1.

Big Bang Theory

The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe[1] from the earliest known
periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution.[2][3][4] The model describes how the universe
expanded from a very high density and high temperature state,[5][6] and offers a comprehensive
explanation for a broad range of phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic
microwave background, large scale structure and Hubble's Law.[7] If the known laws of physics are
extrapolated to the highest density regime, the result is a singularity which is typically associated
with the Big Bang. Detailed measurements of the expansion rate of the universe place this moment
at approximately 13.8 billion years ago, which is thus considered the age of the universe. [8] After
the initial expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of subatomic particles,
and later simple atoms. Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through gravity in
halos of dark matter, eventually forming the stars and galaxies visible today.

2. 2. Nuclear Fusion

Process by which nuclear reactions between light elements form heavier elements (up to iron). In cases
where the interacting nuclei belong to elements with low atomic numbers (e.g., hydrogen [atomic
number 1] or its isotopes deuterium and tritium), substantial amounts of energy are released. The vast
energy potential of nuclear fusion was first exploited in thermonuclear weapons, or hydrogen bombs,
which were developed in the decade immediately following World War II. For a detailed history of this
development, see nuclear weapon. Meanwhile, the potential peaceful applications of nuclear fusion,
especially in view of the essentially limitless supply of fusion fuel on Earth, have encouraged an immense
effort to harness this process for the production of power. For more detailed information on this effort,
see fusion reactor.

3. Nuclear Fission

In nuclear fission the nucleus of an atom breaks up into two lighter nuclei. The process may take
place spontaneously in some cases or may be induced by the excitation of the nucleus with a variety of
particles (e.g., neutrons, protons, deuterons, or alpha particles) or with electromagnetic radiation in the
form of gamma rays. In the fission process, a large quantity of energy is released, radioactive products
are formed, and several neutrons are emitted. These neutrons can induce fission in a nearby nucleus of
fissionable material and release more neutrons that can repeat the sequence, causing a chain reaction in
which a large number of nuclei undergo fission and an enormous amount of energy is released. If
controlled in a nuclear reactor, such a chain reaction can provide power for societys benefit. If
uncontrolled, as in the case of the so-called atomic bomb, it can lead to an explosion of awesome
destructive force.

4. Star Formation

Stars form inside relatively dense concentrations of interstellar gas and dust known as molecular
clouds. These regions are extremely cold (temperature about 10 to 20K, just above absolute zero). At
these temperatures, gases become molecular meaning that atoms bind together. CO and H2 are the
most common molecules in interstellar gas clouds. The deep cold also causes the gas to clump to high
densities. When the density reaches a certain point, stars form. Since the regions are dense, they are
opaque to visible light and are known as dark nebula. Since they don't shine by optical light, we must
use IR and radio telescopes to investigate them. Star formation begins when the denser parts of the
cloud core collapse under their own weight/gravity. These cores typically have masses around 104 solar
masses in the form of gas and dust. The cores are denser than the outer cloud, so they collapse first. As
the cores collapse they fragment into clumps around 0.1 parsecs in size and 10 to 50 solar masses in
mass. These clumps then form into protesters and the whole process takes about 10 million years.

5. Protonproton chain reaction

The protonproton chain reaction is one of the two (known) sets of fusion reactions by which
stars convert hydrogen to helium. It dominates in stars the size of the Sun or smaller. [1] (The
other reaction is the CNO cycle, a catalytic cycle which theoretical models suggest is the
dominant source of energy in stars more massive than about 1.3 times the mass of the Sun.)

6.S