rately, many Christians have articulated an under- nous believers in the nation to an estimated two
standing of Christian stewardship as servanthood, thousand, and the numbers continue to grow
advocacy for justice, and empowerment of the steadily. Recently Mongols have begun reaching
poor. Since the onset of the Two-Thirds World out to their own people. Churches in the capital
debt crisis in the early 1980s, many Christians are adopting Aymags (Provinces) and using the
have advocated debt forgiveness for severely poor JESUS FILM and other methods to share Christ
countries. Many Christian voices are calling for a with their countrymen. The New Testament is
recovery of the Jubilee tradition to free the poor translated into Mongolian, but numbers are lim-
from all debt without condition. There is a grow- ited. Despite the history, the future presents open
ing religious environmental movement which ar- possibilities for the continuing growth of the
ticulates the understanding that the earth has Mongolian church.
lost the capability of sustaining the material pros- JAMIE FLOWERS
perity of the West and the aspirations of the
Bibliography. C. Lacy, CDCWM, p. 419; Mongolia, a
worlds poor and calls for a new biblical perspec-
Country Study, Area Handbook Series; R. Lovett, James
tive on care of Gods creation. Gilmour of Mongolia; V. Mortenson, God Made it Grow,
PAUL R. DEKAR Historical Sketches of TEAMs Church Planting Work.
SEE ALSO Economics.
Moninger, (Mary) Margaret (18911950). Amer-
Bibliography. J. J. Bonk, Missions and Money: Afflu-
ican Presbyterian missionary to China. Moninger
ence as a Western Missionary Problem; D. J. Hall, The
Steward. A Biblical Symbol Come of Age; I. McCrae, was born near Marshalltown, Iowa. While at
Global Economics. Seeking a Christian Ethic; M. Meeks, Grinnell College she joined the STUDENT VOLUN-
God the Economist. The Doctrine of God and Political TEER MOVEMENT for Foreign Missions. After grad-
Economy; R. Sider, Rich Christians in an Age of Hunger: uating in 1913, she taught school and then ap-
Moving from Affluence to Generosity. plied to the Presbyterian Board of Foreign
Missions.
Mongolia (Est. 2000 pop.: 2,661,000; 1,566,500 Arriving on Hainan Island in 1915, Moninger
sq. km. [604,826 sq. mi.]). Mongolia is a land- began language studies and worked tirelessly for
locked nation surrounded by China to the south the cause of female education. During her years
and Siberian Russia to the north, with an esti- on Hainan she served at the Kiungchow, Nodoa,
mated population of roughly 3 million. and Kachek stations and functioned as mission
The story of the earliest mission work in Mon- treasurer, secretary, and agent at various times.
golia is shrouded from contemporary view, Violence forced the Hainan missionaries to flee
though it is known that NESTORIAN Christians con- to Haiphong in 1925 and to Hong Kong in 1927.
tacted the Mongols in the seventh century. This Moninger was a delegate to the Church of Christ
initial Christian influence died out by the tenth in China conference and to the Presbyterian China
century. Catholic missionaries began work among Council at Shanghai. She published several an-
the Mongols in the thirteenth century. They in- thropological articles on the aborigine Miao peo-
cluded JOHN OF MONTECORVINO, who translated ple of the islands interior. She collected botanical
portions of the Bible and conducted Masses for specimens for the National Arboretum of the
them. Protestant missions did not begin until the Philippines and Harvard University. She also com-
early 1800s. The best-known Protestant mission- piled a two-volume dictionary of the Hainanese di-
ary is JAMES GILMOUR, referred to by some as the alect. Held under virtual house arrest at Nodoa by
Apostle to Mongolia. Despite the title and the af- the Japanese in 193738, she and her colleagues at
fection and respect he received from the Mongols, Kiungchow-Hoihow were again placed under
Gilmour failed to see even one baptism in his house arrest after July 1941. Moninger was repa-
more than two decades of service. Early mission- triated first to Shanghai and then home on the
aries and converts of all stripes regularly faced the Gripsholm in 1942. Ill health forced her retire-
reality of martyrdom, especially in times of strife ment, and she died at Marshalltown.
such as the Boxer Rebellion in 1900. KATHLEEN L. LODWICK
655
Moninger, (Mary) Margaret
Bibliography. K. L. Lodwick, Educating the Women Monotheism is usually associated with Ju-
of Hainan: The Career of Margaret Moninger in China, daism, Christianity, and Islam, all of which af-
19151942; idem, Journal of Church and State 36 firm that there is one eternal Creator God. How-
(1994): 83346; idem, American Presbyterians: The Jour- ever, the three faiths differ substantially in their
nal of Presbyterian History 65 (1987): 1928 and 70
(1992): 24758.
respective understandings of the nature of the
one true God. Central to Judaism is the Shema,
the creedal statement found in Deuteronomy
Monism. Monism is the philosophical view that 6:4Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God, the LORD
there is only one ultimate reality of which every- is One. Jesus reaffirmed this confession in Mark
thing else is merely a part. In religion it is usually 12:2930, and the unity of the one eternal God
connected with a pantheistic view of the nature formed the foundation of the early Christian
of God (God is all and all is God). There is con- community as well (1 Cor. 8:4, 6; Eph. 4:6; 1 Tim.
siderable diversity among monistic systems. 2:5). Nevertheless, the early church came to rec-
Among Asian religions, Hinduism, especially ognize that within the unity of the one eternal
according to the interpretation of the Upan- God there is a fundamental distinction among
ishads by the eighth-century mystic philosopher the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, resulting
Sankara, is monistic in that all reality is summed in the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. Both Judaism
up in Brahman and the gods are manifestations and Islam reject the doctrine of the TRINITY and
of Brahman. Likewise, the New Age movement
the deity of Jesus Christ.
in the West, because of Hindu influence, adheres
Sikhism is also monotheistic in its emphasis
to pantheistic monism. Some forms of Bud-
on worship of the one God, the True Name, the
dhism appear to be monistic, especially in the
sovereign Creator. Theistic traditions that call for
emphasis upon nirvana or sunyata (emptiness)
worship of one supreme deity (e.g., Shiva,
as the ultimate reality.
Vishnu) can be found in certain forms of Hin-
Western thinking includes several philosophi-
duism and Buddhism (Amida and the Pure Land
cal monists, from Parmenides and Democritus in
schools). The High God of African traditional re-
ancient Greece to Plotinus in the third century
ligions is sometimes characterized as a form of
and on to B. Spinoza and G. W. F. Hegel in the
diffused monotheism as well.
modern period. Spinoza, for example, defined re-
The challenge for Christians missiologically is
ality as the one substance, calling it either God or
twofold: (1) to encourage those from polytheistic,
Nature, while Hegel is the most influential
pantheistic, or animistic worldviews to come to
monistic thinker in the modern West with his
an understanding and acceptance of the biblical
concept of the Absolute.
God as the one, eternal, sovereign God; (2) to en-
Christian theology opposes monism for at least
courage non-Christian monotheists to embrace a
two reasons. First, monism is incompatible with
fully biblical understanding of the deity of Jesus
the biblical distinction between God the creator
Christ and the triune nature of the one God. This
and the created order. Second, monism is incom-
is particularly important for ministry among
patible with Scripture in its idea of evil as an in-
Muslims. Islam seriously misunderstands the or-
herent part of the universe rather than an alien
thodox teaching of the Trinity, accusing Chris-
intrusion into the perfect creation through
tians of denying genuine monotheism. These
human choice.
misunderstandings need to be addressed in a
WILLIAM H. BAKER
clear and sensitive manner. In an effort to be
SEE ALSO Religious Ultimacy. faithful to the teaching of Scripture and to build
on common ground, ministry among Muslims,
Bibliography. F. Copleston, Religion and the One:
Philosophies East and West.
Jews, and Sikhs should emphasize the oneness
and unity of God. While remaining consistent
with the teaching of Scripture, ministry among
Monotheism. Derived from the Greek monos non-Christian monotheists should explore new
(single, only) and theos (god), monotheism is the terms and fresh formulations for communicating
belief that there is only one God. Monotheism is the biblical understanding of the Holy Trinity.
thus contrasted with POLYTHEISM (belief in a plu- RICHARD D. LOVE
rality of deities), HENOTHEISM (worship of one
deity as supreme without necessarily denying the Bibliography. W. H. Albright, From the Stone Age to
reality of other deities), and ATHEISM (denial of Christianity; J. Carman, Majesty and Meekness; M. P.
the existence of any deity). Monotheism is also Christanand, The Philosophy of Indian Monotheism;
H. P. Owen, Concepts of Deity.
generally understood as involving belief in a per-
sonal, transcendent creator of all else that exists,
and thus monotheism must be distinguished Montenegro. See YUGOSLAVIA.
from the various forms of nonpersonal monism
(ultimately there is only one reality) and PANTHE- Montgomery, Carrie Judd (18581946). Ameri-
ISM (identification of God with the universe). can Pentecostal minister-teacher, editor, writer,
656
Moody, Dwight Lyman
and social worker. Born and raised in Buffalo, Foreign Missions, first woman on the Rochester
New York, Montgomery dedicated herself to school board, and president of the Womens Ed-
Christian ministry and lifelong teaching about di- ucational and Industrial Union for twenty years.
vine healing after her own healing. Her efforts to Montgomery often preached and she filled her fa-
bridge denominational barriers included work in thers pulpit after his death. A prolific scholar,
transdenominational ministries and affiliations Montgomery wrote numerous books about mis-
with Pentecostal and Holiness healing move- sions and lectured in seminaries and churches.
ments, the CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY ALLIANCE She taught the Barrett Memorial Bible class for
(CMA), the Episcopal Church, and the SALVATION forty-four years.
ARMY. Montgomerys book recording her testi- MARGOT EYRING
mony influenced A. B. SIMPSON in founding the
CMA. She became the recording secretary of the Bibliography. W. H. Brackney, DCA, p. 768; E. Deen,
first CMA board and later organized a CMA Great Women of the Christian Faith; R. A. Tucker, GGC.
church in Oakland.
In addition to writing numerous books, Mont- Montserrat (United Kingdom Dependent Area)
gomery began and edited (for sixty-five years) the (Est. 2000 pop.: 11,000; 102 sq. km. [39 sq. mi.]).
nonsectarian magazine, Triumphs of Faith. Mont- A British colony in the northern Leeward Islands
gomery combined holiness and divine healing to of the Caribbean, Montserrat has a tiny popula-
establish several homes throughout the United tion of only 14,000 people and restricted eco-
States where sick people could come for prayer, nomic opportunity. Montserrat nevertheless has
teaching, and support. She married after moving benefited from its natural beauty and rugged ter-
to Oakland, California, in 1890. Although her rain to emerge as an attractive tourist site. The
wealthy husband, George Montgomery, remained largely Protestant population is 20 percent evan-
a layman, Carrie was ordained by the Churches gelical, two-thirds of whom are Pentecostal.
of God in Christ and credentialed as an evangel- EVERETT A. WILSON
ist in the Assemblies of God. Together, they de-
veloped several ministries, including an orphan- SEE ALSO Caribbean.
age, a campground, a missionary training school, Bibliography. A. Lampe, The Church in Latin Amer-
a mission, and a missionary rest and ministry ica, 14921992, pp. 20115; J. Rogozinski, A Brief His-
center. Montgomery also pastored Beulah Heights tory of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to
Chapel. the Present.
MARGOT EYRING
Bibliography. E. L. Blumhofer, DCA, pp. 76768;
Moody, Dwight Lyman (183799). American
W. E. Warner, DPCM, pp. 62628. evangelist. Born in Northfield, Massachusetts, at
age seventeen he began working in a Boston
Montgomery, Helen Barrett (18611934). shoestore, where he was converted through the
American Bible translator, author, mission advo- witness of his Sunday school teacher, Edward
cate, and licensed Baptist preacher. Born in Kimball. He moved to Chicago in 1856 and de-
Kingsville, Ohio, and raised in Rochester, New veloped a successful shoe business. In 1858, he
York, Montgomery attributed her success to the organized a Sunday school, which eventually
influence of her school administrator/Baptist grew into what is now Moody Memorial Church.
minister father. She excelled at Wellesley College In 1860, he devoted himself full-time to city mis-
and began her career teaching school, receiving sionary work through the YMCA. During the
a masters degree from Brown University and Civil War he ministered to soldiers. Between
three honorary doctorates. She and her husband, 1865 and 1869, he served as the president of the
William A. Montgomery, a successful business- Chicago YMCA. In 1871, following the great
man, gave sacrificially to missions. Montgomery Chicago fire, he began his career as a traveling
also raised huge amounts of money for coopera- revivalist. He was joined by Ira Sankey and to-
tive mission efforts. She and LUCY PEABODY, both gether they ministered effectively throughout
leaders of the Womens Missionary Movement, Great Britain from 1873 to 1875, returning to
traveled extensively to research and promote in- America as celebrities.
ternational missions. Moody held evangelistic campaigns in virtually
Montgomery served ten years as the first presi- every major city in America. His influence was
dent of the combined Womens American Baptist far-reaching, not only in evangelism but in edu-
Foreign Mission Society. She was also the first cation (founding three schools), conferences, and
woman to translate the New Testament from publishing. Saving souls was his highest aim in
Greek to English (the Centenary Translation), life. He said: I look upon this world as a wrecked
first woman president of a major denomination vessel. God has given me a lifeboat and said to
(Northern Baptist Convention), founder and first me, Moody, save all you can.
president of the Federation of Womens Boards of TIMOTHY K. BEOUGHER
657
Moody, Dwight Lyman
Bibliography. L. Dorsett, A Passion for Souls: The Jean Piaget, a Swiss genetic epistemologist
Life of D. L. Moody; S. N. Gundry, Love Them In: The (as he preferred to call himself), spent forty years
Life and Theology of D. L. Moody; W. R. Moody, The Life studying the cognitive development of children at
of Dwight L. Moody. his Center for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva.
He identified four developmental stages: the sen-
Moon, Charlotte (Lottie) (18401912). Amer- sorimotor stage (to 2 years), during which rudi-
ican missionary to China. Born into an aristo- mentary logical-mathematical operations such as
cratic Southern family in Scottsville, Virginia, hiding and finding, grouping and separating de-
she and her younger sister, Edmonia, became the velop; the preoperational stage (27 years), when
first single women missionaries to northern the child begins to retain mental images while
China for the Southern Baptist Mission (1873 objects are absent and to engage in activities
1912). Converted in 1858 revivals, Lottie joined such as playing, speaking, and looking at pic-
her lifelong Presbyterian friend, Anna Safford. tures; the stage of concrete operations (711
They taught and, in 1871, established their own years), during which the child becomes able to
girls school in Cartersville, Georgia. When op- conserve substances, weights, and numbers when
portunities for single women to become mission- their shape or position changes; to classify ob-
aries opened, both women changed careers and jects by color, size, and shape; and to seriate ob-
became Chinese missionaries. Moon arrived in jects from short to long, light to heavy, and so on.
the Shandong city of Tengzhou in 1873. Piagets final stage, formal operations (12 years
Personal discipline, institutional loyalty, and and over), involves complex operations upon the
generous hospitality characterized her relatively operations, such as extrapolating what comes
stable missionary career. Competent in Chinese next from what is there, and holding some vari-
ables constant while others are manipulated.
and sensitive to the Chinese cultural restraints on
Some cross-cultural Piagetian studies suggest
womens roles, she made friendship a means to
that some adults who have not had school-like
evangelism. Working at first in girls schools in
experiences that require thinking from action are
Tengzhou (187385), Moon later moved to the
still functioning at a concrete operations stage.
town of Pingtu, and became the first single Piaget (1965) also constructed a moral reason-
woman missionary to open a Chinese station ing model, based on the childs developing con-
without any other support. Her work in the area cepts of respect, fairness, intentions, and pun-
resulted in the development of over thirty inde- ishment. He identified a two-stage model:
pendent Chinese congregations. heteronomy, characterized by unilateral respect
During the anti-Qing revolutionary years, the for authority and conformity to rules; and au-
septagenarian Moons unselfish generosity led tonomy, marked by mutuality, reciprocity, equal-
her to suffer from malnutrition with those ity, and cooperation. In one study within this
around her. Colleagues discovered her condition framework, Native American children were
only too late. She died, emaciated and incoher- found to believe that rules in white persons
ent, during the initial days of a voyage to North games could be changed, while rules in their
America for medical treatment. She has been tribal games could not.
idealized among Southern Baptists for her sacri- Lawrence Kohlberg (1984) developed a more
ficial act of love; yearly Christmas offerings for complex six-stage model that extended Piagets
foreign missions is taken in her name. One esti- moral development theory into adulthood. He
mate claims that these offerings have come to identified two preconventional stages, during
nearly $1.5 billion by 1995. which moral decision making is based on a fear
LAUREN PFISTER of consequences and egocentric need gratifica-
tion; two stages of conventional morality, charac-
Bibliography. C. Allen, The New Lottie Moon Story; terized by a desire to please others and live by so-
idem, A Century To Celebrate: History of Womens Mis-
cial rules, and, finally, two postconventional stages
sionary Union; I. Hyatt, Our Ordered Lives Confess.
in which contractual commitments and universal
principles predominate. Kohlberg studied the rea-
Moral Development. The most cohesive body of sons behind moral decisions, not the ethical im-
research on moral development has been carried plications growing out of them. Only in the final
on within the framework of the cognitive stage years of his life did he acknowledge that some
theory conceived by Jean Piaget (1965) and ex- kind of advocacy or indoctrination might be nec-
tended by Lawrence Kohlberg (1984), James essary in moral education (Snarey, 1992, 857).
Fowler (1981), and others. Intercultural findings Although extensive research supports the va-
related to the work of these theorists are quite lidity of Kohlbergs first four stages across cul-
consistent. Although rates of development vary tures, questions have been raised about the cross-
and growth may be arrested before higher stages gender and cross-cultural validity of his model at
are reached, the same developmental patterns are postconventional levels. Some evidence suggest
observed across cultures. that women tend to base moral decisions on car-
658
Moratorium
ing rather than on Kohlbergs justice categories, taining good morale in the individual: stress
and, in some cultures, communalism rather than management (regular breaks from ones work for
individualism dominates DECISION MAKING family and rest); spiritual conditioning (personal
processes (Snarey, 1992). time in daily prayer and Bible study enabling one
James Fowler (1981) of Emory University has to meet setbacks with perseverance); open com-
applied stage theory to faith development. He iden- munication (exchanging current news with fam-
tifies six stages of faith, beginning with the intu- ily and friends on the home front); interactive
itive-projective faith of early childhood, filled with field administration (cooperation between all
vivid visual imagery, through progressive stages missionaries and their leaders in order to build
that enable children to separate reality from fan- team spirit); and personal hygiene (regular exer-
tasy and begin systematizing their belief-systems. cise, healthy diet, weight control, prevention of
As faith development continues into adulthood, ca- disease).
pacities for critical reflection, self-awareness, and JOHN EASTERLING
openness to other faiths unfold, and ultimately give
way to a universalizing faith where issues of love Moratorium. Since the mid-nineteenth century,
and justice become paramount. a number of international Christian leaders be-
Perry G. Downs (1986) provides a succinct came very concerned about paternalistic and au-
summary and critique of Fowlers theory. For thoritarian mission practices and the need for
Fowler, faith is shared, universal experience of new churches in the southern continents to de-
trusting something or someone. The focus is on termine their own courses of action. One hun-
moral structures, not on content. This is in stark dred years later, HENDRIK KRAEMER, MAX WARREN,
contrast to Christian faith, which is based on the and James A. Scherer argued that mission busi-
Scriptures and a life transforming commitment ness should not continue as usual. Patronizing
to Jesus Christ (Downs, 30). missions from the West needed to be dismantled
Although the relativistic assumptions of stage in favor of a new order of relationships. Reflect-
theories must be questioned, the developmental ing this, Bishop Federico Pagura of Central
processes they postulate appear to be cross- America wrote a pithy challenge in 1964 entitled
culturally valid. As such, they can provide a use- Missionary, Go Home . . . Or Stay.
ful conceptual tool in helping persons who are After appeals in 1971 from John Gatu of Kenya
engaged in intercultural ministries to attune their and Emerito Nacpil of the Philippines, a heated
discipling and spiritual formation efforts to the debate developed over the need for mission, but
cognitive, moral, and faith development of their not for Western missionaries. This occurred both
learners. in print and especially at international confer-
Some educators suggest that growth and mat- ences in Bangkok (1973), Lusaka (1974), Lau-
uration are more likely to occur when teaching is sanne (1974), and Nairobi (1975). Calls were is-
direct and purposeful, the attitude or value is sued by some for a transfer of the massive
modeled, the leader maintains a low profile, the expenditure on expatriate personnel in the
setting is informal, divergent views are encour- churches in Africa [for example] to programme
aged, the group is heterogeneous and holistic activities manned by Africans themselves.
methodssuch as moral dilemmas, open discus- In 1974, GERALD H. ANDERSON argued that
sion, music, drama, prayer, projects, simulations, while there were situations in which the with-
case studies, role playing, and other simulated drawal of missionaries would be in the best in-
and real life experiencesare employed (McKin- terests of the Christian mission, such a general
ney, 1984, 31617). policy for all situations was neither biblically
LOIS MCKINNEY DOUGLAS sound nor in the best interests of the churches
anywhere. Instead, he urged the development of
Bibliography. P. G. Downs, CT, October, 1986, pp.
2930; J. W. Fowler, Stages of Faith: The Psychology mutuality in mission. Similarly, STEPHEN NEILL
Human Development and the Question for Meaning; observed that different churches held rather di-
L. Kohlberg, Essays on Moral Development, vol. 2: The vergent views on the moratorium issue, reflect-
Psychology of Moral Development; L. McKinney, Missi- ing the fact that many of them were at different
ology 12:3 (1984): 31126; J. Piaget, the Moral Judgment stages in life.
of the child; J. Snarey, Encyclopedia of Educational Re- During the 1990s, questions were raised in
search, 6th ed., 3:85660. evangelical circles on questions such as: Are
American [or Western] missionaries still needed
Morale. An emotional and mental quality entail- overseas? Alternatives have been suggested by
ing a strong sense of purpose, confidence in the mission organizations acting on the premise that
future, and conformity with the standards set by twenty-five or more local believers (who are far
ones peers. Closely related to esprit de corps or more effective evangelists than are expatriates)
team spirit, the maintenance of morale is vital if can be supported for the cost of maintaining one
missionaries on the field are to stay healthy and American missionary overseas (K. P. Yohannan).
productive. There are various methods of main- A. CHRISTOPHER SMITH
659
Moratorium
Bibliography. G. H. Anderson, Mission Trends, No. 1, They often went to the hardest places and
pp. 13341; idem, DEM, pp. 7023; E. Castro, IRM, worked with the most oppressed people, perse-
64:254 (April 1975), pp. 117217; F. Pagura, Mission vering despite terrible suffering. Over fifty adults
Trends, No. 1, pp. 11516; K. P. Yohannan, Revolution and children died the first few years in the West
in World Missions. Indies and Surinam. Work with the slaves
brought opposition from the planters and the
Moravian Missions. The Moravians had their Dutch clergy. When missionaries were impris-
roots in a small band of refugees, spiritual de- oned on St. Thomas, slaves gathered outside the
scendants of the fifteenth-century Hussite move- prison to hear their message and sing with them.
ment, who settled on the estate of Count NICHOLAS Eight hundred were converted.
VON ZINZENDORF near Dresden in 1722. They Called a fool by the European settlers, GEORGE
named their settlement Herrnhut, the Lords SCHMIDT established the first mission station in
watch. Others from various church traditions South Africa and in 1742 baptized the first black
joined them. Zinzendorf had been raised in a converts. Soon he was expelled by the Dutch.
pietist home, and made a deep commitment to After the first three missionaries to Greenland
Christ as a youth. At the University of Halle he had experienced near starvation, sickness, and the
was a founder of the Order of the Mustard Seed, hostility of the people, they signed a covenant,
one of whose stated purposes was to carry the vowing never to leave their posts, adding, We
gospel to those beyond the sea. came hither resting on Christ our Saviour, in
As the community grew, there was dissension whom all the nations of the earth shall be
over various issues, including its relationship to blessed. Three years later as he heard the story of
the State Lutheran Church. In 1727 Zinzendorf Jesus in Gethsemane, newly translated into his
called them to unity with the principle that own language, the first native Greenlander was
Herrnhut shall stand in unceasing love with all converted.
children of God in all churches, criticize none . . . Moravians worked among a number of indige-
to preserve for itself the evangelical purity, sim- nous American tribes, often incurring the enmity
plicity, and grace. of both European colonists and other Indians. At
After weeks of teaching from 1 John, prayer, Gnadenhutten, Pennsylvania, a number of Indi-
and fasting, the group experienced its Pentecost ans and missionaries were massacred. Moravians
on August 13, 1727, and was knit together by a went to the West Coast of Africa, Ethiopia, and
mighty visitation of the Holy Spirit. In February Algeria, to Kurds in Persia, and to Laplanders in
1728 Zinzendorf introduced plans for evangelism the far north. Several were imprisoned in St. Pe-
in the West Indies, Greenland, Turkey, and Lap- tersburg. Others went to Ceylon, hoping to estab-
land. Twenty-six people made a covenant to pray lish missions to the East Indies, Mongolia, and
for the mission and to go forth immediately Persia. Their vision was worldwide.
They studied medicine, geography, and lan-
when called. A chain of prayer around the clock
guages, and were sent out only with a strong
was inaugurated that lasted one hundred years.
sense of call, validated by the community. Their
The Moravians became a unique fellowship of
message was clear. Tell them about the Lamb of
laity and clergy, men and women, with the
God till you can tell them no more, Zinzendorf
spread of the Christian message the major objec- exhorted. So was their motive. May the Lamb
tive of the whole group, not just a minority. receive His due reward for what He suffered on
While they married and had families, in many re- the cross, two Moravians shouted as they bade
spects they were monastic in their discipline and farewell to friends and family. They took what-
obedience, willing to go anywhere in mission. ever jobs were available and formed self-support-
Their purpose was twofold: to take the gospel to ing communities. Their pattern of life com-
those who had not heard, and to bring renewal mended the gospel and consequently won many.
and unity to churches that had grown cold. This They were not to seek glory for themselves. The
small community furnished over half the Protes- missionary was to be content to suffer, die, and
tant missionaries in the eighteenth century. be forgotten.
In 1732 LEONHARD DOBER and DAVID NIT- They taught slaves to read, cared for widows
SCHMANN left on foot for Copenhagen, their mea- and orphans, nursed the sick, and translated the
ger possessions on their backs and thirty shillings Scriptures and other Christian literature into
in their pockets, on their way to the West Indies. many languages. They encouraged converts to
The missionaries were expected to make their become teachers and elders.
own way and support themselves. By 1740 68 Moravian missions among people of existing
had gone; by 1760 the number had grown to 226. churches in Europe and North America focused
A report in 1739 mentioned 16 locations where on renewal and unity but were usually met with
they served in Asia, Africa, North America, and suspicion and rejection by church leaders. Even
Asia, in addition to several areas in Europe, in- so, Zinzendorf warned against establishing Mora-
cluding the Baltic states and Russia. vianism, encouraging converts to remain in their
660
Morocco
own churches. In Latvia, for example, five thou- Adams sin. The cross has little significance to
sand nominal Lutherans were converted, forming Mormonism.
Herrnhutten fellowships in the existing church. The LDS is headquartered in Salt Lake City,
As part of the broader eighteenth-century Utah, and reflects a strong hierarchical structure.
movements of revival, the Moravians played a Its membership exceeded 8 million in 128 coun-
major role as a catalyst to revival and missions. tries in 1993 and is projected to reach 35 million
They were the first church to recognize their ob- by 2020. Young men (more recently women as
ligation to the Jews. Their influence on the Wes- well) are encouraged to spend two years as active
leys is well known. Spangenburg met JOHN WES- missionaries, resulting in nearly fifty thousand
LEY in Georgia and asked if he knew Jesus Christ. missionaries serving at the end of the twentieth
Wesley could not answer with certainty. Back in century.
London in 1738 prior to Wesleys heart warm- Mormons can be challenged on the authentic-
ing experience, Peter Boehler taught that he ity of the LDS version of its history. Since they
could know the assurance of salvation. The BASEL are taught that new revelation supersedes old, it
and LEIPZIG MISSIONARY SOCIETIES, the Methodist is helpful to present them with the historic relia-
missionary enterprise, and the LONDON MISSION- bility of the Bible and the principle that new rev-
ARY SOCIETY were all stimulated and to some ex- elation cannot contradict older revelation.
tent guided by the Moravians. In 1792 WILLIAM WENDY PETERSON
CAREY cited their example when he proposed the SEE ALSO Cults, Cultism.
formation of the Baptist Missionary Society. The
Moravians continue as a relatively small denomi- Bibliography. C. M. Larson, By His Own Hand: A
nation in the United States and Europe. Well New Look at the Joseph Smith Papyri; D. M. Quinn, The
over half their members are located in Africa and Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power; G. and S. Tanner,
Mormonism: Shadow or Reality?
Latin America.
PAUL E. PIERSON
Morocco (Est. 2000 pop.: 29,637,000; 446,550 sq.
Bibliography. W. M. Beauchamp, Moravian Journals km. [172,413 sq. mi.]). The history of this north-
Relating to Central New York, 174566; J. T. and K. G. west African country has been shaped by the in-
Hamilton, History of the Moravian Church; A. J. Louis,
teraction between the original Berber population
Zinzendorf, The Ecumenical Pioneer.
and a succession of outside invading peoples:
Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals,
Mormons. The followers of the Church of Jesus Arab Muslims, Spanish, and French. Today it is
Christ Latter-day Saints (LDS) have come to be estimated that 75 percent of the population are of
called Mormons because of their belief in a sa- Berber stock. In Morocco there are three main
cred text, the Book of Mormon, which was al- Berber tribal groups: the Riffians in the north,
legedly revealed to and translated by their who speak the Rif dialect, the Berraber in the
founder Joseph Smith, Jr., in Upstate New York center, who speak Tamazight, and the Shluh in
in 1830. The text purports to be the record of the the southeast, who speak Tashilhait. However,
early peoples of the Americas and of a visit to Arabic is the official language.
them by Jesus Christ. Christianity entered Morocco in the second
Professing to be Christian, Mormons differ century, but the church was weakened by perse-
from historic Christianity in these doctrinal be- cution, the Donatist schism, and the ravages of
liefs: the preexistent soul, Gods evolution as a invaders. In the thirteenth century, six Franciscan
man to godhood, the potential of Mormon men friars came to serve as missionaries. Morocco
to evolve into gods of their own planets, three was opened to Protestant missions through the
separate heavenly abodes, the necessity of post- tolerance of Sultan Moulay Hassan (187394). In
death baptism for non-Mormons, the inclusion of 1875, the Church Mission to the Jews established
three additional texts as Scripture that are more a ministry to the large Hebrew community in
authoritative than the Bible, the restoration of Morocco. In 1884, the mission to the Kabyles and
the Aaronic and Melchizedek priesthoods, the Other Berber Races began work. This mission
need for a living prophet (understood to be the later was renamed the North Africa Mission, and
current President and Apostle of LDS), and that still later became Arab World Ministries. Many
all other churches are an abomination to God. other missions followed.
LDS redefines the Trinity by stating the Heavenly After France occupied Morocco in 1912, Chris-
Father is Elohim, Jesus is Jehovah, and the Holy tians began holding public meetings and selling
Ghost is a bodiless spirit. Their Christology in- reading material. Orphanages were established.
cludes the belief that Jesus is the biological Medical work was developed, most notably
brother of Lucifer and all humans, born from a through the North Africa Mission Hospital in
physical relationship between God and Mary, Tangier. (This hospital was nationalized in 1974.)
that Jesus married at least three wives and fa- By the 1960s, there were several Christian book-
thered children, and that his death paid only for stores and a thriving camp program, as well as
661
Morocco
widespread distribution of Bible correspondence Buenos Aires in his honor and streets and com-
courses. At one point forty thousand Moroccans munities named after him.
were enrolled in these courses, writing from STEPHEN R. SYWULKA
every city in the nation.
Bibliography. R. Shaull, BDCM, p. 473.
Arabic radio broadcasts were begun by North
Africa Mission in 1961 and by Gospel Missionary
Union in 1966. Soon Berber broadcasts were Morrison, Robert (17821834). English pioneer
added. By 1967, both the Bible correspondence missionary to China. Born in Morpeth, England,
courses and the publishing programs had moved he entered Hoxton Academy in London in 1803.
outside Morocco, incorporating the radio min- The following year the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCI-
istries. By 1970 increasing pressure and expul- ETY appointed him as a missionary. For the next
sions by the government had reduced missionary two and a half years, he studied at the Mission-
personnel by two-thirds from its peak of one ary Academy at Gosport, as well as studying
hundred in the early 1960s. Now a vigorous pro- medicine, astronomy, and Chinese. He arrived in
gram of evangelism is carried on from outside Canton on September 6, 1807.
the country by means of radio, Bible correspon- Living in Canton and Macao for the next
dence courses, and publications. twenty-seven years except for two years in En-
The penal code of June 5, 1963, prohibits the gland, Morrison saw his main calling as prepar-
use of means to exploit the weakness of Mus- ing the way for future missionaries. He served as
lims and seduce them to convert to another re- interpreter for the East India Company (begin-
ligion. Since then, hundreds of Bible correspon- ning in 1809) and for two British government
dence course students in at least eight cities have missions to China. But in fulfillment of his call-
been interrogated by the police, pressured to stop ing, Morrison and his colleague William Milne
the courses, and threatened. Some believers have completed and published the Bible in Chinese in
suffered job losses, house arrests, or imprison- 1823. He also authored nearly forty other works
ment. Nevertheless, several hundred Moroccan in Chinese and English, plus many articles in pe-
believers gather in house meetings in several riodicals. Other than the Bible, his best-known
cities. Since conversion from Islam to Christian- publication was his six-volume A Dictionary of
ity is forbidden by law, these national Christians the Chinese Language (181522).
are not recognized as such by the government. Morrison and Milne also established the Anglo-
MIRIAM ADENEY Chinese College in Malacca in 1818, with the
dual purpose of providing Chinese-language
training for future missionaries and educating
Morris, William Case (18641932). British-born
local boys, a number of whom played significant
Argentine missionary educator. Born in England,
roles in later Chinese history.
Morris lost his mother when he was six; the fol-
Recognized by scholars as a leading Sinologue,
lowing year he and his father emigrated to Ar-
Morrison remained at heart a missionary fulfill-
gentina. After serving as a Methodist lay worker
ing his calling to prepare the way for others. His
and pastor, Morris was ordained in the Church of
plea to the AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS
England and joined the (Anglican) South Ameri-
FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS led to the appointment of
can Missionary Society. Motivated by a natural
Elijah Coleman Bridgman as the first American
compassion for poor and especially motherless
missionary to China. One of his earliest co-work-
children, in 1898 he founded a school in Buenos
ers, Leang Afa [Liang Fa], became known as the
Aires primarily for the underprivileged. Under
first Chinese evangelist. While he had fewer
his direction and untiring effort, by 1930 the Ar-
than a dozen converts directly attributable to his
gentine Philanthropic Schools, including an or-
work, Morrison gave his life in the conviction
phanage, counted some 140,000 alumni and were
that he was laying the necessary groundwork for
providing over 6,500 students with academic and
later effective missionary work in China. Clearly,
vocational training, books, clothing and shoes,
his attribution as Father of Protestant Missions
and a sense of duty to God and country.
in China is well deserved.
Despite charges of proselytism and opposition
J. BARTON STARR
from Catholic authorities to the use of the New
Testament and evangelical hymns in the curricu- Bibliography. M. Broomhall, Robert Morrison: A
lum, the Morris Schools received government Master-Builder; E. A. Morrison, Memoirs of the Life and
subsidies along with support from many local in- Labours of Robert Morrison, D.D., 2 vols.
stitutions and individuals. Morris was also an
outstanding writer and translator; he edited a Morton, John (18391912). Canadian mission-
magazine, La Reforma, to which notable literary ary to Trinidad. Born in Pictou county, Nova Sco-
figures of the day contributed. Highly respected tia, to Scottish immigrants, Morton was educated
by the authorities and society, Morris is the only at the Presbyterian Free Church College in Hali-
Argentine evangelical to have a monument in fax and ordained as pastor of a Presbyterian
662
Motive, Motivation
church, Bridgewater, Nova Scotia, in 1861. Visit- Mother Teresa is a true model of Christian love
ing the West Indies for his health he was moved in action. She was well accepted by all religious
by the deplorable condition of East Indian in- and political groups. She did not make an issue
dentured laborers working on the sugar planta- about people getting converted, but she shared
tions. Sent by the Synod of the Maritimes, from Christ through her life and mission. Her life and
1868 until his death he led the Canadian Presby- work was her testimony for Christ. After her
terian Mission to the East Indians in Trinidad. death, she was honored by an Indian state fu-
He and his wife had to learn Hindi and Urdu to neral with dignitaries from around the world
communicate with the people. When other mis- present.
sionaries arrived, the work expanded to Guyana, SAKHI ATHYAL
St. Lucia, Grenada, and Jamaica, and by 1873
they were operating twelve schools, which pro- Bibliography. J. L. Gonzalez-Balado and J. N. Play-
foot, My Life for the Poor; E. LeJoly, Mother Teresa of
duced civic as well as church leaders. The first in-
Calcutta: A Biography; R. Serrou, Teresa of Calcutta: A
digenous pastors were ordained in 1882. Mor- Pictoral Biography.
tons missiological methodology effectively
combined education with evangelism; he started
day schools, a teachers college, and a theological Motive, Motivation. Ones motives for seeking
college. His work resulted in a continuing viable missionary service must be correct ones. Some
mission and small self-supporting churches. By Christians are fascinated with the romance of
1925 there were 101 places of worship and al- travel, the idea that missions is the highest form
most 12,000 members in Trinidad alone. Today of Christian service, the intrigue of another cul-
they are part of the Presbyterian Church in ture, or the desire to do good. These are all inad-
Trinidad and Grenada, related to the United equate motives, which pale when compared with
Church of Canada. the centrality of biblical motives.
ALBERT H. FREUNDT JR. The missionary is one who is sent. Although
humans are involved in the process, the mission-
Bibliography. I. Hamid, A History of the Presbyterian ary must sense that the Holy Spirit is sending
Church in Trinidad 18681968: The Struggles of a him or her.
Church in Colonial Captivity; S. E. Morton, ed., John
Morton of Trinidad; G. S. Mount, Presbyterian Missions
Gods dealings with Abraham (Gen. 12:23) are
to Trinidad and Puerto Rico. an early biblical indication that God desires to
call, bless, and send his people, so that all peo-
Mother Teresa (191097). Yugoslavian social ples on earth will be blessed through them. This
worker and missionary in India. Mother Teresa is repeatedly indicated to Abraham (Gen. 18:18;
has become one of the most accepted and cele- 22:1618), as well as to Isaac (Gen. 26:4) and
brated missionaries in the modern world, having Jacob (Gen. 28:1314). It is apparent that God
been honored with the inaugural John XIII Peace did not intend Israel to be the sole recipient of
Prize (1971), the inaugural Templeton Prize his grace and love. Rather, Israel was to be a
(1973), and the Nobel Peace Prize (1979). channel and a conduit through which his love
Born in Skopje, Yugoslavia, as Agnes Gonxha could flow to all nations on earth. At high mo-
Bojaxhiu in 1910 into an Albanian peasant fam- ments in Israels history, this focus was renewed
ily, at eighteen she joined Loreto Nuns. She came (1 Kings 8:43; Ps. 96:3).
to Calcutta, where she taught at Loreto Convent The five GREAT COMMISSION passages of the
High School for seventeen years. God called her New Testament give us strong motivation for
as she was traveling by train to a Himalayan remission. Even Jesus disciples finally caught on.
treat in 1946 to give up everything and follow Peter, in Acts 3:25, points back to Gods promise
him to the slums to serve him among the poorest to Abraham: Through your offspring all peoples
of the poor. Two years later she left the convent on earth will be blessed. Paul echoes the same
and started the Missionary of Charity Order, thought in Galatians 3:8. It is apparent that Gods
which began its first childrens home in 1955 and plan has always been to wrap his message up in
its first leprosarium in 1957. The ministry now his people and then send them to reach others.
includes schools, food distribution centers, and This is the bedrock motivation for mission. We
AIDS hospices worldwide. go in obedience to his will.
By the 1960s, nine foundations were estab- Another motivation that has propelled Chris-
lished in other countries, and by 1975 there were tians to missionary service has been the needs of
more than a thousand sisters spread out all over the world. The number of UNREACHED PEOPLES is
the world. After an interview with Malcolm Mug- a stimulus to missionary activity. Other Chris-
geridge for British Broadcasting, she became an tians have been moved to do missionary work be-
international celebrity. In recent years Mission- cause of the hunger, sickness, or poverty around
aries of Charity has grown to over three thousand the globe. Acts 13:14 indicates that leadership in
sisters and four hundred brothers. the church has a role to play (under the direction
663
Motive, Motivation
of the Holy Spirit) in setting apart persons for Methodist layman who had declined prestigious
missionary service. academic and political posts wanted to be remem-
Gods guidance to individuals in the form of a bered simply as an evangelist.
MISSIONARY CALLING is also a powerful motivation His many works included The Evangelization of
for mission. As he did with Abraham, so God still the World in This Generation (1910) and Addresses
speaks to individuals. The nature of a call is the and Papers (6 vols., 194647).
subject of great debate. Certainly we may say that J. D. DOUGLAS
such a call varies among people. For some it may
Bibliography. B. Mathews, John R. Mott, World
come as a thunderclap; for others, it comes like Citizen; C. H. Hopkins, John R. Mott, 18651955: A
the gradual dawning of a new day. However it is Biography.
defined, most churches and mission agencies de-
sire that a person should have a clear sense that
Mozambique (Est. 2000 pop.: 18,991,000; 801,590
God is leading him or her to apply for missionary
sq. km. [309,494 sq. mi.]). Mozambique is a Por-
service. This motivation often is the only anchor
tuguese-speaking nation in southern Africa. Lo-
that will hold the new missionary steady during
cated in the east side of the continent bordering
the dark testing times of CULTURE SHOCK and
the Indian Ocean, the country encompasses 38
other problems on the field.
ethnic groups and 24 major vernacular languages.
Biblical motives must be central for missions.
Religiously, 42 percent profess Christianity, 40 per-
The needs of the world may beckon us, the ro-
cent are adherents of traditional religions, 13 per-
mance of other cultures may intrigue us, but in
cent follow Islam, and 5 percent are nonreligious.
the end the primary motivation for mission must
be because Christs love compels us (2 Cor. 5:14). After nearly five hundred years of Portuguese
CHARLES R. GAILEY
colonial rule, the country became independent in
1975, under a Marxist regime. As the Portuguese
Bibliography. P. A. Beals, A People For His Name; left the country, civil war broke out and the coun-
C. Van Engen, Mission on the Way. try experienced its worst drought of the century.
All these factors combined brought the country
Mott, John Raleigh (18651955). American mis- to a virtual collapse with almost all infrastructure
sionary promoter and ecumenical leader. Born into destroyed. By October 1992 a peace accord be-
a Methodist family in Sullivan County, New York, tween the anti-communist guerrilla movement
he graduated from Upper Iowa and Cornell uni- and the government was signed in Rome. The
versities, was converted during his student days, guerrilla movement became the opposition party.
and pledged himself to missionary service (1886). In the following year Mozambique had its first
He was a YMCA secretary (18881915), co-founder multiparty elections.
and chair of the STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT Catholicism was brought to Mozambique by
(18881920), prime mover in establishing the Portuguese Dominicans in the early sixteenth cen-
World Student Christian Federation (1895), and tury. Protestantism arrived in the form of ABCFM
chair of the WORLD MISSIONARY CONFERENCE (Edin- missionaries in 1879. Shortly thereafter Methodists
burgh, 1910). Mott traveled two million miles en- and Presbyterians began their work. After World
thusiastically, his motto, With God anywhere, War I Baptists, Pentecostals, Nazarenes, and Ad-
without him, not over the threshold. He acquired ventists joined the effort. After independence all
an immense knowledge of the missionary enter- forms of religion were suppressed by the commu-
prise worldwide, encouraging students and field- nist state. As a result of civil war, which was aggra-
workers and setting up national councils of vated by a vicious cycle of drought and floodings,
churches. In 1923 a Japanese Christian leader the country spiraled toward economic collapse. As
called him father of the young people of the foreign aid started pouring in from Christian and
world. John R. Mott was adept at spotting and Muslim agencies, the government relaxed its pres-
nurturing recruits, was much respected by political sure on all religious groups, and in fact, called on
heads at home and abroad (he once spoke to three them for help. By 1990 there was general religious
U.S. presidentsTaft, Coolidge, Wilsonin a day), freedom.
labored tirelessly for prisoners of war and ORPHAN- Mozambique is a melting pot for the world of
AGE MISSION WORK, and could extract large dona- mission agencies. The missionaries, now around
tions from the American rich (Rockefeller funds es- four hundred belonging to forty-seven agencies,
tablished the Missionary Research Library). He have to compete with the growing number of
was chair of the INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL cults such as the Jehovahs Witnesses. The Protes-
(192141) and presided over the JERUSALEM MIS- tant mission agencies with the largest number of
SIONARY CONFERENCE (1928). In 1935 a future arch- missionaries are African Inland Mission, Youth
bishop of Canterbury declared, He led us then; he With a Mission, and Africa Evangelical Fellow-
leads us still. In 1946 he shared the Nobel Peace ship. Besides the strong Catholic presence, Islam
Prize; in 1948 the newly formed WORLD COUNCIL OF is particularly viable in the northern part of the
CHURCHES named him honorary president. But the country. In addition to radio and the JESUS FILM,
664
Muslim Mission Work
a major area for missionary activity has been that Murray, Andrew (18281917). South African de-
of relief work. The large number of orphans, peo- votional writer and promoter of missionary
ple ravaged by war, and unemployed youth con- awakening. He was born in 1828 in Graaff-
stitute an important mission field. Reinet, South Africa, to a Scottish minister and
Mission agencies and missionaries have a great his wife. The Christ-centered home in which he
task before them in Mozambique. One factor is was reared proved to be a launching pad for his
an 80 percent illiteracy rate, another the paucity own life of ministry both in South Africa and
of the Scriptures available in local languages. But around the globe. During his time of theological
the major force against Christianity is doubtless training at Utrecht University in Holland, he and
the ever increasing attempt by Muslims to Islam- his brother John helped form a student mission-
icize the country. Mosques are being built in ary society. Ordained at age twenty, Murray re-
many locations and by 1996 the Muslims had turned to South Africa in 1848, where he would
two official holidays in the national calendar. Fi- serve as a pastor until 1906. His years of service
nally, there is an urgent need for instilling a mis- were spent in Bloemfontein, Worcester, Cape
sionary vision among Mozambiquian Christians Town, and Wellington, where he labored for
to reach out to their own people. To date only a thirty-five years. During his pastorates he was
handful of Mozambiquians have gone out as mis- also an impassioned itinerant evangelist in the
sionaries, and this remains an unrealized poten- Transvaal and other locations along the Cape,
tial for the church in Mozambique. where he ministered to immigrants.
JARBAS DASILVA In addition to speaking he was active in estab-
lishing centers for higher education. He helped
Bibliography. A. Helgesson, Church, State, and Peo- found the University College of Orange Free State
ple in Mozambique; V. W. Macy, Discovery Under the in 1856, the Stellenbosch Theological Seminary
Southern Cross; P. Thompson, Life Out of Death in in 1857, the Huguenot Seminary in 1874, and the
Mozambique. Wellington Missionary Training Institute in 1877.
The establishment of the latter was a reflection of
Mller, George (180598). German faith mis- his belief that missions was the chief end of the
sions advocate and founder of orphanages. Born church. His desire to see the lost reached and
in Prussia, Mller was converted and awakened the believer discipled led to his cofounding and
to missions while a university student at Halle. appointment as the president of the South Africa
He went to England to do mission work among General Mission (now AFRICA EVANGELICAL FEL-
the Jews and there joined the renewal movement LOWSHIP) in 1889, a position he held until his
within British Protestantism that became the Ply- death in 1917. In his final twelve years, he was
mouth Brethren. He ended his connection with also responsible for introducing the KESWICK
the London Society for Promoting Christianity spirit into South Africa and spent much of his
among the Jews and served as pastor in Teign- time participating in evangelistic meetings in the
mouth, where he established his lifelong practice Western world. Murrays 240 writings challenged
of accepting no salary, instead trusting God for and inspired many to a deeper walk with Christ.
his needs. In 1832 he moved to Bristol, where he With Christ in the School of Prayer and Abide in
lived the rest of his life. In 1834 Mller founded Christ continue to do so today.
the Scriptural Knowledge Institution for Home WENDY S. LARSON
and Abroad with the purposes of establishing day Bibliography. W. M. Douglas, Andrew Murray and
schools, Sunday schools, and adult schools for His Message; J. Du Plessis, The Life of Andrew Murray of
teaching the Bible, distributing Bibles, and sup- South Africa; P. Hassing, CDCWM, p. 428.
porting mission work. Mller achieved fame for
founding the Bristol ORPHANAGE MISSION WORK. Music. See ETHNOMUSICOLOGY; SOCIOLOGY OF MUSIC.
His greater contribution, however, was the exam-
ple of his life of faith and prayer. He determined
Muslim Mission Work. Muhammad, the prophet
not to ask for support and instead prayed for the
of Islam, died in A.D. 632. From that point on the
needs of the orphan homes and missions, trust-
conflict between the worlds two largest monothe-
ing that God would meet those needs without his
istic religions (Christianity and Islam) has raged
prompting others to give. By the end of his life, on unabated. Each persuasion has a great com-
Mller had built five orphanages; cared for mission to fulfill. Each is convinced it is the
120,000 children; preached in forty-two coun- unique path to God. Each declares that truth is
tries; raised a quarter million pounds for mis- revealed only in its scriptures. Thus the stage is
sions; and raised almost 2.5 million pounds alto- set for mutual antagonism.
getherall by faith. Certain critical historical events have caused
DONALD R. DUNAVANT Muslims to be resistant to the Christian message.
Bibliography. A. T. Pierson, George Mller of Bristol The CRUSADES of the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
and His Witness to a Prayer Hearing God. turies were a terrible violation of basic human
665
Muslim Mission Work
rights. Even though these events took place hun- their personnel are engaged in tentmaker min-
dreds of years ago, Muslims today are still angry istries that allow them opportunity for personal
concerning the outrages against their ancestors. witness.
Between 1700 and 1960, colonialists from the The Samuel Zwemer Institute was founded in
so-called Christian West reigned over much of 1978 by Don McCurry. This small organization
the Muslim world. Missionaries took advantage has produced a number of research projects re-
of friendly rulers to gain permission to preach lated to the world of Islam. Fuller Theological
Christianity. Muslims in these countries had no Seminary offers the masters and Ph.D. degrees in
recourse to legal procedures by which to expel Muslim studies. Columbia International Univer-
missionaries. sity inaugurated a masters program in Islamics in
The issue of Palestine came to the fore in 1948 1996. Other Bible colleges and seminaries offer
as the United Nations, with the stroke of a pen, specialized courses on Islam. International Mis-
mandated the new state of Israel into existence. sions, Inc., administers a practical-cum-academic
Muslims had been living in Palestine for over summer program geared to Muslim outreach.
thirteen hundred years. What right, they asked, One of the more innovative departures from
did the world have to radically change the politi- traditional evangelistic methodology was pio-
cal status of their land? Jihad was their declared neered by International Christian Fellowship
response. (ICF), which merged with SIM in 1989. In the
Lastly, the antagonism between Christianity and mid-1970s an ICF team of twenty-seven mission-
Islam has been enhanced by the Muslims percep- aries from six nations introduced a contextual-
tion of Christians as pig eaters, wine drinkers, and ized style of Muslim evangelism in Bangladesh.
perpetual adulterers. Western media have pre- Their threefold goal was to (1) see a large num-
sented a powerful depiction of moral depravity in ber of Muslims accept Christ, (2) disciple these
countries where most of the citizens would declare believers within their social and cultural context,
themselves to be Christians. and (3) minimize financial assistance to the con-
Muslims do not generally make a distinction verts. The approach included wearing local Mus-
between nominal Christians and practicing lim-style clothing, living in simple rented accom-
Christians. They look upon the 1.8 billion as one modations, adopting certain Muslim vocabulary,
community. Accordingly, Christians are to be in- following a general pattern of Islamic worship
dicted as a whole for all of the reasons we have styles, writing and designing attractive literature
listed. Thus the task of Muslim evangelism is that would be appreciated and easily understood
made exceedingly difficult, quite apart from the- by the target Muslim community, initially seeking
ological distinctives. to win male heads of families to Christ, avoiding
Historically, Christian outreaches among Mus- ministries that required high-profile institutions,
lims made little impact prior to the mid-1960s. A and engaging in discipleship of new believers
few names stand out as exceptions; RAYMOND who would be encouraged to remain within their
LULL (c. 12351315); HENRY MARTYN (17811812); own community. This style of outreach has pro-
and SAMUEL ZWEMER (18671952). But even these duced thousands of Muslim converts to Chris-
giants of faith failed to see large numbers of Mus- tianity in Bangladesh. Various missions and
lims come to Christian belief through their evan- church bodies working both in Bangladesh and
gelistic efforts. in other Muslim countries have incorporated seg-
Indonesia, the country with the worlds largest ments of this methodology into their evangelistic
Muslim population (in excess of 170 million), has strategy. Critics have averred that such contextu-
produced the greatest number of converts to alization is extremely vulnerable to syncretism.
Christianity. In the 1960s, as a result of an upris- Most advocates of the new paradigm would agree
ing against communism, hundreds of thousands and have taken steps to minimize this possibility.
of Muslims embraced Christianity. Even today Islamic sharia law has been partially imple-
there continues to be a significant rate of conver- mented in a number of Muslim countries. This
sion, especially on the island of Java. Other coun- legal system strongly opposes conversion from
tries where there have been large numbers of Islam to Christianity. In certain nations converts
converts to Christianity include Bangladesh and have been sentenced to death. This strict inter-
Ethiopia. Overall, however, there are few conver- pretation of sharia law generates fear and in-
sions to Christianity. Countries like Saudi Arabia, hibits all but the most courageous from any seri-
Mauritania, Algeria, and Afghanistan have pro- ous investigation of Christian claims to truth.
duced but a small number of converts. Arab oil money has fueled a new ethos of ex-
Among the evangelical missions emphasizing citement and optimism within the Muslim world.
outreach among Muslims are the Southern Bap- New mosques are being built in many countries.
tist Foreign Mission Board, Frontiers, TEAM, Muslim missionaries from Egypt and Pakistan
SIM, and Interserve. Frontiers is unique in that can be found in remote villages of Asia. Jobs are
the mission force of five hundred adults is totally being offered to poor Christians who are willing
focused on Muslim evangelism. Almost all of to convert to Islam. Muslim organizations are
666
Myanmar Mission Boards and Agencies
surfacing in much of the Two-Thirds World. ciscan priest arrived at Bago with the traders in
Their goal is to propagate Islam while assisting 1554, but had no success in gaining converts
the poor. Muslim spokespersons have attributed among the local population. Evangelization
their recent successes in evangelizing to their began when priests Calchi and Joseph Vittoni
having learned the techniques that Christians came to Thanlyin in 1721 and obtained permis-
have been using for decades. sion from King Taninganwe (171483) for the
Those dedicated to Muslim outreach face propagation of the gospel.
many challenges in the contemporary world. Yet Protestant Christianity was introduced to
more Muslims have probably turned to Christ in Myanmar by English Baptist missionaries James
the past three decades than in any similar period Chater, Richard Mardon, and Felix Carey in
throughout all of history. 1807, followed by the American Baptist mission-
PHIL PARSHALL aries ADONIRAM and ANN JUDSON in 1813. Today
the Baptist Conference is the largest single Chris-
Bibliography. N. L. Geisler and A. Saleeb, Answering
Islam; G. Livingstone, Planting Churches in Muslim
tian denomination in Myanmar, with over one
Cities; D. M. McCurry, ed., The Gospel and Islam: A million members. Roman Catholics, with an esti-
1978 Compendium; B. Musk, The Unseen Face of Islam; mated 520,000 members, are the second largest.
P. Parshall, New Paths in Muslim Evangelism; J. D. CHIN KHUA KHAI
Woodberry, ed., Muslims and Christians on the Em-
Bibliography. D. Barrett, WCE; B. B. Grimes, Ethno-
maus Road.
logue; J. Guennou, NCE, 2:9012; M. Shwe Wa, Burma
Baptist Chronicle; R. Taylor, The State in Burma; S. Tin,
Muslim. See ISLAM, MUSLIM. Statistical Year Book of Myanmar.
Myanmar (Est. 2000 pop.: 51,539,000; 676,578 sq. Myanmar Mission Boards and Agencies. There
km. [261,227 sq. mi.]). Myanmar, known as Burma are two major streams of Protestant missionary
before 1989, is an ancient nation in the Indochina efforts in Myanmar. The first is that of conciliar
peninsula. It shares borders with five nations: mission work, which is a joint effort of eleven
Bangladesh, India, China, Laos, and Thailand. Its mainline Protestant churches united in the
long southern coastal plain stretches along the Bay Myanmar Council of Churches related to the
of Bengal and Andaman Sea. Until recently, it has WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES. The Regional
been relatively insulated from its neighbors in po- Council for Burma was formed in 1914, and re-
litical and religious development. named the Burma Christian Council in 1949 and
The population is comprised of some 135 eth- the Burma Council of Churches in 1975. Today,
nic groups speaking 106 languages. The eight Myanmar Baptist Convention, Methodists, and
major ethnic groups and their percentage of the Presbyterians, through their mission boards and
total population are: Bamar (69), Shan (8.5), societies, are sending missionaries to the un-
Kayin (6.2), Rakhine (4.5), Mon (2.4), Chin (2.2), reached areas. Evangelistic efforts since the
Kachin (1.4), and Kayah (0.4). There are 314 1970s, such as Chins for Christ in One Century
townships and 13,751 villages. The urban popu- and Kachin Gideon Band-3/330, have been the
lation is 24.81%, and the literacy rate is 66.5%. most dynamic. The Conciliar mission stream em-
The major religions in Myanmar are Buddhism phasizes ecumenicity, development, and theolog-
(89.4%), Christianity (4.9%), Islam (3.9%), Hin- ical education.
duism (0.5%), and animism (1.2%). Small num- Under the Evangelical-Pentecostal stream are
bers practice Confucianism, Judaism, and Laipi- seventeen denominations and some parachurch
anism, a local religion. movements, ranging in persuasion from funda-
The nations political history can be divided into mentalistic to charismatic. The Myanmar Evan-
the times of the monarchy (10441855), colonial- gelical Christian Fellowship was organized in
ism (18241947), parliamentary democracy 1984. Assemblies of God, the fastest growing and
(194862), and the socialist regime (196288). third largest denomination in the country with a
Foreign agents and missionaries were expelled in membership of 67,648, began in 1930 and is a
1966, during the socialist regime. Since 1988, strong mission church. The other denominations
Myanmar has been under military rule called the in this stream have come into existence as the re-
State Law and Order Restoration Council. sult of renewal, evangelism, and church planting.
Churches in Myanmar are indigenous and The renewal movement among the Zomi Chin
steadily growing. More than thirty denomina- during the past three decades has resulted in mis-
tions and some parachurch movements are car- sion across cultures. Also, parachurch movements
rying out the mission tasks through three main such as Campus Crusade, Witnessing for Christ,
streams: Catholic, Conciliar, and Evangelical- Every Home for Christ, Gods Trio Partners,
Pentecostal. Gospel for the Nation, and Myanmar Church
Portuguese traders introduced Roman Catholic Planting Mission all help fulfill the evangelistic
Christianity to Myanmar around 1500. A Fran- mandate. The churches in this stream emphasize
667
Myanmar Mission Boards and Agencies
evangelism, renewal, church planting, and theo- However, in spite of some similarities in language
logical education in their missionary efforts. in mystical reports, it is clear that mystics tend to
In addition to these streams, the Myanmar interpret their experiences in light of the religious
Bible Society, Christian Literature Society, and and theological traditions in which they partici-
Myanmar Blind Mission Fellowship all work in- pate. Thus Christian mystics claim to encounter
dependently with their own mission boards. God the Holy Trinity; Advaita Vedanta Hindus
CHIN KHUA KHAI seek the identity between the self and Brahman;
and Zen Buddhists, denying the substantial real-
SEE ALSO Asian Mission Boards and Societies.
ity of both the self and a transcendent Being,
Bibliography. D. Barrett, WCE; W. C. B. Purser, claim direct access to Emptiness (sunyata). The
Christian Missions in Burma; Statistics of Churches in ontological implications of these experiences are
Myanmar (19951996); M. Shwe Wa, Burma Baptist mutually incompatible: the triune God of Chris-
Chronicle; S. Tin, Statistical Year Book of Myanmar. tianity is quite different from nirvana Brahman,
and both are incompatible with the insubstantial
Mystic, Mysticism. Mystical experience is com- nature of Emptiness in Buddhism.
mon to most religions, although it assumes vari- There is something of significant value in the
ous forms in different traditions. Mysticism oc- mystical traditions. Mysticism reminds us of the
curs in theistic contexts (Judaism, Christianity, limits of human knowledge; there is much about
Islam, theistic Hinduism), monistic traditions God that remains mysterious and unknown. It
(philosophical Taoism, some forms of Hinduism also reminds us of the importance of a dynamic,
and Buddhism), pantheistic traditions (Shinto), experiential dimension to faith. However, mysti-
and even naturalistic contexts (nature mysticism also presents special challenges to the
cism). Mystical experience occurs in explicitly Christian church. Cultures impacted by mysti-
atheistic traditions such as Jainism and Zen Bud- cism tend to emphasize intuitive religious expe-
dhism as well. rience and to regard conceptual knowledge and
Understood in a general sense, mysticism has verbal expressions of religious truth with suspi-
a long history in Christianity. Mystics such as cion. Intuitive experience takes priority over ex-
Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153), Meister Eckhart plicit beliefs and doctrines. But at the heart of
(d. 1327), Teresa of Avila (d. 1582), and John of Christian faith is belief that God has revealed
the Cross (d. 1591) all in varying ways gave testi- himself definitively in an understandable manner
mony to experiences of immediate awareness of in the Scriptures, and that what we believe has a
a special intimacy with God transcending normal direct bearing on our salvation. The challenge for
categories. A distinction is sometimes made be- the church in contexts impacted by mysticism,
tween numinous experiences (the experience of
then, is to recognize human limitations and the
the Other or the Holy in theistic contexts) and
need for profound personal experience of God
mystical experiences (contemplative experiences
while also maintaining that all that is necessary
associated with Hinduism and Buddhism in
for salvation and godly living has been revealed
which one realizes the transcendent or ultimate
to us in Gods Word.
by looking within). Christian mysticism would
HAROLD A. NETLAND
fall in the former category.
There are some phenomenological similarities Bibliography. W. Corduan, Mysticism: An Evangeli-
between mystical reports from various cultures cal Option?; W. James, The Varieties of Religious Experi-
and religious traditions, although significantly ence; S. Katz, ed., Mysticism and Philosophical Analysis;
different doctrinal claims are made on the basis G. Parrinder, Mysticism in the Worlds Religions;
of these experiences within the relevant tradi- W. Wainwright, Mysticism: A Study of Its Nature, Cog-
tions. Mystical experiences are generally charac- nitive Value and Moral Implications.
terized by an emphasis on the inadequacy of
human language and rational categories to com- Myth, Mythology. The word myth in popular
municate ultimate reality; a sense of unity be- parlance connotes fiction or untruth. However,
tween the subject and object of experience; and a for the majority of the worlds people, just as for
noetic quality (one attains superior insight into the people of biblical times, mythology acts as a
reality as a result of the experience). Central to root metaphor for reality. While not always based
mysticism is the notion of a direct, unmediated on fact as seen from a rationalist viewpoint, myth
encounter with the ultimate or transcendent. In is truth from the perspective of people for whom
Hinduism and Buddhism mystical experience is it establishes identityit is their scripture.
cultivated through rigorous physical/psychic dis- Every society has myths at some level: epics
cipline (yoga). that proclaim cosmic origins; folklore depicting
Thinkers such as A. Huxley and S. Radhakrish- family, cultural or national events, and heroes;
nan have popularized the notion that mystical ex- etiological stories to explain how some things
perience is a common factor in all major religions came to be; and fairy tales that entertain while
and forms the essential core of true religion. passing moral value to the next generation.
668
Myth, Mythology
Mythology can serve as a peoples history and a style that will catch peoples attention and relate
rationale for their beliefs and values. It provides Gods wisdom to daily living. A peoples acquain-
intellectual edification by communicating partic- tance with epic could be used to introduce Gene-
ular cultural lessons or knowledge. Mythology sis: similarly, a variety of mythic forms offer par-
may also be used to validate appropriate behav- allels to the parables of Jesus. Just as people
ior or to chastise inappropriate behavior. Passed respond to the truth of myth, they may come to
down through the generations as oral literature faith in God who approaches human beings in
or ritual drama, myth provides a sense of identity
the context of their myth.
and place. The message may be encased in a se-
R. DANIEL SHAW
ries of stories organized to present a moral (cul-
tural objectives and values) in acceptable forms. Bibliography. A. Dunes, The Study of Folklore;
If missionaries understand a peoples mythol- B. Malinowski, Myth in Primitive Psychology; R. D.
ogy, they can present biblical themes in a similar Shaw, Practical Anthropology 19 (1972): 12932.
669
N-O-P Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/8/03 4:00 PM Page 670
Nairobi Assembly (1975). See WORLD COUNCIL

OFCHURCHES ASSEMBLIES.
Namibia (Est. 2000 pop.: 1,752,000; 824,292 sq.

km. [318,259 sq. mi.]). Namibia is thinly popu-
lated, with just over two individuals per square
mile. English is the official language, though
Afrikaans is the common language for most of
the population. The largest group is the Ovambo
(50%); other groups are the Damara (9%); Oko-
Nn
Lutheran Mission. Namibia is the only country
in Africa with a Lutheran population majority.
Another 20 percent of Namibians are members
of the Anglican Church, several indigenous
vango (about 7%); and the Herero (7%). Those of churches, and the predominantly white Dutch
European descent include the Afrikaaner (8%), Reformed Church. Approximately 15 percent are
German (3%), and English (1%). Roman Catholics. As a nation, Namibia has the
Only one percent of the hot, dry desert land is highest percentage of Christians in Africa, de-
arable, though half of the population depend on spite increasing nominalism in the last decades
subsistence agriculture, primarily livestock. of the twentieth century.
There are abundant mineral resources, and rich A German colony from 1884 to 1919, Namibia
fisheries on its Atlantic shore. The urban popula- was administered and then annexed by South
tion is increasing at more than double the gen- Africa (1949). There was much unrest under
eral population increase. About 40 percent of the South African rule. Opposition to apartheid was
people are in urban areas, primarily in the capi- led by the churches of Namibia, though they were
tal, Windhoek. The resulting urban slums create divided on the issue of support for the guerrilla
a challenge for the churches. movement fighting for Namibian independence.
The gospel entered what was then known as In 1971, African leaders of the United Evangel-
Southwest Africa in 1842 through the Rhenish ical Church of Southwest Africa officially con-
Mission (German Lutheran). In the first fifty demned apartheid, and later called for independ-
years, about four thousand members were ence. They were supported by Anglican and
gained. The Finnish Lutherans entered in 1870; Catholic leaders. SWAPO, the Southwest Africa
in its first forty years, its churches had two thou- Peoples Organization, identified three necessary
sand baptized Christians. The great growth of elements of a successful revolution: church
both of these groups came under the colonial workers and clergy, workers in the towns, and
rule of Germany, then South Africa, in a pattern guerrillas fighting in the bush. The South African
similar to much of sub-Saharan Africa. government responded by expelling some foreign
COLONIALISM meant stability and security for Christian workers and refusing entry to others.
development of a diverse and extensive ministry. After a long war that left much unemployment
The Finnish Mission developed a large mission- and many refugees, independence was achieved
ary and African staff for its ministry through ten in 1990. Because of their identification with the
high schools, ninety elementary schools, nine liberation struggle, the major churches have the
hospitals, and eleven dispensaries. By 1955, there wide acceptance necessary to lead Namibias di-
were over two hundred thousand members in its verse groups to reconciliation after the ravages of
associated church. Despite the interruptions of apartheid and war. Each week, the secular gov-
World War I and its aftermath, the Rhenish Mis- ernment has given the churches sixty hours of
sion had comparable growth. radio time on the national network.
Nearing the end of the twentieth century, more Since 1970, several North American-based
than 50 percent of the population were members evangelical and Pentecostal missions have begun
of the United Evangelical Church of Southwest work in Namibia. Together, their memberships are
Africa, formed in 1970 by union of the works re- less than 3 percent of Namibians. Two evangelical
lated to the Rhenish Mission and the Finnish seminaries and specialized ministries in radio and
670
Nation, Nation-Building, Nationalism
to children contribute to revitalizing witness in the ation of nations (Acts 17:26), and therefore we
major church bodies. There are at least three mis- must assume that to some extent it is right to
sions based in Namibia, sending personnel (30 to identify with our nationality and to rejoice in it.
35 in 1998) to various parts of Namibia and Bel- It is also easier for properly appointed leaders to
gium, South Africa, and Netherlands. govern people who share a common commit-
DONALD K. SMITH ment to the larger community. Values such as
loyalty and self-sacrifice can be nurtured in a na-
Bibliography. J. L. De Vries, Mission and Colonial-
tion that takes a healthy pride in its history and
ism in Namibia; R. J. Enquist, Namibia: Land of Tears,
Land of Promise; P. Johnstone, OW; P. Katjavivi, identity. Each national group has developed its
P. Frostin, and K. Mbuende, eds., Church and Liberation own culture, and has thereby made a unique con-
in Namibia. tribution to the life and history of humanity.
Countries such as Poland, the United Kingdom,
Nation, Nation-Building, Nationalism. A nation South Africa, and the United States of America
is a significant group of people who are so identi- have also interwoven a deeply felt Christian con-
viction with nationalist ideals to produce a pow-
fied with one another in terms of common lan-
erful, though not unambiguous, sense of mission
guage, ancestry, history, religion, and culture that
in the modern world.
they are recognized by others as a distinct entity.
All of this can therefore be interpreted as a
Nationalism is a term that can simply express
healthy expression of the inherent dignity of
such a peoples sense of belonging together as a
human culture. If individuals, as neighbors, are
nation, with appropriate pride and loyalty to
to love and respect one another, then surely na-
that nations history and culture. More com-
tions should demonstrate the same mutual ac-
monly, however, it is used to refer to the politi-
ceptance and encouragement. Many would see it
cal perspective on international relationships as a Christian responsibility in the modern world
and programs that places loyalty to ones nation to encourage the development of strong and sta-
as the highest of human virtues. It therefore de- ble democratic nations, each fully respecting and
scribes the ideologies that nurture national self- supporting the others. Such a democratic nation-
consciousness and the desire for national self- alism is held to benefit Christians in a pluralist
determination. world.
Although people have always been devoted to However, nationalism is ambivalent by nature.
their native soil and to the traditions of their an- It can also lead to self-serving ideologies and an
cestors, it was only in the eighteenth century that ambition to marginalize other nations. Nations
what we now call nationalism came to be rec- can become so preoccupied with protecting their
ognized as a distinct and potent religiopolitical own interests that they disregard those of others.
force with the rise of political units known as na- We should not neglect the words of Machiavelli,
tion-states. These came to supersede the church, who epitomized the raising of the state to an end
city, or local lord as the focal points for the alle- in itself: Where it is an absolute question of the
giance of increasing numbers of people. In other welfare of our country, we must admit of no con-
words, nations are really historical phenomena, siderations of justice or injustice, of mercy or
arising out of a particular set of contexts, rather cruelty, of praise or ignominy, but putting all else
than what might be called natural expressions of aside, must adopt whatever course will save its
human life. The American and French Revolu- existence and preserve its liberty. Nationalism,
tions are often held up as the first significant when it reaches this level, leads to xenophobia. In
manifestations of nationalism in the Western our time, we have seen many examples of ethnic
world, and the nineteenth century is usually re- cleansing among peoples whose prime motive
ferred to as the age of nationalisms in Europe. was the creation of a pure nation.
Of course, similar movements have arisen in All too often, there is a clear relationship be-
Africa and Asia throughout the twentieth century. tween nationalism and racism. The National
In its historical context, the rise of African na- Front of Britain published a book in 1977 in
tionalism came as part of a response to European which one of its leaders wrote that racialism is
imperialism. However, while it is possible to an- the only scientific and logical basis for national-
alyze the emerging non-Western nationalisms ism. We seek to preserve the identity of the
solely in terms of a drive toward political inde- British nation. Missiologists are deeply con-
pendence, economic viability, and cultural eman- cerned about this nationalistic rationalizing of
cipation, this would be to vastly undervalue both the desire to marginalize and dominate others,
the importance of the desire to establish personal since sin and evil are woven into the fabric of
and national dignity, and the influence of reli- human nature and relationships.
gious beliefs and values. Christian countries and their governments
There are, of course, positive values that are have not been free from the potent interplay of
bound up with the concept of nationality. The religion and politics in the temptation to domi-
Bible teaches that God is responsible for the cre- nate other peoples, as in, for example, the mar-
671
Nation, Nation-Building, Nationalism
riage between the interests of Christian missions Church, though the Pentecostal Nauru Indepen-
and governmental colonialists in the nineteenth dent Church is growing quickly through evangel-
century. istic tools such as the JESUS FILM.
What is more, many Christians would claim, A. SCOTT MOREAU
since all people are made in Gods image, the fact
of a common humanity should be more impor- Nee, Watchman (Ni Tuo-sheng) (190372). Chi-
tant than differences based on race or national- nese preacher and author. Born in Swatow,
ity. The Bible is clear that Gods love and com- China, Nee was converted while a student at
mitment are given to all people, regardless of Trinity College, Fuzhou. He was influenced by
nationality or any other human distinction, and missionary Margaret Barber, and the writings of
it presents the eschatological context for re- Jeanne de la Motte Guyon (16481717), G. M.
deemed humanity as a united congregation of Pember, Robert Govett, D. M. Panton, and Jessie
people of every nation (Rev. 7:9). Every Christian Penn-Lewis. From 1926 to 1928 Nee wrote The
has a double responsibility in terms of his or her Spiritual Man, a spiritual compendium based on
call to mission: as a citizen, to be the salt of the the trichotomous view of man as body, soul, and
earth, and as an evangelist, to be the light of the spirit. In 1928 he moved to Shanghai, and there
world (Matt. 5:1316). Our nations and their edited The Revival, The Bible Record, and in 1930,
governments, like all authorities, are part of The Little Flock Hymnal. In 1933 the London
Gods provision for his world (Rom. 13:17), but Group Brethren invited Nee to visit Britain, but
they are also accountable to him (Amos 12), and broke fellowship with him because Nee at-
Christians must give absolute loyalty to God tempted to visit T. Austin-Sparks (who deeply in-
(Matt. 4:810; Acts 4:1820; Rev. 13). fluenced his theology) while in London. Nee built
Missiology has the task of helping churches his movement of Assembly Hall congregations
recognize this, and to clearly distinguish between
and evangelistic efforts known as the work,
the desire to obey the Great Commission and the
which grew rapidly in the 1930s and 1940s. In
desire to dominate or inappropriately influence
1938 he preached in Europe; his messages in
others.
Helsingor, Denmark, were later transcribed as
WALTER RIGGANS
The Normal Christian Life. His theology is char-
SEE ALSO Church and State; Colonialism; Eth- acterized by a heavy emphasis on man as body,
nocentrism; Human Rights; Racism. soul, and spirit; he calls Christians to be broken
in spirit so that the Spirit of God may be released
Bibliography. F. Catherwood, Christian Arena 43
in them. He taught that there should be one
(1990); L. Holmes, ed., Church and Nationhood;
E. Sahliyeh, ed., Religious Resurgence and Politics in church per location; denominational connections
The Contemporary World; M. H. Tanenbaum and R. J. are antibiblical. He was later imprisoned by the
Zwi Werblowski, eds., The Jerusalem Colloquium on Re- communist government. He deeply influenced
ligion, Peoplehood, Nation and Land; J. Verkuyl, Break the life and witness of the house churches in
Down the Walls. mainland China, and numerous Christians out-
side China. One of his followers, Witness Lee, de-
Nationalism. See NATION, NATION-BUILDING, NA- veloped his thought further into the aberration
TIONALISM. known as the Local Church Movement, based
in the United States.
Nationalization. See INDIGENIZATION. SAMUEL LING
Bibliography. B. V. James, TCDCB, p. 273; A. I. Kin-
Native American Religions. See INDIGENOUS near, Against the Tide: The Story of Watchman Nee.
AMERICAN RELIGIONS.
Neill, Stephen Charles (19001984). Scottish
Nativistic Movements. See NEW RELIGIOUS mission scholar and missionary to India. Born in
MOVEMENTS. Edinburgh to second-generation evangelical Ben-
gal missionary parents, he was converted in
Nauru (Est. 2000 pop.: 12,000; 21 sq. km. [8 sq. 1914. Educated at Trinity College, he served as a
mi.]). A single island in Oceania between the CMS missionary in India from 1924 to 1944.
Solomon Islands and Kiribati, Nauru achieved In India Neill mastered the Tamil language and
independence in 1968 after being a German literary culture. He engaged in evangelistic work,
colony, an Australian territory, and a United Na- dialogue with Hindus, and theological education.
tions trust territory. In 1993 it was estimated that Along with other Tamil scholars, he worked on
90.4 percent of the population was Christian the revision of the Tamil Bible and in other ways
(60% Protestant, 30% Catholic, 0.4% marginal). promoted production of Christian literature. He
The largest churches are the Nauruan Protestant also participated in church union discussions
(Congregational) Church (1888) and the Anglican leading to the formation of the Church of South
672
Neo-orthodox Theology
India. His greatest lasting contribution, however, tion. This insight became the central theme in his
was in his writing. massive Church Dogmatics. Jesus Christ is the re-
Author of more than sixty-five books as well as alization in time of Gods decision from all eter-
articles and reviews, he also coauthored or nity to be God for and with humanity; so in Gods
coedited several volumes and was the chief editor Word, Jesus Christ, the crucified and risen one, is
of the World Christian Books series. Among Neills contained the meaning of creation, humanity, as
best-known contributions are A History of the Ec- well as Gods reconciliation to himself of us
umenical Movement, 15171948 (1954), Christian rebels. A giant in twentieth-century theology,
Faith and Other Faiths (1961), A History of Chris- Barths work has profoundly affected the theol-
tian Missions (1965), Colonialism and Christian ogy of missions.
Missions (1966), and Concise Dictionary of the The Relation between Revelation and Reli-
Christian World Mission (1970). A less-known lit- gion. According to Barth, theology can only be
tle book, Bhakti: Hindu and Christian (1974), in- grounded in the Word of God, the revelation of
dicates something of the breadth of Neills schol- God in Jesus Christ, as found in Scripture. More-
arship and is of particular interest in India. At over, this revelation is known only through Gods
the time of his death he was engaged in writing a own act, that is, the Spirit, not through some in-
three-volume history of Christianity in India. herent human capacity. There is no way to get
ROGER E. HEDLUND from sinful humanity to God. Only God can
make himself known and this God saves by grace
Bibliography. M. Conway, DEM, p. 720; E. Jackson, alone! So Barth concludes that the revelation of
IBMR 19 (1995): 7780; E. Jackson, ed., Gods Appren-
God is the abolition of religion. Since religion
tice: The Autobiography of Bishop Stephen Neill;
C. Lamb, ML, pp. 44551.
is the universal human attempt to find God, all
religions, including Christianity, are manifesta-
tions of unbelief and works-righteousness (CD
Neo-orthodox Theology. Neo-orthodoxy identi- I/2:280ff.). Barth is not denying the religions im-
fies a broad alliance of theologians, including pressive human achievements, but their value as
Karl Barth (18861968), Rudolph Bultmann Gods revelation. This critique was further devel-
(18841976), and Emil Brunner (18891966), oped and promoted by HENDRICK KRAEMER
who were brought together in the wake of World (18881965).
War I by their rejection of nineteenth-century lib- In view of the opposition between revelation
eral theologys optimistic quest for God in reason, and religion, Barth insists that missionaries must
history, and culture. Over against liberalism, this not seek for a point of contact in other religions.
movement reclaimed and reworked some of the For the Word of God does not supplement what
Reformation distinctivesGods absolute tran- one already knows, but overturns our prior
scendence and holiness, the sinfulness of hu- knowledge by requiring repentance, and reveals
mankind, and Jesus Christ as the singular and what we can know in no other way. Similarly,
unique revelation of Godand so the name, Jesus reconciling work does not perfect the good
neo-orthodoxy. humans already possess, but bridges the infinite
However, within a decade this coalition began chasm between the holy God and the rebellious
fragmenting. Bultmann separated, arguing that sinner. Faith is simply accepting this fact that
Gods revelation provides faiths self-understand- Christ has done for us what we cannot do for
ing, not a knowledge of God in himself. For Barth ourselves. To combine the Word of God with
and Brunner, however, God so assumed flesh in other religions domesticates and subverts revela-
Jesus Christ that he has definitely revealed his tion. So missions must be pursued with a sincere
very being, making possible a knowledge of God respect and yet also an equally sincere lack of re-
himself. Later Barth and Brunner divided over spect for the religions.
the latters use of natural theology. In the midst of Gods Election of Jesus Christ. For Barth elec-
his 1934 struggle against the German Christian tion is the sum of the gospel. By electing Jesus
movement, which used natural theology to sup- Christ, the God-man, God from all eternity deter-
port Nazism, Barth issued a thundering Nein to mines that he is for humanity and determines
Brunners proposal. For Barth, God cannot be humanity for himself. In Jesus Christ, God elects
known outside Gods revelation in Jesus Christ; to take on himself the judgment that is due hu-
nor is there a valid theological understanding of manity so that all sinners are elected for glory.
creation or sin outside this Christological context. Simply put, election is Gods great Yes to all hu-
These once allies, Barth thought, were now re- manity in Jesus Christ (CD II/2:94ff.). Contra
verting to the path of liberalism. Calvin and Luther, Barth rejects the notion of a
Karl Barth. Barth was the leading representa- double predestination grounded in an inscrutable
tive of neo-orthodoxy. Through his study of decree, for Jesus Christ is the self-revelation of a
Anselm (1931), Barth argued that theology has its gracious God.
own inner rationality in Gods revelation in Jesus Barth acknowledges that Christs reconciling
Christ and does not need any external justifica- work must be subjectively appropriated through
673
Neo-orthodox Theology
the Spirit to bear fruit. He even concedes that the gan tradition tend to follow the basic rituals de-
sinner continually evades Christ and thus lives in veloped by Gerald Gardner, but have added a
danger of being condemned (CD IV/3:465). So substantial degree of variety and diversity, de-
the possibility exists that one may reject Jesus pending on their emphasis. Some pagan groups
Christ, and through this perverse choice involun- focus on particular cultural religious traditions,
tarily bear witness to Jesus judgment as the re- such as Celtic, Druidic, Egyptian, or Norse ritu-
jected one (CD II/2:321). Yet Barth insists that the als and practices.
believer who knows God in Jesus Christ must not Neopagans worship the Great Mother Goddess,
assume the ultimate rejection of sinners, and who along with her consort the Horned God
should even pray for Gods gracious mercy in a (Pan), represent the male and female principles
future universal salvation. basic to life. Through the use of magic neopagans
The Churchs Mission. After discussing seek to draw on the cosmic powers that underlie
Christs salvific work in his priestly and kingly of- the universe in their own personal quest for bless-
fices, Barth treats Jesus as the true witness who ing, success, fertility, and harmony. Worshipers
declares his work of reconciliation and thereby are generally organized into small autonomous
fulfills his prophetic office. Gods work in Jesus groups, often called covens. Worshipers meet
Christ makes possible the churchs mission (CD semimonthly at new and full moons to worship
IV/3:830ff.). Through the Spirits work the church the Great Mother Goddess and to practice their
fulfills the Lords command, be my witnesses magic. They generally observe eight major solar
(Acts 1:8). festivals, including Halloween (October 31), Yule
Just as Jesus mission was for the world, so (December 21), Candlemas (February 2), Spring
also the church must serve the world which God Equinox (March 21), Beltane (April 30), Summer
reconciled to himself in Jesus Christ (2 Cor. 5:19). Solstice (June 21), Lammas (August 1), and Fall
However, the world does not define the churchs Equinox (September 21).
ministry. Rather the church is always a witness to DOUGLAS J. HAYWARD
its Lord, Jesus Christ. Through the term wit-
ness, Barth reconceives the church as a mis- Bibliography. D. Cole and E. Fitch, A Book of Pagan
sionary community, in place of the traditional Rituals; J. G. Melton, Magic, Witchcraft and Paganism
notion of the church as an end in itself or the in- in America, A Bibliography; J. B. Russell, A History of
Witchcraft.
stitution of salvation. For salvation is Gods work
alone. As a witness to Gods reconciling work in
Jesus Christ, the church stands at the heart of Nepal (Est. 2000 pop.: 24,842,000; 140,797 sq.
human history awaiting Christs final coming km. [54,362 sq. mi.]). Officially Hindu, Nepal also
when this new reality of reconciliation will finally has a considerable Tantric Buddhist influence.
appear to all. Popular Nepali religion is a mixture of Brahman-
Barth elaborates the churchs ministry of wit- ism and shamanism with elaborate healing ritu-
nessing broadly under twelve basic forms: als, belief in malignant spirits, and astrology.
praise, preaching, teaching, evangelization, for- Given this background, it is not surprising that
eign missions, theology, prayer, the cure of souls, the Christian church in Nepal is of recent origin
personal examples of a Christian life, service to despite attempts by Catholics and others to plant
the needy, prophetic action in the world, and fel- the gospel in the region. In fact, the story of the
lowship among races and classes. Through these church in Nepal is not so much a story of foreign
forms of witnessing the church is not simply pro- missions and missionaries as it is a record of ef-
claiming but also making disciples. Conse- forts by Nepali Christians to reach their own peo-
quently, the Christian community is constantly ple. Nepal was closed to the outside world, but
renewed as converts themselves become new dis- Nepali people managed to seep out into India
ciples and begin witnessing to the gospel. where they came in contact with Christian mis-
TIMOTHY R. PHILLIPS sions. Here and there, some Nepali were con-
verted. A number became active evangelists. For-
Bibliography. G. C. Berkouwer, The Triumph of
Grace in the Theology of Karl Barth; G. Hunsinger, How
eign-mission influence was secondary. These
to Read Karl Barth: The Shape of His Theology; W. Scott, Nepali Christians organized their own Gorkha
Karl Barths Theology of Mission; M. W. Stroope, Escha- Mission. Contacts developed along the border,
tological Mission: Its Reality and Possibility in the The- and there were excursions into Nepal as well.
ology of Karl Barth and its Influence on Modern Mission Revolution in 1950 brought change and the
Theology. first decade of the church in Nepal. A new demo-
cratic monarchical government began an era of
Neopagan, Neopaganism. The term neopagan reform. St. Xaviers School was started by the
is attributed to Tim Zell, founder of the Church Catholics in 1951. Christian worship began in
of All Worlds, who coined it to refer to all wor- Kathmandu in 1953, and secret believers eventu-
shipers of the Mother Goddess who were not part ally were baptized. Three Mar Thoma missionar-
of the WICCA movement. Followers of the neopa- ies founded the Christa Shanti Sangh ashram and
674
Netherlands Antilles
took up residence in Kathmandu in 1953. In the For several centuries the Syriac-speaking
same year the Nepal Evangelistic Band received Nestorians were one of the most passionately
permission to open a hospital at Pokhara. In 1954 missionary branches of the church. A school was
Tir Bahadur became the first pastor in the Kath- established in Nisibis with a strong focus on spir-
mandu Valley, and the United Mission to Nepal itual discipline, Bible study, and mission. In the
received permission to begin medical work. Other sixth century it had over a thousand students.
agencies followed: Mission to Lepers, National Nestorians spread their faith through merchants,
Missionary Society of India, Seventh-Day Adven- accountants, bankers, and physicians, as well as
tists, The Evangelical Alliance Mission. Restric- missionary monks and priests and in some cases
tions were in force, but the missions were wanted women who married chiefs of central Asian
to help build a new Nepal. The role of missionary tribes. In the sixth century Nestorians arrived in
women is significant, but the story of the church India, while a mission to the Huns in central Asia
in Nepal is primarily a record of Nepali Chris- evangelized, reduced the language to writing, and
tians, many of them women, penetrating their taught agriculture.
country with the gospel. The best-known mission was to China. A mon-
The second decade, the 1960s, saw dynamic ument discovered in 1623 described the arrival of
evangelistic expansion and the beginning of Alopen, the first missionary, in 635. Churches
church growth in east Nepal and far west Nepal. and monasteries were established, Christian lit-
A new hymnbook and a revised New Testament erature was produced, and the movement had
appeared. The stage was set for great growth in the favor of the emperor. It even reached the bor-
the 1970s and 1980s. Christian organizations der of Korea. It died out in the tenth century but
such as Wycliffe, Youth for Christ, Operation Mo- experienced a resurgence from the eleventh to
bilization, Far East Broadcasting, Gospel Record- thirteenth centuries, when it disappeared again.
ings, and Scripture Union came to Nepal during The reasons for its demise in China appear to
this time. have been threefold: overcontextualization to the
In spite of PERSECUTION, imprisonment, and point of religious syncretism, with inadequate
other hardships (it was illegal to profess and focus on the cross and resurrection; foreign lead-
preach Christ), the churches multiplied, espe- ership of the church; and strong dependence on
cially since 1980. The church from its inception the imperial house. The movement disappeared
was indigenous in character and outlook with an first when the Tang dynasty fell in the tenth cen-
emphasis on local leadership development. In the tury, and again in the fourteenth century because
late 1970s and early 1980s discipleship schools of government persecution.
and Bible schools came into existence to meet Nestorian Christianity reached several central
the need for training. Christian witness spread to Asian tribes, notably the Uighurs, whose lan-
various parts of the nation. Many people became guage was reduced to writing in the eighth cen-
Christians through healings and other miracles. tury. From there it was passed to the Mongols. By
In 1990 a multiparty government system was the thirteenth century the Keraits were consid-
reestablished. Christians in prison were released. ered Christian. Nestorians often coexisted with
Since 1990 churches have been growing more Islam and served its leaders as physicians and
rapidly. In 1991 there were more than 50,000 scholars, even translating a number of Greek
baptized believers in Nepal. The exact number of philosophical works into Arabic. However, the
Christians is not known, but in 1996 was esti- Christian faith in Asia was eventually extermi-
mated to be 200,000. nated by a combination of Islamic pressure and
BAL KRISHNA SHARMA AND ROGER E. HEDUND the massacres of Tamerlane in the fourteenth
century. Scattered Nestorian communities, often
Bibliography. R. Khatry, in The Church in Asia
calling themselves Assyrian Christians, still exist
Today, pp. 37992; J. Lindell, Nepal and the Gospel of
God; L. Stone, Illness Beliefs and Feeding the Dead in in some areas of the Middle East and the United
Hindu Nepal: An Ethnographic Analysis. States.
PAUL E. PIERSON
Nestorian Mission. The Nestorian movement Bibliography. S. H. Moffett, A History of Christian-
took the name of Nestorius, who was appointed ity in Asia, vol. 1; J. Stewart, The Nestorian Missionary
patriarch of Constantinople in 428 but deposed Enterprise.
three years later at the Council of Ephesus over
the issue of the relationship of the human and Netherlands Antilles (Netherlands Autonomous
the divine in Christ. His Christology was proba- Area) (Est. 2000 pop. 389,000; 961 sq. km. [371 sq.
bly orthodox, although perhaps not stated ade- mi.]). Consisting of two groups of islands sepa-
quately. Ecclesiastical politics were also involved. rated by some 800 km. (500 mi.) in the Caribbean
The controversy was a factor in the breach be- Sea, the primary economic generators are tourism
tween the East and the West, and the church in and offshore finance. In 1993 the population was
Persia became Nestorian. estimated to be 94.5 percent Christian (12.9%
675
Netherlands Antilles
Protestant, 78.3% Catholic, and 3.3% marginal). Catholic churches have yielded ground to SECU-
The Catholics trace their origin to missionary LARIZATION. The large Protestant churches, which
work in the sixteenth century, Protestants to Dutch are traditional and formal, have become quite
immigration and settlement in 1650. The island of liberal in their theology and have focused on the-
Bonaire is home to the Trans World Radio station ological disputes rather than on missions and
transmitter, the largest in the Western hemisphere. evangelism. The Catholic Church is also in a spir-
A. SCOTT MOREAU itual decline.
Fortunately, many Christian agencies have
Netherlands (Est. 2000 pop.: 15,934,000; 40,844 made some progress within the country to reach
sq. km. [15,770 sq. mi.]). The Netherlands is an people for Christ. For example, Youth with a Mis-
sion (YWAM) has reached many of the diverse
independent European country located on the
populations found within Amsterdam. The vari-
North Sea with Germany to the east and Belgium
ous media are also proving successful in the
to the south. It is often called Holland after a his-
proclamation of the gospel in the Netherlands.
toric region now a part of the modern nation.
With such little progress being made in and by
The Netherlands is one of the smallest and most
the formal churches, at least for now, the future
densely populated countries in Europe. The pop-
hope for missionary work in the Netherlands ap-
ulation is approximately 15.9 million; more than
pears to be through the various new agencies.
40 percent live in the two western provinces of
MARKUS WAGNER
North and South Holland, which include the
three largest cities, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and
The Hague. The population is primarily Dutch, Nevius, John Livingston (182993). American
with some Indonesians and Surinamese. The na- missionary to China and leading missions theo-
tional language is Dutch, a Germanic language. rist. Born into a Presbyterian family in Upstate
English, German, and French are quite com- New York, he graduated from Union College,
monly studied in most secondary schools. Schenectady, and responded to Gods call to mis-
The Franks established a Dutch church at sionary service while studying at Princeton The-
Utrecht in the seventh century. WILLIBRORD and ological Seminary. He spent forty years as a Pres-
BONIFACE significantly advanced the cause of byterian missionary in China (185393), where
Christianity in the eighth century. Until the rise he was active as an itinerant preacher and evan-
of prominent local cities around the time of the gelist, wrote tracts, and did famine relief. He died
Crusades, the country remained under the Holy of a heart attack in China.
Roman Empire. In the sixteenth century, Holland Late in his career, after being invited to speak
became a refuge for the followers of the Reform- to Presbyterian missionaries in Korea, Nevius
ers. After eighty years of intermittent war with devised the plan of missionary work for which
Spain from 1568 to 1648, the Protestant-led re- he is best remembered. The so-called N EVIUS
volt finally won the Dutch their independence. In PLAN became the Three-Self Plan: self-propaga-
the years following, they built a vast overseas em- tion, self-government, and self-support. It was
pire, becoming for a time the worlds leading so well received that the Presbyterians in Korea
maritime and commercial power. In 1794, formally adopted it as mission policy. His plan
Napoleon led his French revolutionary forces to is credited with the subsequent church growth
invade the Netherlands and set up the Republic in Korea after World War II and the Korean
of Batavia. The Congress of Vienna liberated the War. It shaped the mission strategies of count-
country from France in 1815 and reestablished less evangelical agencies after World War II.
the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, which Similar theories were developed by HENRY VENN
included present-day Belgium. The government and R UFUS A NDERSON , and later by R OLAND
is a constitutional monarchy with a democratic A LLEN . His plan also included requiring thor-
parliament. ough Bible teaching of all converts and wide
Religion has influenced Dutch history, society, itineration by missionaries accompanied by na-
institutions, and attitudes, and is closely related tional helpers. This was a reversal of the usual
to political life, though to a diminishing degree. mission approach of paying national evangelists
Although church and state are separate, a few to do the preaching. Nevius thought missionar-
historical ties remain (e.g., the royal family be- ies should spend their time in discipleship train-
longs to the Dutch Reformed Church). Dutch ing. The issue of self-support seemed primary to
Catholics and Protestants constitute two of the Nevius. The traditional system provided money
four principal groups on which the three main for early church development and then gradu-
political parties are based. ally withdrew funds. Nevius was more inter-
Approximately 65 percent of the population is ested in self-support from the beginning. His
Christian, with 35 percent Roman Catholic and plan also called for strict church discipline, co-
28 percent Protestant, though there is much sec- operation with other missions, and relief help
ularized Christianity. Both Protestant and Roman for churches. He did not consider his plan the
676
New Age Movement
final word, and thought it should be modified tic materialism and are openly embracing spiritual
by local circumstances. ideas and experimenting with spiritual practices
JIM REAPSOME that are not Christian, despite some superficial
similarities to Christian terminology. Since those
Bibliography. P. Beyerhaus and H. Lefever, The Re-
sponsible Church and the Foreign Mission; C. A. Clark, caught in this spiritual error must be reached with
The Korean Church and the Nevius Method; H. S. the gospel, it is imperative to understand their
Nevius, The Life of John Livingston Nevius. worldview and its weaknesses.
Sociologically, the New Age movement is a
Nevius Method. In June 1890 the Presbyterian misnomer because it is neither a unified social
Mission in Korea invited JOHN NEVIUS and his movement nor an organized conspiracy, notwith-
wife, missionaries in China, to give a series of mes- standing its common themes and emphases.
sages on Neviuss book, The Planting and Develop- Nevertheless, New Age perspectives are affecting
ing of Missionary Churches. Though the Neviuses vast segments of Western culture. The American
were only in Korea for the two-week missionary counterculture of the 1960s and early 1970s
conference, the Nevius Method was adopted by served as a cultural magnet for a wide variety of
the missionaries as the primary means to reach non-Christian worldviews. Experimentation with
Korea for Christ. Many attribute the rapid growth mind-altering drugs was often combined with ex-
of the Korean church to the consistent application plorations into oriental religions such as Hin-
of the Nevius Method in Korea. duism, Buddhism, various indigenous pagan tra-
There are nine principles of indigenous church ditions such as Druidism and Shamanism, and
development in the Nevius Method, including an Western occult practices. Although the flamboy-
emphasis on personal evangelism through wide ance of the hippie culture is largely gone, many
itineration; the development of congregations of its animating ideas live on in the New Age
that are self-supporting, self-propagating, and movement.
self-governing; the need for systematic Bible In the late 1980s, many dropped the term New
study for every Christian; strict discipline in the Age because of its associations with glitzy and
noninterference in lawsuits; and general help for glamorous elementssuch as an occult fascina-
those in economic need. The heart of the Nevius tion with crystalsthat were not reckoned as
Method, the three-self formula of indigenous central to the worldview. In the 1990s essentially
mission work, is well known in modern missions New Age ideas are being presented as a new
strategy (see INDIGENOUS CHURCHES and THREE- spirituality, a generic orientation to life that
SELF MOVEMENT [CHINA]). draws on spiritual strength in a very individual-
Resulting from consistent application of the ized manner. Although the influence of the New
Nevius Method, the Korean church has estab- Age movement is global, it is probably the
lished itself as a church which places a high em- strongest in North America and the West in gen-
phasis on personal evangelism, self-support eral (since it appeals more to post-Christian cul-
(tithing), self-propagation (Christianization of tures than to pre-Christian situations). The new
Korea Movement), self-government (strong de- spirituality is eclectic and syncretistic; however,
nominations), and systematic Bible study and several common elements emerge.
prayer (cell-groups). New Age thinking looks to the self for spiritual
The Nevius Method is still valid, though not as power. This orientation is often mixed with a
well implemented as it should be. For example, messianic and apocalyptic mood emphasizing
many church leaders of the developing nations in the urgent need for massive individual and social
the Third World are heavily dependent on finan- renewal to solve the personal, social, and inter-
cial assistance from foreign missionary agencies. national problems facing the planet. As one New
This dependence does not help the growth of the Age slogan puts it, The only way out is in. Indi-
national church. The principles of indigenous viduals and societies can only evolve harmo-
missions outlined by Nevius are needed today niously and usher in the New Age by tapping into
just as they were in the late 1800s in order to the power within. New Age luminary Deepak
strengthen indigenous local churches and speed Chopra claims in his best-selling book The Seven
the evangelization of each nation. Laws of Spiritual Success (1994) that we all have
BONG RIN RO unlimited potential to create wealth and happi-
Bibliography. C. A. Clark and A. Charles, The Korean ness, once we awaken from the illusion of limita-
Church and the Nevius Method; L. G. Paik, The History tion and inadequacy. Chopra claims that we are
of Protestant Missions in Korea, 18321910; B. R. Ro all gods and goddesses. PANTHEISM is at the heart
and M. Nelson, eds., Korean Church Growth Explosion. of the New Age; its god is an impersonal and
amoral field, force, principle, power, or substance
New Age Movement. The New Age movement of- that is the one true reality. God is not respected
fers many challenges to missiology and missionary as a personal and moral Creator who is ontologi-
endeavors. Many in the West have rejected atheis- cally separate from his creation.
677
New Age Movement
Second, this new spirituality stresses the unity ate our own reality, which means we are under
of all things (MONISM). Humans are not separated no higher ethical standard (see Isa. 5:20).
from each other, from the planet, from the uni- Missiologists, missionaries, and others must
verse, or from God. All is one. Chopra uses pseu- develop an APOLOGETIC and an evangelistic strat-
doscientific terms to dub this oneness a quantum egy adequate to refute the New Age worldview
field of pure potentiality. The theme of monism (1 Peter 3:1516; Jude 3). This entails subjecting
unites most New Age thinking, although the em- pantheism, monism, OCCULTISM, reincarnation,
phasis on the individuals unique spiritual jour- SYNCRETISM, and RELATIVISM to exacting critiques,
ney contradicts the ancient monistic Hindu both logically and theologically (2 Cor. 10:35).
teaching that individuality is nonexistent and il- Such an endeavor will expose: (1) the hollowness
lusory. The New Age effort to accommodate of an impersonal and amoral deity that cannot
Western individualism while retaining an essen- possibly love anyone, since it is impersonal;
tial monism is deeply problematic. (2) the illogic of a monism that denies the plural-
A third essential New Age belief is that our ities we presuppose in everyday life; (3) the dan-
consciousness must be transformed if we are to gers of occultism and the reality of Satan and his
harness the power of our divinity. A number of fallen angels; (4) the lack of evidence for and the
spiritual practices, such as YOGA, visualization, illogic of reincarnation; (5) the fact that syn-
MEDITATION, hypnosis, and consciousness-raising cretism is false, since religions make contradic-
seminars, are recommended as means to the end tory truth-claims; and (6) the errors of RELATIVISM
of self-realization or God-realization, which are that deny the essential and objective ethical cate-
viewed as synonymous. The Transcendental Med- gories of morality.
itation (TM) movement, for example, has been Constructively, we must set forth the cogency
instrumental in the West since the late 1960s in of the Christian worldview, particularly with re-
initiating millions into a Hindu form of yoga, spect to the uniqueness and supremacy of Jesus
which has been disingenuously presented as a re- Christ as the one mediator between sinful hu-
ligiously neutral self-help method. Many New mans and a holy God (1 Tim. 2:5). This will de-
Age books and seminars also promote the spiri- mand sound EXEGESIS (since New Agers misin-
tual benefits purportedly available through con- terpret Scripture) and historical argumentation
tact with angels or other spiritual entities, which concerning the reliability of the Bible and its su-
are understood in unbiblical terms (see Isa. periority to other supposed revelations about
8:1920; Col. 2:1819; 1 John 4:14). Christ. It will also involve earnest prayer for the
A new slant on New Age ideas comes from the spiritual protection, wisdom, humility, and
culture of computer networks known as cyber- courage required to face a very seductive and in-
space. Some claim that the electronic connec- fluential spiritual counterfeit (2 Cor. 11:14; Eph.
tions achieved through the Internet form a type 6:1018).
of mystical, unified consciousness. Visionaries DOUGLAS GROOTHUIS
speak of technoshamanism as an electrically
Bibliography. D. K. Clark and N. L. Geisler, Apolo-
enhanced tool for spiritual awareness. Timothy getics in the New Age; D. Groothuis, Unmasking the New
Leary, LSD guru of the counterculture, was influ- Age: Is There a New Religious Movement Trying to Trans-
ential in advancing these ideas. form Society?; idem, Confronting the New Age: How to
Fourth, this new spirituality emphasizes a Resist a Growing Religious Movement; V. Mangalwadi,
pleasant view of the afterlife, usually involving a When the New Age Gets Old; E. Miller, A Crash Course
benign view of REINCARNATION. Many accounts of on the New Age; J. W. Sire, The Universe Next Door: A
near-death experiences speak of the peace and Basic World View Catalogue.
light of the afterlife where there is no hell to fear
and no holy God to face. The categories of New Apostolic Reformation Missions. The New
heaven and hell (Matt. 25:46) are rejected as Apostolic Reformation is an extraordinary work
rigid, negative, and dualistic. of God at the close of the twentieth century which
Fifth, New Agers are syncretistic, which forces is, to a significant extent, changing the shape of
them to reject the exclusive and absolute claims Protestant Christianity around the world. For al-
of Christ (John 14:6; Acts 4:12). For them, the most 500 years, Christian churches have largely
mystical essence of all religions is pantheistic functioned within traditional denominational
monism. Therefore, Christ is viewed as a master structures of one kind or another. Particularly in
or guru who taught that we could attain his sta- the 1990s, but with roots going back for almost a
tus by tapping into the Christ consciousness. century, new forms and operational procedures
The view that he is Gods only son (John 3:16) are now emerging in areas such as local church
is dismissed as parochial. government, interchurch relationships, financing,
Sixth, since all is one and we are all divine, a evangelism, missions, prayer, leadership selection
sense of absolute, objective, universal, and tran- and training, the role of supernatural power, wor-
scendent moral authority vanishes for many New ship and other important aspects of church life.
Agers. A phrase commonly heard is that we cre- Some of these changes are being seen within de-
678
New Covenant
nominations themselves, but for the most part increasing level of missions interest and commit-
they are taking the form of loosely structured ment throughout the local church. Almost invari-
apostolic networks. In virtually every region of the ably the individuals who take these trips return as
world, these new apostolic churches constitute transformed persons. Missions is no longer pe-
the fastest growing segment of Christianity. ripheral to them, but an essential part of their per-
One of the strong characteristics of the new sonalities. And this permeates through their re-
apostolic churches is the conscious desire to respective spheres of influence in the church. How
instate the ministry and office of apostle, whether much can one local church be involved in mis-
the term itself is used or not. Churches which sions? A new apostolic church of 2,500 in Ana-
characterize themselves as apostolic in nature heim, California, Grace Korean Church, pastored
have outreach built into their very fabric. This in- by Kim Kwang Shin, has an annual church budget
cludes outreach and church planting in their own of $6.5 million, of which $5 million is spent on
surroundings and social ministries as well as for- foreign missions in East Africa, Russia, mainland
eign missions. The strong desire to be directly in- China, Vietnam, and other places.
volved in taking the gospel to the nations of the David Shibley of Global Advance, one of the
world is reminiscent of the upsurge of world mis- foremost trainers of new apostolic missionaries,
sions among traditional evangelical churches lists six reasons why new apostolic churches are
after World War II. making such a significant contribution to world
During the last quarter of the twentieth cen- evangelization: (1) less bureaucracy; (2) a high
tury the more traditional Western missionary view of Scripture; (3) the expression of signs and
agencies have been in notable decline, while wonders for the verification of the gospel;
Third World-based missionary agencies have (4) strategic-level spiritual warfare and advanced
been strongly increasing (see NON-WESTERN MIS- intercession; (5) advanced praise and worship;
SION BOARDS AND SOCIETIES). Many of these Third and (6) apostolic networking (Ministry Advantage,
World agencies have emerged from the new apos- JulyAugust 1996, p. 8).
tolic churches in their midst. An important part C. PETER WAGNER
of their methodology is to recognize apostolic
leaders in foreign nations, build personal rela-
New Caledonia (French Overseas Territory) (Est.
tionships with them, and encourage the forma-
2000 pop.: 195,000; 18,700 sq. km. [7,220 sq. mi.]).
tion and multiplication of apostolic networks
New Caledonia, a French Overseas Territory, is an
which relate to each other in non-bureaucratic,
island in the southwest Pacific Ocean east of Aus-
non-controlling ways. The local congregation fre-
tralia. Although the French are the most numer-
quently becomes the principal launching pad for
ous ethnic group, representing about 25% of the
overseas missions, somewhat to the dismay of
population, there are nearly 50 other ethnic
traditional mission agencies, both denomina-
groups as well. The population is over 87% Chris-
tional and interdenominational. Ted Haggard,
pastor of new Life Church of Colorado Springs, tian, including over 71% Roman Catholic. Active
said this at a National Symposium on the Post- evangelical groups include Eglise Evangeliques
denominational Church held at Fuller Seminary Autonome with over 20,000 members, Eglise
in 1996: [The New Apostolic Reformation] is the Evangelique Libre with 9,000 members, and As-
black market of Christian ministry. Because the semblies of God with 2,600 members.
lost of the world are demanding prayer and the TODD M. JOHNSON
message of the Gospel, the demand is forcing us
to work outside normally accepted missions New Covenant. The term new covenant is usu-
methods to satisfy the cry for eternal life in the ally used in contrast to the old covenant of Moses
hearts of people. found in the Old Testament (John 1:17). But the
A common characteristic of new apostolic Old Testament contains more than one covenant,
churches is for the senior pastor to lead teams of and most are related to mission. God made a
lay people on at least one, and more frequently covenant with Noah (Gen. 8:219:17) on which
two or three, mission trips to different nations Paul based his appeal to his audience at Lystra
each year. These are usually facilitated through (Acts 14:1418). This cosmic or Noahic covenant,
personal relationships with apostolic figures in the made with human beings in creation, is one part
nations visited, and they last for a week or two. of the salvation story (Rom. 1:1920), incomplete
Stated immediate objectives of these trips vary in itself and yet of continuing validity in evangel-
greatly from supporting the preaching and teach- ism. God covenants not to destroy again sinful
ing ministry of the senior pastor to undertaking a humankind by a flood, promises to sustain life
construction project, to street evangelism, to on earth, warns against sin, and establishes the
prayer journeys to social service projects to litera- cycle of seasons. This state of humanity is an ex-
ture distribution to other similar activities. How- pression of Gods will.
ever, a more fundamental reason for this kind of Gods covenant with Abraham (Gen. 12:3; see
an ongoing program is the benefit of a constantly ABRAHAMIC COVENANT), his election of Israel to be
679
New Covenant
the mediator of his salvation to the nations cleanall could receive salvation through trust
(Exod. 19:58), and his covenant with David to in Jesus who is the Way, the Truth, and the Life.
establish his eternal kingdom through Davids de- The author of Hebrews repeatedly refers to the
scendant (2 Sam. 7:1116) all look forward to the blood of Christ and his one sufficient sacrifice
new covenant. Jeremiah foretold of the coming the central content of the new covenantas
of this new covenant, when external rules would being far superior to every feature of the old
be replaced by the internal control of the living covenant. He notes the redemptive aspects of this
Spirit of God (Jer. 31:3337). covenant: forgiveness of sins (7:27, 8:12), being
The choice of Abraham and the election of Is- redeemed from sin (9:15), freedom from guilt
rael do not mean that the peoples of the earth are (10:2), cleansing from an unclean conscience
ignored or rejected. Neither, however, do any of (9:14), a living way into the presence of God
the old covenants require that Israel seek actively (10:22), and an eternal inheritance (9:15). The
by specific missionary activity to proclaim God blessings of the new covenant are to the end that
to the nations. Gods movement toward the na- we may serve the living God (9:14).
tions is always with reference to their relation to With the theological foundation established by
Israel as Gods people. As the nations see Gods the new covenant, Jesus summoned his disciples
action in judgment and salvation in Israel, they to the mountain top in Galilee. Here he reminded
may then share in the blessing of the elect nation. them that they, as the beginning of the new
(Ps. 67:12). covenant community, had a weighty responsibil-
ity, to reach out in a centrifugal mission activity,
Karl Barth comments:
making disciples of all peoples. He assured them
. . . it is precisely the covenant of Yahweh with
of his total authority and his eternal presence for
a unique Israel, of Israel with a unique God this task. This new ministry was not merely a
. . . far from being an end in itself . . . that has matter of obedience. It required the activity of
meaning, revelation, real and dynamic import the Holy Spirit, the Spirit of the new covenant
for the relation between God and all peoples, (John 29:22; 2 Cor. 3:6, 1718).
men of all peoples. (Blauw, 1962, 28) With confidence, then, the disciples pro-
claimed that God has made this Jesus, whom
Jesus comes as the elect and covenanted Servant you crucified both Lord and Christ (Acts 2:36).
of God who will restore the tribes of Jacob . . . Initially uncertain of the cultural expectations to
(be) a light for the Gentiles . . . (and) bring my be placed upon Gentile believers, they finally
salvation to the ends of the earth (Isa. 42:1; concluded that God had no favorites (Acts 10:34)
49:6). and salvation was only through the grace of Jesus
The early ministry of Jesus in the New Testa- Christ (Acts 15:11). Gods chosen servant, with
ment, with occasional exceptions, was focused whom he had made a covenant (Isa. 42:6), was
on reaching and renewing the lost sheep of Is- the only source of salvation (Acts 4:12) and the
rael (Matt. 10:6). But he was also building a new one mediator between God and humans
(1 Tim. 2:5). Under this banner, the message of
communitya community of the covenant. This
salvation was spread throughout the Roman Em-
becomes clear during the last week of his earthly
pire (Acts 1:8; 28:2831).
ministry when he instituted the Last Supper. Two
The question what about those who have
things are of particular importance in the
never heard was not raised explicitly by the early
Matthean account (Matt. 26:2630). By speaking believers. They assumed that they and those to
of the blood of the covenant, Jesus was re- follow them would take the message everywhere.
minding his disciples how Moses ratified the old With great zeal and sacrifice missionaries
covenant by sprinkling the blood of bulls on the through the ages have sought to complete Christs
altar and the people (Exod. 24:68). The blood of GREAT COMMISSION. Now that we know the task
the new covenantof Jesus pending sacrifice may not be completed in the foreseeable future,
was poured out for many for the forgiveness of some missiologists are rethinking the cosmic
sins. This covenant then went beyond blessing covenant that God made with Noah. Is there a
for Israel. It was for the peoples of the world. As wider hope by which the unevangelized may re-
believers everywhere celebrate the Lords Supper, ceive the blessings of the new covenant without
they are reminded of Jesus sacrifice and of the explicitly naming the name of Jesus? Even as
need to make him known everywhere until through Gods common GRACE some in the Old
Christs return. TestamentAbel, Enoch, Melchizedek, Job, Naa-
Paul elaborates on this by pointing out how the man, Rahabhad a relationship with God, is this
sacrifice of Christ destroyed the barrier between probable, or even possible, now?
Jews and Gentiles (Eph. 2:1122). This truth be- Thinkers like John Hick and Paul Knitter have
came the theological foundation enabling the opted for radical PLURALISM or UNIVERSALISM
early church to break out of its Jewish cocoon which affirms that all the unevangelized will be
and realize that no people were impure or unsaved. The traditional evangelical view is that
680
New Religious Movements
there is no hope for salvation for those who have tarian and biblical aspects of the basis were
not heard the message of Jesus and placed their strengthened, which pleased the evangelicals and
hope in him. The wider hope, now espoused by the orthodox.
a number of evangelicals, posits the possibility of Fourth, ecumenical history was made by the
evangelization at or after death or universally ac- merger of the INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL
cessible salvation apart from evangelization. The (IMC) with the WCC. Although the merger had
latter view is called inclusivism by its adherents been discussed during the formative years of the
who believe that salvation comes only through WCC, the IMC had decided to maintain its sepa-
Christ as God works through general revelation rate identity. After 1958, however, negotiations
and providence. The unevangelized need not have with the ecumenical councils, and tremendous
explicit knowledge of Christ and the sacrifice of pressure from the WCC, led to the incorporation
the new covenant in order to be saved. John of the IMC into the WCC. The work of the IMC
Sanders states, Gods salvific will is universal, consequently became the responsibility of the
and that is clearly manifested in the universal newly created COMMISSION ON WORLD MISSION AND
covenants of Genesis, which were neither revoked EVANGELISM of the WCC. New Delhi marked the
nor replaced by later covenants (1992, 218). end of one era and the beginning of another in
The more recent statements of these views, the- ecumenical missions history.
oretical at best, cannot negate the call of Christ in JUSTICE C. ANDERSON
the new covenant actively to make disciples of all
the peoples of the world. He is the atoning sacri- SEE ALSO World Council of Churches Assemblies.
fice for our sins, and not only for ours but also for Bibliography. N. Goodall, The Ecumenical Move-
the sins of the whole world (1 John 2:2). ment; W. A. Visser t Hooft, New Delhi Speaks; R. Rouse
RALPH R. COVELL and S. Neill, HEM.
Bibliography. J. Blauw, The Missionary Nature of the
Church; H. Maurier, The Other Covenant: A Theology of New Religious Movements. The term New Re-
Paganism; A. Richardson, An Introduction to the Theol- ligious Movement (NeRM) lacks precise defini-
ogy of the New Testament; A. McCaig, ISBE, I:79597; tion but has become the term of choice among
J. Sanders, No Other Name. scholars in a conscious attempt to eliminate the
more sensational and pejorative connotations of
New Delhi Assembly (1961). The Third Assem- cult or deviant religion. In general, the term
bly of the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES (WCC) is used to identify religious groups that adhere to
met in New Delhi, India, in November 1961. Un- a theological perspective and a structure or pat-
like the two previous assemblies (AMSTERDAM, tern of religious behavior that is self-consciously
1948; Evanston, 1954), New Delhi was precisely distinct from the dominant society. The group
planned, crisply administered, and pragmatically may be new in the innovative sense in which
efficient. The location in India was in sharp con- distinctly original religious visions and structures
trast to the western cities of Amsterdam and are developed in the context of the existing reli-
Chicago. The assembly was composed of 577 gious milieu (MORMONISM in the United States
voting members, with a total of 1,006 persons and BAHAI in Iran). The term may also apply to
participating. mainline or marginal subgroups within estab-
New Delhi avoided the speculative theological lished religious traditions that are imported
themes addressed earlier, and prepared reports whole into a new social and religious setting
on witness, service, and unity. Four develop- (Hare Krishnas in the United States and Mor-
ments give New Delhi its significance in ecu- monism in Asia).
menical history. NeRMs share a set of characteristics. The rela-
First, the enlargement of membership was dra- tive force of each characteristic will vary, but in
matic. Twenty-three different communions joined general NeRMs are marked by strong charis-
the Council. The Russian Orthodox Church, with matic leadership, clear boundary markers be-
its satellites from Bulgaria, Romania, and tween members of the group and society at large
Poland, joined, making the Orthodox tradition that reflect and intensify the necessity of a high
the largest communion of the WCC. Two large level of commitment, a claim to have access to or
denominations of Pentecostals from Chile also possession of Truth that is not available to any-
became members. one outside the group, and a pronounced em-
Next, the Roman Catholic Church sent five of- phasis on personal needs and experience.
ficial observers, giving New Delhi a status that While the emergence of new religions is as old
had never been achieved previously by an assem- as history itself, the last half of the twentieth cen-
bly of the WCC. tury has been a remarkably fruitful time for the
Third, the confessional basis of the WCC was development and growth of NeRMs. This is a
theologically reinforced, emphasizing the deity of worldwide phenomenon and reflects the power
Christ and the authority of the Bible. The trini- of broad social trends characteristic of the mod-
681
New Religious Movements
ern age that have given rise to the rapid increase While the twenty-first century has every poten-
and relative success of numerous NeRMs. tial of being most hospitable to NeRMs, the fact
Cultural globalization has enhanced the poten- remains that the vast majority of NeRMs do not
tial for the success of NeRMs in several distinct succeed in attracting and holding a significant
ways. Mass communication has brought the world following. In the United States nearly 75 percent
to our doorstep, raising the level of awareness and of persons who join such movements leave
interest in a wide range of religious traditions. within the first two years. The Mormon experi-
Modern migration movements have placed nu- ence is a rare exception. Even those movements
merous societies in direct contact with a wide that appear to succeed remain quite marginal. In
range of alternative religious traditions, greatly in- the United States the Hare Krishna never num-
creasing opportunities for interpersonal religious bered more committed disciples than the average
interchange. Being confronted with a Buddhist Sunday morning attendance of one large evan-
neighbor is significantly different than being con- gelical church. However, there are factors that
fronted merely with Buddhist philosophy. generally mark off the more successful move-
The postWorld War II era has seen a marked ments:
decline in the power of established institutions to
retain broad-based loyalty and commitment. Po- A balance between continuity and tension
litical and social institutions also reflect this with the dominant culture. Successful
change, but it has become increasingly charac- NeRMs must provide an alternative, but
teristic of the modern religious landscape. This they cannot be too different.
breakdown in the power of institutions is tied to Effective charismatic leadership that bal-
the rise of individualism. Individualism acts as a ances a new vision with sufficient organi-
two-edged sword, at once freeing persons to seek zational skill.
individual choices outside the constraints of so- Strong internal relationships and clear
cial conformity while also leaving persons iso- boundary lines that mark off the group as
lated and alone, highly responsive to the message distinct, if not unique, but do not result in
of communal wholeness characteristic of many complete isolation.
NeRMs.
Sufficient socialization of children that lim-
The rise of RELATIVISM as the dominant ethical
its defections and ensures continuity.
ethos of modern life, when combined with the
social changes noted, helps reinforce a climate of
moral and spiritual confusion. The most success- Evangelicals generally characterize and re-
ful religious responses to this general climate of spond to NeRMs in terms of their distance or de-
confusion have been a call to return to the old viation from orthodox Christian belief and prac-
paths (worldwide fundamentalism) and the quest tice. This theological approach is centered on an
for new paths to an unknown future (NeRMs). analysis of truth claims and should be motivated
Beyond these generalized characteristics of the by a concern for the truth and for persons. It is
modern age, there appear to be specific social wise and prudent for evangelical Christians to
and cultural conditions that are particularly con- learn about the theology, practice, and methods of
ducive to the rise of NeRMs: expansion of NeRMs and be prepared to speak
the truth of the gospel of Christ in love. However,
considerable caution should be exercised in link-
Secularizationdecline of the authority ing those efforts with the secular anticult move-
and status of established religious institu- ment that carries a strong antireligious bias, af-
tions for participation in public discourse firms the right of the state to control religion, and
Generational discontinuitythe loss of con- is not constrained by Christian ethical concerns.
fidence among youth in the ability of the val- JAMES D. CHANCELLOR
ues, institutions, and mores of the mature
generation to meet the political, economic, Bibliography. E. Barker, New Religious Movements:
A Practical Introduction; D. G. Bromley and P. E. Ham-
social, and religious needs of the future mond, The Future of New Religious Movements; D. Hes-
Religious freedomthe lack of political selgrave, ed., Dynamic Religious Movements.
and social constraint on personal religious
orientation and practice New Testament Theology of Mission. The New
Testament is first and foremost a missionary doc-
Postwar Japan is a classic case where these fac- ument in the sense that it details the carrying out
tors have coalesced to form a very fertile field for of Gods plan of salvation for the world. Perhaps
NeRMs. There are over 11,000 distinct Buddhist the best single portrayal of this is the chain of
groups in Japan, the great majority formed in the revelation in the Gospel of John, in which God
postwar era (see also JAPANESE NEW RELIGIOUS reaches the world first through Jesus as the Sent
MOVEMENTS). One. Then the Father and Son send the Holy
682
New Testament Theology of Mission
Spirit and finally the Godhead sends the disci- (28:1820) . Each stage prepares for the following
ples to encounter the world with the demands of step. The Jewish mission is the core of the first
God and thereby to force decision. The means by two stages, and the universal mission is the goal
which this is accomplished is called mission, of the third. In this sense the gospel of the king-
which technically, in John, means the process of dom called both Jews (4:23; 9:35) and all na-
sending chosen heralds with the gospel message tions (24:14) to repentance. In fact, the mission
of salvation. to the Jews was in reality the first stage of the
Theology of Mission in the Gospels and Acts. universal mission, which in Matthew is linked to
One positive result of redaction criticism is the the eschaton (13:2430; 24:14). A major theme in
realization that each Gospel contains its own mission is rejection, as the disciples must expect
portrayal of Jesus and its own theological em- the same hatred and persecution as Jesus suf-
phasis (see also JESUS AND MISSION). We will begin fered (10:1736; see vv. 2426 on sharing Jesus
with Mark because of the likelihood that Mark suffering). But the goal of it all is to bring the
was the first Gospel. The centrality of mission in Jewish people and the nations to faith (a key ele-
Mark can be seen in the framing of Marks pro- ment in the miracle stories) and obedience. (The
logue with gospel (1:1, 15). Jesus comes as one ethical requirements of the kingdom are central
proclaiming the good news about the KINGDOM to the Sermon on the Mount.)
OF GOD, calling for repentance and faith-deci- Mission in LukeActs is at the heart of the New
sion (1:14, 15). The kingdom refers to the in- Testament emphasis. The two should be consid-
breaking of Gods rule into history. Jesus taught ered together, for they form two volumes of a sin-
it as both present (Mark 3:27; cf. Matt. 12:28; gle story, detailing the divine plan of salvation as
Luke 17:2021) and future (Mark 1:15; cf. Luke it moves from Jesus to the early church. In fact,
21:31). The disciples are thus heralds of the king- one of the major themes of Acts is that the church
dom message, calling the lost to God. In this relives and carries on the life and ministry of
sense there is a progression of agents, from the Jesus, seen in parallels between Luke and Acts in
prophets (12:25) to John the Baptist (1:23; miracle stories, the road to Jerusalem/Rome, and
11:32) to the disciples, who from the start are the trials of Jesus and Paul. The two points of
apostles or sent ones (3:1315), to the Son continuity between the life of Jesus and the
himself (1:38; 9:37). The disciples are called from churchs mission are the temple (inaugurating
the start to be fishers of men and to leave both volumes) and the Holy Spirit (central to
everything to do so (1:1620; 10:28). Jesus warns both). Soteriology is the primary theme, with the
them to expect terrible opposition (13:913) in three major aspects coming together in Luke
their mission to the nations (13:10) but tells them 24:47REPENTANCE (25 times in LukeActs vs. 10
that their task is worldwide proclamation (3:14; total in the other Gospels), FORGIVENESS OF SINS
14:9). Jesus way is one of suffering (8:31; 9:30- (9 in LukeActs vs. 3 total in the rest of the New
31; 10:3334), and the disciples are called to imi- Testament), and proclamation of the gospel (the
tate Christ by bearing their cross with Jesus heart of Acts; see PROCLAMATION EVANGELISM). In
(8:34). One of Marks major themes is disciple- Luke we have salvation procured for the world,
ship failure (6:52; 8:1421; 9:1432; 14:27, 3241, and in Acts we have salvation proclaimed to the
5052; 16:8) but Jesus provides the answer when world. In preparation for Acts, the universal mis-
he promises to meet them as Risen Lord and sion is even more emphasized in Luke than in the
overcome their weaknesses (14:28; 16:7). In the other Synoptic Gospels, as in: (1) Simeon calling
midst of failure to understand and remain faith- Jesus a light of revelation for the Gentiles (2:32);
ful, the disciple in mission is promised the pres- (2) 3:46, Luke adds to the Isaianic voice in the
ence of the Risen Lord. wilderness (Isa. 40:34) the statement in 40:5,
Matthews mission theme is built upon Marks And all mankind will see Gods salvation;
but expands several emphases. At the outset, (3) Jesus inaugural address of 4:1827, which
there is an antinomy. Matthew has the greatest concludes with a turn from the Jews to the Gen-
emphasis on particularism, that the mission is tiles (vv. 2527); (3) Jesus deliberate ministry to
only for the Jews (10:5, 6; 15:24). At the same Gentiles (7:1f.; 8:26f.; 17:11f.); (4) Jesus stressing
time, the Gentile mission is given an important Gentile openness (7:9; 11:3032; 13:29).
place from the start, as the Gentile Magi are the All this comes to fruition in Acts, as the mis-
first to come (drawn by a divinely sent star) to sion is launched in two stages, Jesus resurrection
worship the newborn Messiah (2:1f.). In short, command (1:8) and the coming of the Spirit to
Matthew is a salvation-historical chronicle of the launch the mission (2:112). Yet it takes time for
movement of Gods plan of salvation in three the church to understand Gods will. They appar-
stages: from the mission of the prophets (23:37; ently understood Jesus in terms of the Old Testa-
cf. 21:3436; 22:36) and John the Baptist ment centripetal approach (see OLD TESTAMENT
(3:112; 11:714) to the mission of Jesus that is THEOLOGY OF MISSION), for they remained in
the core of the first Gospel to the mission of the Jerusalem, seemingly waiting for the Gentiles to
disciples to the nations that concludes the Gospel come to them. The Spirit had to force them out
683
in a series of steps to the Gentile mission, first in Father and the Son (15:26) into the new age
the PERSECUTION following STEPHENs manifesto begun by Christ. (3) The followers of Jesus be-
(8:13), then Samaria (8:425) and the Ethiopian come sent ones (17:18; 20:21) and continue the
eunuch (8:2640), followed by the conversion of mission to the world. In the resurrection com-
Paul, the missionary to the Gentiles (ch. 9), and mission of 20:2123, they are sent by the entire
finally the conversion of Gentile Cornelius (ch. Godhead and filled with the divine presence. Fur-
10). At each stage, supernatural leading was evi- thermore, they continue Jesus function as judge
dent. The missionary journeys demonstrated sev- (5:22, 30; 8:1516; 9:39) in verse 23, for as the
eral themes: evangelism and follow-up; flexible world responds to their mission, whatsoever
methods demonstrating sensitivity to culture; sins you forgive are forgiven, and whatsoever sins
home-based church planting methods; the CON- you retain are retained.
TEXTUALIZATION of the gospel for both urban and Mission Theology in Paul (see also PAUL AND
rural settings; and primarily the centrality of the MISSION). It is difficult to capture the message of
empowering presence of the HOLY SPIRIT. Acts so voluminous and deep a thinker as Paul. Virtu-
might better be entitled The Acts of the Holy ally everything in his ministry and writings
Spirit through the Apostles. It is the work of the touches on the concept of mission, so all we can
Spirit that is carried out by the church, and the do is highlight key aspects. Before the Damascus
Spirit sends, guides, and empowers the human road experience, Paul was a committed Jewish
agents in carrying out Gods mission. particularist, and so his conversion completely
An important subsidiary element in LukeActs reversed his direction in life and all that he stood
is the ministry of Jesus and the church to the out- for. Pauls commission to mission came in three
casts. Luke wants to show that the kingdom stagesthe voice of Christ (Acts 26:1618; cf.
completely reverses all earthly mores, and so Gal. 1:1516), the confirmation of Ananias (9:15),
shows that Jesus and the disciples are especially and a later vision in the temple (22:21). From
oriented to the poor and the oppressed, as in the that time Paul viewed himself as a pioneer mis-
quotation from Isaiah 61:12 in the inaugural ad- sionary with a global rather than local vision
dress of Luke 4:1819, The Spirit of the Lord . . . (2 Cor. 10:1516) who sought to bring the gospel
has anointed me to preach good news to the to those who have not heard (Rom. 10:14).
poor. . . . This continues throughout Lukes Those brought to Christ were his joy and crown
Gospel (1:5153; 3:1114; 6:2026; 12:1333; (1 Thess. 2:19) and the seal of my apostleship in
16:8b13, etc.) and Acts (2:4445; 4:3235, etc.). the Lord (1 Cor. 9:2). Yet evangelism was not his
The debate between EVANGELISM and SOCIAL RE- sole purpose; he strongly felt the responsibility to
SPONSIBILITY in modern missions would be a false disciple those converted (following the GREAT
one for Luke. For him, to have one without the COMMISSION), so he followed up on his churches
other produces a truncated gospel. by visit and letter (in this sense all his epistles are
Mission in John has often been overlooked. follow-up!) and continually dealt with problems
Several recent studies have shown that mission is in his churches.
at the heart of Johns purpose, which was Pauls mission strategy begins with his concept
twofoldto bring unconverted Jews to Christ, of revelation. God has revealed his plan of salva-
and to involve the church in Gods mission. Let tion and enacted it in the sacrificial death of his
us begin with the chain of revelation intro- Son. This message must now be proclaimed
duced above. (1) In the prologue Jesus is called (Rom. 10:1415). The gospel is not just a mes-
the Word (1:1, 2, 14), which means he is the sage to be preached; it is the light of God shining
living revealer of the Father; to meet Jesus is to in a world of darkness (2 Cor. 4:36), an eschato-
encounter the presence of God. As such he is also logical revelation of that mystery hidden from
the sent one (stressed over thirty times in the the foundation of the world (Rom. 11:25;
Gospel), which means he is the shaliach or 16:2526; Eph. 3:26). Mission is thereby an es-
envoy of God to the world (105 of the New chatological unfolding, a culmination of the di-
Testaments 185 occurrences are in John). His vine intent from eternity past. In its united mis-
task is to call the world to faith-decision, stressed sion the church manifests the manifold wisdom
in three word groupsbelieve (98 times), of God to the cosmic powers, telling them in ef-
know (two words used 141 times), and see fect that they have lost. This victory is based
(five verbs used 114 times). Gods universal upon the sovereignty of God and upon the cos-
salvific love (1:4, 7, 9; 3:16) has brought salvation mic reconciliation of all things in heaven and
to the world and called it to respond to the new earth achieved by Christ (Col. 1:1920). Accord-
life (66 times in John) in Jesus. (2) In the ing to Colossians 2:15 Christ achieved this vic-
farewell discourse, the Holy Spirit as the para- tory after the cross when he disarmed, tri-
clete (the best translation is probably Advocate) umphed over, and made public display
is also a sent one, being given or sent twice by (imagery of the Roman triumph) of the evil
the Father (14:16, 25) and twice by the Son POWERS. The church participates in this recon-
(15:26; 16:7). He will carry the witness of the ciling and triumphant work by proclaiming the
684
hope of the Gospel to every creature under countrya heavenly one (11:10, 16). This means
heaven (Col. 1:23). The universal mission is the a willingness to bear the disgrace (Christ) bore
great mystery of God, and it needs the focus and (13:13). The contribution of Hebrews to a mis-
priority of the people of God. sion theology deals with the negative side, rejec-
For Paul eschatology, Christology, and soteriol- tion and persecution, as the people of God wit-
ogy intertwine. The redemptive-historical act of ness through suffering.
God in Jesus is the basis of mission. All of history First Peter is also written to a suffering church,
points to the life and sacrificial death of Christ on and like Hebrews it calls for believers to consider
the cross as its mid-point. The sin and guilt themselves called by God to be temporary visi-
brought about by Adam have now been expiated tors and resident aliens on this earth (1:1, 17;
by the gracious gift of Christ (Rom. 5:1221), 2:11). The message of this book is that the mis-
leading to the justification of the sinner (Rom. sion, when conducted in the midst of terrible
3:2126). The creeds and hymns of the early hostility, calls upon the believers to witness via
church reflect upon the humiliation/exaltation of exemplary lives of goodness. The theme is given
Christ (Rom. 1:34; Eph. 1:314; Phil. 2:611; in 2:12: when the pagans slander you as being
Col. 1:1520; 1 Tim. 3:16), and the unbeliever evildoers, let your conduct so shine that they ob-
participates in this via faith-decision and confes- serve your goodness, are convicted by it, and
sion (Rom. 10:910). This gracious and merciful glorify God in the day of visitation (see also
act of God provides the content of mission. Paul 2:15). Glorify God means they are converted
believed strongly in a contextualized message and then glorify God at the last judgment. Peter
and strategy in which the missionary became all then shows how this works out in the three pri-
things to all people in any area not contrary to mary relationships Christians haveto govern-
the gospel in order to win some (1 Cor. ment (2:1317), to master-slave (2:1825) and
9:1923). He adapted his message to reach the then wife-husband (3:17) relationships. Christ is
people where they were, centering on fulfillment the model for a proper reaction to hostility, for he
of Scripture for Jews (Acts 13:1643) and upon refused to retaliate and instead entrusted himself
natural revelation for Gentiles (see Acts 14:1418; to God (2:2124). So his followers must also be-
17:2231). come models of faith and goodness when the
Mission Theology in the General Epistles. world turns against them (4:19). That is their
The General Epistles do not all center upon mis- mission. For Peter mission is an eschatological
sion. Some are primarily pastoral, like James, journey, done in light of the blessings of salvation
2 PeterJude, or the Johannine epistles. The two (1:312; 2:410) and at all times looking forward
that contain mission principles are Hebrews and to the culmination of mission in eternity (1:4;
1 Peter. Hebrews defines itself as a word of ex- 3:22; 4:7). With this in mind, in spite of persecu-
hortation (13:22), a pastoral homily addressing tion the people of God are always ready to re-
a church tempted to return to Judaism due to spond to queries with gentleness and a life that
persecution. There are two primary themes, proves the validity of the gospel (3:1516).
christology (the superiority of Christ) and soteri- Mission Theology in Revelation. Many have
ology (the pilgrimage theme). God is the one who said that there is no mission in this book, since it
completes his revelatory acts by speaking deals with cosmic war and the end of human his-
through his Son, the culmination of his plan tory. However, a close study shows a distinct and
(1:13). Indeed, all of Scripture points to fulfill- profound message. The major theme of the book
ment in him. Thereby he is superior to the angels is the SOVEREIGNTY OF GOD, and in the cosmic war
(1:42:18), to Moses and Joshua (chs. 34), to the the sub-theme is the futility of SATAN. Divine con-
priesthood (chs. 57), and to the covenant, sanc- trol is subsumed in the verb was given which
tuary, and sacrifices (ch. 810). Christ is not only occurs often in two key passages, the four horse-
the Son exalted to the right hand of God (1:23; men of the Apocalypse (6:2, 4, 8) and the coming
8:1; 10:12) but also has authority over this cre- of the Beast (13:5, 7). This verb tells us that God
ation (1:2, 8, 10) and the angelic orders (1:9). (the giver) is in control of the forces of evil. They
Christ alone has made salvation possible by his can do nothing without his permission. More-
once for all sacrifice (9:12, 2628; 10:1014). He- over, everything Satan does is merely a parody or
brews does not discuss a mission to the Gentiles, great imitation of what God has already done
but there is a witness theme. Like the heroes of perfectly, such as the mortal wound healed
the faith in chapter 11, who witness with their (= resurrection), the mark of the beast (= God
sacrificial lives (12:1), and like Jesus, who is the sealing the saints), the false trinity of 16:13. Ar-
final model of those who are willing to resist to mageddon is not the great defeat of Satan. It is
the point of shedding blood (12:24), believers actually his final act of defiance, for the war was
are called to a life of pilgrimage. They must run won by the slain Lamb on the cross (the pre-
the race (12:12) and consider themselves dominant title of Christ in the book).
strangers in this world (11:9, 13), oriented not Mission is the outgrowth of the activity of the
to the present but to a future reality, a better slain Lamb, and it is far more predominant than
685
has often been thought. In fact, Richard Bauck- The purpose of the fundamental, nondenomina-
ham (1993; 238337) has noted that the conver- tional, faith mission: to reach new tribes until
sion of the nations is a major theme of the book. the last tribe has been reached. Its goal: to
The nations are not just predestined to judg- evangelize unreached tribal groups, translate the
ment but are called to repentance. In fact, 14:67 Scriptures, and plant indigenous New Testament
shows that one of the purposes of the seals, trum- churches. Fleming started NTM because other
pets, and bowls is not just to pour out JUDGMENT agencies refused to accept mission candidates he
but to prove Gods sovereignty over the earthly felt were qualified spiritually. Such agencies re-
gods (the trumpets and bowls are built upon the quired a high level of formal education and
Egyptian plagues of Exodus) and thus to pro- monthly support, restricted the number of chil-
claim the eternal gospel and call the nations to dren, and placed age limits. Fleming felt God can
fear God and give him glory. The earthdwellers use anyone and supply their economic needs by
reject that offer and refuse to repent (9:20, 21; faith, as long as they are channels for Him to
16:9, 11, though the refusal shows the call to rework through. Forged under Flemings philoso-
pentance was real), but apparently some do re- phy, including a strong sense of urgency, NTM of-
pent and give glory to the God of heaven in fered spiritually qualified candidates opportunity
11:13. Moreover, the nations produce those pur- to participate in holistic tribal ministries.
chased by the blood of Christ (5:9), worshipers Presently, the international agency based in San-
before God (15:4), the multitude standing be- ford, Florida, is composed of 3,199 missionaries
fore the throne in 7:9, and the saints who bring from 28 countries. Members work in 200 language
their glory and honor into the New Jerusalem groups in 27 countries. Translators have completed
(21:2426). 26 New Testaments with over 100 in progress.
The saints are militant during the Great Tribu- Church planters have planted over 770 churches.
lation not by fighting back (13:10) but by witness- Twenty-five training centers exist in 11 countries to
ing through their perseverance and their procla- motivate and mobilize missionary candidates. Two
mation of the one true God. The use of lamp- missiological contributions that have broadened
stands for the church (1:12, 20) may well symbol- beyond NTM include Steffens phase-out exit strat-
ize its witnessing activity, and the WITNESS theme egy for church planting, and McIlwainss compre-
is central to the book. Jesus as the faithful wit- hensive Chronological Teaching story model used
ness (1:5; 3:14) is the model, and the saints are for evangelism and follow-up.
called to the interdependent perseverance and The agency has faced numerous trials over the
witness. As seen often above, witness leads to PER- years. In 1944, the death of five martyrs chal-
SECUTION, and the mission of the church via mar- lenged the fledging agency. More martyrs, forest
tyria (witness) ends in MARTYRDOM, as in 12:11 fires and lost lives, potential splits, plane crashes
where the believers conquer the dragon by the (one of which claimed the life of Fleming), criti-
word of their testimony in that they did not love cisms from anthropologists, and recent captivi-
their lives so as to shrink from death (see also ties created a resolve to remain true to the stated
6:9). It is clear that the people of God are pictured purpose and goal. Today, as founding leaders
as engaged in missionary activity even as they are pass the baton to others, a mission-wide evalua-
hunted down by the forces of the Beast, and that tion is under way to discern training needs for
some respond to their witness and have their reaching twenty-first-century tribal people.
place in the eternal city. TOM A. STEFFEN
GRANT. R. OSBORNE Bibliography. J. D. Johnson, God Planted Five Seeds;
Bibliography. R. Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy: K. J. Johnston, The Story of New Tribes Mission; T. McIl-
Studies on the Book of Revelation; D. J. Bosch, Transfor- wain, Firm Foundations: Creation to Christ; T. A. Stef-
mation Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission; fen, Passing the Baton: Church Planting That Empowers.
A. Glasser, Kingdom and Mission; F. Hahn, Mission in
the New Testament; R. E. Hedlund, The Mission of the New York (1900). See ECUMENICAL MISSIONARY
Church in the World: A Biblical Theology; A. Ksten- CONFERENCE.
berger, The Mission of Jesus and the Disciples According
to the Fourth Gospel; W. J. Larkin and J. F. Williams,
eds., Mission in the New Testament: An Evangelical Ap- New York Missionary Conference (1854). See
proach; P. T. OBrien, Gospel and Mission in the Writings UNION MISSIONARY CONVENTION.
of Paul; D. Senior and C. Stuhlmuller, The Biblical
Foundations for Mission. New Zealand (Est. 2000 pop.: 3,759,000; 270,534
sq. km. [104,453 sq. mi.]). New Zealand consists
New Tribes Mission. Paul Fleming, a zealous of two large and many smaller islands in the
evangelist serving in Malaysia, returned reluc- southwest Pacific, similar in land area to Japan.
tantly to the United States due to sickness in the The main islands run 1,000 miles from northeast
early 1940s. This seeming setback resulted in the to southwest and are very mountainous with ac-
formation of New Tribes Mission (NTM) in 1942. tive volcanoes in the North Island and the South
686
New Zealand Mission Boards and Societies
Island divided by the southern Alps. The popula- presence among recent Asian migrants. Ecu-
tion is 3.76 million. Thirteen percent are Maori, menism has resulted in significant cooperation
the indigenous settlers, nearly 80 percent are of between denominations without achieving church
European descent, the majority having British union. The impact of Pentecostalism and the
ancestry, 5 percent are Pacific Islanders, and charismatic movement has reinvigorated evangel-
there is a growing Asian population. ical Christianity while mainline church member-
The first missionaries came from the Anglican ship has declined overall since the mid-1960s. De-
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY in 1814 under the spite the nominal Christian adherence of many
leadership of SAMUEL MARSDEN with the support New Zealanders the country is very secular.
of Ruatara, a Maori chief. After initially empha- ALLAN K. DAVIDSON
sizing civilization as a preparation for evangelism
the mission concentrated on evangelization and Bibliography. A. K. Davidson, Christianity in
peace-making. Methodists arrived in 1822 and Aotearoa: A History of Church and Society in New
Zealand; A. K. Davidson and P. J. Lineham, Transplanted
initially worked closely with the Anglicans. The Christianity: Documents Illustrating Aspects of New
first official baptism was in 1826. Maori evangel- Zealand Church History; P. Donovan, Religions of New
ists and the impact of LITERACY played a signifi- Zealanders; R. Glen, Mission and Moko: Aspects of the
cant role in the expansion and acceptance of Work of the Church Missionary Society in New Zealand
Christianity in the 1830s and 1840s. The transla- 18141882; P. J. Lineham, Religious History of New
tion of the New Testament was completed in 1837 Zealand: A Bibliography.
and the whole Bible in 1868. Roman Catholic
French Marist missionaries arrived in 1838 led by New Zealand Mission Boards and Societies.
Bishop J. B. F. Pompallier. Protestant missionar- Anglican CMS, Wesleyan Methodist, and French
ies played a significant role in the signing of the Catholic Missions predate the annexation of New
Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 between Maori chiefs Zealand by Britain and the signing of the Treaty
and the British Crown, which resulted in New of Waitangi in 1840. The involvement of mission-
Zealand becoming a British territory. aries in the negotiations contributed to Maori ac-
The rapid growth of European migration after ceptance of the treaty and to Christian concern
1840 brought considerable pressure on Maori about the abuse of Maori rights by the British
land, resulting in the emergence of the King settlers and government. Christianity developed
movement with its assertion of Maori sover- in distinct settler and Maori streams, but sensi-
eignty. War in the 1860s led many Maori to reject tivity to issues of mission at home such as these
missionary Christianity and identify with new re-
increasingly informed convictions about Chris-
ligious movements which drew heavily from the
tian mission overseas.
Old Testament and their own culture. The move-
In 1841 an error in Bishop Selwyns letters of
ment led by Te Whiti and Tohu in the 1870s and
appointment gave him jurisdiction in the Pacific
1880s combined prophetic utterances with pas-
and led to the formation of the Melanesian mis-
sive resistance. T. W. Ratanas healing movement
after the First World War developed both reli- sion. Interest in Chinese in the Otago gold fields
gious and political dimensions and by 1926 from the 1860s led to Presbyterian mission in
claimed 20 percent of Maori. Anglicans ap- Canton. Presbyterians were also involved in Van-
pointed a Maori bishop in 1928 but he had lim- uatu and later in India and Southeast Asia, par-
ited powers. The churches operated along assim- ticularly in medicine and theological education.
ilationist lines. In the 1980s and 1990s Anglicans The New Zealand Baptist Missionary Society
and Methodists, in particular, recognized greater began in Dunedin in 1885 and still maintains
Maori autonomy and committed themselves to work in Bangladesh. The Church Missionary So-
bicultural PARTNERSHIP. ciety of New Zealand was founded in 1892 and by
The settler churches, with Anglicans the largest, 1992 had sent out 280 missionaries to 24 coun-
followed by Presbyterians, Roman Catholics, tries. Open Brethren missions began in Argentina
Methodists, and others such as Baptists, Congre- in 1896. By 1996 some 800 Brethren missionaries
gationalists, and the Salvation Army, reflected had gone to over 50 countries. In 1922 the inter-
their British and Irish origins. Colonial Christian- denominational Bible Training Institute was
ity faced the challenges of pluralism, sectarian- founded with an emphasis on missionary train-
ism, and secularization. Evangelicals were coming. The period after World War II initially saw
mitted to the transformation of society through growth in overseas involvement, but over time
individual conversion and moral reformation there was a reduction in length of service, a ta-
with attention to prohibition, Sabbath obser- pering off of denominational missions, and the
vance, and religious education in schools. Over- multiplication of evangelical agencies, many
seas missionary interest has been a significant linked to international groups based in North
dimension of the New Zealand churches almost America and Britain. Founded in 1982, Servants
from the beginning. Christianity flourishes to Asias Urban Poor provides a contrasting model
among Pacific Islanders and there is a vibrant of holistic mission as a New Zealand initiative.
687
New Zealand Mission Boards and Societies
New Zealand churches have shared in world- ary to India. Lesslie Newbigins work and accom-
wide moves toward ecumenism and the realiza- plishments demonstrate leadership in mission
tion that Christianity is now a global, multicul- theology and the ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT. After
tural religion without a dominant culture defining ordination and commissioning as a missionary in
its theology. While older denominational boards 1936 by the Church of Scotland (though English
have often been sensitive to the realities of a post- by birth and education), he served for almost
colonial world, including the complex demands of four decades in India. An architect of the church
genuine PARTNERSHIP, some appear weaker in union that resulted in the Church of South India
their commitment to evangelism. Many, but not (CSI), he became one of its initial bishops (1947).
all, evangelical societies have a commitment to In 1959 he took the assignment to be the general
social ministries, though few are comfortable secretary of the INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUN-
with political issues. CIL at the time it was heading toward integration
Mission boards and societies generally no into the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES. Upon inte-
longer have a monopoly on firsthand stories gration in 1961 at New Delhi, he became associ-
about social need and religious change in remote ate general secretary of the WCC and director of
societies. In an electronic age the power that the newly established Division (later Commis-
such information gave has gone forever. Not sur- sion) of World Mission and Evangelism, serving,
prisingly supporters of mission have a wide range in that capacity, as the editor of the International
of perceptions of the needs of the world. Review of Missions. In 1965 he returned to India
Historically women have served in large num- and served as the (CSI) bishop of Madras. In
bers as missionaries, and as supporters through 1974, he returned to England to teach mission
denominational groups such as the Presbyterian theology at Selly Oak Colleges in Birmingham
Womens Missionary Union. Today feminist con- until 1979, during which time he wrote his major
cerns seek to redress the lack of recognition for work on mission theology, The Open Secret.
womens contribution to world mission, and re- Thereafter he fostered in the churches of the
ject models which still reflect values of patriarchy West a sense of the missionary encounter of the
and dominance. gospel with their own culture.
In 1997 there were some seventy mission agen- A prodigious author, Newbigin published nu-
cies involved in supporting Christian mission out- merous articles and more than thirty books. Half
side New Zealand, about ten of which were de- of the latter deal explicitly with his own engage-
nominational. Roman Catholics participate ments with the two primary mission contexts of
internationally through missionary orders. New his life, India and the West. The rest are critical
Zealand Pentecostals share in the spontaneous
reflections on the missional issues facing all
commitment of the worldwide movement. Angli-
churches. His major contribution was to articu-
can Partnership-in-Mission structures provide for
late a rationale for mission in the culturally and
diocese to diocese links throughout the world.
The contribution of migrant Polynesian and Asian religiously plural world of the late twentieth cen-
Christianity to mission from New Zealand is tury. Grounding his reasoning in the biblical ac-
likely to prove important. New Zealands role as a count of the character, actions, and purposes of
place of international theological and mission ed- God, he has been an apologist both for the
ucation is still developing. Influence is impossible gospel, defending belief within a postmodern
to quantify, but anecdotal evidence points to context, and for the Christian mission, providing
greater awareness of what can be done with mod- confidence to those who give witness to the
est resources, a distrust of ideologies, a somewhat unique revelation of God in Christ.
pragmatic theology still finding its own roots, an GEORGE R. HUNSBERGER
eclectic spirituality and a willingness to relate Bibliography. L. Newbigin, The Household of God;
across boundaries which the New Zealand Chris- idem, Unfinished Agenda: An Autobiography; idem, Fool-
tian experience regards as unimportant. ishness to the Greeks: The Gospel and Western Culture.
JOHN ROXBOROGH
Bibliography. A. K. Davidson, With All Humility and Nicaragua (Est. 2000 pop.: 5,169,000; 130,000 sq.
Gentleness: Essays on Mission in Honor of Francis km. [50,193 sq. mi.]). Nicaragua is the largest of
Foulkes, pp. 4150; S. L. Edgar and M. J. Eade, Toward the Central American countries. During much of
the Sunrise. The Centenary History of the New Zealand the twentieth century Nicaraguans lived under
Baptist Missionary Society; R. Glen, Mission and Moko.
Aspects of the Work of the Church Missionary Society in
the dictatorships of three generation of Somozas.
New Zealand, 181482; Mission Internet (NZ) Directory of In 1979 the Sandinistas gained control of the
Mission and Training Agencies; G. Trew, ed., Looking government after a bloody civil war. The 1980s
Back/Forging Ahead. A Century of Participation In Over- saw the rise of U.S.-supported subversion in the
seas Mission by New Zealand Brethren Assemblies. form of the Contras. Violeta Chamorro won the
presidential election in 1990 and governs the
Newbigin, (James Edward) Lesslie (190998). country, although the Sandinistas are still a
British churchman, culture scholar, and mission- strong political force.
688
Nida, Eugene A.
The Roman Catholic Church makes up about (Pera), and Grupo de Convergencia, and the
79 percent of the population, although many Movimiento Evanglico Popular (MEP), founded
Catholics are quite nominal in their participa- in 1992. The evangelical movement in Nicaragua
tion. There are three rival factions within the is demonstrating its maturity in maintaining its
Catholic Church: the conservative traditionalists, emphasis on both evangelism and social concern.
the more politically active base communities, and LINDY SCOTT
the worship-centered charismatics.
Protestant influence in the eastern seaboard of SEE ALSO COMIBAM.
Nicaragua dates back to the 1670s, when the
British assumed a protectorate over the Miskito Nicholson, William Patteson (18761959).
Indian kingdom. Moravian missionaries arrived Irish international evangelist. Born in Bangor,
at the town of Bluefields in 1849. By 1852 an County Down, he was an apprentice seaman at
English Protestant Church had been estab- fifteen, then worked on a railway construction
lished in San Juan del Norte (Greytown) gang in South Africa before returning to Belfast.
The Central American Mission began work in He was suddenly converted in 1899 and studied
Nicaragua in 1900 and encountered both opposi- at Glasgows Bible Training Institute (19013).
tion and success. As a result of COMIBAM, a He stayed in Scotland as an evangelist with the
COMITY agreement assigned Nicaragua to the Lanarkshire Christian Union (19038). He then
Baptists, and they extended their work in Man- joined Chapman and Alexander in their Aus-
agua, Masaya, Diriamba, and Len. In addition tralian and North American missions (190810),
to their many churches, they also founded the settled with his family in Pennsylvania, was or-
Colegio Bautista (1916) and a hospital (1930). dained as an evangelist in the Presbyterian
There are more than 120 Protestant denomina- Church (1914), and joined the staff of the Bible
tions working in the country, and they constitute Institute of Los Angeles.
about 22 percent of the population. The over- In 1920 he returned to Ireland and conducted
whelming majority of these evangelical Chris- a series of missions in Ulster that brought thou-
tians belong to Pentecostal denominations, such sands into the kingdom at a time of serious in-
as the Assemblies of God, the Apostolic Church, tercommunal strife. A robust preacher haunted
the Church of God (Cleveland), and the Church by the thud of Christless feet on the road to
of the God of Prophecy. The largest non-Pente- hell, he was in 1926 an unlikely last-minute sub-
costal denominations are the Moravians, the Sev- stitute at Cambridge for a sick missioner, but
enth-Day Adventists, various groups of Baptists, about one hundred students professed conver-
the Brethren in Christ, and the Nazarenes. sion. In his latter years Willie Nic preached on
A major turning point in the growth of Protes- four continents, and died just before his pro-
tant work in Nicaragua came after the earth- jected retirement. He wrote On Towards the Goal
quake that rocked the country on December 23, (1925), The Evangelist (1937), and Gods Hell
1972. Evangelicals banded together under the (1938).
CEPAD organization (Comit Evanglica Pro- J. D. DOUGLAS
Ayuda a los Damnificados) to minister to those
who had lost homes and loved ones. As a result, Bibliography. S. W. Murray, W. P. Nicholson: Flame
for God in Ulster.
an increasing number of Nicaraguans became
evangelicals. For example, the Assemblies of God
Pentecostal denomination entered the country in Nida, Eugene A. (1914 ). American premier
1912 but only had fifty members in three congre- linguist and translation consultant. At an early
gations by the 1930s. They had grown to 150 age Nida committed his life to Christ and was
churches in 1979, and during the following called to missionary work. His first contact with
decade they began two hundred additional modern linguistics and Bible translation came
churches. Other denominations have experienced the summer of his graduation from U.C.L.A.,
similar growth. when CAMERON TOWNSEND invited him to attend
The civil strife of the past three decades has left the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL). Each
the country polarized into different factions. The summer from 1937 to 1953 Nida returned to the
evangelical churches are no exception. Those SIL to teach. In 1943 he completed his Ph.D.,
churches sympathetic to the Sandinista goals are was ordained, married, and joined the staff of the
involved in EDPAD, CIEETS, and/or the Baptist American Bible Society (ABS). He was the asso-
Theological Seminary. Other churches have cho- ciate secretary for versions (194446) and then
sen to form more conservative coalitions. More executive secretary for translations.
recently, evangelicals have been influential in the Nidas ABS work involved travel to more than
formation of politically diverse parties, and seventy countries. The volume and significance
movements such as the Partido de Justicia Na- of his writing are phenomenal, especially in the
cional (PJN), founded in 1991, the short-lived face of his grueling travel and lecture schedule.
Partido Ecumnico de Rehabilitacin al Agraviado His writings fall roughly into four chronological
689
Nida, Eugene A.
phases: descriptive linguistics (194351; Mor- the folk variety today. Ethnic diversity has diluted
phology, 1949); cross-cultural communication traditional Islamic solidarity, with government
(195260; Message and Mission, 1960); transla- policy and society currently resisting militant
tion (196173; Towards a Science of Translation, Islam.
1964; and The Theory and Practice of Translation, The more than one hundred evangelical
1969); and semantics (1974 ). churches are experiencing steady growth, in spite
One of Nidas greatest contributions to mis- of a waning period of division. The SOCIETY FOR
sions was the development and popularization of INTERNATIONAL MINISTRIES (SIM; 7 ethnic ministry
DYNAMIC EQUIVALENCE translation, which seeks to teams) and the Evangelical Baptist Church have
capture the meaning and spirit of the original been in the country since the 1920s, while other
without being bound to its linguistic structure. missions have entered in recent decades. Recent
This approach to translation is highly influential directions in outreach include media, an indige-
in modern BIBLE TRANSLATION work. nous missionary training center, community and
STEPHEN HOKE youth centers, AIDS awareness, and new transla-
Bibliography. E. M. North, On Language, Culture
tion projects. Indigenous missions from Nigeria
and Religion: In Honor of Eugene A. Nida, pp. viixx. have made increasing commitments, now num-
bering more than 20 missionaries.
KENNETH J. BAKER
Niger (Republic of Niger) (Est. 2000 pop.:
10,805,000; 1,267,000 sq. km. [489,189 sq. mi.]).
Niger is a large, arid, landlocked country on the Nigeria (Est. 2000 pop.: 128,786,000; 923,768
southern edge of the Sahara, a region called the sq. km. [356,667 sq. mi.]). The West African na-
Sahel. The Niger River passes through the capi- tion of Nigeria, a country comprised of some
tal city, Niamey. Consisting primarily of high- 250 ethnolinguistic groups, is the most popu-
lands and sandy plains, a southern strip of arable lous country in Africa. The south is the most
land supports 90 percent of the population (10.8 densely populated. While the majority live in
million). Currently, Nigers economy rests on ani- rural areas, urbanization is increasing. Although
mal husbandry and subsistence farming of the the country is well-endowed with natural and
main staples: millet, sorghum, and rice. One of human resources, it is among the worlds twenty
the worlds poorest countries, Niger ranks last (of poorest countries. There are twenty-five univer-
165 countries) in International Monetary Fund sities with many Nigerians also trained over-
economic stability. seas, yet the literacy rate remains at 30%.
Niger was once the largest net exporter of ura- Though a secular state, Christianity (50%) and
nium until world demand plummeted in the Islam (40%) are the major religions, with 10%
1980s. Devastating drought and famine in 197274 still adhering to traditional religions. Evangeli-
and 198485 (which significantly curtailed the no- cals are 15% of the population.
madic tradition of the Fulani and Tuareg peoples) Islam arrived via the north in the eleventh and
interrupted ambitious government development fifteenth centuries. Modern Christianity was intro-
plans and rendered the country even more de- duced on the coast in the early nineteenth century
pendent upon foreign aid. by Anglicans, Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians,
Nigers sixteen ethnic peoples are divided into and Roman Catholics. Freed slaves were instru-
five principal language groups: Tamajaq (Tuareg), mental in securing this initial success. One of
Fulfulde (Fulani), Kanouri, Hausa, and Songhai- them, SAMUEL CROWTHER, became the first African
Djerma. Historically, much of western Niger was to become an Anglican bishop. His method com-
part of the vast Songhai Empire. Following earlier bined the gospel with education and commerce.
treaties, Niger joined French West Africa in 1922, Sudan Interior Mission, Sudan United Mission,
becoming independent in 1960. The first president, and the Anglicans penetrated central and northern
Hamani Diori, was overthrown in 1974 whereupon Nigeria in the late nineteenth century under the
a military government, primarily under the popu- leadership of RONALD BINGHAM, KARL KUMM, and
lar Col. Seyni Kountche, ruled until single-party Walter Miller. A combination of medical work and
presidential elections in 1989. A new multiparty education was employed, especially in central
Constitution was established in 1992 and a tenuous Nigeria, where indigenous converts were key
democracy governed until another military coup in agents in the further spread of the gospel in central
January 1996 prompted most donor nations to sus- and northern Nigeria.
pend their aid indefinitely. Of Nigerias thirty-seven years of independence
Though a constitutionally secular state, Niger only nine have been under civilian rule. The re-
is largely Islamic, with ISLAM claiming 90.5 per- sulting political instability has led to economic
cent of the population. Another 9 percent is ani- depression due to mismanagement and corrup-
mistic, .5 percent Christian, with evangelicals tion. In the process the nation acquired a $28 bil-
comprising 0.2 percent. Islam came to the sub- lion debt with little to show for it. To these factors
Sahara in the ninth century, and is essentially of one should add Islamic pressure and multi-
690
Nigerian Mission Boards and Societies
ethnicity as major factors affecting the develop- ented Development of ECWA, Almanah Rescue
ment of Christianity in Nigeria today. Nigerian Mission (ARM), Urban Frontier Mission (UFM),
Muslims are belligerent and pressure from Islam and the Mennonite Central Committee who are
has had a significant effect on the color of Niger- working with the indigent.
ian Christianity. During the constitutional review Some churches are involved in theological edu-
in 1978 Muslims struggled unsuccessfully to in- cation. Although education in Nigeria was started
troduce Sharia law into the Constitution. In the by missions the development of theological insti-
late 1980s Muslims went on successive rampages tutions has not kept pace with secular education.
in the north, burning churches and killing many Of these theological institutions the majority offer
Christians. Muslim heads of state have collabo- a diploma. Very few offer masters degrees. No
rated with Islamic groups to clandestinely enlist evangelical school awards a doctorate.
Nigeria in the Islamic Conference Organization. There are still foreign missionaries working
Concern over such events led to the formation of alongside churches in theological education,
Christian Association of Nigeria. This association medical work, and development where the
unites all Christians against Islamic-oriented po- church does not have enough specialized person-
litical domination. nel. Foreign missionaries serving as partners will
Around independence in 1960 many of the mis- always be welcome, government policies permit-
sion churches came under indigenous leadership. ting, because the church belongs to Christ.
Despite allegations by some church historians that Despite the number of Christians, churches,
the conversion of many is not genuine the subse- and organizations the church is not making
quent growth of the church has averaged 8.33% much impact upon society. Corruption is ram-
per annum. The majority of new churches, such as pant in society and many Christians in public life
the Deeper Life Bible Church, and Living Faith cannot be distinguished from unbelievers. Lack
Ministries, are Pentecostal/charismatic in nature. of theological depth in the church is another lim-
There are also syncretistic groups which to vary- itation. While the church is growing fast, it lacks
ing degrees are more inclined to traditional reli- maturity. The poor economic state and lack of
gions than to Christianity. Such independent biblical teaching contribute to the recent resur-
groups as the Aladura, Cherubim and Seraphim, gence of witchcraft and syncretistic practices.
and Celestial Church of Christ were born out of Nevertheless, Nigerian indigenous missions
discontent with mainline denominations and their have many prospects. Some 120 unreached peo-
supposed inability to be contextually relevant. ple groups still exist in the country. If Nigerias re-
Part of the new growth has been through sources were properly harnessed, evangelicals
Nigerian missionary societies. Denominational could effectively evangelize the nation and the
societies such as Evangelical Missionary Society
entire continent. Evangelical churches need to
(EMS) of the Evangelical Church of West Africa
cooperate with one another to advance the cause
(formerly led by PANYA BABA), Church of Christ in
of Christ. Divisions are exploited by Muslims to
Nigeria Community Mission (CCM), the United
advance Islam. The Nigeria Evangelical Fellow-
Missionary Organization (UMCA), Baptists,
ship could do more to bring evangelical Chris-
Foursquare Gospel Church, and non-denomina-
tians together.
tional societies such as CAPRO, Christian Mis-
Urban mission is a critical need in Nigeria.
sionary Foundation (CMF), and Nations for
Christ Missionary Organization (NCMO) have Lagos, with 11 million people, is the second most
missionaries serving both within and outside densely populated city in the world. There is a
Nigeria. New Life for All (NLFA), an interdenom- dearth of evangelical churches in many cities. For-
inational lay movement, led for many years by eign missionaries could play a key role in evangel-
the late Paul Gindiri, is instrumental in spread- izing the growing international communities in
ing the gospel among Muslims in the north. The Lagos, Abuja, Kano, and other metropolises.
Great Commission Movement, the Nigerian IFES The role of womens fellowship groups in the
(the largest student movement in the world), the growth of the Nigerian church is indispensable.
Fellowship of Christian Students (FCS, Scripture Traditionally Nigerian women have not been sent
Union (SU), and others are working with stu- out as missionaries. In the future the church has
dents and creating mission awareness. to incorporate them. Men, however, need to be
Some of the churches, including ECWA, mobilized to action and young people deeply
COCIN, Roman Catholics, and Lutherans, are in- rooted so that they are not swayed by the latest
volved in holistic ministry. The role of the church heresies. There are great prospects for the church
in these areas is increasingly important with the but we are at an historical watershed. The nature
collapse of national health and educational sys- of the future depends on the decisions made today.
tems due to the economic depression. There are BULUS GALADIMA
also Christian nongovernmental organizations
such as Christian Rural and Urban Development Nigerian Mission Boards and Societies. In 1842
Association of Nigeria (CRUDAN), People Ori- Protestant missions came to what was to become
691
Nigerian Mission Boards and Societies
Nigeria. From the beginning, it was recognized agencies, support agencies, and specialized min-
that most of the work would have to be done by istries (e.g., childrens and student work).
Africans. The Anglican CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCI- Today many of the independent agencies run
ETY (CMS) got many workers from among the res- their own missionary training programs. The
cued slaves settled in Sierra Leone. The Metho- larger denominations have tried to incorporate
dists used Ghanaians, and the Presbyterians had missionary training into their existing theological
West Indian missionaries. As local converts were education.
won, most foreign missions trained and sent out The number of Nigerian missionaries contin-
local evangelists as quickly as possible. Many of ues to grow. In 1992 there were 2,873 missionar-
these worked in cultures not their own. ies from Nigeria, of whom 1,259 were doing
Most notable among the early African mission- cross-cultural work. Most Nigerian cross-cultural
aries working with the CMS was SAMUEL ADJAI missionaries work in less-reached Nigerian
CROWTHER. He set up and supervised the Niger tribes, though there are about 250 working in
Mission, which worked along the Niger River other countries.
from the delta to the confluence with the Benue The Roman Catholics have a college for train-
River, ministering to at least five language ing Nigerian missionary priests. Some of the less
groups. He recruited rescued Africans from orthodox African Independent Churches of Nige-
Sierra Leone as staff. Crowther worked within ria send missionaries to the Nigerian communi-
the framework of the CMS, and the Niger Mis- ties in Western lands and some to non-Christian
sion developed into regular Anglican dioceses. Nigerian peoples.
Today the Anglican Church in Nigeria has its Nigeria has 50 percent of the population of
own mission-sending structure. West Africa and 85 percent of the regions evan-
In 1949 the Sudan Interior Mission, now the gelicals. This makes it a strategic sending nation
SOCIETY FOR INTERNATIONAL MINISTRIES, helped the for the evangelization of West Africa.
churches they had founded to set up their own LOIS FULLER
missionary-sending body, the African Missionary Bibliography. L. D. Pate, From Every People: A Hand-
Society. Its name was changed to the Evangelical book of Two-Thirds World Missions.
Missionary Society (EMS) upon the organization
of the Evangelical Churches of West Africa in Niijima, Jom (184390). Japanese educator and
1953. The oldest and largest Nigerian mission church leader. Born in Edo (later Tokyo), he left
agency, the EMS has over a thousand workers in for Hakodate, and then became a stowaway on a
several African countries, Britain, and the United ship headed for the United States, in order to fur-
States. ther his knowledge of Western culture. This took
The Nigerian Baptists have been sending mis- courage, for it was a capital offense to go abroad
sionaries to Sierra Leone for many years. They without permission, since Japan had tried to seal
have also worked in the less-reached areas of itself off against foreigners. In America, Niijima
Nigeria. Other notable denominational missions was befriended by an American Christian busi-
are the mission departments of the Church of nessman, Alpheus Hardy, who supported his
Christ in Nigeria, Assemblies of God, Gospel studies at Phillips Academy, and in honor of
Faith Mission, and Deeper Life Bible Church. whom he sometimes styled himself Joseph
Deeper Life had seventy-two missionaries in Hardy Neesima. Becoming an ardent Christian,
thirty-two nations in 1992. he prepared for the ministry at Amherst College
Campus revivals in the 1960s and 1970s led to and Andover Seminary. He was asked by the
the founding of Nigerias first nondenominational Japanese government to accompany the Iwakura
mission societies. Calvary Ministries started with Mission to study Western education as a transla-
educated young people in Zaire in 1975. By 1996 tor, for which he would be absolved for breaking
they had over two hundred workers serving in the law in leaving the country. From this trip, Ni-
nineteen Nigerian ethnic groups and ten other ijima formed the goal of founding a Christian in-
African countries. The Christian Missionary stitution of higher education that would guide
Foundation started in Ibadan in 1982, and by Japans future course. Eventually supported in
1992 had fifty-five missionaries in at least eight this by the American Congregational Church, he
Nigerian tribes and nine other countries. Many returned to Japan in 1874 and set about founding
smaller mission agencies continue to be formed. his Christian school, the Domshisha (the com-
In 1982, nine Nigerian mission organizations mon-purpose association), in Kyoto, just north
banded together to form the Nigeria Evangelical of the former Imperial Palace. Beset by ill health,
Missions Association (NEMA). Their joint proj- Niijima continued to work for the strengthening
ects include raising mission awareness, research, of the new Japanese Congregational churches,
and missionary training. There were over thirty- and his struggling Domshisha, until his death in
five agencies in NEMA by 1996. Members in- 1890.
clude independent agencies, denominational JAMES M. PHILLIPS
692
Niue
Bibliography. J. D. Davis, A Sketch of the Life of Rev. gospel not only northward to the Grampians, but
Joseph Hardy Neesima; R. H. Drummond, A History of also south to England and over the sea to Ireland.
Christianity in Japan; A. S. Hardy, Life and Letters of The work Ninian began was continued in the
Joseph Hardy Neesima. sixth century by COLUMBA and Mungo. Here, too,
the chronology has been challenged, but we do
Niles, Daniel Thambyrajah (190870). Indian know that by the Middle Ages Whithorn was well
church leader and evangelist. Born near Jaffna, known as a place of pilgrimage.
Ceylon, as a fourth-generation Christian, Niles J. D. DOUGLAS
was an active churchman, ecumenical leader, and
evangelist. As an Asian church leader Niles Bibliography. W. D. Simpson, Saint Ninian and the
Origins of the Christian Church in Scotland.
played a significant role in the development of
the ecumenical movement in which he was active
during four decades and to which he contributed Nitschmann, David (16961772). German mis-
a blending of Eastern and Western thought. sionary to the Caribbean. Born in Zauchtental,
From 1953 to 1959 he was executive secretary of Moravia, he and his family in 1724 joined a
the Department of Evangelism of the WORLD colony of refugees that was taken in by Count
COUNCIL OF CHURCHES (WCC). At the time of his NIKOLAUS LUDWIG VON ZINZENDORF at his estate in
death he was executive secretary of the East Asia Herrnhut, Saxony. In 1727 a revival broke out at
Christian Council (EACCof which he was a Herrnhut, and out of it sprang the MORAVIAN mis-
founder), president of the Methodist Church of sionary movement.
Ceylon, and one of six presidents of the WCC. Nitschmann, thirty-five, and Leonard Dober,
Niles was ever an evangelist and preacher, ex- thirty-one, facing ridicule and opposition, walked
plicitly Christocentric in faith and practice, a to Copenhagen and then sailed for St. Thomas,
pragmatic Methodist. He emphasized the procla- West Indies, on October 8, 1732. Zinzendorf had
mation of the gospel, not polemics. To Niles, the simply told them to do everything in the spirit of
rationale for evangelism stems from the unique- Jesus. They had no prior examples to follow and
ness of Christ. According to LESSLIE NEWBIGIN, no society behind them. On arrival they found
Niles was above all an expositor of the Bible. He the family of the slave Anthony, whose visit to
is best known today through at least seventeen Herrnhut had inspired the Moravians missionary
books that he wrote as well as the EACC hymnal vision in the first place. They preached the gospel
he edited. Among his better known books are to the slaves who gathered around them. The
Preaching the Gospel of the Resurrection (1953), Moravians labored fifty years in the West Indies
The Preachers Task and the Stone of Stumbling and had baptized 13,000 converts before any
(1958), Upon the Earth (1962), The Message and other mission arrived there. As the first bishop of
Its Messengers (1966), Buddhism and the Claims the Moravian Brethren in Germany (consecrated
in 1735), Nitschmann was instrumental in the
of Christ (1967), Who Is This Jesus? (1968).
opening of twenty-eight fields by 1760. He died
ROGER E. HEDLUND
on one of those fieldsBethlehem, Pennsylvania.
Bibliography. C. L. Furtado, The Contribution of Dr. JIM REAPSOME
D. T. Niles to the Church Universal and Local; C. Lacy,
ML, pp. 36270; L. Newbigin, DEM, pp. 72931. Bibliography. K. Hamilton, History of the Moravian
Church, 17221957; J. Weinlick and A. Frank, The
Moravian Church Through the Ages.
Ninian (c. 360c. 432). Early missionary to
Britain and Scotland. Of his life and ministry
Niue (New Zealand Dependent Area). (Est. 2000
among the Southern Picts surprisingly little is
pop.: 2,000; 260 sq. km. [100 sq. mi.]). Located
known for certain, and even the dates given
300 miles east of Tonga and 350 miles southeast
above have been challenged. Bede the historian
of Samoa, Niue is an uplifted coral atoll 36 miles
says Ninian went to Rome, where he received
in circumference. Called by James Cook Savage
theological training, papal encouragement, epis-
Island, its Polynesian inhabitants initially re-
copal consecration, and a commission to evan-
jected European and missionary contacts. De-
gelize his homeland. His return trip reportedly
clared a British protectorate in 1900 it was an-
took him through Gaul, where he was warmly
nexed to New Zealand in 1901 and in 1974
welcomed by fellow bishop MARTIN OF TOURS, pi-
became a self-governing territory in free associa-
oneer of monasticism in the Western Church,
tion with New Zealand. Three-quarters of its pop-
who gave Ninian both spiritual counsel and prac- ulation belong to the Ekalesia Niue (formerly
tical assistance. LMS), 10% are Mormons, and the remainder
Ninian established his base at what is now mainly Roman Catholics, Seventh-Day Adven-
Whithorn in southwest Scotland. There he built a tists, and Jehovahs Witnesses.
stone church known as Candida Casa (the White ALLAN K. DAVIDSON
House). A monastery was founded, and from this
training center Ninian and his preachers took the SEE ALSO Polynesia.
693
Niue
Bibliography. Institute of Pacific Studies, Niue: A nominal Christians: Those who (1) attend church
History of the Island. regularly, worship devoutly without any relation-
ship with Jesus Christ; (2) attend church regu-
Nobili, Robert de (15771656). Italian mission- larly, but for cultural reasons; (3) attend church
ary linguist in India. De Nobili was born into a only for major church events; (4) hardly ever at-
wealthy family in Montepulciano, Italy, and in tend church but maintain a church relationship
1597 joined the Roman Catholic monastic order for reasons of security, emotional or family ties,
the Society of Jesus, despite resistance from his or tradition; (5) have no relationship to any spe-
relatives. cific church and never attend but consider them-
De Nobili asked to be sent to India as a Jesuit selves believers.
missionary, arriving on the Fisher Coast in 1605. A nominal Christian may be unconverted ac-
There he spent several months studying Tamil be- cording to biblical criteria. Reasons for nominal-
fore moving on to Madura, the hub of Tamil cul- ity can be classified as theological (i.e., leadership,
ture. Few converts were being won in Madura, local church, and cultural misunderstandings) or
especially among the higher-caste Brahmins. De historical (i.e., traditions taking precedence over
Nobili saw that the Hindus despised the Por- vital faith). The missiological challenge is to move
tuguese for their foreign customs of eating meat nominal Christians toward genuine conversion
and drinking wine. The Indians equated Chris- and a vibrant, personal relationship with Christ.
tian conversion with becoming Portuguese, a no- MIKEL NEUMANN
tion reinforced by the missionaries. Bibliography. E. Gibbs, In Name Only: Tackling the
Probably aware of the innovative methods of Problem of Nominal Christianity; Lausanne Occasional
fellow Jesuit MATTHEO RICCI in China, de Nobili Paper No. 23, Thailand Report: Christian Witness to
decided to assume the identity of a Brahmin, Nominal Christians Among Protestants.
adopting the local wardrobe and diet as well as
some of the customs. An outstanding linguist, he Nommensen, Ludwig Ingwer (18341918). Dan-
applied himself to mastering Tamil, Sanskrit, and ish missionary to Indonesia. The son of a dike-
Telugu, eventually writing more than twenty lock attendant, Nommensen was born on the is-
books and other materials in these languages. land of Nordstrand in Schleswig. Escaping injury
Perceiving him to be a European holy man, many despite a serious accident, he decided to become
locals began coming to his new dwelling in the a missionary and joined the Rhine Missionary So-
citys Brahmin section, where he explained Chris- ciety in Barmen. In 1862 he traveled to Barus on
tianity, debated religious issues, and discussed the northwest coast of Sumatra. In 1864 he began
the errors he had found in Hinduism, as well as work among the Toba Batak, who were independ-
its similarities with Christianity. He died in My- ent of the Dutch crown colony. His respect for in-
lapore, penniless and nearly blind. digenous social structures earned him trust, as
Notoriety continues to follow de Nobili. While did his desire to win the people in their own lan-
some fault his theology and claim his contextual- guage with a humble and patient attitude.
ized approach perpetuated the class distinctions In 1874 Nommensen translated Luthers Small
still blighting the church in India, many more Catechism into the Batak language, followed by
rank de Nobili with Ricci and FRANCIS XAVIER as the New Testament in 1878. He also allowed the
among the greatest missionaries of his era. Batak a church polity that was contextually ori-
STANLEY M. GUTHRIE ented. In 1881 Nommensen became director of
Bibliography. M. Amaladoss, BDCM, pp. 49899; the Rhine Mission to the Batak. When he ex-
J. H. Kane, A Global View of Christian Missions; tended his efforts to include the southern coast of
S. Neill, HCM; R. Tucker, FJIJ. Lake Toba, church growth advanced so rapidly
that entire clans were baptized. Nommensen was
Nominal, Nominal Christian. While nominality awarded an honorary doctorate by the theologi-
is usually described rather than defined, the Lau- cal faculty of the University of Bonn for his serv-
sanne Committee has defined nominal Protestant ices as the leader of the Batak church, and in
Christians as those who, within the Protestant 1911 he received the Officers Cross from the
tradition, would call themselves a Christian, or be Royal Dutch Order of Orange-Nassau. Nom-
so regarded by others, but who have no authentic mensen died in 1918 in Sigumpar in Sumatra.
ROLF HILLE
commitment to Christ based on personal faith.
Nominality is an acknowledged problem in Bibliography. N. DeWaard, Pioneer in Sumatra: The
second and succeeding generations of Christians Story of Ludwig Nommensen; L. Schreiner, Mission
who have lost the joy and fervor of the new birth. Studies 9:2 (1992): 24151.
E. Gibbs gives two pathways to nominality: those
who belong to the church but no longer believe Non-Church Movement (Japan). One of the dis-
and those who believe but no longer belong. The tinctly indigenous expressions of Protestant
Lausanne Committee identified five types of Christianity in Japan today is the Mukyokai or
694
Nonresidential Missionary
non-church movement. It was founded by Introduction of Marxist ideologies in many coun-

KANZO UCHIMURA (18611930), a devoted follower tries created an unprecedented set of circum-
of Jesus who was at the same time intensely stances that often coerced peoples to resist the
Japanese in his loyalties. Inevitably he became a gospel and to accept, or at least practice, various
vocal critic of Western denominationalism be- forms of atheism.
cause of what he regarded as its unwarranted el- Identifying the worlds distinct religiosocial
evation of human leaders, its promotion of fac- groupings of peoples, primarily by linguistic cri-
tionalism, and its penchant for superimposing teria, has aided researchers in specifying the na-
Western values on Japanese Christians. Uchimura ture of the task remaining for fulfillment of
was a Luther-like apologist for the biblical faith Christs commission to preach the gospel to all
and a genuine promoter of social righteousness. the peoples of the world. Technological advances
Although his spiritual experience began within enable mission strategists to gather data more ef-
Western denominationalism, its sectarian and ec- fectively, assess the implications of that data
clesiastical rigidities soon drew him to possible more precisely, and envision new ways and
association with Quaker simplicity and its non- means of penetrating resistant blocs of peoples.
sacramental view of church ordinances. This led In 1986, a team of Southern Baptist Foreign
him to abhor both congregational organization Mission Board researchers coined the term non-
and formalism in liturgy and polity, creeds and residential missionary to describe a radically
dogmas. Eventually the Mukyokai movement new mission methodology. Nonresidential mis-
emerged. It is significant that no form of Chris- sionaries function in innovative ways in that they
tianity has been more prolific in its literature and often begin their ministry outside the indigenous
more relevant to the educated elite in urban locale of a distinct people group, or designated
Japan. It is devoid of anything approximating a population segment, that is historically resistant
local or national federation of assemblies. No to, or perhaps even left untouched by, the gospel.
Sunday schools or systematic instruction of youth While living outside the target area, they commit
are permitted, no offerings are taken, and no themselves to strategic research, language learn-
sacraments are administered. All public witnessing, and discovery of new avenues for establishing
ing by an ordained or professional clergy is es- contact with decision makers inside the target
chewed. The Mukyokai movement is devoid even area. They usually do not rely on the resources of
of church buildings. Despite this, Uchimura pro- just one agency or denominational sending struc-
duced a religion of the spirit that is distinctly ture to penetrate their resistant people or popula-
Japanese through and through. In the mid-1950s tion segment. Instead, they coordinate like inter-
Emil Brunner reported that he felt that the non- ests among various Christian entities and
church movement represented the cream of orchestrate a collective but focused strategy to es-
Japanese Christianity, vital and biblical in the very tablish legitimate humanitarian bases for entry
best sense. The movement has plateaued of late, into the targeted area.
and tends to be currently regarded as just another Once the nonresidential missionary establishes
Christian sect. a viable foundation for working in the targeted
ARTHUR F. GLASSER context, the host government may grant a long-
Bibliography. W. H. H. Norman, IRM 46 (1957): term presence. Teams of qualified people able to
38093. render and administer humanitarian services in-
directly engage in evangelism, discipleship, and
Nonresidential Missionary. Strategic mission church planting ventures through the web of so-
planners of bygone eras historically tended to cial relationships they are able to establish with
neglect the sections of the world that were more individuals from their assigned people group.
resistant to the gospel, with a few notable excep- It is at this point that the term nonresidential
tions. Antagonistic zones have become more im- may lose its meaning because of an indefinite
penetrable, especially since the end of World presence in the targeted area. Because of this fre-
War II. A nonresidential missionary, however, has quent occurrence, some mission agencies relabel
the responsibility of discovering ways to identify the model to reflect more accurately the function
and evangelize historically resistant and UN- a nonresidential missionary performs, namely,
REACHED PEOPLE groups, or population segments, the coordination of various strategic initiatives
with the intent of establishing a viable movement among Christians aimed at reaching an un-
of Christian churches among them. reached area or people with the gospel and es-
In the wake of the Western colonial era, emerg- tablishing a viable Christian presence.
ing national governments dissolved legal re- KEITH E. EITEL
straints on precolonial, indigenous religious Bibliography. D. B. Barrett and T. M. Johnston, Our
movements. Blocs of Islamic, Hindu, Buddhist, Globe and How to Reach It: Seeing the World Evange-
and tribal peoples renewed and reasserted them- lized by AD 2000 and Beyond; V. D. Garrison, The Non-
selves against external religiosocial influences. residential Missionary: A New Strategy and the People It
695
Nonresidential Missionary
Serves; idem, IJFM 9 (1992): 6769; M. S. Philemon, cultural workers sent out by approximately 1,600
IJFM 8 (1991): 14146. non-Western agencies or organizations in Africa,
Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. This growth
Non-Western Mission Boards and Societies. As has continued, while in the West missionary re-
people in countries around the world were evan- cruitment and deployment have either plateaued
gelized and incorporated into a worshiping group or declined.
of believers by missionaries, one of the natural re- Types of Agencies. The missionary activities of
sults was the development of missionary outreach the Two-Thirds World can be classified as struc-
from these newer churches. Similar to their coun- tured or unstructured. The unstructured groups
terparts in Europe and North America, believers consist of believers who spontaneously proclaim
in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania devel- the good news of Christs love without any formal
oped their own missionary-sending vision and ef- organization to define and direct their activity.
forts. Like those of the Western countries, these The Quechua Movement for Christ in Bolivia, the
efforts required missionary-sending organizations Tzeltal Christians and Chol Indian Church of
with explicit policies and procedures. Mexico, the Apostolic Church of Ghana, and the
Terms. There have been several labels for this Chinese Christians in Burma are examples of ef-
development. The phrase Third World Missions fective unstructured missionary endeavors. Re-
was borrowed from political economics (see ceiving encouragement from colleagues and
THIRD WORLD). Many from Africa, Asia, Latin church leadership, those members of the group
America, and Oceania felt, however, that Third who have an evangelistic vision reach out spon-
World Missions implied third-class missions. As taneously, often to a neighboring village or town
this was not the intention, Non-Western Mis- of another culture. Finances come from friends
sions was suggested, a particularly good re- or tentmaking activities; training and pastoral su-
placement to describe those in Asia, since most pervision are often minimal.
of their cultures are non-Western. However, the Within the Two-Thirds World, however, most of
peoples in Latin America consider themselves the missionary activity is structured. There are
just as Western as those of North America, so this national officers or directors, a system for raising
term also had its deficiencies. and maintaining financial support, and methods
Emerging Missions was used to describe the to coordinate the evangelistic outreach of work-
arising army of new missionaries from countries ers hundreds of miles from the central office. The
that traditionally had received missionaries, yet agencies vary greatly in character, but are united
now sent workers as well. The term was not by the fact that they are formally organized. They
meant to imply that the emerging movement was are usually led by a charismatic communicator,
completely new. For records as early as the 1820s while the vast majority of workers are from the
tell of missionaries like Joshua Mateinaniu, who ethnic group or nation conducting the outreach.
planted churches by traveling from one Pacific is- There are large denominational agencies, like
land to another. What the term actually intended the Burma Baptist Convention and the Diocesan
to convey was that this phenomenon had recently Missionary Association of the Church of the
become better documented and in this sense was Province of Kenya (Anglican). On the other hand,
emerging. there are large nondenominational agencies, like
The current term is Two-Thirds World Mis- the Friends Missionary Prayer Band in India and
sions, a more accurate representation of the re- Mission Amen in Peru. There are agencies that
source God is now mobilizing for his kingdom; the maintain their main office close to the field of
countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Ocea- service rather than in the home country, for pur-
nia constitute nearly two-thirds of the worlds poses of recruitment and fund raising, for in-
inhabited land mass and at least that fraction (if stance, Project Magreb, a Latin American agency
not more) of the worlds population (see TWO- located in Spain. And there are hundreds of
THIRDS WORLD). Although Two-Thirds World Mis- smaller agencies that operate along family lines:
sions is the more popular term today, the other employees at the home office are family mem-
labels continue to have some use in describing this bers, and the missionaries are either friends of
extremely significant development. the family or relatives.
Growth. In 1972, the first year the worldwide Problems. In the Two-Thirds World, mission
activity of the emerging missions was reviewed, agency problems are virtually the same as those
there were an estimated 2,951 missionaries sent anywhere. Funding the work and adequately
out by 368 agencies and organizations. Similar training workers remain critical concerns for
systematic research was carried out in 1980 and prayer and resolve. One of the ways in which
1988 and coupled with various regional studies. newer agencies have learned to handle some of
The results indicated that non-Western missions these difficulties has been to participate in conti-
and agencies were growing more than five times nent-wide or international conferences on global
faster than their counterparts in the West. By the missions. Another way they have learned about
mid-1990s, there were an estimated 88,000 cross- mission structure and administration has been
696
North American New Religious Movements
from nationalized structures that are related to groups that are too small or secretive to be stud-
international agencies. Youth with a Mission, Op- ied. Thus, 1,500 to 2,000 is a reasonable estimate
eration Mobilization, New Tribes, Wycliffe, and a of the number of NeRMS in North America.
host of other agencies of European or North The term NeRMS lacks precise definition.
American origin have been sources of encourage- The differences among NeRMS in North America
ment and education for newer groups. are enormous and it cannot be assumed that a
The future of global missions clearly lies with characteristic of one movement applies to others.
the Two-Thirds World agencies and missionaries. However, these movements share at some level
Like those that preceded them, they are not almost, if not all, of the following general charac-
ways without cultural bias and limitations. Yet if teristics. NeRMS are innovative in doctrine,
the gospel message is to continue to move into all worldview, forms of religious expression, and so-
nations, it will in large measure be the work of cial arrangements. They tend toward an empha-
very committed missionaries from the churches sis upon subjective experience and focus upon
and agencies of the Two-Thirds World. meeting personal needs. NeRMS are character-
LARRY E. KEYES ized by strong charismatic leadership; the group
attributes to the leader the capacity for extraor-
Bibliography. D. J. Cho, New Forces in Missions;
dinary insight, revelation, and authority. NeRMS
D. E. Clark, The Third World and Mission; M. L. Nelson,
The How and Why of Third World Missions: An Asian tend to be separatistic, aiming for not only a dif-
Case Study; idem, Readings in Third World Missions: A ferent vision of society but a different model for
Collection of Essential Documents; L. D. Pate, From society. They tend to be more holistic than con-
Every People: A Handbook of Two-Thirds World Mis- ventional religious bodies, with higher levels of
sions; idem, The Last Age of Missions: A Study of Third conformity and commitment.
World Mission Societies; J. Richard, Asian Church Lead- NeRMS in North America fall into three broad
ers; T. Williams, World MissionsBuilding Bridges or categories: the revival of ancient religious tradi-
Barriers; J. Wong, P. Larsen, and E. C. Pentecost, Mis- tions, variations on traditional Christian themes,
sions from the Third World: A World Survey of Non-West-
and movements flowing out of the more estab-
ern Missions in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
lished religious traditions of the non-Christian
world. Many movements represent a synthesis
Norfolk Island (Australian Territories) (Est. across these category lines.
2000 pop.: 35,000; 2 sq. km. [1 sq. mi.]). Norfolk Many NeRMS that fall within the broad defini-
Island, an external territory of Australia since tion of NEW AGE are not at all new, but rather
1913, is an island in the Pacific Ocean off the east represent a modern revival of ancient and folk re-
coast of Australia. The island was originally set- ligious traditions. ASTROLOGY, one of the oldest
tled by descendants of the mutineers from the and perhaps the most universal human religious
Bounty. Forty percent of the population are Pit- expressions, plays a major role in most of these
cairnese with the rest split between Australians, groups. Gnosticism, or the belief that humans are
British, and New Zealanders. Three-quarters are capable of direct and transcendental knowledge
Christians and one-quarter are nonreligious. of God through esoteric ritualism or symbolic in-
Most of the evangelicals are found in the Angli- terpretation of Scripture, undergirds the world-
can and Methodist communities. view of many NeRMS. NEO-PAGANISM, the calling
TODD M. JOHNSON back to life of ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Euro-
pean deities, is a growing phenomenon in North
North American New Religious Movements. America. Some persons heavily invested in the
From the time of the earliest English settlements, modern feminist and ecological movements have
North America has had two religious personali- found a religious home in the neo-pagan revival.
ties. The primary personality has been broadly Many NeRMS in North America grow directly
Christian, with the clear dominance of Protestant out of more conventional Christianity. In the late
Christianity. The alter ego has been one of re- nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a num-
markable religious diversity, the home of the free ber of powerful forces swept through American
and the innovative. NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS Protestantismadventism, the Holiness Move-
(NeRMS) have been part of the American charac- ment, and Pentecostalism. These forces certainly
ter from the beginning. However, the last half of do not constitute a new religious movement, but
the twentieth century has been particularly rich in when one or more became highly intensified,
number and variety of NeRMS. The Institute for particularly under strong charismatic leadership,
the Study of American Religion identifies 1,667 groups emerged that are clearly and self-
different religious groups in North America, of consciously outside the broad American Protes-
which 836 are classified as unconventional. Of tant tradition. Branhamism, JEHOVAHS WIT-
these nonconventional movements, nearly 500 NESSES, and The World Wide Church of God are
arose after 1950. These figures do not include classic examples of this form of NeRM. In addi-
movements not defined as religious, such as est tion, there are a number of groups that began as
and primal therapy, nor does it include the many a variant of the Christian tradition, but have so
697
North American New Religious Movements
synthesized ancient or folk traditions that the long-term damage or disabilities. While it is im-
Christian aspect is little more than an overlay. portant to learn all one can about a particular
The third broad category of NeRMS consists of movement, one should treat with skepticism in-
groups that reflect the flow of established reli- formation from the movement itself or from sec-
gions into North America. The religious heritage ular anti-cult organizations. It is important to
of India has been an influential component of the maintain contact with the person involved in the
New Age phenomenon (see also HINDU NEW RELI- NeRM, fostering a good relationship of trust, and
GIOUS MOVEMENTS). Transcendental Meditation, manifesting love and care for the convert.
the International Society for Krishna Conscious- JAMES D. CHANCELLOR
ness (Hare Krishna), and ZEN BUDDHISM are the
most widely known of these movements, al- Bibliography. R. Ellwood and H. Partin, eds., Reli-
though there are many others with origins in gious and Spiritual Groups in Modern America; R. Kyle,
The Religious Fringe: A History of Alternative Religions
Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. While few
in America; R. A. Tucker, Another Gospel: Alternative Re-
movements have drawn significant numbers of ligions and the New Age Movement.
indigenous Americans as committed disciples,
their influence on the overall religious ethos of
North America is growing in significance. The North Korea. See KOREA, NORTH.
UNIFICATION CHURCH is especially significant. It
has roots in Protestant Christianity, introduced Northern Ireland. See IRELAND and UNITED
into Korea in the nineteenth century. The KINGDOM.
founder, Sun Myung Moon (b. 1920), combined
elements of Christianity with Korean folk Northern Mariana Islands (United States De-
shamanism and a Taoist worldview. (Such syn- pendent Area) (Est. 2000 pop. 51,000; 457 sq. km.
thesis is not unusual in NeRMS. There are thou- [176 sq. mi.]). A chain of 14 islands some 650
sands of such movements in Africa alone; see also km. (400 mi.) north of Guam. The population
AFRICAN INITIATED CHURCH MOVEMENT.) However, consists of 31 percent indigenous islanders, 64
in the 1970s Moon came to North America and percent Asian immigrants, and 5 percent U.S.
introduced his vision as both a NeRM and the mainlanders. The economy is dependent on
final stage in the evolution of Christianity. tourism (mainly Japanese) and U.S. aid. In 1993
Perhaps the most significant issue facing evan- it was estimated to be 83 percent Christian (10%
gelical Christians is not the what but the why Protestant, 70.8% Catholic, and 2.2% marginal),
of NeRMS. Scholarly research has developed a 10 percent Buddhist, 5 percent nonreligious, and
general profile of the convert to a NeRM. The 2 percent animist.
greater number of converts are young, usually in
their late teens or early twenties. Most are iso- A. SCOTT MOREAU
lated and unattached. The vast majority of con- SEE ALSO Micronesia.
verts are single, geographically disconnected
from family and located in a new or unfriendly
Norway (Est. 2000 pop.: 4,427,000; 323,895 sq.
environment. With the exception of ethnically
km. [125,056 sq. mi.]). Christianity came to Nor-
centered groups (BLACK MUSLIMS, SANTERIA),
way in the ninth century from the British Isles
most converts are from middle-class or upper-
and Germany. During the twelfth century the
middle-class families and are better educated
than the general population. Converts generally church was firmly established. The Reformation
have a seeking spirit but have experienced was formally introduced in 1537 when the Dan-
alienation from family, friends, or society as a ish-Norwegian king decided that Lutheranism
whole. Many converts experienced alienation and was to be the religion of the two countries. In the
disillusionment with conventional American reli- Constitution of 1814 Lutheranism was retained
gion. They are on a quest for meaning and value as the official religion of the state. The Church of
and the quest has not been satisfied by main- Norway is still a state church, but has in many
stream American Christianity. The growth of ways become a self-governing body in line with
NeRMS is not simply the result of failure in the the general democratic development.
church, but it may be more productive to view Under the lay preacher Hans Nielsen Hauge a
NeRMS less as a threat and more as a challenge. period of revivals took place at the beginning of
A number of factors should be borne in mind the nineteenth century. They had a particular ef-
when dealing with someone involved in a NeRM. fect on common people who then established
In North America adults enjoy religious freedom. what later became free lay organizations for mis-
Forcible deprogramming is illegal, unethical, sion at home and abroad. The revivals occurred
based upon faulty assumptions about mind con- within the state church as reform movements. As
trol, and is much more likely to do harm than a result the lay organizations have in many ways
good. It is indisputable that the vast majority of functioned as have the free churches in other
converts leave NeRMS voluntarily and few suffer countries (e.g., Sweden).
698
Norway
The Church of Norway has 3.8 million mem- have been baptized and 76 percent confirmed in
bers (of a total population of 4.4 million), divided the Church of Norway. About one-third of the
into 1,350 geographical parishes and 11 dioceses. adult population say they believe in Jesus as Sav-
The General Synod was instituted as late as 1984, ior, and one-fifth consider themselves personal
with 80 delegates meeting once a year. Even Christians. However, fewer than 400,000 attend
though the king remains head of the church, and church at least once a month. On a weekly basis
the government and parliament decide on the about 5 percent attend church and religious
budget, appointment of bishops, and church meetings (prayer houses). This number (220,000)
laws, the state church is enjoying an increasing constitutes what is termed the active members.
amount of freedom and independence, especially It is primarily this active membership that sup-
at the local parish level. Nevertheless, there is ports the missionary work abroad. Of the 1,500
growing opposition to the state church system Norwegian career missionaries (not including
among younger clergy and evangelical laypeople. tentmakers and team ministries, both of which
It is impossible to understand Norwegian are growing) 60 percent are women. Norwegian
church life without seeing the interwoven nature mission is active in about 75 countries (19 in Eu-
of its official and voluntary structures. This pat- rope, 14 in Latin America, 20 in Asia, and 21 in
tern has since the early nineteenth century re- Africa). Of the 650 missionaries working in
leased much spiritual energy for evangelism and African countries, 260 are in Ethiopia and Kenya.
mission at home and abroad. The first of the vol- Within the 10/40 WINDOW Norwegian mission is
untary structures was the Norwegian Missionary fairly weak. The focus on mission to Muslims is,
Society (formed in 1842). The largest Lutheran however, increasing today.
lay movement today is the Norwegian Lutheran Beginning in the early part of the eighteenth
Mission, with 500 career missionaries abroad. century with mission to the Lapps and to Green-
The Norwegian Lutheran Home Mission is the land, mission work has also in modern times ex-
oldest of the organizations evangelizing in Nor- perienced a great expansion in numbers of mis-
way, with 2,800 fellowships and hundreds of sionaries and in new working areas. Following the
prayer houses. These prayer houses, of which closure of China new work was started in Japan,
2,600 are still in existence today, were built by Taiwan, Tanzania, Indonesia, Thailand, Israel, and
laypeople in response to the revivals in the early Ethiopia. In the period after 1961 new independ-
part of the nineteenth century. Their use is, how- ent, American-inspired activities blossomed, in-
ever, today decreasing (less than one-third are cluding Aril Edvardsens support of indigenous
used weekly). Overall, the voluntary lay organi- evangelists and Norwegian branches of the Navi-
zations within the Church of Norway functioned gators, Operation Mobilization, and Youth with a
during the twentieth century as a committed op- Mission. At the same time work behind the Iron
position and reform movement in defining doc- Curtain began. Since 1974 the LAUSANNE MOVE-
trinal matters and in challenging the less com- MENT has been a strong inspiration for much Nor-
mitted sections of the church to mission and wegian mission. Coupled with worry over the the-
evangelism. The Church of Norway does not have ological and missiological developments within
its own specific mission board. Rather, the inde- the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES (when the INTER-
pendent missionary societies together carry on NATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL did not join the new
the churchs mission activity. Today these COMMISSION ON WORLD MISSION AND EVANGELISM),
Lutheran missionary societies support more than the Lausanne emphasis on evangelization, part-
1,000 Norwegian missionaries. nership, and UNREACHED PEOPLES (including Mus-
Among the churches outside the state church lims) has influenced missiology and mission
we find Methodist, Baptist, Covenant, and Luth- work in Norway. As a result new work has been
eran (there are three Lutheran free churches in the started in Kenya, Mali, Ivory Coast, Azerbaijan,
country). The largest independent churches are, and Mongolia.
however, the Pentecostals with 32,000 members Traditionally, Norwegian mission organizations
and the Roman Catholic Church with 40,000 have maintained their independence of the offi-
members (many of them immigrants from south- cial church structures for theological, missiologi-
ern Europe, Asia, and Latin America). The total cal, and economic reasons. Since 1994, however,
membership of the free churches is 200,000. Most some of the Lutheran missionary organizations
of the free churches are evangelical in doctrine have joined with the Church of Norway in a Co-
and support a strong mission movement with 500 operative Council for Church and Mission. The
missionaries (290 of them Pentecostals). aim is to promote a natural integration of mis-
Approximately 93 percent of the population is sion in congregational work by overcoming the
affiliated with Christian churches and fellow- traditional tension between the official church
ships, while 2 percent (95,000) belong to other re- and the independent movements. A major reason
ligions; 4.5 percent (195,000) have no religious for this cooperation and integration is the decline
affiliation. The proportion of people baptized and in membership and resources within some of the
confirmed is, however, decreasing: 84 percent major organizations (The Norwegian Missionary
699
Norway
Society and the Norwegian Santal Mission). The for children from poor Christian families, espe-
initiative has met with fairly strong criticism cially those in ministry. Going to the United
from parts of the lay movement. States for further studies, he earned a B.A. from
KNUD JRGENSEN Southern Methodist University, a Th.M. from
Dallas Theological Seminary in 1964, and a Th.D.
Bibliography. P. Brierley, ed., Norwegian Handbook
for Churches and Missions. from Dallas in 1969. He served as dean and pres-
ident of his alma mater, which had become the
Central American Theological Seminary, and
Ntsikana (c. 17801821). South African pioneer
continued to teach there after giving up adminis-
evangelist, composer, prophet, and missionary.
trative responsibilities in 1979. A founder of the
One of the first Xhosa to come to Christ,
Latin American Theological Fraternity, he has
Ntsikana grew up in a prominent traditional
served WEF, the Lausanne Committee, the Bible
Xhosa family during an era in which white settler
Societies, and other entities in various capacities.
encroachment on Xhosa lands resulted in dislo-
The author of seven books in Spanish, he wrote
cation and stress. Prior to his conversion, he was
Liberation Theology (1985) and Crisis in Latin
known among the Xhosa for his singing, oratory,
America: An Evangelical Perspective (1989, with
and dancing skills. Apparently as a child he heard
William D. Taylor) in English.
the preaching of pioneer missionary J. T. Van der
STEPHEN SYWULKA
Kemp, though his conversion did not come until
he received a vision as an adult (c. 1815). After
the vision, he immediately began preaching, Nuttall, Enos (18421916). English missionary
holding regular services in mornings and and church leader in Jamaica. Nuttall grew up in
evenings, unique among the Xhosa in that they a church-based family and came to faith early in
were not kinship-formed. Instruction under mis- life. Educated largely by personal study and tu-
sionary Joseph Williams from 1816 to 1818 so- toring, he was later granted honorary B.D. (1879)
lidified his biblical orientation. Ntsikana at- and doctoral degrees (1908) recognizing his ex-
tracted many hearers; the relatively few who emplary life and service.
became his disciples came from the Xhosa social Appointed a lay preacher for the Wesleyan
elite. His message to lay down spears and take up church at the age of seventeen, a growing inter-
spiritual armor through singing his hymns and est in missions in the Fiji Islands led him to Lon-
then submitting to lifes circumstances was a don where he sat under George Osborns tute-
prophetic one in distressing times for the Xhosa. lage. After three years, Osborn asked Nuttall to
He reportedly composed the first four Xhosa go to Jamaica and serve the Wesleyan Missionary
hymns. His continuing influence after death is Society (WMS), and he set sail in 1862.
seen in several ways, including the continuing in- After three years as a WMS lay missionary,
fluence of his Great Hymn (inscribed shortly Nuttalls perception that the WMS bore an un-
after his death and still sung today) and the de- Wesley-like antagonism toward the Church of
velopment of the Ntsikana Memorial Association England (CoE) eventually resulted in his applica-
(1909) and the Ntsikana Memorial Church (split tion as a candidate for ministry within the CoE.
from the United Free Church) in 1911. He was accepted in 1886, and ordained four
A. SCOTT MOREAU months later. Consecrated Bishop of Jamaica in
1880 and Primate of the West Indies in 1893,
Bibliography. J. Hodgson, Journal of Theology for Nuttall served a total of fifty-four years in Ja-
Southern Africa 58 (1987): 1831; idem, Religion in
maica. He was a prolific writer, though the bulk
Southern Africa 1: 2 (1980): 3358; idem, Missionalia
12:1 (1984): 1933; W. Saayman, Christian Mission in of his work is in his journals (comprising 19 vol-
South Africa. umes, begun in 1866), letters (over 35,000 in all),
articles, and papers.
Nuez, Emilio Antonio (1923). Salvadorian Despite bouts with severe illness, Nuttall served
theologian, educator, and writer. Born into a poor tirelessly and played critical roles ranging from
family in El Salvador, he struggled to obtain an helping to organize the Church of Jamaica after
education as a schoolteacher. Through the disestablishment from the CoE to founding edu-
woman who later become his wife, Sara cation, medical, housing, and agricultural works
Echegoyen, he came to Christ and shortly after, as well as providing a strong, stabilizing influence
in 1944, enrolled in the Central American Bible after a devastating earthquake in 1907.
Institute in Guatemala City, where after graduat- A. SCOTT MOREAU
ing he began teaching, in 1947. He was also a pi- Bibliography. F. Cundall, The Life of Enos Nuttall:
oneer radio speaker and helped found a school Archbishop of the West Indies.
700
Obedience. Obedience (literally, hearing under)

embodies the core essence of the Christian life.
Christs obedience, learned from suffering (Heb.
5:8), provides the model (Phil. 2:8) and stands in
stark contrast to Adams disobedience (Rom.
5:1718). Genuine faith results in obedience
(Rom. 1:5), and obedience convincingly demon-
strates our love for Christ (John 14:21).
The GREAT COMMISSION (Matt. 28:1920) con-
tains one command to obey (make disciples)
Oo
Occom, Samson (172392). Native American
preacher and evangelist. Born in Mohegan (near
New London, Connecticut) to a non-Christian
family, Occom came to faith at seventeen during
and then describes a disciple as one who is bap- the GREAT AWAKENING. In 1743 he began tutelage
tized and being taught to obey. Here baptism il- under Eleazar Wheelock, a Congregational mis-
lustrates the theological realities of being identi- sionary to the Iroquois. He served the Montuak
fied with Christ (Rom. 6:37) and placed into for twelve years as a teacher and minister, being
Christ (1 Cor. 12:12, 13). Thus, a disciple has ordained by the Long Island Presbytery in 1759.
been incorporated into Christ, into the invisible, In 1761 he traveled to central New York to
universal body of Christ (Gal. 3:2628) and into work among the Oneida, and in 1765 he em-
a visible, local body of believers (Acts 2:41). barked on a highly successful two-year fund rais-
Then, in the context of that local church, a disci- ing trip on behalf of Wheelocks Indian Charity
ple begins the lifelong process of being taught to School in Lebanon, Connecticut. His return to
obey everything that Jesus commanded. DISCI- Connecticut brought reverse culture shock when
PLESHIP involves teaching a lifestyle of obedience, his wife refused to adapt to British ways, and
not merely a list of facts and doctrines. further personal shock when Wheelock moved
The issue of obedience raises a significant and the school to New Hampshire and opened it to
legitimate missiological concern. When a person whites, using the money raised by Occom to
from one culture defines obedience for someone found Dartmouth College. The two separated,
from another culture, there exists the danger of and Occom fell into poverty.
cultural imperialism. Cultural rather than biblical The last phase of Occoms life was spent work-
norms may be put forward to be obeyed (e.g.,
ing to develop a town where native Americans
North American Evangelicalisms stance against
from diverse backgrounds would live and work
drinking as opposed to many European believers
in harmony. Brothertown was founded in Oneida
enjoyment of alcoholic beverages, or Western
territory after Occom secured a land grant in
forms and styles of worship as opposed to the use
of traditional African music and instruments). 1773. With the exception of the interruption of
Obedience must always be presented in the context the Revolutionary War, Occom recruited people
of supra-cultural principles, though separating the to move there, taking permanent residence him-
biblical from the cultural is often quite difficult. self in 1789. He published sermons, a hymn
Obedience may cost in every culture. The book, and one of the earliest Native American
Western believer may face ridicule and social os- autobiographies (A Short Narrative of My Life;
tracism, the loss of a job or a friend. For others, 1768). He is recognized by many as the best
obedience may carry a much higher price. In known Native American evangelist of the eigh-
many restrictive cultures or countries, the obedi- teenth century.
ence of the disciple might lead to expulsion from A. SCOTT MOREAU
the family, imprisonment, torture, and even Bibliography. N. W. Bowden, BCEB, 2:84041; M. G.
death (see MARTYRDOM). Whatever the cost, the Humphreys, ed., Missionary Explorers among the Amer-
truth remains that obedience is not optional for ican Indians; W. D. Love, Samson Occom and the Chris-
the believer. tian Indians of New England; L. B. Richardson, DAB,
RICHARD CRUSE 7:61415.
701
Occultist, Occultism
Occultist, Occultism. The SHAMAN and other ines). The original hunting-and-gathering peoples
practitioners of the occult (the term comes from of Australia and Melanesia came in the first of
the Latin for hidden or concealed) rely on se- several major waves of migrations from South-
cret techniques to gain access to the supernatu- east Asia at least forty thousand years ago. Later,
ral realm and obtain knowledge or power. Occult people with an agricultural way of living popu-
practices include ASTROLOGY, DIVINATION, reliance lated Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, as
on charms or fetishes, fortune telling (tarot their boating skills allowed them to traverse im-
cards, tea leaf reading, Ouija board, palm read- mense distances of open waters. Beginning at the
ing), MAGIC, numerology (attaching special sig- end of the eighteenth century, settlers and mi-
nificance to numbers), automatic writing (and grants from Europe and other parts of the world
speaking), seances, witchcraft (see WICCA), and so would soon form the majority of the populations
on. The practices are as varied as the cultures in of both Australia and New Zealand (whose origi-
which they are found. nal people, the Maoris, were Polynesian). Also,
Practitioners typically separate what they con- large numbers of indentured plantation laborers
sider good practices (white magic) from evil ones from India went to Fiji, and Filipinos, Japanese,
(black magic or SORCERY). Biblically, the two are and Chinese came to Hawaii.
inextricably intertwined, since the same tech- The first organized mission work in Oceania it-
niques that are used for one may be used for the self was done by Catholic Spanish missionaries
other. Occultic practices and practitioners of all and Filipino catechists in Guam and other Mari-
types are judged harshly in the Bible (Deut. ana Islands in the seventeenth century, and by
18:914). Such practices are demonic in origin, Spanish missionaries from Peru in Tahiti in the
however harmless they may appear to be on the following century. However, the first major mis-
surface, and are forbidden to the Christian. sionary movement was the fruit of the eighteenth-
Often in history people came to faith when century evangelical revival in Britainsparked by
missionaries successfully challenged the occult such great preachers as WHITEFIELD and WESLEY.
practitioners with the power of God (see POWER Through his influence and financial support,
ENCOUNTER). At the same time the missionary Thomas Haweis convinced his fellow co-founders
must be aware not just of the practices but of the of the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY (LMS) to es-
purposes they serve within the culture. For ex- tablish their first mission in the Pacific. Their
ample, people rely on the occult for protection own ship, the Duff, carried thirty missionaries in
from spirits, sorcerers, evil people, bad luck, and 1797 to Tahiti, the Marquesas, and Tonga. Tahiti,
so on. Those who come to Christ and give up oc- although abandoned for a short time in 1808,
cult protection need appropriate Christian sub- would become the base for the LMSthe first
stitutes to help them face their fears. Without sustained Christian missionary activity in the
such substitutes, they may return to the occult. South Sea islands (Gunson, 1978, 12). JOHN
Those who fear spirits or sorcerers need to know WILLIAMS, their most famous missionary of this
how to use prayer to exercise the authority they early period, and others sent out Polynesian evan-
have in Christ. Those who fear bad luck need to gelists, who laid the foundation for the evange-
understand Gods sovereign and loving control lization of Oceania (Douglas, 1986, 23).
over the universe. Creative application of the The LMS was soon joined by others. An evan-
truths of God to the needs of the people is an im- gelical Anglican mission was established in 1814
portant component of missionary work among by the CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY (CMS) in New
occultists. Zealand under the direction of SAMUEL MARSDEN,
A. SCOTT MOREAU who greatly influenced the early stages of evan-
gelical missionary work throughout Oceania.
Bibliography. D. Burnett, Unearthly Powers; R. En- CMS established the first mission among the
roth, NTCERK, pp. 6067; G. Van Rheenen, Communi- Maoris of New Zealand and stimulated further
cating Christ in Animistic Contexts. missionary outreach by the Anglican churches of
New Zealand and Australia.
Oceania. Oceania is one of the most Christian- Congregational missionaries from the AMERI-
ized areas of the world. In a brief period of two CAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MIS-
hundred years, Christianity has spread across the SIONS in Boston arrived in Hawaii in 1820 and
vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Consisting of eventually expanded into Micronesia. English
approximately 25,000 islands, Oceania extends Methodists of the Wesleyan Missionary Society
from Easter Island on the east to Palau on the established a base in New Zealand in 1820, and
west; from Hawaii and the northern Mariana Is- contributed to the missionary movement from
lands on the north to Australia and New Zealand Tahiti and Hawaii westward across the Pacific
on the south. into Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji. The MORMONS
Traditional society in Oceania is usually di- began in present-day French Polynesia in 1844,
vided into four main cultural areas: POLYNESIA, and the Seventh-Day Adventists came to the Pa-
MICRONESIA, MELANESIA, and Australia (Aborig- cific around 1890.
702
Oceania
After recovering from the effects of the French Mission began its work among Solomon Islands
Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, the Catholic sugar plantation workers in Australia, and then in
Church in France began sending members of 1904 changed its name to South Sea Evangelical
newly founded missionary societies to the Pacific Mission and, based on the CHINA INLAND MISSION
in the 1830s. The Congregation of the Sacred model, extended its missionary outreach to the
Hearts of Jesus and Mary, or Picpus Fathers, Solomon Islands.
worked in the eastern area of Oceania, and the New Guinea, the largest island in Oceania, was
Marists in the central. On many of the islands the last to be approached by missionaries. By the
where Protestant missionaries had already begun end of the nineteenth century, only the coastal
working, there was competition between Catholics area had been touched. Appropriately the LMS,
and Protestants. However, Christianity was estab- the pioneer missionaries of the Pacific, began on
lished through the initial contacts of Catholic mis- the south coast in 1871, and MSC on Yule Island
sionaries in such places as the islands of Man- in 1885. When the British established a protec-
gareva and the Marquesas of present-day French torate on part of New Guinea in 1884, it was the
Polynesia, and in Wallis and Futuna of western first case in Oceania of a colonial government
Polynesia. taking the initiative to invite missionariesin
The history of Christianity in Oceania in the this case, the Methodists and Anglicans from
nineteenth century is unfortunately scarred by Australia. Germany annexed the northeastern
tensions between Protestant and Catholic mis- part of the island in 1884 and one Catholic and
sionaries and churches. This situation was aggra- two Protestant missionary agencies came from
vated even further as competing colonial govern- Germany: the Society of the Divine Word, Rhen-
ments eventually began sweeping over the Pacific ish Missionary Society, and Neuendettelsau Mis-
and in varying degrees favored their own sion Society.
France the Catholics and Britain the Protestants. By 1900, Christianity was just beginning in
Around 1850, primary missionary efforts Melanesia, but in the rest of Oceania national
began shifting to western Oceania, especially churches for whole island groups were estab-
Melanesia. In contrast to Polynesia where Chris- lished and sent out their own missionaries. Pa-
tianity was often accepted en masse with the con- cific islanders played a major role in the world
version of their king or other hereditary leaders, missionary movement (cf. Tippett), as did the
missionaries faced a much different situation in young immigrant churches of Australia and New
Melanesia, consisting of many, smaller competi- Zealand.
tive social and linguistic units with a more fluid As for the issue of mission and politics, mis-
style of achieved leadership by elders, or big sionaries in eastern and central Oceania had ar-
men. In addition to these linguistic and cultural rived before the colonial powers and were very
challenges, a number of missionaries died due to influential in precolonial political developments.
sickness and attacks by the islanders, who often Most missionaries did not initially favor colonial
identified the missionaries with the behavior of annexation, but many later changed this stance.
labor-recruiters, traders, and colonial officials Eventually, Tonga would be the only island na-
the great wave of outsiders invading their tion to avoid colonial rule. In Melanesia, mis-
world and forcing them to jump directly from the sionaries for the most part arrived after colonial
Stone Age into modern times. While their inten- annexation.
tions and approaches were very different, mis- The years between 1900 and 1942 marked a pe-
sionaries and Christianity admittedly played a riod of relative stability for most island peoples
significant role in the phenomenon of social and churches and it has even been called the
change (cf. Whiteman). high point in the life and influence of South Pa-
Within this Melanesian context, the Anglican cific Christianity (Forman, 1982, 11). Although
Church of New Zealand in 1849 initiated the suc- colonial rule had somewhat curtailed the earlier
cessful Melanesian Mission under GEORGE SEL- influence of the church in island societies in east-
WYNS innovative leadership. Presbyterian mis- ern and central Oceania, other influences from
sionaries of the late evangelical revival in Scotland outside the area were not too intrusive. Move-
began in the 1850s in the Melanesian islands of ments toward establishing independent churches
New Hebrides (present-day Vanuatu). Due to his began in Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji. At this same
widely read autobiography, JOHN PATON became time, Christian missionary efforts were slowly
their most famous missionary. Around 1875, but steadily making progress in Melanesia. The
George Brown established the first missionary ef- most significant newcomer to the missionary
fort of Australian Methodists in the Bismarck field during this period was the Assemblies of
Archipelago, with Fijian and Samoan Methodists God.
also joining them. The Missionaries of the Sacred This relative tranquility was shattered in 1942
Heart (MCS), another Catholic congregation from as Oceania was engulfed in the turmoil of World
France, came to this area in 1882. In that same War II. While some of the islands were only used
year, the interdenominational Queensland Kanaka as military bases, others became combat zones. A
703
Oceania
large number of islanders and missionaries died Spanish Catholic missionaries saw a small
due to the war. Besides the upheaval to daily life measure of success in the seventeenth century.
(including missionary and church activities), However, it was not until well after British,
events surrounding the war triggered shock Protestant missionssuch as the LONDON MIS-
waves of tumultuous social change throughout SIONARY SOCIETY (LMS), the CHURCH MISSIONARY
the Pacific, which often led to the dramatic phe- SOCIETY (CMS), and the Wesleyan Methodist Mis-
nomenon of adjustment movements (cf. Forman, sionary Societystarted arriving around 1800
1982, 15463; see also CARGO CULTS). that Catholicism (increasingly French) started to
In the political arena, no sooner had colonial grow significantly. Moreover, it has been prima-
rule shifted in some islands through postwar ne- rily Protestant or independent efforts that have
gotiations, then there were initial steps toward included the work of indigenous missionaries.
political independence. A stronger call for church For example, Tahitian missionaries first took
independence followed and missionaries in gen- Christianity to Fiji under the LMS; a missionary
eral took a more supportive backseat role. The from Kiribati named Tabuia independently evan-
Pacific Council of Churches was established in gelized Nauru between 1888 and 1899; and, after
1966. Also, many new religious groups were en- a Samoan convert from Tonga had brought
tering Oceania after World War II (cf. Ernst). Christianity to Samoa in 1828, a Samoan mis-
By 1980, most of the larger churches of Ocea- sionary named Paulo helped lead two hundred to
nia had achieved independence and were sending three hundred Niueans to faith by 1852. Other
missionaries to other parts of the world. For ex- groups not long in coming to Oceania included
ample, the churches with an LMS background the Presbyterians, the AMERICAN BOARD OF COM-
are now joined together through the Council for MISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS, the Seventh-
World Mission. The Pacific is probably the most Day Adventists, and the Liebenzell Mission.
solidly Christian part of the world (Forman, A further illustration of the connection be-
1982, 227), out of which the regional concentra- tween Protestant (especially the LMS) and in-
tion of evangelicals in the Pacific (17.6% of the digenous mission efforts was the Cook Islands
Christian population) is the highest worldwide Christian Church, begun by the LMS in the
(Ernst, 1994, 11). However, Pacific Islander 1820s, which sent about seventy missionaries to
Christians are facing new challenges today as Papau New Guinea between 1872 and 1896. Also,
each generation strives to respond to the contin- an LMS seminary established in 1844 trained nu-
ual call of Gods mission. merous Samoans for evangelistic outreach. After
ROGER SCHROEDER
Tahitians had helped evangelize Samoa in the
1830s, an LMS missionary named Murray trained
Bibliography. J. A. Boutilier, D. T. Hughes, and S. W. Samoans in Tutuila, who in turn spread the
Tiffany, eds., Mission, Church and Sect in Oceania; L. M. gospel eastward to Manua.
Douglas, ed., World Christianity: Oceania; M. Ernst, Tahitian missionaries indeed have gone out all
Winds of Change: Rapidly Growing Religious Groups in over the Pacific, as have Samoans: by 1972, over
the Pacific Islands; C. W. Forman, The Island Churches
210 Samoan Congregationalists had served as
of the South Pacific: Emergence in the Twentieth Cen-
tury; J. Garrett, To Live among the Stars: Christian Ori-
missionaries, introducing Christianity to Tokelau,
gins in Oceania; idem, Footsteps in the Sea: Christianity Niue, the Gilbert and Ellis Islands (now Kiribati
in Oceania to World War II; N. Gunson, Messengers of and Tuvalu), and Vanuatu. Moreover, new mis-
Grace: Evangelical Missionaries in the South Seas, sionaries continue to be sent out throughout the
17971860; C. Miller, ed., Missions and Missionaries in Pacific and around the world. The Fijian church
the Pacific; A. R. Tippett, The Deep Sea Canoe: The Story has been sending overseas missionaries for over
of Third World Missionaries in the South Pacific; D. L. one hundred years, and Tongan missionaries
Whiteman, Melanesians and Missionaries: An Ethnohis- have gone out throughout the Pacific (e.g., to
torical Study of Social and Religious Change in the Samoa and Fiji in the nineteenth century), in-
Southwest Pacific. cluding Australia, Hawaii, and California.
Naming all of the missions and similar organi-
Oceanic Mission Boards and Societies. The zations operating in Oceania today would make
island regions of the Pacific, or Oceania, can be a rather extensive list. Some of them are as fol-
divided into three general areas: Melanesia, Mi- lows, listed (where applicable) with their dates of
cronesia, and Polynesia. Over the past two cen- establishment and grouped into identifiable cat-
turies, the Christian faith has spread throughout egories: ecumenical agencies: Pacific Conference
these approximately 25,000 islands to make of Churches (PCC, 1966); Council for World Mis-
Oceania one of the most Christianized areas in sion (formerly LMS, 1977); parachurch agencies
the world. Indigenous missionaries have played for literature distribution: The Bible Society of
an important role in the spread of the gospel the South Pacific, Lotu Pasifika Productions
throughout the Pacific, and more recently are (1973); educational institutions: Pacific Theolog-
contributing to worldwide gospel outreach as ical College (associated with the PCC, 1965), Pa-
well. cific Regional Seminary (Catholic, 1972), Chris-
704
Old Testament Prophets
tian Leaders Training Colleges; research and profound covenant love of Yahweh for his people
training organizations: The Micronesian Semi- through the parallel experiences of his own mar-
nar, Pacific Churches Research Center (1976); riage (Hos. 13, 11) and angrily reproaches the
student fellowships: Campus Crusade for Christ, Northern Kingdom for worshiping at the high
Pacific Students for Christ; womens groups: places (4:105:7).
YWCA (1974), The Girls Brigade Asia-Pacific. The social sciences and philosophical ETHICS
The continuing presence of ex-patriate mission- can illuminate in part this diligence in highlight-
aries in leadership roles is perhaps best exempli- ing the uniqueness of Yahweh (Carroll, 1992,
fied in the work of WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS, 4991, 12234). Humans create and order their
Mission Aviation Fellowship, and Christian Radio social worlds and cultures, and these contexts to
Missionary Fellowship in Papau New Guinea. a large extent determine self-understanding and
Overall, however, the international missionary perspectives on personal and communal life. RE-
community in PNG and throughout Oceania LIGION can play a significant role in this social
works largely in supporting and cooperating construction of reality by providing answers to
roles with indigenous churches and missions in the ultimate questions of existence, detailing
seeking to reach out to as yet unreached groups, rules for life and welfare, and legitimizing (or
as well as to countries throughout the world. challenging) social structures and practices
J. NELSON JENNINGS through divine revelations, symbols, and rituals.
In other words, a societys makeup, mores, and
S EE ALSO Non-Western Mission Boards and activities are impacted by its concept of God. The
Societies. prophetic struggle to clarify the nature of the per-
Bibliography. L. M. Douglas, ed., World Christianity: son of Yahweh and defend his demands, as well
Oceania; J. H. Kane, A Global View of Christian Mis- as their censure of inappropriate worship, is ulti-
sions: From Pentecost to the Present; K. Cragg, CDCWM, mately therefore a battle over Israels self-defini-
pp. 45965. tion and its vision of mission among the nations.
The Demand of Justice. The emphasis within
Old Testament Prophets. The message and min- the prophets on the person of God explains the
istry of the Old Testament prophets focused pri- all-encompassing breadth of their message
marily on Israel. At the same time, the commit- (Birch, 1991, 24069; Gossai). What the prophets
ment to communicating Yahwehs message to his seek is that the nation who calls itself by Yah-
people reflects an awareness of Gods involvement wehs name reflect his person in every dimension
in the history of other nations. Whether focusing of life. Thus, they speak to the actions and the
on the various dimensions of life within the elect ethos of the marketplace, judicial abuses, eco-
community or on the course of events in sur- nomic inequalities, and national foreign policy
rounding states, these spokespersons grounded decisions. The persistent denouncing of religious
their words in the person of Yahweh. This atten- ritual is not a call to definitively abolish sacrifice,
tion to the singularity of Yahweh must, therefore, but is rather a cry against religion divorced from
be the starting point for any discussion of the justice and righteousness (e.g., Isa. 1; Hos. 4, 6;
mission of the people of God in the prophetic Micah 6; Amos 46).
material. This demand for worship of the one true God
The Uniqueness of God. The prophets repeat- and for justice and compassion is not limited to
edly denounce the waywardness of Israels pen- Gods people. It extends to every nation. Several
chant for seeking after other gods. The narrative prophetic books contain extensive sections of or-
of Elijahs confrontation with the prophets of acles directed against other nations idolatry, cru-
Baal on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18) might be the elty in warfare, and unrestrained greed (e.g., Isa.
most impressive account of the continuous at- 1323; Jer. 4651; Ezek. 2532; Amos 12; Obad.;
tack on IDOLATRY and SYNCRETISM, but the Nahum). In sum, mission within the prophetic
prophetic books are replete with passages under- corpus envisions that the people of God be a
scoring that Yahweh alone is God and contrast- blessing among the nations in holiness and truth
ing the reality of his person to the idols lack of (cf. Gen. 12:19; see ABRAHAMIC COVENANT), yet
substance. these concerns are universalized to encompass
Isaiah, for instance, describes Yahweh as the all of humanity.
sovereign Creator: he is not like the idols crafted The Future Hope of the Prophets. The tone of
by human hands (40:1231; 44:620; 45:1446:9), the prophets is overwhelmingly negative. Most
which can neither know nor bring to effect the announce imminent and inevitable judgment.
things that are to come (41:2223; 43:1213; Yet, many also envision a future of peace, pros-
44:78; 45:11, 21; 46:10; 48:35). Jeremiah and perity, and holiness beyond the coming divine
Ezekiel decry the presence of images in the sanc- chastisement. Most fundamentally, the prophetic
tuary of Jerusalem and the pernicious presence hope centers around the Messiah. Different pas-
of idolatry throughout Israels history (Jer. 2, 10; sages offer several pictures of the person and
Ezek. 8, 16, 23). Hosea powerfully presents the ministry of Yahwehs Anointed One (Kaiser, 1978,
705
Old Testament Prophets
182261; Satterthwaite, Hess, Wenham). He will tion of going to the nations contradicts the Old
be a king and a shepherd, and he will be led by Testament hope of their coming to Zion. In light
the Spirit of God. The Suffering Servant of Isaiah of the vocabulary of 1:2 (cf. Gen. 4:10; 18:20),
(Isa. 42; 49; 50; 52:1353:12; 61), more than any what one expects is that Jonah will go preach
other description, points to the extent of Yah- judgment against the sinful city. In fact, this is
wehs love and holy requirements: although what he does when he finally arrives at Nineveh
meek, the Servant will persist even unto death to (3:4). It is not until chapter 4 that the prophet
accomplish the task of bringing justice and sal- says why he ran away: he knew that the love of
vation to the ends of the earth, for the glory of God extended beyond covenant boundaries (4:2,
the Lord. 11; cf. Exod. 34:67). He desired above all else
Another related dimension of the prophetic the destruction of a violent empire, who was the
hope is the eschatological role of Zion. Its impor- enemy of Israel (3:8). The Book of Jonah, there-
tance for mission lies in the belief that in the fu- fore, does not speak of obstinateness at obeying
ture the nations would stream to the mountain of a missionary call. Perhaps a better application of
God to learn of Yahweh and enjoy his bountiful its message resides in the realization that Gods
provision (e.g., Isa. 2:24; 25:69; 66:1724). In- mercy must overcome all human prejudice and
terpreters differ in their understanding of the ful-
hatred, even if it is rooted in the memories of
fillment of the promises concerning the Messiah
horrific suffering at the hands of the powerful.
and Jerusalem, yet all agree that in some meas-
In sum, the Old Testament prophets do not di-
ure these hopes have been realized in the life and
rectly address world missions, as this is under-
ministry of Jesus, at Pentecost, and in the history
of the church. stood in the New Testament and the Christian
Classic Prophetic Mission Passages Recon- church. Instead, their contribution lies in that
sidered. Those interested in missionary outreach they display the character of God, who, on the
and recruitment naturally go to the Old Testa- one hand, requires that his people accomplish
ment seeking echoes of the New Testament man- the mission of being a holy people among the na-
dates to take the good news of salvation to the tions. On the other hand, this same Yahweh
ends of the earth. Two portions that have contin- demonstrates that his love and justice are univer-
ually been appealed to are the call of Isaiah (Isa. sal, both in the future judgment of all nations
6, especially verse 8) and the Book of JONAH. The and in the worldwide ministry of Messiah.
utilization of these passages, however, often does M. DANIEL CARROLL R.
not reflect the textual data. SEE ALSO Old Testament Theology of Mission.
The charge to Isaiah is not to go to the nations
with a word of hope. He is to announce irrevoca- Bibliography. B. C. Birch, Let Justice Roll Down: The
ble doom on his own people, without any expec- Old Testament, Ethics, and Christian Life; M. D.
tation of repentance and escape from disaster Carroll R., Contexts for Amos: Prophetic Poetics in Latin
(Isa. 6: 913). What is more, the words Here am American Perspective; H. Gossai, Justice, Righteousness
I, send me! are not a response to an open-ended and the Social Critique of the Eighth-Century Prophets;
invitation to participate in Gods plan for world R. E. Hedlund, The Mission of the Church in the World:
A Biblical Theology; W. C. Kaiser, Jr., Toward an Old Tes-
evangelization, but instead reflect the willingness
tament Theology; P. E. Satterthwaite, R. S. Hess, G. J.
of the prophet to accept his difficult commission. Wenham, eds., The Lords Anointed: Interpretation of Old
He is the only human being present in this tem- Testament Messianic Texts.
ple scene. Yahweh, although he has multitudes of
seraphs ready to do his will (vv. 24), has decided
Old Testament Theology of Mission. Given that
to send someone from Judah. Isaiah apparently
never leaves Jerusalem, and much of his ministry Israel was not sent out across cultural or geo-
is directed at the monarchy. Nevertheless, a graphical barriers, can one speak of mission at all
global element is present in the angelic procla- in the Old Testament? Such a view, however, iden-
mation that the whole earth is full of Gods glory tifies mission too exclusively with the activity of
(v. 3). A careful reading of these lines in the con- human missionaries, whereas the Bible speaks
text of the book, however, reveals that it will be first of all of the mission of God in Gods world,
Emmanuel, the Davidic king (Isa. 7, 9, 11, 32), and derives all human mission from that prior re-
who is also the Suffering Servant of later chap- ality (see MISSIO DEI). From that point of view the
ters, who will bring that universal glory to Yah- Old Testament is fundamental for two reasons.
weh through his righteous person and reign. First, it presents the mission and purpose of God
Warnings not to evade the touch of God to go with great power and clarity and with universal
to the nations sometimes point to the prophet implications for all humanity. Second, the Old
Jonah for biblical support. The overriding sover- Testament shaped the very nature of the mission
eignty of God, it is said, will redirect the path of of the New Testament church, which, indeed, felt
the disobedient to conform to the MISSIONARY compelled to justify its mission practice from the
CALL. The problem with this view is that the no- Scriptures we now call the Old Testament.
706
Old Testament Theology of Mission
The Manifesto: The Gospel in Advance. that Yahweh is God in heaven above and on the
Coming after the primal history of Genesis 111, earth beneath, and there is no other. The
in which the nations of humanity are portrayed uniqueness of Israels covenantal experience was
as in rebellion against God, scattered and divided the basis of their understanding of the unique-
under his judgment, Gods call of Abraham and ness of Yahweh as God. This dimension of Israels
the promise made to him, in Genesis 12, come as redemptive monotheism underlies the mission-
a radical new start in human history. After the ary nature of the New Testament proclamation of
three specific promises of posterity, blessing, and the UNIQUENESS OF CHRIST as Lord and Savior.
land comes the astonishing declaration of Gods (Note the way certain key Old Testament
intention: through you, all the families/nations monotheistic texts are christologically expanded
of the earth will receive blessing (Gen. 12:3, and and quoted in the New Testament: e.g., Deut. 6:4,
cf. 18:18; 22:18; 26:4f.; 28:14; 35:11). Although 4:35, 39 and 1 Cor. 8:56; Isa. 45:2224 and Phil.
the focus of attention from here on would be Is- 2:1011).
rael as the descendants of Abraham, the ultimate Second, Israel was called to ethical distinctive-
mission of God is to bless the nations of humanness, as part of what it meant to be a light to the
ity (see ABRAHAMIC COVENANT)good news, in- nations. As early as the patriarchal narratives,
deed, in the light of the preceding chapters, and the link between the socioethical quality of life of
described as such by Paul, in defense of his own the covenant community and the fulfillment of
mission to the (Gentile) nations, in Galatians 3:8. Gods promise of blessing to the nations is made
Missiologically the covenant with Abraham (Gen. 18:1819). In Deuteronomy 4:68 Israels
contains two balancing truths. First is the uni- visibility before the nations is put forward as a
versality of Gods purpose in the election of Abra- motivation for obedience to the law. Indeed, this
ham and Israel. They were called into existence missional perspective transforms a Christian un-
only because of Gods missionary purpose of ul- derstanding of the meaning of the law itself. Obe-
timate blessing to all nations. Israels election was dience was not only to be a matter of response to
not for the rejection of the nations, but for the the grace of Gods redemption (Deut. 6:2025),
sake of their salvation. Hence Pauls insistence but was to be for the purpose of attracting others
that the in-gathering of the Gentiles in his day to the light of Gods presence among Gods peo-
was not a contradiction of the promises made to ple (Isa. 58:610; 60:13; 62:12).
Israel, but rather their eschatological fulfillment. Third, Israel was given an identity (priestli-
Blessing the nations (which was the fruit of his ness) and a task (holiness) in the foundational
mission) was the very reason for Israels existence declaration at Sinai (Exod. 19:36). The priest-
in the first place. Let those who wanted to make hood in Israel stood between God and the rest of
the Gentile converts into followers of Moses, the people, both teaching Gods law to the people
consider Abraham . . . (Gal. 3:69). and representing the people before God through
Second is the particularity of the means God sacrifice. Entrusted to Israel as a whole, the task
would use to bring about this universal bless- of being Gods priesthood in the midst of the na-
ingthrough you . . . The instrument by which tions is a mission in itselfto bring the knowl-
God would bless the nations would be the histor- edge of God to the nations, and to be the means
ical, particular, unique people he had created and of bringing the nations to God. Both centrifugal
called. Their uniqueness would ultimately be in- and centripetal dynamics are present in pro-
herited by the Messiah, Jesus, as the one in phetic visions of this role (e.g., Isa. 2:25;
whose name alone repentance and forgiveness 66:1921). To be holy was to be fundamentally
would be preached to all nations, beginning in different (Lev. 18:3), and that difference was to be
Jerusalem (Luke 24:47). It is important to hold visible in social, economic, and political terms,
these balancing truths together in a BIBLICAL THE- not just in religion (Lev. 19). There is a corre-
OLOGY OF MISSION: the inclusive, universal goal spondence between the desired visibility of Is-
(Gods commitment to bless the nations); and the raels distinctive ethic as a means of drawing the
exclusive, particular means (the people, the Per- nations (Deut. 4:68) and the New Testament eth-
son, through whom God chose to do so). ical exhortations that have the same missionary
The People: A Light to the Nations. The na- implications (Matt. 5:1416; John 13:34f.; 1 Peter
tion of Israel was not, of course, physically sent 2:912). As Luke observed, the social and eco-
out to the nations. Yet there are aspects of their nomic life of the early Christian community was
identity and role that clearly have missional sig- inseparable from the apostolic preaching in pro-
nificance (see ISRAELS ROLE). First, there was the ducing the growth and spread of the church (Acts
uniqueness of their historical experience of Gods 2:4447; 4:34 [quoting Deut. 15:4]).
revelation and redemption (Deut. 4:3240). No The Scope: The Totality of Human Need. Mis-
other nation experienced what they had of the sion involves declaring and applying the redeem-
knowledge or the saving power of God. This ing work of God to the brokenness of the world.
unique experience, however, was not an exclusive But what is the nature of that brokenness and
privilege, but a trust: so that you might know what does redemption consist of? Again, it is the
707
Old Testament Theology of Mission
Old Testament that provides so much of the fun- living that is perhaps the most cross-culturally
damental WORLDVIEW that underlies the assump- bridge-building material in the Bible. Questions
tions and practice of Christian mission. Its com- of what leads to a happy and successful life
prehensive analysis of the human predicament in (Proverbs), how to wrestle with the problem of
terms of moral rebellion, the personal, social, his- suffering (Job), and what to think in the face of
torical, and ecological effects of sin, alongside the futility and death (Ecclesiastes) are perennially
rich vocabulary through which this whole taxon- and transculturally relevant, and provide an
omy of evil is expressed, all combine to forestall opening for the message of redemption from
a shallow vagueness about what salvation needs elsewhere in the canon.
to be and leaves us in no doubt that only God can And the worship of Israel at times rises to a
accomplish it. An adequate understanding of the breadth of universal vision in its faith imagina-
gospel depends upon an adequate appreciation of tion, in summoning all nations and all the ends
the radical effects of SIN. It is the Old Testament of the earth to praise Yahweh (e.g., Pss. 47, 67,
that provides this earthy realism. 96, 98, etc.)a vision that is implicitly mission-
Similarly, the Old Testament presentation of re- ary in effectas Paul realized when he quotes
demption offers a rich variety of models, all of such material as the climax of his own mission-
which have influenced the Christian understand- ary vision of the ingathering of the Gentiles (e.g.,
ing of salvation through Christ and the MISSION- Rom. 15:712).
ARY TASK of the people of God. The exodus, of The Goal: To Bring My Salvation to the
course, stands as the key Old Testament model of Ends of the Earth. The eschatological vision of
redemption (and is celebrated as such, Exod. the Old Testament envisages the nations being
15:13), with its comprehensive deliverance of Is- brought in to share the blessings enjoyed by Is-
rael from political, economic, social, and spiri- rael. That was, of course, the very reason for Is-
tual bondage. The same holistic understanding of raels election in the first place, and indeed Is-
Gods concern is found in the laws that the re- rael comes to be redefined and extended in a
deemed people were to follow in the landper- way that prophetically anticipates Pauls mis-
haps focused most clearly in the Jubilee institu- sionary theology in Romans 911.
tion (Lev. 25), with its thrust toward restoration In some contexts the nations are portrayed as
of people to meaningful participation in the com- summoned to celebrate what God had done in Is-
munity through access to fruitful resources. But rael, even when, paradoxically that included Is-
it too is based on the theological roots of Gods raels victory over them (cf. Ps. 47:14). The only
sovereignty and historical redemption (the exo- justification for that must have been that the na-
dus). The Jubilee strongly influenced Jesus un- tions would somehow benefit from Israels salva-
derstanding of his own mission, and found es- tion history, unique as it was (cf. Pss. 22:2728,
chatological echoes in the early missionary 67; 96:13; 98:13). The Deuteronomistic history
preaching of the church (Acts 3:21). has some remarkable passages anticipating this
Then there is the sacrificial system, providing universal blessing, most notably of all the prayer
atonement and cleansing from sin. The cultic dy- of Solomon at the dedication of the temple
namics of Leviticus have been woven deeply into (1 Kings 8:4143) in which God is asked to do for
the Christian understanding of the death of Jesus, the foreigner whatever he asked in prayer (which
and in the hands of Paul, become, paradoxically, had not even been promised to Israel!), so that
the language he uses to portray the power of the Gods name would be known and praised
cross to unite Jew and Gentile in Gods forgive- throughout the earth. Did those Gentiles who ap-
ness (Rom. 3:2531; Eph. 2:1122 etc.). When pealed so movingly to Jesus have any suspicion
Jesus declared, then, that repentance and for- of the way they fulfilled this prayer (Matt. 8:513;
giveness would be preached in his name to all na- 15:2128)?
tions, the understanding of what those terms But in other contexts we find a more breathtak-
mean was already prepared for in the Scriptures ing vision that the nations would ultimately be in-
(as indeed he was pointing out, Luke 24:4547). cluded, along with Israel, as the extended people
Clearly, a holistic understanding of the nature of of God. Psalm 47:9 includes Gentile nobles as the
mission flows from a biblically holistic view of people of the God of Abraham. Isaiah 19:1925
what redemption means and includes (see HOLIS- extends the privileged status of Israel (my people,
TIC MISSION). It is this breadth of understanding my inheritance, my handiwork) to their histori-
that the Old Testament contributes. cal enemies. Isaiah 56:38 anticipates the joyful
The Old Testament, however, has rich re- inclusion of certain categories of people previ-
sources for mission which are not directly tied in ously excluded by the law (Deut. 23:13). Doubt-
to the redemptive-historical tradition of Israel. less Luke intends us to see this text finding its
The wisdom literature, for example, with its first fulfillment in the salvation of the foreigner
strong creation base and its adaptation of the who was also a eunuch, and who was reading Isa-
wisdom of other cultures to the faith of Yahweh, iah at the time (Acts 8:2639)! Significantly,
offers a WORLDVIEW and an approach to life and though he had been to the temple in Jerusalem,
708
Oman
the Ethiopian eunuch actually found joy when he cerns: A Biblical Exploration Toward a Theology of Mis-
believed in Jesus, the temples fulfillment. A little sion; I. Hay, Isaiah and the Great Commission; R. Hed-
later in Acts, James uses Amos 9:1112 to clinch lund, The Mission of the Church in the World: A Biblical
the theological (i.e., scriptural) justification for Theology; L. Newbigin, The Open Secret; G. W. Peters, A
Biblical Theology of Missions; R. de Ridder, Discipling
the amazing success of the Gentile mission (Acts the Nations; D. Senior and E. Stuhlmueller, The Biblical
15:1318). Foundations for Mission; G. Van Rheenen, Biblically An-
This great Old Testament vision lies behind chored Mission.
Pauls missiological theology of the multinational
nature of the eschatological community being Oldham, Joseph Houldsworth (18741969).
created in the Messiah, Jesus. Far from under- Scottish ecumenical leader. Born in India to
mining in any way Gods faithfulness to his
Scottish evangelical parents, he graduated from
promises to Israel, the ingathering of the nations
Oxford, where he had been JOHN MOTTs guide in
was nothing less than the fulfillment of the very
1891. He served the YMCA in India (18971901),
mission and raison detre of Israel.
then studied divinity at New College, Edinburgh,
The Servant of the Lord: A Light to the Na-
where he was to organize the WORLD MISSIONARY
tions and the Glory of Your People Israel. The
CONFERENCE (Edinburgh, 1910) and edit its nine-
mission of Israel was also bound up with the
volume report. The diminutive Scot hailed by
identity and mission of the Servant, the mysteri-
John Mott as the deepest thinker and most in-
ous figure in Isaiah 4055 whose identity seems
fluential worker in the British Student Move-
to oscillate between that of Israel and that of an
ment, was named secretary (191021) of the
individual yet to come. The mission of the Ser-
continuation committee, not least because, sen-
vant would be one of justice, gentleness, enlight-
sitive to delicate situations, he was trusted both
enment, and liberation (Isa. 42:19). But it would
by the Germans and by the Anglo-Catholics. Old-
also involve rejection and apparent failure (Isa.
ham helped found and became joint secretary of
49:4; 50:68) in the task of restoring Israel to
the INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL (192138)
God. In response to that, his mission would be
and founded and edited the International Review
extended to include the nations to the ends of the
of Missions (191227). Concerned that missions
earth (Isa. 49:6). In that way, the mission of the
might drift into a backwater, he begged Mott to
Servant would be the fulfillment of the mission
concentrate exclusively on the IMC. He was also
of Israel itself.
chief architect of the 1937 Oxford Conference
This dual nature of the Servants mission
and edited the Christian News Letter (193945),
restoration of Israel and bringing salvation to the
which sought to encourage Christian witness in
nationslies behind the perception of the New
secular life. His latter years were chiefly spent in
Testament that the first task was Jesus primary
improving the educational and social standards
mission, while the second was entrusted to the
of the indigenous African peoples. He saw the
church. This probably influenced the shape of
importance of the future church in Africa, and
Lukes two-volume work. His Gospel describes
persuaded missionary societies and the British
the mission of the servant to Israel, and Acts de-
government to devote more resources to Africa.
scribes the fulfillment of Israels scriptural mis-
Oldhams work was sometimes suspect in some
sion in the ingathering of the Gentiles. This com-
American missionary circles whose continuing
bined missiological understanding of LukeActs
suspicion of colonialism led them to believe that
seems clearest in the hinge material of Luke
his labors were only of value for the British Em-
24:4449 and Acts 1:68. It also seems that the
pire. He wrote Christianity and the Race Problem
dual nature of the servants mission influenced
(1924) and A Devotional Diary (1929).
the historical and theological shape of Pauls mis-
J. D. DOUGLAS
sionary strategy (Acts 13:4648; Rom. 15:89), ex-
plaining among other things why one so con-
scious of his commission to the Gentiles believed Oman (Est. 2000 pop.: 2,626,000; 212,457 sq. km.
it crucial that the gospel be preached to the Jew [82,030 sq. mi.]). The sultanate of Oman is one of
first (Rom. 1:16; 2:911). the Gulf states in the southeast of the Arabian
The Scriptures of the Old Testament, then, not Peninsula. Oman is famous as an ancient trade
only provide the essential vision and themes of center. In 1749, the dynasty of the al-Said gained
Christian mission, but also shape its initial and the Imanate with Ahmad bin Said and estab-
enduring theological structures. lished a sea empire. Trading in spices and slaves
CHRISTOPHER J. H. WRIGHT made Oman rich.
Although Omans oil production started in
SEE ALSO Jonah, Old Testament Prophets. 1967, the then Sultan Said bin Taimur continued
Bibliography. G. Anderson, Theology of the Christian to isolate the country and forbade any innovation
Mission; D. Filbeck, Yes, God of the Gentiles Too: The (no press, no media, no bikes, no glasses allowed;
Missionary Message of the Old Testament; A. F. Glasser, only three schools existed as well as twenty-five
Kingdom and Mission; K. Gnanakan, Kingdom Con- beds in a single hospital). Only after a coup detat
709
Oman
in 1970 did the monarchs son, Sulan Qabus bin at other times revealed. At times God is obviously
Said bin Taimur al-Said, gradually reform this active; at other times Gods presence is subtle or
medieval monarchy. Although he became the quiet.
symbol of progress and development, he also We cannot assume that God is present where
paid respect to tradition. Today Oman remains there are dramatic and visible signs. More often
an absolute monarchy (no political parties, no than not, Gods presence is more difficult to dis-
Constitution, no labor union, no Parliament), but cern. Elijah did not recognize God in the earth-
with considerable freedom, political stability, and quake, wind, or fire, but in a still small voice
welfare for the average person. Still, much re- (1 Kings 19). Discerning the presence of God be-
mains to be done for the approximately 60 per- gins with recognizing this principle.
cent illiterate with an annual growth of about 3.8 GORDON T. SMITH
percent, since Omans oil resources will probably Bibliography. T. Oden, The Living God.
be depleted by the year 2020.
Although open Christian witness is forbidden
among the 65 percent Kbadi, 30 percent Sunni, Omniscience of God. The omniscience of God
and 5 percent Shii Muslims of Oman, there are describes God as all-knowing, an attribute of
majesty that expresses Gods transcendence
2.5 percent Christians of different denominations
(Weber, 1983, 403, 438). The fact that the merci-
among the 530,000 foreign workers from the
ful God (see GRACE OF GOD) wants to know us
Philippines, Pakistan, India, Baluchistan, Eu-
completely means that he accepts us and that he
rope, and the Near East. They worship in four
loves us. In the Bible the concept of knowing is
centers in a number of churches. Foreign work-
broader and deeper than rational cognition of
ers have been converted, and many of them are
factsit is intimate, loving relationship of care,
in daily contact with Omani people.
commitment, and mutuality (e.g., Gen. 4:1; Prov.
CHRISTINE SCHIRRMACHER
1:7; John 8:19; 17:2526).
Nothing in creation can be hidden from a God
Omnipresence of God. God is infinite and thereof love. The omniscience of God refers to Gods
fore cannot be limited, measured, constrained, or knowing all things in terms of extent and scope,
contained in any particular space. Omnipresence as well as in terms of penetration (God knows all
speaks of God as infinite with respect to space. things completely and deeply) and time (what
Though God is transcendent and wholly different has always been, is, and will be). It is not merely
from physical entities, he cannot be excluded an outer knowledge of its objects; it is also an
from any part of his creation. inner knowledge. It is not partial; it is total
The omnipresence of God was fundamental to (Barth, II:1, 555; 1 John 15; Ps. 139:1112). Thus
Pauls message and mission. He confidently pro- Gods foreknowledge is not time-bound, neither
claimed to his hearers that God is not far from does it imply a mechanistic determinism as if
each one of us, for in him we live and move and Gods foreknowledge meant his direct control or
have our being (Acts 17:2728). He affirmed that causation. Rather, Gods foreknowledge is rela-
no one can escape Gods presence, and could tional (John 1; Eph. 1; Col. 1).
confidently assume that God preceded him and Thus the Bible stresses Gods intimate, rela-
was present, even to his pagan hearers. tional knowing in love. God knows as creator.
The omnipresence of God is personal. The By his knowledge the deeps were divided (Prov.
psalmist extols the intimate presence of God that 3:20). God knows us in the womb before we are
is for him a source of awe and strength, when he born (Pss. 103:14; 139:1516). God knows our
wonders: Where can I go from your Spirit? coming and going and even our thoughts (e.g.,
Where can I flee from your presence? (Ps. 1 Sam. 2:3; Pss. 44:21; 139:1). God knows our
139:7). God is infinitely and intimately present to needs (Matt. 6:8) and he knows those who are his
humanity in time of need (Ps. 46:1). This is a (2 Tim. 2:19). God knows us in choosing us in
source of profound assurance and hope: God is him before the foundation of the world . . . to be
personally available to all who call on himre- adopted as his (children) through Jesus Christ
gardless of where they are. However dark the cir- (Eph. 1:45). One of the ways in which the
cumstances, God is there. Gospels assert the deity of Jesus is to affirm that
Those who speak and act in witness to Christ Jesus knows peoples thoughts, yet does not con-
can be assured that God is never absent from a trol them (e.g., Matt. 12:25). He knows his sheep
place, a people, or a person. The missionary though they have not yet responded to him (e.g.,
never brings God, but rather announces and wit- John 10:14).
nesses to the presence of God. The missionary is In cross-cultural missions, the omniscience of
a witness to this reality and a catalyst by which it God has several implications. First, when we step
is awakened in the hearers conscience. into a new context of mission, there is an assur-
Although God is completely present in all ance of being accompanied by God in Jesus
places and at all times, at times he is hidden and Christ, by the Holy Spirit. In fact, God has been
710
Option for the Poor
there already, waiting for us. In the GREAT COM- smaller Holiness churches. The international
MISSION Jesus says that wherever his disciples go, headquarters is in Greenwood, Indiana.
he will be with them always. His omnipresence DAVID BUNDY
implies omniscience. Our Lord knows where we
Bibliography. L. B. Cowman, Charles E. Cowman:
are going, knows us as we cross cultural barriers, Missionary Warrior; R. D. Wood, In These Mortal Hands:
and welcomes us when we get there. Second, as The Story of the Oriental Missionary Society, the First
creator, sustainer, and lover of all people and all Fifty Years; T. Yamamori, Church Growth in Japan: A
creation, God understands all cultures and all Study in the Development of Eight Denominations.
peoples in those cultures. He knows his sheep,
even sheep of another fold. Even while they were Option for the Poor. There has long been a recog-
yet sinners, Christ died for (them) (Rom. 5:8). nition that the poor (economically, politically, and
Thus, when we cross barriers to another culture, socially marginalized people) hold special attention
we can be assured that God understands the and affection in Gods eyes. The phrase option for
other persons though we may not. God knows the poor or preferential option for the poor is of
their thoughts and their WORLDVIEWS and cares relatively recent coinage. Roman Catholics began
for those to whom we are sent. Third, Gods om- wrestling with issues related to poverty in the SEC-
niscience implies that Christians in all cultures OND VATICAN COUNCIL (196265). Catholics in Latin
everywhere in the world are intimately known by America, who felt that the work at Vatican II did
God and therefore may be assured that they can not go far enough, convened in Medelln, where the
read the Scriptures and hear Gods Word in their emphasis was changed from seeing the poor as the
own language and culture, and can know God in objects of the mercy of the church to seeing them as
very special and unique ways in their particular the subjects of their own history (Gonzlez, 19).
worldview (Van Engen, 1996, 7189). The actual phrase preferential option of the poor
CHARLES VAN ENGEN did not appear until the 1970s, reportedly used by
Gustavo Gutirrez in a lecture given in Spain in
Bibliography. K. Barth, Church Dogmatics; H. Berk-
1972 (ibid.). Since then the term has been used pri-
hof, Christian Faith; S. Grenz, Theology for the Commu-
nity of God; C. Van Engen, Mission on the Way;
marily in liberation and conciliar theological circles
O. Weber, Foundations of Dogmatics. but also increasingly in evangelical missiology.
The concept behind the term is one that de-
mands a radical paradigm shift. The poor are not
OMS International. This mission society was
to be seen as objects of mercy, but as people who
founded by the Pilgrim Holiness missionaries to are particularly gifted by God to represent his
Japan, Charles E. and Lettie B. Cowman, in 1901. justice to the rest of the world. The option for
They were joined by Ernest E. Kilbourne whom the poor is not optional, but required by the very
they had come to know at Gods Bible School in nature of Gods compassion and incarnation in
Cincinnati. Especially central to their success Jesus. Because Jesus came to preach liberty to
was their collaboration with Juji Nakada, who the poor, they have an advantage in reading the
had been instrumental in their choice of Japan. Scriptures. They are not weighted down with the
Their goal was to establish self-supporting, self- presuppositions and agendas of the rich and are
governing, and self-propagating churches on the freer to read and interpret the text as its primary
WILLIAM TAYLOR model. Among the results of this audience. Such reading requires the recognition
mission in Asia were the Japan Holiness Church of structural issues that create and perpetuate
and the Korean Holiness Church. The latter sup- poverty and new tools of analysis to understand
ports the largest seminary in Asia: Seoul Theo- and change those structures.
logical Seminary. The Korean Holiness Church is Evangelical use of the term traces its roots to
involved in mission throughout Asia, with special the LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGELISM
attention to Thailand, Siberia, and Japan. (1974) and the eventual wrestling of evangelicals
During and after World War II, OMS spread over EVANGELISM AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (see
into India, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Spain, and the Walker). A shift toward holism within the evan-
Caribbean. Under the name of the Inter-Ameri- gelical movement (see HOLISTIC MISSION), promp-
can Missionary Society the group established de- ted in part by reflections from both non-Western
nominations in Colombia, Brazil, and Equador. evangelical theologians (e.g., Vinay Samuel, Rene
More recently OMS has sent missionaries to In- Padilla, and Samuel Escobar) and Western evan-
donesia, France, and the Philippines. OMS, Inc., gelicals (e.g., Ron Sider and Jim Wallis), has re-
maintains a close connection with Asbury Col- sulted in greater empathy for the option for the
lege (where a study center for students and a poor (see also LIBERATION THEOLOGIES MISSIOL-
missionary home are maintained) and Asbury OGY). It is now not uncommon to see the phrase
Theological Seminary. The agency serves as a option for the poor across the spectrum of mis-
mission sending agency for Holiness members of siology. Evangelicals who have committed them-
the United Methodist Church as well as from the selves to this agenda have in the past been re-
711
Option for the Poor
ferred to as radical evangelicals, though the lan- their importance to God, and hence to the reli-
guage of opting for the poor has been gaining gion that would spring from worship of him. A
momentum in mainstream evangelical missio- representative text of Jesus is known to many
logical circles in recent years. people. He said, Let the little children come to
What is Gods view of the poor? They are peo- me, and do not hinder them, for the kingdom of
ple and part of his creation. They have oppres- heaven belongs to such as these (Matt. 19:14).
sors who keep them poor. While they are sinners, Throughout the early history of the church
they are also in significant ways sinned against Christian compassion focused upon the plight of
by those who oppress and subvert justice against children. A representative sermon/essay by Cot-
them. God does opt for them in the sense of ton Mather reflects this emphasis and is likely
siding with them in demanding impartiality and the source for the term orphanage. In his essay
justice. He cares for their spiritual and material (c. 1711) he spoke of orphanages as orphanotro-
needs. The same attitude should be found in the pheism, as the care taken in the divine Provi-
church (e.g., James 2:26). That the poor teach us dence for children when their parents forsake
about God or enjoy special spiritual status is true them. Need for such care was caused by the ter-
in the sense that their humble circumstances rible conditions of the Industrial Revolution
force them to see more realistically their broken when parents were thrown into debtors prisons
condition before God. That they are somehow and children were forced to work in crude facto-
automatically saved or members of Gods church ries, leaving many children without homes or
simply by virtue of their socioeconomic status, parents (see Pierson, also Gaston).
however, cannot be sustained in light of the over- Elsewhere on the globe, orphanages did not
all biblical evidence. The poor are in need of hav- develop until the nineteenth century due in large
ing the Good News preached to them and thus part to the lack of any need for them. Asia,
the thrust of Jesus statements about his mission Africa, and Latin America were mostly nonin-
in Luke 4:1820. dustrial regions, depending upon agriculture but
A. SCOTT MOREAU with high infant mortality rates. The need for
children and stable cohesive social structures
SEE ALSO Wealth and Poverty.
provided a relatively secure social and family
Bibliography. R. M. Brown, Reading in the Bible arrangement for them, except for conditions of
Through Third World Eyes; R. D. N. Dickinson, DEM, war. This picture changed with the coming of in-
pp. 80610; D. Dorr, Option for the Poor: A Hundred dustrial economies and the establishment of
Years of Catholic Social Teaching; J. L. Gonzlez, Poverty urban centers.
and Ecclesiology, pp. 926; F. Herzog, DEM, pp. 8045;
China is a case in point. There, feudal wars and
D. S. Walker, Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 79
(1992): 5362. terrible climatic conditions (famine, floods, etc.)
left families economically impoverished and mal-
nourished and children homeless. To meet these
Ordinances. See SACRAMENTS/ORDINANCES.
conditions missionaries, often women, took up
the burden, established homes, or simply took in
Oriental Missionary Society. See OMS INTERNA- a wandering child, and then another and another,
TIONAL. until finally an orphanage, de facto, was founded
(see Wang).
Original Sin. See FALL OF HUMANKIND and SIN, The words strategy and missionary method
THE BIBLICAL DOCTRINE OF. seem oddly out of place when speaking of or-
phanages in missionary work. Such terms appear
Orphanage Work in Christian Missions. Per- crass and manipulative, giving the appearance of
haps no other work in Christian missions has using pain and loss for the purposes of prose-
commanded so deep an emotional response to lytism. Nor do such terms reflect the spirit of
people as has care for children who have no such efforts. Mary Schauffler LaBaree writes
place to call their home. The plight of Korean with a keen intellect and deep feeling and convic-
children during and after the Korean conflict tion about the plight of children in Persia, and
(194951) and the work of Robert Pierce on their the significance of her work and ministry is un-
behalf not only raised the awareness of Western surpassed. Yet, there is not a hint of missionary
Christians to parentless children there, but also strategy in the book. The same can be said of
was the primary impetus for the establishment of Thomas Gambles description of the establish-
World Vision International. ment of George Whitfields Bethesda (House of
The beginnings of orphanage work in Christian Mercy). Here you find no hint of winning people
missions, however, extend much farther back to Christ through philanthropy. Rather, you find
into the history of Christian missions. Indeed one work springing from the well of deep compassion
could cite more than seven hundred references in for the plight of children and others.
Scripture concerning children as an indication of THOMAS N. WISELY
712
Orthodox Mission Movements
Bibliography. T. Gamble, Bethesda: An Historical sus, Persia, Arabia, and Africa were baptized in
Sketch of Whitefields House of Mercy; N. Gaston, George the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries. Some of
Muller and His Orphans; M. S. LaBaree, A Child in the these peoples have disappeared, though others
midst; A. T. Pierson, George Muller of Bristol; M. Wang, still exist today (such as the Georgians, Armeni-
Precious Jewels.
ans, Syrians, and Ethiopians).
The great age of Orthodox missionary activity
Orthodox Mission Movements. No comprehen- began in the ninth and tenth centuries. Patriarch
sive history of Eastern Orthodox missions exists Photios dispatched a mission to Boris I of Bul-
today. Only studies of particular periods and per- garia, and sent Sts. CYRIL and METHODIUS to the
sonalities are available, especially in Russian Or- Moravians. The Great Moravian mission occa-
thodox missions. Moreover, few Departments of sioned the first confrontation between Roman
Missions exist as distinct disciplines within Or- Catholic and Eastern Orthodox missions. Cyril
thodox seminaries throughout the world. Only a and Methodius created a unique alphabet so they
handful of missiologists are qualified as special- could preach the gospel and translate the liturgy
ists in this field, though the situation is gradually into the native vernacular. Use of the vernacular
beginning to change. The subject, therefore, is a in worship and mission polarized Rome and
lacuna that needs to be aggressively filled in mis- Constantinope in the ninth century and high-
siological studies today. lighted their different missiological principles.
The history of Orthodox missions is made The greatest success of Byzantine missionaries
more difficult because the so-called Oriental Or- was the conversion of Prince VLADIMIR I of Kiev
thodox Churches (such as the Armenian, Syrian in 988. Characteristically, missions in Russia
Jacobite, Coptic, and Ethiopian communities) worked from the top down by focusing first on
rightly deserve to be included in the Orthodox the political leaders who then encouraged their
family. Any treatment of Orthodox mission move- people en masse to follow their example. People
ments must view the church in light of its theo- of the northern Caucasus region followed Rus-
logical unity and complex administrative au- sias example. In the ninth century, systematic
tonomies. Ideologically, throughout its history work in Serbia was undertaken by the followers
the Orthodox Church engaged in what may be of Cyril and Methodius, but it was not until the
termed incarnational evangelism, that is, mis- thirteenth century that Serbian attachment to the
sionary enterprises that sought CoNTEXTUALIZA- Eastern Church became final.
TION of the gospel for diverse nationalities out of The history of missions from the fourteenth
faithfulness to the witness of the apostles. While century is mainly the history of Russian Ortho-
this has had its obvious advantages, it also has dox missions. This was due mostly to the Turkish
tended to promote confusion among the unedu- captivity of the Greek Church under Islam. In
cated between the gospel and NATIONALISM lead- Russian Orthodox missionary activity, the focus
ing to ethnic Christianity. was on evangelism within the boundaries of the
The history of Orthodox missions shows that great Russian Empire itself. The progressive pen-
there has been very few missionary institutions, etration of the gospel was carried on by monks
organizations, or orders. After the apostolic age, who worked among the Finnish races in what is
Emperor Constantine in the fourth century was today northern Russia, and later in the Urals and
given the missionary titles Equal to the Apos- Siberia. A special type of missionary, known as
tles and Overseer of the Things/People Out- the colonial monk, taught a new way of life
side the empire. The emperor was called upon without seeking to intentionally convert the hea-
to be the political protector and promoter of the then. These monks became bearers of Russian
Christian faith in places where it had not yet culture as well as the gospel. Examples of Russ-
been received. In the early Middle Ages, the ian missionary heroes are Sts. Sergius, STEPHEN
Byzantine government frequently enlisted mis- OF PERM (both 14th century), and Seraphim of
sionaries as agents of imperial policy. Military Sarov (17th and 18th centuries). Peter the Great,
interventions and political diplomacy from the as part of his imperial strategy, also supported
imperial throne were used to support the spread Russian missions, which extended as far as
of Orthodox Christianity. Byzantine missions to China in the eighteenth century. The nineteenth
Eastern Europe often implied the acceptance of century was the Great Century of Russian Or-
both Orthodoxy and a political alliance with thodox missions (though not comparable to the
Constantinople. Some individuals were officially scope of Protestant and Catholic missions of the
supported while others worked on their own. same period). In 1791, the Russian mission first
The principles of mission were incarnational: arrived in Kodiak, Alaska, from the Valamo
the Bible, liturgy, and the Church Fathers were monastery in Finland under St. Herman. Possi-
translated into the vernacular; indigenous clergy bly the greatest personality of the period was
were implemented to lead the flocks; and local (John) INNOCENT VENIAMINOV, or St. Innocent of
autonomy was encouraged. By these methods, Alaska (17971879). Innocent followed the tra-
numerous races of the Russian plain, the Cauca- dition of Cyril and Methodius by translating the
713
Orthodox Mission Movements
Gospels and liturgy into the Aleutian language example, the reconversion of its own people to the
and establishing a native priesthood. saving gospel of Jesus Christ.
East Asian missions in the nineteenth century BRADLEY NASSIF
included the Japanese Orthodox Church, founded
Bibliography. I. Bria, compiler and editor, Go Forth
by St. NICHOLAS KASATKIN, and the Korean mission in Peace: Orthodox Perspectives on Mission; I. Bria and
founded by Russian clergy in 1898. In the twenti- P. Vassiliades, Orthodox Christian Martyria; F. Dvornik,
eth century, at least two regions reveal modern Byzantine Missions among the Slavs; G. Lemopoulos,
missionary zeal: first, in Africa, an intensive en- Your Will Be Done: Orthodoxy in Mission; B. Nassif, ed.,
culturation of the Orthodox faith and worship has New Perspectives on Historical Theology: Essays in Mem-
occurred under the Patriarchate of Alexandria, ory of John Meyendorff; N. Nissiotis, The Greek Orthodox
and in Asia under the Patriarchate of Constan- Theological Review 8 (1962): 2252; I. Sauca, ed., Or-
thodoxy and Cultures.
tinope; second, a significant emergence of new Or-
thodox communities has arisen in the so-called di-
aspora churches located especially in America, but Orthodox Theology of Mission. The Eastern
also to a lesser degree in Canada, Western Europe, Orthodox Churches (EOC) are not generally
Australia, and Latin America. A new Pan-Ortho- thought of as missionary churches. In part, this
dox mission board was recently founded in St. Au- stems from a lack of knowledge of the history
gustine, Florida, as a means to promote Ortho- of the Eastern Churches and also a misunder-
doxy and serve the needs of the mother churches standing of the theological framework of the
overseas. At present, the most active missionary Orthodox Church, which appears to be anti-
group in North America is the Antiochian Ortho- thetical or at least indifferent to the missionary
dox Church, with approximately 50 percent of its vision of both the Roman Catholic and Protes-
pastoral staff comprised of converts from mostly tant experience. In spite of oppressive historical
circumstances that have hindered the expres-
Protestant and Catholic backgrounds. Advocates
sion of missionary concern, Eastern Christian-
of American contextualization have called for in-
ity, represented by both the Chalcedonian and
digenous new ways of incarnating the gospel in
non-Chalcedonian churches (also called Orien-
keeping with the churchs past missiological prac-
tal Orthodox Churches [OOC] or occasionally
tices. Such advocates highlight the missionary im-
lesser Orthodox Churches) share the same ethos
perative of translating Old World Orthodoxy into
as the mainline Eastern Orthodox Churches.
the multicultural vernacular of an American audi-
The Nestorian Church had an impressive mis-
ence through native creativity in liturgical, hymno- sionary thrust into China (see N ESTORIAN M IS -
graphic, and iconographic expressions of the faith. SION ). The Mar Thoma Church of South India
Documents for contemporary models and em- has a very similar liturgy and theology, as do the
phases in Orthodox missions have been ham- other OOC. They are distinguished from the
mered out largely in the context of the churchs EOC in that the EOC are in communion with
involvement in the WCC. The Orthodox have dis- and recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch of
tinguished five contexts for their witness in the Constantinople.
modern world: (1) traditional Orthodox countries, For the EOC, the key elements of their theo-
such as Greece, parts of Lebanon, and the Middle logical framework revolve around the purpose of
East; (2) postcommunist countries (closely over- the incarnation. Often accused by Western the-
lapping the first), including Russia, Romania, Ser- ologians of having an inadequate doctrine of SIN,
bia, and Albania; (3) Islamic lands, such as Egypt; the EOC focus on the potential that humankind
(4) churches of the so-called diaspora, such as was created to achieve. The first human pair
America, Canada, and Western Europe; and were created perfect but with the possibility and
(5) young missionary churches, including Africa necessity for growth and development. This mat-
and Korea. Renewal movements within the Or- uration would eventually lead to humans fully
thodox Church itselfsuch as the Lords Army in manifesting the image (but not the essence) of
Romania, Zoe in Greece, the Orthodox Youth God. Evangelization therefore proceeds along the
Movement in Lebanon, the Brotherhood of St. line of fulfilling Gods purpose in creation. The
Symeon the New Theologian and the Antiochian goal is not justification of the sinner, but rather
Evangelical Orthodox Mission in Americahave what would be termed in Western theological
revived interest in Bible study, preaching, patris- categories as justification and sanctification. The
tics, and liturgics. Moreover, mission organiza- Orthodox call their understanding of the biblical
tions that build bridges between the Orthodox meaning of salvation theosis. This Greek word is
and evangelical traditions include the Society for sometimes inadequately rendered deification in
the Study of Eastern Orthodoxy and Evangelical- Latin, which has inherent pantheistic overtones,
ism and Christians for Middle East Understand- something not intended in the doctrine. The pa-
ing. The greatest missiological challenge of global tristic phrase, God became man, so that men
Orthodoxy at the dawn of the third millennium might become god, does not convey a sharing of
appears to be the need for internal mission, for the divine essence. The intent is that to be fully
714
Overseas Missionary Fellowship (OMF)
human, one must become fully mature in the reach. In this, it mirrors the church of the early
imago Dei (IMAGE OF GOD). centuries, which allowed catechumens (those
The goal of restoring humankind to the lost being instructed for baptism) to stay for all but
image of God has several implications for mis- the eucharistic portion of the liturgy. While the
sions. In the first place, it highlights the impor- order of catechumens is no longer observed in
tance of the liturgical community, which cele- the EOC, the warnings for them to depart before
brates the incarnation and the death and the Eucharist still form part of the liturgy of the
resurrection of the Lord. It is in this community EOC. However, the liturgical witness of the EOC
that the maturation and growth in grace occurs. is seen as a legitimate and appropriate form of
Therefore it also elevates the importance of each evangelistic witness. Stories abound of the con-
culture because no language is inappropriate to version of pagans once they had observed the
worship God. Only in ones mother tongue can liturgical ceremonies of the EOC. One of the tra-
the true worship of God be expressed. The Or- ditional stories of the conversion of Prince
thodox see Pentecost as the reversal of the confu- VLADIMIR (989), founder of Russian Christianity,
sion of tongues at the Tower of Babel. The gospel revolves around his envoys witnessing the liturgy
must be preached in all the world and God wor- celebrated in Constantinople.
shiped in all the languages of the world. The A phrase used in EOC theology to describe the
entry of the Second Person of the Trinity into centrality of the liturgical rites is the liturgy after
first-century Palestine is taken to be the model the liturgy. This signifies the Orthodox view that
for the incarnation of the gospel into each people engagement in the world is also an act of leitour-
group so that each will be able to worship the gia. The word comes from the two Greek words
Triune God. Indeed, the focus in the EOC is on leitos (public) and ergon (work). Traditionally the
the correct (ortho) praise (doxia), and not merely liturgy signified the celebration of the Eucharist
on the correct doctrine. Great emphasis is placed by a local community, but this has been expanded
on the use of the vernacular in the liturgy. The re- to use liturgy to signify the Churchs witness to
sult is that where the Orthodox faith has been the world. The other term used is martyria to sig-
planted it has penetrated deeply into the soul of nify the centuries of witness that led to MARTYR-
the nation. The transmission of the gospel into DOM. The EOC involvement in the ECUMENICAL
the culture has shaped the culture in many lands MOVEMENT has led to a clearer articulation of a
where the Eastern Church was the predominant theology of mission that follows the traditional
Christian expression. This close identification of EOC theological perspective.
Orthodox Christianity and culture has led to the There are no independent mission societies in
religious persecution of non-Orthodox Christians the EOC. All missionary work is undertaken
in traditionally Orthodox lands. under episcopal supervision. In 1870, Metropoli-
The pillars of the mission theology of the EOC tan Innocent, himself a former missionary to
have been the use of the vernacular, the deploy- Russian Alaska, founded the Orthodox Mission-
ment of indigenous clergy, the translation of the ary Society in Moscow. More recently, missionary
Bible into the vernacular and the selfhood of the interest in Greece was sparked by Porethenes, a
national church. The goal was the creation of
missionary journal founded in 1959 and suc-
self-governing churches praising God in their
ceeded by Pante ta Ethnes. The Inter-Orthodox
own language and, to some extent, style which
Missionary Centre was founded in Athens in
accounts for the minor differences in liturgical
1961. The center supported the work of the
practice and theological emphasis throughout
African Orthodox Church, an African-initiated in-
the EOC. These differences have been treated as
dependent church located in East Africa. In
either local traditions or under the category of
North America, mission interest was stimulated
theolougemena (theological opinion that does not
by the Mission Committee of the Greek Orthodox
contradict counciliar definitions). However, litur-
gical uniformity and allegiance to the creeds and Archdiocese of North and South America and the
councils bound the diverse linguistic groups into work of the Inter Orthodox Mission Center in St.
a whole. Augustine, Florida. Orthodox missionaries are at
To use the traditional Western categories of work in Africa, Asia, Central Europe, and North
mission, the ultimate aim of mission is to restore America.
all of humanity to a right relationship with God, JAMES J. STAMOOLIS
which would issue in all of humankind correctly Bibliography. I. Bria, Martyria/Mission: The Witness
praising the Trinity. The motives for mission are of the Orthodox Churches Today; idem, The Liturgy after
obedience to God, love for God, and love for a the Liturgy: Mission and Witness from an Orthodox Per-
fallen humanity. The method would be to have spective; A. Schmemann, Church, World, Mission;
lives lived in accordance with the gospel and en- J. Stamoolis, Eastern Orthodox Mission Theology Today.
gaged in the worship of the true God. In Ortho-
dox theory and practice, the liturgical expression Overseas Missionary Fellowship (OMF). In
of the church is a method of evangelistic out- 1964 the Overseas Missionary Fellowship suc-
715
N-O-P Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:53 AM Page 716
Overseas Missionary Fellowship (OMF)
ceeded the China Inland Mission (CIM), which first decades of its existence the CIM sent only
had been founded in Great Britain in 1865 by British missionaries to the field, but in 1888 Tay-
JAMES HUDSON TAYLOR. Taylor had served as a lor visited the United States to preach at various
missionary in China from 1835 to 1860 with the interdenominational mission conferences, and
Chinese Evangelization Society. An international, the CIM subsequently expanded its base to North
inderdenominational organization, the CIM was America. The first North American recruits sailed
a faith mission that eventually became the largest from Canada that year. Henry W. Frost was ap-
mission agency in China. It had its headquarters pointed North American director and held the po-
in Shanghai, as Taylor believed that decisions sition for forty years.
needed to be made in the country where the mis- Because Taylor was committed to the evange-
sion actually operated, not in the sending coun- lization of Chinas unreached population, CIM
try. He firmly believed that God would provide missionaries often established themselves in re-
the money necessary to run the organization and, mote locales and small towns overlooked by other
accordingly, asked only for prayers and personnel mission groups. Notable among the CIM mission-
for the work, never directly soliciting funds. An- aries in China were the martyred John and Betty
other unusual aspect is that Taylor insisted that Stam, whose infant daughter escaped death and
his missionaries live as much as possible like was carried in a basket by a Chinese convert to the
those they sought to convert. All were required to nearest mission station. Taylor, who died in 1905,
adopt native dress, and, while the Qing dynasty was succeeded as CIM director by D. E. HOSTE,
was in power, the men were required to grow George W. Gibb, Frank Houghton, J. O. SANDERS,
queues, pinning fake ones inside their hats until Michael C. Griffiths, and James Hudson Taylor III,
their own hair reached the proper length. As great-grandson of the founder. The CIMs major
most of the CIM missionaries were married, the publication was the periodical Chinas Millions,
mission established a boarding school for their which kept supporters at home informed of the
children at Chefoo. work. When Christian missions were forced to
While emphasizing belief in the whole Bible, withdraw from China in the early 1950s, the CIM
the CIM encouraged its members to maintain removed its operations to other Asian countries in-
their ties to the various denominational churches. cluding Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea, the
CIM recruits were not required to be university Philippines, Thailand, and Singapore.
graduates, and the organization sent unmarried KATHLEEN L. LODWICK
women and unordained men to China as mis- Bibliography. K. S. Latourette, A History of Christian
sionaries long before most other missions recog- Missions in China; P. Brierley, ed., U.K. Christian Hand-
nized the contributions they could make. In the book, 1983 ed.
716
Pacifist Theology. Christian pacifist theology

grows from the conviction that Jesus meant it to
be taken seriously when he said, Love your ene-
mies and Do not return evil for evil (Matt. 5),
even to the extent of laying down ones life rather
than taking the life of another. Likewise, the the-
ology of Christian missions stems from the con-
viction that Jesus final words, Go and make dis-
ciples of all people (Matt. 28), were given to be
obeyed, even to the extent of forsaking ones
Pp
gelical radicalism among the Hussites and An-
homeland so that others might hear the gospel. abaptists. It was this same Moravian revival
Just as post-Constantinian obedience to the which, beginning immediately in its first decade,
GREAT COMMISSION is rooted most clearly in the inaugurated the outpouring of missionary energy
radical biblicism of such historic Christian which resulted both in the conversion of JOHN
movements as the Celts, the Franciscans, the WESLEY and the sending of Christian witnesses
Waldenses, Anabaptists, Moravians, Baptists, worldwide (see MORAVIAN MISSION). The link with
Wesleyans, and Pentecostals, so the Christian pacifistic groups is clear, especially in their Re-
embrace of pacifism is most closely linked with formation and pre-Reformation radical heritage.
these same expressions of renewal. In this broad These historic connections between pacifism and
historic sense there is a discernible connection missions are not accidental. They derive from a
between pacifist theology and mission. straightforward evangelical biblicalism which af-
However, many evangelical Christians with firms both Go ye into all the world and Love
roots in the nineteenth- and twentieth-century your enemies. In each case, obedience requires
missionary movement were unaware of these sacrifice and suffering love.
connections. Members of historic peace Pacifist Christians maintain that the two are
churches such as Quakers, Brethren, and Men- logically as well as biblically linked. The world is
nonites did, of course, maintain outspoken com- full of enemies, they say, and the only way to go
mitment to Christian pacifism, but they were to them with integrity is to go in love with a
somewhat less conspicuous at the forefront of commitment to peace. Any other posture leads
the missionary movement, though they were cer- either to neglect of the missionary mandate
tainly not absent. However, others such as Bap- (where the enemy is fought or ignored) or to
tists and postWorld War II Pentecostals almost compulsive proselytization of the kind which
forgot their pacifistic origins. Jesus condemned.
For example, the pre-1967 Assemblies of God Non-pacifist evangelical Christians, while main-
official statement on war read in part, We, as a taining commitment to love of enemies, argue
body of Christians, while purposing to fulfill all that there are some circumstances in which
the obligations of loyal citizenship, are neverthe- Christians are permitted or even obligated to take
less constrained to declare we cannot conscien- up arms against others. These circumstances are
tiously participate in war and armed resistance usually defined as (1) times when the government
which involves the actual destruction of human which is ordained by God orders its citizens to
life, since this is contrary to our view of the clear arms or (2) when taking the life of another is nec-
teachings of the inspired Word of God, which is essary to protect the innocent. This position has
the sole basis of our faith (Beaman, p. 24). been defended classically as just war, although
The engagement of these same groups at the the use of mechanical war against citizen popula-
forefront of global missions is a matter of histor- tions in the twentieth century and the threat of
ical record. For example, the Moravian revival of nuclear war after 1945 raised serious questions as
1727 was rooted in a combination of contempo- to whether a traditional just war is any longer
rary German PIETISM and earlier European evan- possible.
717
Pacifist Theology
In summary, evangelical pacifists view the misfor health reasons. She left CMS home office
sionary movement since Pentecost as having service to work in Egypt with the Nile Mission
been embedded in forms of biblical literalism Press, but returned to the CMS when they agreed
and obedience which were either outright paci- to accept her for work in the Middle East.
fistic or inclined in that direction, thus linking Gifted in communication and cultural observa-
the two. Evangelical non-pacifists, in contrast, tion, Padwick engaged in a successful literature
tend to see Christian pacifism either as an im- ministry work throughout her career. In contrast
possible ideal or as a failure to read Romans 13 to the polemic approach of literature written at
correctly, thus denying significant connections that time for use in evangelization among Mus-
between pacifism and missions. lims, Padwick wrote so as to engage in penitent
Because various forms of evangelical non-paci- love by creating sensitive understanding of Islam.
fism have been predominant in twentieth-century Her approach was to build bridges through loving
evangelicalism and because most evangelical understanding rather than to attack Islamic doc-
pacifists spend more time defending their view of trines and beliefs. Muslim Devotions (1961), along
peace biblically and philosophically than promot- those lines, is a compilation of devotions from var-
ing it as intrinsic to a missiological stance, little ious Sufi orders chosen to promote understanding
has been written on missions and pacifism. It re- among Christians of the deeply held religious faith
mains, however, a fertile field for investigation. of Muslims.
RICHARD SHOWALTER Writing biographies about missionaries such
as HENRY MARTYN (1922) and W. H. TEMPLE
Bibliography. J. Beaman, Pentecostal Pacifism: The
GAIRDNER (1929), developing such works as Mus-
Origin, Development, and Rejection of Pacific Belief
Among Pentecostals; R. G. Clouse, ed., War: Four Chris- lim Devotions, editing Orient and Occident, writ-
tian Views; R. Ramseyer, ed., Mission and the Peace Wit- ing Arabic text books for Sudanese schools, and
ness; J. H. Yoder, The Politics of Jesus. working with scholars such as HENDRIK KRAEMER,
Padwick was a pioneer among women in bridg-
Padilla, Carlos Ren (1932 ). Ecuadorian the- ing the gap between missionary service and mis-
ologian, writer, and pastor. At an early age he sionary scholarship. She is rightly characterized
started developing his writing and analytical by Ruth Tucker as one of the first great contem-
skills and later took his training at Wheaton Col- porary women missiologists.
lege Graduate School. Upon graduation he A. SCOTT MOREAU
worked among university students, serving in Bibliography. K. Cragg, Muslim World 49:1 (1969):
Latin America with the International Fellowship 2939; R. A. Tucker, GGC; idem, Missiology 15:1 (1987):
of Evangelical Students (IFES). Almost simulta- 7397.
neously he earned a Ph.D. in New Testament
from the University of Manchester, in Great Paganism. See NEOPAGAN, NEOPAGANISM.
Britain. Living and ministering primarily in a
continent with deep social and economic prob- Pakistan (Est. 2000 pop.: 161,827,000; 796,095
lems and not fully satisfied with the solutions of- sq. km. [307,372 sq. mi.]). A token Christian pres-
fered by either the theology of liberation or the ence from as early as the fourth century has been
evangelical movement as a whole, Padilla has documented in the region of Pakistan. There is
written and spoken extensively throughout the also a Thomas tradition, believable but not
world, calling for a hermeneutic not affected by proven. Christian communities once existing in
ideology or traditional practices in the process of Baluchistan, Punjab, and Sindh became isolated,
contextualizing the biblical message in order to declined, and died out by the eleventh century,
communicate it effectively. This is the focus of a probably absorbed by Islam.
missionary theology, faithful to the gospel and The earliest known missionary activity was ini-
relevant to the context. He has also written Mis- tiated by Roman Catholics during the sixteenth
sion Between the Times, and was the founder and and seventeenth centuries at the mouth of the
editor of the magazine Misin from his head- Indus River. No continuing church resulted. A Je-
quarters in Buenos Aires, plus establishing suit mission to Akbar failed to gain the Moghul
Kairs, a conference and retreat center for in- empire for Christianity. After the British annexed
depth discussions of subjects pertinent to the Sindh in 1843, and the Punjab in 1849, Roman
times and situation in Latin America. Catholics arrived as chaplains of the British army
PABLO E. PREZ and gradually extended their work to the local
population.
Padwick, Constance Evelyn (18861968). En- The American Presbyterian Mission was the
glish author and missionary in Egypt, Palestine, first Protestant agency, entering Punjab in 1849.
Sudan, and Turkey. Born in West Thorney, Sus- CMS began its work in Sindh by 1850, and ex-
sex, England, to an Anglican family, Padwick was tended to Punjab by 1854. Then followed the
initially rejected from service abroad by the CMS United Presbyterians in 1855, the Church of Scot-
718
Palmer, Phoebe Worrall
land in 1856, both in Punjab, and the Methodists ciation with the United States in 1982, but took
in 1872 in Karachi. Three events had a lasting over a decade to ratify the agreement, which took
impact on the church. The first was a large-scale effect on October 1, 1994. In 1993 it was esti-
conversion movement in Punjab from 1880 to mated that the population was just over 96 per-
1930. Two related developments were an indige- cent Christian (25.4% Protestant, 39.7% Catholic,
nous Punjabi metrical paraphrase of the Psalms, 3% foreign marginal) though 28.1 percent of that
and a spiritual revival that resulted in further was indigenous marginal. For example, the Mod-
conversions and a Christian Life Convention, ekne movement, a syncretistic mix of Christian-
which continues today at Sialkot. ity and magic, has many adherents among the
After independence and separation from India older population.
in 1947, at least fifteen new mission agencies en- A. SCOTT MOREAU
tered Pakistan. The 1951 census reported over
400,000 Christians, of whom more than half were SEE ALSO Micronesia.
Roman Catholics. In 1970 the Church of Pakistan
was created by a union of Anglicans, Methodists, Palau, Luis (1934 ). Argentinian evangelist.
Church of Scotland Presbyterians, and Luther- Converted at an early age and discipled by
ans; the new church had a combined total of British missionaries, he has become a global
200,000 members. The United Presbyterian evangelist holding mass crusades in different
Church, started in Sialkot in 1855, the largest sin- parts of the world. He was trained in his native
gle Protestant body in Pakistan, did not join the Buenos Aires and then completed his studies at
united church. Smaller groups included Baptists, Multnomah School of the Bible in Portland, Ore-
Brethren, and Pentecostals. gon. He first worked in Colombia under Overseas
The Islamic Republic of Pakistan has one of the Crusades and as his ministry expanded, founded
largest Christian communities in the Muslim his own Luis Palau Evangelistic Team, with
world. As of 1978 the churches in Pakistan claimed members from all of the Americas. Besides his
approximately 900,000 adherents540,000 Protes- main concern with the large cities of the world,
tants and 360,000 Roman Catholics. At least 90 which has included several large-scale crusades
percent are of Hindu background. The Christians by satellite covering most of Latin America, he
are concentrated mainly in Punjab, 80 percent in has endeavored to work with and through the
rural areas. Muslims have been resistant, but there church strengthening it and fostering church
are signs of change. planting and church growth. He also has a daily
The Christian Study Centre in Rawalpindi at- radio program, as well as a newspaper column
tempts to provide understanding between Chris- and has used television to enter many homes of
tians and Muslims. The Pakistan Bible Corre- the higher classes with his message. The fact that
spondence School is active. In addition to he is fluent both in Spanish and English has
hundreds of local schools, both rural and urban, opened the doors to his ministry in the English
that are operated by Christians, Pakistan has at speaking world, and has been an asset in his
least four Protestant seminaries, a large Roman writing ministry. He has authored over thirty
Catholic seminary, and four Bible schools. Vari- books in both languages, as well as a commen-
ous Protestant and Catholic relief services are ac- tary on the Gospel of John. He also publishes a
tive. Catholics run twelve hospitals and Protes- magazine for Christian leaders in Latin America,
tants twenty. Christians comprise only 2 percent Continente Nuevo. Still committed to mass evan-
of the population but provide 15 percent of the gelism, he has shown special interest in reaching
countrys medical care. Muslims for Christ by emphasizing His love for
ROGER E. HEDLUND them.
Bibliography. S. Athyal, ed., The Church in Asia PABLO E. PREZ
Today; R. E. Hedlund, ed., World Christianity: South Bibliography. S. R. Sywulka, TCDCB, pp. 29192;
Asia; J. A. Rooney, Shadows in the Dark (A History of T. Whalin, Luis Palau.
Pakistan up to the 10th Century); idem, The Hesitant
Dawn (Christianity in Pakistan 15791760); idem, On
Heels of Battles: A History of the Catholic Church in Pak- Palmer, Phoebe Worrall (180774). American
istan 17801886; idem, A History of the Catholic Diocese revivalist. Phoebe Worrall was born in New York
of Lahore, 18861986; F. M. Stock, People Movements in City to Methodist parents, her father having been
the Punjab; Survey Report of the Church in West Pak- converted under JOHN WESLEYs ministry. In 1827,
istan: A Study of the Economic, Educational and Reli- she married Walter Palmer, a New York physi-
gious Condition of the Church 19551959. cian. She did evangelistic work in the slums of
New York, founded the Hedding Church there,
Palau (Est. 2000 pop.: 19,000; 508 sq. km. [196 and in 1850 established the Five Points Mission,
sq. mi.]. A group of eight islands in Oceania, a forerunner of later settlement houses. In 1835,
southeast of the Philippines. A constitutional gov- she began the Tuesday Meeting for the Promo-
ernment, Palau signed the Compact of Free Asso- tion of Holiness and soon became a leading
719
Palmer, Phoebe Worrall
spokesperson for Holiness Theology. Her eight- Bibliography. H. A. Johnson, V. M. Monterroso, and
een books include Promise of the Father (1859), W. R. Read, Latin American Church Growth; E. A.
and what was her most significant work, The Way Nez and W. D. Taylor, Crisis in Latin America.
of Holiness (1843). She also edited the Guide to
Holiness periodical from 1864 to 1874. Palmer Panama (Est. 2000 pop.: 2,856,000; 75,517 sq.
modified Wesleys doctrine of perfectionism by km. [29,157 sq. mi.]). Panama is the link between
arguing that sanctification was instantaneous South America and the Central American isth-
upon ones complete submission at the altar. God mus. Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903,
would then send a baptism of the Holy Spirit, urged on by the United States in order to facili-
which empowered the believer to live a life of ho- tate the construction of the Panama Canal. The
liness and witness effectively. She participated in canal is the primary source of income for the Re-
over three hundred revival meetings throughout public as well as the cause of frequent foreign in-
the United States, Canada, and Great Britain. tervention. The Noriega military regime came to
She also was heavily involved in humanitarian an end in 1989 when U.S. troops invaded the
causes and in the struggle for womens rights, but country. The resultant civilian government is
is best known for her emphasis on holiness. weak.
TIMOTHY K. BEOUGHER The Catholic Church makes up about 72% of
Bibliography. H. E. Raser, Phoebe Palmer: Her Life the population but the number of faithful partic-
and Thought; C. E. White, The Beauty of Holiness: ipants is quite low. The Catholic leadership is
Phoebe Palmer as Theologian, Revivalist, Feminist, and perceived as weak and foreign, with 70% of the
Humanitarian; R. Wheatley, The Life and Letters of Mrs. priests being non-Panamanians.
Phoebe Palmer. The Protestant Church dates back to the mid-
nineteenth century, when Protestant North Amer-
Panama Congress (1916). A watershed event in icans came to Panama in order to build a rail-
the life of the evangelical Protestant church, the road across the isthmus. In 1849 Episcopal
Panama Congress drew attention to Latin Amer- services were being held in a hotel, and in 1864
ica as a mission field and gave fresh impetus to Christ Church by the Sea was built by the Rail-
the continents small and struggling Protestant road Company. By 1884 the Methodists had a
churches. The Congress came about largely as a missionary presence as well. Protestantism has
reaction to the WORLD MISSIONARY CONFERENCE in grown significantly in the past two decades, and
Edinburgh six years earlier, where the organizers now comprises some 18 percent of the popula-
had excluded Latin America from the agenda. tion. Whereas there were thirty-eight Protestant
Considering it already Christian because of its congregations in 1935, there are close to two
Roman Catholic heritage, Edinburgh focused in- thousand at the present time.
stead on pagan nations. During the Edinburgh The largest evangelical bodies are Pentecostal,
conference, however, North American delegates led by the Assemblies of God, the International
laid plans for a special meeting to consider the Church Four Square Gospel, and the Church of
unique missionary problems in Latin America. God (Cleveland). The largest non-Pentecostal
The Panama Congress had a strong North groups are the Adventists, the Baptists, and the
American flavor, with representatives from sev- Methodists.
eral dozen agencies from the United States. LINDY SCOTT
World War I limited European representation.
The proceedings were conducted in English, with
ROBERT SPEER presiding at business sessions and Panentheism. Panentheism, from the Greek pan
Samuel G. Inman as executive secretary. Of the (all), en (in), and theos (God), refers to a family of
304 participants, only 21 were native-born Latin Western and non-Western religious perspectives
Americans. on the relation between God and the world. In
Nonetheless, the Panama Congress made a contrast to both classical theism (which main-
lasting impact on Latin Protestantism. It pro- tains an ontological distinction between God and
duced the first serious study of Protestant work the world) and PANTHEISM (which identifies God
on the continent. It also gave a sense of identity with the world), panentheism both identifies God
and solidarity to the small and struggling Protes- and the world in one sense while distinguishing
tant church, then numbered at 126,000 members, between the two in another. The world exists in
up from 50,000 in 1900. After the congress, Latin God, yet God is not exhausted by the world.
Protestants reportedly began identifying them- Panentheistic views are found in various
selves as evangelicals, since they were not schools of Hinduism, especially in the Visistad-
protesting anything. The Panama Congress also vaita-vedanta school of Ramanuja (see VEDANTA
gave rise to a series of follow-up regional confer- HINDUISM). Panentheistic themes can also be
ences (Lima, Santiago, Rio de Janeiro, and San found in the Sufi mysticism of Islam. In the
Juan), thus promoting efforts of evangelization. Christian context, panentheism is expressed in
JOHN D. MAUST the process theism of John Cobb and Charles
720
Papua New Guinea
Hartshorne, which finds its inspiration in the within God though he is changeless and unaf-
philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead. In con- fected by the world.
trast to classical theism, process theism holds The Bible presents God as transcendent over
that God himself is in a state of process and the universe as its creator but at the same time
change. God is dipolar; in his moral character immanent within its processes and active in his-
God is unchanging, but in his knowledge God is tory. Most significantly God is personality, pro-
in process. God is limited both in power and viding a more satisfying cause for human per-
knowledge, and Gods knowledge grows in re- sonality and possibility for relationship.
sponse to the changes brought about by free WILLIAM H. BAKER
agents in the world.
In religious contexts influenced by the themes Papasarantopoulos, Chrysostom (190372).
of panentheism, the effective missionary will be Greek Orthodox missionary to East Africa. He
able to build upon those understandings of God inaugurated a new period of mission endeavor
which are compatible with biblical theism, but within worldwide orthodoxy. Papasarantopoulos
he or she must be careful to distinguish the bib- was born in Vasilitsion, Greece. Leaving home at
lical God from that of panentheism. fifteen, he joined the ascetic Panagoulakis,
WILLIAM H. BAKER where he learned the disciplines of prayer, fast-
ing, and the study of Scripture. Upon release
Pantaenus (d. c. 194). Possible pioneer mission- from the Greek Armed Forces, Christos entered
ary to India. He was born in either Athens or Marthakion Monastery, where he was tonsured a
Sicily; almost nothing is known of Pantaenuss monk and renamed Chrysostom on August 4,
childhood. He was head of a school in Alexandria 1925. Rising quickly, he was ordained a deacon
from roughly 180 until his death, and was suc- and priest in May 1926; soon after he was ap-
ceeded by Clement. While few details are known, pointed abbot of Gardikiou Monastery. After
moving to the monastery of Chrysokellaris in
Eusebius relates that Pantaenus responded to a
1935, where he founded catechism schools, he
call sent through the bishop of Alexandria and
was called to Athens as archimandrite and ap-
traveled to India. Jerome adds that his work was
pointed abbot of Fameromeni Monastery. Chris-
among the Brahmins. There he apparently met
tos received his grammar and high school de-
Christians who were familiar with Matthews
grees at age fifty. Five years later, in 1958, he
Gospel in Hebrew. The India mentioned by Euse-
earned the Licentiate in Theology from the Uni-
bius may refer to South Arabia, and Pantaenuss versity of Athens.
work appears to have been little more than a visit. Responding to the call to missions, Papasaran-
A. SCOTT MOREAU topoulos became the first twentieth-century
Bibliography. ODCC; G. Smith, The Conversion of Greek Orthodox missionary to Africa. During the
India; M. Whittaker, NCE, 10:947. following thirteen years, he worked in Uganda,
Zaire, Tanzania, and Kenya, where he learned
Pantheism. The word pantheism is derived Swahili, built churches and schools, trained ini-
from the Greek pan and theos and means all is tiates for the priesthood, and translated liturgical
God. Pantheism could also be described as the books. His work and correspondence with indi-
WORLDVIEW that individual human beings are not viduals and organizations helped spawn a new
ultimately real as separate entities; what exists is period of missions within Greek Orthodoxy. Pa-
a unified, ontological whole. The idea itself is at pasarantopoulos was laid to rest in 1972 at the
least as old as Hinduism, which teaches in the Church of St. Andrew in Kananga, Zaire.
DIMITRIOS G. COUCHELL
Vedas that all is Brahman, and as new as Alan
Watts pantheism in his New Age blend of Hindu, Bibliography. L. Veronis, TCDCB, p. 293.
Buddhist, and Christian thought. But the name
comes from the English writer John Toland Papua New Guinea (Est. 2000 pop.: 4,809,000;
(16701722) who held that the whole universe is 462,840 sq. km. [178,703 sq. mi.]). Due north of
God. The word pantheism has come to be used Australia, Papua New Guinea (PNG) is the east-
in contrast to theism which usually distin- ern section of the second largest island in the
guishes God from the creation. It is also related world. PNGs 4.8 million people speak over 700
to monism which teaches that everything is ul- languages. While English is the official language,
timately one. two local languages, Neo-Melanesian Pidgin
There are many forms of pantheism. Among (a creole of English) and Hiri Motu, are widely
the more significant are hylozoistic pantheism spoken. In addition to the cultural diversity,
which views God as immanent in the universe as PNGs mainland and 600 islands extend from the
its mover and changer; absolute pantheism in equator to 11 degrees south. The mainland is di-
which God is identical with the universe; and rel- vided by the central mountain range with peaks
ativistic pantheism which views the universe as in excess of 12,000 feet and populated valleys at
721
Papua New Guinea
elevations up to 7,000 feet. The coastal lowlands voice to government bodies. The newest group is
are covered with tropical rain forests and savan- the Pentecostal Alliance, formed in the early
nas with rivers created from the high mountain 1980s by the rapidly expanding number of tradi-
rainfall. PNG is governed by the National Parlia- tional and independent Pentecostal churches
ment with representatives from the 20 provinces. throughout PNG. With over 90 percent of the
Port Moresby, the capital city, has a population of population claiming Christianity, missions have
193,000. made one of the most significant contributions to
Although the earliest Christian contact came the development of PNG.
with the explorers during the sixteenth and sev- DOUGLAS MCCONNELL
enteenth centuries, the first significant wave of
Bibliography. S. Dorney, Papua New Guinea: People,
missionaries was in the latter half of the nine-
Politics and History since 1975; G. W. Trompf, Melane-
teenth century. The early missionaries came from sian Religion.
the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, the Methodists,
Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and the Anglicans
between 1870 and 1890. In addition to the mis- Parachurch Agencies and Mission. Parachurch
sionaries from the colonial empires, a number of agencies appear at first glance to be a relatively
Pacific Island missionaries served sacrificially to recent phenomenon, by many accounts begin-
establish the work in PNG. By the early 1890s, ning their ministries shortly after the Second
the major denominations had established their World War. But a closer look at the history of the
regional influence, which remains until the pres- church and its missionary enterprise will reveal a
ent. A second wave between 1890 and 1940 es- longer and deeper background. This background
tablished new missions in PNG, particularly in raises the question of defining these organiza-
the inland and coastal regions. tions, which relate in various ways to national
The postWorld War II thrust included mis- denominations and local churches. Many would
sions who targeted the isolated tribal peoples and agree that the term parachurch is a convenient
those who concentrated on the growing urban but imprecise term for these organizations. The
populations. The large number of tribal groups term itself is a compound, indicating that such
and the geographic isolation, coupled with few groups function outside the church, or at least
government restrictions provided the ideal con- parallel to it (from the Greek preposition para,
ditions for the multiplication of missions of all meaning beside or alongside). These organi-
sizes and denominations. With more than 80 per- zations specialize in a diverse array of Christian
cent of the population living in rural areas, a services and are self-supporting, drawing their
defining characteristic of missions was their in- funds from Christian churches and Christians
volvement in commerce, education, health, and within those churches. Further, parachurches see
transport. themselves for the most part as arms of the local
From the early days of missionary work in church and not in competition with it. Although
PNG, local believers have served with expatriates there are legitimate differences of opinion re-
as missionaries to other tribal groups. This tradi- garding just how such organizations come into
tion has matured with the churches and in many being, many of them are born in the church
cases has led to local churches and denomina- and then sent out as functioning and healthy
tions taking on the responsibility for evangelizing parts of the local or denominational body. Cer-
the unreached tribes within their region. During tainly it is beyond dispute that many, by the same
the past two decades, a mission movement has token, are brought into being when a visionary
emerged among churches targeting the world Christian believes that either the church is not
outside of PNG. As a result, Papua New Guineans doing an adequate job in, for instance, reaching
have joined international missions as part of a particular segment of the community, or for
their global outreach teams. The growing interest whatever reason, the church is unable to do it.
in missions has also given rise to at least one in- History. Missiologist RALPH WINTER points out
digenous mission society with missionaries cur- a distinction between stationary institutions
rently serving overseas. (modalities) and mobile agencies (sodalities) that
The diversity of Christian traditions, churches, began in biblical times (see SODALITY AND MODAL-
and missions has created a landscape of mission ITY). In the next few centuries, the church became
pluralism, which has fostered a number of al- more institutionalized, heretical sects sprung up,
liances. The mainline Protestant and Roman and the church began to splinter into factions,
Catholic churches and missions have affiliated sometimes resembling the denominations of the
with the Melanesian Council of Churches to fa- present century. Subsequent history records the
cilitate cooperative ventures and serve as a voice significance of the councils of the church which
to the government. Due to the relative size of gathered to sort out the lines of orthodoxy and to
many of the evangelical missions and churches, affirm and clarify precise statements by which the
an alliance (EA) was formed to provide training church would proceed. The early monastic move-
for church workers, teachers, and an evangelical ment and the subsequent orders of the Roman
722
Parachurch Agencies and Mission
Church indicated a useful paradigm for both spir- in openings for the gospel in very remote areas of
itual formation as well as specialized ministry the globe, a ministry undertaken by WYCLIFFE
commitments. When these kinds of groups were BIBLE TRANSLATORS, INTERNATIONAL, a mission
formed, they were often made up of the laity car- agency devoted to working in cultures with lan-
rying on a personal ministry outside the direct au- guages that had been without structured analysis
thority and control of the church. The Reforma- and written materials. At the present time special
tion signaled a way in which a committed emphasis is being given to reaching national and
churchman like Martin Luther wanted to change religious groups which traditionally presented
the church from within but was prevented from great challenges to missionaries. The spread of
doing so; the result (as in the later experience of communicable diseases, famine, earthquakes,
JOHN WESLEY) was the formation of a new move- floods, and national and international military
ment outside the church which developed into a conflicts have spurred the church into action, and
full-fledged denomination. At the present time often, the parachurch agencies (e.g., World Vision
parachurch organizations almost defy description and World Relief) have responded quickly to re-
because of their proliferation throughout the lieve the immediate suffering, provide rescue op-
Christian world. The main prerequisites seem to erations, and in many cases have remained to
be an individual with a vision, a cadre of support- provide supplies and aid in rebuilding the infra-
ers who affirm that vision, and the courage to ini- structure destroyed in the struggle for peace and
tiate ministry and raise the necessary capital to stability. Parachurch organizations have also pio-
sustain the ministry. In the providence of God, neered strategic thinking in reaching unreached
many of these ministries have established them- peoples (see PEOPLES, PEOPLE GROUPS), establish-
selves in such a way as to provide leadership for ing cross-cultural training for both short-term
the church in areas where the church was either and career missionaries, and exploring the poten-
weak or where it lacked the incentive to under- tially explosive CREATIVE ACCESS COUNTRIES
take such bold initiatives in reaching out beyond through TENTMAKING MISSION strategies.
the parameters of the local church. Foreign mis- Hindrances to Parachurch Effectiveness in
sion societies have enabled regional and national
Missionary Activity. Parachurch agencies have
churches to specialize in meeting the needs of
always challenged the status quo in which reli-
specific interest groups, and in so doing, they
gious culture can be found, and having pointed to
have enlarged the ministries of local congrega-
their strengths it would be easy to overlook their
tions far beyond their ability to accomplish the
weaknesses. Because of the tendency toward en-
same thing on their own.
trepreneurial leadership, there is often a lack of
Classification. Generally speaking, almost
every conceivable area of mission has been ad- accountability outside the organization and par-
dressed, with many of these, unfortunately, du- ticularly to the local church. From the churches
plicating other ministries. By and large, these perspective, it is easy to ask for funds to meet a
groups have been organized around GREAT COM- pressing need while at the same time not being
MISSION and GREAT COMMANDMENT passages in the
sensitive to the counsel of godly leaders within the
New Testament. EVANGELISM and DISCIPLESHIP, church, be it local or denominational. And even if
educational institutions, relief and community it is not a stated policy, parachurch organizations
development (see RELIEF WORK and DEVELOP- have tended to hold their local church responsi-
MENT), medical societies, Bible distribution and bilities rather loosely, sometimes scheduling
translation groups, media and communication events without coordinating with church calen-
agencies, and many specialized organizations too dars. Over the years, however, these issues have
numerous to mentionthese constitute a broad been addressed within the organizations them-
survey of the categories by which parachurch selves, and other agencies have been created ex-
agencies can be identified. pressly to assist in matters of financial integrity as
Contributions of Parachurch Agencies in Mis- well as in theological orthodoxy.
sionary Activity. Parachurch organizations relate The Future. Few would deny that parachurch
to missions by providing training and momentum organizations have contributed greatly to the
for local churches and denominations. Some of churchs mission throughout the churchs history.
the most creative initiatives in world mission have Indeed, the church has been enriched through
come from within these organizations, often the many ministries created by visionary Chris-
working in tandem with local churches or de- tians. But when the designation parachurch is
nominations. Recently unique openings for the used of such organizations, there is a clear ex-
gospel have come from the almost universal pectation that these organizations will work
screening of the life of Jesus from the Gospel ac- more closely with national and local churches, al-
cording to Luke (see JESUS FILM); literally thou- ways trying to achieve that unity which brings
sands of churches have been planted as a result of great delight to the heart of God (John 17:2123;
the follow-up and discipling of new believers. The Eph. 4:113).
ministry of the Bible translation has also resulted JOHN W. NYQUIST
723
Parachurch Agencies and Mission
Bibliography. Discipleship and Worship Program, Protestant group, as well as other ethnic groups,
The United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., Para- live in self-contained colonies where European
Church Groups: A Report on Current Religious Move- languages other than Spanish are dominant.
ments; K. S. Latourette, Advance Through the Storm; Other denominations include the Assemblies of
Lausanne Committee for World Evangelism, Co-operat-
God (whose rapid growth after 1981 has resulted
ing in World Evangelization, A Handbook on Church/Para-
church Relationships; R. D. Winter, Perspectives on the in 6,450 members in 172 churches), Southern
World Christian Movement, pp. B45B57; J. White, The Baptists (5,200 members in 73 churches), and
Church and the Parachurch: An Uneasy Marriage. various Pentecostal groups (8,200 members in
116 churches). Notable among social outreach is
Paraguay (Est. 2000 pop.: 5,613,000; 406,752 sq. the Southern Baptist hospital founded in
km. [157,047 sq. mi.]). Paraguay is an inland, Paraguay in 1953. A recent high point in evangel-
subtropical South American republic bordered ical missions has been the increasing cooperative
by Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil. The country is spirit among different Christian denominations.
divided into two distinct areas by the Paraguay DAVID SPRUANCE
River, with 96 percent of the 5.3 million inhabi- Bibliography. P. Dostert, ed., Latin America 1995; J. O.
tants living in the more fertile east. Although the Watson. Baptist Ventures in Paraguay. The Commission.
capital of Asuncion (founded 1547) and its sub-
urbs has a population approaching one million, Paris Evangelical Missionary Society. (Socit
over 50 percent of the total population is rural. des missions vangliques de Paris) [PEMS]. Es-
The people are mostly of mixed Spanish and tablished in 1822 after the pattern of other fa-
Guarani (the dominant indigenous people group) mous interdenominational missionary societies
descent. As a result, although Spanish is the offi- in the wake of the great religious revival of the
cial language, 90 percent speak Guarani. Literacy nineteenth century, the PEMS began as a society
is officially said to be 90 percent, but may be of prayer in support of the LONDON MISSIONARY
about 80 percent. There are two universities in SOCIETY and the Evangelical BASEL MISSION. It
the country, one of which is Catholic. The soon established branches in France, Switzer-
Guarani seem to have an innate gift for music land, Italy, and Holland, and won the support of
and many are adept in the use of the Spanish many friends worldwide. At that time, long be-
guitar and harp accompanied by Guarani per- fore the creation of the Evangelical Alliance in
cussion instruments. Paraguayan painting and 1846, evangelical meant unifying Protestants in
sculpture date from Jesuit mission art schools a common obedience to Jesus according to the
and often are found in the churches. The recent gospel. The PEMS was always wary of doctrinal
construction of two immense hydroelectric dams disputes, but actually followed the evangelical
on the borders with Brazil and Argentina has line when choices were necessary. A famous case
provided high rates of employment as well as was the refusal of ALBERT SCHWEITZERS applica-
supplying the country with ample power. tion as a missionary candidate for Lambarene in
The state religion is Roman Catholicism (92% 1905 because of his alleged commitment to
of the population), which dates from the found- higher criticism. This evangelical line lost its vis-
ing of Jesuit missions in 1609. In 1767 the Jesuits ibility in 1948, when the PEMS was reorganized
were expelled after supporting a Guarani revolt in the wake of the missiological ideal of merging
against the move to cede the country to Portugal. church and mission. The PEMS was then almost
A disastrous 186570 war against Argentina, completely integrated into the sending churches
Brazil, and Uruguay resulted in the death of over in France and Switzerland. Henceforth, final doc-
half the population of one million. Less than trinal and financial decisions were made by the
30,000 men survived. The territorial Chaco War respective synods.
against Bolivia from 1929 to 1932 added to The first missionaries of the PEMS went to
Paraguays land. There have been two hundred Southern Africa in 1829, soon to be guided to
years of tyrannical dictatorships and government Lesotho in 1833, where EUGENE CASALIS and
incompetence topped off by the oppressive presi- Thomas Arbousset planted the Evangelical
dency of Alberto Stroessner from 1954 until Church of Lesotho in close cooperation with the
1989. The country is well known for illegal com- local king Moshoeshoe. From there new evangel-
mercialization (contraband) and its neighbors istic ventures were launched with Esaa Seele and
are happy to take advantage of it. other Sotho missionaries in 1863 and later with
The earliest Protestant missionary came in FRANOIS COILLARD and his party from 1877 along
1817, and was the first of a number of traveling the Zambezi River, planting the church which is
salesmen for the British Bible Society. Resident now a part of the United Church of Zambia. In
Methodist missionaries arrived in 1886. About 6 the meantime the PEMS was asked by the LMS to
percent of the present population can be called take over some mission fields coming under at-
Protestant, with slightly over 4 percent registered tack by French colonialism and Roman Catholi-
as evangelicals. Mennonites, who form the largest cism: Tahiti (1843, 1866), Madagascar (1897),
724
Parousia
Loyalty Islands and New Caledonia (1883, Mau- timately appointed commissioner to China. His
rice Leenhardt as from 1902). The same pattern relationship with his mission board was termi-
applied in West Africa. The PEMS took over the nated in 1847, both because of his political duties
American Presbyterian field in Gabon (1892, and because of disagreements over his role as a
Lambarene 1893), the German Baptist field and medical missionary. He left China in 1857 and
the Basel Mission field in French Cameroon lived in Washington, D.C., until his death in 1888.
(1917), and the German Lutheran field in Togo RALPH R. COVELL
(1929). All these churches became formally inde-
Bibliography. E. V. Gulick, Peter Parker and the
pendent in 195764, calling themselves Evangel- Opening of China.
ical Church in Cameroon, in Madagascar, and in
New Caledonia. These developments led the
Parousia. Early Christians lived in the expecta-
PEMS to decide on its own dissolution in 1971,
tion of the prompt return of the Lord Jesus Christ
giving birth to two new bodies, one common mis-
(1 Thess. 4:1618; 4:8; 2 Peter 3:3ff.). This belief
sion board of several French mainline Protestant
flowed naturally out of their definition of the
Churches called Dpartement Franais dAction
KINGDOM OF GOD as both a present reality and a
Apostolique [DEFAP], and one international com-
future expectation. Both Judaism and Christian-
munity of 47 Reformed, Lutheran, Methodist, and
ity are characterized as forward looking in their
United churches (1997), called CEVAA (Commu-
faith and practice. They believe human history
naut vanglique dAction Apostolique or Evan-
cannot resolve the complex morass of human ex-
gelical Community for Apostolic Action), both
istence. Only God can. The parousia of Christ is
based in Paris.
for Christians the ultimate answer to death, evil,
The PEMS has been publishing since 1826 one injustice, and chaos. What, then, is the relation-
of the oldest missionary magazines in the world, ship of the future appearance of Christ and world
the Journal des Missions vangliques, until 1990 mission? Does a belief in the parousia encourage
when the journal was renamed Mission: Mensuel or paralyze the mission of the church?
Protestant de Mission et de Relations Interna- The New Testament and the Parousia. While
tionales (monthly). The PEMS was also a publish- the parousia is uniquely Christian, some of the
ing house, active in Bible translation and distri- language and concepts in which it is couched are
bution (e.g., the Sotho Bible, 1879), promotional Jewish. During the Old Testament and intertesta-
literature, and in-depth studies. Several periodi- mental periods Jewish expectations of the king-
cals in local languages were launched, including dom became increasingly prominent. They be-
Leselinyana [The Little Light] (1863 ), the sec- lieved the kingdom would appear in history as a
ond oldest periodical in Southern Africa (in gift from God. The Day of Yahweh was one of a
Sotho) and Ny Mpamafy [The Sower] (19001958) number of phrases used to express this belief.
(in Malagasy). Jesus taught that the kingdom was present in
MARC R. SPINDLER his ministry and the New Testament writers be-
lieved that the kingdom had come through the
Parker, Peter (180488). American pioneer med- incarnation, including the death and resurrection
ical missionary to China. Born and raised in of Christ and the coming of the Holy Spirit (Matt.
Framingham, Massachusetts, Peter Parker re- 12:28; Luke 2:17; 1 Cor. 15:23). Jesus also taught
ceived his basic college education at Yale Univer- his disciples to expect a future coming of the
sity. He then engaged in three years of intensive kingdom (Luke 22:16, 18). Paul, the Gospel writ-
graduate studies at New Haven, receiving both ers, James, and Peter taught explicitly that Jesus
his B.D. in theology and M.D. in medicine. After would appear a second time (Titus 2:13; John
ordination as a missionary with the AMERICAN 21:22; James 5:8; 1 Peter 1:5). The word parousia
BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS, means coming or appearance. The New Testa-
he sailed for China as the first medical mission- ment uses a number of words for the second ad-
ary to that country. In 1835 he opened the Oph- vent such as coming, appearance, reveal, pres-
thalmic Hospital in Canton. Three years later he ence, and day (of Christ, God, Lord). Words such
assisted in founding the Medical Missionary So- as appearance/coming (parousia) and day of the
ciety for promoting medical missions in China. Lord were used to express this belief. At times
During the political troubles at the time of the the language and belief of Jesus and the early
Opium War (183942) Parker returned to Amer- church was characterized by a note of immi-
ica, spoke extensively on medical missions, and nence. But there was a uniform avoidance of date
strongly advocated to his government an Ameri- setting (Acts 1:7; Mark 13:32).
can commission to China. The Problem of the Delay. Modern critical
After his return to China in 1842, Parker served study of the New Testament has in general been
as interpreter in the 1844 Wanghsia treaty nego- characterized by a belief that the delay of the
tiations between the United States and China, be- parousia led to a crisis in early Christianity. When
came the American charg daffaires, and was ul- theology of imminence was followed by contin-
725
Parousia
ued delay, so the argument goes, the church be- SEE ALSO Eschatology; Millennial Thought.
came disillusioned, resulting in an abandoning of
Bibliography. O. Cullmann, The Theology of the
the imminent expectation of the parousia. The hy- Christian Mission, pp. 4254; G. E. Ladd, The Gospel of
pothesis became a controlling presupposition of the Kingdom; W. H. Mare, Current Issues in Biblical and
much twentieth-century scholarly study of the Patristic Interpretation, pp. 33645; A. L. Moore, The
New Testament. Parousia in the New Testament; S. P. Saunders, Gospel
One of the obvious problems with this hypothe- in Context 2:4 (Oct. 1979): 317; J. A. Scherer, Missiol-
sis is the notable absence of data in the New Tes- ogy 18:4 (1990): 395413.
tament and the early church fathers (2 Peter 3 and
John 21:18ff.). The failure of these writers to talk Parrish, Sarah Rebecca (18691952). American
about this problem seems to indicate there was no pioneer missionary physician in the Philippines.
major problem in the delays of the parousia. That Born in Bowers, Indiana, Parrish developed a
Jesus and the early Christians believed in immi- heart of compassion and an understanding of ad-
nence cannot be doubted. This being so, why did versity from her early experience as an orphan.
the delay of the parousia prove inconsequential? She received her medical training in the U.S. In
Sociological studies show that movements that 1906, Parrish was the first female physician sent
engage in date-setting, such as the Seventh-Day to the Philippines under the auspices of the
Adventists and Jehovahs Witnesses, may con- Methodist Episcopal Womans Foreign Mission-
tinue to grow and thrive in spite of eschatologi- ary Society. She combined medicine, evangelism,
cal disappointment. As for early Christianity it and social work in her efforts to ameliorate
can be shown that although Jesus taught immi- poverty and unsanitary conditions. Parrish began
nence, as did the apostles, their faith was deeply work in a one-room dispensary in Manila. Within
anchored in two things: a belief in present salva- a year, it had grown to two rooms with ten beds.
tion and a total involvement in mission (Matt. Two years later, a generous donation from the
24:14; 28:20; Acts 1:611; Gal. 2:78; Rom. Johnstons of Minneapolis enabled her to estab-
1:1416; 15:2324). These early Christians were lish the Mary Johnston Hospital and School of
experiencing the already through the empow- Nursing in Tondo, a waterfront slum. Parrish
ering presence of God in the resurrection and the maintained high credentialing standards at the
outpouring of the Holy Spirit for life and witness. hospital and it is still operating. She took few fur-
Any supposed delay of the parousia served a loughs and worked in the Philippines for 27
good purpose (2 Peter 3:9). years. Upon retirement, Parrish wrote her mem-
Mission and Parousia. There is a vital rela- oirs and lectured widely. In 1950, she received a
tionship between the parousia and mission. citation and medal of honor from President
Alongside the churchs belief in imminence was Quirino and the Civic Assembly of Women for
belief in worldwide mission. Jesus clearly and her pioneering efforts to inspire health and social
specifically called the Twelve and Paul to engage welfare in the Philippines by . . . bringing Chris-
in mission to the world. The delay of the parou- tian love, healing, and enlightenment, and a bet-
sia caused no paralysis in mission, rather, as the ter way of life.
church became universal its belief in the parou- MARGOT EYRING
sia was a motivating factor in mission (Matt.
24:14; Acts 1:611). The church engaged in mis- Bibliography. G. H. Anderson, CDCWM, p. 472; G. J.
Bekker, DCA, p. 869.
sion, not to bring in the kingdom, but as an act of
faithfulness to their king who was coming. World
mission gives meaning to the churchs life be- Participant Observation. See QUALITATIVE RE-
tween the crucifixion/resurrection of Christ and SEARCH.
the second coming of Christ. For those who had
experienced the blessings of the age to come Partnership. The voices calling for the MORATO-
while living in this present age, their desire was RIUM of foreign mission agencies have grown
to make this Good News known to the unreached silent. In their place new voices call for other op-
while awaiting the completion of their salvation tions. As for church-mission relationships, these
(Rom. 15). include, with numerous variations, at least four
While the place of the parousia in the life of theories: (1) departure, (2) subordination, (3) par-
the church has ebbed and flowed throughout the allelism, and (4) partnership.
history of the church, the early church believed Theory 1: Departure. Once the national church
fervently in both imminence and world mission. reaches maturity, the expatriates depart physi-
Properly understood, the parousia of Christ mo- cally, although they may continue to send funds.
tivates Christians for mission. Those who firmly HENRY VENN and RUFUS ANDERSON must be cred-
believe that God will complete the not yet of the ited for this unrivaled mission theory of the nine-
kingdom will be energized to preach the gospel teenth and first half of the twentieth centuries: the
to every people group in the world. three-self INDIGENOUS CHURCH concept (self-prop-
HAROLD E. DOLLAR agating, self-supporting, self-governing). JOHN
726
Partnership
NEVIUS, sensing the practicality of the three-selfs, ternational level (often cutting across geography,
instituted them in China and more effectively in theology, ethnicity, gender, generations, and in-
Korea. Neviuss The Planting and Developing of come boundaries), participants may come from
Missionary Churches remains a classic. ROLAND anywhere in the world and go anywhere in the
ALLEN echoed Venn and Andersons theory in the world.
twentieth century, arguing that the three-selfs Motivations for forming strategic partnerships
work not just because they are practical, as did vary considerably. One is fear. The declining mis-
Nevius, but because they are biblical. Allen makes sionary population from the West in contrast to
the argument in his classic Missionary Methods: the increasing missionary population from the
St. Pauls or Ours? Failure to ask the global ques- Third World (see NON-WESTERN MISSION BOARDS
tions, among other things, would eventually date AND AGENCIES) raises control issues. The high cost
this theory. of new start-ups, along with the maintenance of
Theory 2: Subordination. Once the national existing programs, creates tremendous competi-
church reaches maturity, expatriates work under tion for dollars in a shrinking support pool. The
national leaders while providing their own sup- competitive search for dollars also influences job
port. This unilateral theory transfers complete security. A second motivation is convenience.
control to the national church. Some view this Seekers may find association with another group
theory as ecumenism at its best while others see advantageous, whether for finances, personnel,
it as distorted partnership representing a kind of training, facilities, technology, logistics, psycho-
reverse paternalism. logical security, linguistics, cultural or lifestyle
Theory 3: Parallelism. Since the national church nearness, name recognition, global access, or
is mature, each party develops complementary, yet publicity. A more positive motivation is theology.
separate agendas while maintaining individual or- The Bible calls for Christians to set aside un-
ganizational structures, personnel, and budgets. healthy competition and instead create alterna-
This theory respects the unity, diversity, and au- tive complementary partnerships that utilize ef-
tonomy of all the players. Proponents see the in- fectively the diversity represented, take seriously
ternational body of Christ in action, utilizing the the stewardship of resources (human and mate-
different parts to fulfill a unified goal. Opponents rial), and create liberated synergy, thereby credi-
believe it stifles the Great Commission within the bility to witness.
national church, leaving evangelism and mission Strategic partnerships deal with methodology,
to outsiders. not with goals of what must be done. Central to
Theory 4: Partnerships. Luis Bush defines part- the what should be the expansion of the church
nerships as: an association of two or more as a sign of Gods kingdom. Wise partners will in-
Christian autonomous bodies who have formed a sist that the vision statement centers around se-
trusting relationship and fulfill agreed upon ex- lective components of the GREAT COMMANDMENT
pectations by sharing complementary strengths and the GREAT COMMISSION.
and resources to reach their mutual goal. This A common vision serves as the driving force
theory advocates that institutions work not apart behind effective strategic partnerships. Partners
from each other [Theory 1], or under each other negotiate a vision statement, and the organiza-
[Theory 2], or unified but separate [Theory 3], tional structure to fulfill it. They agree upon as-
but as equal partners. Proponents argue this mul- signed roles and rules that foster complementary
tilateral theory protects both the commission of participation. Every member shares in the risks
the receiving national church and the sending in- without compromising their divine call or corpo-
stitution or church. Opponents argue the com- rate values.
plexity of ethnic relationships, economic levels, The duration of strategic partnerships varies
and so forth, make this theory extremely difficult depending upon the specified goals. Some are
to accomplish. designed to field quick response teams for short
While the first three theories continue to re- periods. Others form for long-term activities or
ceive endorsement, a growing number of nation- somewhere in between. Whatever the duration,
als and expatriates, countering Henry Venns eu- partners will want to institute procedures for the
thanasia of mission strategy (also promoted by graceful dismantling of the partnership, due ei-
Roland Allen), support the fourth theory. They ther to the completion of the stated goals, to the
argue that in Gods economy, inclusion, interde- completion of the original time frame for the
pendence, and role changes should replace isola- partnership, or to unresolved conflicts that may
tion, independence, or departure. arise.
Partnership Fundamentals. Strategic part- Partnership Life Cycle Phases. Fundamental
nerships today go far beyond mission agencies to the success of any strategic partnership is
and national churches to include local churches, trust. Open communication facilitates trust-
parachurch organizations, and academic training building and efficiency. During the exploration
institutions. Participants may partner on the phase, potential partners will want to discuss
local, national, or international levels. On the in- their expectations in relation to the term part-
727
Partnership
nership. These expectations may include lan- employ or subcontract trained and experienced
guages to be used, conflict resolution, goals and pastoral counselors, who themselves have served
priorities, organizational structure (status and in cross-cultural settings long enough to ade-
roles), decision-making, planning and evaluation, quately understand the missionary context.
operation ethics, theological distinctives, mutual While requiring dual training will limit the num-
accountability contingency plans, finances, de- ber of available personnel, the dual training is
partnering, and how cultural distinctives influ- necessary to effectively minister in this special-
ence the interpretation of each. During this phase ized context.
they will seek to discover if there is a genuine Missionary conscripts should receive prepara-
mutual need, for herein lies the basis for healthy tion for spiritual and emotional stresses that will
partnership. typically face them. Standard training should in-
The formation phase may involve a facilitator clude stress management, identifying and coping
respected by all parties who demonstrates strong with depression and anxiety, and cross-cultural
belief in the sovereignty of God, personal in- conflict resolution.
tegrity, ability to network, an appreciation of di- A well thought out plan of pastoral care, based
versity, ability to solve cross-cultural conflicts, live in careful and accurate studies of the points of
with ambiguity, and champion the vision. During vulnerability, should be put into action. For ex-
the operational phase changes can be expected as ample, during their training period, new mis-
adjustments are made to adapt to present reali- sionaries should establish a relationship with a
ties. Participants will continually reevaluate per- pastoral counselor. The missionary should then
sonal relationships, the purpose, procedures, and receive an extended visit from this pastoral coun-
performances. They will attempt to make neces- selor after six months, and again after twelve
sary adjustments in culturally sensitive ways that months in the field.
reflect a Christian spirit. Once the partnership Pastoral counselors serving missionaries should
be allowed to maintain confidentiality (as is true
completes its goals, the dismantling phase begins.
of any licensed counselor) in order for the mis-
TOM A. STEFFEN
sionary to be assured that counseling content will
Bibliography. R. Allen, The Spontaneous Expansion not be shared with administrators without the
of the Church; L. Bush and L. Lutz, Partnering in Min- missionarys permission.
istry. The Directory of World Evangelism; V. Gerber, ed., As a standard, furloughs should include regu-
Missions in Creative Tension: The Green Lake 71 Com- lar pastoral counseling for missionary and fam-
pendium; W. D. Taylor, ed., Kingdom Partnerships for ily. This counseling should focus on discovering
Synergy in Missions; C. P. Williams, The Ideal of the Self- how the individual and family are dealing with
Governing Church: A Study in Victorian Missionary
Strategy.
stress.
Last, continuing education seminars should be
available on the field focusing on the areas iden-
Pastoral Counseling. Two major areas of con- tified in studies such as the one cited above.
cern exist with regard to pastoral counseling and Extra time should be scheduled for seminar lead-
missions. First is the provision of counseling ers to minister to missionaries. Other resources
services to missionaries themselves. Second is (i.e., literature, videos, audiotapes) can be pro-
pastoral counseling provided by the missionary vided as required.
as part of his or her ministry. Pastoral Counseling Provided by Missionaries.
Pastoral Counseling Services to Missionaries The goal of training missionaries to provide
(see also MEMBER CARE). Commonly used meas- CROSS-CULTURAL COUNSELING as part of their min-
urements of stress reveal that the average mis- istry is simple: to better equip them in fulfilling
sionary and family leaving for overseas faces sig- their cross-cultural task. It is commonly accepted
nificant stress before they even arrive to face the that missionaries must become deeply involved
stressors of their placement. Gish (1983) identi- in the lives of those to whom they desire to bring
fied nineteen areas of significant stress. The sur- Gods Word. Since becoming deeply involved in-
vey established the lack of pastoral care as signif- cludes being involved with individual and family
icant stress for 35 percent of the missionaries problems, training in cross-cultural counseling is
surveyed. The following responses would assist in essential. Attempting to minister to personal and
avoiding missionary BURNOUT. family problems with an understanding of
Missions agencies must develop a commit- human behavior from an ethnocentric perspec-
ment to provide supportive and caring environ- tive can have extremely unfavorable results. De-
ments. To form the foundation for this commit- spite the best intentions, great harm can result.
ment, the ethos created by administrators and Because effective counseling is based in under-
supervisors should value healthy and encourag- standing the feelings, cognitions, and behaviors
ing interpersonal relationships. Training for su- of the culture being served, increasing impor-
pervisory personnel should include basic courses tance must be given in mission and theological
in helping relationships and group/system dy- training centers to cross-cultural counseling.
namics. Additionally, mission agencies should DAVID WENZEL
728
Pastoral Responsibilities
Bibliography. D. Gish, Journal of Psychology and can live out the example of Jesus in his or her
Theology 11:3 (1983): 23643; D. J. Hesselgrave, IBMR pastoral duties.
10:3 (1986): 10913; M. Jones, EMQ 29:3 (July, 1993): The Goals of Pastoral Ministry. The goals of
29498; G. White, EMQ 25:3 (July, 1989): 3049. pastoral ministry center in efforts to equip peo-
ple first for their own relationship with God and
Pastoral Responsibilities. Pastoral responsibil- then for the ministries to which God has called
ities include guiding, comforting, correcting, en- them. Both missionaries and national leaders
couraging, nurturing, protecting, healing, and have opportunities for this equipping ministry.
worshiping. Caring for others, and being cared The goal of equipping others follows the proper
for by others, is not simply our biblical responsi- interpretation of Ephesians 4:1113 and remains
bility, but also a vital part of our evangelistic wit- a primary goal of pastoral work.
ness. Missionaries from Western countries are Pastoral responsibilities include guiding and
having less opportunities to serve as local-church correcting. Gentle, sympathetic guidance includ-
pastors in Two-Thirds World countries. They still, ing correction are among the more imperative
however, find extensive opportunities for pastoral functions of missionary leaders, and should be
responsibilities. carried out in ways that are in keeping with local,
The Methods of Pastoral Ministry. In regard culturally accepted patterns.
to pastoral responsibilities, missionaries should One of the foremost opportunities for pastoral
remember that the biblical model for pastoral responsibilities in todays world relates to helping
care and leadership clearly reflects the servant others develop pastoral skills, which multiplies
model. God called Abraham not just to become a the effectiveness of the missionary caregiver.
great nation, but rather to become a blessing to Pastoral responsibilities often include leading
the nations (Gen. 12:13). The Servant in Isaiah in worship. Worship leadership in cross-cultural
lived for the benefit of the people and not his situations demands sympathetic learning of the
own, and Israel was called to emulate this ser- local ways in order that the worship will be done
vanthood (Isa. 49:56; 53:46). in culturally appropriate patterns rather than im-
The incarnation remains the greatest example ported methods.
of the servant model (Luke 4:14; Phil. 2:511). The Recipients of Pastoral Ministry. Mission-
Jesus explained his ministry as to serve rather aries engaged in pastoral responsibilities target
than to be served (Mark 10:45; Luke 9:2327). different recipients for their ministries. One re-
The Lord indicated that the pattern of leadership cipient group for pastoral ministry resides in the
for people would not be that of the Gentile rulers missionarys own family. The missionary finds
who lord it over and exercise authority over abundant opportunity to be a pastor to spouse
those under their control. But, said Jesus, among and children. Also, the families and individuals
his people the greatest would be the servant of all within the mission organizations often need pas-
(Matt. 20:2428). toral carein times of tragedy, stress, discour-
Clear emphasis on the servant pattern of lead- agement, and the like. A missionary pastoral
ership and pastoral ministry comes through worker makes full use of such opportunities for
Jesus teaching in John 12:2028. Only the seed such ministries.
that falls into the ground and dies brings forth A second recipient group for pastoral min-
great fruit. The servant pattern produces fruitful- istries rests with the leaders of the national or-
ness; the absence of the servant pattern leads to ganization. Rather than allowing this relation-
the tragedy of fruitlessness. ship to become adversarial, the wise missionary
All pastoral responsibilities for missionaries will commit himself or herself to serving as pas-
should be based on and patterned after this ser- tor to these leaders. Ministry to national leaders
vanthood model. Genuine pastoral leadership es- is among the most fruitful of all pastoral roles for
chews the authoritative, paternalistic, manipula- missionaries.
tive, controlling, leader-dominated patterns too A third recipient group for pastoral ministries
often seen even among Christian leaders. Biblical includes the members of the churches. Mission-
ways in pastoral leadership and ministry follow aries will often be called on to minister to church
the pattern of servanthood. members and their families. Western missionar-
Servant leadership expresses itself through re- ies will exercise care in rendering pastoral min-
lationship rather than position. The missionary istry in the cross-cultural setting. Acts that extend
refuses to consider himself or herself as the one love and concern may be overlooked if the mis-
in a position of authority but as one in a rela- sionary does not take fully into account the cul-
tionship of helping. The servant pastor seeks to tural realities of the society.
serve rather than control; this model of pastoral EBBIE C. SMITH
ministry recognizes that equipping is better than Bibliography. C. W. Brister, Caring for the Caregivers:
performing. Through properly expressing the ser- Caring for Ministers and Missionaries; S. G. Lingenfel-
vant pattern of pastoral ministry, the missionary ter and M. C. Mayers, Ministering Cross Culturally;
729
Pastoral Responsibilities
K. ODonnell, ed., Missionary Care: Counting the Cost the island of Aniwa (186681) and most of its in-
for World Evangelization. habitants professed Christianity.
Paton campaigned fearlessly against white
Paternalism. In a generic sense, all that is posi- men with vested interests that disregarded the
tive in familial relationships, in particular that of welfare of the people, notably in arms, alcohol,
father to child. When paternalism exists in adult and indentured labor. From 1881 Paton was
or institutional (such as church-mission) rela- based in Melbourne. His many missionary tours,
tionships, however, the considerable literature including visits to the United States and Canada,
shows it has negative connotations. Paternalism produced vast sums for the work in the South Pa-
might be thought of as the use of coercion to cific region. He also translated parts of Scripture
achieve a good that is not perceived as such by into the Aniwan tongue. Recipient of a Cam-
those persons for whom it is intended. bridge D.D. degree (1891), Paton was a simple
Paternalism, the concept of intervening ac- but riveting speaker. At the ECUMENICAL MISSION-
tively for the perceived well-being of another, has ARY CONFERENCE in New York in 1900 he was
long existed in mission. People with knowledge, hailed as a great missionary leader.
skills, funds, or power (the older missions) have Paton died in Australia, but the familys mis-
used them to get new churches to follow their de- sionary connection with the New Hebrides was
mands. An example of paternalism is a mission to continue until 1970.
keeping control of a work because it feels that the His best-selling autobiography was edited by
locals are unqualified and would do themselves his brother James (1907).
and the cause of Christ harm by taking leader- J. D. DOUGLAS
ship. Paternalistic attitudes assume superior Bibliography. H. B. Genung, John G. Paton: Mis-
knowledge, wisdom, and skills. While well inten- sionary to The Martyr Islands in the South Seas; A. K.
tioned in some cases, they fail to recognize the Langridge and F. H. L. Paton, John G. Paton: Later
work of the Holy Spirit in young churches and Years and Farewell.
their leaders.
While the connotations of paternalism are Paton, William (18861943). British missions
often negative, churches or missions sometimes statesman and author. The son of Scottish par-
develop rules (by-laws, covenants, mission and ents who had settled in England, he was edu-
purpose statements) with the positive result of cated at Oxford and Cambridge, and ordained in
producing mature Christian behavior. the Presbyterian Church of England (to save
Paternalism is a complex issue. Mission lead- him from [World War I] conscription, notes his
ers must face the tension involved in deciding biographer). He was missionary secretary of the
how much or how little influence to exert, either STUDENT CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT (191121), com-
actively intervening or passively withholding bined with work for the YMCA under whose aus-
something, for the perceived good of emerging pices he went to India. He returned there as gen-
missions, churches, and their leadership. eral secretary of the newly formed National
MIKEL NEUMANN Christian Council of India, Burma, and Ceylon
(192128) before appointment as joint secretary
SEE ALSO Partnership. (with J. H. OLDHAM) of the London-based INTER-
Bibliography. J. Kleinig, Paternalism; D. VanDeVeer, NATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL. Paton was an ecu-
Paternalistic Intervention. menical pioneer, a champion of war-orphaned
missions, an ardent pacifist, an indefatigable
Paton, John Gibson (18241907). Scottish mis- writer on a wide range of subjects, and the pos-
sionary to the South Pacific. Born near Dumfries, sessor of a wicked wit as seen in the parody (of
Scotland, and with little early education, he Motts famous watchword), The Moon turned to
worked with the Glasgow City Mission (184756) Blood in our Generation. An ecumenical enthu-
while preparing himself for overseas service by siast who hung loose to denominational affilia-
undertaking studies in medicine and divinity. Or- tions, Paton made a substantial contribution to
dained by the Reformed Presbyterian Church in the movement that in 1948 became officially the
1858, he established a station on the New He- WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES. His published
brides island of Tanna. Incredible privations, works included Jesus Christ and the Worlds Reli-
chiefly caused by local hostility, coupled with the gions (1916), Christianity in the Eastern Conflicts
loss of his wife and infant son, forced his removal (1937), and The Church and the New Order
in 1862 to Australia. He extended the missionary (1941). For sixteen years he served as editor of
challenge there, in New Zealand, and in Scot- the International Review of Missions.
land, where his church elected him moderator in J. D. DOUGLAS
1864 and where he recruited seven missionaries Bibliography. E. Jackson, Red Tape and the Gospel: A
for the work in the New Hebrides. He settled on Study of the Significance of the Ecumenical Missionary
730
Paul and Mission
Struggle of William Paton 18861943; M. Sinclair, to their homelands, the islanders would function
William Paton. as missionaries to their own people. The ministry
was successful and on February 24, 1861, Patte-
Patrick (c. 389461). Early British missionary; son was consecrated bishop of Melanesia. By
Apostle of Ireland. Born in Roman Britain, he 1870 his school was training 145 students.
was captured at the age of sixteen by Irish raiders Danger to missionaries increased as a result of
and carried into slavery in Ireland. After six national reaction to the forced impressment of is-
years, he escaped and was eventually reunited landers by slave traders, and in September 1871
with his family in Britain. Called in a dream to Patteson suffered a mortal blow to the head
evangelize Ireland, he is said to have returned while visiting the island of Nukapu. He was
there as a bishop in 432, and from his base in Ar- buried at sea, earning the title Martyr of the Is-
magh carried out what he called his laborious lands.
episcopate. He claims to have been the first to LARRY POSTON
take the gospel to more remote regions of the is-
Bibliography. J. Gutch, Martyr of the Islands; C. M.
land. Numerous legends have grown up around Yonge, The Life of John Coleridge Patteson, Missionary
Patricks life; he is said, for example, to have been Bishop of the Melanesian Islands.
trained in Gaul and to have had a close relation-
ship with Martin of Tours (calling for a fourth-
Paul and Mission. The mission of the apostle
century Patrick).
Paul in the first century has functioned as a prin-
Reliable data come only from his two short
cipal inspiration and paradigm for Christian wit-
writings: The Confession, a spiritual autobiogra-
ness during the millennia since. The modern mis-
phy; and a work denouncing the tyranny of a
sionary movement in particular has routinely
British chieftain who persecuted Christians.
attempted to take bearings from the apostles mis-
Patrick aimed first to convert the princes who
sionary thinking and endeavors. Where this has
would then give him safe conduct through their
territories and access to the common people. He been pursued at a scholarly level, such inquiries
supported monasticism, refused all presents, have not infrequently also proved suggestive for
broke the power of heathenism in Ireland, and those engaged in the modern academic study of
typified the enthusiasm of the Celtic Church. He Paul. Among more familiar examples of such
was known for remarkably clear statements of studies in the past century would certainly be
faith (he continually quoted Paul), and for a mis- those by Allen, Blauw, Senior and Stuhlmueller,
sionary heart that played a major part in sending and Bosch.
monks to evangelize Europe during the following The modern academic study of Paul has had
two centuries. good reason, in any case, to devote considerable
J. D. DOUGLAS
professional attention to Pauls mission, since that
mission has functioned as a principal feature in
Bibliography. L. Bieler, The Life and Legend of St. the scholarly reconstructions of early Christian
Patrick; R. P. C. Hanson, The Life and Writings of the history and theology. In the process, contemporary
Historical Saint Patrick. Pauline research has sometimes proposed findings
that challenge popular assumptions about the
Pattaya Consultation (1980). See WORLD CON- Pauline mission, serving thereby as a useful cor-
SULTATION ON WORLD EVANGELIZATION. rective for a too easy correlation between the Paul
of history and the interests and requirements of
Patteson, John Coleridge (182771). English the modern missionary movement. At the same
missionary in the South Pacific. Born in London, time these modern academic inquiries have not al-
he was educated at Eton and Oxford. He took a ways escaped their own accommodations to con-
curate in Alfington and was ordained in 1854. He temporary intellectual fashions.
was then recruited by Bishop GEORGE SELWYN for Beginning with F. C. Baur of Tbingen in the
ministry in the South Pacific. Upon his arrival, mid-nineteenth century, and throughout the en-
Patteson noted the two influences of European tire period of modern Pauline studies since, the
civilization on the islanders: the immorality of history and literature of the Pauline mission have
the merchant sailors and the gospel. He was de- been continuously queried. For example, Baur
termined to make the latter stronger than the for- counted only four of Pauls principal letters as au-
mer, but gradually learned that for most of the in- thentic, and nonevangelical scholarship today
digenous population, Christianity and moral tends conventionally to accept only seven as as-
decadence were inextricably linked. suredly Pauline (excluding Ephesians, Colos-
Education became his primary strategy. He sians, 2 Thessalonians, and the Pastorals). Like-
made regular trips to the Solomon and New He- wise the historical reliability of Acts, and of its
brides Islands, selecting young men and women account of the Pauline mission, has been repeat-
to be trained at St. Johns College in Auckland, edly called into question. While fashionable opin-
New Zealand. His plan was that upon returning ion on the matter has oscillated over the years,
731
Paul and Mission
the recent pattern has increasingly been to as- ident not least in his surviving missionary letters,
sume a sharp contrast between the Paul pre- all of which are directed to the stabilization and
sented in the narrative of Acts and the historical maturation of newly planted churches. Paul pur-
Paul represented by his principal letters, and in sued his geographical mission in terms of eccle-
consequence to discount the usefulness of Acts in sial achievement.
assessing the history of the Pauline mission. In the first decades of the twentieth century
Such findings can often seem to have more to Pauline studies came increasingly under the in-
do with the predilections of the modern-day aca- fluence of a history-of-religions approach, which
demic than with an even-handed scholarly as- emphasized the importance of the Greco-Roman
sessment of the historical data. The problematic religious context for understanding Paul. This ap-
nature of many of the assumptions that under- proach affected the understanding of Pauls mis-
gird such findings has often been demonstrated. sion in at least two respects. First, it helped ignite
Nevertheless, a large segment of contemporary a debate that continues to the present on the re-
Pauline scholarship would doubt the traditional lationship of Pauls Damascus experience to his
chronological reconstruction of Pauls mission, subsequent theology and to his Gentile mission
and in particular the three tours approach so preoccupation. For example, numerous studies
characteristic of more popular presentations. attempted a religio-psychological interpretation
Yet it is noteworthy that in the alternative re- of the Damascus experience, in which the sudden
constructions being proffered, while the chronol- reorientation to Gentile mission of this erstwhile
ogy of the Pauline mission is shifted, the pattern Pharisee was explained as the compensatory out-
of Pauls geographical movement as presented in working of an uneasy conscience over the harsh
Acts is left largely intact. This anomaly within the exclusivism of Judaism. Such an approach is no
modern inquiry arises from the fact that, what- longer in vogue, owing to the excessive degree to
ever the chronology of events, the relevant data which modern assumptions must be interpolated
derivable from Pauls principal letters on the ge- into the historical data in order to render such
ographical pattern of his mission correlate re- psychological interpretations feasible.
markably well with the more detailed data avail- It is now widely recognized that whatever led
able from Acts. up to the Damascus event, the interpretive base-
That is to say, in both the letters and in Acts line for the event must begin with the fact that
Paul carries out his missionary endeavors in the Paul experienced it as an encounter with the
same sector of the Mediterranean world, in the risen Jesus. And, in light of his own explicit testi-
same provinces, and in the same general se- mony, it is also increasingly accepted that Paul
quence. In both sources Paul works in the lands experienced this encounter not as a conversion
surrounding the northeastern Mediterranean, be- so much as a call, as a divine summons to a task
tween Judea and the Adriatic; both sources show on the model of OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETS (Gal.
him progressing through this area generally from 1:1516). No interpretation of the Damascus
east to west; and both sources see him attending Road event and its consequences is likely to
to Syria/Cilicia, Macedonia, Achaia, and Asia, in prove sustainable which does not recognize that
that orderand also Galatia at some point along the event was in the first place an encounter/call.
the way. That is to say, Paul understood his sense of com-
Indeed, the Paul of the letters is explicitly con- mission not as derivative of his Damascus Road
scious of such a geographical pattern in his mis- experience but as constituent to that experience.
sion. In a context in which he anticipates travel The complex ramifications of the event for Pauls
westward to Rome and beyond to Spain, he subsequent life and thought are best accounted
states that already from Jerusalem all the way for as unfolding from this duality at the heart of
around to Illyricum I have fully proclaimed the the original experience. It was the christological
gospel of Christ (Rom. 15:19). The distinctive- encounter that set in motion Pauls theological
ness of this geographical dimension in the apos- reorientation, while it was the call to Gentile mis-
tles understanding of his mission can be ob- sion that determined the direction of the result-
scured by its very familiarity. Paul clearly took ing theological development.
his mission to be in part a geographically defin- The history-of-religions phase within Pauline
able accomplishment. studies also stimulated considerable interest in
A second distinguishing characteristic of the the numerous examples of religious propaganda
Pauline mission, evidenced both in the letters in the Greco-Roman world, and sought to reinter-
and in Acts, is the intentional focus on commu- pret Pauls missionary efforts in light of this larger
nity formation. Paul saw his mission as more social phenomenon. Such studies highlighted not
than gospel proclamation and conversion of in- only the vigorous Jewish proselyte movement of
dividuals; through and beyond these endeavors the period, but also the wandering preachers then
he understood his missionary role to concern the common in the Hellenistic world, and the rapid
establishment of settled, believing communities. spread of the Eastern mystery religions through-
This churchward orientation of his mission is ev- out the empire at this time. Such studies have
732
Paul and Mission
thrown much useful light on the patterns of reli- ter of the century, this whole construct had been
gious propagation within Pauls world. At the duly challenged and displaced, especially owing
same time, in attempting to trace a generalized to the far-reaching reassessments in Pauline stud-
phenomenon of the period, such investigations ies precipitated by E. P. Sanders in 1977, now
have tended to accent those characteristics com- mediated most prominently through work by
mon to all these efforts while obscuring the indi- J. D. G. Dunn in what is conventionally termed
vidual distinctives. In consequence, even today the New Perspective in Pauline studies. The re-
scholarly texts will speak with assurance of mul- sult has been to move the dominant issues of
tiple first-century movements of religious propa- Pauline inquiry at the commencement of the
ganda, all functioning more or less on the famil- twenty-first century back into territory more con-
iar pattern of the Pauline mission. genial to acknowledging and addressing ques-
Recent research has been severely undermining tions relating to Pauls mission and mission
this projection. It is now being noted, for exam- thinking.
ple, that the wandering preachers of Hellenism In particular this shift of perspective has al-
were not pursuing community formation. Neither lowed renewed consideration of a significant but
was the spread of the mystery religions nor the less dominant strand of inquiry in twentieth-
Jewish proselyte movement furthered by individ- century Pauline studies emphasizing and explor-
uals under a sense of divine calling to missionize. ing the eschatological structuring of Pauline the-
And none of these movements interpreted itself in ology. The eschatological nature of Pauls
terms of geographical progress. Even for Chris- thinking was first effectively accented in 1911
tianity itself in the initial postapostolic centuries, through an influential survey of Pauline studies
closer inquiry finds the evidence almost entirely by the New Testament scholar A. SCHWEITZER,
lacking for the figure of the missionary evangelist who subsequently gained wide notice as a med-
seeking to plant churches in new geographical ical missionary in Africa. Beginning in 1936
areas on the Pauline model. A significant result of O. Cullmann then directed attention to the es-
this reassessment now in progress has been to chatological nature of Pauls own self-under-
clarify more adequately the distinctiveness of standing. Building on this, the Danish scholar
Pauls particular mission, and especially to clarify J. Munck from 1947 on systematically worked
the extent to which the geographical framing of out the proposition that all Pauls missionary
his mandate, and its ecclesial focus, represent ex- thinking and endeavors are best interpreted in
ceptional characteristics for missionary percep- terms of his eschatological convictions.
tion and outreach in his day. Munck demonstrated that the salvation-histor-
In the latter part of the twentieth century an ical framework in which all of Pauls theological
increasingly influential sociological approach in reflection takes place also functions as the deter-
New Testament studies produced illuminating minative framework for Pauls understanding
contributions on the social dimensions of the and implementation of his mission. Paul took
early Christian mission. For example, a helpful himself to be a participant in the end-time re-
distinction has been traced between the itiner- demptive events of Old Testament prophetic ex-
ant charismatic preachers of the early Palestin- pectation. More particularly, he understood him-
ian Christian communities and the more orderly self to be a participant in the fulfillment of that
efforts of those like Paul who may be character- part of Old Testament eschatology which ex-
ized as goal-oriented community organizers. pected the inclusion of the nations, the Gentiles,
But more adventurous attempts to reinterpret in the messianic blessing. Paul therefore took his
Pauls missionary outreach itself in terms of mod- own vigorous outreach to be part of the eschato-
ern sociological models for religious expansion, logical ingathering of the nations, and his Dam-
such as millennial, conversionist, or sectarian ascus experience to be a divine summons to par-
models, have thus far proved less than persua- ticipate in this outreach to the ends of the earth.
sive, owing to a general perception that these The historical characteristics of Pauls mission-
models are being inappropriately imposed upon ary outreach are then best understood as those
the historical data. This field of inquiry is never- practicalities implicit in seeking to implement
theless promising, and more methodologically such an eschatological assignment, given the re-
sensitive and disciplined studies along these lines alities of Pauls first-century world and his as-
should prove fruitful for a better understanding sumptions about that world. Paul sought to actu-
of the varied patterns of religious propagation in alize the promised blessing to the nations by
the Greco-Roman world. concrete efforts to help form believing communi-
The Bultmannian school of thought, which ties province by province across his Roman
dominated Pauline studies in the middle decades world. This required deliberate travel to the pop-
of the twentieth century, transmuted the larger ulation centers of these provinces. The little gath-
inquiry into existentialist categories in ways that erings he formed center by center symbolize for
rendered the essential issues of Pauls mission him the incorporation of the Gentiles into the
largely peripheral or irrelevant. By the last quar- messianic community in fulfillment of Old Testa-
733
Paul and Mission
ment expectation. He recognizes that he is work- Bibliography. R. Allen, Missionary Methods: St.
ing between the already of Christs redemptive Pauls or Ours?; J. Blauw, The Missionary Nature of the
act and the not yet of Christs final triumph, Church; D. Bosch, Transforming Mission; W. P. Bowers,
Novum Testamentum 22 (1980): 31623; idem, JETS 30
bringing the life of the age to come into the pres-
(1987): 18598; idem, DPHL, pp. 60819; D. Gilliland,
ent fallen world. And as a messenger of the Cru- Pauline Theology and Mission Practice; M. Green, Evan-
cified One in this interim time, he knows that he gelism in the Early Church; F. Hahn, Mission in the New
must work amidst all the vicissitudes of the Testament; J. Munck, Paul and the Salvation of
human condition, accepting toil and suffering Mankind; D. Senior and C. Stuhlmueller, The Biblical
and being vulnerable to conflict and disappoint- Foundations for Mission.
ment. Yet he is sustained by the joyous assurance
that Gods eternal purpose, to unite Jew and Gen- Paul, Kanakarayan Tiruselvam (18761931).
tile together in the worship of Christ as Lord, will Indian church and mission leader. K. T. Paul was
be fulfilled. born at Salem, Tamil Nadu, in South India. He
Of course the mission of the apostle Paul must graduated from Madras Christian College, where
not be used as an exclusive norm for appropriate he was a classmate of V. S. AZARIAH. With Azariah
Christian outreach. The biblical understanding of he was involved in the founding of the National
mission encompasses more than is represented Missionary Society of which Paul became secre-
by the particularities of the Pauline model. Yet tary in 1907. In 1913 he was appointed national
within the larger scope of the biblical witness secretary of the Indian YMCA, and in 1916 be-
Paul does constitute a principal representative of came the first Indian to serve as general secretary
evangelical outreach. And for those prepared to of the YMCA in India. In this capacity Paul de-
find in his mission a guiding point of reference veloped a program for rural construction and
for appropriate Christian witness in our own day, promoted adult education. The YMCA under
Paul can serve as an effective reminder of basic Paul had a team of dynamic thinkers.
components of the biblical perspective on mis- In 1930 Paul participated in the First Round
sion. This would include convictions such as: Table Conference in London. He supported the
(1) That Christian mission should be under- idea that there were values in a continued British
stood and implemented within a theological connection with India. Nevertheless, according to
frame of reference; and that theological reflection ROBERT SPEER, he heralded the demise of the
may in turn discover a needed relevance, bal- colonial era of missions.
ance, orientation, and dynamic if pursued (as for Paul was active in the negotiations for Church
Paul) within a missiological frame of reference. Union in South India. He was Moderator of the
(2) That within the eschatological structuring South India United Church from 1925 to 1927.
of Gods redemptive purpose, the primal mandate He represented India at ecumenical conferences.
for the time between Christs first and second ad- Paul was the first Christian statesman of India
vents is gospel proclamation to the nations, that and produced a theology of the church and its
within the larger divine economy the core inten- mission in the context of developing nationalism
tion for the present interim period is the effecting in a religiously pluralistic society.
of this mandate. ROGER E. HEDLUND
(3) That from among the recipients of redemp- Bibliography. M. D. David, The Y.M.C.A. and the Mak-
tion God may commission selected individuals to ing of Modern India; H. Lefever, CDCWM, pp. 47576;
a singularly disciplined, proactive, and sustained S. Neill, Colonialism and Christian Mission; H. A. Pop-
collaboration in the proclamation to the nations. ley, K. T. Paul: Christian Leader; M. M. Thomas and P. T.
(4) That the proclamation of the gospel is Thomas, Towards an Indian Christian Theology.
meant to be implemented, and its achievement
measured, in part by geographical attainment, Paulinus of York (d. c. 644). Missionary to En-
that a deliberately cross-cultural mission to the gland. Sent to buttress the missionary work of
unreached peoples and nations of ones world AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, Paulinus left Rome in
functions under first biblical warrant. 601. Nothing is recorded of his work between 601
(5) That through and beyond missionary and 625, when he was ordained as bishop and
proclamation and evangelism, the planting of be- settled to work among the Northumbrians. King
lieving communities and their nurture to settled Edwin and his chiefs came to Christ two years
maturity in Christ must remain a primary focus later through the ministry of Paulinus, who then
of any biblically validated missionary outreach. took up residence in York and began extensive
(6) That Gods redemptive purposes will as- travel throughout the region. After Edwins defeat
suredly be achieved, that he remains sovereign in in battle and death in 632, however, Paulinus re-
the course of the missionary proclamation to the turned to Kent with Edwins wife and took up the
nations, and that he will triumphantly accom- vacant bishopric of Rochester, where he minis-
plish his intention to sum up all things in Christ. tered until his death.
W. PAUL BOWERS A. SCOTT MOREAU
734
Peace
Bibliography. P. H. Blair, England before the Con- Pacifism, principled opposition to all war,
quest; ODCC; R. D. Ware, NCE, 11:29. manifested itself early in Christian history (see
PACIFIST THEOLOGY). The first Christians believed
Peabody, Lucy Whitehead McGill Waterbury that military service and killing were contrary to
(18611949). American missions advocate, Jesus teaching. In the second and third cen-
teacher of deaf children, and missionary in India. turies, prominent leaders such as Tertullian and
Peabody was born in Belmont, Kansas, and Origen condemned war and military service.
raised in Rochester, New York. After three years Gradually, however, the church accommodated
teaching the deaf, she married Baptist mission- itself to admitting soldiers into membership. A
ary Norman Waterbury in 1881. They left for tradition known as just war theory, holding that
India within a month. Five years later, she and Christians could sanction a war fought under
her two children returned to New York after her certain conditions for a just cause and in a just
husbands death. There, at a missions meeting, manner, emerged. Pacifism did not disappear. In
she met her fellow advocate in the Womens Mis- such forms as conscientious objection, it remains
sionary Movement, HELEN BARRETT MONTGOMERY. a way to witness as a Christian.
In 1889, Peabody began work with the Womens Apart from those in the historic peace
churches (Anabaptists, Society of Friends [Quak-
Baptist Foreign Missionary Society in Boston
ers], and the Church of the Brethren), positive
and soon became its head. For over twenty years
peace is implicit in the vocation of missionaries
she served with the Central Committee for the
as ministers of reconciliation. During the nine-
United Study of Foreign Missions, a committee teenth-century explosion of missionary activity,
to educate and motivate women and churches peacemaking often arose out of the encounter
about missions. Her second marriage to Henry with religious practices and social structures mis-
Wayland Peabody was cut short by his death sionaries regarded as barriers to personal reli-
after two years. Peabody was a prolific speaker gious and societal change. Missionaries often
and writer and raised millions of dollars for mis- condemned evil and developed strategies to end
sions. In 1920, Peabody and Montgomery formed practices perceived as immoral such as polygamy
the Joint Committee for Womens Union Chris- in Africa, the trans-Atlantic slave trade, opium
tian Colleges in Foreign Fields which supported trafficking in China, human rights violations in
colleges for women overseas. She was also presi- Macedonia, Armenia, and the Congo. In India,
dent of the Womans National Committee for for example, missionaries focused on sati, the
Law Enforcement, a vice president for the custom of burning of Hindu widows on the fu-
Womans American Baptist Foreign Mission So- neral pyres of their dead husbands; infanticide;
ciety, founder and editor of the childrens maga- and the caste system as barriers to the spread of
zine Everland, and organizer of the World Day of the gospel.
Prayer for missions. While furloughed missionaries often found an
MARGOT EYRING audience for their attacks on sati, slavery, and
other evils, they had a harder time developing
Bibliography. M. L. Hammack, DWCH; N. A. Hard-
models for mission sensitive to more durable cul-
esty, Great Women of Faith: The Strength and Influence
of Christian Women; R. McHenry, ed., Famous Ameri-
tural patterns. For example, it was nearly fifty
can Women: A Biographical Dictionary from Colonial years after the arrival of Protestant missionaries
Times to the Present. in India before several women missionaries pio-
neered zenana visitation as a strategy of effective
evangelism among women, which entailed call-
Peace. The word peace is multidimensioned,
ing on caste women in the secluded quarters of
emotive, and capable of being misused. Peace
their homes. They introduced potential converts
can refer to inner tranquillity or tranquil rela- to the rudiments of Christianity, identified fami-
tions between nations. Peace can also refer to lies in need of food, clothing, or medicine, and
war. Those who fight for peace may do so be- recruited children for schools. Their vision of
cause they believe this is a way to ending conflict work among neglected and despised women of
and moving toward a better world. For purposes India led to formation of the Ludhiana Medical
of this entry, negative peace refers to the absence College.
of war, or armed conflict. Positive peace refers to Sometimes missionaries dealt directly with the
the absence of causes of war. In addition to prac- issue of war. In the nineteenth century, for exam-
tical efforts to make peace in personal and social ple, during the Burmese-British war in 182425,
relationships, peace is also a utopian idea. the Burmese government held ADONIRAM JUDSON
Throughout Christian history, followers of Jesus (17881850) captive for eighteen months. After
have looked forward to an end of time when God his release, he helped draft the Treaty of Yandabo
will intervene to bring about peace, when nation which ended the war. Many missionaries joined
shall not lift up sword against nation, neither peace societies, and successor organizations in
shall they learn war any more (Isa. 2:4). the twentieth century such as the Fellowship of
735
Peace
Reconciliation of the Mennonite Central Com- as it was known would disappear and God would
mittee. Some wrote for periodicals with titles usher in a new era of peace and righteousness.
such as Peace and Goodwill. In this century, per- When this did not happen, they adjusted to living
haps the bloodiest in history, Christians have in the here-and-now. Jesus disciples, the earliest
worked for positive and negative peace and re- missionaries, proclaimed in word and deed that
construction of war-torn regions. Jesus Christ has made it possible for anyone to
Christian peacemaking is part of mission. find peace with God. As followers of Jesus, they
Christian missionaries provide a comprehensive put on the sandals of peace (Eph. 6:15). While
ministry of spiritual and physical healing. They our Lord tarried, the ongoing mission of the
incarnate Christ in a broken world among vic- church included proclamation of restored peace
tims of sin, including war. They contribute to with God, the state which characterized human-
positive peace through a holistic sharing of the ity at the time of creation.
gospel of Jesus. When war has erupted, they God in Christ engaged in the work of RECON-
number among martyr victims along with in- CILIATION and then entrusted the Christian com-
digenous believers. Violent conflict serves as an munity with the ministry of reconciliation
impediment to mission, as experienced by the (2 Cor. 5:1820). God forged this reconciliation
ancient eastern churches in the face of Islam, or with humanity, between estranged human be-
churches around the world in the face of twenti- ings, and with the entire created order (Eph.
eth-century persecution. MARTYRDOM often proves 2:1416; Col. 1). When Christians engage in the
a necessary form of witness. ministry of reconciliation, they take part in Gods
PAUL R. DEKAR mission as revealed in Christ. In these two pas-
SEE ALSO Shalom. sages, as well as Romans 5:111 and Colossians
1:1523, Paul elaborates that God makes peace
Bibliography. P. Dekar, For the Healing of the Na- by the blood of the cross, and that Christ is the
tions. Baptist Peacemakers; R. G. Musto, Catholic head of the church. In Christ all things hold to-
Peacemakers; R. L. Ramseyer, ed., Mission and the
gether. Beginning with the cross, God has ef-
Peace Witness.
fected peace on earth and in heaven.
Jesus effected peace between Gentiles and
Peace with God. Sharing the Good News that Jews, males and females, free persons and slaves.
we have peace with God in Christ is the central In effect, he has made peace among all the na-
mission task of gospel-bearers. Both the Old Tes- tions. Announcing this human dimension is also
tament and the New affirm that all peace is of part of the mission of the church. Jesus blessed
God. Peace is an essential quality of God. The peacemakers as Gods children (Matt. 5:19) and
condition of peace is the presence of God. Peace warned disciples against hoarding material pos-
with God is Gods will for humanity (see also sessions and allowing themselves to be tempted
SHALOM). by wealth and power (Matt. 6:1921). A later
In the New Testament alone, over ninety oc- writer affirmed that true justice is the harvest
currences of the word peace (Greek: eiren m e)m and reaped by peacemakers from seeds sown in a
its cognates attest that the gospel is a message of
spirit of peace (James 3:18); wealth and power
peace with God. A host of heavenly voices an-
represent the source of conflict and quarrels
nounced the birth of Jesus with promises of
(James 4:15). Christian peacemakers reflect the
peace on earth (Luke 2:14). Through him we
very nature of the one known as the God of Peace
have peace with God (Rom. 5:1). According to
(Rom. 15:33; 16:20; 1 Cor. 14:33; 2 Cor. 13:11;
Paul, Jesus proclaimed the gospel of peace to all
Phil. 4:9; 1 Thess. 5:23; Heb. 13:20).
who were estranged from God and from one an-
In these few paragraphs, we have begun to lay
other (Eph. 2:1122). The life and teaching of
Jesus, insofar as we can summarize them, have the groundwork upon which a THEOLOGY OF MIS-
SION is built from the biblical understanding that
to do with restoring the fullness of Gods image
and likeness to us so that we, even though we have peace with God in Christ. Health, secu-
marred by sin, may participate in the divine na- rity, long life, healing of broken relations, salva-
ture through union with Jesus (2 Peter 1:4). tion, wholeness, life in Christ: these have been
Jesus brought about a new reality in the divine- the basic work of missionaries from the first cen-
human relationship. Jesus also announced the in- tury until our own. Through self-giving love,
breaking of Gods realm to reorder earthly priori- death, resurrection, and glorification, Jesus
ties (Luke 4:1819). Yet people and social broke the cycle of death and made possible radi-
structures have never corresponded to Gods pur- ant living in peace. Peace with God, therefore, is
poses as the Bible reveals them. Jesus left tasks the basis of all ministry and mission.
undone and dreams unfulfilled. Early Christians PAUL R. DEKAR
expected Jesus to return soon, drawing from a Bibliography. D. L. Buttry, Peace Ministry; G. Hark-
body of Jewish apocalyptic expectation about the ness, The Ministry of Reconciliation; J. Macquarrie, The
impending end of history, a time when the world Concept of Peace; D. Richardson, Peace Child.
736
Pentateuch, Mission in the
Penman, David (193689). New Zealand mis- them in the Garden and provided for their needs.
sionary to Pakistan and Anglican Church leader. In this way God distinguished himself from all
He was born on August 8, 1936, and raised in other deities in the world. In the worlds religions
Wellington and Wanganui, New Zealand. While people seek for gods, but in Christianity the true
training as a teacher he was converted in a mis- and living God seeks after fallen humanity.
sion led by Howard Guinness, and in 1957 began Genesis 3:15 has been called the protevan-
training for the Anglican ministry, gained an MA gelium because it provides the first mention of
from the University of Canterbury, and married the gospel. Evangelical scholars have seen in this
Jean Newson. After a curacy in Wanganui, Pen- verse a foreshadow of the cross where Satan in-
man was accepted in 1965 by the New Zealand jured Jesus Christ, but Jesus crushed Satan and
Church Missionary Society as a missionary to the power of sin (Rom. 16:20; Rev. 12:9; 20:2).
Pakistan. He became a careful student of Muslim God prefers to save people rather than judge
culture, and wrote a Ph.D. thesis on Islamic soci- them. Gods holy nature makes the gospel neces-
ology while at the same time reaching out to stu- sary; his love motivated and provided it.
dents and young people. In 1968 he helped to Genesis 12:13 speaks of Gods call to Abram
found the Pakistan Fellowship of Evangelical (see also ABRAHAMIC COVENANT). From this passage
Students. In 1972 Penman was invited by the In- on, the history narrated in the Old Testament is
ternational Fellowship of Evangelical Students to the history of Israel, and the history of Israel is
serve in Lebanon, and from 1974 to 1975 he the history of redemption (Kane). God chose
served as regional director of IFES work in the Abram and his descendants to fulfill his redemp-
Middle East. In 1976 he was invited to lead CMS tive plan. Their election was not an end in itself,
missionary training at St. Andrews Hall in Mel- but the means to an endworld redemption.
bourne, but in 1979 accepted the invitation to In Genesis 12:13 God promised Abram several
serve as vicar of the large Anglican parish of All things: land, a name, and a nation; however, most
Saints, Palmerston North in New Zealand. In important, God promised Abram that all peo-
1982 he returned to Melbourne first as an assis- ples on earth will be blessed through you. God
tant bishop and then in 1984 as archbishop of repeated this promise to Abram (later Abraham)
the influential diocese. Here a lively administra- four more times (Gen. 18:1719; 22:1618;
tion with a reputation for liberal evangelicalism 26:25; 28:1315). Gods particular blessing of
gave him strong political influence, particularly Abram resulted in the universal blessing of all
on Australias policy toward the Middle East. He peoples. People are blessed by Abrams example
died on October 1, 1989, after leading Bible of faithfulness, but ultimately God blessed the
teaching at the LAUSANNE CONGRESS II ON WORLD peoples of the earth through Abrams descendant,
EVANGELISM (MANILA, 1989). Ever an activist and Jesus Christ.
a strategist, he did much to relate evangelical The NIV translates the Hebrew word goyim in
missions to the great questions of the age, in par- verse 3 as peoples, and that is superior to na-
ticular the racial and cultural tensions between tions, as some versions render it. God is not re-
Muslims and Christians. ferring here to nations as political entities; rather,
PETER LINEHAM God is saying that through Abram every ethno/lin-
guistic group on earth will be blessed. Surely this
Bibliography. A. Nichol, David Penman, Bridge must be an encouragement to those who en-
Builder, Peacemaker, Fighter for Social Justice. deavor to discover and evangelize unreached peo-
ple groups (see also PEOPLES, PEOPLE GROUPS).
Pentateuch, Mission in the. Scholars have de- In choosing Abram and his descendants God
bated whether the concept of mission can be revealed a threefold purpose for Israel. First, Is-
found in the Pentateuch. While there are no ex- rael was to receive and guard Gods special reve-
plicit examples of preachers being sent to other lation to the world (Heb. 1:13). Second, Israel
tribes or nations, still the five books of Moses do was to provide the door through which the Mes-
contribute to an understanding of mission. The siah would enter history. Third, Israel was to be
Old Testament speaks about mission because Gods servant and witness to the nations.
Yahweh is a missionary God. The Pentateuch re- The Book of Exodus tells the story of Gods de-
veals this in several key passages. liverance of Israel from bondage in Egypt. The
Genesis 13 teaches that humanity is alike in exodus is the pivotal event in the Old Testament,
two ways. All people are created in the IMAGE OF as central in the Old Testament as the cross is in
GOD (Gen. 1:2627), and all people are affected by the New Testament. Again, Gods deliverance was
SIN and need redemption. Genesis 3 tells the not an end in itself, but a means to accomplish
tragic story of human sin, which leads to suffer- Gods plan for world redemption. This becomes
ing and separation. It also reveals God as a mis- clear in Exodus 19:56. This passage records
sionary God who seeks to reconcile humanity to Gods words to Moses and the nation of Israel. In
himself. God could have destroyed Eve and Adam these verses God made conditional promises to
because of their sin; but, instead, God sought the Israelites. If the Israelites would obey God
737
Pentateuch, Mission in the
and keep his covenant, then God promised to in Topeka, Kansas, experienced the phenomenon
make them a treasured possession, a kingdom in January 1901. This event and particularly news
of priests, and a holy nation. of the later Welsh Revival (19045) prompted the
Of special interest here is the phrase kingdom Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles, California,
of priests. God intended for the people of Israel under the leadership of the African-American
to become a nation composed of priests. Their William J. Seymour. It became the most influential
role was to minister to the other nations. Old Tes- revival of the century in global perspective and
tament priests were expected to teach the people marked the beginning of Pentecostal missions.
Gods law and mediate between God and the peo- Similar revivals followed in the wake of Topeka
ple. God wanted the Israelites to teach the other and Azusa Street including ones at Zion and
nations about his love and grace. They were to Chicago, Ill.; Dunn, N.C.; Nyack, N.Y.; Winnipeg
stand as a living testimony to the other nations. and Toronto, Canada; Sunderland, England; Oslo,
Unfortunately, Israel did not fulfill this role. Norway; and Stockholm, Sweden. From these
Throughout their history they did little to fulfill arose a new diaspora of missionaries, reaching
Gods intention for them. The Pentateuch, how- upwards of two hundred by 1910. In India, how-
ever, repeatedly emphasizes Israels instrumental ever, influenced in part by the Welsh Revival and
role in Gods mission to the peoples of the earth. the ministry of Minnie F. Abrams, the Pentecostal
JOHN MARK TERRY revival began autonomously in 1906.
Bibliography. D. Filbeck, Yes, God of the Gentiles,
Although robust in their faith, the early mis-
Too; H. Goerner, All Nations in Gods Purpose; E. Hed- sionaries were often ill-prepared, traveling with-
lund, The Mission of the Church in the World; W. C. out salary or pledged support, and without cross-
Kaiser, Jr., Israels Missionary Call, in Perspectives on cultural preparation. Before 1908, most of them
the World Christian Movement; J. H. Kane, Christian expected to preach with missionary tongues,
Missions in Biblical Perspective. but subsequently understood them to be glosso-
lalia or unknown tongues for prayer in the Spirit
Pentecostal Missions. A twentieth-century mis- (1 Cor. 13:1; 14:2). Whereas in India, a significant
sions movement noted for its emphases on Spirit contingent of veteran missionaries (e.g., CHRISTIAN
baptism, expectation of miraculous signs and AND MISSIONARY ALLIANCE [CMA], Methodists) be-
wonders in gospel proclamation, utilization of came Pentecostal. Beginning in the 1920s, Bible
indigenous church principles, pragmatism in institute graduates, particularly from North
communications and technology, and spectacular America and the United Kingdom, became the
church growth. backbone for much of the mission enterprise.
Radical evangelicals on the fringe of the nine- Apart from glossolalia and belief that all of the
teenth-century missions movement anticipated gifts of the Spirit (1 Cor. 12:711) had been re-
the premillennial return of Jesus Christ and the stored, Pentecostal missionaries initially differed
outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the last days to little from their CMA and holiness contempo-
spiritually equip believers with apostolic power raries. As time passed, however, they continued
for the world evangelization (Joel 2:2829). Ac- to highlight miraculous signs and wonders more
cordingly, miracles would witness to the power of than their Wesleyanholiness and Reformed re-
the gospel as they had in the expansion of the vivalist brothers and sisters. Other evangelical
Early Church. A. B. SIMPSON and A. J. GORDON, missionaries virtually dismissed the notion of
among others, believed that prayer for the sick miracles. Nonetheless, because of their focus on
and power encounters (exorcisms, etc.) would at- the Spirits work in mission, Pentecostals have
tract non-Christians to the gospel. willingly addressed the dark side of spirituality:
As the century drew to a close and statistics re- Satanic power. This has helped them to effec-
vealed the slow pace of conversions on the mis- tively relate the gospel to peoples with non-West-
sion fields, some believed that God might also ern worldviews. Because the Spirits outpouring
bestow xenolalic tongues (known human lan- empowers seekers with spiritual gifts and for
guages) on Spirit-baptized missionaries as hap- SPIRITUAL WARFARE (Eph. 6:12), Pentecostalism
pened on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4). Hence, quickly becomes indigenous.
they could bypass lengthy language study and With ever-increasing numbers of missionaries,
immediately begin preaching to bring swift clo- farsighted leaders recognized the need for organ-
sure to the GREAT COMMISSION. In varying de- ization. The earliest and most successful Euro-
grees, Simpson, Gordon, and C. T. STUDD, with pean mission agencies were in the United King-
others such as W. B. Godbey, Frank W. Sandford, dom the Pentecostal Missionary Union of Great
and the Kansas holiness preacher, Charles F. Britain and Ireland (1909), Zaire Evangelistic
Parham, considered this possibility. Mission (1919); in Netherlands, the Pentecostal
Parham concluded that speaking in tongues Mission Alliance (1920); and in Scandinavia,
constituted the Bible evidence of Spirit baptism: Missionaries sent out from Swedish and Norwe-
he and most of his students at Bethel Bible School gian Pentecostal congregations. In South Africa,
738
Pentecostal Movement
the Apostolic Faith Mission (1913) sent mission- ABRAMS, the first Pentecostal theology of mission;
aries to various people groups in that region. Our Foreign Missions: A Biblical Guideline (Vr
North American agencies included the Pente- Yttre Mission: Ngra Bibliska Riklinjer) ([Stock-
costal Mission in South and Central Africa holm] 1937) by David Landin; A Theology of the
(1910), Assemblies of God (1914), Pentecostal As- Church and Its Mission (1977) by Melvin L.
semblies of Canada (1922), Russian and Eastern Hodges; The Third Force in Missions (1985) by
European Mission (1927), Pentecostal Holiness Paul A. Pomerville; The Liberating Spirit: Toward
Church (1911), and Church of God (Cleveland, an Hispanic American Pentecostal Social Ethic
Tenn.) (1902). Following the trinitarian dispute (1993) by Eldin Villafae; and Not By Might Nor by
in the Assemblies of God (191316), many One- Power: A Pentecostal Theology of Social Concern in
ness or Jesus Name missionaries joined or- Latin America (1996) by Douglas Petersen. In dis-
ganizations that eventually merged to form the cussions on the mission of the Church (199095),
United Pentecostal Church (1945). Still, a large Pentecostal scholars presented major papers on
number of independent missionaries served vital aspects of missiology at meetings of the fifth
abroad, preferring the personal guidance of the quinquennium of the international Roman Catho-
Holy Spirit in their activities over the directives lic and Classical Pentecostal Dialogue.
of mission boards. The emergence of Pentecostal missions repre-
With the delay in Christs return, Pentecostals sented a vibrant new thrust in evangelism at a
frequently borrowed the paternalistic practices time when the older missionary movement had
of their Protestant counterparts to give perma- begun to decline due in part to questions raised
nence to their efforts. However, ALICE E. LUCE, about the ultimate claims of the Christian faith.
formerly with the CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY in Without such hesitancies, Pentecostal missionar-
India, influenced Pentecostal missions through ies have changed the landscape of Christianity in
her adaptation of ROLAND ALLENS teachings on the twentieth century through their accent on the
the INDIGENOUS CHURCH in his Missionary Meth- role of the Holy Spirit in the Christian world mis-
ods: St. Pauls or Ours? (1912) with Pentecostal sion. Although contemporary statistics of world-
distinctives. Reflecting the influence of Allen and wide church growth appear inflated, Pentecostals
Luce, Assemblies of God missiologist MELVIN L. now represent one of the largest families of
HODGES penned his best-seller, The Indigenous Christians. Pentecostalism has proven to be the
Church (1953). most dynamic force of the century for Christian
Growth in many countries accelerated after expansion.
mid-century when missionaries, especially those GARY B. MCGEE
from the Assemblies of God (U.S.A.) and the Pen-
tecostal Assemblies of Canada, began moving Bibliography. A. L. Clanton, United We Stand: A
away from paternal control to partnership with History of Oneness Organizations; E. L. Cleary and
national church leaders. Scandinavian mission- H. W. Stewart-Gambino, eds., Power, Politics, and Pen-
aries, rejecting any authority or agency above the tecostals in Latin America; M. W. Dempster, B. D. Klaus,
local congregation, naturally supported indige- D. Petersen, eds., Called & Empowered: Global Mission
in Pentecostal Perspective; W. J. Hollenweger, The Pente-
nous church principles. Their successes in Brazil costals; J. A. B. Jongeneel, ed., Pentecost, Mission and
(and developments in Chile) first signaled the in- Ecumenism; W. Ma and R. P. Menzies, eds., Pente-
ternational progress of the movement. The costalism in Context; L. G. McClung, Jr., ed., Azusa
unique combination of Pentecostal spirituality Street and Beyond: Pentecostal Missions and Church
with the application of these principles accounts Growth in the Twentieth Century; G. B. McGee, This
for the rapid growth. The Church of God (Cleve- Gospel Shall Be Preached: A History and Theology of As-
land, Tenn.) has also seen success but without semblies of God Foreign Missions, 2 vols.; idem, The
formally embracing indigenous church princi- Radical Strategy: The Linkage Between Paranormal
ples; growth has also come in part through amal- Phenomena and Evangelism in Modern Christian Mis-
sions, in The Holy Spirit and Mission Dynamics, ed.,
gamation with existing Pentecostal church bod- C. D. McConnell; R. P. Spittler, Jr., Implicit Values in
ies overseas. In recent years, mission churches Pentecostal Missions, Missiology: An International Re-
have themselves begun sending out thousands of view 16 (October 1988): 40924; L. S. Vaccaro de Pe-
their own missionaries (e.g., Yoido Full Gospel trella, The Tension Between Evangelism and Social Ac-
Church in Seoul, Korea, pastored by David [for- tion in the Pentecostal Movement, IRM 75 (January
merly Paul] Yonggi Cho; Congrega Crist do 1986): 3438; C. P. Wagner, Spiritual Power and Church
Brazil in So Paulo, Brazil, founded by Luigi Growth.
Francescon; Calvary Charismatic Center in Sin-
gapore, pastored by Rick Seaward). Pentecostal Movement. A restorationist and
Since Pentecostals have always been more in- millenarian movement highlighting the baptism
terested in the doing than theorizing of mis- and gifts of the Holy Spirit that emerged from
sion, they have produced few theologies of mis- the broader holiness movement beginning in
sion. The exceptions include: The Baptism of the 1901. Branches of modern Pentecostalism in-
Holy Ghost & Fire, 2d ed. (1906) by MINNIE F. clude Classical (denominational) Pentecostals,
739
Neo-Pentecostals (charismatics), and so-called demons, but others pondered the idea that God
Third Wave evangelicals who view signs and might restore the gift of tongues languages
wonders as essential for successful ministry (xenolalia). Through bypassing time-consuming
(Acts 5:12). language study, Spirit-baptized missionaries
Throughout the nineteenth century, Protestants could expedite world evangelization by immedi-
from a broad spectrum of churches prayed for the ately preaching to their hearers. By 1890, this
outpouring of the Spirit (Joel 2:2829) to divinely short-cut to cross-cultural evangelism had gath-
enable them to bring about moral and social re- ered considerable interest.
form and to evangelize the world. Among them, To prepare a special contingent of end-times
Wesleyan holiness advocates encouraged believ- missionaries, the Kansas holiness preacher
ers to seek for a postconversion experience of Charles F. Parham opened Bethel Bible School in
grace that would immediately bring entire sanc- Topeka in the fall of 1900. Influenced by Irwin
tification. Reflecting the influence of JOHN WES- and convinced that tongues-speech represented
LEY, and more directly that of his associate John the Bible evidence of Spirit baptism and af-
Fletcher, this experience became known as the forded linguistic ability for gospel proclamation,
second blessing, the double cure, or eradica- he and his students prayed in early January 1901
tion of the sinful nature, and increasingly as the to receive the gift and consequently testified to
baptism in the Holy Spirit. Writers such as speaking in various languages. The Apostolic
PHOEBE PALMER and William Arthur taught that it Faith movement, as Parham called it, had begun
would rid believers of the moral flaw in human and his insistence on tongues became the hall-
nature. Late in the century, Benjamin H. Irwins mark of Pentecostal doctrine.
theology, which proposed a third work of grace In 1905, Parham started another Bible school
fire baptism for empowermentplayed a cru- in Houston, Texas. It was there that William J.
cial role in the development of Pentecostalism. Seymour, an African-American holiness preacher,
Separating sanctification from Spirit baptism, met Parham and accepted his teachings. Leaving
however, generated questions about what distin- Houston in early 1906 and arriving in Los Ange-
guished them from each other. It was but a short les, he became the foremost leader of the Azusa
step to arguing that speaking in tongues as found Street revival (19069). The impact of this event
in the pattern of Spirit baptisms in the book of brought global dimensions to the movement
Acts (2, 8 [implied], 10, 19) provided definite evi- through the following revivals and others that it
dence of the third work. sparked: Toronto, Canada (1906); Oslo, Norway
Reformed revivalists like CHARLES G. FINNEY, (1906); Dunn, North Carolina (1907); Memphis,
DWIGHT L. MOODY, A. B. SIMPSON, and REUBEN A. Tennessee (1907); Nyack, New York (1907); Sun-
TORREY, as well as speakers at the annual derland, England (1907); Stockholm, Sweden
Keswick conferences in England (see KESWICK (1907); Calcutta, India (1907); South Africa
CONVENTION), rejected the sinless perfection of (1908); Chile (1909); and Brazil (1910).
the Wesleyans and taught that the second work Yet among early Pentecostal revivals, Azusa
brought the fullness of the Holy Spirit. Not only Street was unique for its accent on racial recon-
would it enhance personal holiness, but more im- ciliation and the outpouring of the Spirit on the
portantly it would invigorate Christians for evan- poor. Thus, while it shared the same concern for
gelism. In addition to the growing popularity of missions that marked Topeka, other aspects of
the doctrine of divine healing based on the aton- the Spirits work flowered, especially the fruit of
ing work of Christ (Isa. 53:5; James 5:1315) and the Spirit in human relationships as in the case
the dispensational premillennialism of the Ply- of blacks, Hispanics, and whites in attendance. In
mouth Brethren, these beliefs crystallized to- addition to Seymour, prominent African-Ameri-
gether as the full or fourfold gospel: Jesus can leaders included Charles H. Mason (Church
Christ as Savior, Sanctifier (Baptizer in the of God in Christ), Garfield T. Haywood (Pente-
Spirit), Healer, and Coming King. costal Assemblies of the World), L. M. Mason
Radical evangelicals from the holiness ranks (United Holy Church of America), and Ida Robin-
wondered aloud with other premillennialists how son (Mount Sinai Holy Church of America). Pen-
humanity could be evangelized in the last days tecostal awakenings amid oppressed peoples
(Acts 2:17) before the imminent return of Christ. (e.g., the victims of apartheid in South Africa)
With a pessimistic appraisal of the future course took inspiration from Azusa as a model of true
of human history and discouraged by the slow Pentecostal blessing and liberationthe confer-
pace of conversions in the mission lands, they ral of dignity and the Spirits gifts upon the poor
prayed for the restoration of apostolic power. and oppressed.
This radical strategy anticipated supernatural News of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit
interventions of the Spirits power in SIGNS AND spread through persons traveling from Los Ange-
WONDERS to reach every tribe and nation with the les, in addition to printed reports in periodicals
message of salvation (Matt. 24:14). For some, this such as the Apostolic Faith (Los Angeles), pub-
meant praying for the sick and exorcising lished by the Azusa leaders. At the same time, be-
740
lievers schooled in holiness teachings in India the Foursquare Gospel, Pentecostal Church of
began speaking in tongues in July 1906, though God, and United Pentecostal Church Interna-
unaware of events in the United States and tional (UPCI) represent finished work bodies.
Parhams teaching on the evidential nature of The third division began in 1913 when a rela-
tongues. tively small contingent of Pentecostals started
While there is little doubt that Pentecostalism teaching that water baptism in the name of Jesus
attracted the poor and marginalized elements in Christ according to Acts 2:38 had precedence
society, this perception has also created an inac- over the baptismal formula of Matthew 28:19.
curate stereotype. Recent research shows that The restoration of another pattern in the book
while many Pentecostals came from the ranks of of Acts led Frank J. Ewart, Howard A. Goss, and
blue-collar workers; indeed, there were even others to replace the historic doctrine of the Trin-
some wealthy Pentecostals. In regard to their role ity with a radical Jesus-centrism. Dividing the
in society and due to their biblicism and expecta- Assemblies of God in 1916, Jesus Name, Apos-
tion of Christs return, many were pacifists. As a tolic, or Oneness Pentecostals left with many
result, some were jailed or ordered to do alterna- of them later joining together to form the UPCI
tive service during World War I. As for womens in 1945.
involvement in ministry, many Pentecostals, like Pentecostals have remained evangelical in doc-
their holiness forebears, found justification for trine, confessing belief in the Trinity (the large
this in the Spirits outpouring on women as well majority), the inspiration and infallibility of
as men (Acts 2:17). Women, therefore, have made Scripture, justification by faith, substitutionary
significant contributions as evangelists, mission- atonement of Christ, and other historic doctrines
aries, pastors, and Bible school administrators. of the Christian faith. Nevertheless, they have dif-
Most notable among them were Anna Larssen fered on several vital points: the ordinances of
Bjourner, Christine A. Gibson, AIMEE SEMPLE the church, function of tongues in Spirit baptism,
MCPHERSON, LILLIAN TRASHER, and Maria B. role of the Christian in society, attitudes toward
Woodworth-Etter. women in ministry, and church polity.
Pentecostal dynamics in worship have included Traditional Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Con-
encouraging everyone to become involved in gregational polities are utilized with some Pente-
singing, giving testimonies to answers to prayer, costals claiming that the offices of apostle and
playing musical instruments, clapping and raising prophet have been restored. Episcopal polity is
hands in prayer, manifesting the gifts of the Spirit evident in the Church of God (Cleveland, Tenn.),
(1 Cor. 12:810), and praying for the sick, along and even in circles that ostensibly appear Con-
with the preaching of the Word. The accent on the gregational (e.g., David Yonggi Chos Yoido Full
immanent presence of the Holy Spirit became the Gospel Church in Seoul, Korea). Hybrid Congre-
chief distinctive of their corporate worship. gational/Presbyterian forms appear in such de-
Between 1906 and 1916, Pentecostals divided nominations as the Assemblies of God and Open
over three doctrinal issues. Beginning in late Bible Standard Churches. Congregational polity
1906, the first centered on the indispensable need dominates the continental European scene,
of speaking in tongues as initial evidence of Brazil, and many other sectors of the movement.
Spirit baptism. As the belief in missionary Evangelical recognition of American Pente-
tongues failed, they increasingly considered costals came with an invitation to several de-
speaking in unknown tongues (glossolalia) as nominations to join the National Association of
prayer in the Spirit and the source of empower- Evangelicals (NAE) at its founding in 1942. This
ment. Some emphasized tongues, but without in- close identification with the NAE and participa-
sisting on them for Spirit baptism. However, the tion in its member agencies has led to a gradual
emerging Pentecostal denominations generally evangelicalization of Pentecostalism, an adop-
saw this as the entry into the Spirit-filled life. tion of issues and perspectives germane to the
The second division over the Finished Work of largely Reformed member organizations. NAE
Calvary arose in 1910 when Pentecostals with conferences also kindled interest in Pentecostal
Reformed backgrounds challenged the Wesleyan unity that led to the founding of the Pentecostal
holiness notion of sanctification. The most promi- Fellowship of North America (1948), recently re-
nent leader of the opposition, Chicago pastor organized as the Pentecostal/Charismatic
William H. Durham, contended that Jesus fin- Churches of North America (1994). Concern for
ished the work of salvation and sanctification on unity among Spirit-baptized believers had led
the cross. The legacy of this controversy continues earlier to the four meetings of the International
with the Wesleyan view retained by several holi- Pentecostal Council in Europe prior to World
ness-Pentecostal organizations including the War I. In 1939, the European Pentecostal Confer-
Church of God in Christ, Church of God (Cleve- ence in Stockholm, Sweden, helped lay the basis
land, Tenn.), and International Pentecostal Holi- for the founding of the Pentecostal World Con-
ness Church. The Assemblies of God, Pentecostal ference in 1947. Pentecostal church bodies have
Assemblies of Canada, International Church of also joined the WORLD EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP,
741
Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, Another path in the broader Pentecostal tradi-
and WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES. tion came with the emergence of the Third
Beginning with the charismatic renewal in the Wave of the Holy Spirit by the early 1980s. Ac-
1960s (see also CHARISMATIC MOVEMENT), neo- cording to this definition, the Pentecostal and
Pentecostals or charismatics appeared in the charismatic movements represent the first and
mainline Protestant churches, the Roman second waves of the Spirit in the twentieth cen-
Catholic Church, and several of the Orthodox tury. Focusing their attention on prayer for the
churches. This had actually begun in the Protes- sick, exorcisms, and other spiritual manifesta-
tant churches in the 1950s and gained national tions, key proponents like C. PETER WAGNER and
press coverage in 1960 when Dennis Bennett, Charles H. Kraft have encouraged evangelicals to
rector of St. Marks Episcopal Church in Van seek for supernatural power in ministry. Particu-
Nuys, California, announced to his parishioners larly influential has been John Wimber and the
that he had been baptized in the Spirit and spo- Vineyard movement. Speaking in tongues, how-
ken in tongues. Several factors account for the ever, has not been at the forefront of their think-
renewal, including believers in the historic ing or deemed as a validation of Spirit baptism.
churches searching for a deeper work of the More recent developments have also impacted
Spirit, the influence of the postwar faith healing the world church, especially those at the Toronto
movement, and the activities of the Full Gospel Airport Vineyard in Canada beginning in 1994
Business Mens Fellowship International. and at Brownsville Assembly of God in Pen-
The appearance of Pentecostal phenomena sacola, Florida, a year later. Although not without
among Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Reformed, controversy, these and continuing revivals in var-
Mennonites, Methodists, Messianic Jews, Disci- ious parts of the world (e.g., Brazil, Argentina,
ples of Christ, Baptists, Lutherans, and others Burkina Faso, Korea) have been influential in en-
prompted vigorous debate, but for the most part couraging evangelism and revival elsewhere.
charismatics gained approval within their respec- Classical Pentecostals alone constitute one of
tive denominations. Official Catholic and Protes- the largest families of Christians in the world
tant doctrinal statements on the renewal can be today and along with charismatics and others in
found in Presence, Power, and Praise (1980) edited the Pentecostal/charismatic tradition enjoy an
by Kilian McDonnell, O.S.B. In regard to theolog- unusual grassroots ecumenicity in the Spirit ris-
ical reflection, Pentecostal and charismatic schol- ing above conciliar and creedal boundaries. To-
ars have made important contributions in part gether, they represent the single most dynamic
through the conferences and journals of the Soci- development in twentieth-century Christianity.
ety for Pentecostal Studies and the European Pen- GARY B. MCGEE
tecostal Theological Association. Bibliography. R. M. Anderson, Vision of the Disin-
The SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL (196265) laid the herited: The Making of American Pentecostalism; S. M.
theological groundwork for the Catholic charis- Burgess, G. B. McGee, P. H. Alexander, eds., DPCM;
matic renewal, the largest of all the renewal move- E. L. Cleary and H. W. Stewart-Gambino, eds., Power,
ments. Beginning with the famous Duquesne Politics, and Pentecostalism in Latin America; D. W.
Weekend retreat in the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Dayton, Theological Roots of Pentecostalism; W. C.
Fletcher, Soviet Charismatics: The Pentecostals in the
area in 1976, interest in the outpouring of the USSR; D. E. Harrell, Jr., All Things Are Possible: The
Spirit grew quickly, especially through the min- Healing and Charismatic Revivals in Modern America;
istry of the Word of God community in Ann Arbor, P. Hocken, The Glory and the Shame: Reflections on the
Michigan, and major conferences at Notre Dame 20th Century Outpouring of the Holy Spirit; C. E. Jones,
University in South Bend, Indiana. Leading fig- Guide to the Study of the Pentecostal Movement, 2 vols.;
ures have included Stephen Clark, Ralph Keifer, idem, The Charismatic Movement, 2 vols.; J. A. B. Jon-
Ralph Martin, Edward D. OConnor, C.S.C., Kevin geneel, ed., Pentecost, Mission and Ecumenism; R. Lau-
and Dorothy Ranaghan, and Leon-Joseph Cardi- rentin, Catholic Charismatics; K. Poewe, ed., Charis-
matic Christianity as a Global Culture; R. Quebedeaux,
nal Suenens, the latter given oversight of the The New Charismatics II; J. L. Sandidge, Roman
movement by Pope Paul VI. Catholic/Pentecostal Dialogue (197782): A Study in De-
David J. Du Plessis, a key leader in charismatic veloping Ecumenism; V. Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal
circles and sometime secretary of the Pentecostal Tradition; G. Wacker, Journal of Ecclesiastical History 47
World Conference, uniquely served as a bridge (July 1996): 50528; C. P. Wagner, The Third Wave of the
between classical Pentecostals and Protestant Holy Spirit.
and Catholic charismatics. In response to the
Catholic charismatic renewal and because of Penzotti, Francisco (18511925). Italian mis-
Pentecostal church growth in historically Roman sionary in South America. Born in Chaivenna,
Catholic countries, Du Plessis and McDonnell Italy, at the age of thirteen he emigrated to
were instrumental in founding the Roman Uruguay, South America. In 1875 he heard the
Catholic and Classical Pentecostal Dialogue that gospel and shortly thereafter became a Christian
began in 1972. within the Methodist Church. He threw his heart
742
People Movements
into the spread of the Scriptures as a Bible dis- more than anyone to popularize and promote
tributor with the American Bible Society this particular approach to mission strategy.
throughout Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile. Visits The history of the expansion of Christianity is
to Peru in 1884 and 1886 convinced Penzotti and replete with cases where numerous people shar-
the ABS of the need to establish a Bible Society ing some common trait(s) have become Chris-
agency to serve Peru, Ecuador, and the western tians either simultaneously or within a short pe-
part of Bolivia. riod of time. The Christian church began with
Penzotti moved his family to Callao, Peru, in the conversion of large numbers of Jews and
1888 to direct the ministry. During the following Gentile God-fearers. From the time of Constan-
year Penzotti and his three colleagues, Juan tine through the Middle Ages, tribes and nations
Arancet, Jos Illescas, and Manuel Noriega, were of southern, central, and then northern Europe
able not only to distribute 4,500 Bibles or portions were Christianized as missionaries preached the
thereof, but also to explain the gospel to those who gospel message and sovereigns prescribed con-
acquired them. Such receptivity was sure to cause version to the Christian faith. People movement
concern among the Catholic hierarchy, especially advocates readily admit that the conversion of
at a time when public non-Catholic religious serv- Europe contains much that is repugnant to us
ices were prohibited in Peru. Penzotti was taken to today. Also that they will not be repeated in the
court, where his case attracted worldwide atten- modern world. Nevertheless, advocates insist that
tion. He was imprisoned on July 26, 1890. After they were important to later advances evident in
the ministry of people like Wycliffe, Knox,
nine months in jail he was finally released on
Luther, Fox, the Wesleys, and Carey.
Easter Sunday in 1891. He continued his Bible
As viewed by McGavran, Tippett, and others of
distribution ministry in Peru, in Central America
the Church Growth school of thought, the typical
after 1896, and finally in Argentina, where this
missionary strategy that developed during the
Luther of Latin America died in 1925. seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries
LINDY SCOTT
was the exploratory mission station approach
Bibliography. A. M. Milne, From Cape Horn to Quito or the exploratory gathered colony approach.
with the Bible. Missionaries first acquired land and built suit-
able residences for themselves. Then they added
People Movements. Phenomenon of a signifi- churches, schools, orphanages, hospitals, resi-
cant number of the people of one tribe, class, or dences for helpers, and so on. Since nationals
caste converting to Christ together. The term is who received the ministrations and message of
comparatively new in the annals of missions. the missionaries were often forced from their
J. Waskom Pickett reports that he searched a homes, many of them came to live at or near the
hundred volumes of reports from missions in mission station. Still others in the area became
which movements of this kind occurred without dependent on the mission station economy. This
finding a single use of even the term mass move- type of mission strategy grew out of the individ-
ualism of Western missionaries and the gap be-
ment until 1892 (1933, 21). There seems to have
tween the Western and non-Western worlds. It
been no recognition of the need for a distinctive
fit the times. But two additional things must be
term to describe these movements, even on the
said about it. First, that pattern does not fit
part of those whose ministry precipitated them.
todays world in which the peoples of the world
Missionaries resorted to the word REVIVAL or are determined to assert their own identity and
whatever term was familiar to them on the basis resist the tutelage of foreigners. Second, though
of experiences in their home churches. When, be- they have not been sought by missionaries in
latedly, the term mass movement came into most cases, the history of modern missions as
wider usage it was not without reservations. well as the history of the early church and Mid-
Picket himself adopted that term in writing his dle Ages reveals that the great majority of con-
classic work Mass Movements in India, but he in- verts have come to Christ in people movements
dicated that it obscured tribal, caste, and other large and small. Mission accounts from a wide
types of unity shared by converts. In acceeding to variety of cultures and areas around the world
the use of the term, he nevertheless acknowl- Oceania, Indonesia, India, and Burma in Asia;
edged that the term group movement might and Ivory Coast and Gold Coast in Africa to
have been preferable. name but a fewyield outstanding examples of
In a somewhat parallel but later development, Christward movements of this kind. Proponents
DONALD A. MCGAVRAN became acquainted with of people movement strategy are quick to point
Pickett and his work after his arrival in India. out that they exemplify the strategy now required
ALAN R. TIPPETT credits McGavran with coining to evangelize the emerging world.
the term people movement though he does so To test the validity of such claims, in the 1960s
without complete confidence (1987, 253). In any Marion Cowan undertook a study of a developing
case, it seems clear that McGavran has done church among the previously resistant Tzotzil In-
743
People Movements
dian tribe in Mexico. The gospel had entered the has been made to ground the strategy in Scrip-
Tzotzil Indian tribe through a chance meeting turein the experience of the early church, the
between a neighboring Tzeltal Christian and an ministry of the apostle Paul, and, especially, in the
unbelieving Tzotzil. Cowan noted that most of requirements of the GREAT COMMISSION. The ethnem
the early Tzotzil believers were converted as a in Matthew 18:19 is understood as people
group. She then charted the various relationships groups rather than nation-states or even Gen-
that existed between the members of the believ- tiles. Third, as indicated above, advocates are
ing group and attempted to discover the channels quick to point to the numerous instances of peo-
of effective initial communication (i.e., commu- ple movements in church and missions history,
nication resulting in conversion). A detailed sum- especially in the history of modern missions.
mary of her findings cannot be included here, Fourth, a case is made for concluding that the
but it is relevant to point out that, out of a total kind of group DECISION MAKING that is part and
of eighty such cases, thirty-nine occurred be- parcel of people movements results in more sta-
tween consanguineal kin and thirty-eight be- bility as well as more rapid church growth than
tween affinal kin. Only three cases of effective does one-by-one gathered church extractionism.
communication occurred between persons not Fifth, advocates maintain that the kind of tribal-,
related by either blood or marriage, and these race-, and class-consciousness that gives rise to a
occurred between members of a small farmers people movement is not permanent. Though it
cooperative. often is determinative of the way churches begin,
From a people movement point of view, the key it does not describe what churches will ultimately
to understanding the history of Christian mis- become as members grow in their understanding
sions and contemporary occurrences such as of Gods way and will.
these is a recognition of the fact that they were Efforts to quiet critics have met with varying
not, and are not, simply movements of larger degrees of acceptance. For example, the term
numbers of individuals acting on their own ini- people group now enjoys wide usage. But as
tiative and more or less independent of each originally defined by McGavran the term signi-
other. Rather, they represent the way in which fied an endogamous group. Subsequently it
people actually communicate with each other evolved through a series of modifications and
and the way in which they like to come to now is usually thought of as an affinity group.
Christ. People communicate and relate most This latter definition, however, lacks the kind of
often and effectively with their own kind of peo- precision necessary for sound strategic thinking.
ple. And they resist being wrenched out of the And the change process itself argues against
families, extended families, and other groupings equating people group with ethnem quite apart
with which they are most intimately associated from a consideration of the biblical usage of the
(see also HOMOGENOUS UNIT PRINCIPLE). Greek word. Nevertheless, sound missiology is
Western Christians especially are inclined to well informed by people movement thinking. Not
take umbrage at the notion that social ties are only does it make a great contribution to our un-
or, at least, should beas consequential as peo- derstanding of the ways in which people become
ple movement philosophy and strategy suggest. Christians. It also arms us against the kind of
Numerous Scripture passages in both Old and cultural bias that overlooks the vital importance
New Testaments indicate that to please God one of group ties and the potential that often exists to
must be willing to leave father and mother or both initiate and encourage whole groups of peo-
anyone standing in the way of obedience to God. ple to embrace and follow Christ.
Group conversion is often seen as entailing some- DAVID J. HESSELGRAVE
thing less than the kind of personal decision that
true commitment calls for. Moreover, in the Bibliography. M. Cowan, PA 9 (1962): 193204; D. A.
church distinctions of race, class, and status are McGavran, Bridges of God; idem, Understanding Church
of no account. All are one in Christ. Growth; J. W. Pickett, Christian Mass Movements in
These and other criticisms have occasioned var- India; A. R. Tippett, Introduction to Missiology.
ious types of responses from people movement
proponents, especially those of the Church Peoples, People Groups. Way of perceiving hu-
Growth school of thought. First, terms and defi- manity as being composed of identifiable cultural
nitions have been modified in an effort to pro- and/or sociological grouping. Mission is then
mote understanding. The term mass movement seen as directed to such groups. Our Lords man-
has been superseded by people movement and, date as recorded in Acts 1:8 made an early re-
in certain cases, web movement. Group deci- lated strategic distinction: You will be my wit-
sion and group conversion have been explained nesses, in Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and
as mutually interdependent decision and multi- Samaria, and to the ends of the earth.
individual conversion. Changes and explanations Later the Constantinian church, challenged
of factors that occasion and characterize Christ- from the north, sent missionaries to barbar-
ward movements of this kind. Second, an effort ians. They in turn carried the gospel into pagan
744
Peoples, People Groups
northern Europe and transformed other barbar- reached People Groups, first using the term for
ian peoples into the entity that left its stamp on the LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGELISM
the definition of missions: Christendom. En (1974). These were popularized and defined in
route, mission was defined as directed toward the Unreached Peoples MARC series from 1979 to
the heath men or HEATHEN. 1987. The series included the Lausanne Commit-
When the modern missionary movement took tee for World Evangelization Strategy Working
shape, Europeans became aware, through travel Group (SWG) definition of a people group as a
and trade, of the vast reaches of whole dark con- significantly large sociological grouping of peo-
tinents without the gospel. There were the civi- ple who perceive themselves to have a common
lized inhabitants of Christendom, and there was affinity for one another. . . . From the viewpoint
the non-Christian world of the colonies. No fur- of evangelization, this is the largest possible
ther definition seemed necessary. Later, the his- group within which the Gospel can spread with-
toric flow of colonial contacts caused mission out encountering barriers to understanding or
agencies and denominations to shift focus from acceptance. Although Dayton and Wagner ex-
the coastal port cities to the interior areas of perimented with a definition of unreached as less
these continents. Hence names like Africa Inland than 20 percent Christian, the SWG moved to de-
Mission, Sudan Interior Mission, China Inland fine unreached as the absence of a viable church
Mission. Interiors now defined mission. capable of carrying on the groups evangelization.
The surge of missionary effort subsequent to RALPH WINTER espoused the term Hidden or
World War II took place in the context of newly Frontier following his definitive paper pre-
independent nation-states, fifty-seven formed in sented at the 1974 Lausanne Conference. These
Africa in a single decade. Mission agencies re- semantic differences were resolved at a Chicago
sponded by focusing strategy on national airport conference, when the SWG called to-
boundaries and church bodies within them. Once gether a set of missions leaders who agreed on a
a group, recognizable by denominational distinc- definition that would make frontier and hid-
tives, was in existence, many agencies and strate- den synonyms of the now prevailing un-
gists declared mission to be complete within reached, by which was meant any group that
the entire boundaries of these nation-states. did not contain a contextualized church demon-
Blindness to the possibility of mission on the part strably capable of completing the evangelization
of the Younger churches took the next step of of the group. Both are to be distinguished from
excluding from view countries from which West- the less precise homogeneous unit popularized
erners were restricted. For a significant segment by the CHURCH GROWTH MOVEMENT.
of mission sending, the day of mission was de- In practice, several definitional difficulties re-
clared over. Supposed national churches existed, mained. 1. Was exhaustive and exclusive catego-
while whole segments of nations had no church rizing possible or necessary? 2. Most of the defi-
or witness. A new definition was needed. nitions remain to this day more serviceable for
The often artificial nature of nation-state nonurban, traditional peoples. The intersective
boundaries was missed. The consistent national groups so common in sociological and urban
experience, especially in Africa, was of near civil analysis are confusing if shoe-horned into a clas-
war, as truer identities surfaced and civil wars or sification that seeks to sort each and every in-
unifying border strikes sought to reunite peoples habitant of earth into one and only one group.
through stronger tribal or ethnolinguistic identi- 3. The difference between evangelized peoples
ties. These natural units intruded themselves on and unreached people groups seems to be that
the attention of mission strategists. Awareness of evangelization focuses on individuals and on ex-
their reality forced, yet again, a redefinition of ternal efforts made by others, while unreached
mission if the church was to express her univer- deals with groups and with outcomes in church
sal, catholic nature. The simplest and most evi- planting. The terms are unfortunately not used
dent basis was ethnolinguistic. carefully. 4. Macro distinctions are used in at-
Leslie G. Brierley of WEC began listing Re- tempts to simplify and communicate, but
maining Unevangelized Peoples (RUPs) after nomenclature remains a problem. Various au-
1941. CAMERON TOWNSEND led the identification thors have suggested solutions, including Wilson
of first Two Thousand Tongues to Go and later, and Schreck: Peoples vs. People Groups (Schreck,
through the Ethnologue (Grimes, 1988) which 1987); Winter: Macro-, Mega-, and Micro-spheres;
now describes about seven thousand language Johnstone: Affinity Blocs and Gateway People
groups. DONALD MCGAVRAN, beginning in 1955, Clusters (Johnstone, 1996).
called attention in his writings to PEOPLE MOVE- The basics of the definition for those who use
MENTS. R. PIERCE BEAVER chaired a 1972 confer- the concept are these: 1. Strategic decision fo-
ence on The Gospel and Frontier Peoples. cuses on groups, not individuals. Strictly speak-
MARC listed certain people groups at the WORLD ing, individuals are not unreached, but unevange-
CONGRESS ON EVANGELISM (BERLIN CONGRESS lized. 2. The group must be real, not just a
1966), and came to advocate the term Un- conceptual category. 3. Not all groups are of
745
Peoples, People Groups
strategic interest. A group may be too small, that Springfield, Massachusetts, a descendant of John
is, not large enough to require that a contextual- Perkins who arrived in the United States in 1631.
ized church become the vehicle of living out At eighteen he came to Christ. He graduated with
Christianity in sociocultural ways. The group honors from Amherst, studied at Andover Theo-
must not be so large as to contain within itself logical Seminary, and then returned to Amherst
segments that constitute barriers to evangeliza- to teach for one year.
tion. 4. The group is no longer unreached when a Married and ordained in 1833, later that year he
viable, contextualized church exists capable of and his wife set sail for Persia. After six months in
carrying on effective witness. Thus, boundary- Constantinople, they set out for Tabriz via Russia
crossing mission is defined, and not merely the on May 17, 1834. Bureaucratic problems delayed
boundary between faith and unbelief. Evangelism their arrival until August 23. When additional mis-
is needed after mission is theoretically fulfilled. sionary help arrived, they moved and settled in
Missiologists, particularly from South Africa, Urumia, arriving on November 20, 1835.
have objected to the use of the concepts on the Throughout his thirty-six-year missionary ca-
grounds that it promotes racist church bodies. reer, Perkins tirelessly worked in peaceful fashion
While this danger does exist, partisans respond among the Nestorian Christians in Iran. He
that social divisions will and do already charac- opened schools, organized medical work, trans-
terize branches of the church, and it is better to lated the Bible, Christian literature, and hymns
recognize and work against them, much as one into the Nestorian vernacular (Syriac), estab-
would not reject the concept of caste or class, lished a printing press which produced millions
while still opposing their prejudicial effects (see of pages of documents, contributed numerous ar-
also HOMOGENOUS UNIT PRINCIPLE). ticles for publications in journals, developed a
The church of Jesus Christ is always mission- Syriac lexicon, and wrote several books, includ-
ary. The ways of defining missions sending in ing Residence of Eight Years in Persia (1843), Mis-
terms of units that are the focus of evangelism sionary Life in Persia (1861), and Historical
will continue to evolve. For the moment, real, in- Sketch of the Mission to the Nestorians (1862). A
termediate groups without a contextualized decline in health resulted in his return to Massa-
church constitute our best working definition. chusetts, where he died the same year.
Recently, at least 1,746 large, ethnolinguistic A. SCOTT MOREAU
groups have been identified which are verified as Bibliography. M. Fackler, WWCH, p. 548; H. M.
having no church among them capable of an- Perkins, Life of Rev. Justin Perkins, D.D. Pioneer Mis-
nouncing Christs Good News. Many have not a sionary to Persia; F. T. Persons, DAB, 7:47576.
single believer. Such groups are truly aliens to
grace. This eternal tragedy is a current and com- Persecution. Suffering experienced by those
pelling call for continuing mission. The groups whose opinion or belief is being attacked by an-
listed do not include intersective urban groups. other group. For the first Christians who came
The gospel has not been and does not go where a from a Jewish heritage, SUFFERING and persecu-
meaningful invitation to follow Christ is not tion were both part of their lot. Jews living under
given. Missionaries from both the north and Roman rule could expect to be persecuted if they
south are necessary in order to bring a commu- chose to follow Jesus (e.g., Matt. 5:1012; 10:23;
nity of faith into existence which can speak the Luke 21:12; John 15:20).
language and live the Christian life in every The Jews as a people had been persecuted for
group. The integrity of each groups identity re- centuries prior to Christs birth. Christians who
quires this of us. While they are unreached (i.e., came out of Judaism still faced hostility from
no such church exists) the nature of our obedi- Rome. In addition, at least until A.D. 70, they
ence calls us to obedient going. Until then, they faced persecution from the Jewish leaders. Such
are and will remain unreached people groups. persecutions often had the opposite of the in-
SAMUEL WILSON tended effect. The persecution of the church after
SEE ALSO Adopt-A-People; Ethnicity. Stephens MARTYRDOM did not stop Christianity
but spread the gospel beyond the confines of
Bibliography. B. F. Grimes, ed., Ethnologue; P. John- Jerusalem (Acts 8:1). Pauls conversion resulted
stone and M. Smith, eds., The Unreached Peoples; from the Damascus road encounter with Jesus
H. Schreck and D. Barrett, eds., Clarifying the Task: Un- while he was traveling under Jewish authority to
reached Peoples.
persecute the church in Damascus (Acts 9:131).
In testimony and correspondence Paul frequently
Periodicals. See JOURNALS OF MISSION AND MISSI- referred to his persecuting work (Acts 22:4; 26:11;
OLOGY. 1 Cor. 15:9; Gal. 1:13; Phil. 3:6; 1 Tim. 1:13).
James was martyred by Herod, and when the
Perkins, Justin (180569). Pioneer American populace approved he had Peter arrested for the
missionary to Iran. Perkins was born in West same purpose (Acts 12:111). Through Gods in-
746
Person, Personhood
tervention, the tables were turned and Herod lost Fellowship Religious Liberty Commission. The
his life, while Peter escaped and was able to con- National Association of Evangelicals (U.S.) pub-
tinue sharing his faith. Jewish persecution of lished a statement of conscience in 1996 reflect-
Paul for his evangelistic work led to his arrest ing deep concern for the religious freedom of
and eventual transport to Rome under guard. In fellow believers, as well as people of every faith
this, however, the Jews living in Rome as well as and many agencies and churches have joined
Pauls escorts and his guard detail all had the the WEF-sponsored International Day of Prayer
chance to hear the gospel (Acts 28:1730; Phil. for the Persecuted Church.
1:1214). Persecution, though violent and in- Missionary Implications. With the recent in-
tended to shut down the church, often had the crease in interest in reaching the unreached, per-
opposite effect. secution of missionaries will likely grow rather
The Roman rulers initially tolerated Christians than shrink in the coming decades, simply be-
as a subsect within Judaism, but Neros scape- cause so many of the unreached live under reli-
goating of them after the A.D. 64 fire in Rome gious or political ideologies that suppress the
started a pattern of persecution which continued spread of the Christian message. Additionally,
for almost 250 years. With varying intensity, Christians are often perceived as part of the West
Christians were perceived as a threat to the state. in general, and the official anti-Western tenor in
Though not consistently applied throughout the these countries will exacerbate the potential
Roman Empire, and with periods of hostility fol- problems.
lowed by temporary reprieves, the reality of Chris- Almost no missiological training in the West
tianitys illegality as a religion remained part of offered today will help future missionaries train-
the Christian experience until the Edict of Milan ing face persecution, though it appears that
(A.D. 313) officially legalized Christianity in the house seminaries in China prepare their future
empire. Though two relatively brief periods of pastors for interrogation. Missionaries, especially
persecution followed (under Licinius in 32223 those going into at-risk situations, would benefit
and Julian in 36163), official toleration of Chris- from realistic preparation for the possibilities
tianity across the Roman Empire was assured. they may face. In addition, having been trained,
Contemporary Situation. While it is true that they may also be more able to offer both prepa-
Christians have over the course of history perse- ration and aid to indigenous Christians who suf-
cuted others (e.g., Muslims during the CRUSADES; fer because of a choice to follow Christ in a hos-
Jews during the Middle Ages and the modern tile environment.
era), including other Christians (e.g., the Do- A. SCOTT MOREAU
natists, Anabaptists, Puritans, and Huguenots),
by and large it is accurate to say that Christians Bibliography. G. W. Bromiley, ISBE Revised,
have been the recipients of hostility. Far from 3:77174; W. H. C. Frend, ER 11:24756; P. Marshall,
being only a thing of the past, persecution today IBMR 22:1 (January 1998): 18; idem, Their Blood Cries
continues to be a reality faced by many Chris- Out; E. M. B. Green, NBD, pp. 91314; H. Schlossberg,
A Fragrance of Oppression; N. Shea, In the Lions Den.
tians, particularly those in militant religious
states. It is estimated that more Christians have
lost their lives through persecution in this cen- Person, Personhood. The divine persons of the
tury than all other centuries combined, though Holy Trinity express themselves in human im-
generally there has been little publicity of this in ages. The essence of human personhood is our
the secular press of free countries. David Barrett potential to image the ultimate personal being,
estimates that some 160,000 Christians were the Lord God (see also IMAGE OF GOD). Scripture
martyred in 1996 simply because they were views all human beings as persons because we
Christians. Contemporary researchers have have the potential to rule and relate to God in
begun to speak out on behalf of the persecuted God-like ways.
(e.g., Shea and Marshall), noting that the West- Adopting Gods Stance. The answer to the
ern church and Western governments have been question whether all humans are persons de-
largely silent in the face of an increasingly well- serving to be treated with dignity and respect
documented reality. rests on our beliefs concerning the stance our
A number of mission organizations have also Creator takes toward the wide variety of humans
been founded to investigate, publicize, and ad- in sundry conditions. Throughout history, nu-
vocate on behalf of those at risk, including merous people interpreted traits such as physi-
Brothers Keeper, Christian Solidarity Interna- cal and mental capacities, gender, and race, as
tional, International Christian Concern, and indicating less than full personhood. God takes
Voice of the Martyrs. Additionally, existing agen- the stance that the fetus and the profoundly im-
cies are incorporating departments which em- paired are fully human persons, created to
phasize the persecuted church, including Chris- image him. Like a flower in bud form, they are
tian Life Commission of the Southern Baptist not yet all they will be, yet neither are believers
Convention, Open Doors, and World Evangelical (Ps. 139:13; 1 John 3:2).
747
Person, Personhood
Integral to human personhood is the experience each person (2 Thess. 1:11, 12). In executing JUS-
of life in terms of role and STATUS. God assigns TICE, God deems a persons motives for his or her
differing roles to men and women, having de- actions as of ultimate import, a matter of life and
signed them physiologically for complementary death (e.g., Josh. 20:3; 1 Thess. 2:34).
functions (1 Cor. 11:312; see also GENDER ROLES). The unconscious and subconscious form our
Male persons, with their physical capacity to im- conscious identity as persons (Prov. 4:23). Men-
plant seed, symbolize Gods initiating grace. Fe- tal and physical memories and the WORLDVIEW
male persons, with their capacity to receive the beliefs we integrate into those memory-stories
seed and bear fruit, symbolize believers re- constantly influence our emotional and physio-
ceptive faith. God saves and gifts each equally as logical reactions and choices. Only through
co-heirs of the grace of life (1 Peter 2:7). Believers memory can a person maintain a relatively co-
adopt Gods stance and treat all men and women herent, consistent identity over time.
of all races and classes as potential brothers and 3. Reciprocity. A persons life is social. Each
sisters in Christ (Gal. 3:2829). person has been shaped by sociocultural interac-
Embodied Souls. Scripture summarizes per- tion, by dialogue with others, and by the internal
sons as embodied souls. Into a figure made from voice of community. Originally dependent on
dust God breathed the breath of life (Gen. 2:7). parents, the mature person continues those in-
Paul utilizes the useful formula of spirit, soul, terdependent relations in appropriate ways. SIN
body in his prayer for believers to be preserved defames God by proudly disregarding the inter-
complete, without blame (1 Thess. 5:23; cf. Job dependent nature of our relations. Conversely, we
7:11, 15; Isa. 26:8, 9; Heb. 4:12), though he more glorify God by submitting to him and to one an-
typically writes in dual rather than tripartite lan- other. God commands us to love him with all our
guage (e.g., 2 Cor. 7:1; 4:16; 1 Cor. 6:16, 17). The heart, soul, mind, and strength (Mark 12:3031).
human soul synthesizes influences from the mul- We demonstrate that love when we transcend
tiple systems in which it participates (body, per- ourselves by reaching out to others, entering
sonality structures, family, culture, society, spiri- imaginatively into their lives and into dialogue
tuality) and offers creative influences back to with them as persons. Thus we obey the com-
those systems. Thus, the soul is a social reality mand, Love your neighbor as yourself.
that is always changing at new levels of organi- God desires to use whole persons in healthy
zation, function, and value. Missionaries carry community to reconcile to himself fragmented
the message of a new birth for the whole person persons in fragmented communities. Individuals
at all levels. who seek fulfillment in God become infinitely
Five Aspects of Personhood. Human person- valuable to him for their potential impact on their
hood may be described in a wide variety of ways. community (Jer. 5:1; 9:23). Social ministry to
Some basic aspects of mature persons fulfilling whole persons in their community, not merely to
their capacity to image God include rationality, save souls, enables the churches to more clearly
consciousness, reciprocity, communication, and communicate the good news of the kingdom.
embodiment. 4. Communication. Fourth is the capacity for
1. Rationality. People have the capacity to re- COMMUNICATION, especially verbal (cf. 2 Peter
sist complete determination by their causal pasts, 2:16). Persons shape themselves and their world
to say yes or no, to inject creativity into the chaos through LANGUAGE. Language makes possible the
coming out of the past (LeFevre). Missionaries dialogue that gives birth to mind, self, and soci-
recognize that persons of all cultures decide the ety. Language makes possible the distancing and
meaning of their life through creative choices, re- the use of memory and imagination that grounds
gardless of how their culture frames those freedom (LeFevre) To the extent personhood
choices. Our actions are more than mere events rests on consciousness of contiguous stories, rad-
or happenings; they express our emotions and ical alteration in identity requires acquiring, in-
caring concerns, further forming those very emo- tegrating, and acting out new stories. The story-
tions and potentially new concerns. Therefore, ing-approach to missions meets this need (see
God tells us that he will judge people by their STORYTELLING).
fruit (Prov. 24:12; James 2:24; Rev. 20:13). 5. Embodiment. A fifth aspect of human per-
2. Self-consciousness. A second aspect of ma- sonhood is the integration of soul and body,
ture human personhood emphasizes intentional- mind and brain. Through our bodies we delight
ity and self-motivated activity. Self-conscious- in pleasures that lift us close to divine joy (e.g.,
ness, including our awareness and concepts of Song of Solomon). However, the passions of the
our self, rests on learning our place in history flesh can deceive and overcome us, and drag us
(e.g. Isa. 1:34). We experience the GUILT of con- close to animalization (2 Peter 2:12). The FRUIT
science and the relief of humor through reflec- OF THE SPIRIT includes self-control (Gal. 5:1626;
tion: we can stand apart from and enter into dia- cf. Mark 9:4347; Rom. 6:13; 1 Cor. 9:27).
logue with our self. Self-motivated actions both Missionaries proclaim the hope of resurrec-
delight God and determine just JUDGMENT for tion: Christ removes the curse of death and re-
748
Peru
unites body and soul (Gen. 3:19; Acts 17:31; personality types. An increasing number of mis-
1 Cor. 15:4257; 2 Cor. 6:15; Phil. 3:21). Whole sion agencies are providing personal and family
persons will stand before God to be judged for counseling for their missionaries. Ultimately,
the deeds done in the flesh and angels will cast prayer and the primacy of love (1 Cor. 13) pro-
some body and soul into hell (Matt. 10:28). vide the guideposts for the successful discharge
Ideal Humanness. As J. I. Packer says, HOLI- of family responsibilities.
NESS is simply human life lived as the Creator in- CHARLES R. GAILEY
tended. Perfect and ideal humanness unites the
SEE ALSO Missionary Children.
aspects and systems of body and soul in a totally
God-honoring and nature-fulfilling way. Bibliography. P. Echerd and A. Arathoon, Under-
DOUGLAS J. VARDELL standing and Nurturing the Missionary Family;
M. Foyler, Overcoming Missionary Stress.
SEE ALSO Human Rights.
Bibliography. N. T. Anderson and R. L. Saucy, The Peru (Est. 2000 pop.: 26,082,000; 1,285,216 sq.
Common Made Holy: Being Conformed to the Image of km. [496,222 sq. mi.]). An ethnically diverse
God; B. M. Ashley and K. D. ORourke, Health Care South American country in whose vast territory is
Ethics: A Theological Analysis, 4th ed.; R. Joyce, What Is an ongoing process of cultural transformation. Its
a Person?, pp. 199212; P. LeFevre, L. C. Allen, and spiritual history is shaped by the syncretistic mix-
L. H. Silberman, Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Coun- ture of native animism with the medieval Catholi-
seling, pp. 88393; L. K. Graham, Care of Persons, Care cism brought by the Spanish after 1532. Chris-
of Worlds: A Psychosystems Approach to Pastoral Care
and Counseling; J. I. Packer, Rediscovering Holiness;
tianization through Franciscans, Mercedarians,
A. Ross, Creation and Blessing; J. Sailhamer, EBC, 2:38. and Dominicans accompanied bloody military
conquest. Writings by Jesuit JOS DE ACOSTA
(15391600) are evidence of unsuccessful efforts
Personal/Family Responsibilities. The obliga- to correct early missionary practices. An estab-
tions of the missionary to his or her own family lished colonial church kept social control through
are often sensitive and delicate issues. The gold- the Inquisition, but after three centuries it was
fish bowl effect of public ministry, the education weakened by spiritual decline. It opposed politi-
of children, and the care of aging parents in the cal emancipation from Spain, barely accommo-
home country are just a few of the dimensions of dating to republican life after the war of inde-
missionary life that can be stress-inducing. The pendence (182124), but still managed to rule out
missionary, like the pastor, often faces a tug-of- religious toleration.
war between the care of family and commitment Scottish educator and colporteur JAMES DIEGO
to ministry. Rightly understood, the tension be- THOMSON arrived in Lima, the capital (182224),
tween the two should be at a minimum. as the first of several agents of the BFBS (see also
Two persons who marry voluntarily take on COLPORTAGE). He was hired by emancipation
certain obligations. The marriage covenant in- leader General San Martin to establish the first
cludes the vow to love and to cherish. Mission- teacher training school. Thomson thought that
aries are not exempt from this responsibility. the Roman Catholic Church could be reformed
When children are born into the family, an even from the inside through popular education and
more complex issue presents itself. Should the Bible reading. The Anglican Church for foreign
mother limit her missionary responsibility to residents was allowed in 1849.
care for the family? FRANCISCO PENZOTTIs arrival in Lima as a
The right perspective on these issues is a scrip- Methodist minister and agent of the ABS was a
tural one. Guidelines such as Ephesians 5:216:4 decisive step for evangelization. Between 1888
are useful. Neither the family nor ones work and 1896 Penzotti sold Bibles, preached, trained
should be ignored. Attitude is the key factor in national colporteurs, and organized a Methodist
successfully discharging family responsibilities. church in 1889. Catholic reaction sent him to jail
Many missionary children (including those sent for nine months (189091). His case became an
to boarding school) testify that they did not feel international scandal, gathering liberal forces to
deprived because their parents created a positive fight for a constitutional change. Religious toler-
and supportive atmosphere in the home. The fa- ation became a law in 1915. American Methodist
ther may have to travel, but if the children sense Thomas B. Wood carried on intensive grassroots
that he really wants to stay at home, rather than evangelism and founded schools. In the first
go, they will be helped. Missionary parents three decades of this century, John Ritchie
should strive for a peaceful home that is charac- (RBMU) developed successfully an indigenous
terized by mutual appreciation and kindness. Peruvian Evangelical Church in the central and
When considering missionaries responsibili- southern highlands. JOHN A. MACKAY (Free
ties to their families, there are few hard and fast Church of Scotland) evangelized university stu-
rules. Varied situations obtain in different na- dents in Lima, and became influential among key
tions and cultures. There are a wide variety of political leaders. Ferdinand and Ana Stahl (Sev-
749
Peru
enth-Day Adventist), through educational and Bibliography. J. B. A. Kessler Jr., A Study of the Older
health work, established strong churches among Protestant Missions and Churches in Peru and Chile;
the Aymara natives around Lake Titicaca, the J. Klaiber, The Catholic Church in Peru, 18211985;
basis for what is today the largest non-Pente- E. Dussel, ed., The Church in Latin America 14921992.
costal denomination whose university and social
agency OFASA are highly respected. Through Peters, George W. (190788). Russian-born mis-
COMITY agreements after 1916 Nazarene and Pil- siologist and professor of missions. The son of
grim Holiness missionaries worked in the north- William Peters, a businessman and mayor of
ern and eastern jungles and Pentecostals in the Orloff in southern Russia, Peters grew up in the
Huaylas highlands north of Lima. In 1940 most tradition of the Anabaptist German-Dutch Men-
Protestant churches and missions formed the Na- nonites. In the course of the Russian Revolution,
tional Evangelical Council, which in 1998 still he was an eyewitness to a massacre in which his
continues to be the most representative Protes- own father was killed. Several of his older sib-
tant institution. lings died in the coal mines of northern Siberia.
After World War II a limited modernization After finishing high school in 1924, Peters was
process brought massive migration to Lima, and denied entrance to medical school because he,
American missionary presence, both Catholic out of his inner convictions, refused to join the
and evangelical, became stronger. Social activism communist youth movement Komsomol. So he
of foreign missionaries living among the poor participated in the mass emigration of Mennon-
provoked a crisis of social awareness in Peruvian ites in 1925. Traveling via Moscow and Mexico,
Catholicism and the beginnings of liberation the- he finally ended up in Canada in 1926, where he
ologies. FAITH MISSIONS and Southern Baptists earned his living as a farmer.
have seen relatively little church growth. After an experience of faith Peters became a stu-
WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS made the Bible dent at a Bible college in Herbert, Saskatchewan.
available in more than thirty tribal languages in He began his teaching career at Bethany Bible In-
the Amazonian jungle. Pentecostal churches such stitute in 1932. With the aid of colleagues he
as Assemblies of God and Church of God have founded the Western Childrens Mission, which
had the largest numerical growth, especially was the first organized missionary movement in
among the urban poor. Among the native the Mennonite Brethren Church. The founding
Quechua- or Aymara-speaking population there document of this organization envisioned an in-
has been lately significant evangelical growth, terdenominational, international, and evangelical
and sociological research has proven that con- evangelistic work.
version fosters economic and social development. After further studies at the Kennedy School in
A radio station started by THE EVANGELICAL AL- Hartford, Connecticut, Peters received his doc-
LIANCE MISSION (TEAM) was influential in open- tors degree in 1947. In the same year he was
ing doors for significant growth of the CHRISTIAN called to lead the Pacific Bible Institute in
AND MISSIONARY ALLIANCE among the middle and Fresno, California, but stepped down from this
upper classes during the 1970s. position in 1952 because his spiritual service, ef-
Failure of military attempts at social reform fervescent creativity, and strong personality were
(196879) and inefficiency and corruption of cen- hindered by administrative tasks. After two years
ter or left-oriented democratic regimes fostered a of service in a pastorate in Buhler, Kansas, Peters
violent political climate. The ten-year war be- took a professorship in missions at Dallas Theo-
tween Maoist guerrillas of the Shining Path and logical Seminary, where his research concen-
military forces (198090) affected especially iso- trated on India, Indonesia, Japan, and South
lated areas where missionary efforts had been America. After retirement he continued his work
successful. Presbyterian and Pentecostal leaders in Germany, where he supported the establish-
in Ayacucho became the target of communist ter- ment of the Free College of Missions in Lieben-
rorism and military repression, and more than zell and later in Korntal. Peters was the first pres-
seventy pastors were killed. This brought Protes- ident of this school until 1987.
tants to public attention; relief and human rights ROLF HILLE
work among the victims was followed by political
activism. An estimated 8% of the population of Bibliography. H. Kasdorf and K. W. Muller, Reflec-
Peru is evangelical and their vote was an impor- tion and Projection: Missiology at the Threshold of 2001.
tant factor in the rise of Alberto Fujimori to
power in 1990. Church growth at all levels has Pfander, Karl Gottlieb (180366). German pio-
continued. Among thousands of Peruvian mi- neer missionary to Armenia, India, and Turkey.
grants for political or economic reasons, a signif- Pfander was educated at Basel Evangelical Mis-
icant number of evangelicals become active as sionary Seminary, entering at the age of seven-
lay missionaries, especially in Europe and the teen. There he was introduced to Islam and
United States. began Arabic and Quranic studies. He completed
SAMUEL ESCOBAR his studies in 1825, and was sent on his first mis-
750
Phenomenology of Religion
sionary assignment to Shusha, a provincial capi- assumptions. Central to philosophical phenome-

tal in Russian Amenia. He focused his attention nology is the investigation of phenomena that ap-
toward the Muslims, roughly two-thirds of the pear in immediate experience, allowing the dis-
population. He wrote several tracts, including tinctives of the phenomena themselves to control
Mizan ul-Haqq (Balance of Truth; 1829), still con- any description of the experiences.
sidered a classic in evangelizing Muslims. Douglas Allen provides five characteristics of
In 1833 Pfander took leave to find a wife, a philosophical phenomenology. First, it is descrip-
quest in which he was successful. In 1835, how- tive in nature. Philosophical phenomenology is
ever, his wife died on the mission field. Shortly concerned with classical issues in epistemology
after this, Protestant mission work was banned and ontology, but it holds that an indispensable
and the missionaries expelled from Armenia. element in dealing with such questions is a rigor-
After Urdu studies, and a lengthy application ous description of the phenomena of experience.
process, Pfander was sent in 1840 to Agra, India, The concern with rigorous and accurate de-
under the CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY (CMS). scription leads to a strong opposition to reduc-
There he met Elizabeth Swinbourne and married tionism in treatments of experience. Although
for the second time. philosophers such as Husserl, Heidegger, and
Pfanders tracts, critical of Muhammad, re- Merleau-Ponty certainly went beyond mere de-
ceived a wide reading resulting in sharp attacks scription of experience, they exemplify phenom-
by Islamic apologists. In 1854, Pfander was in- enologys reaction against earlier movements
vited to a public debate, where he found himself (empiricism, rationalism, idealism), which
unprepared and unable to successfully refute the tended to reduce the elements of experience to
European biblical criticism his Islamic opponent more simple factors, thereby losing the richness
introduced. of experience.
Shortly after the debate, Pfander was trans- Third, phenomenology, under the influence of
ferred by the CMS to continue his work in Pe- Franz Brentano (d. 1917) and Husserl, has char-
shawar. In 1861, he was appointed to establish acteristically emphasized intentionality. A careful
CMS work in Istanbul, Turkey. Eventually that investigation of experience, it is held, indicates
work was shut down by Islamic authorities, and that all consciousness is consciousness of some-
Pfander went to England, where he died in 1866. thing. All states of consciousness are directed to-
A. SCOTT MOREAU ward something, the intentional object.
Fourth, in an effort to allow the phenomena to
Bibliography. C. Bennett, IBMR 20:2 (1996), pp. speak for themselves, phenomenologists advocate
7681; A. A. Powell, BDEB, pp. 879880. a method of bracketing, or what Husserl termed
the epoch. Bracketing involves the methodolog-
Phenomenology of Religion. In broad terms ical suspension of beliefs and judgments ac-
phenomenology (from the Greek, phainomenon, cepted by the phenomenologist, or the attempt to
that which appears or that which shows it- free oneself from unexamined assumptions that
self) is the study of phenomena, or the ways in might interfere in the investigation of the phe-
which appearances manifest themselves to nomena. A totally objective stance that is not
human consciousness. Phenomenology of reli- colored by any prior values or assumptions is, of
gion is the study of religious phenomena. It is course, impossible. But as a methodological
helpful to distinguish phenomenology as a dis- ideal, bracketing enables one to minimize the
tinctive philosophical movement and methodol- distorting effects of such commitments.
ogy from phenomenology of religion, although Fifth, many phenomenologists also see the in-
the latter has been to some extent influenced by tuition of essences, or the eidetic vision, as a
the former. major part of the task. Careful analysis is said to
Philosophical Phenomenology. The term reveal the essences (or the whatness) of the phe-
phenomenology was used as early as 1764 by nomena, uncovering essential features that enable
J. H. Lambert, and it appears in the philosophi- us to identify and categorize the phenomena.
cal works of I. Kant (d. 1804) and G. W. F. Hegel Phenomenology of Religion and Missions.
(d. 1831). But its more modern meaning comes Understood as an identifiable movement within
from the penetrating work of Edmund Husserl the study of religion, phenomenology of religion
(d. 1938), founder of the phenomenological can be traced back to Max Mller (d. 1900) and
movement. Later philosophers who followed the Religionswissenschaft (history of religions)
Husserl in phenomenology include M. Scheler movement, which saw itself as a descriptive, ob-
(d. 1928), M. Heidegger (d. 1976), J. P. Sartre jective science free from the biases of theology
(d. 1980), and M. Merleau-Ponty (d. 1961). Phe- and philosophy. Among the more significant phe-
nomenology in philosophy is not so much a nomenologists of religion was W. Brede Kris-
school with a clearly defined set of teachings as tensen (d. 1953), who advocated a careful com-
it is a broad methodological movement compris- parative approach to the study of religion that
ing diverse thinkers united by certain ideals and was rigorously descriptive and also sought an
751
Phenomenology of Religion
empathetic feeling for the data that reflected be based on clear biblical principles and values
the stance of the believers themselves. Rudolf and not on ones own cultural biases.
Otto (d. 1937) was concerned to recognize the ir- HAROLD A. NETLAND
reducibly religious nature of religious experience,
drawing attention to the numinous dimension SEE ALSO Anthropology of Religion, Religion,
AND Philosophy of Religion
that lies beyond the rational and conceptual ele-
ments. Gerardus vander Leeus (d. 1950) was Bibliography. D. Allen, ER 11:27385; J. D. Bettis,
enormously influential between 1930 and 1950, ed., Phenomenology of Religion: Eight Modern Descrip-
emphasizing in his work the special place of tions of the Essence of Religion; M. Eliade, Patterns in
power in religion. Other notable phenomenolo- Comparative Religion; W. Brede Kristensen, The Mean-
gists include Friedrich Heiler (d. 1967) and ing of Religion: Lectures in Phenomenology of Religion;
Mircea Eliade (d. 1986). N. Smart, The Science of Religion and the Sociology of
Knowledge; idem, The Phenomenon of Religion; E.
Although there are significant differences in
Sharpe, Comparative Religion: A History; G. van der
methodology and conclusions among the leading Leeuw, Religion in Essence and Manifestation.
practitioners in the field, phenomenology of reli-
gion is generally characterized by its concern for
a comparative, systematic, empirical, and rigor- Philippine Mission Boards and Societies.
ously descriptive approach to the study of reli- Evangelical churches in the Philippines have
gious phenomena. It has come to be understood been sending missionaries to peoples of other
in a loose sense as the descriptive study of reli- cultures since the beginning of the twentieth cen-
gious phenomena, or as Ninian Smart puts it, tury. This movement may be due in part to the
the procedure of getting at the meaning of a re- influence and example of the Western missionary
ligious act or symbol or institution, etc., for the movement. Perhaps a more significant reason,
participant. It is an attempt at value-free de- however, is the cultural diversity of the Philippine
scriptions in religion (The Science of Religion, Islands. It is not uncommon for Filipinos to
pp. 2021). It is antireductionistic, and seeks to speak two or more languages. In one sense, one
preserve what is distinctively religious in the phe- can say that cross-cultural communication is
nomena. Practitioners emphasize the importance something Filipinos do as a matter of course in
of empathy or sympathetic understanding, and their daily lives. It is therefore not surprising,
try to avoid (at least in principle) making judg- given the large Christian population and wide
ments of value or truth about the phenomena cultural diversity, that a strong indigenous mis-
under investigation. sionary movement has grown and matured over
Understanding religious worldviews is essen- the years. Generally, this movement focused at
tial for those engaged in Christian mission, and first primarily on CHURCH PLANTING and EVANGE-
the phenomenology of religion can be a useful LISM within the Philippine Islands. Some worked
tool toward that end. Phenomenologys concern cross-culturally while others called themselves
with rigorous description of the phenomena can missionaries as they worked among their own
be helpful in understanding the religious symbols people group. Nevertheless, Tagalogs worked
of a culture, and its emphasis on bracketing among the Samal and Badjao in the southern
can help the missionary be aware of his or her Philippines or among the Ifugao or Kalinga peo-
prior assumptions, which might distort an un- ple of the north.
derstanding of such symbols. Two studies done in 1986 revealed that two-
It is also important, however, to recognize thirds of the mission agencies active at that time
that phenomenology of religion has its limita- were founded in the 1970s and the first half of
tions. Phenomenology of religion cannot stand the 1980s, when Filipino missionaries could be
alone and it should be combined with the related found in Indonesia, Hong Kong, Singapore, the
disciplines of cultural anthropology, ethno- Middle East, Latin America, and Africa. There-
graphy, history, and so on in forming a compre- fore, while the sending of missionaries is not a
hensive understanding of the religious world- new phenomenon, the number of new mission
view. Furthermore, the Christian missionary can agencies has grown significantly during the past
never be content merely with a descriptive ap- two decades.
proach to religious phenomena. Questions of In 1986, Filipino national leaders, while con-
truth and compatibility with biblical values sidering how to evangelize their home country,
must be addressed, and doing so will involve set a goal of sending two thousand new Filipino
going well beyond the phenomenology of reli- missionaries by the year 2000. They further sub-
gion. Evaluation of the religious phenomena is divided this goal by projecting that one thousand
inevitable and, when conducted properly, is an of these missionaries would be sent to minister
essential part of engaging the culture in Chris- cross-culturally within the Philippines and one
tian witness. Evaluations should be made, how- thousand would be sent outside of the country.
ever, only after careful study of the phenomena Various modes of support for these missionar-
on their own terms and such assessment should ies have been used in their cross-cultural envi-
752
Philippines
ronments. Some Filipino missionaries have been high among university students and young pro-
sponsored by Western denominations. Others fessionals, but local churches are still reluctant to
have served in TENT-MAKING MISSION, working as make the financial commitment to send. As this
domestic or manual laborers, while serving changes, further growth in number of mission
Christ and giving witness to their faith in their agencies and the expansion of existing agencies
newfound cultural contexts. Still others have can be expected.
been sent by local churches and supported ERIC D. SMITH, DEAN WIEBRACHT,
through the sacrificial giving of the local church AND THOMAS N. WISELY
as full-time Christian missionaries. Those in this
category have found missionary work difficult fi- Philippines (Est. 2000 pop.: 74,575,000; 300,000
nancially because the economic base for sending sq. kkm. [115,830 sq. mi.]). Christianity arrived in
and supporting from the Philippines has not the Philippines with Ferdinand Magellan in 1521.
been strong enough to support the Western Although Magellan died soon after his arrival,
model. Also, it has been difficult to send local one of his ships managed to return to Spain. Its
currencies abroad due to local government re- rich cargo convinced King Philip II, for whom
strictions. Finally, several indigenous mission the Philippines are named, to occupy the islands.
agencies are closely connected with Western or Philip dispatched Miguel Legazpe to establish
international mission agencies. The OMF Home control. Father Andres de Urdaneta and five
Council is responsible for Filipino missionaries other Augustinian friars accompanied Legazpe.
serving with Overseas Missionary Fellowship. The Augustinians established their first church in
New Tribes, Philippines, is also working closely
Cebu and then followed Legazpe to Manila,
with the New Tribes Mission of North America.
where they established their second parish. Some
Many agencies are beginning to develop their
historians believe that the Hispanization of the
own international contacts without the benefit of
Philippines halted the northward spread of
Western involvement. This has been facilitated by
Islam, which had already gained a foothold on
the networking activity of the Missions Commit-
Mindanao and Sulu in the southern region.
tee of the Evangelical Fellowship of Asia.
The Spanish quickly gained control because of
Three cooperative organizations are worthy of
mention. AMNET, directed by Chito Navarro, is the fragmentation of the Philippines, which com-
a loose association of independent churches prise 7,100 islands and coral atolls. Many of the
which are cooperating to reach unreached peo- islands are bisected by mountain ranges. The ge-
ples in the 10/40 WINDOW. In 1998, they were ography accounts for the fact that over one hun-
using one member mission agency, the Tribes dred languages are spoken in the islands.
and Nations Outreach, as their sending agency. Before the Spaniards arrived, most of the Fil-
But they have been effectively promoting a mis- ipinos adhered to their traditional animistic
sions vision among their constituent churches. tribal religions. In 1594 the Council of the Indies
Another organization is a cooperative project of in Spain assigned responsibility for specific re-
the Overseas Missionary Fellowship, SEND In- gions in the islands to each of four religious or-
ternational, World Team, and the Alliance of ders: the Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans,
Bible Christian Communities Philippines. They and Jesuits. Later, the Jesuits agreed to share part
have called it the Global Alliance Philippines of their region with the Recollects. All of the or-
Ministries, Inc., or GAP. This new organization ders were allowed to establish churches and
will be the sending agency for Filipino mission- monasteries in Manila, the capital city. By 1898
aries working with any of the participating inter- almost 90 percent of the population had become
national missions. They are currently considering Catholic, and the Philippines came to be called
the expansion of GAP to accommodate other the only Christian nation in Asia.
mission agencies which can incorporate Filipino Protestant Christianity first reached the Philip-
missionaries on their international missionary pines when two representatives of the British and
teams. Finally, there is the Philippine Missionary Foreign Bible Society arrived in Manila in 1873
Society, which seeks to establish links between and began to distribute Bibles. Their mission
Filipino missionaries and local churches or de- ended abruptly when they were poisoned. One
nominations in other countries. For example, a man died, and the Spanish authorities impris-
local church in Guatemala may need a Christian oned the other. Their efforts, though short-lived,
worker for church planting or evangelism. PMA must have borne some fruit. When the first
seeks to raise funds for travel and other costs for Protestant missionaries arrived in 1898, they dis-
the Filipino missionary while the church in covered thirty-five small evangelical congrega-
Guatemala takes on the support of that mission- tions with about four hundred members.
ary when she or he arrives. The Protestant era began in 1898 when an
The growing number of mission agencies is an American naval force under Commodore Dewey
indication of a developing missions movement in sank the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. With Amer-
the Philippines. Interest in serving in missions is ican annexation came freedom for Protestant
753
Philippines
missionaries to evangelize. American denomina- which has as its goal the planting of an evangeli-
tions hastened to send missionaries to the Philip- cal church in every town and village in the Philip-
pines: Methodists (1898), Presbyterians (1899), pines. An increasing number of Filipino Chris-
Northern Baptists (1900), United Brethren tians serve as missionaries both domestically and
(1901), Disciples of Christ (1901), Episcopalians internationally. Many of these intend to evangel-
(1901), Congregationalists (1902), Christian and ize the unreached people groups found in remote
Missionary Alliance (1902), and Seventh-Day Ad- areas of the country.
ventists (1905). In 1901 several of the missions JOHN MARK TERRY
met in Manila and approved a comity agreement
Bibliography. P. Gowing, Islands under the Cross;
that divided the country into zones of responsi- J. Montgomery, New Testament Fire in the Philippines;
bility. The comity agreement remained in force J. Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines; J. M.
until World War II. Terry, An Analysis of Growth among Southern Baptist
The Philippines became an independent coun- Churches on Mindanao 19511985; R. Toliver, Seeing
try in 1946. While the Philippines struggled to the Church in the Philippines; A. Tuggy, The Philippine
overcome the destruction of the World War, civil Church.
war raged in China. The Communists victory
there forced many missionaries to relocate to Philosophy of Religion. The idea of philosophy
other Asian countries. Thus the Philippines expe- of religion as a separate discipline is a relatively
rienced an influx of evangelical missions. These modern one that assumes a basic distinction be-
included Southern Baptists, the Overseas Mis- tween philosophy and religion/theology, a dis-
sionary Fellowship, Conservative Baptists, the tinction that is accepted in the modern West but
Evangelical Free Church, the Far Eastern Gospel is more problematic in East Asian cultures. In
Crusade, Missouri Synod Lutherans, and the the West, philosophy is regarded as the system-
Baptist General Conference. The freedom of reli- atic, rational, and critical assessment of basic
gion guaranteed by the Philippine Constitution questions that perennially recur in human cul-
made it possible for all these groups to enter and tures. Philosophy of religion, in turn, can be
prosper. thought of as the application of philosophical
Later, specialized mission agencies sent large analysis to religious issues.
numbers of missionaries to the Philippines. In- The Western Tradition. Philosophy is generally
cluded were the Summer Institute of Linguistics, said to have emerged with Thales in Miletus,
New Tribes Mission, Missionary Aviation Fellow- Greece, around 585 B.C. What distinguished phi-
ship, Campus Crusade for Christ, Youth with a losophy was the attempt to answer fundamental
Mission, and the Navigators. Several of these questions about the cosmos through careful ob-
now deploy large numbers of Filipino Christians servation and reasoning rather than by simply re-
in cross-cultural ministry. sorting to the Homeric myths and prevailing
After World War II the government encouraged views on the gods. Later Greek thinkers such as
farm families to relocate to the southern island of Plato (d. 347 B.C.) and Plotinus (d. A.D. 270) ap-
Mindanao by offering them homesteads (free farm plied philosophical analysis to religious issues.
land). Many took advantage of the governments Philosophy of religionor, more accurately,
offer, and Mindanao became the frontier area of philosophical theologywas practiced by devout
the country. Mindanao also offered opportunity to Christian theologians in the Middle Ages such as
missionaries, and in 1980 it was described as the Augustine (d. 430), Anselm (d. 1109), Thomas
most responsive island in the world. Though Min- Aquinas (d. 1275), and John Duns Scotus
danao has only 20 percent of the nations (d. 1308). The Islamic tradition also produced
74,575,000 people, 50 percent of the evangelical some brilliant philosophical theologians, such as
Christians in the Philippines live there. ibn-Sina (d. 1037) and ibn-Rushed (d. 1198), who
As in Latin America, in recent years Pente- grappled with many of the same issues addressed
costal and charismatic groups have grown rap- by Christian theologians. Indeed, medieval
idly in the Philippines. The Assemblies of God thinkers such as Aquinas were influenced in part
entered the country in 1926, but their great by Islamic philosophical theologians.
growth came after World War II. Other denomi- In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the
nations like the United Pentecostals and the distinctions among philosophy, religious studies,
Church of God began work in the postwar pe- and theology became more pronounced, with
riod. Charismatic Catholic fellowships have mul- philosophy increasingly challenging theology.
tiplied, and many independent charismatic fel- Epistemological difficulties with religious claims
lowships are flourishing, particularly in urban were given classic expression in the writings of
areas. David Hume (d. 1776) and Immanuel Kant
Complete freedom of religion and the contin- (d. 1804), and much of modern theology and phi-
ued openness of the Filipino people bode well for losophy of religion has been a response to the
the future. Many of the agencies named above agenda set by such critics. Although in the early
are cooperating with the DAWN 2000 Movement, twentieth century philosophers were generally
754
Philosophy of Religion
hostile to religion (as exemplified by logical posi- sophisticated philosophical discussions of episte-
tivists), the 1980s and 1990s saw a remarkable mology and ontology, emphasizing the imperma-
resurgence of philosophy of religion, with some nence and insubstantiality of all things apart
of the most influential and creative Anglo-Ameri- from nirvana. A recurring theme in much Bud-
can philosophers being outspoken Christians. dhist literature, finding particular expression in
Philosophy of religion in the West has been ZEN, is the inherent inadequacy and limitations
conducted largely within the Jewish, Christian, of reason and the need for direct experience of
and Islamic monotheistic tradition. Central is- ultimate reality.
sues thus include the existence of God, the nature The distinction among ethics, philosophy, and
of the divine attributes, the nature and limita- religion is rather fluid in Chinese thought, par-
tions of religious language, divine sovereignty ticularly CONFUCIANISM. However, social and eth-
and human freedom, faith and knowledge, and ical concerns were typically placed within the
religious experience. Ever since the ENLIGHTEN- broader context of the heaven and earth rela-
MENT, and the critical views of Hume and Kant, tionship, which clearly had religious overtones.
philosophy of religion has been dominated by the The TAOIST tradition, stemming from the Tao Te
question of the rational grounds for religious be- Ching, traditionally ascribed to Lao-Tzu (6th cen-
lief: Can we know whether God exists? What tury B.C.) but perhaps put into writing several
might constitute sufficient grounds for belief in centuries later, emphasized the ultimate unity of
God? Must one have adequate grounds for belief the cosmos and the need to align the world of
in order to be rational in believing in God? Some our experience with the ultimate Way, the Tao.
Christian philosophers, such as Richard Swin- The philosophical/religious traditions of Asia
burne, have produced rigorous and sophisticated manifest considerable diversity, some assuming
arguments for Christian theism, thus continuing THEISM, others embracing versions of MONISM,
in the tradition of natural theology. Others, such PANTHEISM, POLYTHEISM, and even naturalistic ma-
as Alvin Plantinga, have shifted the focus of the terialism. Some are explicitly atheistic. While
epistemological debate by maintaining that belief broad generalizations are hazardous, we might
in God can be properly basicthat is, a Chris- note three recurring themes in much Eastern
tian can be justified in believing in God apart thought: (1) There is often a suspicion of human
from any supporting arguments. Creative and language and the capacity of rational categories
impressive work has also been done on the na- to express higher levels of truth. The need for
ture of the divine attributes and clarifying what special intuitive insight, or direct experience, is
is entailed by a Christian worldview. emphasized. (2) Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain tradi-
The Eastern Tradition. Although the distinctions have a strong soteriological concernthe
tion between philosophy and religion is less clear philosophical perspectives are intended to pro-
in Asian cultures, philosophical reflection on re- vide release or liberation from the human
ligious themes in India goes back at least several predicament. (3) There is often concern for a
centuries before the emergence of philosophy in comprehensive perspective that maintains that
Greece. The Upanishads, put into writing around behind the plurality of the phenomenal world is
the eighth century B.C., provided the material for a more wholistic and unified Reality.
the later systematization of the philosophical Philosophy of Religion and Mission. Philoso-
schools of HINDUISM. Recurring themes in the phy of religion can play a significant role in mis-
writings include the fundamental unity of the siology. Particularly helpful is the emerging dis-
cosmos; the superiority of spiritual reality to the cipline of cross-cultural philosophy of religion,
physical dimension; that the manifest universe is or worldview analysis (Ninian Smart), which
the product of divine agency; that proper works involves rigorous analysis of religious issues from
(karma) and special knowledge (vidya) are neces- multicultural and multireligious perspectives.
sary for release from samsara, the wearisome The concern here is to understand various reli-
cycle of rebirths. The later Upanishads spoke of gious WORLDVIEWs as well as to clarify the basis
Brahman as the sole reality, prompting the ques- on which claims to truth in various traditions
tion of the relationship between the self (atman) can be assessed. For the Christian, philosophy of
and Brahman. An influential school of thought, religion must always be subservient to Gods
Advaita VEDANTA, maintained the essential iden- unique and authoritative revelation in Scripture.
tity of the atman with Brahman. But when properly conducted, philosophy of re-
BUDDHISM, emerging in sixth-century B.C. India, ligion can assist missions in several ways.
was as much a philosophical movement as a reli- First, it can help Christians understand their
gious one. The central teachings of Buddhism own tradition better. Whether for good or ill, at
were not regarded as products of divine revela- critical junctures throughout history major theo-
tion but rather the result of careful reflection and logical issues have been significantly influenced
meditation, culminating in the Enlightenment of by contemporary philosophical movements. One
the Buddha. Buddhist writings in both the THER- cannot appreciate the christological discussions
AVADA and MAHAYANA traditions have engaged in of the fourth and fifth centuries, or Aquinass
755
Philosophy of Religion
views on analogy in the thirteenth century, with- Pierson sustained a lifelong commitment to
out some familiarity with Greek philosophy. Nor world evangelization. For twenty-four years he
can one understand Schleiermacher in the nine- was the editor of The Missionary Review of the
teenth century apart from some grasp of Kantian World, spoke at numerous conferences promot-
philosophy. ing missions, and wrote extensively on the sub-
Furthermore, while in no way removing the ject. In 1886, at the D. L. MOODY sponsored con-
mystery of God, proper philosophical analysis ference in Mount Hermon, New York, Pierson
can help Christians understand certain biblical gave a keynote address on missions to a group of
teachings better. By clarifying relevant concepts, 251 students from 89 colleges across the country.
philosophical analysis can indicate what is and From this the STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT
what is not entailed by biblical doctrines such as arose in 1888, along with its watchword the
the Trinity, the deity of Jesus Christ, divine om- evangelization of the world in this generation.
niscience, or the relation of divine sovereignty to Piersons address Gods Providence in Modern
human freedom. Missions was later revised and published in vol-
Philosophy of religion can also be an indispen- ume 6 of The Fundamentals. Among Piersons
sable aid in APOLOGETICS by helping Christians protgs were such mission giants as ROBERT E.
understand the assumptions of the culture in SPEER, JOHN R. MOTT, AND SAMUEL ZWEMER.
which the gospel is to be presented and by re- Author of over fifty books, Pierson is best re-
moving some obstacles to faith and providing membered as one of the original editors of the
positive grounds for accepting the gospel. Scofield Reference Bible (1909), and author of
Cross-cultural philosophy of religion can assist such mission-related books as George Mller of
in understanding complex cultures such as India, Bristol, The Crisis of Missions, The Miracles of
China, and Japan, which have been shaped by Missions, Forward Movements of the Last Half
centuries of sophisticated religious and philo- Century, and God and Missions Today.
sophical traditions. The gospel has faced strong WALTER A. ELWELL
resistance in cultures dominated by Hinduism, Bibliography. D. L. Pierson, Arthur T. Pierson; J. K.
Buddhism, and Taoism, as well as Islam. Part of Maclean; Dr. Pierson and His Message; D. L. Robert;
the reason for this might be the failure of Chris- ML, pp. 2836.
tian missions to understand the religious world-
views adequately and to respond to them in an Pietism. Along with Puritanism and the move-
appropriate manner. Cross-cultural philosophy of ments to which they gave birth, pietism led to the
religion can be an aid in developing an appropri- first Protestant missionary effort and became the
ate, culture-specific apologetic in such cultures. catalyst for the wider Protestant missionary
HAROLD A. NETLAND movement of the following centuries. An effort to
Bibliography. D. Allen, Philosophy for Understanding continue and deepen the work of the REFORMA-
Theology; M. J. Charlesworth, Philosophy of Religion: TION, pietism focused on the renewal of the Chris-
The Historic Approaches; T. Dean, ed., Religious Plural- tian life at a time when Lutheran orthodoxy em-
ism and Truth: Essays on Cross-Cultural Philosophy of phasized belief in correct doctrine alone. Seeking
Religion; M. Peterson et al., Reason and Religious Belief: the conversion of individuals, the renewal of the
An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion; N. Smart, church, and the transformation of society, the
Reasons and Faiths; idem, Worldviews: Crosscultural movement had arisen in German Lutheranism
Explorations of Human Belief. shortly after the Thirty Years War left the coun-
try in a disastrous situation physically, economi-
Pierson, Arthur Tappan (18371911). American cally, and spiritually. Poverty, ignorance, and vio-
minister, theological writer, and missionary lence were common, and class distinctions were
spokesman. Hailed as the greatest popularizer of great.
missions of his age and one who revolutionized Philip Spener (16351705) is generally consid-
missionary literature, he was born in New York ered the founder of pietism, but it had a number
City and educated at Hamilton College (1857) of roots in Germany and elsewhere. Johannes
and Union Theological Seminary, New York Arndts True Christianity (16069) was significant,
(1860). After ordination in the Presbyterian and as a student in Strasbourg, Spener was influ-
Church, he served pastorates in Binghampton enced by Puritan and Reformed writers. Ap-
and Waterford (N.Y.), Detroit, and Philadelphia pointed as senior pastor in Frankfurt in 1666,
until 1889. An extended stay in Great Britain had Spener found the church in a deplorable state.
him preaching at the Metropolitan Tabernacle of Drunkenness and immorality were common
C. H. Spurgeon for a period of two years and lec- among the laity, who were expected to be passive
turing at New College (Edinburgh). From 1895 to listeners to erudite sermons that focused more on
1901, he was the president of A. J. GORDONS Mis- fine points of doctrine than edification. Spener
sionary Training School (now Gordon College, encouraged the formation of small groups for
Wenham, Mass.). prayer, Bible study, and the reading of devotional
756
Pietism
works. This concept of the church within the In 1706, influenced by his pietist chaplain, King
church, which was not intended to be divisive, Frederick IV of Denmark decided to send mis-
spread widely within and beyond Germany de- sionaries to his colony in Tranquebar, India. Two
spite bitter criticism. In 1675 Spener published an young men from the University of Halle, BART-
introduction to a new edition of Arndts work. In HOLEMAEUS ZIEGENBALG and Heinrich Pltschau,
Pia Desideria (Pious Desires) he called for the re- agreed to go. Pltschau returned in 1711, but
form of Christian society through six means: Ziegenbalg remained, with one brief visit to Eu-
(1) more extensive use of the Scriptures; rope, until his death in 1719. This was the first
(2) greater participation by the laity; (3) the prac- Protestant missionary effort outside of Europe,
tice of love in everyday life; (4) an attitude of love with the exception of the Calvinist mission to
in controversies; (5) stress on piety as well as Brazil in 1555. Despite the hostility of the Danish
scholarship in theological schools; and (6) theo- community and its chaplains, the higher Indian
logical education that taught that preaching was castes and Roman Catholics, and harassment
to save souls, not just demonstrate scholarship. from the governor, Ziegenbalg accomplished
Thus pietism focused on the need for conversion, much during his short life. His missionary ap-
commitment, and personal trust in Christ, an au- proach anticipated many methods that came
thentic Christian life, and the ministry of the laity. later. He established schools to educate Christian
The Lutheran orthodoxy of the day denied that children and develop leadership. In the belief that
the GREAT COMMISSION was still in effect. Mission Christians needed the Scriptures in their own lan-
belonged to God, who needed no human helpers guage, he translated the New Testament and part
(see LUTHERAN MISSIONS). Furthermore, there was of the Old into Tamil before he died. He was con-
no place for mission structures. Thus missionary vinced that missionaries needed to understand
work was seen as unnecessary and even suspect. the WORLDVIEW and religious beliefs and practices
Earlier in the century Baron Justinian von Weltz of the people. Thus he wrote on aspects of Hin-
had appealed to the Lutheran Church in Ger- duism. As a pietist, his aim was personal conver-
many to undertake missionary work. He was sion, but he also worked to establish an Indian
called a fanatic and rejected. Pietism, on the church with its own pastors. The first Indian pas-
tor was ordained in 1733. About sixty missionar-
other hand, reaffirmed the Great Commission as
ies went from Halle to India during the eighteenth
universally valid and taught that Christians must
century, and the work was eventually taken over
accept responsibility for proclaiming the gospel
by the Anglican Society for the Propagation of
to all persons everywhere.
Christian Knowledge.
August Hermann Francke (16631727) became
The influence of pietism on the total missionary
the second leader of the movement. Through the
movement was great. Ziegenbalgs visit to Europe
efforts of Spener he was appointed professor of in 1714 resulted in the establishment of the Col-
theology at the University of Halle in 1691, and lege of Missions in Copenhagen, where Moravian
became pastor of the church in nearby Glaucha missionaries would later study, and the founding
the following year. He believed that converted at Halle of the first Protestant student mission
and transformed individuals would renew the movement, the Order of the Mustard Seed. This
church and society. He was instrumental in es- was led by NICOLAS LUDWIG VON ZINZENDORF, who
tablishing schools for poor children including later became the leader of the Moravians (see
girls, as well as an orphanage. His vision also led MORAVIAN MISSIONS). All of this activity built on
him to focus on world mission. He established a Franckes vision for mission, which encompassed
Bible institute to print and distribute Bibles inex- the whole world. He believed that the earth would
pensively. This was the first institution with the eventually be transformed through godly people
goal of bringing the Scriptures to every part of serving God and their neighbors, proclaiming
the world. His projects were supported by faith Christ, and working to relieve poverty and op-
alone and became the model for the orphanages pression. His concern for the poor and emphasis
of GEORGE MLLER in Bristol, England, which on education as a means of social transformation
then became the model for the faith principle of were outgrowths of his theology. The intellectual
the CHINA INLAND MISSION. and spiritual leader of missions, he was the first
Franckes mission involvement was extensive. to inspire Christians in Europe to pray for and
He sent Henry Muhlenberg and others to the support missionaries, a radically new concept at
North American colonies, where they organized that time.
Lutheran churches among German immigrants. Because of its focus on conversion and heart
He sent missionaries to the Baltic states, where religion rather than theological controversies,
they worked for the renewal of Lutheran com- pietism was broadly ecumenical. Francke corre-
munities. Pietist influence was important in sponded with Anglicans, including the arch-
bringing a deeper life to the churches in the bishop of Canterbury, and the New England
Scandinavian countries as well and would be the Congregationalist leader Cotton Mather. Their
source of most Scandinavian mission societies. correspondence went beyond denominational
757
Pietism
controversies and focused on the need for world Pike, Eunice (1913 ). Missionary and Bible
evangelization. Anton Boehm, a court preacher translator for Mexican Mazatecs. Shortly after re-
in London, translated pietist writings and was ceiving her nursing degree at Massachusetts Gen-
influential in the expansion of the missionary vi- eral Hospital, Pike went to Mexico to do literacy
sion of the Anglican Society for the Propagation and Bible translation work among the Mazatec
of Christian Knowledge (SPCK). The SPCK made tribes. She and her colleague Florence Hansen
Ziegenbalg and Francke corresponding members, (Cowan) found mastering Mazatec, a tonal lan-
and a Copenhagen/London/Halle Alliance for guage, impossible until Pikes brother KENNETH
Mission was formed. Francke also showed inter- PIKE shared his findings from working with an-
est in mission to North American Indians. Thus other tonal language, Mixtec. With feedback from
pietism was the first Protestant movement that their native language helpers, Pike and Hansen
focused both on mission and on ecumenical immediately began translation of the New Testa-
relationships. ment, beginning with the book of 1 John. Pike
Further influence of pietism came through the soon began to focus on literacy, developing a series
Moravians, who served as an even wider catalyst of Mazatec primers and teaching from her front
for mission. Pietism along with Puritanism also window, while her partner and colleagues focused
laid the foundation for the eighteenth-century on translation. Once a book was completed, it was
evangelical awakenings in North America, printed and Pike sold it in the markets. In 1961,
Britain, and the continent. These awakenings the New Testament was completed as well as vari-
broadened the Protestant missionary movement ous passages from the Old Testament. In addition
(see GREAT AWAKENINGS). Theodore Frelinghuy- to translation and primers, Pike also authored
sen, a Dutch Reformed pietist, was the initial hymns for the Mazatec church, wrote books on
leader of the first Great Awakening, which began phonology, published several ethnographic and
in New Jersey in 1726. That movement spread to linguistic articles, and taught at the University of
New England in 1734 and up and down the At- Oklahomas branch of the Summer Institute of
lantic coast under its better-known leaders, Linguistics during the summers. Pike also wrote a
JONATHAN EDWARDS, Gilbert Tennent, and GEORGE biography of her brother and three books describ-
WHITEFIELD. It would eventually lead to the ing her work among the Mazatecs.
founding of the AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSION- GRACE L. KLEIN
ERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS (ABCFM) in 1810. Su-
sanna Wesley was motivated to a deeper Chris- Bibliography. E. Pike, Words Wanted; idem, An Ut-
tian life through reading the accounts of the termost Part.
Danish-Halle missionaries in India. As a result,
she began to spend an hour each week with her Pike, Kenneth Lee (1912 ). American pioneer-
children, John and Charles among them, to nur- ing linguistic scholar and missionary to Mexico.
ture them in their Christian faith. The influence Born in Woodstock, Connecticut, Pike grew up in
of the Moravians on the conversion and subse- a pious Congregational family. At the age of 16,
quent ministry of John and Charles Wesley is his country doctor father suffered complications
well known. from appendicitis, and Pike vowed to serve God
The wave of revivals on both sides of the At- if his father was healed. Eventually he was, and
lantic in the eighteenth century led to the estab- Pike began fulfilling his promise by attending
lishment of a number of missionary societies and Gordon College. Rejected by CHINA INLAND MIS-
to the GREAT CENTURY OF MISSION. In Britain the SION, Pike eventually became intrigued with pho-
BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY (1792), the LONDON netics, attended Camp Wycliffe (forerunner of
MISSIONARY SOCIETY (1795), the Scottish societies SIL), and found his calling as a linguist.
in Edinburgh and Glasgow (1796), the CHURCH Pikes accomplishments in linguistics over the
MISSIONARY SOCIETY (1799), the Religious Tract next 60 years have been legendary. His first field
Society (1799), and the British and Foreign Bible assignment was among the Mixtec in Mexico.
Society (1804) were formed. On the Continent Work on his Ph.D. (1942), ongoing academic re-
the Netherlands Society (1797), the BASEL MIS- search and writing, and Wycliffe administrative
SION (1815), and the BERLIN MISSIONARY SOCIETY responsibilities (Pike was president from 1942 to
(1824) were established. These early Protestant 1979) delayed the translation and printing of the
missionary societies could all trace their roots in Mixtec New Testament until 1951. In all, Pike
one way or another back to the pietist impulse wrote more than a dozen books, 200 articles, and
that came from Halle. 250 published poems. His pioneering work in-
PAUL E. PIERSON cludes the development of the linguistic theory of
Bibliography. J. Aberly, An Outline of Missions; tagmenics as well as the coining of the widely
D. Brown, Understanding Pietism; G. Sattler, Gods used terms emic and etic. Referred to as the
Glory, Neighbors Good; J. A. Scherer, Gospel, Church greatest American descriptive-theoretical linguist
and Kingdom. of this century, Pike has been honored through
758
Pioneer Mission Work
ten honorary doctorates and fifteen nominations a lay missionary with the CHURCH MISSIONARY SO-
for the Nobel Peace Prize. CIETY of England.
A. SCOTT MOREAU Pilkingtons translation work began within
three months of his arrival in Uganda. In addition
Bibliography. E. V. Pike, Ken Pike: Scholar and Chris-
to the Bible, he translated hymns and pamphlets,
tian; K. L. Pike, Language in Relation to a Unified The-
ory of the Structure of Human Behavior; idem, Intona- and prepared a grammar and dictionary of Lu-
tion of American English; idem, Phonetics. ganda. In 1893, discouraged by a lack of spiritual
power, he retreated to the island of Kome, where
he experienced a great baptism of power. Return-
Pilgrimages. Journeys to holy places undertaken
ing to Uganda, a revival broke out which included
to obtain supernatural help, to do penance, or to
local Muslims. Soon after this, Pilkington led sev-
offer thanksgiving. Pilgrimages are a spiritual fea-
enty-five Ugandan soldiers to Christ.
ture found among many of the world religions.
After a furlough to complete the printing of
Within Islam, participation in the annual pil-
his translation work, Pilkington returned to
grimage (hajj) to Mecca is one of the five essen-
Uganda in 1896. New hostilities caused the
tial requirements (Pillars) of religious practice.
British governor to ask Pilkington to serve as a
Such a pilgrimage should be undertaken at least translator for the soldiers restoring British colo-
once during a Muslims lifetime if at all possible. nial control. While on this expedition, Pilkington
The hajj is very significant since Muslims believe was shot and soon died. His death was mourned
that through it they will be freed from their sins on two continents.
if their pilgrimage is accepted by Allah. In Mecca MICHAEL SPRADLIN
the pilgrim makes seven circuits around the
Kaaba and visits Arafat, Muzdalifah, and Mina. Bibliography. C. F. Harford Battersby, Pilkington of
Within folk Islam, the tombs of holy people Uganda; K. Ward, BDCM, p. 537.
also provide a focus for those seeking Gods bless-
ing. One of the most popular is that of Khwaja Pioneer Mission Work. Work done from the
Muinud-din Chishti in Almer, India. While such first contact of an unreached area or population
shrines are looked down upon by Muslim purists, until a viable and indigenous local church is es-
they attract the devotion of many visitors, partic- tablished. Frontier mission, a more recently
ularly on the date commemorating the death of coined term (see Winter), describes pioneer work
the saint. in which the missionary crosses significant cul-
There are many Hindu pilgrimage sites of local tural boundaries. The types of activities done as
or national interest within India. Such sacred part of pioneering work include such things as
sites may be identified with a religious myth, a EVANGELISM and CHURCH PLANTING, LITERACY and
temple, a bathing place, or a geographical fea- TRANSLATION, RELIEF and DEVELOPMENT, and even
ture. The Kumbha Mela is the largest gathering establishing institutions (e.g., schools or hospi-
of pilgrims and is held every twelve years at Alla- tals). Such activities may be the full-time occu-
habad, India, at the (supposed) confluence of the pation of the missionary, or may be ancillary to
Ganges, Yamuna, and Saraswati rivers. Large some type of professional occupation (see TENT-
numbers of pilgrims also bathe in the Ganges at MAKING MISSION).
Varanasi. In situations where countries grant missionary
Some Christians have spiritual or educational visas, missionaries are free to preach the gospel
reasons for visiting sites associated with the life openly as their full-time job. While this was more
of Christ. Within the Roman Catholic piety, pil- generally the case in recent centuries (especially
grimages are undertaken to various sacred places when Western missionaries worked under the
including Lourdes in France, which is associated protection of colonial empires), political auton-
with healing miracles. omy and religious attitudes have today closed the
PATRICK SOOKHDEO doors of many nations to the traditional full-time
pioneer missionary. Therefore, many involved in
Bibliography. ODCC, p. 1091; ERE, 10:1028; pioneer work today, especially in CREATIVE ACCESS
B. Lewis and A J. Wensinck, EI, 3:3138; C. W. Troll, COUNTRIES, can only attain residency as students,
ed., Muslim Shrines in India. researchers, or professionals. When local resi-
dency is not possible, a base may be established
Pilkington, George Lawrence (186597). Irish outside the target country or culture from which
missionary translator in Uganda. He attended periodic trips into the target area as a tourist are
Pembroke College, Cambridge, where in 1885 he made to establish contacts or evangelize.
was indirectly influenced by DWIGHT L. MOODY. Since the goal of pioneer mission work is to
He applied for missionary service with the CHINA plant an INDIGENOUS CHURCH, it must always in-
INLAND MISSION, but delayed going to teach at clude some form of evangelism. This evangelism,
Harrow School. When a call went out for univer- especially in sensitive areas, may be limited to
sity men to go to Uganda, Pilkington answered as small-scale or even covert work. Once people
759
Pioneer Mission Work
within the target area have come to Christ, pio- ing of four islands, with only one inhabited, the
neer missionaries need specific skills to gather group is located 1,340 miles southeast of Tahiti.
them together in small fellowships and help them It was settled in 1790 by Bounty mutineers and
grow toward becoming a church. Tahitians. The people were resettled on Norfolk
While many pioneers have gone out as individ- Island in 1856 but some returned. In 1883 the is-
uals, most have followed Pauls example of gath- landers became Seventh-Day Adventists. Pitcairn
ering a team to work together (see also TEAMS IN has been administered as a British territory since
MISSION). In prior centuries a team was some- 1898.
times necessary simply to ensure survival, as mis- ALLAN K. DAVIDSON
sionaries came to harsh environments without
the necessary survival skills or resistance to dis- SEE ALSO Polynesia.
ease already possessed by the indigenous popula-
tion. Further, a team approach makes it less im- Planning. Planning, whether of an ad hoc or
perative that any single individual possess each strategic nature, is not new to the mission enter-
of the multiple gifts needed for church planting. prise. Though current strategic planning for mis-
It also provides a place of encouragement when sion purposes increasingly emphasizes the SOCIAL
the work is slow to develop. SCIENCES and electronic technology, planning as
The trend in contemporary evangelical mis- a critical factor in Christian mission can be dated
sions discussion of pioneer work has been a to certain events in the Book of Acts (e.g., the
switch from a focus on geo-political boundaries Jerusalem Council in Acts 15 or the hall of Tyran-
to ethnolinguistic ones (see PEOPLES, PEOPLE nus campaign in Acts 19). Monasticism, using
GROUPS) in conceptualizing the church-planting music to teach Christian doctrine to the illiterate
task of missions. The development of the related masses, and the development of mendicant or-
concepts such as the 10/40 WINDOW, unreached ders are just a sampling of the resultant struc-
or hidden people groups, and the ADOPT-A-PEOPLE tures flowing from planning processes long be-
campaigns also reflect that shift. It is estimated fore the modern mission era.
today that there are some 12,000 ethnolinguistic As we review the modern missions era, we see
people groups, and that some 2,000 of them have pioneers like WILLIAM CAREY who demonstrate
no viable witness or church and are therefore in key elements of planning in their writings.
need of pioneering mission work. Most of these Careys classic treatise An Enquiry into the Oblig-
groups, it is noted, lie in the 10/40 Window and ation of Christians . . . gives testimony to the
in part because they are the hardest to reach strategic use of biblical information statistics,
physically, politically, and religiouslyless than maps, organizational networking, and financial
one-tenth of the total missionary effort is actually support structures in planning the mission enter-
concentrated on them. prise. J. HUDSON TAYLORs Call to Service also
Because frontier missions are focused on shows the evaluative processes and resultant
crossing significant cultural barriers to plant planning necessary in the structural changes that
churches, it is a subset of pioneer mission work, occurred as missions headed inland in the mid-
which does not always involve the crossing of sig- nineteenth century using the incipient structures
nificant cultural barriers. The concept of pioneer of the faith mission model.
mission work cannot be limited to settings where The work of RUFUS ANDERSON from the United
there has never been a gospel witness. It also in- States and HENRY VENN from England are repre-
cludes evangelism in areas where there once was sentative examples of evaluative processes that
such a witness that is no longer viable. For ex- led planned change in mission strategy during the
ample, secularized, post-Christian urban areas latter part of the nineteenth century. Their
where the gospel is no longer proclaimed need planned change resulted in the famous three-
missionaries with a pioneering outlook and com- self formula with its goal of planting and foster-
mitment, and this should not be overlooked in ing the development of churches that were self-
considering the scope of pioneer mission work. governing, self-sufficient, and self-propagating
A. SCOTT MOREAU (see INDIGENOUS CHURCHES). This period of the
nineteenth century also is an era in which women
SEE ALSO Reached and Unreached Mission became increasingly assertive in organizing their
Fields. own agencies for sending single women mission-
Bibliography. S. C. Neill, CDCWM, pp. 48788; aries. The evaluation and subsequent strategic
J. Piper, Let the Nations Be Glad!; T. Steffen, Passing the planning by valiant women opened the possibility
Baton: Church Planting that Empowers; R. W. Winter, of reaching women and children with the gospel
Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, pp. in cultures where male missionaries had little ac-
B-176 to B-183. cess to the female and child population.
Consultations and conferences have been the
Pitcairn (United Kingdom Dependent Area) (Est. contexts from which much planning and result-
2000 pop.: 100; 236 sq. km. [91 sq. mi.]). Consist- ant strategic change have occurred. Mt. Hermon
760
Pluralism
(1886), Edinburgh (1910), Jerusalem (1928), Study of the histories of the religions, however,
Madras (1938), Berlin (1966), Lausanne (1974), produces a different picture: Gautama in an
and Lausanne II Manila (1989) are all examples earnest search for an explanation of human suf-
of events that have not only resulted in planned fering, Muhammad in the cave Hira pondering
change, but provided ongoing evaluation of mis- the absurdities of Arab polytheism, even Marx, in
sion endeavor. Centers like the U.S. Center for the Reading Room of the British Museum, re-
World Mission in Pasadena, California, Overseas searching the causes of the miseries of the toil-
Ministries Study Center in New Haven, Con- ing masses and some possible solution for them.
necticut, or The Oxford Centre for Mission Stud- There is today a general recognition that reli-
ies in Oxford, England, exemplify the present gions represent on the one hand a perverse
commitment of the global mission enterprise to human rejection of revelation (Karl Barths prin-
planning as an ongoing necessity. cipal preoccupation of godless humanity) and on
Terms associated with the planning process are the other hand a search, in the absence of revela-
used differently. Words usually seen in planning tion, for some understanding of the apparent
literature include mission, purpose, vision, meaninglessness of the human experience.
dream, goal, objective, and plan (action plan). As to the salvific validity of other religions,
These terms are used inconsistently, but with nec- there has been a spectrum of responses, ranging
essary definition become functional. Lyle Schaller from the naive view that sincerity in any religion
suggests that all solid planning models must in- is salvific to the denial that religion can play any
clude a strong future orientation, an emphasis on part at all in the process of salvation. This latter
action, realistic analysis of the context, participa- view is made untenable by the plethora of exam-
tive agreement building, and challenge for partic- ples of those who have found the Traditional Re-
ipants to join in chosen course of action. ligions, or Islam or Hinduism gateways to Chris-
In the process of planning, terms like mission tian faith. Broadly speaking four distinct views
and purpose refer to the why of an organization may be identified. There is the inclusivist view,
or enterprise. Vision/dream refers to an image of that finds salvation somewhere in each religion,
a preferable future condition. Goals describe the pluralist view that the common root to all re-
what we want to achieve with objectives, focus- ligions is precisely the salvific root, the exclusivist
ing on that which must be accomplished to reach view that salvation is to be found in Christ alone
a goal. Action plans describe the activities that or, more rigorously, that salvation depends on an
will ultimately enflesh our conceptualizings. overt acknowledgment of Christ as Lord, a view
The missionvisiongoalsaction plan model or usually associated with HENDRIK KRAEMER, and
the thinkplanactevaluate model exemplifies the view that while salvation is necessarily based
some current formats for the planning processes on Christs Passion, an overt knowledge of Christ
used in the mission enterprise. is not essential to salvation.
BYRON D. KLAUS Each view has its own problems: John Hicks
Bibliography. R. R. Broholm, The Power and Purpose
attempts to produce a Copernican Revolution, re-
of Vision: A Study in the Role of Vision in Exemplary Or- placing Christianity as the center of the universe
ganizations; J. M. Bryson, Strategic Planning for Public of religions by God, or the Absolute, or the
and Nonprofit Organizations; E. Dayton and D. Fraser, Real, adding epicycles to cycles, has served pri-
Strategies for World Evangelization; F. R. Kinsler and marily to demonstrate the absence of a common
J. Emery, eds., Opting for ChangeEvaluating and Plan- center applicable to all religions, and the in-
ning for TEE; L. Schaller, Effective Church Planning. evitability in any such exercise of the abandoning
of core Christian theology, particularly incarna-
Pluralism. Christianity exists and has always ex- tional theology. Karl Rahners creation of Anony-
isted in the context of a plurality of competing mous Christianity, which purported salvifically to
and contrasting religions, but whereas in the past identify sincere religionists as de facto Christians
some Christians had an intellectual knowledge of was crushingly labeled religious imperialism. As
those religions and fewer still an experiential en- LESSLIE NEWBIGIN commented, the scheme was
counter with them, today most Christians have vulnerable at many points. It must be said,
both intellectual and experiential knowledge at however, that Rahners view closely resembles the
least of the major non-Christian religions. This Constitutive Christocentrism of the SECOND VATI-
knowledge in turn tends to expel the merely prej- CAN COUNCIL, with its generally positive stance re-
udiced view of other religions as primitive and ig- specting the universe of religions. However,
norant, with their adherents dissatisfied with Roman Catholic thinking has moved on, and
their religions and open to conversion. Pope John Paul II in his 1995 Crossing the
The question for mission is twofold: first the Threshold of Hope has gone some way toward
question of the salvific validity of other religions restoring the 1442 Council of Florence Exclusive
and second the question of the origins of those Ecclesiocentrism.
religions. The answer to this second question was The traditional evangelical view has its own
in the past simplistic: they came from the devil. difficulty. The vast majority of humankind,
761
N-O-P Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/23/03 11:53 AM Page 762
Pluralism
through no fault of its own, never heard of is seeking at the present time to reassert its dom-
Christ, and appears to be condemned for its sin, inant position in the life of the nation. By reason
which (as a consequence of the fall), it could not of its international nature, the Roman Catholic
resist and for which it had no remedy. The aca- Church has enabled Polish priests to take part in
demic theologian has found this no particular the missionary activity of the church. There are
problem, where the missiologist, with one foot over one thousand Polish Catholics involved in
firmly in the real world, most especially in the various places in the Roman Churchs worldwide
TWO-THIRDS WORLD, is, perhaps, touched with a mission. By contrast, Polish Protestant churches,
greater compassion. all numerically small, have spent most of their
But the fourth view also is not without its diffi- energies in struggling to survive and maintain
culties, primarily because of the generally nega- their congregational and denominational life
tive soteriological tenor of Bible texts such as Acts under various adverse conditions. At the present
17:2428 and Romans 1:1823 which speak of time there is a small number of men and women
GENERAL REVELATION but apply it as a foundation sensing Gods call to overseas missions. Some
for Gods judgment while not explicitly discount- have come to the West to train, others are being
ing its salvific potential. It has been repeatedly prepared in the newer seminaries such as the
suggested that any relaxing of the traditional ex- Evangelical Seminary in Wroclaw. Contacts with
clusivist position must inevitably weaken

Evangelical Dictionary of World Mission

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Evangelical Dictionary of World Mission

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

FM Elwell/EDT/RC/bdm 10/8/03 3:54 PM Page 1

Baker Reference Library A. Scott Moreau (D.Miss., Trinity Evangelical

Charles Van Engen (Ph.D., Free University of

Consulting Editors: David Burnett, Samuel Escobar,

2000 by Baker Book House

Published by Baker Books

Printed in the United States of America

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Evangelical dictionary of world missions / general editor, A. Scott

British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Aboagye-Mensah, Robert. Ph.D., University of Athyal, Saphir P. Ph.D., Princeton Theological

Dickerson, Lonna. Ph.D., University of Illinois.

Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary, Fryling, Robert A. M.A., Wheaton Graduate

ABCFM American Board of Commissioners DEM Dictionary of the Ecumenical

EWM Encyclopedia of World Methodism, NAE National Association of Evangelicals

TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign WEF World Evangelical Fellowship

Abakua. See LATIN AMERICAN NEW RELIGIOUS

Abolitionist Movement. The abolitionist move-

African Initiated Church Movement

African Initiated Church Movement

Bibliocentric and christocentric throughout SIONS with no guaranteed salary or retirement

African Traditional Religions

African Traditional Religions

American Society for Church Growth

American Society for Church Growth

itself as a professional association of Christian 1990s to make available doctoral dissertations of

Methodists, Seventh-Day Adventists, and Assem- Annihilationism. Proponents of annihilationism

Among Ansgars first acquaintances were by missionaries emerged. Fison with A. W.

Anthropology, Missiological Anthropology

Anthropology, Missiological Anthropology

Asian Mission Boards and Societies

Asian Mission Boards and Societies

Asian New Religious Movements

Asian New Religious Movements

Association, the Socio-anthropology of

Association, the Socio-anthropology of

Australian Evangelical Alliance

Australian Evangelical Alliance

Azariah, Vedanayakam Samuel

Azariah, Vedanayakam Samuel

Baba, Panya (1932 ). Nigerian missions organ-

Beaver, Robert Pierce

Beaver, Robert Pierce

Berntsen, Annie Skau

Berntsen, Annie Skau (191192). Norwegian produced numerous publications in German,

Biblical Theology of Mission

Biblical Theology of Mission

Biblical Theology of Mission

Biblical Theology of Mission

Bishop, Isabella Bird

Bompas, William Carpenter

Bompas, William Carpenter

Braden, Charles Samuel

Braden, Charles Samuel

Brazilian Mission Boards and Societies

Brazilian Mission Boards and Societies

Butler, Fanny Jane

Cable, (Alice) Mildred (18771952). English

Canadian Mission Boards and Societies

Canadian Mission Boards and Societies

Caribbean New Religious Movements

Caribbean New Religious Movements

Bibliography. J. C. Lambert, Missionary Knights of Influenced by D. L. MOODY and influencing