Fundamentos Matematicos Señales

Introduction Complex numbers Complex matrices Series
Signals and Systems I: Tutorials

0th Tutorial: Mathematical Foundations
Sergio Andrs Dorado-Rojas

Electrical Engineer
M.Sc. Student - Industrial Automation (Research)
sadorador@unal.edu.co
Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Bogot

Faculty of Engineering
Departament of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
August 2017
S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Contents
1 Introduction 3 Complex matrices

2 Complex numbers Matrices revisited
The complex number Complex operations
The complex plane and complex Left and right eigenvalues and
representations vectors
Angles-modulo 4 Series
Operation with complex Brief definition of series
numbers Important results of series

Introduction
Signals and Systems I
Prerequisites:
I Differential equations (i.e., Math knowledge).
I Electric circuits I (i.e., basic Physics knowledge - dynamic systems).
Signals, systems and control syllabus @ UN (undergraduate):
I SyS I: time-domain descriptions of signals and systems, fundamental transforms,
basic applications.
I SyS II: advanced filter theory and realization, linear systems and feedback theory.
I Control: linear control theory (classical), state-space control design.

The complex number
Consider the polynomial equation of degree 2
x2 4 = 0 x2 = 4
It clearly has solutions x = 2

Consider next the equation
x 2 + 4 = 0 x 2 = 4
If x is required to be a real number, then the equation has no solution.
Such an equation can be solved only through the introduction of the imaginary unit
or the imaginary operator

The imaginary unit
Imaginary unit or operator

j= 1 (1)
such that
j 2 = 1 j 3 = j 2 j = j j 4 = j 2 j 2 = 1 and so forth

Imaginary and complex numbers
Let a and b be real numbers

Imaginary number
Product of a real number and the imaginary operator
ja and jb
Complex number
Sum of a real number and an imaginary number
a + jb and b + ja

Notation for complex numbers
A complex number is represented either by:
I Boldface type (computers):

A = a + jb
I Bar (handwritten material):
A = a + jb
For this course we will adopt the handwritten material convention for complex
numbers (in both handwriting and computer typing).

Real and imaginary parts
A complex number A = a + jb is described as having a real component or real part

and an imaginary component or imaginary part:

Re A = a Im A = b (2)
I By definition, the imaginary component is a real number.

I All real numbers may be regarded as complex numbers having imaginary parts
equal to zero.

Complex plane
A real number can be represented by a point on a real number line.

Since any complex number is completely characterized by a pair of real
numbers, we need two real number lines, perpendicular to each other, to represent a
complex number.
Complex plane or Argand diagram

Plane on which any complex number can be represented as a single point, or a vector
on this complex plane.

Complex representation: rectangular form

jIm jIm
A = a + jb A = a + jb
jb jb
a Re a Re
Figure: Point representation of a Figure: Vector representation of a

complex number A = a + jb. complex number A = a + jb
The complex plane is analogous to the plane used to represent vectors in R2 .

Complex representation: polar form

As happens with vectors in R2 , complex vectors can be specified by its length r and its
angle or phase in what is known as polar representation (r )
jIm
Magnitude of a complex number
The length cannot be negative A = (rA )
(r 0) Hence r is called magnitude

instead of amplitude. >0
Re
Phase
B = (rB ) <0
Measured from the positive real axis
with the following convention:
> 0 measured counterclockwise

Figure: Polar representation of complex
< 0 measured clockwise
numbers on the complex plane.
Complex representation: form equivalence

A complex number in rectangular form
jIm A = a + jb can be converted to polar form
thanks:
A = a + jb = (r )
jb = j(r sin )
r 2 = a2 + b 2
Im{A} (3)
= tan1 ( ba ) = tan1 ( )
Re{A}
a = r cos Re
Given a complex number in polar form

A = (r ), to convert it to rectangular
form:
a = Re A = r cos
(4)
b = Im A = r sin
Figure: Form equivalence.
Engineering notation requires the angles to be expressed in degrees. However, all
mathematical expression involving angles must use radians.

Complex representation: example
Example 0.1
Express the complex number 3 + j2 in polar form and plot it on the complex plane
p q
r= a2 + b 2 = (3)2 + (2)2 = 3.6
b 2
= tan1 ( ) = tan1 ( ) = 33.69
a 3
Thus the polar representation is:
(r ) = (3.6 33.69 )
Is this correct?

Complex representation: example

jIm
3 + j2 What happened? ):
The actual vector is (3.6146 ). The
calculator computation yields an
inadequate result because:
Re
2 2
tan1 ( ) = tan1 ( )
(3.6 33.69 ) 3 3
and each angle corresponds to two
different complex numbers.
Figure: Example 0.1
In transforming a complex number from rectangular to polar form, it is always
a good practice to physically or, at least, mentally plot the complex number on
a complex plane.

Angles-modulo
jIm
Vector A has angle 1 = +315 and

1 = 315 2 = 45
2 = 45 Re
Then,1 = 315 and 2 = 45 are
the same angle
The concept of modulo helps to
A
make the discussion precise
Figure: Angles-modulo.

Angles-modulo
Definition
Two angles 1 and 2 are considered the same angle if they differ by 360 or its
integer multiple, or, equivalently, their difference can be divided by 360 wholly:
1 = 2 (mod 360 )
(5)
1 2 = k 360 for some integer k
Exercise 0.1
Are the angles +56 and 304 the same angle?
1 2 = 56 (304 ) = 360 = (1)(360 )
More generally:
56 = 416 = 776 = = 304 = 664 (mod 360 )

Principal range of angles

Because an angle will repeat itself every 360 , we may say that the angle is periodic with
period 360
In order to have a unique representation of an angle, we must restrict the
representation to a segment of 360
I Any segment of 360 will do
I The one from 180 to 180 will be the most convenient
Principal range of angles
The segment (180 , 180 ] is called the principal range of angles. All angles are
required to lie inside the principal range:
180 < 180 (degrees)
< (radians)

Eulers formula and trigonometric functions
By applying the symmetry properties of the fundamental trigonometric functions to the

Eulers formula
sin ( ) = sin
cos ( ) = cos
we get the negative-angle or conjugate form:
e j = cos j sin
and after combining this result with the Eulers formula, we obtain the exponential
expression for the sine and cosine functions:
e j + e j e j e j
cos = sin =
2 2j
Eulers formula and exponential representation

Eulers formula enables one to represent complex numbers in an alternative form: the exponential
representation
A = a + jb = (r ) = re j
|{z}
| {z } | {z }
rectangular form polar form exponential representation
Note that the exponential representation is closely related to the polar form:

r = a2 + b 2
Im{A}
= tan1 ba = tan1 Re A

{ }
r cos = a r sin = b
As far as possible, we will use:
I Polar representation: with engineering notation (angle in degrees).
I Exponential representation: with mathematical notation (angle in radians as an
irrational number: fraction of )
Exercise 0.2
Exercise 0.2
Express -3 in polar form

3 = 3e j0 =? (30 )
The last expression is not properly expressed in polar form because we require r 0!
Thereby, a correct polar expression for this negative number is:

3 = (3180 ) = 3e j180 = 3e j
The argument of a negative number seen as a complex number is 180 or

radians.

Basic operations with complex numbers
Operations with complex numbers

Let A = a + jb = (A) and B = c + jd = (B ) be two complex numbers:
Equality:

Re A = Re B and Im A = Im B
A = B
a = c and b = d
Addition and substraction:

A B = Re A Re B + j Im A Im B = (a c) + j(b d)

Complex conjugate
Definition
Let A = a + jb be a complex number. Then
jIm
A is known as the complex conjugate of A:
A
A = a jb (6) jb
The imaginary parts of a complex number

and its conjugate have opposite signs
a Re
In the complex plane, A
is the image of A
on the other side of the real axis
The complex conjugate of a number in
jb
exponential or polar form is taken by A
reversing the sign of the angle:
Figure: A complex number and its

(a + jb) = a jb
Rectangular form

A = (re j ) = re j Exponential form conjugate.

(r ) = (r ) Polar form

Properties of complex conjugates
Properties of complex conjugates

1. A + A = 2Re A

2. A A = j2Im A

A+A
3. A = 2
4.
AA = a2 + b 2 = A2 = |A|2
5. (A B) = A B
6. (AB) = A B


Multiplication:
AB = (Ae j )(Be j ) = ABe j(+ )
Quotient:
A AB AB
= =
B B B B2
This operation is simplified in exponential form:
A Ae j A
= j
= e j( )
B Be B


Powers: powers are straightforward to compute in exponential/polar form. Let n 0:
I Positive powers:
An = An e jn = An (cos n + j sin n)
I Negative powers (A 6= 0):
1 1
An = An e jn = = n
An e jn A (cos n + j sin n)
I Fractional powers (roots):

1
A1/n = A n e j n =
n
Ae j n

The concept of matrix
Matrix
An nm (n by m) matrix is a rectangular array of objects arranged in n rows and m
columns. We will denote matrices in boldface:

a11 a12 . . . a1m
a21 a11 . . . a2m
Anm = . .. = [aij ]

.. ... ... .
an1 an2 . . . anm
where aij is known as the i, j element: the object located in the row i and column j
place of a matrix.

Real- and complex-valued matrices
Matrices can be real-valued or complex-valued depending on the nature of their terms:
Real matrices A = [aij ]
Complex matrices B = bij = [ij + jij ]

If the elements of a n m matrix are real numbers (real-valued matrix), then each row
can be thought as a vector in Rm and each column as a vector in Rn :
r1,1xm

r2,1xm
Anm = c1,nx1 c2,nx1 . . . cm,nx1 =

...
rn,1xm

Basic matrix operations: equality
Equality
Two matrices A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are equal if:
I they have the same number of rows
I they have the same number of columns
I for each i and j, aij = bij

Basic matrix operations: addition and scalar multiplication
Addition of matrices
If A = [aij ] and B = bij are both n m matrices, then their sum is defined to be the

n m matrix:
A + B = [aij ] + bij = aij + bij

Multiplication by a scalar
If A = [aij ] and c C, then
cA = [c aij ]

Real and imaginary parts of matrices
The operations of matrix addition and multiplication by a scalar enable one to write
any complex matrix as the sum of two real matrices, the imaginary part being
multiplied by the imaginary operator:
B = Re {B} + jIm {B} = [ij ] + j [ij ]

Hence, the basic operations that will be next defined for real matrices can be extended
to complex matrices.

Basic matrix operations: multiplication
Matrix multiplication
Let A = [aij ] be n k and B = [bij ] be k m. Then the product AB is the n m
matrix whose i, j element is
k
ais bsj = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + + aik bkj
s=1
This is the dot product of row i of A with column j of B:
i, j element of AB = (row i of A) (column j of B)

Basic matrix operations: properties of addition and multiplication

Properties of matrix addition and multiplication
Let A, B and C be matrices and c C. Then, whenever the following are defined:
I A+B = B+A
I A (B + C) = AB + AC
I (A + B) C = AC + BC
I (AB) C = A (BC)
I c (AB) = (cA) B = A (cB)
I In general AB 6= BA
I AB = AC does not necessarily imply that B = C
I The product of two nonzero matrices may be a nonzero matrix.
Basic matrix operations: matrix multiplication
I AB 6= BA

1 0 2 6 2 6
=
2 4 2 3 8 0
but

2 6 1 0 10 24
=
2 3 2 4 7 12

I AB = AC does not necessarily imply that B = C

1 1 4 2 7 18
=
3 3 3 16 21 54

1 1 2 7 7 18
=
3 3 5 11 21 54
but
4 2 2 7
6=
3 16 5 11

I The product of two nonzero matrices may be a nonzero matrix

1 2 6 4 0 0
=
0 0 3 2 0 0

Basic matrix operations: matrix transpose

Matrix transpose
If Anm = [aij ] is an n m matrix, the transpose of A is the m n matrix obtained by
interchanging the rows and the columns of A
AT = [aji ]
For example:

1 6 3 4
A24 =
0 12 5

1 0
6
(A24 )T = AT
42 =

3 12
4 5
Basic matrix operations: properties of the transpose
Properties of the transpose

I IT
n = In
T
I For any matrix A, AT =A
I If A + B exists, then (A + B)T = AT + BT
I If AB is defined, then (AB)T = BT AT
I (cA)T = cAT

Inverse of a matrix
Inverse of a matrix
Let A be a n n matrix. An n n matrix B is the inverse of A if
AB = BA = In
and we will denote the inverse of A as A1
A matrix has to be square in order to have an inverse.

Inverse of a matrix: nonsingular and singular matrices
Nonsingular and singular matrices

Let Ann be a square matrix.
I If A1 exists, then A is called a nonsingular matrix.
I If A1 does not exist, then A is called a singular matrix.

Inverse of a matrix: properties of the inverse
Properties of the inverse

Let Ann be a square matrix. Then:
I In is nonsingular and is its own inverse.
I If A and B are nonsingular, then so is AB. Further, the inverse of a product is the
product of the inverses in the reverse order:
(AB)1 = B1 A1
I If A is nonsingular, so is A1 . Furthermore, the inverse of the inverse is the matrix
itself:
1
A1 =A

Inverse of a matrix: properties of the inverse

Properties of the inverse
I If A is nonsingular, so is its transpose AT . The inverse of a transpose is the
transpose of the inverse:
1 T
AT = A1
I A is nonsingular if and only if rank(A) = n
I A is nonsingular if and only if det(A) 6= 0
I If AB is nonsingular, so are A and B
I If either A or B are singular, then their products AB and BA are singular
I A is nonsingular if and only if AX = B has a unique solution for every Bn1

Generalized inverse
Consider the system

Ann xn1 = Bn1
If the matrix A has an inverse, then the solution of the system will be
x = A1 B
However, if A is singular or A is not square, the solution to this system is not
computed of this way.
The concept of generalized inverse (or pseudoinverse) is introduce to define some

matrices that have some of the properties of the invertible matrices, but not
necessarily all of them.

Generalized inverse
Generalized inverse (or pseudoinverse)

Let Anm be a n m matrix.
A matrix Gmn is said to be a generalized inverse of A if
Anm Gmn Anm = Anm
When a matrix is square and it has an inverse (i.e., it is nonsingular), then this inverse
is its unique generalized inverse.

Matrix division
In real numbers, dividing by a nonzero number is equivalent to multiply by the
reciprocal of the divisor:
a 1
= a
b b
In matrices, we may define a similar operation.
Dividing a matrix by another is equivalent to multiply it by its inverse:

I Left division: 1
A B A1 B
I Right division: B A1 BA1

In MATLAB, x = A1 B (the left division of B by A) is performed using the backslash
operator \:
x=A\B or x=mldivide(A,B)
Matrix determinants: definition
Matrix determinant
Let M be the vector space comprising square matrices. The determinant is a function
or mapping from C to the complex number set C that assigns to each matrix A an
unique complex number det A:
M C
Ann det A = |A|
A matrix determinant is a function that assigns a single complex value to a

square matrix so that it contains important information about the matrix.

Matrix determinants: iterative computation through cofactors
Some basic matrix determinants are:

A 2 2 matrix determinant is given
A 1 1 matrix determinant is given by:
by:
det ([a]) = a a b
det = ad b c
c d

Matrix determinats: iterative computation through cofactors
Cofactor of an element
Let A be n n. The i, j cofactor cij of A0 s i, j element is:
cij = (1)i+j det (Mij )
where:
I Mij is the matrix formed my removing row i and column j from A, known as the
minor ij

Matrix determinants: iterative computation through cofactors
Let A be n n, and let rk kth row and cj the jth column of A

rk = a1k a2k . . . ank

T
cj = ak1 ak2 . . . akn

Then, the determinant of A is obtained from the row k

n
det A = ak1 ck1 + ak2 ck2 + + akn ckn = aki cki
i=1
Or equivalently, from the column j

n
det A = a1m c1m + a2m c2m + + anm cnm = aki cki
k=1
where ckm represents the cofactor associated with the element akm

Matrix determinants: some important properties
Properties of the determinant

Let A be a n n square matrix:
I det A = det AT
I If A has a zero row or column, then det A = 0

I If either two rows or columns of A are the same, then det A = 0
I If one row (or column) of A is a constant multiple of another row (or column),
then det A = 0
I If B is formed by interchanging two rows or columns of A, then:
det B = det A


I If B is formed by multiplying a row or column of A by a nonzero scalar , then:
det B = det A
I If A is scaled by
det (A) = n det (A)
I If B is formed from A by adding times one row (or column) to another row (or
column), then:
det B = det A


I The determinant of a product is the product of the determinants:
det AB = det A det B

I The determinant of a power is
det An = (det A)n

I If A is triangular, then:
n
det A = aii = a11 a22 . . . ann
i=1

Matrix determinants: software computation

I If A is nonsingular, then:
1
det A1 = det A1 det A = 1
det A

Important: matrix determinants can be computed using the functions
I det(A) in MATLAB
I Det[A] in Mathematica


Matrix determinants: inverse computation
Adjugate or adjunt matrix

The adjugate or adjunct matrix of the square matrix Ann is the transpose of its
cofactor matrix
adj (A) = CT = [cij ]T
Computation of the inverse of a matrix using cofactors

Let Ann be a square matrix such that det (A) = |A| 6= 0. The inverse of A can be
computed from its adjugate matrix as:
1 1
A1 = adj (A) = [cij ]T
det (A) det (A)

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

Let Ann be a square matrix. A complex number a = is an eigenvalue of A if there
is a nonzero vector xn1 such that
Ax = x
and we call x an eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue .

Zero can be an eigenvalue, but an eigenvector must be a nonzero vector (at
least one nonzero component).


Finding the eigenvalues of a matrix

To find all the eigenvalues of a matrix, we want to solve the equation
Ax = x
for nonzero vectors x. We can rearrange this equation as:
Ax x = 0
(A In ) x = 0
For this system to have a nontrivial solution x 6= 0, the matrix A In must be
singular, which can be expressed as a single value expression as:
det (A In ) = 0
This last expression corresponds to a polynomial equation on of degree n known
as characteristic equation.
Theorem about eigenvalues and eigenvectors

Let Ann be a complex matrix, then
I (complex number) is an eigenvalue of A if and only if is a root of the
characteristic polynomial of A. This occurs exactly when
p ( ) = det (A In ) = 0
Since p( ) has degree n, A has n eigenvalues, counting each eigenvalue as many
times as it appears as root of p ( ).
I If is an eigenvalue of A, then any nontrivial solution x of
(A In ) x = x
is an eigenvector of A associated with .
I If x is an eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue , then so is x for any
nonzero complex number .
Important results of eigenvalues and eigenvectors
If the n eigenvalues of A are different and non repeated, then we call them
nondegenerate eigenvalues. If the multiplicity of an eigenvalue is greater than one
(i.e., it is a repeated root of the characteristic polynomial), we call it a degenerate
eigenvalue.
If A is real-valued and 1 = a + jb is an eigenvalue, then 2 = a jb = 1 is also an
eigenvalue of A.
The product of the n eigenvalues of A equals the determinant:
n
det A = i = 1 2 . . . n
i=1

Important results of eigenvalues and eigenvectors
The trace of the matrix A is defined as the sum of the entries on the main diagonal:
trace (A) ni=1 aii = a11 + a22 + + ann

The sum of the n eigenvalues of A equals the trace of A:
n
trace(A) = i = 1 + 2 + + n
i=1

Hermitian operator
Hermitian operator
The Hermitian or adjoint operator is defined as taking the conjugate transpose of
a matrix:
AH (A )T

Important: the MATLAB transpose command automatically takes complex
conjugates: A = AH .


Properties of the Hermitian operator
For real matrices, the Hermitian is the same as the transpose operation. Hence, all
known properties of transposing are applicable:
H
I AH =A
I (A + B)H = AH + BH
I (A)H = AH for real
I (AB)H = BH AH

Inner product of complex vectors
Inner product of complex vectors

The inner product of (real or) complex vectors u and v is uH v
uH v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + + un vn
In general, uH v 6= vH u = v1 u1 + v2 u2 + + vn un but

uH v = v H u
A zero inner product means that the complex vectors are orthogonal.

Symmetric and orthogonal matrices
Symmetric matrix
A symmetric matrix is a real square matrix whose transpose equals itself
A = AT
A symmetric matrix A has the properties:
I All eigenvalues of A are real.
I All eigenvectors associated to nondegenerate eigenvalues conform an orthogonal
set.

Symmetric and orthogonal matrices
Orthogonal matrix
An orthogonal matrix is a real square matrix whose transpose equals its inverse
AT = A1 , and, equivalently
AT A = AAT = In
The determinant of an orthogonal matrix can only be det A = 1 and its eigenvalues
can be only have | | = 1.

Hermitian matrices
Hermitian matrices
Let Ann be a complex matrix. A is a Hermitian matrix if
AH = A

Properties of Hermitian matrices
Properties of Hermitian matrices

Let Ann be a Hermitian matrix (i.e., AH = A):
I If z is any vector, then zH Az is a real number.
I Every eigenvalue of A is real.
I The eigenvectors associated to nondegenerate eigenvalues of a Hermitian matrix

are orthogonal.

Unitary matrices
Unitary matrices
A unitary matrix Un is a (complex) square matrix that has orthonormal columns.
Therefore:
U H U = In
A unitary matrix is characterized by the fact that all its eigenvalues U have magnitude
equal to one
|U | = 1
The concept of unitary matrix for complex matrices is the extension of that of
orthogonal matrix (AT A=In ) for real matrices.

Normal matrices
Normal matrices
A normal matrix Nnn is a matrix that conmutes with its Hermitian:
NH N = NNH

Properties of normal matrices
Properties of normal matrices

A normal matrix is both Hermitian and unitary. That is:
I Its eigenvalues are real.
I The magnitude of its eigenvalues is equal to one.

Therefore, the eigenvalues of a normal matrix N can only be
N = 1

Left and right eigenvalues
Left and right eigenvalues

Let Ann and xR be a nonzero n 1 column vector such that
AxR, = R xR
thus, R is said to be a right eigenvalue of A.

Now consider a nonzero 1 n row vector xL = [ x1 x2 . . . xn ]. L is said to be a
left eigenvalue of A if it satisfies
xL A = L xL

The left eigenvalues are equivalent to the right eigenvalues.


Left and right eigenvectors
Theorem
If A is a symmetric real matrix, then the left and right eigenvectors are simply each
others transpose:
xL = xT R
Theorem
If A is Hermitian (self-adjoint), then the left and right eigenvectors are adjoint matrices:
xL = xH
R

Sequences
Limit of a sequence
A sequence an has the limit L and we
Sequences write
A sequence an is a list of numbers
written in a definite order lim an = L
n
if for every > 0, there is a

corresponding integer N > 0 such
an = {an }
n=0 = a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
that
if n > N |an L| <
If limn an exists, we say that the sequence converges. Otherwise, we say that the
sequence diverges.

Series
Series
If we add the terms of an infinite sequence an we get an expression called an infinite
series

an = a1 + a2 + + an + . . .
n=1

Series
Partial sums
Given a series
n=1 an we denote its nth partial sum as
n
sn = ai = a1 + a2 + + an
i=1
If the sequence is convergent, and limn sn = s exists as a real number, then the series
is called convergent and we write
n
lim sn = s
ai = s
i=1
and the number s is called the sum of the series.

Important results of series

I Taylors expansion centered at a:

f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x a)n
n=0 n!
I Maclaurin series

f (n) (0) n
f (x) = n! x
n=0


I Geometric series

a
ar n1 = 1 r |r | < 1
n=0

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Introduction Complex numbers Complex matrices Series

Signals and Systems I: Tutorials

Sergio Andrs Dorado-Rojas

Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Bogot

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

1 Introduction 3 Complex matrices

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Signals and Systems I

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

The complex number

Consider the polynomial equation of degree 2

It clearly has solutions x = 2

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

The imaginary unit

Imaginary unit or operator

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Imaginary and complex numbers

Let a and b be real numbers

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Notation for complex numbers

A complex number is represented either by:

I Boldface type (computers):

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Real and imaginary parts

A complex number A = a + jb is described as having a real component or real part

I By definition, the imaginary component is a real number.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

A real number can be represented by a point on a real number line.

Complex plane or Argand diagram

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Complex representation: rectangular form

Figure: Point representation of a Figure: Vector representation of a

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Complex representation: polar form

(r 0) Hence r is called magnitude

> 0 measured counterclockwise

Complex representation: form equivalence

Given a complex number in polar form

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Complex representation: example

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Complex representation: example

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Vector A has angle 1 = +315 and

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Principal range of angles

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Eulers formula and trigonometric functions

By applying the symmetry properties of the fundamental trigonometric functions to the

Eulers formula and exponential representation

The argument of a negative number seen as a complex number is 180 or

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Basic operations with complex numbers

Operations with complex numbers

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

The imaginary parts of a complex number

Properties of complex conjugates

Properties of complex conjugates

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Basic operations with complex numbers

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Mathematical Foundations

Basic operations with complex numbers