BIOLOGY 9700

TOPIC 4
CELL MEMBRANES
AND TRANSPORT
notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar
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The fluid mosaic model introduced in 1972 describes the way in which biological molecules
are arranged to form cell membranes. The model has stood the test of time as a way to visualise
membrane structure and continues to be modified as understanding improves of the ways in
which substances cross membranes, how cells interact and how cells respond to signals. The
model also provides the basis for our understanding of passive and active movement between
cells and their surroundings, cell to cell interactions and long distance cell signalling.
Investigating the effects of different factors on diffusion, osmosis and membrane
permeability involves an understanding of the properties of phospholipids and proteins
covered in the section on Biological molecules.

4.1 Fluid mosaic membranes

The structure of cell surface membranes allows movement of substances
between cells and their surroundings and allows cells to communicate with
each other by cell signalling.
a) describe and explain the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure,
including an outline of the roles of phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids,
proteins and glycoprotein
Cell Surface Membrane (Plasma Membrane):

 The cell membrane (or plasma membrane) surrounds all living cells, and is the cell's
most important organelle.
 It controls how substances can move in and out of the cell and is responsible for many
other properties of the cell as well.
 The membranes that surround the nucleus and other organelles are almost identical to
the cell surface membrane (plasma membrane).
 Membranes are composed of phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates arranged in a
fluid mosaic structure.

STRUCTURE OF MEMBRANES.
1. All membranes have a similar structure, including the outer cell membrane (or cell
surface membrane) of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and the membranes around
organelles in eukaryotes.
2. The cell surface membrane is always a single membrane. Some organelles also have a
single membrane, e.g. the Golgi apparatus, but others have a double membrane e.g. the
nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts.
3. Membranes are composed of “phospholipids” with “proteins” scattered amongst them.
The phospholipid bilayer is visible using the electron microscope at very high
magnifications of at least x 100,000. The bilayer visible under this magnification is
about 7nm wide.
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Fluid Mosaic Model
The structure of the cell surface membrane shows a fluid mosaic model because of the mosaic
arrangement of proteins throughout its phospholipids bilayer, which is also capable of
movement; hence it is fluid in nature.
The numerous proteins that float in the phospholipid bilayer have hydrophobic amino acids
which help to maintain the mosaic (pattern) of the membrane. The word ‘mosaic’ describes
the pattern produced by the scattered protein molecules when the surface of the membrane is
viewed from above.
Lipids and proteins in the cell surface membrane can also rotate on their own axis, therefore
this contributes to the fluid description.
Features of the fluid mosaic model.
 The membrane is a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipid molecules. The individual
phospholipid molecules move about by diffusion within their own monolayer.
 The phospholipid tails point inwards, facing each other and forming a non-polar
hydrophobic interior. The phospholipid heads face the aqueous (water-containing)
medium that surrounds the membrane.

 Most of the protein molecules float like mobile icebergs in the phospholipid layers,
although some are fixed like islands to structures inside the cell and do not move about.

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 Some proteins are embedded in the outer layer, some in the inner layer and some span
the whole membrane (integral proteins). They stay in the membrane because they have
hydrophobic portions (made from hydrophobic amino acids) which ‘sit’ among the
hydrophobic phospholipid tails. Hydrophilic portions (made from hydrophilic amino
acids) face outwards. They can slide around the membrane very quickly and collide with
each other, but can never flip from one side to the other. The proteins have hydrophilic
amino acids in contact with the water on the outside of membranes, and hydrophobic
amino acids in contact with the fatty chains inside the membrane.

 Some of the phospholipid tails are saturated and some are unsaturated. The more
unsaturated they are, the more fluid the membrane. This is because the unsaturated
fatty acid tails are bent and therefore fit together more loosely.
 The total thickness is about 7nm on average.

 Many proteins and lipids have short, branching carbohydrate chains attached to the
external surface of the membrane, thus forming glycoproteins and glycolipids
respectively.

 Molecules of cholesterol are also found in the membrane.

b) outline the roles of cell surface membranes including references to carrier

proteins, channel proteins, cell surface receptors and cell surface antigens
Roles of the Component of Cell membrane
The cell membranes contain several different types of molecules. Some important molecules
are given below.
- Phospholipids
- Proteins
- Glycolipids and Glycoproteins
- Cholesterol

Each of these has a particular role to play in the overall structure and
function of the membrane.

Phospholipids:
The phospholipid hydrophobic bilayer fatty acid tails act as a barrier
to all polar water soluble molecules effectively isolating the two sides
of the membrane. However, non-polar, fat soluble smaller molecules
can diffuse through the phospholipid fatty acid bilayer tails (simple /
lipid diffusion). Different kinds of membranes can contain
phospholipids with different fatty acids, affecting the strength and
flexibility of the membrane.

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Proteins
 Proteins comprise about 50% of the mass of membranes, and are responsible for most of
the membrane's properties.
 Channel / carrier proteins that span the membrane are usually involved in transporting
substances like ions and water soluble polar molecules across the membrane.
 Proteins on the inside surface of cell membranes are often attached to the cytoskeleton and
are involved in maintaining the cell's shape, or in cell motility. They may also be enzymes,
catalysing reactions in the cytoplasm.
 Proteins on the outside surface of cell membranes can act as receptors by having a specific
binding site where hormones or other chemicals can bind. This binding then triggers other
events in the cell. They may also be involved in cell signalling and cell recognition, or they
may be enzymes, such as maltase in the small intestine.
Glycoproteins and Glycolipids

 Glycoproteins act as receptor molecules for hormones or neurotransmitters such as

insulin, acetyl choline, noradrenaline.
There are receptor sites on liver cells into which the hormone insulin fits. A series of
enzyme controlled reactions follow in the resulting of conversion of glucose to
glycogen in the liver. As a result the level of glucose in the blood falls.
 Glycoproteins act as cell surface antigens or cell surface markers. They also play a vital
role in cell to cell recognition and cell adhesion. The varying carbohydrate chains
emerging from the cell surface membrane of the red blood cells are responsible for
producing the four different blood groups, A, B, AB and O.
 Both glycoproteins and glycolipids form hydrogen bonds with water molecules outside
the cell, helping to stabilise the membrane. They are particularly numerous in cells
exposed to hostile conditions such as in the duodenum.

Cholesterol:
 Cholesterol molecules, like phospholipids, have
hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails, so they fit
neatly between the phospholipid molecules.
 They help to regulate the fluidity of the membrane,
preventing it from becoming too fluid or too rigid.
 Cholesterol is also important for the mechanical
stability of membranes, as without it membranes
quickly break and cells burst open.
 The hydrophobic region of the cholesterol molecules
help to prevent ions or polar molecules from passing
through the membrane. This is particularly important
in the myelin sheath (made up of many layers of membrane) around nerve cells, where
leakage of ions would slow down nerve impulses.

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c) outline the process of cell signalling involving the release of chemicals that
combine with cell surface receptors on target cells, leading to specific
responses
Cell signaling is part of a complex system of communication that governs basic cellular
activities and coordinates cell actions. Cells need to interact with their environment and other
cells around them.

 Single cellular organisms need to detect nutrients in their environment, and cells in
multicellular organisms are involved in a complex system of communication with each
other.
 Cells detect signals with Cell Receptors on their plasma membrane, which are usually
Glycoproteins or Glycolipids. The signalling molecule binds to the Receptor because its
shape is complementary. This then instigates a chain of reaction within the cell, leading
to a response.
 Hormones are often used as cell signalling molecules in multicellular organisms.
Hormones are produced in a cell, sometimes in response to environmental changes. The
Hormones are released and bind to Receptor Sites on a Target Cell, which starts a
response.
 An example of a hormone mediated cell signalling pathway is in the use of Insulin or
glucagon to lower or raise the blood glucose levels. In response to high glucose levels,
Beta-Cells in the pancreas release the hormone Insulin in to the blood, which binds to
cells such as muscle and liver cells. This causes them to take up more glucose. Similarly,
low glucose levels, Alpha-Cells in the pancreas release the hormone Glucagon in to the
blood, which binds to cells such as muscle and liver cells.

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 Some Medicinal Drugs work because they are complementary to certain Cell Receptor
Sites. Some drugs block these Receptors so that they natural signalling molecules cannot
instigate a response. Others are designed to mimic natural signalling molecules that the
body cannot produce, such as drugs to treat some mental conditions.
 Viruses invade cells by binding to Cell Receptor Sites that are normally used in cell
signalling. They themselves have Receptor Sites, despite not being cells. Some poisons
also bind to Cell Receptors, preventing the targeted cells from working properly.

Table showing the

Comp-
Composition Function How it Works Example
onent

Bilayer of cell is
Phospholipid

Provides permeability Excludes water soluble

molecules

Phospholipid impermeable to water

barrier, matrix for molecules from non-polar
bilayer soluble molecules, like
proteins interior of bilayer
glucose

Transport molecules Escort molecules through the

Glycoprotein carrier for
Carriers across membrane membrane in a series of
sugar transport
against gradient conformational changes
Transmembrane proteins

Passive transport of
Create a tunnel that acts as a Sodium and potassium
Channels molecules across
passage through membrane channels in nerve cells
membrane

Signal molecules bind to cell

surface portion of the
Specific receptors bind
Transmit information receptor protein; this alters
Receptors peptide hormones and
into the cell the portion of the receptor
neurotransmitters
protein within the cell,
inducing activity

Create a Major histocompatibility

Cell surface markers

protein/carbohydrate chain complex protein

Glycoproteins Self-recognition
shape characteristic of recognized by immune
individual system

Create a lipid/carbohydrate
A, B,O blood group
Glycolipids Tissue recognition chain shape characteristic of
markers
tissue

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4.2 Movement of substances into and out of cells
The fluid mosaic model allows an understanding of how substances enter and
exit cells by a variety of different mechanisms.
Investigating the effect of increasing the size of model cells allows an
understanding of the constraints of obtaining resources across the cell surface
and moving substances out of cells.
a) describe and explain the processes of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis
Diffusion
The movement of a substance from where it is in high concentration to an area
where it is in lower concentration is known as diffusion.

Simple Diffusion (or Lipid Diffusion)

 A few substances can diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer part of the membrane.
 The only substances that can do this are lipid-soluble molecules such as steroids, or very
small molecules, such as H2O, O2 and CO2. For these molecules the membrane is no barrier
at all.

 Since lipid diffusion is (obviously) a passive diffusion process, no energy is involved and
substances can only move down their concentration gradient.
 Lipid diffusion cannot be controlled by the cell, in the sense of being switched on or off.
The Factors Affecting the Rate of Diffusion:
 The surface area of membrane.
 The difference in concentration on either side of a membrane.
 The thickness of the membrane of exchange surface.
 The size and type of molecules.
 The temperature.

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(a) The surface area of membrane
The greater the ‘surface area’, the faster the rate of
diffusion, as there is more surface for molecules to
pass through. All membranes, through which
diffusion takes place in quantity are ‘folded’ to
increase the surface through which diffusion can
take place. Example: villi and microvilli.
(b) The difference in concentration
The greater the difference in concentration between
two places, the faster the rate of diffusion between
them. The diffusion relies entirely on the ‘difference
in concentration’ between two places and substances always diffuse down a concentration.
This continues until the concentrations are equal, when the ‘equilibrium’ is reached.

(c) The thickness of the membrane or exchange surface

The thickness of the membrane or
exchange surface directly affects the rate
of diffusion. The distance between two
concentrations of a molecule, across
which diffusion takes place is called the
“diffusion distance”. The thicker the
membrane, the greater distance and the
slower the rate of diffusion. The shorter
the diffusion distance, the faster the rate
of diffusion. In the alveoli, a short
diffusion distance is present due to the
thin lining layer or epithelium, lining
both the alveoli and the capillaries.

(d) The size and type of molecule.

The size and type of molecules diffusing

also affect the rate of diffusion. Oxygen
and Carbondioxide are small molecules.
They can slip more easily through the
phospholipid bilayer than larger
molecules.

Molecules that are soluble in lipids, e.g.

alcohol, can cross the membrane faster
than water-soluble ones as they can easily pass through the fatty acid center of the membrane.
This is why alcohol can affect people so soon after drinking.

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(e) Temperature

Temperature is one of the important factors affecting the rate of diffusion. Increasing the
temperature provides molecules with more “Kinetic energy” and they move faster. Hence, a
rise in temperature speeds up the rate of diffusion.

FICK’S LAW

Statement: The rate of diffusion across a cell membrane is directly proportional to

the surface area of the membrane times the difference in concentration on
either side. It is inversely proportional to the thickness of the exchange
surface. (the membrane).

For the maximum rate of diffusion, the surface area and difference in concentration must be
as ‘big’ as possible, whilst the thickness of the membrane or exchange surface must be as small
as possible.

Facilitated diffusion: (Passive Transport)

 Passive transport is the transport of substances across a membrane by a trans-

membrane protein molecule.

 The transport proteins tend to be specific for one molecule (a bit like enzymes), so
substances can only cross a membrane if it contains the appropriate protein.

 As the name suggests, this is a passive diffusion process, so no energy is involved and
substances can only move down their concentration gradient.

There are two kinds of transport protein:

 Channel Proteins form a water-filled pore or channel in the membrane. This allows
charged substances (usually ions) to diffuse across membranes. Most channels can be
gated (opened or closed), allowing the cell to control the entry and exit of ions.

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 Carrier Proteins have a binding site for a specific solute and constantly flip
between two states so that the site is alternately open to opposite sides of the membrane.
The substance will bind on the side where it at a high concentration and be released where
it is at a low concentration.

Active Transport (or Pumping).

 Active transport is the pumping of substances across a membrane by a trans-

membrane protein pump molecule.
 The protein binds a molecule of the substance to be transported on one side of the
membrane, changes shape, and releases it on the other side.
 The proteins are highly specific, so there is a different protein pump for each molecule
to be transported.
 The protein pumps are also ATPase enzymes, since they catalyse the splitting of ATP
into ADP + phosphate (Pi), and use the energy released to change shape and pump the
molecule.

Pumping is therefore an active process, and is the only transport mechanism that can
transport substances up their concentration gradient.

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The Na+K+ pump is a complex pump, simultaneously pumping three sodium ions
out of the cell and two potassium ions into the cell for each molecule of ATP split.
Shape of the Graphs
The rate of diffusion of a substance across a active transport
rate of transport

membrane increases as its concentration gradient lipid

increases, but whereas lipid diffusion shows a linear diffusion
relationship, facilitated diffusion has a curved
relationship with a maximum rate. This is due to the
rate being limited by the number of transport
facilitated
proteins. The rate of active transport also increases diffusion
with concentration gradient, but most importantly it
has a high rate even when there is no concentration concentration difference
difference across the membrane. Active transport stops if cellular respiration stops, since
there is no energy.

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Cytosis
The processes described so far, only apply to small molecules. Large molecules (such as
proteins, polysaccharides and nucleotides) and even whole cells are moved in and out of cells
by using membrane vesicles.
Cytosis is possible due to the fluid nature of the membrane. The membrane is able to pull apart
and then spring back to its original phospholipid bilayer, phosphate on the outside and fatty
acid tails on the inside.
Cytosis requires energy and involves breaking open the bilayer and then reforming it.

There are two types of cytosis; endocytosis when substances are taken in and exocytosis when
substances are released.

 Endocytosis is the transport of materials into a cell. Materials are enclosed by a fold of
the cell membrane, which then pinches shut to form a closed vesicle. Strictly speaking the
material has not yet crossed the membrane, so it is usually digested and the small product
molecules are absorbed by the methods above. When the materials and the vesicles are
small (such as a protein molecule) the process is known as pinocytosis (cell drinking),
and if the materials are large (such as a white blood cell ingesting a bacterial cell) the
process is known as phagocytosis (cell eating).

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Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the transport of materials out of a cell. It is the exact reverse of
endocytosis. Materials to be exported must first be enclosed in a membrane vesicle,
usually from the RER and Golgi Body. Hormones and digestive enzymes are secreted by
exocytosis from the secretory cells of the intestine and endocrine glands.

Sometimes materials can pass straight through cells without ever making contact with the
cytoplasm by being taken in by endocytosis at one end of a cell and passing out by exocytosis
at the other end.

Summary of Membrane Transport

uses
Method uses energy specific controllable
proteins
Lipid Diffusion No No No No
Osmosis No Yes Yes No
Passive
No Yes Yes Yes
Transport
Active
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Transport
Vesicles Yes No Yes Yes

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OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of their higher
concentration to a region of their lower concentration through a partially
permeable membrane.
This movement usually takes place through a membrane which is permeable to water but not
to solutes. Like diffusion, osmosis is a passive process.

Water Potential
Water potential is a measure of the kinetic energy of water molecules, water
molecules are constantly moving in a random fashion. Some water molecules
collide with the cell membrane, creating a pressure on it known as water
potential ( ).
Osmosis can be quantified using water potential, so we can calculate which way water will
move, and how fast. Water potential (, the Greek letter psi, pronounced "sy") is simply the
effective concentration of water. It is measured in units of pressure (Pa, or usually kPa), and
the rule is that water always "falls" from a high to a low water potential (in other words it's
a bit like gravity potential or electrical potential). 100% pure water has  = 0, which is the
highest possible water potential, so all solutions have  < 0, and you cannot get  > 0.
Osmosis should be considered in terms of water potential, at this level.
Pure water dilute solution concentrated solution

 = 0 kPa  = -200 kPa  = -500 kPa

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= 0 kPa  = -200 kPa 
= -500 kPa

water diffuses water diffuses

from 0 to -200 kPa from -200 to -500 kPa

Pure water  = 0 kPa  highest water potential

Dilute solution  = -200 kPa  less negative water potential.

Concentrate solution  = -500 kPa  more negative water potential.

In osmosis, water moves from an area of higher water potential (i.e. less negative) to an area
of lower water potential (more negative) through a partially permeable membrane.
b) investigate simple diffusion using plant tissue and non-living materials,
such as glucose solutions, Visking tubing and agar

Visking tubing
To demonstrate osmosis, Visking tubing (dialysis
tubing) can be tied at one end and filled with 20
per cent sucrose solution. The other end is
attached to a capillary tube. The level of the
sucrose can be noted before and after the tubing
has been placed in a beaker of water for about 30
minutes. Visking tubing has microscopic holes in
it, which let small molecules like water pass
through (it is permeable to them) but is not
permeable to some larger molecules, such as the
sugar sucrose. This is why it is called ‘partially’
permeable.
The sucrose molecules are too big to pass
through the holes in the partially permeable membrane. The water molecules can pass
through the membrane in either direction, but those on the right are attracted to the sugar
molecules. This slows them down and means that they are less free to move – they have less
kinetic energy. As a result of this, more water molecules diffuse from left to right than from
right to left. In other words, there is a greater diffusion of water molecules from the more
dilute solution (in this case pure water) to the more concentrated solution.
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Agar Jelly Cubes
Cubes of agar jelly placed into solutions of methylene blue or potassium permanganate will
absorb the pigment by diffusion. The cubes are left in the pigmented solution for different
measured periods of time and are then sliced open. The distance between the edge of each
cube and the edge of the coloured agar may be used as a measure of the distance the pigment
molecules have moved by diffusion.
c) calculate surface areas and volumes of simple shapes (e.g. cubes) to
illustrate the principle that surface area to volume ratios decrease with
increasing size
As a cell increases in size, there is less surface area in proportion to its volume. Relatively
there is less surface area of cell membrane over which infusion can occur. As the cell grows
and increases in size, their surface area increases and thus their ability to take in nutrients
and transport electrons does not increase to the same degree as their volume.

The volume increases faster than the surface area, son the surface area : volume (SA : V)
ratio decreases.
So, with increasing the size of a cell, less of the cytoplasm has access to the cell surface for
exchange of gases, supply of nutrients, and loss of waste products. The smaller the cell is, the
more quickly and easily can materials be exchanged between its cytoplasm and environment.
That's why cells cannot continue growing larger, indefinitely. When a maximum size is
reached, cell growth stops or it prepares itself to divide.

Surface area to volume ratios, Investigating diffusion

As the radius of a cell increases from 1x to 3x (left),

the surface area increases from 1x to 9x,
and the volume increases from 1x to 27x.

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ACTIVITY:
The Surface Area to Volume Ratio of a Cell

Cut potato cubes of different sizes, which have different surface area to volume ratios. After
measuring and recording the masses of the cubes, they are immersed in water. After one
hour, the cubes are blotted dry and their masses measured and recorded again. The
percentage increase in mass for cubes of different surface area to mass ratio can be
compared, to explore the concept of how surface area to volume ratio influences water
uptake.
The surface area over which the osmosis occurs can change the speed at which it happens
dramatically. The larger the surface area between the two solutions the faster osmosis will
happen. This is due to more of each solution will be in contact with the membrane at one
moment. This means that a larger amount of the free water molecules in the solution can
move across the membrane at the same time therefore making the process happen much
faster.
Cells are limited in how large they can be. This is because the surface area and volume ratio
does not stay the same as their size increases. Because of this, it is harder for a large cell to
pass materials in and out of the membrane, and to move materials through the cell.

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DATA TABLE: Cell Size Comparison

Cell Dimensions Surface Area Volume Ratio

(cm) (cm )
2 (cm ) Surface area to Volume
3

2x2x2
1

CALCULATIONS:

1. Calculate the total surface area for each cell by the following formula:

surface area = (Length X Width) X 6 sides

Record the surface areas in the DATA TABLE.

2. Calculate the volumes for each cell by the following formula:

volume = length X width X height

Record the volumes in the DATA TABLE.

3. Calculate the surface area-to-volume ratio for each cell by the following formula:

surface area
ratio =
volume

Record the ratio values in the DATA TABLE.

These ratios show how many times larger the surface area is as compared to the volume.
Notice that it becomes less than one very quickly.

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d) investigate the effect of changing surface area to volume ratio on diffusion
using agar blocks of different sizes
Demonstration of diffusion in a jelly
Agar jelly has a consistency similar to the cytoplasm of a
cell. Like cytoplasm, it has a high water content. Agar can
be used to show how substances diffuse through a cell.
This demonstration uses the reaction between hydrochloric
acid and potassium permanganate solution. When
hydrochloric acid comes into contact with potassium
permanganate, the purple colour of the permanganate
disappears.
A Petri dish is prepared which contains a 2 cm deep layer of
agar jelly, dyed purple with potassium permanganate. Three
cubes of different sizes are cut out of the jelly, with side lengths 2 cm, 1 cm and 0.5 cm.
The cubes are carefully dropped, at the same time, into a beaker of dilute hydrochloric acid.
The time is taken for each cube to turn colourless.
The smaller the cube the larger its surface area to volume ratio, so the quicker the rate of
diffusion (the shorter the time for the cube to go colourless).

SAMPLE QUESTION:
An experiment was performed to find the effect of surface area : volume ratio on the rate of
osmosis.

Pieces of yam were cut into cubes of the following sizes:

• 2cm × 2cm × 2 cm (surface area = 24 cm2, volume = 8 cm3)
• 1cm × 1cm × 1 cm (surface area = 6 cm2, volume = 1 cm3)

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The cubes were carefully blotted dry, weighed and their fresh masses recorded.
One cube, 2 cm × 2cm × 2 cm, was put into a beaker and covered with distilled water.
Eight cubes each measuring 1 cm × 1cm × 1 cm were put into another beaker of distilled
water, making sure that they were all covered with distilled water.
At intervals for a period of 45 hours, the cubes were removed from the beakers, blotted dry,
reweighed and then replaced into fresh distilled water. The percentage increase in mass was
calculated for the eight cubes of side 1 cm and the one cube of side 2 cm. The results are
shown in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1
(a) Explain why eight cubes of side 1 cm × 1cm × 1 cm were used in this experiment.

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(b) Describe the results shown in Fig. 5.1.

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(c) Explain, in terms of water potential, why all the cubes of yam gained in mass.
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(d) Explain why the percentage increase in mass for the eight cubes of side 1 cm was
faster than that of the cube of sides 2 cm.
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…......................................................................................................................................[2]

[Total: 9]

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e) investigate the effects of immersing plant tissues in solutions of different
water potential, using the results to estimate the water potential of the tissues

Cells placed in an isotonic solution neither

gain nor lose water. In a hypertonic solution,
plant cell vacuoles collapse and the plant
cell gets plasmolysed. In a
hypotonic solution, the vacuoles of
plant cells swell, pushing the cell
contents out against the cell wall.
Plant cells and bacteria, which do
Come into contact with fresh water,
are surrounded by tough cell walls.
The cell walls prevent the cells from
expanding, even under tremendous
osmotic pressure. However, the
increased osmotic pressure makes the cells extremely vulnerable to
injuries to their cell walls.

Epidermal strips are useful material for observing plasmolysis. Coloured sap makes
observation easier.
Suitable sources are the inner surfaces of the fleshy storage leaves of red onion bulbs,
rhubarb petioles and red cabbage.
The strips of epidermis may be placed in a range of molarities of sucrose solution (up to 1.0
mol dm−3) or sodium chloride solutions of up to 3%. Small pieces of the strips can then be
placed on glass slides, mounted in the relevant solution, and observed with a microscope.
Plasmolysis may take several minutes, if it occurs.

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In order to determine the water
potential of a plant tissue, find a
solution of known water potential
which will cause neither a gain nor
a loss in water of the plant tissue
being examined. Samples of the
tissue, for example potato are
allowed to come into equilibrium
with a range of solutions (for
example, sucrose solutions) of
different water potentials, and
changes in either mass or volume
are recorded. Plotting a graph of
the results allows the solution that
causes no change in mass or volume to be determined. This solution will have the same
water potential as the plant tissue.
f) explain the movement of water between cells and solutions with different
water potentials and explain the different effects on plant and animal cells
Cells and Osmosis
The concentration (or OP) of the solution that surrounds a cell will affect the state of the
cell, due to osmosis. There are three possible concentrations of solution to consider:

 Isotonic solution a solution of equal OP (or concentration) to a cell

 Hypertonic solution a solution of higher OP (or concentration) than a cell
 Hypotonic solution a solution of lower OP (or concentration) than a cell

The effects of these solutions on cells are shown in this diagram:

Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution

Animal
Cell

water enters, cell swells no net movement of water leaves, cell

and may burst (lysis). water, cell normal size shrinks and crenates

Plant
Cell

water enters, cell swells no net movement of water leaves, cytoplasm

a bit and becomes turgid. water, cell normal size shrinks and plasmolyses

notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 23

 BIOLOGY 9700-2019-20
These are problems that living cells face all the time. For example:
 Simple animal cells (protozoans) in fresh water habitats are surrounded by a hypotonic
solution and constantly need to expel water using contractile vacuoles to prevent swelling
and lysis.
 Cells in marine environments are surrounded by a hypertonic solution, and must actively
pump ions into their cells to reduce their water potential and so reduce water loss by
osmosis.

Young non-woody plants rely on cell turgor for their support, and without enough water they
wilt. Plants take up water through their root hair cells by osmosis, and must actively pump
ions into their cells to keep them hypertonic compared to the soil. This is particularly difficult
for plants rooted in salt water.
Osmosis in plant cells
The cells of prokaryotes, fungi and
plants have rigid walls which prevent
them from bursting. The walls exert a
pressure on the expanding cell which
eventually stops osmosis.
In hypertonic solutions, cells with cell
walls behave in a similar way to cells
without walls; the presence of a cell wall
cannot protect them from water loss by
osmosis. As their volume decreases and
they shrink, the cells lose contact with
their cell wall. In plant cells this is
known as plasmolysis.
notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 24
 BIOLOGY 9700-2019-20

notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 25

 Assignment
Cell Membrane and Transport

1 The diagrams show two kinds of molecules found in cell surface membranes.
Which part affects the fluidity of the membrane?

2 Freshly cut potato chips are immersed for 30 minutes in four sucrose solutions of
varying water potentials.

The graph shows the percentage change in their length.

What is the water potential of the potato cells in the freshly cut chips?

A 0 kPa
B – 525 kPa
C – 875 kPa
D – 2500 kPa

Assignment notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 1

Worksheet -1
 3 The graph shows rates of simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion, of
substance X across a cell surface membrane, as the concentration of
substance X increases.

Why does the rate of facilitated diffusion level off whereas the rate of simple diffusion
does not?

A Facilitated diffusion is limited by the number of protein channels in the

membrane.
B Facilitated diffusion is limited by the number of protein pumps in the membrane.
C Facilitated diffusion requires ATP which will eventually be used up.
D Only facilitated diffusion is affected by the kinetic energy of the molecules that
are diffusing.

4 Membranes in cells include the following components.

1 cholesterol
2 glycoproteins
3 phospholipids
4 proteins

Which component is the most important for these functions of membranes?

Assignment notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 2

Worksheet -2
5 The diagram shows a cell from the gut. The cell produces protease enzymes.

What is correct?

6 Which process allows the movement of molecules that are too large to pass in
through a cell surface membrane?

A active transport
B endocytosis
C exocytosis
D facilitated diffusion

7 The epithelial cells of people with cystic fibrosis have a defect in the structure of
the cell surface membrane. The ability of the cell to transport chloride ions out of
the cell is affected.
Which membrane component is involved?
A cholesterol B glycolipid
C phospholipid D protein

Assignment notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 3

Worksheet -3
8 The graphs show the rate of uptake of sugars by a culture of animal cells, under
different conditions.

How are the sugars taken up by the cells when air is bubbled through the culture?

9 Which part of a phospholipid molecule makes up most of the thickness of a cell

surface membrane?
A glycerol B hydrocarbon chains
C hydrophilic head D phosphate group

10 Some viruses are able to bind to the cell surface membrane before entering the
host cell.
Which sequence of events will lead to a virus invading a cell?

A binding to a cholesterol molecule, followed by endocytosis

B binding to a glycoprotein receptor, followed by exocytosis
C binding to a protein receptor, followed by endocytosis
D binding to the hydrophilic portion of a phospholipid, followed by exocytosis

Assignment notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 4

Worksheet -4
11 The diagram shows part of a cell surface membrane.

3 4 5

Which molecules have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions?

A 1, 2, 4 and 5 B 1, 3 and 5 C 1 and 5 only D 2 and 4 only

12 The fluidity of the cell surface membrane can be changed by a number of factors.

As the fluidity of cell surface membranes decreases, which process would be least changed?

A active transport
B diffusion
C endocytosis
D osmosis

13 Which molecules in cell surface membranes contribute to cell recognition?

A cholesterol, glycolipids, phospholipids

B cholesterol, phospholipids, proteins
C glycolipids, glycoproteins, proteins
D phospholipids, glycoproteins, proteins

14 Which is correct for facilitated diffusion and active transport?

A both depend on the solubility of the transported molecule in the lipid bilayer
B both increase as the concentration of the transported molecule increases
C both require the use of ATP
D both require the use of membrane proteins

notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar Worksheet - 5

15 Single-celled animals that live in fresh water have a vacuole that contracts regularly to remove
excess water. Single-celled plants that live in fresh water do not have a similar vacuole.

Which statement explains why these animals need this vacuole but plants do not?

A Plant cell cytoplasm and animal cell cytoplasm both have a lower water potential than fresh
water.
B Plant cell sap has the same water potential as fresh water, animal cytoplasm has a lower
water potential than fresh water.
C Plant cell walls are impermeable to water, animal cell surface membranes are permeable to
water.
D Plant cell walls restrict the entry of water, animal cell membranes allow the entry of water.

16 The diagram shows the fluid mosaic model of a section of a cell surface membrane.

1
3

What is the role of each of the components labelled 1 to 3?

1 2 3

A antigen chemical receptor allow lipid soluble

B barrier to polar molecules stabilise the membrane
C chemical receptor allow lipid soluble
molecules to pass through
D stabilise the membrane control the fluidity
of the membrane
molecules to pass through
antigen
regulate the fluidity
of the membrane
barrier to polar molecules

notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar Worksheet - 6

17 Proteins in the cell surface membranes of human cells and mouse cells were labelled with red
and green fluorescent dyes respectively.

When a human cell and a mouse cell were fused together the red and green fluorescent labels
were at first found in different regions of the cell surface membrane of the hybrid cell, but after 40
minutes they were evenly distributed in the entire cell surface membrane.

What explains this observation?

A All protein molecules in the cell surface membrane are fixed to structures within the cell, but
phospholipid molecules move freely between them.
B Groups of protein and phospholipid molecules in the cell surface membrane are attached to
each another and move together.
C Only protein molecules in the outer layer of the cell surface membrane can move freely
between phospholipid molecules.
D Protein molecules in the outer layer of the cell surface membrane and those which span the
bilayer can move freely between phospholipid molecules.

18 The diagram shows a plant cell.

The plant cell is put into a solution with a water potential less negative than the cell contents.

What will happen to the appearance of the cell?

A B C D

19 The cell cycle includes mitosis.

Which are features of nuclear division?

1 forms cells of equal size to the parent cell

2 forms genetically identical cells
3 semi-conservative replication of DNA

A 1, 2 and 3 B 1 and 2 only C 1 and 3 only D 2 only

notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar Worksheet - 7

20 One type of antigen is formed by a reaction between two different molecules.

Apart from oxygen, which other elements are found in this antigen?

A carbon and hydrogen only

B hydrogen and nitrogen only
C carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus
D carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur

21 What are the features of facilitated diffusion?

1 It uses protein channels in the membrane and is driven by the energy from ATP.
2 It moves molecules from regions of higher concentration to lower concentration and
is driven by the kinetic energy of the molecules which are diffusing.
3 It uses protein channels in the membrane, and the maximum rate of diffusion
depends on the number of these channels.

A 1 and 2 only
B 1 and 3 only
C 2 and 3 only
D 1, 2 and 3

notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar Worksheet - 8

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

1 The diagram shows part of a plasma membrane. The arrows show the path
taken by sodium ions and by substance X when they diffuse through the membrane into
a cell.

(a) An optical microscope cannot be used to see a plasma membrane. Explain why.

................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
[2]

(b) Give one property of the molecules of substance X which allows them to
diffuse through the membrane at the position shown.

................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
[1]

Assignment notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 9

Worksheet -9
(c) The effect of the concentration of sodium ions in the surrounding solution on their
rate of diffusion across the membrane was investigated. The graph shows the results.

(i) What limits the diffusion of sodium ions across the membrane between A and
Bon the graph? Give the evidence for your answer.

Limiting factor..................................................................................................

Evidence............................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
[2]

(ii) Explain the shape of the curve between C and D.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
[2]

Assignment notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 10 - 10

Worksheet
2 Fig. 2.1 shows a diagram of a plasma (cell surface) membrane.

(a) Indicate, by putting a circle, , around one of the following, the width of the
membrane shown in Fig. 2.1.

(b) Outline the functions of the following components of the plasma membrane.

K
................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................……………………………..
L
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................……………………………

M
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................……………………………

N
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................……………………………

Assignment notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 11 - 11

Worksheet
 (c) Some substances may cross plasma membranes by simple diffusion. Glucose,
however, does not.
Explain why glucose cannot pass across membranes by simple diffusion.

................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
(d) In an investigation, animal cells were exposed to different concentrations of glucose.
The rate of uptake of glucose into the cells across the plasma membrane was determined
for each concentration. Fig. 2.2 shows the results.

Fig. 2.2
Using the information in Fig. 2.2, explain how the results of the investigation support the
idea that glucose enters cells by facilitated diffusion.

................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................

Assignment notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 12 - 12

Worksheet
(e) State how active transport differs from facilitated diffusion.

................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
3 (a) Explain why the rate of diffusion is more rapid at higher temperatures.

................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
[2]

(b) Fick’s law can be summarised as

Complete the table by adding the words maximum or minimum to show the values of the
features in Fick’s law which will ensure

(i) efficient absorption of digested food from the small intestine;

(ii) reduction of water loss from a leaf.

[3]

Assignment notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar 13 - 13

Worksheet
4 Fig. 5.1 shows a section of a cell surface membrane.

P
Q

Fig. 4.1

(a) State the functions of structures P, Q and R.

P ......................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

Q ......................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

R ......................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

(b) Circle the width of the membrane shown as W

17.0 μm 1.7 μm 0.7 μm 70.0 nm 17.0 nm 7.0 nm 0.7 nm [1]

(c) Membranes, such as the cell surface membrane, are described as having a fluid mosaic
structure.

Explain what is meant by the term fluid mosaic.

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

notes by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar Worksheet - 14

(d) Aquaporins are membrane channel proteins in plant and animal cells. They permit the
movement of water across membranes. Explain why they are necessary.

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

[Total: 9]

Worksheet - 15