Stone

Earth Crust Rock Stone

Classification of Rock

1. Geological Classification
a) Igneous rocks
b) Sedimentary rocks
c) Metamorphic rocks

2. Physical Classification
a) Stratified rocks
b) Non-stratified rocks
c) Foliated rocks
3. Chemical Classification
a) Siliceous rocks
b) Argillaceous rocks
c) Calcareous rocks
 STONES
Stone is a natural solid formation of one or many
minerals.

There are thousands of types of stone that have been

quarried through the centuries.

Quarries are located all around the world.

 QUARRYING OF STONES

While selecting a quarry site, the points to be borne in mind

are
Availability of sufficient quantity of the stone of desired
quality
Proper transportation facilities
Cheap local labor
Problems associated with drainage of rain water
Location of important and permanent structures in the
vicinity and site for dumping refuse
Stone quarrying (self study)

1. Quarrying with hand tools.

2. Quarrying with channeling machine.
3. Quarrying by blasting.
 Seasoning of Stone

A freshly cut stone carries some natural

moisture known as quarry sap making it
soft and workable. The quarry sap is a
mineral solution and reacts chemically
with the mineral constituents when the
stone is exposed to atmosphere after
quarrying. The stone becomes harder and
compact.
Why stone is losing popularity as a building material?
1. Dressing of stones is tedious, laborious and time consuming.
2. Desired strength and quality not available at moderate rates
especially in plain areas.
3. RCC, Steel are alternatives to stones and gives more strength and
flexibility.
4. Stone structure design cant give freeness and flexibility to the
designer.
 Characteristic of good
building stone
Appearance- For face work it should have fine,
compact texture; light-coloured stone is preferred as
dark colors are likely to fade out in due course of
time.
Structure - A broken stone should not be dull in
appearance and should have uniform texture free
from cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or soft
material.
Strength - A stone should be strong and durable to
withstand the disintegrating action of weather.
Compressive strength of building stones in practice
range between 60 to 200 N/mm2.
 Hardness- This property is important for floors,
pavements, aprons of bridges, etc. coefficient of
hardness should me more than 14.
Toughness - The measure of impact that a stone
can withstand is defined as toughness. The value
of toughness index must be more than 13.
Specific Gravity it should be more than 2.7.
Fire Resistant it depend upon mineral
composition of rock. Lime stone resist fire upto
600C.
Water Absorption For good stone percentage
absorption by weight after 24 hours should not
exceed 0.60.
 Testing of Stone
Acid test - to check weather resistance-100 g of stone
chips are kept in a 5 per cent solution of
H2SO4 or HCI for 3 days. Then the chips are
taken out and dried. The sharp and firm
corners and edges are indication of sound
stone. This test is used to test the cementing
material of sand stone.
Smith test - Break off the freshly quarried
stone hipping to about the size of a rupee coin
and put them in a glass of clean water, one-
third full. If the water becomes lightly cloudy,
the stone is good and durable
 Attrition test
To find out the rate of wear of stone which are used in road
construction
Instrument Devals attrition test machine
Sample size 60mm
Amount of sample 50N
Duration of test 5 hours for 30 R.P.M
Size of sieve - 1.5mm
Percentage wear = Loss in weight X 100/initial weight
Devals Attrition Test Machine
 Crushing test
To find the compressive strength of stone.
Instrument Universal Testing Machine
Sample Size 40 x 40 x 40mm
Specimen should be placed in water for 72 hours before
testing.
Load bearing surface is then covered with plaster of paris .
Rate of loading 13.72N/mm2.
Crushing Strength Maximum load/area of bearing face.
Universal Testing Machine
 Hardness Test

Instrument Dorrys testing machine

Sample size Cylinder of radius 25mm and
height 25mm.
Initial pressure 12.5N/mm2
Disk is rotated at a speed of 28 R.P.M for 1000
revolution.
Coefficient of hardness = 20 loss in weight in
gm/3
Dorrys Testing Machine
 Impact Test
Sample size Cylinder of 25mm dia and 25mm
height
Instrument a steel hammer of weight 20N
Height of first blow is 1cm, second blow is 2 cm
and so on
The blow at which specimen break is represented
as toughness index of stone.
 Water absorption test
Sample size cube of weighing 0.5 N W1
Cube is immersed in distilled water for 24 hours.
After 24 hours its weight is again measured- W2.
Cube is suspended freely in water and its weight is recorded
W3
Percentage absorption = W2-W1/100
Density W1/(W2-W3)
Specific Gravity - W1/(W2-W3)
 Preservation of Stone
Coal Tar
Linseed Oil May be applied as raw or boiled. Renewal is
important after every year.
Paint
Paraffin May be used alone or may be dissolved in neptha
and then applied.
Solution of alum and soap Proportion 0.75:0.5 N and
then dissolved in 1 litre of water.
Solution of Baryta It is a solution of barium hydroxide.
Specially used when decay of stone is due to calcium
sulphate.
Stone for specific uses
SEDIMENTARY
SANDSTONE

IGENOUS
GRANITE

METAMORPHIC
MARBLE
 STONES
SANDSTONE
LIMESTONE
CUDDAPA
HARDEST OF ALL STONES.
KOTA
MICA
SLATE
 KOTA
Variety : Tiles and Slabs as required by the client
Sizes : Length upto 240cms and width upto 75cms
Thickness : 16mm to 100mm
SANDSTONE
Dholpur Offwhite (Natural)
Mint Fossil Desert
AGRA RED (NATURAL)
Teak Wood Rainbow
Buff Brown (Natural)

Mandana (Natural)

Budhpura Grey (Natural)

Modak Raj Green (Natural)

Mint (Natural)
 GRANITES
GRANITES MAINLY COME FROM NORTH AND SOUTH REGIONS.

GRANITE IS NON POROUS, HARD, STRONG, DURABLE.

THERE ARE MORE THAN 300 DIFFERENT TYPES OF

GRANITES .

Granites ARE OF TWO TYPES :-

GANGSO - HARDER
VERTIVAL - SOFTER THAN
GANGSO
Polished Surface

TEXTURES

Rough Texture
Shape
Flat to Round
 USES OF GRANITE

Granite Countertops Granite Backsplash

Granite Tile Granite Paving Stone

NAMES OF GRANITES RETAILER
(RS PER SQ/FT)
JET BLACK 165

BLACK 135

SURF GREEN PLAIN 210

LAKHANI RED 255

AKASIA GREEN 190

SILKY BROWN 185

NEW SILKY 200

BLACK GALAXY 190

AMBA WHITE 200

MERRY GOLD 190

SINDURI RED 190

MOKALSAR GREEN 190

RED CATEYES 190

RBI RED 195

BLUE 135

IVORY FANTASY 240

BLUE PEARL 550

BROWN RED 140

TAN BROWN 130

PALVA GOLD 150

THE THICHKNESS OF GRANITE CAN BE OF 16MM ,18MM
,25MM MAINLY OF 18MM.

SIZES OF GRANITES
8*3 FT
9* 4 FT
7* 4 FT
6* 2.5 FT

MOULDING CHARGES RANGES FROM RS 20 TO 50/SQ FT.

HALF MOULDING
FULL MOULDING
CORNER MOULDING
SQUARE MOULDING

CUTTING CHARGES OF GRANITES ARE RS15 TO 25.

 POLISHES OF GRANITES

MIRROR POLISH
SADA POLISH
HYDRAULIC POLISH
FLAME POLISH
Marble is a metamorphic rock
composed of recrystallized carbonate
minerals, most commonly calcite or
dolomite.
 Uses of Marble
It has become an increasingly popular choice for
countertops,
flooring,
fireplaces,
foyers,
bars,
tables,
showers, and
windows.

It graceful style, ability to reflect light, and ease

of cleaning have made it the stone of choice
amongst the elite.
 TYPES OF MARBLES

INDIAN MARBLES
SPANISCO
IRAN
TURKEY
GREECE
 INDIAN MARBLES
AMBAJI
RAJNAGAR
MAKRANA
GREEN MARBLE
SAPOL
AGARIYA
VANNI
ARNA
THE MOST USED OR COSTLIER MARBLE IS MAKRANA

MAKRANA HAS DIFFERENT QUALITIES

ALBETTO
ADANGA
KUMARI
DUNGRI
WHITE MAKRANA -
STONE MASONRY
 Stone Masonry

The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is

termed as stone masonry where the stones are available in a

abundance in nature, on cutting and dressing to the proper
shape, they provide an economical material for the
construction of various building components such as walls,
columns, footings, arches, lintels, beams etc.
Uses
1) Building foundations, walls, piers, pillars, and architectural

works.

2) Lintels, Beams, beams Arches, domes etc.,

3) Roofs and Roof coverings.

4) Cladding Works

5) Dams, light houses, monumental structures.

6) Paving jobs

7) Railway, ballast, black boards and electrical switch boards

Selection of stone for stone masonry:
1) Availability

2) Ease of working

3) Appearance

4) Strength and stability

5) Polishing characteristics

6) Economy

7) Durability
Through
Stone
General Principles
The stones to be used for stone masonry should be hard,
tough and durable.
The pressure acting on stones should be vertical.
The stones should be perfectly dressed as per the
requirements.
The heads and bond stones should not be of a dumb bell
shape.
In order to obtain uniform distribution of load, under the
ends of girders, roof trusses etc large flat stones should be
used
General Principles
The mortar to be used should be good quality and in the
specified faces.
The construction work of stone masonry should be raised
uniformly.
The plumb bob should be used to check the verticality of
erected wall.
The stone masonry section should always be designed to take
compression and not the tensile stresses.
The masonry work should be properly cured after the
completion of work, for a period of 2 to 3 weeks.
General Principles

As far as possible broken stones or small stones chips should

not be used.
Double scaffolding should be used for working at higher
level.
The masonry hearting should be properly packed with
mortar and chips if necessary to avoid hallows.
The properly wetted stones should be used to avoid mortar
moisture being sucked.
Laying The Stone

Decrease the stone thickness from the bottom to the top of

wall.

Ensure that the headers in the heart of the wall are the same
size as in the face and extend at least 12 in (300 mm) into the
core or backing. (Avoid Dumb-bell shaped stones)

Ensure that headers in walls of 2 feet (600 mm) or less in

thickness extend entirely through the wall. The headers shall
occupy at least 20 percent of the face of the wall.
Laying The Stone

Lay the masonry in roughly leveled courses. Ensure that the

bottom of the foundation is large, with selected stones.

Lay the courses with leaning beds parallel to the natural bed of
the material.

Regularly diminish the thicknesses of the courses, if varied, from

the bottom to the top of the wall. Keep a surplus supply of stones
at the site to select from.

Before laying the stone in the wall, shape and dress it so that it will
not loosen after it is placed. No dressing or hammering which will
loosen the stone will be permitted after it is placed.
 Clean each stone and saturate it with water before setting it. Clean
and moisten the bed that will receive it.

Bed the stones in freshly made mortar with full joints. Carefully
settle the stones in place before the mortar sets.

Ensure that the joints and beds have an average thickness of not
more than 1 inch. (25 mm).

Ensure that the vertical joints in each course break with the
adjoining courses at least 6 in. (150 mm).

Do not place vertical joints directly above or below a header joint.

 If a stone is moved or if the joint is broken after the mortar has
set, take the stone up and thoroughly clean the mortar from the
bed and joints. Reset the stone in fresh mortar.

NOTE: Do not lay the masonry in freezing weather or

when the stone contains frost, except with permission
subjected to the required conditions.

Whenever possible, properly point the face joints before the

mortar sets. If joints cannot be pointed, rake them out to a depth
of 1 in (25 mm) before the mortar sets.

Do not smear the stone face surfaces with the mortar forced out
of the joints or the mortar used in pointing.
 Thoroughly wet the joints pointed after the stone is laid with clean
water and fill with mortar.

Drive the mortar into the joints and finish with an approved
pointing tool.

Keep the wall wet while pointing. In hot or dry weather, protect
the pointed masonry from the sun and keep it wet for at least three
days after the pointing is finished.

NOTE: Do not perform pointing in freezing weather or

when the stone contains frost.

After the pointing is completed and the mortar is set, thoroughly

clean the walls and leave them in a neat condition.
Masonry Joints
Types of Stone Masonry:

Based on the arrangement of the stone in the construction

and degree of refinement in the surface finish, the stone
masonry can be classified broadly in the following two
categories

1. Rubble masonry
2. Ashlar masonry
1) Rubble masonry:

In this category, the stones used are either undressed or roughly

dressed having wider joints. This can be further subdivided as
uncoursed, coursed, random, dry, polygonal and bint.

(i) Uncoursed rubble masonry: This is the cheapest, roughest

and poorest form of stone masonry. The stones used in this type of
masonry very much vary in their shape and size and are directly
obtained from quarry. Uncoursed rubble masonry can be divided
into the following.

a) Uncoursed random rubble

b) Uncoursed squared rubble
Uncoursed rubble masonry

a) Uncoursed random rubble masonry: The weak corners and

edges are removed with masons hammer. Generally, bigger
stone blocks are employed at quoins and jambs to increase
the strength of masonry.
 Uncoursed rubble masonry

b) Uncoursed squared rubble:

In this type the stone blocks are
made roughly square with
hammer. Generally the facing
stones are given hammer-
dressed finish. Large stones
are used as quoins. As far as
possible the use of chips in
bedding is avoided.
Regular Course
(iv) Built to regular course: In this type of stone masonry the uniform
height stones are used in horizontal layers not less than 13cm in
height. Generally, the stone beds are hammered or chisel dressed
to a depth of at least 10cm from the face. The stones are arranged
in such a manner so that the vertical joints of two consecutive
curse do not coincide with each other as shown in figure below.
 (v) Polygonal rubble masonry: In this type of masonry the stones
are roughly dressed to an irregular polygonal shape. The
stones should be so arranged as to avoid long vertical joints in
face work and to break joints as much as possible. Small stone
chips should not be used to support the stones on the facing
as shown in the figure below.
Quoins
Flint rubble masonry
(vi) Flint rubble masonry: This type of masonry is used in the
areas where the flint is available in plenty.\

The flint stones varying in thickness from 8 to 15cm and in

length from 15 to 30cm are arranged in the facing in the
form of coursed or uncoursed masonry as shown below.
Dry rubble masonry

This type of masonry is used in the

construction of retaining walls
pitching earthen dams and canal
slopes in the form of random
rubble masonry without any
mortar. The hallow spaces left
around and stones should be
tightly packed with smaller stone
pieces as shown below.
Ashlar Masonry

This type of masonry is built from accurately dressed stones

with uniform and fine joints of about 3mm thickness by
arranging the stone blocks in various patterns.

The backing of Ashlar masonry walls may be built of Ashlar

masonry or rubble masonry. The size of stones blocks should
be in proportion to wall thickness.
Ashlar Masonry
The various types of masonry can be classified under the
following categories are

1) Ashlar fine
2) Ashlar rough
3) Ashlar rock or quarry faced
4) Ashlar facing
5) Ashlar chamfered
6) Ashlar block in course
 Ashlar Masonry

Ashlar fine Ashlar rough

Ashlar Masonry

Ashlar rock or quarry faced Ashlar block in course

Ashlar Masonry

Facing

Ashlar facing Ashlar chamfered

Cornice
A cornice (from the Italian cornice meaning "ledge") is
generally any horizontal decorative molding that crowns a
building or furniture element the cornice over a door or
window, for instance, or the cornice around the top edge of a
pedestal or along the top of an interior wall.

The function of the projecting cornice of a building is to

throw rainwater free of the buildings walls.
 Rain water
collection
Channel over
the top of
Decorative
Cornice
Slope to Drain off
Rain water

Decorative Cornice
SILLS
Sloped Outer
REVEAL

Stone SILL
 Rubble
Masonry
Wall

Chamfered
Quoins
Stone Sill

Edge Drop
Min 25Cm Overlap
into the abutting
masonry
Sill as a Ledge in
the Interior
PLINTHS
Traditional Plinth
Plinth in Random Rubble Masonry to receive A Load-Bearing wall Above.
Plinth Platform Conventional Plinth in Rural Areas
Cladding