Fifth SI Edition

CHAPTER MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
4 Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf Pure Bending
David F. Mazurek

Lecture Notes:
J. Walt Oler
Texas Tech University

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Contents

Pure Bending
Other Loading Types
Symmetric Member in Pure Bending
Bending Deformations
Strain Due to Bending
Stress Sue To Bending
Moment of Inertia
Centroid
Centroid Location of Some Common Area
Beam Section Properties
Deformations in a Transverse Cross Section
Bending of Members Made of Several Materials
Stress Concentrations

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Pure Bending
Pure Bending:
Prismatic members
subjected to equal
and opposite
couples acting in
the same
longitudinal plane

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Other Loading Types

Eccentric Loading:
Axial loading which does not pass
through section centroid produces
internal forces equivalent to an axial
force and a couple (Fig. a)

Transverse Loading:
(a)
Concentrated (Fig. b) or distributed
transverse load produces internal
forces equivalent to a shear force and
a couple (Fig. c)
(b)
Principle of Superposition:
The normal stress due to pure bending
may be combined with the normal stress
(c) due to axial loading and shear stress
due to shear loading to find the complete
state of stress.

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Symmetric Member in Pure Bending

Internal forces in any cross section are equivalent to a couple.

y
The moment of the couple is the section bending moment.
=Mz From statics, a couple M consists of two equal and opposite
forces.
Consider an element a (Fig c) taken along the section of the
loaded member in Fig a.The sum of the components of the
x forces in any direction is zero.
z
Close analysis of the loading indicated that Mz will create a
bending stress in the x-dir, and in the y- and z-dir.,
respectively i.e.:

Fx x dA ; Fy xy dA ; Fz xz dA
Applying the equation of equilibrium to the loaded beam:

Fx ( x dA) 0; Fy ( xy dA) 0; Fz ( xz dA) 0

M y z ( x dA) 0

M z y ( x dA) M

M x y ( xz dA) z ( xy dA) 0
(c)

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Bending Deformations

The analysis of beam with a plane of symmetry in pure bending

(i.e. zero shear) requires the following assumptions:
1. Member remains symmetric and bends uniformly to form a
circular arc.
2. cross-sectional plane passes through arc center and remains
planar.
3. Length of top decreases and length of bottom increases to
maintain equilibrium (in case of fig. a)
4. Material is homogeneous, isotropic and has the same value of
E in tension and compression.
5. The stress is purely longitudinal and local effects near
concentrated loads will be neglected.
6. The beam is stressed within the elastic limit of the material and
thus obeys Hookes law.

a neutral surface (located at the neutral axis or n.a.) must exist

that is parallel to the upper and lower surfaces and for which the
length does not change

In the case shown in Fig. a. stresses and strains are negative

9compressive)above the neutral plane and positive (tension)
below it. Stresses and strains are negative (compressive) above
the neutral plane and positive (tension) below it

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Strain Due to Bending

(a )

(b )

Consider a beam segment of initial length PQ located

at a distance y from the n.a. of the beam as shown in
Fig (a) after deformation, the length of the neutral
surface remains L. At other sections
Let this layer be deformed to PQ after bending due to
M as shown in fig (b)
Note that layer PQ is under compression whereas
layer TU is not deformed since it is located on the n.a.
(i.e. length TU is unchanged).
Let:
M = applied bending moment
R = radius of curvature of the beam
(c )
= angle subtended at the center by the arc
E = elastic modulus of the beam material

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Strain Due to Bending

Decrease in length of layer PQ: Since E & R are constants in (iii) therefore the stress
at any layer along the beam section is directly
= PQ - PQ ---- (i) proportional to the distance y measured from the
Also from the geometry of the figure, note that: n.a.
Length PQ= TU = R i.e. y
Length PQ = (r-y) when y = 0 or n.a.: = 0
from Eq. 1: = PQ PQ = R - (R-y) and
= y -----(ii) max will occur at the outer most ; layer where y is
maximum.
Elastic strain
y

PQ R
y
(iii )
R

It is thus obvious that the strain of a layer is

proportional to its distance from the neutral axis.
Hookes law
Rearranging (iii) , we have:

E


R E
y Eq.1
y R
E
i.e. y (iii )
R

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Stress due to bending

The algebraic sum of all such moments

about the n.a. must be equal to the
applied bending moment M, i.e.
E
M M ' ( y 2 dA)
Consider a small layer PQ of a R
beam section, located at a distance
y from the neutral axis as shown The expression (y2dA) represents the
above. moment of inertia (I) of the beam section
taken about the n.a.. Hence,
Let dA = area of the layer PQ
EI M E
Bending stress acting on the layer M or Eq.(2)
(from Eq. iii): R I R
E
y (i) Simple bending equation:
R
Force acting on the layer combining Eq. (1) and Eq. (2),

F ' dA y
E
(dA) (ii ) M E
R Eq.(3)
Taking the moment of this force F I y R
about the n.a.:
E 2
M ' F' y y (dA) (iii )
R

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Moment of inertia (I)

y
d=2r
y
i. Solid rectangular or square section:
BD 3 DB3 r
Ix and Iy
12 12
D x x
o
o

ii. Hollow rectangular or square section

BD 3 bd 3 DB3 db3
B Ix 12 and Iy (c)
12
(a)
y
iii. Solid circular section
y
d 4 r 4
Ix Iy r
64 4
x
d o

D x iv. Hollow circular section R

o
b
(D4 d 4 )
Ix Iy
64 d=2r
( d)
D=2R

(b)

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Moment of Inertia (I)

Centroid or c.g. of
the section Axis passing through the Theorem Parallel Axis:
c.g. (i.e. the n.a.) and is
parallel to axis PQ according to this theorem, if the moment of
inertia of a plane area about an axis passing
o through its c.g. (at o) be denoted as IG, then
h
the moment or inertia of the area about an
P Q
axis PQ (see fig .a ) parallel to the axis
passing through o and located at a distance
(a) h from the c.g. is given by:

IPG = IG + Ah3
Where
A = area of cross-section
h = distance between parallel axis

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Centroid

For unsymmetrical section as shown in Fig. (a)

the centroid or c.g. of the section need to be
found first before I about the n.a. can be
calculated.
The location of the c.g. x, y for the surface area
of an object (e.g. fig (a)) can be found by using
the area moment method i.e.

x
A.x and y
A. y
A A
This is accomplish by subdividing the area into
segments as shown in Fig (b) and computing the
moments of these area segments about the
coordinate axes e.g.:
Coordinate:
Origin o =(0,0) x
A.x A x A x A x
1 1 2 2 3 3

A A A A 1 2 3 x and yare
G1 = (x1,y1) y A1 y1 A2 y2 A3 y3 measured from
y
G2 = (x2,y2) A A1 A2 A3 the origin o

G3 = (x3, y3)

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Centroid Location of Some Common Area

A a
CSA = h(a+b)
CSA = hb

h h G
h 2a b
.
G 3 ab
h/3
A B
C b/2
B b/3 b

B
(c) Trapezoidal area
(a) Triangular area

CSA =4r/3 CSA = r2

r
G
G
4r/3
4r/3
A o B
A B
r
4r/3

(b) Semicircular area (d) Quarter-circular area

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Beam Section Properties

From simple bending equation, the maximum

normal stress due to bending is expressed as:
Mymax M
m Eq.(1)
I S
I
where S section modulus
ymax

Eq. (1) indicates that a beam section with a larger

section modulus will have a lower maximum
stress.
Consider two rectangular beams of equal CSA
but having different width (b) and depth (h) as
shown in Figs. (a and b)
For rectangular section:
I 1
bh3 1 3 1
S 12 bh 6 Ah Eq.(2)
ymax h2 6
Thus, it is clear why structural
Eq. (2) indicates that between two beams with beams are designed to have a
the same cross sectional area (A=bh), the large section modulus.
beam with the greater depth (h) will be more
effective in resisting bending.

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Properties of American Standard Shapes

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Deformations in a Transverse Cross Section

When a member is subjected to pure bending, say in the x-direction,

deformation (x) due to bending is quantified by the radius or
curvature (R) of the neutral surface (Fig a).
From the simple bending relationship:
x E y
; x x (i)
y R E R

Although cross sectional planes remain planar when subjected to

bending moments, in-plane deformations (i.e. deformation on the
transverse y- and z- directions) are non-zero,. If is the Poissons
ratio of the beam material, then y and z can be expressed as:

y y
y x z x (ii )
R R
Also the tension above the neutral surface and compression
below it will induce an in-plane curvature of R (center at C in
Fig. a) and the transverse deformation can be expressed as:
y y
y z (iii )
R R
Comparing Eqs (ii) and (iii),
1
anticlastic curvature
R R

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Sample Problem 4.2

SOLUTION:
Locate the c.g. of the T section and hence the n.a.
Assign coordinate axes and divide the section into
two rectangular segments as shown below.
The section is symmetrical about the a-a axis, hence
only y need to be found.

y a

G1 Coordinate:
G1 = (45,50)

A cast-iron machine part is acted upon by a 3 kN-m G2 = (45,20)

G2
couple. Knowing E = 165 GPa and neglecting the
effects of fillets, determine o x
a
(a) the maximum tensile and compressive x=45cm
stresses,
(b) The bending stress at C, and
(c) the radius of curvature.

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Sample Problem 4.2

Calculate: To find IG: Applying the parallel axis theorem

sec Area, mm 2 y, mm yA, mm 3 I G I1 I 2
1 20 90 1800 90 103
I G ( I G1 A1h12 ) ( I G 2 A1h22 )
50
2 40 30 1200 20 24 10 3

A 3000 yA 114 10 3
( 121 b1d1 A1 h1 ) ( 121 b2 h2 A2 h2 )
3 2 3 2

A. y
A y A2 y2 114 x103
1
12 90 203 1800 12 2 1
12 30 403 1200 182
1 1 38mm
A A1 A2 3000 I G 868 103 mm 4 868 10-9 m 4

Find IG about the axis passing through To find maximum tensile and compressive stress due to
the c.g. by using parallel axis theorem: bending:
A T(max)

M M yA yc
n.a.
C

G1 ya
h1
B C(max)
G h2 y
G2
y
y2 Based on the direction of applied moment, M, area of the
o x beam above the n.a. will be under tension, whereas area
a Distance: beneth the n.a. will be under compression.
h1 = y1-y = 50-38 = 12 Therefore, max. tensile stress will occur at A whereas max
h2 = y-y2 = 38-20 = 18 compression stress will occur at B.

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Sample Problem 4.2

We have:
A T(max)
M = 3000 Nm
M M yA yc IG = 868 x 10-9m4
n.a.
C E = 165 GPa
ya
yA = 60-38 = 22 mm
C(max) yb = y = 38 mm
M y A 3 000Nm 0.022 m yc = 40-38 = 2mm
A T (max) 76 M Pa (T)
IG 868 10 9 m 4
M yB 3 000Nm 0.038 m
B C (max) 131.3 M Pa (C)
IG 868 10 9 m 4

To find C
The stresses at C can be found either by applying the simple bending equation at C or by applying
similar triangular rule to the stress distribution diagram shown above.

Myc 3000 Nm x 0.002 m y

c 9 4
6.94 MPa (T) or c A c 6.94 MPa (T)
IG 868x10 m yA

To find R
9 4
From simple Bending equation: M E EIG 165 GPa x 868 x10 m
; R 47.74 m
IG R M 3000 Nm

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Bending of Members Made of Several Materials

A composite section may be defined as a section, made up of two or more

different material, joined together, in such a manner that they behave as a
single system.
Under this circumstances, each material bends to the same radius of
curvature (i.e. undergo the same strain) and the applied moment will be
shared by the individual material.
Composite beams are used when a beam made of one material, if used
alone, requires very large cross sectional areal (i.e. to resist bending)
which does not suit the design space available.
Hence the beam is reinforced with some other material of higher strength
in order to reduce the cross-sectional area and to comply with the space
available.
Lets consider two cases of composite section:
A) neutral axis of each material that coincide with each other
B)neutral axis of each material DO NOT coincide with each other

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Case (a)

In this case, the neutral axis of each materials of the composite section coincide with
each other
Let:
E1 = modulus of elasticity of material 1
I1 = moment of inertia of material 1
M M
M1 = moment of resistance of material 1
n.a.
1 = max. bending stress induced in
material 1
Rule 1: S1 = section modulus of material 1 = I1/ymax
Radius of curvature of composite section, E2,I2,2 and S2 be the corresponding
parameters for material 2
R1 = R2 = R

Rule 2:
I
From simple bending equation: M .S
ymax
M 1 1.S1 & M 2 2 .S 2

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Case (a)
Rule 3:
Total moment of resistance of the composite section:
M = M1 =M2 = 1.S1 + 2.S2 -----Eq. (i)

Rule 4
For the composite section.at any distance from the n.a.; the strain in both materials must be
equal, i.e.
1 2
1 2 Eq. (2)

E1 E2
Solving Eq .(i) and Eq. (ii), the bending stresses in two section s can be found.

In case (b), when the neutral axis of the two original material does not coincide with the
neutral axis (n.a.) of the composite section where the bending moment is applied, then one
area of the material is converted into an equivalent area of the other

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Case (b)
In this case, the neutral axis of each materials of the composite section DO NOT
coincide with each other
Consider the
example shown in
Fig (A), note that the
axis passing through
1 1 E1 y
1 the c.g. of each
R
materials (i.e. axis 1-
M M 2
E1 y 1 and 2-2) does not
R
coincide with the
2 2 neutral axis of the
E2 y
2 composite section
R
that passes through
the centroid of the
composite section.

Under such circumstances, there is a need to convert the section of one material to
an equivalent section of the other.

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Case (b)
Conversion of Section
Objective
(i) Locate the centroid of the composite section
(ii) To obtained IG about the n.a. of the composite section to facilitate the calculation
Both (i) and (ii) is obtained using the area as means of calculation, with the assumption that
the whole section is made of the same material. Hence, there is a need for conversion of
section.
Conversion Factor (n)
The conversion factor is based on the ratio between the Youngs Modulus of the two materials
n = E big / E small

Theory
1/A ; Therefore the strength of the material is reduced by increasing the area or vice-versa.
E.g. to convert steel section (strong) to an equivalent (wood)steel section (weak), the area of
the original steel section must be increased to obtain an equivalent (wood) steel section.
note: since the depth (d) of the original section, must be preserved (i.e. to maintain stability),
the width (b) of the original section is increased by n time.
i.e. equivalent area = d x (nb)

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Stress Concentrations

Design or Average Stress (all)

Stress concentrations may occur in the
vicinity of: Let K = stress concentration factor
max
K
Sharp corners in sections all
max My
At points where the loads are applied all
K I
Abrupt changes (or discontinuities) in
cross section

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Example 4.03

Bar is made from bonded pieces of steel SOLUTION:

(Es = 200 GPa) and brass (Eb = 100 GPa).
Determine the maximum stress in the steel
and brass when a moment of 4.5 KNm is
applied.
In this case, since both material sections are symmetrical
and that the neutral axis of each materials coincide with
the n.a. of the composite section, we can solve the
problem directly without needing to convert the section.
However conversion is also applicable.

Location of n.a. and I.

bd 3 (10)(75) 3
n.a. I1 I 3 I G b 3.52 x10 7 m 4
12 12
bd 3 (18)(75) 3
I 2 I Gs 6.33 x10 7 m 4
12 12

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Example 4.03

(i) ymax (ii) Moment of resistance of each section

I1 (3.52 x10 7)
in this case, all three sections have the M 1 b (max) b (max) 9.39 x10 6 b (max) M 3
same y maximum as measured from the ymax 0.0375
n.a. i.e. y1(max) = y2(max) =y3(max)= y max I2 (6.33x10 7)
M 2 s (max) s (max) 1.688 x10 5 s (max) M 3
=37.5 mm ymax 0.0375

(iii) For composite section

Applied moment:
M=M1+M2+M3 = 2M1+ M2
4500 =1.877 x 10-5 s ---(i)
Strain: b s s (max) ( Eb ) s (max) (100)
b s ; ; b (max) 0.5 s (max) (ii )
Eb Es Es Es

Put Eq. (ii) inti Eq (i), solving gives: s(max)=171.3 MPa

From Eq. (ii): bmax = 85.6MPa

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Example
Solution:
Timber Since the neutral axis of both material sections does not coincide
with the n.a. of the composite section, conversion of section is
200 mm necessary.
Conversion factor (n)
Given that Es = 20 Et; therefore n =20
It follows that: s= 20T ---- (i)

10 mm
& At = 20As ----- (ii) since s/s = 20 T/T ; FS/AS = 20 (FT/AT)
Steel

100 mm Method 1; Convert steel to timber (all timber)

A timber is strengthened by attaching
a steel plate at its bottom as shown in
the diagram. The length of the timber
and steel is the same.
Calculate the moment of resistance
of the full section if the maximum
allowable stresses in the timber and
steel are 10 MPa and 150Mpa,
respectively. Take Es = 20 ET
It is clear from Eq (i) that the strength of steel is 20x the strength
of timber equivalent. Hence, in order to convert the steel section
to an equivalent timber section, the area of the original steel must
be increased by n = 20x as indicated in Eq. (i)
Since the depth of the composite section must be preserved,
therefore the width of the steel section is increased by 100n =
100(20) =200mm
Thus the equivalent timber (representing steel) dimension will be
(2000 x 10) mm

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Original timber: a = T(max) = 10 MPa ; AT = (100)(200) = 20,000 mm2

100 mm
a a

Timber T Timber

T 200 mm 200 mm

S Steel 10 mm Equivalent timber 10 mm

b b T/S
100 mm 100n = 2000 mm

Original steel: Equivalent timber representing steel:

b = S(max) = 150 MPa From Eq. (i): the new max. stress the equivalent timber can
AT = (10)(100) = 1000 mm2 carry will be reduced by 20x, i.e.
S = 20 T/S ; T/S (max)= 150/20 = 7.5 MPa = C
AT/S = (2000)(10) = 20,000 mm2

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Locate the c.g. of the inverted T section and Locate the c.g. of the inverted T section and
hence the n.a. hence the n.a.
y
I n . a . I1 I 2
I n.a. ( I G1 A1h1 ) ( I G 2 A2 h2 )
2 2

1 1
( b1d1 A1h1 ) ( b2 d 2 A2 h2 )
3 2 3 2

12 12
G1
1
n.a. Coordinate: ( .100.2003 20,000.(110 57.5) 2 )
G1 = (1000, 110)
12
y 1
G2 = (1000, 5) ( .2000.103 20,000(57.5 5) 2 )
12
G2 I n.a. 177.08 x106 mm4 1.77 x10 4 m 4
(0,0) x

x = 2000 mm To find ymax

a a
sec Area, mm 2 y, mm yA, mm 3
ya
1 100 200 20,000 110 22 10 5 M G M
2 2000 10 20,000 5 10 10 4

A 40,000 yA 230 10 4 yc

c c

y
A. y A y A y 1 1 2 2

230 x10 4
57.5mm
To find YC = 57.5 mm

A A A 1 2 40,000 yc = 210-57.5 = 152.5 mm = y max

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max
Since ya > yc, max. stress will occur at the outer most layer (at a) of the original wood section.
Assume (max) = a = T(max) = 10 MPa and before we can proceed, we have to check whether the
corresponding stress induced at c is below the safe allowable limit of T/S(max) = 7.5 Mpa.
Checking for C
a = 10 MPa
From similar triangular rule
10
ya = 152.5 mm tan c ; c 3.77 MPa; i.e. 7.5MPa
152.5 57.5

yc = 57.5 mm Hence the design is safe and taking the value

max = 10 MPa is acceptable.
C

To Find M
From simple bending equation
M max (10MPa )(1.77 x104 m 4 )
; M 11.6kNm
I n.a. ymax 152.5mm

As an exercise, try transform to a all steel section and find M

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Sample Problem 4.4

SOLUTION:
Transform to a section made entirely
of concrete.

Evaluate geometric properties of

transformed section.

Calculate the maximum stresses

in the concrete and steel.

A concrete floor slab is reinforced with 16-

mm-diameter steel rods. The modulus of
elasticity is 200 GPa for steel and 25 GPa
for concrete. With an applied bending
moment of 4.5 kNm for 0.3 m width of the
slab, determine the maximum stress in the
concrete and steel.

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Sample Problem 4.4

SOLUTION:
Transform to a section made entirely of concrete.
Es 200 GPa
n 8.0
Ec 25 GPa

nAs 8.0 2 4 16mm 3216 mm 2
2

Evaluate the geometric properties of the

transformed section.
x
300 x 3216100 x 0 x 36.8 mm
2

I 13 300 mm 36.8 mm 3216 mm 2 63.2 mm 12.8 106 mm 4
3 2

Calculate the maximum stresses.

Mc1 4500 Nm 0.0368 m c 12.9 MPa
c
I 12.8 10-6 m 4
Mc 4500 Nm 0.0632 m s 177.8 MPa
s n 2 8.0
I 12.8 10-6 m 4

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