Final Project Report SSSB

ELECTRONIC TALKING STICK FOR BLIND MAN
1. INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS
1.1 Introduction
Robotics develop man-made mechanical devices that can move by themselves, whose motion must be
modeled, planned, sensed, actuated and controlled, and whose motion behavior can be influenced by
programming. Robots are called intelligent if they succeed in moving in safe interaction with an
unstructured environment, while autonomously achieving their specified tasks.
This definition implies that a device can only be called a robot if it contains a movable mechanism,
influenced by sensing, planning, and actuation and control components
Robotics is, to a very large extent, all about system integration, achieving a task by an actuated mechanical
device, via an intelligent integration of components, many of which it shares with other domains, such
as systems and control, computer science, character animation, machine design, computer vision, artificial
intelligence, cognitive science, biomechanics, etc. In addition, the boundaries of robotics cannot be clearly
defined, since also its core ideas, concepts and algorithms are being applied in an ever increasing
number of external applications, and, vice versa, core technology from other domains (vision, biology,
cognitive science or biomechanics, for example) are becoming crucial components in more and more
modern robotic systems.
1.2 Essential characterstics of robot:
Mobility: It possesses some form of mobility.

Programmability: It can be programmed to accomplish a large variety of tasks. After being
programmed, it operates automatically.
Sensors: On or around the device that are able to sense the environment and give useful feedback to
the device.
Mechanical capability: Enabling it to act on its environment rather than merely function as a data
processing or computational device (a robot is a machine); and
Flexibility: It can operate using a range of programs and manipulates in a variety of ways.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 8

2. INTRODUCTION TO RFID:-
2.1 Introduction
RFID, which is an acronym for Radio Frequency Identification, is not a new technology. It was first used
in the late 1960's, but it has only become more widespread with advances in technology.
RFID Systems consist of a transponder, also known as a tag, which is basically a microchip connected to
an antenna. The tag is mounted to an item, such as a pallet of goods in a warehouse, and a device called a
reader communicates with the tag via radio waves. Depending on the type of tag that is used, the reader
can receive detailed information or it can receive data as simple as an identification number.
RFID is similar to barcode systems in which data, such as a price, is accessed when the barcode is read.
The main difference is that the barcode must come in direct contact to an optical scanner/reader and the
RFID tag can transmit to the reader via radio waves and does not have to be in direct contact. An RFID
reader can receive data from as many as 1,000 tags per second.RFID is only one of the technologies used
for EAS labels. Other common types are AM (Acousto Magnetic) and EM (Electro Magnetic). Each of the
EAS systems has its own unique detection equipment that must be used to allow the system to work
properly.RFID and barcode technology are similar in concept, but the two technologies have different
methods for reading data. RFID reads data via radio waves and does not need a direct line of sight
between the reader and the tag. Barcodes are read optically and do require a direct line of sight between
the reader and the barcode.
Advantages of RFID systems over barcodes:
It is not necessary to have a line of sight between the RFID tag and the reader as there is with a barcode
and scanner.
Information can be rewritten to the tag without having to see the tag. This is true even if the tag is mixed
into other items that have been tagged.
Nearly 100% of RFID tags are readable, unlike items that contain a printed barcode, which can become
damaged with improper handling.
2.2 Block Diagram:-

FIG-2.1
2.3 Components of RFID:-
ANTENNA:-
The antenna emits radio signal to activate the tag and read and write data to it. Antennas are the conduits
between the tag and the transreceiver, which controls the system data acquisition and communication.
Antennas are available in variety of shapes and sizes; they can be built into a door frame to receive tag
data from persons or things passing through the door, or mounted on an interstate tollboothto monitor
traffic passing by on a freeway. The electromagnetic field produced by an antenna can be constantly
present when multiple tags are expected continually. If constant interrogation is not required, a sensor
device can activate the field.
TAGS(TRANSPONDER):-
Tags are in a variety of types, with a variety of capabilities. Key variable include: READ-ONLY versus
READ-WRITE.An RFID tag is comprised of a microchip containing identifying information and an
antenna that transmits this data wirelessly to a reader. At its most basic, the chip will contain a serialized
identifier, or license plate number, that uniquely identifies that item, similar to the way many barcodes are
used today. A key difference; however is that RFID tags have a higher data capacity that their bar code
counterparts. This increases the options for the type of information that can be encoded on the tag,
including the manufacturer, batch or lot number, weight, ownership, destination and history. In fact, an
unlimited list of other types of information can be store on RFID tags, depending on application needs. An
RFID tags can be placed on individual items, cases, or pallets for identification purposes, as well as on
fixed assets such as trailers, containers, totes etc.
2.4 Circuit Diagram:-

Fig-2.2
2.5 Essential Characteristics of a RFID:-
Mobility : It possesses some form of mobility.
Sensors : On or around the device that is able to sense the environment and give useful feedback to
the device.
Flexibility : It can operate using a range of programs and manipulates in a variety of ways.

U?
7805
TR? D?
1 3
VI VO LCD?
DIODE
GND
R? LM016L
C? 10k
C? 10p
2
10p R?
D? 10k
DIODE D?
VDD
VSS
VEE
TRAN-2P2S
RW
RS
LED
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
E
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
U?
8 17
P1.7 P3.7/RD
7 16
P1.6 P3.6/WR
6 15
5
P1.5 P3.5/T1
14
RF CARD READER
P1.4 P3.4/T0
4 13
3
P1.3 P3.3/INT1
3 12
P1.2 P3.2/INT0
3 2 1 A
2
1
P1.1/T2EX
P1.0/T2
P3.1/TXD
P3.0/RXD
11
10
28
P2.7/A15
6 5 4 B C?
10p 31
EA
P2.6/A14
P2.5/A13
27
26
30 25
ALE P2.4/A12
29 24
PSEN P2.3/A11
9 8 7 C P2.2/A10
P2.1/A9
23
22
P2.0/A8
21 U?
R? 1 6
# 0 D 10k 9
RST P0.7/AD7
P0.6/AD6
32
33
Q?
34
C? P0.5/AD5
35 2 4
P0.4/AD4
18
XTAL2 P0.3/AD3
36
MOC3021 Q?
X? P0.2/AD2
37 NPN
10p 38
C? 19
P0.1/AD1
39
XTAL1 P0.0/AD0
AT89C52 NPN
CRYSTAL
10p
U?
1 6
SENSOR 1(IR SENSOR)
Q?
U?
2 4 Q?
PNP
8
MOC3021
C?
4 3 10p
VCC
R Q
7 PNP
anti sensor DC
5
CV
Q?
NPN
Q?
GND
2
TR TH
6 R? PNP
10k BUZZER
1
555
FIG-2.3
In this project we use one passive RF reader module with the pin no 10 of the controller. When any car
cross over the RF reader then reader coil generate a frequency of 125 k Htz and provide a signal to passive
card. As reader gets a signal in the form of serial code. We receive this code in the controller and
compare this data with the variables. If the variables are match with the data base then door is not open.
We save only stolen vehicle data base. If the receiving data base is match with the stolen vehicle data
base then circuit produce a alarm and door is not to be open at that time. When vehicle data base is fresh
and not match with any data base then door is open automatically.
One memory is attach with the pin no 1,2 of the controller to save the new entry for stolen data base. We
save at a time four data base in this memory. Transfer of data from microcontroller to memory is in serial
mode..
FIG.-2.4
One switch base keyboard is attached with the microcontroller circuit to enter a new vehicle entry. We use
push to on switches to the port 2 and port 3 pins. We use total 12 switches. Out of 12 switches 10 switches
for the 0 to 9 entry and two switches for mode and enter switch.
One lcd display is connected to the port 0 . Here we use two line and 16 character lcd for display.

FIG-2.5
There are total 8 data line on the LCD for data receiving , but here we use only 4 data lines for data
receiving from the microcontroller. Pin no 33,34,35,36 is connected to the pin no 11,12,13,14 of the LCD
data lines. Pin no 4,5,6 is the RS/RW/ENABLE pin no of the LCD , These pins are connected to the pin
no 39,38,37 of the microcontroller Pin no 40 of controller is connected to the positive supply. On this pin
we provide a positive 5 volt and its from 7805 regulator. IC 7805 is a 5 volt regulator and provide a 5
volt regulated supply. IC 7805 is a three pin regulator . Pin no 1 is input pin , pin no 2 is ground pin and
pin no 3 is output pin. Here 78 mean positive voltage and 5 means 5volt. 79 means negative voltage .
There are so many regulator available from 7805 to 7818 volt, here 18 means 18 volt. Pin no 20 of the
controller is connected to ground pin. Pin no 1 to 8 is for the port 1. Pin no 9 is for the reset pin. On this
pin we connect one resistor and one capacitor with positive and resistance is to be ground. With the help
of this circuit controller is automatic reset when power is on. Pin no 10 to 17 is for the port p3. Pin no
18, 19 is the pin for crystal pins. On this pin we connect a crystal to provide a proper clock to the
controller. In this project we use 12 Mhz crystal to pin no 18,19. Pin no 20 of the controller is connected
to the ground pin. Pin no 21 to 28 is for the port p2 and pin no 39 to 32 is for the port p0. Pin no 30 is ale
pin , pin no 29 is PSEN and pin no 31 is excess enable. We use these three pin when we require a extra
memory for controller. If not required then we connect a pin no 31 to the positive supply. In this project
there is no need of extra memory so we connect pin no 31 to the positive supply.
2.6 Reset Circuitry:-
As soon as you give the power supply the 8051 doesnt start. You need to restart for the microcontroller to
start. Restarting the microcontroller is nothing but giving a Logic 1 to the reset pin at least for the 2 clock
pulses. So it is good to go for a small circuit which can provide the 2 clock pulses as soon as the
microcontroller is powered.

This is not a big circuit we are just using a capacitor to charge the microcontroller and again discharging
via resistor.
FIG.-2.6
2.7 Crystals:-
Crystals provide the synchronization of the internal function and to the peripherals. Whenever ever we are
using crystals we need to put the capacitor behind it to make it free from noises. It is good to go for a 33pf
capacitor.
FIG.-2.7
We can also use resonators instead of costly crystal which are low cost and external capacitor can be
avoided . But the frequency of the resonators varies a lot. And it is strictly not advised when used for
communications projects.
2.8 Power supply:-
In the power supply section we use one step down transformer to step down the voltage from 220 volt ac
to 9 volt dc. Output of the transformer is further connected to the two diode circuit. Here two diode work
as a full wave rectifier circuit. Output of the full wave rectifier is now filtered by the capacitor. Capacitor
convert the pulsating dc into smooth dc with the help of charging and discharging effect. Output of the
capacitor is now regulated by the IC 7805 regulator. IC 7805 provide a 5 volt regulation to the circuit and
provide a regulated 5 volt power supply. Output of the regulator is now again filter by the capacitor . In

the output of the capacitor we use one resistor and one LED in series to provide a visual indication to the
circuit.
FIG.-2.8

3. CONCEPTS OF RELAY
3.1 Introduction
A relay is an electrically operated switch. The relay contacts can be made to operate in the pre-arranged
fashion. For instance, normally open contacts close and normally closed contacts open. In electromagnetic
relays, the contacts however complex they might be, they have only two position i.e. OPEN and
CLOSED, whereas in case of electromagnetic switches, the contacts can have multiple positions.
STRIP
OUT N/C
OUT N/O
SPRING
230V P
MAGNET
FIG.-3.1
3.2 Need for the use of relay:-
The reason behind using relay for switching loads is to provide complete electrical isolation. This means
that there is no electrical connection between the driving circuits and the driven circuits. The driving
circuit may be low voltage operated low power circuits that control several kilowatts of power. In our
circuit where a high fan could be switched on or off depending upon the output from the telephone.
Since the relay circuit operated on a low voltage, the controlling circuit is quite safe. In an electromagnetic
relay the armature is pulled by a magnetic force only. There is no electrical connection between the coil of
a relay and the switching contacts of the relay. If there is more than one contact they all are electrically
isolated from each other by mounting them on insulating plates and washers. Hence they can be wired to
control different circuits independently.
Some of the popular contacts forms are described below:
Electromagnetic relay
Power Relay.
Time Delay Relay.
Latching Relay.
Crystal Can Relay.
Co-axial Relay.

Electromagnetic relay:-
An electromagnetic relay in its simplest form consists of a coil, a DC current passing through which
produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field attracts an armature, which in turn operates the contacts.
Normally open contacts close and normally closed contacts open. Electromagnetic relays are made in a
large variety of contacts forms.
Power relay:-
Power relays are multi-pole heavy duty lapper type relays that are capable of switching resistive loads of
upto 25amp.. These relays are widely used for a variety of industrial application like control of fractional
horse power motors, solenoids, heating elements and so on. These relays usually have button like silver
alloy contacts and the contact welding due to heavy in rush current is avoided by wiping action of the
contacts to quench the arc during high voltage DC switching thus avoiding the contact welding.
Time Delay Relay:-

A time delay relay is the one in which there is a desired amount of time delay between the application of
the actuating signal and operation of the load switching devices.
Latching Relay:-
In a Latching Relay, the relay contacts remain in the last energized position even after removal of signal
in the relay control circuit. The contacts are held in the last relay-energized position after removal of
energisation either electrically or magnetically. The contacts can be released to the normal position
electrically or mechanically.
Crystal Can Relay:-

They are so called, as they resemble quartz crystal in external shapes. These are high performance
hermetically sealed miniature or sub-miniature relay widely used in aerospace and military application.
These relays usually have gold plated contacts and thus have extremely low contact resistance. Due to low
moment of inertia of the armature and also due to statically and dynamically balanced nature of armature,
these relays switch quite reliably even under extreme condition of shock and vibration.
Co-axial Relay:-
A Co-axial Relay has two basic parts, an actuator which is nothing but some kind of a coil and a cavity,
housing the relay contacts. The co-axial relay are extensively used for radio frequency switching
operations of equipment .

Relay Switching Circuit Diagram:-
Fig 3.2
3.3 Resistor:-
Resistors are the most commonly used component in electronics and their purpose is to create specified
values of current and voltage in a circuit. A number of different resistors are shown in the photos. (The
resistors are on millimeter paper, with 1cm spacing togive some idea of the dimensions). Photo 1.1a
shows some low-power resistors, while photo 1.1b shows some higher-power resistors. Resistors with
power dissipation below 5 watt (most commonly used types) are cylindrical in shape, with a wire
protruding from each end for connecting to a circuit. Resistors with power dissipation above 5 watt are
shown below:

FIG.-3.3
The symbol for a resistor is shown in the following diagram (upper: American symbol, lower: European
symbol.)
FIG.-3.4
The unit for measuring resistance is the OHM. (the Greek letter - called Omega). Higher resistance
values are represented by "k" (kilo-ohms) and M (mega ohms). For example, 120 000 is represented as
120k, while 1 200 000 is represented as 1M2. The dot is generally omitted as it can easily be lost in the
printing process. In some circuit diagram, a value such as 8 or 120 represents a resistance in ohms.
Another common practice is to use the letter E for resistance in ohms. The letter R can also be used. For
example, 120E (120R) stands for 120 , 1E2 stands for 1R2 etc.
3.4 Resistor Markings:-
Resistance value is marked on the resistor body. Most resistors have 4 bands. The first two bands provide
the numbers for the resistance and the third band provides the number of zeros. The fourth band indicates
the tolerance. Tolerance values of 5%, 2%, and 1% are most commonly available.
The following shows all resistors from 0R1 (one tenth of an ohm) to 22M:

Fig-3.5
3.5 Diode:-
A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow through it in only one direction. Although
a transistor is also a semiconductor device, it does not operate the way a diode does. A diode is specifically
made to allow current to flow through it in only one direction. Some ways in which the diode can be used
are listed here.
A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) for a
power supply device.
Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio frequencies.
Diodes can be used as an on/off switch that controls current.

FIG.-3.6
This symbol is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram. The meaning of the symbol is
(Anode) (Cathode). Current flows from the anode side to the cathode side.
Although all diodes operate with the same general principle, there are different types suited to different
applications. For example, the following devices are best used for the applications noted.
*Diode symbols: a - standard diode, b - LED, c, d - Zener, e - photo, f,g - tunnel, h - Schottky, i -
breakdown, j capacitative
FIG.-3.7
V-I characteristics:-
FIG.-3.8
When a small voltage is applied to the diode in the forward direction, current flows easily. Because the
diode has a certain amount of resistance, the voltage will drop slightly as current flows through the diode.
A typical diode causes a voltage drop of about 0.6 - 1V (VF) (In the case of silicon diode, almost 0.6V)
This voltage drop needs to be taken into consideration in a circuit which uses many diodes in series. Also,
the amount of current passing through the diodes must be considered. When voltage is applied in the
reverse direction through a diode, the diode will have a great resistance to current flow. Different diodes
have different characteristics when reverse-biased. A given diode should be selected depending on how it
will be used in the circuit. The current that will flow through a diode biased in the reverse direction will
vary from several mA to just A, which is very small.

The limiting voltages and currents permissible must be considered on a case by case basis. For example,
when using diodes for rectification, part of the time they will be required to withstand a reverse voltage. If
the diodes are not chosen carefully, they will break down.
Rectification / Switching / Regulation Diode:-

The stripe stamped on one end of the diode shows indicates the polarity of the diode. The stripe shows the
cathode side. The top two devices shown in the picture are diodes used for rectification. They are made to
handle relatively high currents. The device on top can handle as high as 6A, and the one below it can
safely handle up to 1A.
However, it is best used at about 70% of its rating because this current value is a maximum rating.
The third device from the top (red colour) has a part number of 1S1588. This diode is used for switching,
because it can switch on and off at very high speed. However, the maximum current it can handle is 120
mA. This makes it well suited to use within digital circuits. The maximum reverse voltage (reverse bias)
this diode can handle is 30V.
Fig-3.9
The device at the bottom of the picture is a voltage regulation diode with a rating of 6V. When this type of
diode is reverse biased, it will resist changes in voltage. If the input voltage is increased, the output
voltage will not change. (Or any change will be an insignificant amount.) While the output voltage does
not increase with an increase in input voltage, the output current will.
This requires some thought for a protection circuit so that too much current does not flow.
The rated current limit for the device is 30 mA.
Generally, a 3-terminal voltage regulator is used for the stabilization of a power supply. Therefore, this
diode is typically used to protect the circuit from momentary voltage spikes. 3 terminal regulators use
voltage regulation diodes inside.
Rectification diodes are used to make DC from AC. It is possible to do only 'half wave rectification' using
1 diode. When 4 diodes are combined, 'full wave rectification' occurrs.
Devices that combine 4 diodes in one package are called diode bridges. They are used for full-wave
rectification.

Fig-3.10
3.6 Light Emitting Diode (LED):-
FIG.-3.11
Light emitting diodes must be chosen according to how they will be used, because there are various kinds.
The diodes are available in several colours. The most common colours are red and green, but there are
even blue ones.
The device on the far right in the photograph combines a red LED and green LED in one package. The
component lead in the middle is common to both LEDs. As for the remains two leads, one side is for the
green, the other for the red LED. When both are turned on simultaneously, it becomes orange.
When an LED is new out of the package, the polarity of the device can be determined by looking at the
leads. The longer lead is the Anode side, and the short one is the Cathode side.
The polarity of an LED can also be determined using a resistance meter, or even a 1.5 V battery.
When using a test meter to determine polarity, set the meter to a low resistance measurement range.
Connect the probes of the meter to the LED. If the polarity is correct, the LED will glow. If the LED does
not glow, switch the meter probes to the opposite leads on the LED. In either case, the side of the diode
which is connected to the black meter probe when the LED glows, is the Anode side. Positive voltage
flows out of the black probe when the meter is set to measure resistance.

It is possible to use an LED to obtain a fixed voltage. The voltage drop (forward voltage, or VF) of an LED
is comparatively stable at just about 2V. I explain a circuit in which the voltage was stabilized with an
LED in "Thermometer of bending apparatus-2"..
3.7 Diode Marking:-
European diodes are marked using two or three letters and a number. The first letter is used to identify the
material used in manufacturing the component (A - germanium, B - silicon), or, in case of letter Z, a Zener
diode.
The second and third letters specify the type and usage of the diode. Some of the verities are:
A - low power diode, like the AA111, AA113, AA121, etc. - they are used in the detector of a radio
receiver;
BA124, BA125 : varicap diodes used instead of variable capacitors in receiving devices, oscillators, etc.,
BAY80, BAY93, etc. - switching diodes used in devices using logic circuits. BA157, BA158, etc. - these
are switching diodes with short recovery time.
B - two capacitive (varicap) diodes in the same housing, like BB104, BB105, etc.
Y - regulation diodes, like BY240, BY243, BY244, etc. - these regulation diodes come in a plastic
packaging and operate on a maximum current of 0.8A. If there is another Y, the diode is intended for
higher current. For example, BYY44 is a diode whose absolute maximum current rating is 1A. When Y is
the second letter in a Zener diode mark (ZY10, ZY30, etc.) it means it is intended for higher current.
G, G, PD - different tolerance marks for Zener diodes. Some of these are ZF12 (5% tolerance), ZG18
(10% tolerance), ZPD9.1 (5% tolerance).
The third letter is used to specify a property (high current, for example).
American markings begin with 1N followed by a number, 1N4001, for example (regulating diode),
1N4449 (switching diode), etc.
Japanese style is similar to American, the main difference is that instead of N there is S, 1S241 being one
of them.
3.8 Sensors:-
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an
observer or by an instrument.
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps
which dim or brighten by touching the base.
Applications include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and robotics.
Types Of sensors:-
IR SENSOR
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
IR SENROR
IR sensor works on the principle of emitting IR rays and receiving the reflected ray by a receiver (Photo
Diode).IR source (LED) is used in forward bias.

Fig.-3.12
IR Receiver (Photodiode) is used in reverse bias.
Fig.-3.13
Pin Diagram:-
Fig.-3.14
3.9 Transistor:-
The name is transistor derived from transfer resistors indicating a solid state Semiconductor device. In
addition to conductor and insulators, there is a third class of material that exhibits proportion of both.
Under some conditions, it acts as an insulator, and under other conditions its a conductor. This
phenomenon is called Semi-conducting and allows a variable control over electron flow. So, the transistor
is semi conductor device used in electronics for amplitude. Transistor has three terminals, one is the
collector, one is the base and other is the emitter, (each lead must be connected in the circuit correctly and
only then the transistor will function). Electrons are emitted via one terminal and collected on another
terminal, while the third terminal acts as a control element. Each transistor has a number marked on its
body. Every number has its own specifications.

There are mainly two types of transistor

(i) NPN &
(ii) (ii) PNP
NPN Transistors:
When a positive voltage is applied to the base, the transistor begins to conduct by allowing current to flow
through the collector to emitter circuit. The relatively small current flowing through the base circuit causes
a much greater current to pass through the emitter / collector circuit. The phenomenon is called current
gain and it is measure in beta.
PNP Transistor:
It also does exactly same thing as above except that it has a negative voltage on its collector and a positive
voltage on its emitter.
Fig-3.15
Transistor is a combination of semi-conductor elements allowing a controlled current flow.

Germanium and Silicon is the two semi-conductor elements used for making it. There are two types of
transistors such as POINT CONTACT and JUNCTION TRANSISTORS. Point contact construction is
defective so is now out of use. Junction triode transistors are in many respects analogous to triode electron
tube.
A junction transistor can function as an amplifier or oscillator as can a triode tube, but has the
additional advantage of long life, small size, ruggedness and absence of cathode heating power.
Junction transistors are of two types which can be obtained while manufacturing.
The two types are: -
1) PNP TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of P type of germanium to an N-P Junction

PP PN N PP P
Fig-3.16
2) NPN TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of
N type germanium to a P-N Junction.
N N PP P N N
Fig-3.17
Both types are shown in figure, with their symbols for representation. The centre section is called the
base, one of the outside sections-the emitter and the other outside section-the collector. The direction of
the arrowhead gives the direction of the conventional current with the forward bias on the emitter. The
conventional flow is opposite in direction to the electron flow.
OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR:-
A PNP transistor is made by sand witching two PN germanium or silicon diodes, placed back to back.
The centre of N-type portion is extremely thin in comparison to P region. The P region of the left is
connected to the positive terminal and N-region to the negative terminal i.e. PN is biased in the forward
direction while P region of right is biased negatively i.e. in the reverse direction as shown in Fig. The P
region in the forward biased circuit is called the emitter and P region on the right, biased negatively is
called collector. The centre is called base.
Fig-3.18
The majority carriers (holes) of P region (known as emitter) move to N region as they are repelled by
the positive terminal of battery while the electrons of N region are attracted by the positive terminal. The
holes overcome the barrier and cross the emitter junction into N region. As the width of base region is
extremely thin, two to five percent of holes recombine with the free electrons of N-region which result in a
small base current while the remaining holes (95% to 98%) reach the collector junction. The collector is
biased negatively and the negative collector voltage aids in sweeping the hole into collector region.
As the P region at the right is biased negatively, a very small current should flow but the following
facts are observed:-

1) A substantial current flows through it when the emitter junction is biased in a forward direction.
2) The current flowing across the collector is slightly less than that of the emitter, and
3) The collector current is a function of emitter current i.e. with the decrease or increase in the emitter
current a corresponding change in the collector current is observed.
The facts can be explained as follows:-
1) As already discussed that 2 to 5% of the holes are lost in recombination with the electron n base
region, which result in a small base current and hence the collector current is slightly less than the
emitter current.
2) The collector current increases as the holes reaching the collector junction are attracted by negative
potential applied to the collector.
3) When the emitter current increases, most holes are injected into the base region, which is attracted
by the negative potential of the collector and hence results in increasing the collector current. In this way
emitter is analogous to the control of plate current by small grid voltage in a vacuum triode.
Hence we can say that when the emitter is forward biased and collector is negatively biased, a substantial
current flows in both the circuits. Since a small emitter voltage of about 0.1 to 0.5 volts permits the flow
of an appreciable emitter current the input power is very small. The collector voltage can be as high as 45
volts.
3.10 Volts Motor Cycle Battery:-
We have used a motorcycle lead acid battery. This battery is of 6 volts. Power of this battery is used
for glowing tube light when the power supply is off. Otherwise, the power supply keeps on charging the
battery.
NEON LAMP
230 volts neon lamps are connected between 220 volts AC input and transformer. This lamp is
working as an indicator. It indicates whether the power is on or off.
FLUORESCENT TUBE LIGHT
A fluorescent 20 watts tube is used as a source of light. The given circuit operates it automatically.

Fig:-3.19

4. RECTIFIER:
4.1 Introduction:-
Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper (I) oxide or
selenium rectifier stacks were used. With the introduction of semiconductor electronics, vacuum tube
rectifiers became obsolete, except for some enthusiasts of vacuum tube audio equipment. For power
rectification from very low to very high current, semiconductor diodes of various types (junction diodes,
Schottky diodes, etc.) are widely used. Other devices which have control electrodes as well as acting as
unidirectional current valves are used where more than simple rectification is required, e.g., where
variable output voltage is needed. High power rectifiers, such as are used in high-voltage direct current
power transmission, employ silicon semiconductor devices of various types. These are thyristors or other
controlled switching solid-state switches which effectively function as diodes to pass current in only one
direction.
4.2 Types of rectifier:
There are two type of rectifiers :
Half wave rectifier.

Full wave rectifier:
Center tape rectifier
Bridge rectifier
Half-wave rectification
In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is
passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output,
mean voltage is lower. Half-wave rectification requires a single diode in a single-phase supply, or three in
a three-phase supply. Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current; half-wave rectifiers
produce far more ripple than full-wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is needed to eliminate
harmonics of the AC frequency from the output.
Fig-4.1
Half-wave rectifier
The output DC voltage of an ideal half wave rectifier is:

A real rectifier will have a characteristic which drops part of the input voltage (a voltage drop, for silicon
devices, of typically 0.7 volts plus an equivalent resistance, in general non-linear), and at high frequencies
will distort waveforms in other ways; unlike an ideal rectifier, it will dissipate power.
Full-wave rectification
Bridge rectifier:
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or
negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct
current), and yields a higher mean output voltage. Two diodes and a center tapped transformer, or four
diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source (including a transformer without center tap), are
needed. Single semiconductor diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-
diode bridges, are manufactured as single components.
Fig-4.2
Ckt. Diagram:
Fig - 4.3
Center tape rectifier:
Graetz bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes.

For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-back (cathode-to-
cathode or anode-to-anode, depending upon output polarity required) can form a full-wave rectifier. Twice
as many turns are required on the transformer secondary to obtain the same output voltage than for a
bridge rectifier, but the power rating is unchanged.

Fig- 4.4
Full-wave rectifier uses a center tap transformer and 2 diodes.
Fig- 4.5
Full-wave rectifier, with vacuum tube having two anodes.

A very common double-diode rectifier tube contained a single common cathode and two anodes inside a
single envelope, achieving full-wave rectification with positive output. The 5U4 and 5Y3 were popular
examples of this configuration
4.3 Wave Form Presentation:-

.
Fig-4.6

3-phase AC input, half & full-wave rectified DC output waveforms

For three-phase AC, six diodes are used. Double diodes in series, with the anode of the first diode
connected to the cathode of the second, are manufactured as a single component for this purpose. Some
commercially available double diodes have all four terminals available so the user can configure them for
single-phase split supply use, half a bridge, or three-phase rectifier.
The average and root-mean-square output voltages of an ideal single-phase full-wave rectifier are:
For a three-phase full-wave rectifier with ideal thyristors, the average output voltage is
Where:
Vdc, Vav - the DC or average output voltage,
Vpeak - the peak value of the phase input voltages,
Vrms - the root-mean-square value of output voltage.
= ~ 3.14159
= firing angle of the thyristor (0 if diodes are used to perform rectification)
Peak loss
An aspect of most rectification is a loss from the peak input voltage to the peak output voltage, caused by
the built-in voltage drop across the diodes (around 0.7 V for ordinary silicon pn junction diodes and 0.3
V for Schottky diodes). Half-wave rectification and full-wave rectification using a center-tapped
secondary will have a peak voltage loss of one diode drop. Bridge rectification will have a loss of two
diode drops. This reduces output voltage, and limits the available output voltage if a very low alternating
voltage must be rectified. As the diodes do not conduct below this voltage, the circuit only passes current
through for a portion of each half-cycle, causing short segments of zero voltage (where instantaneous
input voltage is below one or two diode drops) to appear between each "hump".
Rectifier output smoothing
While half-wave and full-wave rectification can deliver unidirectional current, neither produces a constant
voltage. In order to produce steady DC from a rectified AC supply, a smoothing circuit or filter is required.
In its simplest form this can be just a reservoir capacitor or smoothing capacitor, placed at the DC output
of the rectifier. There will still be an AC ripple voltage component at the power supply frequency for a
half-wave rectifier, twice that for full-wave, where the voltage is not completely smoothed.
RC-Filter Rectifier: This circuit was designed and simulated using Multisim 8 software.
Sizing of the capacitor represents a trade off. For a given load, a larger capacitor will reduce ripple but will
cost more and will create higher peak currents in the transformer secondary and in the supply feeding it.
The peak current is set in principle by the rate of rise of the supply voltage on the rising edge of the
incoming sine-wave, but in practice it is reduced by the resistance of the transformer windings. In extreme
cases where many rectifiers are loaded onto a power distribution circuit, peak currents may cause
difficulty in maintaining a correctly shaped sinusoidal voltage on the ac supply.
To limit ripple to a specified value the required capacitor size is proportional to the load current and
inversely proportional to the supply frequency and the number of output peaks of the rectifier per input

cycle. The load current and the supply frequency are generally outside the control of the designer of the
rectifier system but the number of peaks per input cycle can be affected by the choice of rectifier design.
A half-wave rectifier will only give one peak per cycle and for this and other reasons is only used in very
small power supplies. A full wave rectifier achieves two peaks per cycle, the best possible with a single-
phase input. For three-phase inputs a three-phase bridge will give six peaks per cycle; higher numbers of
peaks can be achieved by using transformer networks placed before the rectifier to convert to a higher
phase order.
To further reduce ripple, a capacitor-input filter can be used. This complements the reservoir capacitor
with a choke (inductor) and a second filter capacitor, so that a steadier DC output can be obtained across
the terminals of the filter capacitor. The choke presents a high impedance to the ripple current. For use at
power-line frequencies inductors require cores of iron or other magnetic materials, and add weight and
size. Their use in power supplies for electronic equipment has therefore dwindled in favour of
semiconductor circuits such as voltage regulators.
A more usual alternative to a filter, and essential if the DC load requires very low ripple voltage, is to
follow the reservoir capacitor with an active voltage regulator circuit. The reservoir capacitor needs to be
large enough to prevent the troughs of the ripple dropping below the minimum voltage required by the
regulator to produce the required output voltage. The regulator serves both to significantly reduce the
ripple and to deal with variations in supply and load characteristics. It would be possible to use a smaller
reservoir capacitor (these can be large on high-current power supplies) and then apply some filtering as
well as the regulator, but this is not a common strategy. The extreme of this approach is to dispense with
the reservoir capacitor altogether and put the rectified waveform straight into a choke-input filter. The
advantage of this circuit is that the current waveform is smoother and consequently the rectifier no longer
has to deal with the current as a large current pulse, but instead the current delivery is spread over the
entire cycle. The disadvantage, apart from extra size and weight, is that the voltage output is much lower
approximately the average of an AC half-cycle rather than the peak.
Voltage-multiplying rectifiers
Main article: voltage multiplier
The simple half wave rectifier can be built in two electrical configurations with the diode pointing in
opposite directions, one version connects the negative terminal of the output direct to the AC supply and
the other connects the positive terminal of the output direct to the AC supply. By combining both of these
with separate output smoothing it is possible to get an output voltage of nearly double the peak AC input
voltage. This also provides a tap in the middle, which allows use of such a circuit as a split rail supply.
Fig-4.7
Switchable full bridge / Voltage doubler
A variant of this is to use two capacitors in series for the output smoothing on a bridge rectifier then place
a switch between the midpoint of those capacitors and one of the AC input terminals. With the switch open
this circuit will act like a normal bridge rectifier: with it closed it will act like a voltage doubling rectifier.
In other words this makes it easy to derive a voltage of roughly 320V (+/- around 15%) DC from any
mains supply in the world, this can then be fed into a relatively simple switched-mode power supply.

Fig-4.8
Cockcroft Walton Voltage multiplier
Cascaded diode and capacitor stages can be added to make a voltage multiplier (Cockroft-Walton circuit).
These circuits are capable of producing a DC output voltage potential tens of times that of the peak AC
input voltage, but are limited in current capacity and regulation. Diode voltage multipliers, frequently used
as a trailing boost stage or primary high voltage (HV) source, are used in HV laser power supplies,
powering devices such as cathode ray tubes (CRT) (like those used in CRT based television, radar and
sonar displays), photon amplifying devices found in image intensifying and photo multiplier tubes (PMT),
and magnetron based radio frequency (RF) devices used in radar transmitters and microwave ovens.
Before the introduction of semiconductor electronics, transformer less vacuum tube equipment powered
directly from AC power sometimes used voltage doublers to generate about 170VDC from a 100-120V
power line.
Applications
The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply. Virtually all electronic
devices require DC, so rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all electronic equipment.
Converting DC power from one voltage to another is much more complicated. One method of DC-to-DC
conversion first converts power to AC (using a device called an inverter), then use a transformer to change
the voltage, and finally rectifies power back to DC. A frequency of typically several tens of kilohertz is
used, as this requires much smaller inductance than at lower frequencies and obviates the use of heavy,
bulky, and expensive iron-cored units.
Fig-4.9
Output voltage of a full-wave rectifier with controlled thyristors

Rectifiers are also used for detection of amplitude modulated radio signals. The signal may be amplified
before detection. If not, a very low voltage drop diode or a diode biased with a fixed voltage must be used.
When using a rectifier for demodulation the capacitor and load resistance must be carefully matched: too
low a capacitance will result in the high frequency carrier passing to the output, and too high will result in
the capacitor just charging and staying charged.
Rectifiers are used to supply polarized voltage for welding. In such circuits control of the output current is
required; this is sometimes achieved by replacing some of the diodes in a bridge rectifier with thyristors,
effectively diodes whose voltage output can be regulated by switching on and off with phase fired
controllers.
Thyristors are used in various classes of railway rolling stock systems so that fine control of the traction
motors can be achieved. Gate turn-off thyristors are used to produce alternating current from a DC supply,
for example on the Eurostar Trains to power the three-phase traction motors.
Rectification technologies

Electromechanical
Early power conversion systems were purely electro-mechanical in design, since electronic devices were
not available to handle significant power. Mechanical rectification systems usually use some form of
rotation or resonant vibration (e.g. vibrators) in order to move quickly enough to follow the frequency of
the input power source, and cannot operate beyond several thousand cycles per second.
Due to reliance on fast-moving parts of mechanical systems, they needed a high level of maintenance to
keep operating correctly. Moving parts will have friction, which requires lubrication and replacement due
to wear. Opening mechanical contacts under load results in electrical arcs and sparks that heat and erode
the contacts.
Synchronous rectifier
To convert alternating into direct current in electric locomotives, a synchronous rectifier may be used. It
consists of a synchronous motor driving a set of heavy-duty electrical contacts. The motor spins in time
with the AC frequency and periodically reverses the connections to the load at an instant when the
sinusoidal current goes through a zero-crossing. The contacts do not have to switch a large current, but
they need to be able to carry a large current to supply the locomotive's DC traction motors.
Vibrator
Vibrators used to generate AC from DC in pre-semiconductor battery-to-high-voltage-DC power supplies
often contained a second set of contacts that performed synchronous mechanical rectification of the
stepped-up voltage.
Motor-generator set
Main articles: Motor-generator and Rotary converter
A motor-generator set, or the similar rotary converter, is not strictly a rectifier as it does not actually
rectify current, but rather generates DC from an AC source. In an "M-G set", the shaft of an AC motor is
mechanically coupled to that of a DC generator. The DC generator produces multiphase alternating
currents in its armature windings, which a commutator on the armature shaft converts into a direct current
output; or a homo polar generator produces a direct current without the need for a commutator. M-G sets
are useful for producing DC for railway traction motors, industrial motors and other high-current
applications, and were common in many high power D.C. uses (for example, carbon-arc lamp projectors
for outdoor theaters) before high-power semiconductors became widely available.
Electrolytic
The electrolytic rectifier was a device from the early twentieth century that is no longer used. A home-
made version is illustrated in the 1913 book The Boy Mechanic but it would only be suitable for use at
very low voltages because of the low breakdown voltage and the risk of electric shock. A more complex
device of this kind was patented by G. W. Carpenter in 1928 (US Patent 1671970).
When two different metals are suspended in an electrolyte solution, direct current flowing one way
through the solution sees less resistance than in the other direction. Electrolytic rectifiers most commonly
used an aluminum anode and a lead or steel cathode, suspended in a solution of tri-ammonium ortho-
phosphate.
The rectification action is due to a thin coating of aluminum hydroxide on the aluminum electrode, formed
by first applying a strong current to the cell to build up the coating. The rectification process is
temperature-sensitive, and for best efficiency should not operate above 86 F (30 C). There is also a
breakdown voltage where the coating is penetrated and the cell is short-circuited. Electrochemical
methods are often more fragile than mechanical methods, and can be sensitive to usage variations which
can drastically change or completely disrupt the rectification processes.
Similar electrolytic devices were used as lightning arresters around the same era by suspending many
aluminium cones in a tank of tri-ammomium ortho-phosphate solution. Unlike the rectifier above, only
aluminium electrodes were used, and used on A.C., there was no polarization and thus no rectifier action,
but the chemistry was similar.
The modern electrolytic capacitor, an essential component of most rectifier circuit configurations was also
developed from the electrolytic rectifier.
Plasma type

Mercury arc
Main article: Mercury arc valve
Fig-4.10
HVDC in 1971: This 150 kV mercury arc valve converted AC hydropower voltage for transmission to
distant cities from Manitoba Hydro generators.
A rectifier used in high-voltage direct current (HVDC) power transmission systems and industrial
processing between about 1909 to 1975 is a mercury arc rectifier or mercury arc valve. The device is
enclosed in a bulbous glass vessel or large metal tub. One electrode, the cathode, is submerged in a pool of
liquid mercury at the bottom of the vessel and one or more high purity graphite electrodes, called anodes,
are suspended above the pool. There may be several auxiliary electrodes to aid in starting and maintaining
the arc. When an electric arc is established between the cathode pool and suspended anodes, a stream of
electrons flows from the cathode to the anodes through the ionized mercury, but not the other way (in
principle, this is a higher-power counterpart to flame rectification, which uses the same one-way current
transmission properties of the plasma naturally present in a flame).
These devices can be used at power levels of hundreds of kilowatts, and may be built to handle one to six
phases of AC current. Mercury arc rectifiers have been replaced by silicon semiconductor rectifiers and
high power thyristor circuits in the mid 1970s. The most powerful mercury arc rectifiers ever built were
installed in the Manitoba Hydro Nelson River bipole HVDC project, with a combined rating of more
than 1 GW and 450 kV.
Argon gas electron tube
The General Electric Tungar rectifier was an argon gas-filled electron tube device with a tungsten
filament cathode and a carbon button anode. It was used for battery chargers and similar applications from
the 1920s until lower-cost metal rectifiers, and later semiconductor diodes, supplanted it. These were
made up to a few hundred volts and a few amperes rating, and in some sizes strongly resembled an
incandescent lamp with an additional electrode.
The 0Z4 was a gas-filled rectifier tube commonly used in vacuum tube car radios in the 1940s and 1950s.
It was a conventional full-wave rectifier tube with two anodes and one cathode, but was unique in that it
had no filament (thus the "0" in its type number). The electrodes were shaped such that the reverse
breakdown voltage was much higher than the forward breakdown voltage. Once the breakdown voltage
was exceeded, the 0Z4 switched to a low-resistance state with a forward voltage drop of about 24 V.
Vacuum tube (valve)
Main article: Diode
Since the discovery of the Edison effect or thermionic emission, various vacuum tube devices were
developed to rectify alternating currents. The simplest is the simple vacuum diode (the term "valve" came
into use for vacuum tubes in general due to this unidirectional property, by analogy with a unidirectional

fluid flow valve). Low-current devices were used as signal detectors, first used in radio by Fleming in
1904. Many vacuum-tube devices also used vacuum diode rectifiers in their power supplies, for example
the All American Five radio receiver. Vacuum rectifiers were made for very high voltages, such as the
high voltage power supply for the cathode ray tube of television receivers, and the kenotron used for
power supply in X-ray equipment. However, vacuum rectifiers generally had current capacity rarely
exceeding 250 mA owing to the maximum current density that could be obtained by electrodes heated to
temperatures compatible with long life. Another limitation of the vacuum tube rectifier was that the heater
power supply often required special arrangements to insulate it from the high voltages of the rectifier
circuit.
Solid state
Crystal detector
Main article: cat's-whisker detector
The cat's-whisker detector, typically using a crystal of galena, was the earliest type of semiconductor
diode, though not recognised as such at the time.
Selenium and copper oxide rectifiers
Main article: Metal rectifier
Once common until replaced by more compact and less costly silicon solid-state rectifiers, these units
used stacks of metal plates and took advantage of the semiconductor properties of selenium or copper
oxide. While selenium rectifiers were lighter in weight and used less power than comparable vacuum tube
rectifiers, they had the disadvantage of finite life expectancy, increasing resistance with age, and were only
suitable to use at low frequencies. Both selenium and copper oxide rectifiers have somewhat better
tolerance of momentary voltage transients than silicon rectifiers.
Typically these rectifiers were made up of stacks of metal plates or washers, held together by a central
bolt, with the number of stacks determined by voltage; each cell was rated for about 20 V. An automotive
battery charger rectifier might have only one cell: the high-voltage power supply for a vacuum tube might
have dozens of stacked plates. Current density in an air-cooled selenium stack was about 600 mA per
square inch of active area (about 90 mA per square centimeter).
Silicon and germanium diodes
Main article: Diode
In the modern world, silicon diodes are the most widely used rectifiers for lower voltages and powers, and
have largely replaced earlier germanium diodes. For very high voltages and powers, the added need for
controllability has in practice caused simple silicon diodes to be replaced by high-power thyristors (see
below) and their newer actively-gate-controlled cousins.
High power: thyristors (SCRs) and newer silicon-based voltage sourced converters
Fig-4.11

Two of three high-power thyristor valve stacks used for long distance transmission of power from
Manitoba Hydro dams. Compare with mercury arc system from the same dam-site, above.
Main article: high-voltage direct current
In high power applications, from 19752000, most mercury valve arc-rectifiers were replaced by stacks of
very high power thyristors, silicon devices with two extra layers of semiconductor, in comparison to a
simple diode.
In medium power-transmission applications, even more complex and sophisticated voltage sourced
converter (VSC) silicon semiconductor rectifier systems, such as insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT)
and gate turn-off thyristors (GTO), have made smaller high voltage DC power transmission systems
economical. All of these devices function as rectifiers.
As of 2009 it was expected that these high-power silicon "self-commutating switches," in particular
IGBTs and a variant thyristor (related to the GTO) called the integrated gate-commutated thyristor
(IGCT), would be scaled-up in power rating to the point that they would eventually replace simple
thyristor -based AC rectification systems for the highest power-transmission DC applications.
High-speed rectifiers
Researchers at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) have proposed high-speed rectifiers that would sit at the
center of spiral nano antennas and convert infrared frequency electricity from AC to DC. Infrared
frequencies range from 0.3 to 400 terahertz.
Unimolecular rectifiers
Main article: Unimolecular rectifier
A Unimolecular rectifier is a single organic molecule which functions as a rectifier, in the experimental
stage as of 2012.

5. PROCEDURE FOR MAKING A PROJECT:-

Building project in the proper manner is really an art, something which must be prectised and learned
through trial and error, it is not all that difficult. The main thing is to remember to take each step
slowly and carefully according to the instructions giving making since that everything at it should be
before proceeding further.
TOOLS: The electronics workbench is an actual place of work with comfortably & conveniently & should
be supplied with compliment of those tools must often use in project building. Probably the most
important device is a soldering tool. Other tool which should be at the electronic work bench includes a
pair of needle nose pliers, diagonal wire cutter, a small knife, an assortment of screw driver, nut driver,
few nuts & bolts, electrical tape, plucker etc. Diagonal wire cutter will be used to cut away any excess
lead length from copper side of P.C.B. 7 to cut section of the board after the circuit is complete. The
needle nose pliers are most often using to bend wire leads & wrap them in order to form a strong
mechanical connection.
MOUNTING & SOLDERING: Soldering is process of joining together two metallic parts. It is actually a
process of function in which an alloy, the solder, with a comparatively low melting point penetrates the
surface of the metal being joined & makes a firm joint between them on cooling & solidifying.
5.1 The Soldering Kit
1.SOLDERING IRON:
As soldering is a process of joining together two metallic parts, the instrument, which is used, for
doing this job is known as soldering Iron. Thus it is meant for melting the solder and to setup the metal
parts being joined. Soldering Iron is rated according to their wattage, which varies from 10- 200 watts.
2. SOLDER:
The raw material used for soldering is solder. It is composition of lead & tin. The good quality solder
(a type of flexible naked wire) is 60% Tin +40% Lead which will melt between 180 degree to 200 degree
C temperature.
3. FLUXES OR SOLDERING PASTE:

When the points to solder are heated, an oxide film forms. This must be removed at once so that solder
may get to the surface of the metal parts. This is done by applying chemical substance called Flux, which
boils under the heat of the iron remove the oxide formation and enable the metal to receive the solder.
4. BLADES OR KNIFE:
To clean the surface & leads of components to be soldered is done by this common instrument.
5. SAND PAPER:
The oxide formation may attack at the tip of your soldering iron & create the problem. To prevent this,
clean the tip with the help of sand paper time to time or you may use blade for doing this job. Apart from
all these tools, the working bench for soldering also includes desoldering pump, wink wire (used for

5.2 How to Solder?
Mount components at their appropriate place; bend the leads slightly outwards to prevent them from
falling out when the board is turned over for soldering. No cut the leads so that you may solder them
easily. Apply a small amount of flux at these components leads with the help of a screwdriver. Now fix the
bit or iron with a small amount of solder and flow freely at the point and the P.C.B copper track at the
same time. A good solder joint will appear smooth & shiny. If all appear well, you may continue to the
next solder connections.
5.3 Tips for Good Soldering
1. Use right type of soldering iron. A small efficient soldering iron (about 10-25 watts with 1/8 or 1/4
inch tip) is ideal for this work.
2. Keep the hot tip of the soldering iron on a piece of metal so that excess heat is dissipated.
3. Make sure that connection to the soldered is clean. Wax frayed insulation and other substances cause
poor soldering connection. Clean the leads, wires, tags etc. before soldering.
4. Use just enough solder to cover the lead to be soldered. Excess solder can cause a short circuit.
Use sufficient heat. This is the essence of good soldering. Apply enough heat to the component lead. You
are not using enough heat, if the solder barely melts and forms a round ball of rough flaky solder. A good
solder joint will look smooth, shining and spread type. The difference between good & bad soldering is
just a few seconds extra with a hot iron applied firmly.
5.4 Precautions
1. Mount the components at the appropriate places before soldering. Follow the circuit description and
components details, leads identification etc. Do not start soldering before making it confirm that all the
components are mounted at the right place.
2. Do not use a spread solder on the board, it may cause short circuit.
3. Do not sit under the fan while soldering.
4. Position the board so that gravity tends to keep the solder where you want it.
5. Do not over heat the components at the board. Excess heat may damage the components or board.
6. The board should not vibrate while soldering otherwise you have a dry or a cold joint.
7. Do not put the kit under or over voltage source. Be sure about the voltage either dc or ac while
operating the gadget.
8. Do spare the bare ends of the components leads otherwise it may short circuit with the other
components. To prevent this use sleeves at the component leads or use sleeved wire for connections.
9. Do not use old dark colour solder. It may give dry joint. Be sure that all the joints are clean and well
shiny.
10. Do make loose wire connections especially with cell holder, speaker, probes etc. Put knots
while connections to the circuit board, otherwise it may get loose.

6. PRESET & VARIABLE:-

Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which moves
along the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made from carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal
mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions,
usually called sliders, are also available.
Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two connections (the wiper and just one end of the track)
or as a potentiometer with all three connections in use. Miniature versions called presets are made for
setting up circuits which will not require further adjustment.
Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and catalogues. They are specified by their
maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical size. The standard spindle diameter is
6mm.
The resistance and type of track are marked on the body:
4K7 LIN means 4.7 k linear track.
1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track.
Some variable resistors are designed to be mounted directly on the circuit board, but most are for
mounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit with stranded wire connecting their
terminals to the circuit board.
Linear (LIN) and Logarithmic (LOG) tracks
Linear (LIN) track means that the resistance changes at a constant rate as you move the wiper. This is the
standard arrangement and you should assume this type is required if a project does not specify the type of
track. Presets always have linear tracks.
Logarithmic (LOG) track means that the resistance changes slowly at one end of the track and rapidly at
the other end, so halfway along the track is not half the total resistance! This arrangement is used for
volume (loudness) controls because the human ear has a logarithmic response to loudness so fine control
(slow change) is required at low volumes and coarser control (rapid change) at high volumes. It is
important to connect the ends of the track the correct way round, if you find that turning the spindle
increases the volume rapidly followed by little further change you should swap the connections to the ends
of the track.
Rheostat
This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two terminals are used: one
Rheostat Symbol
connected to an end of the track, the other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle
changes the resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the maximum
resistance.
Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control the brightness of a lamp or the rate at
which a capacitor charges.

If the rheostat is mounted on a printed circuit board you may find that all three terminals are connected!
However, one of them will be linked to the wiper terminal. This improves the mechanical strength of the
mounting but it serves no function electrically.
Fig-6.1
Potentiometer
Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected. This arrangement is
normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point of a circuit with a sensor, or
control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the terminals at the ends of the track are
connected across the power supply then the wiper terminal will provide a voltage which can be varied
from zero up to the maximum of the supply.
Fig-6.2
Presets
These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to be mounted
directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For example to set the Pre
frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or
similar tool is required to adjust presets.
Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects where
a standard variable resistor would normally be used.
Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be turned many
times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other, giving very fine control.
Fig-6.3

CONCLUSION
Our project builds upon to help blind people to cross street and to warn of dangerous depression in road by
design device developed for them. Already useful, these devices to alarm blind people when they cross the
street and pass the obstacles.
The present invention is related to an electronic talking stick for the blind to help a blind man to walk,
which utilizes synthetic voice to inform passers or the blind man of the existing situation. It indeed helps
to solve the problems a blind man may encounter while carrying a conventional stick or being guided by
guide dog.

FUTURE ASPECT:-
This idea super-impose different type of government facility.
This idea advance compare to GSM technology.
This idea advance compare to GPS technology.

REFERENCES
Electrical measurement and measuring instruments by A.K. Sawhney
http://www.mycollegeproject.com/EEE%20Projects.html
http://www.slideshare.net/zunaibali/ie-lab9f
www.blind.net/resources/products-for-the-blind.html
www.google.co.in/patents/US5097856
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YR1yAOfoQDk
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Walking-stick-with-audio-alarm-to-aid-blind-
people/articleshow/26059800.cms
http://topicideas.net/ppt/blind-man-stick-with-sensor

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ELECTRONIC TALKING STICK FOR BLIND MAN

1.2 Essential characterstics of robot:

Mobility: It possesses some form of mobility.

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Advantages of RFID systems over barcodes:

2.2 Block Diagram:-

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2.4 Circuit Diagram:-

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2.5 Essential Characteristics of a RFID:-

Mobility : It possesses some form of mobility.

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2.6 Reset Circuitry:-

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2.8 Power supply:-

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3.2 Need for the use of relay:-

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Time Delay Relay:-

Crystal Can Relay:-

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Relay Switching Circuit Diagram:-

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3.4 Resistor Markings:-

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Rectification / Switching / Regulation Diode:-

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3.6 Light Emitting Diode (LED):-

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3.7 Diode Marking:-

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IR Receiver (Photodiode) is used in reverse bias.

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There are mainly two types of transistor

Transistor is a combination of semi-conductor elements allowing a controlled current flow.

The two types are: -

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OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR:-

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 27

The facts can be explained as follows:-

3.10 Volts Motor Cycle Battery:-

FLUORESCENT TUBE LIGHT

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4.2 Types of rectifier:

There are two type of rectifiers :

Half wave rectifier.

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Center tape rectifier:

Graetz bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes.

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Full-wave rectifier uses a center tap transformer and 2 diodes.

Full-wave rectifier, with vacuum tube having two anodes.

4.3 Wave Form Presentation:-

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3-phase AC input, half & full-wave rectified DC output waveforms

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Cockcroft Walton Voltage multiplier