Pickup Location

Most vibration measurements will probably be taken on various locations on rotating

machinery such as engines, generators, or marine gears. As a general guideline, the axis
(centerline) of the pickup should point through the center of rotation of the
machine in a purely vertical or horizontal direction. If these conditions cannot be
completely met, the vertical and horizontal orientation must be maintained and the axis of
the pickup should pass as nearly as possible through the center of rotation.
Axial measurements are to be taken where possible so the axis of the pickup is parallel to
the center of rotation of the machine. Caution should be exercised when measuring
attachments or sheet metal. Localized resonances can cause large displacements which may
or may not indicate a problem.
Measurements inside of operator compartments should be taken to best define what the
operator feels. For example, if a complaint is registered about foot pedal vibration, the
pickup should be oriented to best measure what the foot feels. Apply normal foot pressure
while taking the measurements.
Steering wheel vibration should be measured on the rim of the wheel in two directions. One
measurement should parallel the axis of the steering column and the other should be at 90
degrees from the first with the axis of the pickup passing through the axis of the column.
Grip the steering wheel as if steering the vehicle during the measurements.
Seat vibration can best be defined by measuring on an attachment point near the floor. Due
to various mounting configurations, good judgment dictates the best location. Sit in the seat
while acquiring data.

Pickup Placement
The manner in which the pickup is placed onto the measurement location can have a
significant effect on the readings. This is particularly true when using the magnetic base.
Allowing the magnet to "snap" onto the surface causes a shock to the pickup which creates
a transient voltage to be generated.
The proper technique is to carefully place one edge of the magnet against the surface, then
gently rock the pickup into place.
After placement, try to gently rock the pickup side to side to make sure that it is solidly
attached. If any motion is felt, seat the magnet solidly before proceeding to acquire data.
If it is suspected that a transient has been created, wait 45 seconds before acquiring data. If
the first average shown on the LCD of the analyzer is significantly larger than the
remaining five, the measurement should be retaken.

Troubleshooting Vibration Problems

Solving vibration problems (troubleshooting) can be a frustrating exercise. An
understanding of a few principles of vibration along with knowledge of Caterpillar engines,
however, can go along way in solving a large percentage of the problems encountered with
Caterpillar equipment.
This brief section is an attempt to help in that understanding. It is not intended to be all
encompassing but merely a starting point.
What Vibration Is
Vibration is the periodic motion of an object. The key word is "periodic". It means that the
motion repeats it self over a period of time. It can do that in a very simple pattern or one
that is very complex.
An example of a simple vibration is one with a single frequency. The vibration can be
described as having a given displacement at that frequency. If the displacement and
frequency are known, the vibration is totally defined. If an object is moving up and down a
total of one inch and it does so once each second, it would be said to be vibrating with a
displacement of one inch at a frequency of one hertz (Hz).
If the same object, while moving up and down one inch at one hertz is also moving up and
down one eighth of an inch at 3 hertz, is now vibrating in a complex pattern and the
definition has become more difficult. The motion must be described in terms of the
combination of the two motions-"OVERALL DISPLACEMENT" and the motion at each
frequency.
Although the overall displacement may be the arithmetic sum of the two frequencies, in
most cases it is not. This is because vibration is what is called a "vector quantity" and has
associated with it another term called "phase". The overall displacement will vary
depending on the phase relationship of the motion at individual frequencies.
Vibration can be categorized as "free vibration", "forced vibration", or "resonant vibration"
all of which are still described in terms of displacement and frequency.
Free vibration is that which has no sustaining force associated with it but occurs when an
object with mass is connected to something else with a spring. For example, if a block of
steel is mounted to a large foundation through a spring and the spring is compressed and
then released suddenly, the mass will vibrate at some frequency determined by the size of
the mass and the stiffness of spring. The vibration will begin with a half displacement equal
to the amount of compression of the spring but decay to zero after a number of cycles of
vibration. The number of cycles the vibration lasts is determined by the energy lost (due to
system damping) as the mass vibrates on the spring.
Forced vibration is the result of a varying force acting on an object. The frequency of the
vibration will be the same as the frequency of the force and the displacement will depend
on the amount of the force and the mass of the object. This assumes that the object is not
connected with springs to another object and the force acts directly on the object. Although
in the real world this condition rarely exists, it is approached when the object is mounted on
very soft springs and the frequency of the varying force is much higher than the natural
frequency of the spring-mass system.
If the object above is mounted on springs, the result may be a resonant vibration. This
occurs when the frequency of the varying force is the same as the "natural frequency" of the
object mounted on the springs. Resonant vibration can also occur when a number of objects
are interconnected with springs. In this case, a number of natural frequencies exist and
resonant vibration can occur whenever a varying force matches one of the natural
frequencies of the system.
The Key
Vibration problems in Caterpillar equipment are always forced and usually resonant. In
other words, troublesome vibration is the result of some varying force which is either
varying more than normal or varying at a frequency which is the same as a natural
frequency of some component or system. The path to solving a vibration problem, then, is
to determine what is causing the varying force and either reducing the varying force or, if
resonant vibration is occurring, changing the component or system which is vibrating.
In either case, the first step (the KEY) is to know the frequency of the problem vibration.
Once the frequency is known, the source of the varying force can be determined by
examining the possible causes at that frequency. In other words, knowing the frequency of
the vibration is the key to solving vibration problems.
Orders of Vibration
In the analysis of vibration problems occurring in rotating machinery such as engines and
vehicles, almost all vibration can be related to the rotating speed of the machine. Although
vibration is still defined by displacement and frequency, the frequency is expressed in terms
of multiples of speed. A vibration which occurs at exactly the rotating speed is called "first
order". Likewise, a vibration at twice rotating speed is called "second order", and so on.
A four stroke cycle engine can produce varying forces at both half and whole orders,
therefore, there can be both half and whole order vibration. Vibration at frequencies other
than half and whole orders can also be produced by driven equipment which is rotating at
some multiple of engine speed. For example, a gear driven compressor operating at 1.1
times engine speed could produce vibration at "1.1 order" (and multiples of 1.1) relative to
engine speed.
Engines
Internal combustion engines are by their nature a system of varying forces. In most cases,
the varying forces are contained within the structure of the block (internal) with the amount
of varying force acting on the engine mounts (external) controlled to acceptable limits.
Only when a problem exists do the external forces reach a value which causes a vibration
problem.
NOTE: Some small engines do have, by design, external forces which must be isolated by
soft mounts.
For most engine configurations, the internal forces are naturally neutralized but in some,
special devices are required to "balance out" certain of the varying forces. These devices
rotate at either engine speed (first order) or twice engine speed (second order) depending on
the forces which must be counteracted.
Two types of engine balancing devices are used on Caterpillar engines. One type is a set of
rotating shafts turning at twice engine speed to counteract second order forces. The other
type is a set of gears on either end of the engine which have a designed amount of
unbalance and rotate at either engine speed (first order) or twice engine speed (second
order) depending on the engine configuration.
For these balancing devices to neutralize the intended forces, they must be properly
"phased" to the crankshaft. When excessive vibration is associated with an engine with
balancing devices and the vibration frequency (order) is the same as devices are designed
for, phasing of the devices is a logical place to look for the cause of the problem. If the
phasing is determined without a doubt to be correct, then manufacturing defects in the
balancing devices should be investigated.
Some Caterpillar engines, because of their design, are susceptible to a condition known as
"flywheel orbit". This condition is somewhat dependent on the mass of rotating parts
connected to the flywheel and is corrected by intentionally "unbalancing" the flywheel. In
other words, a flywheel balanced to correct for orbit will be unbalanced if checked by itself
removed from the engine.
Rotating Unbalance
If a solid disk of homogeneous steel is mounted on bearings and rotated, it will produce no
varying forces and no vibration will result. However, if a hole is drilled near the outside
diameter of the disk, the disk will produce a varying force on the bearings in any given
direction perpendicular to the shaft. The disk is said to contain "rotating unbalance".
Vibration produced by rotating unbalance will occur at the same frequency as the rotating
speed (first order).
Because of manufacturing inaccuracies (tolerances) and material non-homogeneity, most
rotating components have some rotating unbalance. This is normally controlled at the
factory by careful machining or by balancing of the component. Rotating unbalance can
occur if damage occurs, pilot bores become worn, corrosion occurs, or mismatched
components are assembled into a rotating assembly.
Experience has shown that most vibration problems on Caterpillar equipment are caused by
rotating unbalance. When a vibration problem exists and the vibration is at first order,
rotating unbalance is the first thing to investigate. (The exception could be if the engine has
balancing devices for first order.) In the absence of resonance, unbalance causes a constant
level (displacement) of vibration, which is independent of speed. In other words, this
condition is approached when an engine is mounted on extremely soft springs.
Half Order
Although rare, vibration may occur at half engine speed (half order). This is usually caused
by some problem in the fuel system. Any problem with the fuel delivery system which
causes an unevenness in the combustion process can cause half order vibration. In addition,
a burned or leaky valve can also cause unevenness and cause half order vibration.
Any time the displacement of the half order vibration is larger than the first order vibration,
the fuel system or components affecting the combustion process should be checked.
NOTE: Some engines produce significant half order vibration at idle conditions. Contact
Caterpillar for specific guidance if high half order is measured at idle conditions.
Attached Equipment
Very often, the engine is considered the source of vibration when, in fact, the exciting
forces originate in attachedequipment.
If the vibration is first order, the source can often be determined by running the engine with
the driven equipment detached from the engine. If the vibration still exists, investigate the
engine. If the vibration does not exist, the source is either in theattachment (coupling,
clutch) or in the driven equipment. Balancing of the appropriate component is the most
likely solution. If the vibration is not at an integer or half order of the engine, the source can
be identified by determining what the rotating speeds associated with the driven equipment
are and relating the vibration frequency to one of those speeds.

Vibration Problem-Solving Flowchart

As stated at the start of this section, solving vibration problems can be time consuming and
frustrating. Most problems, however, do lend themselves to an orderly thought process.
This thought process is summarized in flow chart format in Illustration 1.
Route Overview
A route is a set of predetermined, suggested measurement locations (route points). Each
route point has attached to it certain characteristics which were programmed into it when it
was created.
Common to all route points in the database are:
1. Resolution of the Analyzer (400 lines)
2. Averaging method (NORMAL)
3. Number of samples in final spectrum (6)
4. Data sampling window type (Hanning)
5. What data is automatically stored (SPECTRUM, PARAMETER SET)

Features of each route point that may or may not be the same as other route points are:
1. Whether measurement is frequency or order based
2. Frequency bandwidth (frequency range)
3. Units (displacement, velocity, acceleration)

The analyzer determines the OVERALL value by calculating the square root of the sum of
the squared values of all the spectral components over a specified frequency range. In the
case of an order based Analysis Parameter Set, this is determined by a specified low
frequency and the frequency of the highest specified order at the measurement RPM.

At 1800 RPM, the OVERALL value will be the square root of the sum of the squared
spectral components for all frequencies between 180 (3 Hz X 60) and 14400 (8 X 1800)
cpm. The measurement RPM determines the upper frequency but the lower frequency is
fixed.
For the other six parameters, if the APS is order based, the bandwidth is expressed in the
form of orders on either side of the labeled order so as to create a "tolerance". This allows
for minor speed variations at the time of measurement. The vibration characteristics of
Caterpillar equipment are such that an order based parameter usually contains only one
significant spectral component and the stored parameter value will be very nearly equal to
the corresponding spectral component of the spectrum.
If the bandwidth is frequency based, then the stored parameter includes all of the spectral
"energy" in that band (sq. rt. Of sum of sq.). Values of the individual spectral components
which contribute to the stored parameter value will have to be read from the corresponding
spectrum.

Setting Alarm Limits

Note that the OVERALL and the six parameters of the Analysis Parameter Set each have an
assigned alarm level. In all cases, the level for the OVERALL is set high enough that the
alarm should never be triggered because it would serve no useful purpose.
The alarm levels for the six parameters are set at values which have some relationship to
either established factory limits or values which are commonly used as acceptability
guidelines. For example: