National Structural Code of The Philippines V1 6e 2010

NSCP C101-10
NATIONAL
STRUCTURAL
CODE OF THE
PHILIPPINES
2010
VOLUME I
BUILDINGS, TOWERS AND
OTHER VERTICAL STRUCTURES
SIXTH EDITION
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

Suite 713, Future Point Plaza Condominium 1
112 Panay Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines 1100
Tel. No : (+632) 410-0483

Fax No.: (+632) 411-8606
Email: aseponline@gmail.com
Website: http://www.aseponline.org
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National Structural Code of the Philippines 6 Edition Volume 1
NSCP C101-10
NATIONAL
STRUCTURAL
CODE OF THE
PHILIPPINES
2010
VOLUME I
SIXTH EDITION

NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES (NSCP)
C101-10
Volume I
Buildings, Towers and Other Vertical Structures
Sixth Edition, 2010, First Printing
Copyright @ 2010, The Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP)
All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without the written permission
of the Association Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP).
ISSN No.: 2094-5477
PUBLISHER
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP)

Suite 713 Future Point Plaza Condominium
112 Panay Avenue, Quezon City,
1100 Philippines
Telephone Nos. : (+632) 410-0483
Facsimile No. : (+632) 411-8606
E-mail address : aseponline@gmail.com
Website : http://www.aseponline.org
The Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP) is a professional Association founded in August
1961 to represent the structural engineering community nationwide. This document is published in keeping with the
association’s objectives;
 Maintenance of high ethical and professional standards in the practice of structural engineering;
 Advancement of structural engineering knowledge;
 Promotion of good public and private clientele relationship; and
 Fellowship among structural engineers, and professional relations with other allied technical and scientific
organizations.
Print History
First Edition, 1972

Second Edition, 1981
Third Edition, 1987
Fourth Edition, 1992
Fifth Edition, 2001
Sixth Edition, 2010
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FOREWORD
For the protection of public life and property, the design of structures and the preparation of
structural plans for their construction have to be controlled and regulated. For almost four decades now,
this control has been exercised in this country by the National Structural Code of the Philippines with the
initial publication by the Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP) of the National
Structural Code for Buildings. The current publication of the 6th Edition of NSCP C101-10 for buildings,
towers and other vertical structures is the affirmation of the mandate of the ASEP to continuously update
the National Structural Code of the Philippines with the latest technological developments. While
attaining a legal status in its use as a referral code of the National Building Code, NSCP C101-10 is a
publication of high technical value in matters of structural concerns.
The NSCP C101-10 is not only completely new in its technical substance but also in its format. It
has been a product of a sustained effort of ASEP spanning nine years and the fruition of this endeavor has
finally come to reality during my incumbency. It is therefore with a deep feeling of gratitude and pride
that I commend the members of the ASEP Board, the Codes and Standards Committee and the Publicity
and Publications Committee for their accomplishments.
May 2010.
ADAM C ABINALES, F. ASEP

President
Association of Structural Engineers of the
Philippines, 2009-2010

PREFACE TO THE NSCP SIXTH EDITION
1. Introduction
ASEP recognizes the need for an up-to-date structural code addressing the design and installation of building
structural systems through requirements emphasizing performance. The new National Structural Code of the
Philippines (NSCP) is designed to meet these needs through various model codes/regulations, generally from the
United States, to safeguard the public health and safety nationwide.
This updated Structural Code establishes minimum requirements for building structural systems using prescriptive
and performance-based provisions. It is founded on broad-based principles that make possible the use of new
materials and new building designs. Also, this code reflects the updated seismic design practice for earthquake
resistant structures.
2. Changes and Developments
In its drive to upgrade and update the NSCP, the ASEP Codes and Standards Committee initially wanted to adopt
the latest editions of American code counterparts. However, for cases where available local data is limited to
support the upgrade, then some provisions and procedures of the NSCP 5th edition were retained.
This NSCP 6th edition is based on the following international codes and references:
a. Uniform Building Code UBC-1997 (adopted for Earthquake Loads)
b. International Building Code IBC-2009 (referenced)
c. American Society of Civil Engineers ASCE7-05 (adopted for Wind Loads)
d. American Concrete Institute ACI318-08M
e. American Institute for Steel Construction AISC-05 with Supplementary Seismic Provisions
f. American Iron and Steel Institute AISI S100–2007
g. Reinforced Masonry Engineering Handbook America
h. Concrete Masonry Handbook, 6th Edition
Significant revisions are summarized as follows:

a. Chapter 1 – General Requirements. The following changes are made in this code:
a.1 Section 103 – Classification of Buildings
School buildings of more than one storey, hospitals and designated evacuation centers are
added under the essential facilities category.
a.2 Section 104 – Design Requirements
Deflection of any structural member under the serviceability requirement is deleted. For
concrete and steel materials see Chapter 4 and 5 respectively; new requirements are
added to the design review section.
a.3 Section 105 – Posting and Instrumentation
The provision of installed recording accelerograph is adjusted.
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b. Chapter 2 – Minimum Design Loads. The changes made in this code are as follows:
b.1 Section 203 – Combination of Loads
The load factor values on wind loads are adjusted together with the inclusion of rain
loads.
b.2 Section 205 – Live Loads
Additional loads are incorporated in the table for minimum uniform and concentrated
loads.
b.3 Section 207 – Wind Loads
Wind load provisions, which were previously based on ASCE7-95, are updated by the
introduction of the Wind Directionality Factor, Kd, based on ASCE7-05. The ANSI
EIA/TIA-222-G is also referenced for wind loads on antennas.
Equations for the gust effect factors for both rigid and flexible structures are introduced.
These include the gust effect factor for antennas, transmission and latticed towers,
poles/posts, masts and transmission lines based on ASCE Manual of Practice No.74
(Guidelines for Electrical Transmission Line Structural Loading).
New formulas are also introduced for the natural frequency and damping ratio.
b.4 Section 208 – Earthquake Loads
Basically, there are no major changes on the earthquake provisions due to the non-
availability of Phivolcs-issued spectral acceleration maps for all areas in the Philippines.
However, ASCE/SEI7-05 is recognized as an alternative procedure in the determination
of the earthquake loads.
b.5 Section 210 and Section 211 – Environmental Loads
New sections on rain loads and flood loads are added.
c. Chapter 3: Specifications for Excavations and Geomaterials. The revisions made in this updated
code are as follows:
c.1 Provisions pertaining to the conduct and interpretation of foundation investigations for
cases involving liquefiable, expansive or questionable soils are adopted;
c.2 The section on footings is amended to incorporate provisions for differential settlement,
design loads and vibratory loads;
c.3 The section on pile foundations is amended to incorporate new provisions on splicing of
concrete piles; and
c.4 The section on special foundations, slope stabilization and materials of construction are
added.
d. Chapter 4: Structural Concrete. The revisions made in this updated code are as follows:
d.1 Section 401 - General Requirements: Design requirements for earthquake-resistant
structures are updated based on ACI 318-08M which mentions the “Seismic Design
Categories (SDCs)” of ASCE/SEI 7-05. However, in the absence of Phivolcs-issued
spectral acceleration maps for all areas in the Philippines, the seismic loading procedures
based on ASCE/SEI 7-05 is adopted as an alternative procedure (see Section 208-11).
Therefore, based on the Commentary of ACI 318-08, Seismic Zone 2 (UBC 97) was
adopted in lieu of SDC C (ASCE/SEI 7-05). Similarly, Seismic Zone 4 is adopted in
lieu of SDCs D, E and F;
d.2 Section 403 - Materials: New requirements for headed shear stud reinforcement, headed
deformed bars, and stainless steel bars are given with appropriate references to ASTM
standards;
d.3 Section 404 - Durability Requirement: Exposure categories and classes, requirements or
concrete by exposure class are adopted to replace the many tables of durability
requirements in Section 404, making it easier to clearly specify the intended application;
d.4 Section 405 - Concrete Quality, Mixing, and Placing: The use of three 100 mm x 200
mm cylinders is adopted as equivalent to the use of two 150 mm x 300 mm cylinders for
determining concrete compressive strength. Due to concern that material properties may
change with time, a 12-month limit is set on historical data used to qualify mixture
proportions and flexural test performance criteria are added to qualify the use of steel
fiber - reinforced concrete as a replacement for minimum shear reinforcement;
d.5 Section 407 - Details of Reinforcement: To avoid the misconception that there is no
minus tolerance on cover values given in the code, “minimum cover” is replaced with
“specified cover” throughout Section 407; Class B lap splices are now required for
structural integrity reinforcement; continuous top and bottom structural integrity
reinforcement are required to pass through the column core; and requirements for
transverse reinforcement confining structural integrity reinforcement in perimeter beams
are clarified;
d.6 Section 408 - Analysis and Design - General Considerations: Provisions are modified to
allow redistribution of positive moments; and a simple modeling procedure for
evaluation of lateral displacements is added;
d.7 Section 409 - Strength and Serviceability Requirements: Strength reduction factors for
compression-controlled sections (other structural members) is reduced from 0.70 to 0.65,
and shear and torsion for shear walls and frames in Seismic Zone 4 is reduced from 0.85
to 0.75, bearing on concrete (except for post-tensioning anchorage zones) is reduced
from 0.70 to 0.65. Strength reduction factors for strut-and-tie models, flexural sections in
pretensioned members, are also added;
d.8 Section 410 - Flexure and Axial Loads: The section on slenderness effects is reorganized
to recognize computer analysis techniques as the primary method of evaluating second-
order effects;
d.9 Section 411 - Shear and Torsion: Code requirements are added to permit the use of
headed stud assemblies as shear reinforcement for slabs and footings. The nominal shear
strength is permitted to be larger for headed stud assemblies than for other forms of slab
and footing shear reinforcement; more stringent limits are placed on the depths of
beams that are exempted from the requirement for minimum shear reinforcement; a new
limit on the depth of hollow core units for which minimum shear reinforcement could be
waived is established; steel fiber-reinforced concrete is added as an alternative to
minimum shear reinforcement; and the upper limit on shear friction strength is
significantly increased for monolithically placed concrete and concrete placed against
intentionally roughened concrete;
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d.10 Section 412 - Development and Splices of Reinforcement: Provisions are added for the
development length of headed deformed bars; splice length when splicing bars with
different sizes is addressed; and a coating factor of 1.0 for galvanized reinforcement is
added;
d.11 Section 413 - Two-Way Slab Systems: Dimension limits are added for the use of shear
caps; and alternative corner reinforcement arrangement is added for two-way slabs
supported by edge beams or walls;
d.12 Section 414 – Walls: Design provisions for slender wall panels are modified to be more
consistent with the methods used in design practice;
d.13 Section 418 - Prestressed Concrete: The allowable concrete compression stress
immediately after prestress transfer is increased; and requirements for structural integrity
steel in two-way unbonded post-tensioned slab systems are modified;
d.14 Section 420 - Strength Evaluation of Existing Structures: Load factors for determining
the required test load are modified to reflect typical modern load combinations;
d.15 Section 421 - Earthquake-Resistant Structures: This section presents the requirements for
Seismic Resistant Design from ASCE/SEI 7-05, but instead of using the Seismic Design
Categories of ASCE/SEI 7-05, the equivalent Seismic Zones as per UBC 1997 are
specified. Also, new design requirements are added for such seismic zones; new
detailing option is added for diagonally reinforced coupling beams; design yield strength
for confinement reinforcement is raised to 690 MPa to help reduce congestion; and
boundary element confinement requirements is relaxed;
d.16 Section 423 - Anchoring to Concrete: Use of reinforcement in the vicinity of anchors and
ductility requirements for anchors in seismic zones are clarified.
d.17 Section 425 - Alternative Provisions for Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Flexural
and Compression Members: Revisions in Appendix B of ACI 318-08M is adopted;
d.18 Section 426 - Alternative Load and Strength Reduction Factors: Revisions in Appendix
C of ACI 318-08M is adopted; and
d.19 Section 427 - Strut-and-tie Models: Appendix A of ACI 318-08M is adopted in its
entirety.
e. Chapter 5: Structural Steel. The revisions made in this updated code are as follows:
e.1 Adopted is an integrated treatment of the Allowable Stress Design (ASD) and the Load
and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) such that the earlier Specification that treated only
the ASD method is retained;
e.2 In lieu of the previous method of analysis, a new method (Direct Analysis Method) is
adopted; and
e.3 The cold formed steel design for building systems and structural members are included.
The chapter on steel design from NSCP 2001 which covered Allowable Working Stress Design (ASD) is
fully updated to address usage, advances in the state of knowledge, and changes in design practice.
f. Chapter 6: Wood
f.1 The provisions in this chapter are refined to incorporate local practices and corrections in
the previous version of the code (NSCP 2001). Referrals are made to the NSCP 2010

Vol. III on Housing for relevant provisions concerning single-family dwellings / low-cost
housing;
f.2 Tables from the previous version of NSCP 2001 including the Table containing specie
design information are amended to incorporate the latest updated information/ list of
wood species as provided by the Forest Products Research and Development Institute
(FPRDI);
f.3 A provision that limit the use of wood shear walls and diaphragms is added; and
f.4 A section for Machine Graded Lumber (MGL) is included.
g. Chapter 7: Masonry
g.1 The provisions in this chapter are refined to include local practices and corrections from
the previous version of the code (NSCP 2001); referrals are made to the NSCP 2010 Vol.
III on Housing for relevant provisions concerning single-family dwellings / low-cost
housing;
g.2 Recycled aggregates are defined and provided;
g.3 A section for Seismic Design is added; and
g.4 Additional sections each for Masonry Fireplaces and Masonry Chimneys are included.
This publication of the 6th Edition is a collective effort of the ASEP Board of Directors from 2007 to 2010, from
ASEP’s past presidents Christopher P. T. Tamayo (2007-2008) and Wilfredo S. Lopez (2008-2009) and the ASEP
Codes and Standards Committee whose cooperation made this publication.
In addition, the ASEP Codes and Standards Committee is indebted to Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology (Phivolcs) and to Dir. Renato V. Solidum, Ph. D. for his unselfish contribution especially on Chapters 1
and 2 of this code.
Likewise, our thanks to all ASEP members and other users of the NSCP who have suggested improvements,
identified errors and recommended items for inclusion and omissions. Their suggestions have been carefully
considered.
ASEP also acknowledges the contribution of the industry partners, companies and individuals, who continue to
support ASEP's numerous undertakings.
3. Disclaimer
The reader is cautioned that professional judgment must be exercised when data or recommendations are applied.
The information presented has been prepared in accordance with recognized engineering principles and is for
general information only. This information should not be used or relied upon for any specific application without
competent professional examination and verification of its accuracy, suitability and applicability by a registered
engineer. Anyone making use of this information assumes all liabilities arising from such use.
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EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
ADAM C ABINALES, MEng., F.ASEP WILFREDO S. LOPEZ, MCM, F.ASEP
ASEP President, 2009-2010 ASEP President, 2008-2009
ANTHONY VLADIMIR C. PIMENTEL, F.ASEP CHRISTOPHER P. T. TAMAYO, F.ASEP

ASEP Vice-President, 2009-2010 and ASEP President, 2007-2008
Managing Director, Codes and Standards Committee
EMILO M. MORALES, MSCE, F.ASEP ROMEO A. ESTAÑERO, Ph.D., F.ASEP

Chairman, Codes and Standards Committee Adviser, Codes and Standards Committee
CODES AND STANDARDS COMMITTEE

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS LOADS AND ACTIONS
CARLOS M. VILLARAZA, F.ASEP CARLOS M. VILLARAZA, F.ASEP
Chairman Chairman
VIRGILIO B. COLUMNA, MEng., F.ASEP VIRGILIO B. COLUMNA, MEng., F.ASEP
Co-Chairman Co-Chairman
RONALDO S. ISON, F.ASEP BENITO M. PACHECO, Ph.D., F.ASEP
RONWALDO EMMANUEL R. AQUINO, MSCE, M.ASEP CESAR P. PABALAN, F.ASEP
Work Group Members RONALDO S. ISON, F.ASEP
RONWALDO EMMANUEL R. AQUINO, MSCE, M.ASEP
RUTH B. MABILANGAN, MSCE, M.ASEP
Work Group Members

EXCAVATIONS AND STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
GEOMATERIALS
MARK ZARCO, Ph.D. JORGE P. GENOTA, F.ASEP
Chairman Chairman
ROY ANTHONY LUNA, MSCE WILFREDO S. LOPEZ, F.ASEP
Co-Chairman Co-Chairman
JONATHAN R. DUNGCA, Ph.D. ANDRES WINSTON C. ORETA, Ph. D., M.ASEP
MARK K. MORALES, M.Sc. RAMIL H. CRISOLO, M.ASEP
DANIEL C. PECKLEY JR., Ph. D. JUANITO C. CUNANAN, M.ASEP
BRIAN B. TAN, MSCE BLAS N. ESPINOSA, F.ASEP
Work Group Members BERNARDO A. LEJANO, Ph.D., M.ASEP
Work Group Members
ARNEL R. AGUEL, M.ASEP
Resource Person
ROMEO A. ESTAÑERO, Ph. D., F.ASEP
Adviser


CODES AND STANDARDS COMMITTEE
STRUCTURAL STEEL WOOD
ANTHONY VLADIMIR C. PIMENTEL, F.ASEP CHRISTOPHER P.T. TAMAYO, F.ASEP
Chairman Chairman
GILBERT B. MAGBUTAY, M.ASEP ALAN C. ABAN, F.ASEP
FREDERICK FRANCIS M. SISON, M.ASEP Co-Chairman
Co-Chairmen RICO J. CABANGON, Ph.D. (FRDI)
ALLAN DERBY A. ALFILER, M.ASEP ACHILLES L. LUARDO, M.ASEP
ALLAN B. BENOGSUDAN, M.ASEP ROY T. ROQUE, M.ASEP
EDGARDO S. CRUZ, M.ASEP Work Group Members
JONATHAN G. SEVILLA, M.ASEP
Work Group Members

MASONRY ASEP SECRETARIAT
CHRISTOPHER P.T. TAMAYO, F.ASEP

Chairman AILYN C. ANONICAL
ALAN C. ABAN, F.ASEP Administrative Officer
Co-Chairman MAY A. JACINTO
LEOPOLDO R. BUENAVENTURA, JR., M.ASEP Account Officer
JAY EMERSON V. LIM, M.ASEP CERELINE G. LUCASIA
Work Group Members JUNE B. CAIS
Administrative Staff
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ASSOCIATION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS OF THE
PHILIPPINES
COMMITTEE ON CODES AND STANDARDS (2007-2010)
Letter of Acknowledgement and Appreciation
I wish to convey my deepest appreciation and thanks for the invaluable service rendered by the
various volunteer chairpersons and members of the committees in making this major NSCP 2010 6th
Edition a reality.
The time, money and personal sacrifices rendered by the various Committee Chairpersons are
sincerely and deeply appreciated. Without these unselfish contributions, this monumental task would not
have been at all possible.
My sincerest thanks are also offered to our sponsors and benefactors who have responded to our
call by supporting the NSCP through their advertisements which are very valuable in reducing the cost of
printing to make the NSCP more affordable and more widespread in distribution.
As we launch the NSCP 2010 6th Edition, we stay committed towards disseminating the
important features and new revisions to the Code by conducting regional and city seminars as a service to
the civil engineering profession and also to help the structural engineering profession keep abreast with
the state of practice and state of the art in structural engineering.
As we have gone to this initial launch, we encourage the end-users to give us their invaluable
comments towards making the NSCP a living code and more receptive to the needs of Filipino engineers.
Special thanks also go to the ASEP President and the Board of Directors and the ASEP
Secretariat for the valuable support and assistance given in the preparation of the revised NSCP 2010 6th
Edition.
EMILIO M. MORALES MSCE, F.ASEP, F.PICE, F.ASCE

Chairman
Committee on Codes and Standards for
NSCP 2010 6th Edition

PHILIPPINES
OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS (2009-2010)
OFFICERS:
ADAM C. ABINALES, MEng., F.ASEP

President
ANTHONY VLADIMIR C. PIMENTEL, F.ASEP
Vice President
MIRIAM LUSICA-TAMAYO, MSCE, F.ASEP
Secretary
VIRGILIO B. COLUMNA, MEng., F.ASEP
Treasurer
DIRECTORS:
ANTONIO A. AVILA, M.ASEP

DANILO A. DOMINGO, M.ASEP
RONALDO S. ISON, F.ASEP
FREDERICK FRANCIS M. SISON, M.ASEP
PEDRO M. TOLENTINO, JR., M.ASEP
VINCI NICHOLAS R. VILLASEÑOR, F.ASEP
WILFREDO S. LOPEZ, MCM, F.ASEP

Immediate Past President
COLLEGE OF FELLOWS:
ROMEO A. ESTAÑERO, Ph.D., F.ASEP

Chancellor
JORGE P. GENOTA, F.ASEP
Scribe
CARLOS M. VILLARAZA, F.ASEP
Burser
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PHILIPPINES
OFFICERS:

President
Vice President
Secretary
VINCI NICOLAS R. VILLASEÑOR, F.ASEP
Treasurer
DIRECTORS:

FREDERICK FRANCIS M. SISON, M.ASEP
ANTHONY VLADIMIR C. PIMENTEL, F.ASEP
CHRISTOPHER P. T. TAMAYO, F.ASEP

COLLEGE OF FELLOWS:
ROMEO A. ESTAÑERO, Ph.D., F.ASEP

Chancellor
Scribe

PHILIPPINES
OFFICERS:
CHRISTOPHER P. T. TAMAYO, F.ASEP

President
Vice President
Secretary
ELMER P. FRANCISCO, M.ASEP
Treasurer
DIRECTORS:

FERDINAND A. BRIONES, M.ASEP
BERNARDO A. LEJANO, Ph.D., M.ASEP

COLLEGE OF FELLOWS:
ROMEO A. ESTAÑERO, Ph. D., F.ASEP

Chancellor
Scribe
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NSCP C101-10
Chapter 1
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES

VOLUME I
SIXTH EDITION

Tel. No : (+632) 410-0483

Fax No.: (+632) 411-8606
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CHAPTER 1 – General Requirements 1-1
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ...................................................................................................................... 3

SECTION 101 - TITLE, PURPOSE AND SCOPE ................................................................................................................ 3
101.1 Title................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
101.2 Purpose .......................................................................................................................................................................... 3
101.3 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 3
101.4 Alternative Systems ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
SECTION 102 - DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................................................... 3
SECTION 103 - CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES .................................................................................................... 5
103.1 Nature of Occupancy ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
SECTION 104 - DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................................................................ 6
104.1 Strength Requirement .................................................................................................................................................... 6
104.2 Serviceability Requirement............................................................................................................................................ 6
104.3 Analysis ......................................................................................................................................................................... 6
104.4 Foundation Investigation ............................................................................................................................................... 7
104.5 Design Review ............................................................................................................................................................... 7
SECTION 105 - POSTING AND INSTRUMENTATION .................................................................................................... 7
105.1 Posting of Live Loads .................................................................................................................................................... 8
105.2 Earthquake-Recording Instrumentation ......................................................................................................................... 8
SECTION 106 - SPECIFICATIONS, DRAWINGS AND CALCULATIONS .................................................................... 8
106.1 General .......................................................................................................................................................................... 9
106.2 Specifications................................................................................................................................................................. 9
106.3 Design Drawings ........................................................................................................................................................... 9
106.4 Calculations ................................................................................................................................................................. 10
106.5 As-built Drawings........................................................................................................................................................ 10
SECTION 107 - STRUCTURAL INSPECTIONS, TESTS AND STRUCTURAL OBSERVATIONS ........................... 11
107.1 General ........................................................................................................................................................................ 11
107.2 Definitions ................................................................................................................................................................... 11
107.3 Inspection Program ...................................................................................................................................................... 12
107.4 Structural Inspector ...................................................................................................................................................... 12
107.5 Types of Work for Inspection ...................................................................................................................................... 12
107.6 Approved Fabricators .................................................................................................................................................. 14
107.7 Prefabricated Construction .......................................................................................................................................... 14
107.8 Non-Destructive Testing .............................................................................................................................................. 15
107.9 Structural Observation ................................................................................................................................................. 16
SECTION 108 - EXISTING STRUCTURES ........................................................................................................................ 16
108.1 General ........................................................................................................................................................................ 16
108.2 Maintenance................................................................................................................................................................ 16
108.3 Additions, Alterations or Repairs ................................................................................................................................ 16
108.4 Change in Use .............................................................................................................................................................. 17
SECTION 109 - GRADING AND EARTHWORK .............................................................................................................. 17
109.1 General ........................................................................................................................................................................ 18
109.2 Definitions ................................................................................................................................................................... 18
109.3 Permits Required ........................................................................................................................................................ 19
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
1-2 CHAPTER 1 – General Requirements
109.4 Hazards ........................................................................................................................................................................ 19

109.5 Grading Permit Requirements ...................................................................................................................................... 19
109.6 Grading Inspection ....................................................................................................................................................... 20
109.7 Completion of Work .................................................................................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER 1 Sponsors of any system of design or construction not

within the scope of this code, the adequacy of which had
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS been shown by successful use and by analysis and test,
shall have the right to present the data on which their
design is based to the building official or to a board of
SECTION 101 examiners appointed by the building official or the project
TITLE, PURPOSE AND SCOPE owner/developer. This board shall be composed of
competent structural engineers and shall have authority to
101.1 Title investigate the data so submitted, to require tests, and to
These regulations shall be known as the National formulate rules governing design and construction of such
Structural Code of the Philippines, Vol. I, 6th Edition systems to meet the intent of this code. These rules, when
2010, and may be cited as such and will be referred to approved and promulgated by the building official, shall
herein as “this code." be of the same force and effect as the provisions of this
code.
101.2 Purpose
The purpose of this code is to provide minimum load
requirements for the design of buildings, towers and other
vertical structures, and minimum standards and
guidelines to safeguard life or limb, property and public
welfare by regulating and controlling the design,
construction, quality of materials pertaining to the
structural aspects of all buildings and structures within
this jurisdiction.
101.3 Scope
The provisions of this code shall apply to the
construction, alteration, moving, demolition, repair,
maintenance and use of buildings, towers and other
vertical structures within this jurisdiction.
Special structures such as but not limited to single family

dwellings, storage silos, liquid product tanks and
hydraulic flood control structures, should be referred to
special state of practice literature but shall refer to
provisions of this code as a minimum wherever
applicable.
For additions, alterations, maintenance, and change in use

of buildings and structures, see Section 108.
Where, in any specific case, different sections of this code

specify different materials, methods of construction or
other requirements, the most restrictive provisions shall
govern except in the case of single family dwellings.
Where there is a conflict between a general requirement
and a specific requirement, the specific requirement shall
be applicable.
101.4 Alternative Systems

The provisions of this code are not intended to prevent the
use of any material, alternate design or method of
construction not specifically prescribed by this code,
provided any alternate has been permitted and its use
authorized by the building official (see Section 102).
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SECTION 102 artificially built up or composed of parts joined together

in some definite manner.
DEFINITIONS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER is a registered Civil
For the purpose of this code, certain terms, phrases, words Engineer with special qualification in the practice of
and their derivatives shall be construed as specified in this Structural Engineering as recognized by the Board of
chapter and elsewhere in this code where specific Civil Engineering of the Professional Regulation
definitions are provided. Terms, phrases and words used Commission as endorsed by the Philippine Institute of
in the singular include the plural and vice versa. Terms, Civil Engineers (PICE) through the Association of
phrases and words used in the masculine gender include Structural Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP) or
the feminine and vice versa. specialist members of the Structural Engineering
Specialty Division of PICE.
The following terms are defined for use in this chapter:
ADDITION is an extension or increase in floor area or

height of a building or structure.
ALTER or ALTERATION is any change, addition or

modification in construction or occupancy.
APPROVED as to materials and types of construction,

refers to approval by the building official as the result of
investigation and tests conducted by the building official,
or by reason of accepted principles or tests by recognized
authorities, technical or scientific organizations.
AUTHORITY HAVING JURISDICTION is the

organization, political subdivision, office or individual
charged with the responsibility of administering and
enforcing the provisions of this code.
BUILDING is any structure usually enclosed by walls

and a roof, constructed to provide support or shelter for an
intended use or occupancy.
BUILDING, EXISTING, is a building erected prior to

the adoption of this code, or one for which a legal
building permit has been issued.
BUILDING OFFICIAL is the officer or other

designated authority charged with the administration and
enforcement of this code, or the building official's duly
authorized representative.
CIVIL ENGINEER is a professional engineer licensed

to practise in the field of civil engineering.
ENGINEER-OF-RECORD is a civil engineer

responsible for the structural design.
OCCUPANCY is the purpose for which a building or

other structures or part thereof, is used or intended to be
used.
STRUCTURE is that which is built or constructed, an

edifice or building of any kind, or any piece of work

Table 103-1 - Occupancy Category

SECTION 103 OCCUPANCY OCCUPANCY OR FUNCTION OF
CLASSIFICATION OF CATEGORY STRUCTURE
STRUCTURES Occupancies having surgery and emergency

treatment areas,
103.1 Nature of Occupancy Fire and police stations,
Buildings and other structures shall be classified, based Garages and shelters for emergency vehicles
and emergency aircraft,
on the nature of occupancy, according to Table 103-1 for
purposes of applying wind and earthquake in Chapter 2. Structures and shelters in emergency
preparedness centers,
Each building or other structures shall be assigned to the
highest applicable occupancy category or categories. Aviation control towers,
Assignment of the same structure to multiple occupancy Structures and equipment in communication
categories based on use and the type of loading condition centers and other facilities required for
I Essential
being evaluated (e.g. wind or seismic) shall be emergency response,
Facilities
permissible. Facilities for standby power-generating
equipment for Category I structures,
When buildings or other structures have multiple uses Tanks or other structures containing housing
(occupancies), the relationship between the uses of or supporting water or other fire-
various parts of the building or other structure and the suppression material or equipment
required for the protection of Category I,
independence of the structural system for those various
II or III structures,
parts shall be examined. The classification for each
independent structural system of a multiple-use building Public school buildings,
or other structure shall be that of the highest usage group Hospitals and
in any part of the building or other structure that is Designated evacuation centers.
dependent on that basic structural system. Occupancies and structures housing or
supporting toxic or explosive chemicals
II Hazardous or substances,
Facilities Non-building structures storing, supporting
or containing quantities of toxic or
explosive substances.
Single-story school buildings
Buildings with an assembly room with an
occupant capacity of 1,000 or more,
Educational buildings such as museums
libraries, auditorium with a capacity of
300 or more students,
III Special Buildings used for college or adult
Occupancy education with a capacity of 500 or more
Structures students,
Institutional buildings with 50 or more
incapacitated patients, but not included in
Category I,
Mental hospitals, sanitariums, jails, prison
and other buildings where personal
liberties of inmates are similarly
restrained,
All structures with an occupancy of 5,000 or
more persons,
Structures and equipment in power-
generating stations, and other public
utility facilities not included in Category
I or Category II, and required for
continued operation.
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Table 103-1 (continued) - Occupancy Category SECTION 104

OCCUPANCY OCCUPANCY OR FUNCTION OF DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
CATEGORY STRUCTURE
IV Standard All structures housing occupancies or 104.1 Strength Requirement
Occupancy having functions not listed in Category I, Buildings, towers and other vertical structures and all
Structures II or III and Category V. portions thereof shall be designed and constructed to
V Miscellaneous Private garages, carports, sheds and fences sustain, within the limitations specified in this code, all
Structures over 1.5 m high. loads set forth in Chapter 2 and elsewhere in this code,
combined in accordance with Section 203.
Design shall be in accordance with Strength Design, Load

and Resistance Factor Design and Allowable Stress
Design methods, as permitted by the applicable material
chapters.
Exception:
Unless otherwise required by the building official,
buildings or portions thereof that are constructed in
accordance with the conventional light-framing
requirements specified in Chapter 5 and the NSCP
Volume III on Housing shall be deemed to meet the
requirements of this section.
104.2 Serviceability Requirement
104.2.1 General
Structural systems and members thereof shall be designed
to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections, lateral
drifts, vibration, or any other deformations that adversely
affect the intended use and performance of buildings
towers and other vertical structures. The design shall also
consider durability, resistance to exposure to weather or
aggressive environment, crack control, and other
conditions that affect the intended use and performance of
buildings, towers and other vertical structures.
104.3 Analysis
Any system or method of construction to be used shall be
based on a rational analysis in accordance with well
established principles of mechanics that take into account
equilibrium, general stability, geometric compatibility and
both short-term and long-term material properties.
Members that tend to accumulate residual deformations
under repeated service loads shall have included in their
analysis the added eccentricities expected to occur during
their service life. Such analysis shall result in a system
that provides a complete load path capable of transferring
all loads and forces from their point of origin to the load-
resisting elements. The analysis shall include, but not be
limited to, the provisions of Sections 104.3.1 through
104.3.3.

104.3.1 Stability Against Overturning 104.5 Design Review

Every structure shall be designed to resist the overturning The design calculations, drawings, specifications and
effects caused by the lateral forces specified with other design related documents for buildings, towers and
adequate Factor of Safety (FOS). See Section 206.6 for other vertical structures with irregular configuration in
retaining walls, Section 207 for wind loading and Section Occupancy Categories I, II or III within Seismic Zone 4,
208 for earthquake loading. structures under Alternative Systems in Item 101.4, and
Undefined Structural Systems not listed in Table 208-11,
104.3.2 Self-Straining Forces shall be subject to a review by an independent recognized
Provisions shall be made for anticipated self-straining structural engineer or engineers to be employed by the
forces arising from differential settlement of foundations owner in accordance with the ASEP Design Peer Review
and from restrained dimensional changes due to Guidelines. The structural engineer or structural
temperature, moisture, shrinkage, heave, creep and similar engineers performing the review shall have comparable
effects. qualifications and experience as the structural engineer
responsible for the design. The reviewer or reviewers
104.3.3 Anchorage shall obtain a professional waiver from the engineer-of-
record who shall be expected to grant such waiver in
Anchorage of the roof to walls and columns, and of walls keeping with ethical standards of the profession as
and columns to foundations shall be provided and adopted in ASEP guidelines for peer review.
adequately detailed to resist the uplift and sliding forces
that result from the application of the prescribed forces.
The design review shall, as a minimum, verify the general
compliance with this code which shall include, but not be
Concrete and masonry walls shall be anchored to all limited to, the review of the design load criteria, the
floors, roofs and other structural elements that provide design concept, mathematical model and techniques.
lateral support for the wall. Such anchorage shall provide
a positive direct connection capable of resisting the The following may also be verified, that there are no
horizontal forces specified in Chapter 2 but not less than major errors in pertinent calculations, drawings and
the minimum forces in Section 206.4. In addition, in
specifications and may also ensure that the structure as
Seismic Zone 4, diaphragm to wall anchorage using reviewed, meet minimum standards for safety, adequacy
embedded straps shall have the straps attached to or and acceptable standard design practice.
hooked around the reinforcing steel or otherwise
terminated so as to effectively transfer forces to the
The engineer-of-record shall submit the plans and
reinforcing steel. Walls shall be designed to resist bending
specifications, a signed and sealed statement by the
between anchors where the anchor spacing exceeds 1.2
structural engineer doing the review that the above review
meters. Required anchors in masonry walls of hollow
has been performed and that minimum standards have
units or cavity walls shall be embedded in a reinforced
been met.
grouted structural element of the wall. See Sections 208.7,
208.8.2.7 and 208.8.2.8 for earthquake design
See Section 208.6.6.3.2 for design review requirements
requirements. Stiffener beams and columns adequately
when nonlinear time-history analysis is used for
anchored to the main frames shall be considered as
earthquake design.
necessary to ensure proper basket effect on the masonry
blocks to prevent collapse provided its contribution to the
overall stiffness of the structure is recognized. In keeping with the ethical standards of the profession, the
reviewer or reviewers shall not supplant the engineer-on-
record as engineer-on-record for the project. The design
104.4 Foundation Investigation
review shall not in any way transfer or diminish the
Soil explorations shall be required for buildings, towers responsibility of the engineer-of-record.
and other vertical structures falling under Categories I, II
and III in accordance with Table 103-1 or as required by
the building official or if the site specific conditions make
the foundation investigation necessary.
Detailed requirements for foundation investigations shall

be in accordance with Chapter 3 of this code.
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SECTION 105
Phivolcs or the authorities having jurisdiction shall make
POSTING AND arrangements to provide, maintain and service the
INSTRUMENTATION instruments. Data shall be the property of the authorities
having jurisdiction, but copies of individual records shall
105.1 Posting of Live Loads be made available to the owner of the building and to the
public on request and after the payment of an appropriate
The live loads for which each floor or portion thereof of a
fee.
commercial or industrial building has been designed shall
have such design live loads conspicuously posted by the
owner in that part of each story in which they apply, using
durable metal signs. It shall not be allowed to remove or
deface such notices. The occupant of the building shall be
responsible for keeping the actual load below the
allowable limits.
105.2 Earthquake-Recording Instrumentation
105.2.1 General
Unless waived by the building official, every building in
Seismic Zone 4 over 50 m in height shall be provided
with not less than three approved recording
accelerographs. The accelerographs shall be
interconnected for common start and common timing.
105.2.2 Location
The instruments shall be located in the basement,
midportion, and near the top of the building. Each
instrument shall be located so that access is maintained at
all times and is unobstructed by room contents. A sign
stating “MAINTAIN CLEAR ACCESS TO THIS
INSTRUMENT” shall be posted in a conspicuous
location.
105.2.3 Maintenance
Maintenance and service of the instruments shall be
provided by the owner of the building, subject to the
monitoring of the building official. Data produced by the
instruments shall be made available to the building
official or the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology (Phivolcs) on request.
105.2.4 Instrumentation of Selected Buildings

All owners of existing structures selected by the
authorities having jurisdiction shall provide accessible
space for the installation of appropriate earthquake-
recording instruments. Location of said instruments shall
be determined by Phivolcs or the authorities having
jurisdiction.

SECTION 106
106.3.2.1 General Information
SPECIFICATIONS, DRAWINGS
1. Name and date of issue of building code and
AND CALCULATIONS supplements, if any, to which the design conforms.
106.1 General 2. Strengths or designations of materials to be used.
Copies of design calculations, reports, plans, 3. Design strengths of underlying soil or rock. The soil
specifications and inspection program for all or rock profile, when available, shall be provided.
constructions shall bear the signature and seal of the
engineer-of-record. 4. Live loads and other loads used in design and clearly
indicated in the floor plans.
106.2 Specifications 5. Seismic design basis including the total base shear
The specifications shall contain information covering the coefficient; a description of the lateral load resisting
material and construction requirements. The materials and system; and the fundamental natural period in the
construction requirements shall conform to the design in each direction under consideration.
specifications referred to in Chapters 3 to 7 of this code. 6. Provisions for dimensional changes resulting from
creep, shrinkage, heave and temperature.
106.3 Design Drawings
7. Camber of trusses, beams and girders, if required.
106.3.1 General 8. Explanation or definition of symbols and
The design drawings shall be drawn to scale on durable abbreviations used in the drawings.
paper or cloth using permanent ink and shall be of
sufficient clarity to indicate the location, nature and extent 9. Engineer's professional license number and
of the work proposed. The drawings shall show a expiration date of the current Professional Regulation
complete design with sizes, sections, relative locations Commission registration.
and connection details of the various members. Floor
levels, column centers and offsets shall be dimensioned. 106.3.2.2 Structural Concrete
Where available and feasible, archive copies shall be 1. Specified compressive strength (f’c) of concrete at
maintained in durable medium such as compact disc (CD) stated ages or stages of construction for which each
and digital versatile disc (DVD). part of structure is designed. The 28-day compressive
strength (f’c) shall be the basis of design in service.
106.3.2 Required Information
2. Anchorage embedment lengths or cutoff points of
The design drawings shall contain, but shall not be limited steel reinforcement and location and length of lap
to the general information listed in Section 106.3.2.1 and splices.
material specific information listed in Sections 106.3.2.2
and 106.3.2.3, as applicable. 3. Type and location of welded splices and mechanical
connections of reinforcement.
4. Magnitude and location of prestressing forces
including prestressed cable layout.
5. Minimum concrete compressive strength (f’c) at time
of post-tensioning.
6. Stressing sequence for post-tensioned tendons.
7. Details and location of all contraction or isolation
joints specified for plain concrete in Section 422.
8. Statement if concrete slab is designed as a structural
diaphragm, as specified in Section 421.9.3 and
421.9.4.
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106.4.3 Computer Programs

Calculations may include the results from an electronic
106.3.2.3 Structural Steel digital computer analysis. The following requirements
1. Type or types of construction as defined in Section apply to calculations which include such computer output:
501.3. 1. A drawing of the complete mathematical model used
2. Loads and design requirements necessary for to represent the structure in the computer-generated
preparation of shop drawings including shears, analysis shall be provided. Design assumptions shall
moments and axial forces to be resisted by all be clearly described.
members and their connections. 2. A program description giving the program name, the
3. The type of connection for joints using high-strength version number, and the company which developed
bolts. the program and its address shall be provided as part
of the computation documentation. A program User's
4. For welded joints, Type 1 connections shall not be Guide shall also be made available, upon request, and
allowed. shall contain the information to determine the nature
5. Stiffener and bracing requirements. and extent of the analysis, verify the input data,
interpret the result, and determine whether the
6. Description or explanation of welding and inspection computations comply with the requirements of this
symbols used in the design and shop drawings. code.
7. Notes for joints in which welding sequence and 3. Data provided, as computer input shall be clearly
technique of welding are required to be carefully distinguished from those computed in the program.
controlled to minimize distortion. The information required in the output shall include
date of processing, program identification, and
106.4 Calculations identification of structures being analyzed, all input
data, units and final results. An archived copy of all
106.4.1 General computer runs shall be stored in CD or DVD.
Calculations pertinent to the structural design of 4. The first sheet of each computer run shall be signed
structures and its component members shall be filed with and sealed by the engineer-of-record.
the design drawings.
106.4.4 Model Analysis
106.4.2 Basis of Design Summary
Results from model analysis and experimental studies
The calculations shall include a summary of the criteria shall be permitted to supplement calculations. The results
and methodologies used in the design. This summary shall be accompanied by a description of the rational
shall include, but need not be limited to, the following: basis, set-up, methodology and other information required
1. Name and date of issue of building code and for the evaluation of the results.
supplements, if any, to which the design conforms.
106.5 As-built Drawings
2. Strengths or designations of materials to be used for
each component of the structure. As-built drawings shall be prepared by the constructor or
a person retained to provide such services to document
3. Design strengths and other design parameters of the the work as actually constructed. The as-built drawings
underlying soil or rock. shall be drawn to scale upon durable paper or cloth using
permanent ink and shall indicate the sizes, sections,
4. Live loads and other loads used in design.
relative locations, and connection details of the various
5. The basis of the seismic and wind design forces. structural members as actually constructed. Strengths of
materials, based on required tests, shall also be indicated.
6. A description of the structure's gravity and lateral
load resisting systems. A description of the roof,
Work items which require modifications of or are
floor, foundation and other component systems shall
otherwise different from those shown in the design
also be provided.
drawings filed with the building official shall be
7. A description procedures used in the structural accordingly marked in the as-built drawings and provided
analysis. This shall include the section and material with notes indicating the basis of such modifications or
properties used, loading combinations considered, changes. The basis of modification or change shall
second-order effects considerations, and any include reference to supplemental design drawings,
simplifying assumptions made. construction bulletins, or instructions from the owner,

owner's representative or structural engineer authorizing SECTION 107

such modifications or changes.
STRUCTURAL INSPECTIONS,
The signature, seal, name and professional license number TESTS AND STRUCTURAL
of the civil engineer in charge of construction shall be
included in the as-built drawings.
OBSERVATIONS
Copies of the as-built drawings shall be provided to the 107.1 General

owner, constructor, engineer-of-record and the building All construction or work for which a permit is required
official. shall be subject to inspection throughout the various work
stages. One or more structural inspectors who are
registered civil engineers with experience in structural
construction, who shall undertake competent inspection
during construction on the types of work listed under
Section 107.5, shall be employed by the owner or the
engineer-of- record acting as the owner's agent.
Exception:
The building official may waive the requirement for the
employment of a structural inspector if the construction is
of a minor nature.
In addition to structural inspections, structural

observations shall be performed when required by Section
107.9.
107.2 Definitions
The following terms are defined for use in this section:
CONTINUOUS STRUCTURAL INSPECTION is a

structural inspection where the structural inspector is on
the site at all times observing the work requiring
structural inspection.
PERIODIC STRUCTURAL INSPECTION is a

structural inspection where the inspections are made on a
periodic basis and satisfy the requirements of continuous
inspection, provided this periodic scheduled inspection is
performed as outlined in the inspection program prepared
by the structural engineer.
STRUCTURAL INSPECTION is the visual observation

by a structural inspector of a particular type of
construction work or operation for the purpose of
ensuring its general compliance to the approved plans and
specifications and the applicable workmanship provisions
of this code as well as overall construction safety at
various stages of construction.
STRUCTURAL OBSERVATION is the visual

observation of the structural system by the structural
observer as provided for in Section 107.9.2, for its general
conformance to the approved plans and specifications, at
significant construction stages and at completion of the
structural system. Structural observation does not include
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or waive the responsibility for the structural inspections 1. Concrete for foundations of residential buildings
required by Section 107.1 or other sections of this code. accommodating 10 or fewer persons, or buildings
falling under Category V of Table 103-1, provided
107.3 Structural Inspector the building official finds that a structural hazard
does not exist.
107.3.1 Qualifications 2. For foundation concrete, other than cast-in-place
The structural inspector shall be a registered civil drilled piles or caissons, where the structural design
engineer who shall demonstrate competence for is based on an f’c not greater than 17 MPa.
inspection of the particular type of construction or
operation requiring structural inspection. 3. Non-structural slabs on grade, including prestressed
slabs on grade when effective prestress in concrete is
107.3.2 Duties and Responsibilities less than 10 MPa.
The structural inspector shall observe the work assigned 4. Site work concrete fully supported on earth and
for conformance to the approved design drawings and concrete where no special hazard exists.
specifications. Any discrepancy observed shall be brought
to the immediate attention of the constructor for 107.5.2 Bolts Installed in Concrete
correction, then, if uncorrected, to the owner and/or to the Prior to and during the placement of concrete around bolts
building official. when stress increases permitted by Section 423 are
utilized.
The structural inspector shall verify that the as-built
drawings (see Section 106.5) pertaining to the work
assigned reflect the condition as constructed. 107.5.3 Special Moment-Resisting Concrete Frame
For special moment-resisting concrete frame design
The structural inspector shall also submit a final report seismic load in structures within Seismic Zone 4, the
duly signed and sealed stating whether the work requiring structural inspector shall provide reports to the engineer-
structural inspection was, to the best of the inspector's of-record and shall provide continuous inspection of the
knowledge, in conformance to the approved plans and placement of the reinforcement and concrete.
specifications and the applicable workmanship provisions
of this code. 107.5.4 Reinforcing Steel and Prestressing Steel
Tendons
107.4 Inspection Program
107.5.4.1 During all stressing and grouting of tendons
The structural inspector shall prepare an appropriate
in prestressed concrete.
testing and inspection program that shall be submitted to
the building official. He shall designate the portions of
107.5.4.2 During placing of reinforcing steel and
the work that requires structural inspections.
prestressing tendons for all concrete required to have
structural inspection by Section 107.5.1.
When structural observation is required by Section 107.9,
the inspection program shall describe the stages of Exception:
construction at which structural observation is to occur.
The structural inspector need not be present continuously
during placing of reinforcing steel and prestressing
The inspection program shall include samples of
tendons, provided the structural inspector has inspected
inspection reports and provide time limits for submission
for conformance to the approved plans prior to the
of reports.
closing of forms or the delivery of concrete to the jobsite.
107.5 Types of Work for Inspection
Except as provided in Section 107.1, the types of work
listed below shall be inspected by a structural inspector.
107.5.1 Concrete
During the taking of test specimens and placing of
concrete. See Section 107.5.12 for shotcrete.
Exceptions:

107.5.5 Structural Welding of bolts to determine that all layers of connected materials
have been drawn together and that the selected procedure
107.5.5.1 General is properly used to tighten all bolts.
During the welding of any member or connection that is
designed to resist loads and forces required by this code. 107.5.7 Structural Masonry
Exceptions: 107.5.7.1 For masonry, other than fully grouted open-

1. Welding done in an approved fabricator's shop in end hollow-unit masonry, during preparation and
accordance with Section 107.6. taking of any required prisms or test specimens,
placing of all masonry units, placement of
2. The structural inspector need not be continuously reinforcement, inspection of grout space, immediately
present during welding of the following items, prior to closing of cleanouts, and during all grouting
provided the materials, qualifications of welding operations.
procedures and welders are verified prior to the start
of work; periodic inspections are made of work in Exception:
progress; and a visual inspection of all welds is made For hollow-unit masonry where the fm is no more than 10
prior to completion or prior to shipment of shop MPa for concrete units or 18 MPa for clay units,
welding: structural inspection may be performed as required for
a) Single-pass fillet welds not exceeding 8 mm fully grouted open-end hollow-unit masonry specified in
in size. Section 107.5.7.2.
b) Floor and roof deck welding. 107.5.7.2 For fully grouted open-end hollow-unit
c) Welded studs when used for structural masonry during preparation and taking of any
diaphragm or composite systems. required prisms or test specimens, at the start of
laying units, after the placement of reinforcing steel,
d) Welded sheet steel for cold-formed steel grout space prior to each grouting operation, and
framing members such as studs and joists. during all grouting operations.
e) Welding of stairs and railing systems. Exception:
107.5.5.2 Special Moment-Resisting Steel Frames Structural inspection as required in Sections 107.5.7.1
and 107.5.7.2 need not be provided when design stresses
During the non-destructive testing (NDT) of welds have been adjusted as specified in Chapter 7 to permit
specified in Section 107.8 of this code, the use of certified
noncontinuous inspection.
welders shall be required for welding structural steel
connections for this type of frame. Critical joint
107.5.8 Reinforced Gypsum Concrete
connections shall be subjected to non-destructive testing
using certified NDT technicians. When cast-in-place Class B gypsum concrete is being
mixed and placed.
107.5.5.3 Welding of Reinforcing Steel
107.5.9 Insulating Concrete Fill
During the non-destructive testing of welds.
During the application of insulating concrete fill when
107.5.6 High-Strength Bolts used as part of a structural system.
The inspection of high-strength A325 and A490 bolts Exception:
shall be in accordance with approved internationally
The structural inspections may be limited to an initial
recognized standards and the requirements of this section.
inspection to check the deck surface and placement of
While the work is in progress, the structural inspector
reinforcing steel. The structural inspector shall monitor
shall determine that the requirements for bolts, nuts,
the preparation of compression test specimens during this
washers and paint; bolted parts; and installation and
initial inspection.
tightening in such standards are met. Such inspections
may be performed on a periodic basis as defined in
Section 107.2.
The structural inspector shall observe the calibration

procedures when such procedures are required by the
plans or specifications. He shall monitor the installation
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107.5.10 Spray-Applied Fire-Resistive Materials 2. Verification of the fabricator's quality control

During the application of spray-applied fire-resistive capabilities, plant and personnel as outlined in the
materials.. fabrication procedural manual shall be by an
approved inspection or quality control agency.
107.5.11 Piling, Drilled Piers and Caissons 3. Periodic plant inspections shall be conducted by an
During driving and load testing of piles and construction approved inspection or quality control agency to
of cast-in-place drilled piles or caissons. See Sections monitor the effectiveness of the quality control
107.5.1 and 107.5.4 for concrete and reinforcing steel program.
inspection.
107.7 Prefabricated Construction
107.5.12 Shotcrete
During the taking of test specimens and placing of all 107.7.1 General
shotcrete.
107.7.1.1 Purpose
Exception:
The purpose of this section is to regulate materials and
Shotcrete work fully supported on earth, minor repairs establish methods of safe construction where any
and when, in the opinion of the building official, no structure or portion thereof is wholly or partially
special hazard exists. prefabricated.
107.5.13 Special Grading, Excavation and Filling 107.7.1.2 Scope

During earthwork excavations, grading and filling Unless otherwise specifically stated in this section, all
operations inspection to satisfy requirements of Chapter 3 prefabricated construction and all materials used therein
and Section 109.5. shall conform to all the requirements of Section 101.4.
107.5.14 Special Cases 107.7.1.3 Definition

Work that, in the opinion of the structural engineer,
involves unusual hazards or conditions. PREFABRICATED ASSEMBLY is a structural unit,
the integral parts of which have been built up or
107.5.15 Non-Destructive Testing assembled prior to incorporation in the building.
In-situ non-destructive testing program, in addition to the
107.7.2 Tests of Materials
requirements of Section 107.8 that in the opinion of the
structural engineer may supplement or replace Every approval of a material not specifically mentioned in
conventional tests on concrete or other materials and this code shall incorporate as a proviso the kind and
assemblies. number of tests to be made during prefabrication.
107.6 Approved Fabricators 107.7.3 Tests of Assemblies

Structural inspections required by this section and The building official may require special tests to be made
elsewhere in this code are not required where the work is on assemblies to determine their structural adequacy,
done on the premises of a fabricator approved by the durability and weather resistance.
structural engineer to perform such work without
structural inspection. The approved fabricator shall 107.7.4 Connections
submit a certificate of compliance that the work was Every device used to connect prefabricated assemblies
performed in accordance with the approved plans and shall be designed as required by this code and shall be
specifications to the building official and to the engineer capable of developing the strength of the largest member
or architect of record. The approved fabricator's connected, except in the case of members forming part of
qualifications shall be contingent on compliance with the a structural frame designed as specified in Chapter 2.
following: Connections shall be capable of withstanding uplift forces
1. The fabricator has developed and submitted a as specified in Chapter 2.
detailed fabrication procedural manual reflecting key
quality control procedures that will provide a basis 107.7.5 Pipes and Conduits
for inspection control of workmanship and the In structural design, due allowance shall be made for any
fabricator plant. material to be removed or displaced for the installation of
pipes, conduits or other equipment.

107.7.6 Certificate and Inspection 107.8.2.1 General

All complete penetration groove welds contained in joints
107.7.6.1 Materials and splices shall be tested 100 percent either by ultrasonic
Materials and the assembly thereof shall be inspected to testing or by radiography.
determine compliance with this code. Every material shall
Exceptions:
be graded, marked or labeled where required elsewhere in
this code. 1. When approved, the non-destructive testing rate for
an individual welder or welding operator may be
107.7.6.2 Certificate reduced to 25 percent, provided the reject rate is
A certificate of acceptance shall be furnished with every demonstrated to be 5 percent or less of the welds
prefabricated assembly, except where the assembly is tested for the welder or welding operator. A sampling
readily accessible to inspection at the site. The certificate of at least 40 completed welds for a job shall be made
of acceptance shall certify that the assembly in question for such reduction evaluation. Reject rate is defined
has been inspected and meets all the requirements of this as the number of welds containing rejectable defects
code. divided by the number of welds completed. For
evaluating the reject rate of continuous welds over
107.7.6.3 Certifying Agency 900 mm in length where the effective throat thickness
is 25 mm or less, each 300 mm increment or fraction
To be acceptable under this code, every certificate of thereof shall be considered as one weld. For
approval shall be made by a nationally or internationally evaluating the reject rate on continuous welds over
recognized certifying body or agency. 900 mm in length where the effective throat thickness
is greater than 25 mm, each 150 mm of length or
107.7.6.4 Field Erection fraction thereof shall be considered one weld.
Placement of prefabricated assemblies at the building site
shall be inspected to determine compliance with this code. 2. For complete penetration groove welds on materials
less than 8 mm thick, non-destructive testing is not
required; for this welding, continuous inspection is
107.7.6.5 Continuous Inspection
required.
If continuous inspection is required for certain materials
where construction takes place on the site, it shall also be 3. When approved by the building official and outlined
required where the same materials are used in in the project plans and specifications, this non-
prefabricated construction. destructive ultrasonic testing may be performed in
the shop of an approved fabricator utilizing qualified
Exception: test techniques in the employment of the fabricator.
Continuous inspection will not be required during
prefabrication if the approved agency certifies to the 107.8.2.2 Partial penetration groove welds when used in
construction and furnishes evidence of compliance. column splices shall be tested either by ultrasonic testing
or radiography when required by the plans and
107.8 Non-Destructive Testing specifications. For partial penetration groove welds when
used in column splices, with an effective throat less than
107.8.1 General 20 mm thick, nondestructive testing is not required; for
this welding, continuous structural inspection is required.
In Seismic Zone 4, welded, fully-restrained connections
between the primary members of special moment-
107.8.2.3 Base metal thicker than 40 mm, when subjected
resisting frames shall be tested by nondestructive methods
to through-thickness weld shrinkage strains, shall be
performed by certified NDT technicians for compliance
ultrasonically inspected for discontinuities directly behind
with approved standards and job specifications. This
such welds after joint completion.
testing shall be a part of the structural inspection
requirements of Section 107.5. A program for this testing
shall be established by the person responsible for Any material discontinuities shall be accepted or rejected
structural design and as shown on plans and on the basis of the defect rating in accordance with the
specifications. (larger reflector) criteria of approved national standards.
107.8.3 Others
107.8.2 Testing Program
As a minimum, the testing program shall include the The structural engineer may accept or require in place
following: non-destructive testing of concrete or other materials and
assemblies to supplement or replace conventional tests.
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107.9 Structural Observation SECTION 108

107.9.1 General EXISTING STRUCTURES
Structural observation shall be provided in Seismic Zone
108.1 General
4 when one of the following conditions exists:
Buildings in existence at the time of the adoption of this
1. The structure is defined in Table 103-1 as Occupancy code may have their existing use or occupancy continued,
Category I, II or III; if such use or occupancy was legal at the time of the
2. The structure is in Seismic Zone 4, Na as set forth in adoption of this code, provided such continued use is not
Table 208-4 is greater than 1.0, and a lateral design is dangerous to life.
required for the entire structure;
Any change in the use or occupancy of any existing
3. When so designated by the structural engineer, or building or structure shall comply with the provisions of
4. When such observation is specifically required by the Sections 108.4 of this code.
building official.
108.2 Maintenance
107.9.2 Structural Observer All buildings and structures, both existing and new, and
The owner shall employ the engineer-of-record or another all parts thereof, shall be maintained in a safe condition.
civil engineer to perform structural observation as defined The owner or the owner's designated agent shall be
in Section 107.2. responsible for the maintenance of buildings and
structures. To determine compliance with this subsection,
Observed deficiencies shall be reported in writing to the the building official may cause a structure to be
owner's representative, structural inspector, constructor reinspected.
and the building official. If not resolved, the structural
observer shall submit to the building official a written 108.3 Additions, Alterations or Repairs
statement duly signed and sealed, identifying any
deficiency. 108.3.1 General
Buildings and structures to which additions, alterations or
107.9.3 Construction Stages for Observations repairs are made shall comply with all the requirements of
The structural observations shall be performed at the this code for new facilities except as specifically provided
construction stages prescribed by the inspection program in this section.
prepared as required by Section 107.3.
108.3.2 When Allowed by the Building Official
It shall be the duty of the engineer-in-charge of Additions, alterations or repairs may be made to any
construction, as authorized in the Building Permit, to building or structure without requiring the existing
notify the structural observer that the described building or structure to comply with all the requirements
construction stages have been reached, and to provide of this code, provided the addition, alteration or repair
access to and means for observing the components of the conforms to that required for a new building or structure
structural system. and provided further that such approval by the building
official is in writing.
Additions or alterations shall not be made to an existing

building or structure that will cause the existing building
or structure to become unsafe. An unsafe condition shall
be deemed to have been created if an addition or
alteration will cause any structural element of the existing
building or structure to resist loads in excess of their
capacity or cause a reduction of their load carrying
capacity.
Additions or alterations shall not be made to an existing

building or structure when such existing building or
structure is not in full compliance with the provisions of
this code except when such addition or alteration will
result in the existing building or structure being no more

hazardous based on structural safety, than before such A change in use or occupancy of any building shall be
additions or alterations are undertaken, unless adequate allowed only when the change in use or occupancy will
retrofitting or remediation is introduced. not cause any structural element of the existing building
to resist loads, determined on the basis on this code and
Exceptions:
on the proposed use or occupancy, in excess of their
Alterations to existing structural elements or additions of capacity. Alterations to the existing building shall be
new structural elements, which are initiated for the permitted to satisfy this requirement.
purpose of increasing the strength or stiffness of the
lateral-force-resisting system of an existing structure, No change in the character of occupancy of a building
need not be designed for forces conforming to these shall be made without a new certificate of occupancy
regulations provided that an engineering analysis is regardless of whether any alterations to the building are
submitted to show that: required.
1. The capacity of existing structural elements required
to resist forces is not reduced;
2. The lateral force to required existing structural
elements is not increased beyond their design
strength;.
3. New structural elements are detailed and connected
to the existing structural elements as required by
these regulations; and
4. New or relocated non-structural elements are
detailed and connected to existing or new structural
elements as required by these regulations.
108.3.3 Non-structural
Non-structural alterations or repairs to an existing
building or structure are permitted to be made of the same
materials of which the building or structure is constructed,
provided that they do not adversely affect any structural
member or the fire-resistance rating of any part of the
building or structure.
108.3.4 Historic Buildings

Repairs, alterations and additions necessary for the
preservation, restoration, rehabilitation or continued use
of a building or structure may be made without
conformance to all the requirements of this code when
authorized by the building official, provided:
1. The building or structure has been designated by
official action of the legally constituted authority of
this jurisdiction as having special historical or
architectural significance.
2. Any structurally unsafe conditions are corrected.
3. The restored building or structure will be no more
hazardous based on life safety than the existing
building.
108.4 Change in Use

No change shall be made in the character of occupancies
or use of any building unless the new or proposed use is
less hazardous, based on life safety than the existing use.
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SECTION 109 Geotechnical Engineering of the Philippine Institute of

Civil Engineers (PICE).
GRADING AND EARTHWORK
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING is the application
109.1 General of the principles of soil and rock mechanics in the
investigation, evaluation and design of civil works
109.1.1 Scope involving the use of earth materials and foundations and
The provisions of this section apply to grading, the inspection or testing of the construction thereof.
excavation and earthwork construction, including fills and
enbankments. GRADE is the vertical location of the ground surface.
109.2 Definitions EXISTING GRADE is the grade prior to grading.

The following terms are defined for use in this section:
FINISH GRADE is the final grade of the site that
APPROVAL shall mean that the proposed work or conforms to the approved plan.
completed work conforms to this section in the opinion of
the building official. ROUGH GRADE is the stage at which the grade
approximately conforms to the approved plan.
AS GRADED is the extent of surface conditions on
completion of grading. GRADING is an excavator or fill or combination thereof.
BEDROCK is in-place solid or altered rock. KEY is a designed compacted fill placed in a trench
excavated in earth material beneath the toe of a slope.
BENCH is a relatively level step excavated into earth
material on which fill is to be placed. PROFESSIONAL INSPECTION is the inspection
required by this code to be performed by the civil
BORROW is earth material acquired from an off-site engineer or geotechnical engineer. Such inspections
location for use in grading on a site. include that performed by persons supervised by such
engineers or geologists and shall be sufficient to form an
CIVIL ENGINEERING is the application of the opinion relating to the conduct of the work.
knowledge of the forces of nature, principles of
mechanics and the properties of materials to the SITE is any lot or parcel of land or contiguous
evaluation, design and construction of civil works. combination thereof, under the same ownership, where
grading is performed or permitted.
COMPACTION is the densification of a fill by
mechanical or chemical means. SLOPE is an inclined ground surface the inclination of
which is expressed as a ratio of vertical distance to
EARTH MATERIAL is any rock, natural soil or fill or horizontal distance.
any combination thereof.
SOIL is naturally occurring superficial deposits overlying
EROSION is the wearing away of the ground surface as a bedrock.
result of the movement of wind, water or ice.
SOILS ENGINEER. See Geotechnical Engineer.
EXCAVATION is the mechanical removal of earth
material. SOILS ENGINEERING. See Geotechnical Engineering.
FILL is a deposit of earth material placed by artificial TERRACE is a relatively level step constructed in the
means. face of a graded slope surface for drainage and
maintenance purposes.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEER is a registered Civil
Engineer with special qualification in the practice of
Geotechnical Engineering as recognized by the Board of
Civil Engineering of the Professional Regulation
Commission as endorsed by the Specialty Division of

109.3 Permits Required stability of a public way or drainage channel, the owner of
the property upon which the excavation or fill is located,
109.3.1 General or other person or agent in control of said property, upon
Except as specified in Section 109.3.2 of this section, no receipt of notice in writing from the building official,
person shall do any grading without first having obtained shall within the period specified therein repair or
a grading permit from the building official. eliminate such excavation or embankment to eliminate the
hazard and to be in conformance with the requirements of
109.3.2 Exempted Work this code. Requirements for excavations shall be referred
to Chapter 3 of this code.
A grading permit shall not be required for the following:
1. Grading in an isolated, self-contained area if there is 109.5 Grading Permit Requirements
no danger to private or public property.
109.5.1 General
2. An excavation below finished grade for basements
and footings of a building, retaining wall or other Except as exempted in Section 109.3.2 of this code, no
structure authorized by a valid building permit. This person shall do any grading without first obtaining a
shall not exempt any fill made with the material from grading permit from the building official. A separate
such excavation or exempt any excavation having an permit shall be obtained for each site, and may cover both
unsupported height greater than 1.5 m after the excavations and fills.
completion of such structure;
109.5.2 Grading Designation
3. Cemetery graves;
Grading in excess of 4,000 m3 shall be performed in
4. Refuse disposal sites controlled by other regulations; accordance with the approved grading plan prepared by a
civil engineer, and shall be designated as "engineered
5. Excavations for wells, or trenches for utilities; grading." Grading involving less than 4,000 m3 shall be
6. Mining, quarrying, excavating, processing or designated "regular grading" unless the permittee chooses
stockpiling of rock, sand, gravel, aggregate or clay to have the grading performed as engineered grading, or
controlled by other regulations, provided such the building official determines that special conditions or
operations do not affect the lateral support of, or unusual hazards exist, in which case grading shall
increase stresses in, soil on adjoining properties; conform to the requirements for engineered grading.
7. Exploratory excavations performed under the
109.5.3 Engineered Grading Requirements
direction of a registered geotechnical engineer;
Application for a grading permit shall be accompanied by
8. An excavation that (1) is less than 600 mm in depth two sets of plans and specifications, and supporting data
or (2) does not create a cut slope greater than 1.5 m in consisting of a geotechnical engineering report.
height and steeper than 1 unit vertical in 1½ units Additionally, the application shall state the estimated
horizontal (66.7% slope); and quantities of work involved. The plans and specifications
9. A fill less than 300 mm in depth and placed on shall be prepared and signed by the civil engineer licensed
natural terrain with a slope flatter than 1 unit vertical to prepare such plans or specifications when required by
in 5 units horizontal (20% slope), or less than 900 the building official.
mm in depth, not intended to support structures, that
does not exceed 40 m3 on any one lot and does not Specifications shall contain information covering
obstruct a drainage course. construction and material requirements. Plans shall be
drawn to scale upon substantial paper or cloth and shall be
Exemption from the permit requirements of this section of sufficient clarity to indicate the nature and extent of the
shall not be deemed to grant authorization for any work to work proposed and show in detail that they will conform
be done in any manner in violation of the provisions of to the provisions of this code and all relevant laws,
this code or any other laws or ordinances of this ordinances, rules and regulations. The first sheet of each
jurisdiction. set of plans shall give location of the work, the name and
address of the owner, and the person by whom they were
109.4 Hazards prepared.
Whenever the building official determines that any
existing excavation or embankment or fill on private
property has become a hazard to life and limb, or
endangers property, or adversely affects the safety, use or
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The plans shall include the following information: of the person who prepared the plan. The plan shall
include the following information:
1. General vicinity map of the proposed site;
1. General vicinity map of the proposed site;
2. Property limits and accurate contours of existing
ground and details of terrain and area drainage; 2. Limiting dimensions and depth of cut and fill;
3. Limiting dimensions elevations or finish contours to 3. Provisions for lateral earth support or shoring; and
be achieved by the grading, and proposed drainage
4. Location of any buildings or structures where work is
channels and related construction;
to be performed, and the location of any buildings or
4. Detailed plans of all surface and subsurface drainage structures within 4.5 m of the proposed grading.
devices, walls, cribbing, dams and other protective
devices to be constructed with, or as a part of, the 109.6 Grading Inspection
proposed work, together with a map showing the
drainage area and the estimated runoff of the area 109.6.1 General
served by any drains; Grading operations for which a permit is required shall be
5. Location of any buildings or structures on the subject to inspection by the building official. Inspection
property where the work is to be performed and the of grading operations shall be provided by the
location of any buildings or structures on land of geotechnical engineer retained to provide such services in
adjacent owners that are within 4.5 m of the property accordance with Section 109.5.5 for engineered grading
or that may be affected by the proposed grading and as required by the building official for regular
operations; grading.
6. Recommendations included in the geotechnical 109.6.2 Civil Engineer
engineering report and the engineering geology
report shall be incorporated in the grading plans or The civil engineer shall provide professional inspection
specifications. When approved by the building within such engineer's area of technical specialty, which
official, specific recommendations contained in the shall consist of observation and review as to the
geotechnical engineering report and the engineering establishment of line, grade and surface drainage of the
geology report, which are applicable to grading, may development area. If revised plans are required during the
be included by reference; and course of the work, they shall be prepared by the civil
engineer.
7. The dates of the geotechnical engineering and
engineering geology reports together with the names, 109.6.3 Geotechnical Engineer
addresses and phone numbers of the firms or The geotechnical engineer shall provide observation
individuals who prepared the reports. during grading and testing for required compaction. The
geotechnical engineer shall provide sufficient observation
109.5.4 Geotechnical Engineering Report during the preparation of the natural ground and
The geotechnical engineering report required by Section placement and compaction of the fill to verify that such
109.5.3 shall include data regarding the nature, work is being performed in accordance with the
distribution and strength of existing soil, conclusions and conditions of the approved plan and the appropriate
recommendations for grading procedures and design requirements of this chapter.
criteria for corrective measures, including buttress fills,
when necessary, and opinion on adequacy for the Revised recommendations relating to conditions differing
intended use of sites to be developed by the proposed from the approved geotechnical engineering and
grading as affected by geotechnical engineering factors, engineering geology reports shall be submitted to the
including the stability of slopes. permittee, the building official and the civil engineer.
Refer to Chapter 3 on Excavations and Foundations for
detailed requirements and guidelines. 109.6.4 Permittee
The permittee shall be responsible for the work to be
109.5.5 Regular Grading Requirements performed in accordance with the approved plans and
Each application for a grading permit shall be specifications and in conformance with the provisions of
accompanied by a plan in sufficient clarity to indicate the this code, and the permittee shall engage consultants, as
nature and extent of the work, and state the estimated may be necessary, to provide professional inspection on a
quantities of work involved. The plans shall give the timely basis. The permittee shall act as a coordinator
location of the work, the name of the owner and the name between the consultants, the contractor and the building

official. In the event of changed conditions, the permittee tests, other substantiating data, and comments on any
shall be responsible for informing the building official of changes made during grading and their effect on the
such change and shall provide revised plans for approval. recommendations made in the approved geotechnical
engineering investigation report. Geotechnical
109.6.5 Building Official engineers shall submit a statement that, to the best of
The building official shall inspect the project at the their knowledge, the work within their area of
various stages of work requiring approval to determine responsibilities is in accordance with the approved
that adequate control is being exercised by the geotechnical engineering report and applicable
professional consultants. provisions of this section.
3. The grading contractor shall submit in a form
109.6.6 Notification of Noncompliance prescribed by the building official a statement of
If, in the course of fulfilling their respective duties under conformance to said as-built plan and the
this chapter, the civil engineer or the geotechnical specifications.
engineer finds that the work is not being done in
conformance with this chapter or the approved grading 109.7.2 Notification of Completion
plans, the discrepancies shall be reported immediately in The permittee shall notify the building official when the
writing to the permittee and to the building official. grading operation is ready for final inspection. Final
permission by the building official shall not be given until
109.6.7 Transfer of Responsibility all work, including installation of all drainage facilities
If the civil engineer or the geotechnical engineer-of- and their protective devices, and all erosion-control
record is changed during grading, the work shall be measures have been completed in accordance with the
stopped until the replacement has agreed in writing to final approved grading plan, and the required reports have
accept their responsibility within the area of technical been submitted by the engineer-of-record.
competence for approval upon completion of the work. It
shall be the duty of the permittee to notify the building
official in writing of such change prior to the
recommencement of such grading.
109.7 Completion of Work
109.7.1 Final Reports

Upon completion of the rough grading work and at the
final completion of the work, the following reports and
drawings and supplements thereto are required for
engineered grading or when professional inspection is
performed for regular grading, as applicable:
1. An as-built grading plan prepared by the civil
engineer retained to provide such services in
accordance with Section 109.6.5 showing original
ground surface elevations, as-graded ground surface
elevations, lot drainage patterns, and the locations
and elevations of surface drainage facilities and of
the outlets of subsurface drains. As-constructed
locations, elevations and details of subsurface drains
shall be shown as reported by the geotechnical
engineer. Civil engineers shall state that to the best
of their knowledge the work within their area of
responsibility was done in accordance with the final
approved grading plan.
2. A report prepared by the geotechnical engineer
retained to provide such services in accordance with
Section 109.6.3, including locations and elevations of
field density tests, summaries of field and laboratory
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NSCP C101-10
Chapter 2
MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

VOLUME I
SIXTH EDITION

Tel. No : (+632) 410-0483

Fax No.: (+632) 411-8606
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CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads 2-1
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 2 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS .......................................................................................................................... 3

SECTION 201 GENERAL....................................................................................................................................................... 3
201.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
SECTION 202 DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................................................ 3
202.1 Walls .................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
SECTION 203 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS ..................................................................................................................... 5
203.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
203.2 Symbols and Notations ...................................................................................................................................................... 5
203.3 Load Combinations using Strength Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design .......................................................... 5
203.4 Load Combinations Using Allowable Stress Design ......................................................................................................... 5
203.5 Special Seismic Load Combinations ................................................................................................................................. 6
SECTION 204 DEAD LOADS ................................................................................................................................................ 6
204.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
204.2 Weights of Materials and Constructions ............................................................................................................................ 6
204.3 Partition Loads ................................................................................................................................................................... 6
SECTION 205 LIVE LOADS .................................................................................................................................................. 9
205.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 9
205.2 Critical Distribution of Live Loads .................................................................................................................................... 9
205.3 Floor Live Loads ............................................................................................................................................................... 9
205.4 Roof Live Loads .............................................................................................................................................................. 13
205.5 Reduction of Live Loads ................................................................................................................................................. 14
205.6 Alternate Floor Live Load Reduction .............................................................................................................................. 14
SECTION 206 OTHER MINIMUM LOADS ...................................................................................................................... 15
206.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 15
206.2 Other Loads ..................................................................................................................................................................... 15
206.3 Impact Loads ................................................................................................................................................................... 15
206.4 Anchorage of Concrete and Masonry Walls .................................................................................................................... 15
206.5 Interior Wall Loads .......................................................................................................................................................... 15
206.6 Retaining Walls ............................................................................................................................................................... 15
206.7 Water Accumulation ........................................................................................................................................................ 15
206.8 Uplift on Floors and Foundations .................................................................................................................................... 15
206.9 Crane Loads ..................................................................................................................................................................... 16
206.10 Heliport and Helistop Landing Areas ............................................................................................................................ 16
SECTION 207 WIND LOADS .............................................................................................................................................. 17
207.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 17
207.2 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................................................... 17
207.3 Symbols and Notations .................................................................................................................................................... 19
207.4 Method 1 – Simplified Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 20
207.5 Method 2 – Analytical Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 21
207.6 Method 3 – Wind Tunnel Procedure................................................................................................................................ 31
207.7 Gust Effect Factor for Other Structures ........................................................................................................................... 32
207.8 Estimates of Dynamic Properties ..................................................................................................................................... 32
207.9 Consensus Standards and Other Referenced Documents................................................................................................. 34
SECTION 208 EARTHQUAKE LOADS ............................................................................................................................. 73
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2-2 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
208.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 73

208.2 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................................................... 73
208.3 Symbols and Notation ...................................................................................................................................................... 75
208.4 Criteria Selection ............................................................................................................................................................. 76
208.5 Minimum Design Lateral Forces and Related Effects ................................................................................................... 82
208.6 Dynamic Analysis Procedures ......................................................................................................................................... 91
208.7 Lateral Force on Elements of Structures, Nonstructural Components and Equipment Supported by Structures ... 93
208.8 Detailed Systems Design Requirements .......................................................................................................................... 97
208.9 Non-Building Structures ................................................................................................................................................ 100
208.10 Site Categorization Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 101
208.11 Alternative Earthquake Load Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 103
SECTION 209 SOIL LATERAL LOADS .......................................................................................................................... 112
209.1 General ........................................................................................................................................................................... 112
SECTION 210 RAIN LOADS ............................................................................................................................................. 112
210.1 Roof Drainage ................................................................................................................................................................ 112
210.2 Design Rain Loads ......................................................................................................................................................... 112
210.3 Ponding Instability ......................................................................................................................................................... 112
210.4 Controlled Drainage ....................................................................................................................................................... 112
SECTION 211 FLOOD LOADS .......................................................................................................................................... 113
211.1 General ........................................................................................................................................................................... 113
211.2 Definitions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 113
211.3 Establishment of Flood Hazard Areas............................................................................................................................ 114
211.4 Design and Construction ................................................................................................................................................ 114
211.5 Flood Hazard Documentation ........................................................................................................................................ 114

CHAPTER 2 SECTION 202

MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS DEFINITIONS
The following terms are defined for use in this chapter:
SECTION 201
ACCESS FLOOR SYSTEM is an assembly consisting
GENERAL of panels mounted on pedestals to provide an under-floor
space for the installations of mechanical, electrical,
201.1 Scope communications or similar systems or to serve as an
This chapter provides minimum design load requirements air-supply or return-air plenum.
for the design of buildings, towers and other vertical
structures. Loads and appropriate load combinations, AGRICULTURAL BUILDING is a structure designed
which have been developed to be used together, for and constructed to house farm implements, hay, grain,
strength design and allowable stress design are set forth. poultry, livestock or other horticultural products. The
structure shall not be a place of human habitation or a
place of employment where agricultural products are
processed, treated, or packaged, nor shall it be a place
used by the public.
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN is a method of

proportioning and designing structural members such that
elastically computed stresses produced in the members by
nominal loads do not exceed specified allowable stresses
(also called working stress design).
ASSEMBLY BUILDING is a building or portion of a

building for the gathering together of 50 or more persons
for such purposes as deliberation, education, instruction,
worship, entertainment, amusement, drinking or dining, or
awaiting transportation.
AWNING is an architectural projection that provides

weather protection, identity or decoration and is wholly
supported by the building to which it is attached.
BALCONY, EXTERIOR, is an exterior floor system

projecting from and supported by a structure without
additional independent supports.
DEAD LOADS consist of the weight of all materials and

fixed equipment incorporated into the building or other
structure.
DECK is an exterior floor system supported on at least

two opposing sides by an adjacent structure and/or posts,
piers, or other independent supports.
ESSENTIAL FACILITIES are buildings, towers and

other vertical structures that are intended to remain
operational in the event of extreme environmental loading
from wind or earthquakes.
FACTORED LOAD is the product of a load specified in

Sections 204 through 208 and a load factor. See Section
203.3 for combinations of factored loads.
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GARAGE is a building or portion thereof in which motor 2. Any masonry or concrete wall that supports more
vehicle containing flammable or combustible liquids or than 2.90 kN/m of vertical load in addition to its own
gas in its tank is stored, repaired or kept. weight.
GARAGE, PRIVATE, is a building or a portion of a EXTERIOR WALL is any wall or element of a wall, or
building, not more than 90 m2 in area, in which only any member or group of members, that defines the
motor vehicles used by the tenants of the building or exterior boundaries or courts of a building and that has a
buildings on the premises are kept or stored. slope of 60 degrees or greater with the horizontal plane.
LIMIT STATE is a condition beyond which a structure NONBEARING WALL is any wall that is not a bearing
or member becomes unfit for service and is judged to be wall.
no longer useful for its intended function (serviceability
limit state) or to be unsafe (strength limit state). PARAPET WALL is that part of any wall entirely above
the roof line.
LIVE LOADS are those loads produced by the use and
occupancy of the building or other structure and do not RETAINING WALL is a wall designed to resist the
include dead load, construction load, or environmental lateral displacement of soil or other materials.
loads such as wind load, earthquake load and fluid load.
LOADS are forces or other actions that result from the

weight of all building materials, occupants and their
possessions, environmental effects, differential
movements, and restrained dimensional changes.
Permanent loads are those loads in which variations over
time are rare or of small magnitude. All other loads are
variable loads.
LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN

(LRFD) METHOD is a method of proportioning and
designing structural elements using load and resistance
factors such that no applicable limit state is reached when
the structure is subjected to all appropriate load
combinations. The term "LRFD" is used in the design of
steel structures.
MARQUEE is a permanent roofed structure attached to

and supported by the building and projecting over public
right-of-way.
OCCUPANCY is the purpose for that a building, or part

thereof, is used or intended to be used.
STRENGTH DESIGN is a method of proportioning and

designing structural members such that the computed
forces produced in the members by the factored load do
not exceed the member design strength. The term strength
design is used in the design of concrete structures.
202.1 Walls
BEARING WALL is any wall meeting either of the

following classifications:
1. Any metal or wood stud wall that supports more than
1.45 kN/m of vertical load in addition to its own
weight.

SECTION 203 1.2D1.0E  f1L (203-5)

COMBINATIONS OF LOADS 0.9D 1.6W 1.6H (203-6)
203.1 General 0.9D  1.0 E  1.6H (203-7)
Buildings, towers and other vertical structures and all where:
portions thereof shall be designed to resist the load
combinations specified in Section 203.3 or 203.4 and, f1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live
where required by Section 208, or Chapter 4 and the loads in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for garage live load
special seismic load combinations of Section 203.5. = 0.5 for other live loads
Exception:
The most critical effect can occur when one or more of
the contributing loads are not acting. All applicable loads Factored load combinations for structural concrete per
shall be considered, including both earthquake and wind, Section 409.3.
in accordance with the specified load combinations.
203.3.2 Other Loads
203.2 Symbols and Notations Where P is to be considered in design, the applicable load
D = dead load shall be added to Section 203.3.1 factored as 1.2P.
E = earthquake load set forth in Section 208.5.1.1
Em = estimated maximum earthquake force that can be 203.4 Load Combinations Using Allowable Stress
developed in the structure as set forth in Section Design
208.5.1.1
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and 203.4.1 Basic Load Combinations
maximum heights Where allowable stress design (working stress design) is
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in used, structures and all portions thereof shall resist the
soil most critical effects resulting from the following
L = live load, except roof live load, including any combinations of loads:
permitted live load reduction
Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load D F (203-8)
reduction D  H  F  L T (203-9)
P = ponding load
R = rain load on the undeflected roof D H  F  Lror R (203-10)
T = self-straining force and effects arising from
contraction or expansion resulting from D H  F  0.75L T  LrorR (203-11)
temperature change, shrinkage, moisture change,
creep in component materials, movement due to
differential settlement, or combinations thereof  E  (203-12)
D  H  F   W or 
W = load due to wind pressure  1 .4 
No increase in allowable stresses shall be used with these

203.3 Load Combinations using Strength Design or
load combinations except as specifically permitted by
Load and Resistance Factor Design
Section 203.4.2.
203.3.1 Basic Load Combinations
Where load and resistance factor design is used, structures
and all portions thereof shall resist the most critical
effects from the following combinations of factored loads:
1.4D F (203-1)
1.2D F T 1.6L H 0.5(Lr orR) (203-2)
1.2D1.6(Lr orR) ( f1Lor0.8W) (203-3)
1.2D1.6W  f1L0.5(Lr orR) (203-4)
th
SECTION 204
203.4.2 Alternate Basic Load Combinations
In lieu of the basic load combinations specified in Section
DEAD LOADS
203.4.1, structures and portions thereof shall be permitted
204.1 General
to be designed for the most critical effects resulting from
the following load combinations. When using these Dead loads consist of the weight of all materials of
alternate basic load combinations, a one-third increase construction incorporated into the building or other
shall be permitted in allowable stresses for all structure, including but not limited to walls, floors, roofs,
combinations, including W or E. ceilings, stairways, built-in partitions, finishes, cladding
and other similarly incorporated architectural and
  E  structural items, and fixed service equipment, including
D  H  F  0.75 L  Lr  W or  (203-13)
  1.4  the weight of cranes.
0.60D  W  H (203-14) 204.2 Weights of Materials and Constructions

The actual weights of materials and constructions shall be
E used in determining dead loads for purposes of design. In
0.60 D  H (203-15) the absence of definite information, it shall be permitted
1 .4
to use the minimum values in Tables 204-1 and 204-2.
D L  Lr (orR) (203-16)
204.3 Partition Loads
D  L W (203-17) Floors in office buildings and other buildings where
partition locations are subject to change shall be designed
E to support, in addition to all other loads, a uniformly
D L (203-18)
1.4 distributed dead load equal to 1.0 kPa of floor area.
Exception: Exception:
Crane hook loads need not be combined with roof live Access floor systems shall be designed to support, in
load or with more than one-half of the wind load. addition to all other loads, a uniformly distributed dead
load not less than 0.5 kPa of floor area.
203.4.3 Other Loads
Where P is to be considered in design, each applicable
load shall be added to the combinations specified in
Sections 203.4.1 and 203.4.2.
203.5 Special Seismic Load Combinations

For both allowable stress design and strength design, the
following special load combinations for seismic design
shall be used as specifically required by Section 208, or
by Chapters 3 through 7.
1.2D f1L1.0Em (203-19)
0.9D1.0Em (203-20)
where:
f1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live
loads in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for garage live load.
= 0.5 for other live loads
Em = the maximum effect of horizontal and vertical
forces as set forth in Section 208.5.1.1

Table 204-1 Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials (kN/m3)
Material Density Material Density

Aluminum ................................................................................... 26.7 Lead .......................................................................................... 111.5
Bituminous Products Lime
Asphaltum ......................................................................... 12.7 Hydrated, loose ................................................................. 5.0
Graphite ............................................................................. 21.2 Hydrated, compacted ........................................................ 7.1
Paraffin ............................................................................... 8.8 Masonry, Ashlar Stone
Petroleum, crude ................................................................ 8.6 Granite ............................................................................... 25.9
Petroleum, refined .............................................................. 7.9 Limestone, crystalline ....................................................... 25.9
Petroleum, benzine ............................................................. 7.2 Limestone, oolitic ............................................................. 21.2
Petroleum, gasoline ............................................................ 6.6 Marble ............................................................................... 27.2
Pitch ................................................................................... 10.8 Sandstone .......................................................................... 22.6
Tar ..................................................................................... 11.8
Masonry, Brick
Brass ........................................................................................... 82.6 Hard (low absorption) ....................................................... 20.4
Bronze ........................................................................................ 86.7 Medium (medium absorption) .......................................... 18.1
Cast-stone masonry (cement, stone, sand) ................................. 22.6 Soft (high absorption) ....................................................... 15.7
Cement, portland, loose .............................................................. 14.1
Ceramic tile ................................................................................ 23.6 MASONRY, Concrete (solid portion)
Charcoal ....................................................................................... 1.9 Lightweight units .............................................................. 16.5
Cinder fill .................................................................................... 9.0 Medium weight units ........................................................ 19.6
Cinders, dry, in bulk .................................................................... 7.1 Normal weight units ......................................................... 21.2
Coal Masonry grout ............................................................................ 22.0
Anthracite, piled ................................................................. 8.2 Masonry, Rubble Stone
Bituminous, piled ............................................................... 7.4 Granite ............................................................................... 24.0
Lignite, piled ...................................................................... 7.4 Limestone, crystalline ....................................................... 23.1
Peat, dry, piled .................................................................... 3.6 Limestone, oolitic ............................................................. 21.7
Concrete, Plain Marble ............................................................................... 24.5
Cinder ................................................................................ 17.0 Sandstone .......................................................................... 21.5
Expanded-slag aggregate .................................................. 15.7 Mortar, cement or lime ..................................................... 20.4
Haydite (burned-clay aggregate) ....................................... 14.1 Particle board ............................................................................. 7.1
Slag .................................................................................... 20.7 Plywood ..................................................................................... 5.7
Stone .................................................................................. 22.6 Riprap (not nubmerged)
Vermiculite and perlite aggregate, nonload-bearing …..3.9-7.9 Limestone .......................................................................... 13.0
Other light aggregate, load bearing …………………11.0-16.5 Sandstone .......................................................................... 14.1
Concrete, Reinforced Sand
Cinder ................................................................................ 17.4 Clean and dry .................................................................... 14.1
Slag .................................................................................... 21.7 River, dry .......................................................................... 16.7
Stone, (including gravel) ................................................... 23.6
Slag
Copper ........................................................................................ 87.3 Bank .................................................................................. 11.0
Cork, compressed ....................................................................... 2.2 Bank screenings ................................................................ 17.0
Earth (not submerged) Machine ............................................................................. 15.1
Clay, dry ............................................................................ 9.9 Sand ................................................................................... 8.2
Clay, damp ........................................................................ 17.3 Slate ............................................................................................ 27.0
Clay and gravel, dry .......................................................... 15.7 Steel, cold-drawn ....................................................................... 77.3
Silt, moist, loose ................................................................ 12.3
Silt, moist, packed ............................................................. 15.1 Stone, Quarried, Piled
Silt, flowing ....................................................................... 17.0 Basalt, granite, gneiss ....................................................... 15.1
Sand and gravel, dry, loose ................................................ 15.7 Limestone, marble, quartz ................................................ 14.9
Sand and gravel, dry, packed ............................................... 17.3 Sandstone .......................................................................... 12.9
Sand and gravel, wet ........................................................... 18.9 Shale .................................................................................. 14.5
Greenstone, hornblende .................................................... 16.8
Earth (submerged)
Clay ................................................................................... 12.6 Terra Cotta, Architectural
Soil ..................................................................................... 11.0 Voids filled ……………………………………………... 18.9
River mud .......................................................................... 14.1 Voids unfilled …………………………………………… 11.3
Sand or gravel ................................................................... 9.4 Tin .............................................................................................. 72.1
Sand or gravel and clay ..................................................... 10.2 Water
Glass ........................................................................................... 25.1 Fresh .................................................................................. 9.8
Gravel, dry .................................................................................. 16.3 Sea ..................................................................................... 10.1
Gypsum, loose ............................................................................ 11.0 Wood (see Table 6.2 for relative densities for Philippine wood)
Gypsum, wallboard .................................................................... 7.9
Ice ........................................................................................... 9.0 Zinc, rolled sheet ........................................................................ 70.5
Iron
Cast .................................................................................. 70.7
Wrought ........................................................................... 75.4
th
Table 204-2 Minimum Design Dead Loads (kPa) (Use actual loads when available)
Component Load Component Load Component Load

CEILINGS FLOOR FILL FRAME WALLS
Acoustical Fiber Board ........... 0.05 Cinder concrete, per mm ..........0.017 Exterior stud walls:
Gypsum Board (per mm Lightweight concrete, per mm ..0.015 50x100 mm @ 400 mm, 15-mm
thickness) .......................... 0.008 Sand, per mm ............................0.015 gypsum, insulated, 10-mm
Mechanical duct allowance ...... 0.20 Stone concrete, per mm ............0.023 siding ........ ........................ 0.53
Plaster on tile or concrete ....... 0.24 FLOOR AND FLOOR FINISHES 50x150 mm @ 400 mm, 15-mm
Plaster on wood lath ............... 0.38 gypsum, insulated, 10-mm
Suspended steel channel Asphalt block (50 mm), 13 mm siding ……….....................0.57
system ................................. 0.10 mortar .....................................1.44 Exterior stud wall with brick
Suspended metal lath and cement Cement finish (25 mm) on stone- veneer ................................ 2.30
plaster ................................. 0.72 concrete fill.............................1.53 Windows, glass, frame and
Suspended metal lath and Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) sash .................................... 0.38
gypsum plaster .................... 0.48 on 13 mm mortar bed .............0.77 Clay brick wythes:
Wood furring suspension Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) 100 mm .............................. 1.87
system ................................. 0.12 on 25 mm mortar bed .............1.10 200 mm .............................. 3.80
Concrete fill finish (per mm 300 mm .............................. 5.50
COVERINGS, Roof and Wall thickness)..............................0.023 400 mm .............................. 7.42
Asphalt shingles .........................0.10 Hardwood flooring, 22 mm ........0.19
Cement tile .................................0.77 Linoleum or asphalt tile, 6mm ....0.05 CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS
Clay tile (for mortar add 0.48 kPa) Marble and mortar on stone- Hollow Concrete Masonry units
Book tile, 50 mm ...................0.57 concrete fill.............................1.58 (Unplastered, add 0.24 kPa for
Book tile, 75 mm ....................0.96 Slate (per mm thickness) ..........0.028 each face plastered)
Ludowici .................................0.48 Solid flat tile on 25 mm mortar Grout Wythe thickness (mm)
Roman.....................................0.57 base.........................................1.10 Spacing 100 150 200
Spanish ...................................0.91 Subflooring, 19 mm ....................0.14 16.5 kN/m3 Density of Unit
Composition: Terrazzo (38 mm) directly on No grout 1.05 1.15 1.48
Three-ply ready roofing ..........0.05 slab .........................................0.91 800 1.40 1.53 2.01
Four-ply felt and gravel ..........0.26 Terrazzos (25 mm) on stone- 600 1.50 1.63 2.20
Five-ply felt and gravel ...........0.29 concrete fill.............................1.53 400 1.79 1.92 2.54
Copper or tin...............................0.05 Terrazzo (25 mm), 50 mm stone Full 2.50 2.63 3.59
Corrugated asbestos-cement concrete ..................................1.53 19.6 kN/m3 Density of Unit
roofing ....................................0.19 Wood block (76 mm) on mastic,
No grout 1.24 1.34 1.72
Deck, metal 20 gage ...................0.12 no fill ......................................0.48
800 1.59 1.72 2.25
Deck, metal, 18 gage ..................0.14 Wood block (76 mm) on 13 mm
Fiberboard, 13 mm .....................0.04 mortar base .............................0.77 600 1.69 1.87 2.44
Gypsum sheathing, 13 mm .........0.10 400 1.98 2.11 2.82
FLOORS, WOOD-JOIST (no Full 2.69 2.82 3.88
Insulation, roof boards (per mm plaster)
thickness) 21.2 kN/m3 Density of Unit
Cellular glass .................. 0.0013 Joist Joist Spacing No grout 1.39 1.44 1.87
Fibrous glass ................... 0.0021 Sizes 300 400 600 800 1.74 1.82 2.39
Fiberboard ....................... 0.0028 (mm) mm mm mm 600 1.83 1.96 2.59
Perlite .............................. 0.0015 50x150 0.30 0.25 0.25 400 2.13 2.2 2.92
polystyrene foam ............ 0.0004 50x200 0.30 0.30 0.25 Full 2.84 2.97 3.97
Urethane foam with skin ... 0.0009
50x250 0.35 0.30 0.30
Plywood (per mm thickness) 0.0060
Rigid Insulation, 13 mm .......... 0.04 50x300 0.40 0.35 0.30
Skylight, metal frame, FRAME PARTITIONS
10 mm wire glass ................ 0.38
Movable steel partitions................... 0.19
Slate, 5 mm ............................. 0.34
Wood or steel studs, 13 mm
Slate, 6 mm ............................. 0.48
gypsum board each side ............... 0.38
Waterproofing membranes:
Wood studs, 50 x 100,
Bituminous, gravel-covered . 0.26
unplastered ................................. 0.19
Bituminous, smooth surface .. 0.07
Wood studs 50 x 100, plastered
Liquid, applied ..................... 0.05
one side .......................................... 0.57
Single-ply, sheet .................. 0.03
Wood studs 50 x 100, plastered
Wood Sheathing (per mm
two side.......................................... 0.96
thickness)............................ 0.0057
Wood Shingles ...........................0.14

SECTION 205 205.3.2 Distribution of Uniform Floor Loads

Where uniform floor loads are involved, consideration
LIVE LOADS may be limited to full dead load on all spans in
combination with full live load on adjacent spans and
205.1 General alternate spans.
Live loads shall be the maximum loads expected by the
intended use or occupancy but in no case shall be less 205.3.3 Concentrated Loads
than the loads required by this section.
Floors shall be designed to support safely the uniformly
distributed live loads prescribed in this section or the
205.2 Critical Distribution of Live Loads concentrated load given in Table 205-1 whichever
Where structural members are arranged to create produces the greatest load effects. Unless otherwise
continuity, members shall be designed using the loading specified the indicated concentration shall be assumed to
conditions, which would cause maximum shear and be uniformly distributed over an area 750 mm square and
bending moments. This requirement may be satisfied in shall be located so as to produce the maximum load
accordance with the provisions of Section 205.3.2 or effects in the structural member.
205.4.2, where applicable.
Provision shall be made in areas where vehicles are used
205.3 Floor Live Loads or stored for concentrated loads, L, consisting of two or
more loads spaced 1.5 m nominally on center without
205.3.1 General uniform live loads. Each load shall be 40 percent of the
Floors shall be designed for the unit live loads as set forth gross weight of the maximum size vehicle to be
in Table 205-1. These loads shall be taken as the accommodated. Parking garages for the storage of private
minimum live loads of horizontal projection to be used in or pleasure-type motor vehicles with no repair or
the design of buildings for the occupancies listed, and refueling shall have a floor system designed for a
loads at least equal shall be assumed for uses not listed in concentrated load of not less than 9 kN acting on an area
this section but that creates or accommodates similar of 0.015 m2 without uniform live loads. The condition of
loadings. concentrated or uniform live load, combined in
accordance with Section 203.3 or 203.4 as appropriate,
Where it can be determined in designing floors that the producing the greatest stresses shall govern.
actual live load will be greater than the value shown in
Table 205-1, the actual live load shall be used in the 205.3.4 Special Loads
design of such buildings or portions thereof. Special Provision shall be made for the special vertical and lateral
provisions shall be made for machine and apparatus loads. loads as set forth in Table 205-2.
th
National Structural Code of the Philippines 6 Edition, Volume I
Table 205-1 – Minimum Uniform and Concentrated Live Loads

Concentrated
Use or Occupancy Uniform Load 1
Load
Category Description kPa kN
Office use 2.4 9.0 2
1. Access floor systems
Computer use 4.8 9.0 2
2. Armories -- 7.2 0
Fixed seats 2.9 0

3. Theaters, assembly areas 3 and Movable seats 4.8 0
auditoriums.
Lobbies and platforms 4.8 0
Stages areas 7.2 0

4. Bowling alleys, poolrooms and similar
-- 3.6 0
recreational areas
5. Catwalk for maintenance access -- 1.9 1.3
6. Cornices and marquees -- 3.6 4 0
7. Dining rooms and restaurants -- 4.8 0
8. Exit facilities 5 -- 4.8 06
General storage and/or repair 4.8 -- 7

9. Garages
Private or pleasure-type motor
1.9 -- 7
vehicle storage
Wards and rooms 1.9 4.5 2
Laboratories & operating
10. Hospitals 2.9 4.5 2
rooms
Corridors above ground floor 3.8 4.5
Reading rooms 2.9 4.5 2
11. Libraries Stack rooms 7.2 4.5 2
Corridors above ground floor 3.8 4.5
Light 6.0 9.0 2

12. Manufacturing
Heavy 12.0 13.4 2

Concentrated
Use or Occupancy Uniform Load 1
Load
Category Description kPa kN
Call Centers & BPO 2.9 9.0
Lobbies & ground floor
4.8 9.0
corridors
13. Office
Offices 2.4 9.0 2
Building corridors above
3.8 9.0
ground floor
Press rooms 7.2 11.0 2
14. Printing plants
Composing and linotype
4.8 9.0 2
rooms
Basic floor area 1.9 06
Exterior balconies 2.9 4 0
15. Residential 8 4
Decks 1.9 0
Storage 1.9 0
9
16. Restrooms -- -- --
17. Reviewing stands, grandstands,
Bleachers, and folding and telescoping -- 4.8 0
seating
Same as area served or
18. Roof decks -- --
Occupancy
Classrooms 1.9 4.5 2
19. Schools Corridors above ground floor 3.8 4.5
Ground floor corridors 4.8 4.5
20. Sidewalks and driveways Public access 12.0 -- 7
Light 6.0 --
21. Storage
Heavy 12.0 --
Retail 4.8 4.5 2
22. Stores
Wholesale 6.0 13.4 2
23. Pedestrian bridges and walkways -- 4.8 --
NOTES FOR TABLE 205-1
1
See Section 205.5 for live load reductions.
2
See Section 205.3.3, first paragraph, for area of load application.
3
Assembly areas include such occupancies as dance halls, drill rooms, gymnasiums, playgrounds, plazas, terraces and similar occupancies that
are generally accessible to the public.
4
For special-purpose roofs, see Section 205.4.4.
5
Exit facilities shall include such uses as corridors serving an occupant load of 10 or more persons, exterior exit balconies, stairways, fire escapes
and similar uses.
6
Individual stair treads shall be designed to support a 1.3 kN concentrated load placed in a position that would cause maximum stress. Stair
stringers may be designed for the uniform load set forth in the table.
7
See Section 205.3.3, second paragraph, for concentrated loads. See Table 205-2 for vehicle barriers.
8
Residential occupancies include private dwellings, apartments and hotel guest rooms.
9
Restroom loads shall not be less than the load for the occupancy with which they are associated, but need not exceed 2.4 kPa.
th
Table 205-2 Special Loads1 Notes for Table 205-2

1
The tabulated loads are minimum loads. Where other vertical by
Vertical Lateral this code or required by the design would cause greater stresses,
Use or Occupancy
Load Load they shall be used. Loads are in kPa unless otherwise indicated
in the table.
Category Description kPa kPa 2
Units is kN/m.
3
1. Construction, Walkway 7.2 - Lateral sway bracing loads of 350 N/m parallel and 145 N/m
public access at perpendiculars to seat and footboards.
4
site (live load) Canopy 7.2 - Does not apply to ceilings that have sufficient total access from
below, such that access is not required within the space above
2. Grandstands, the ceiling. Does not apply to ceilings if the attic areas above the
reviewing, ceiling are not provided with access. This live load need not be
stands bleachers, considered as acting simultaneously with other live loads
Seats and 1.75 See imposed upon the ceiling framing or its supporting structure.
and folding and
footboards Note 3 5
The impact factors included are for cranes with steel wheels
telescoping
seating (live riding on steel rails. They may be modified if substantiating
technical data acceptable to the building official is submitted.
load) Live loads on crane support girders and their connections shall
be taken as the maximum crane wheel loads. For pendant-
Catwalks 1.9 - operated traveling crane support girders and their connections,
3. Stage
accessories (live the impact factors shall be 1.10.
Follow spot, 6
load) This applies in the direction parallel to the runway rails
projection and 2.4 -
(longitudinal). The factor for forces perpendicular to the rail is
control rooms 0.20 x the transverse traveling loads (trolley, cab, hooks and
Over stages 1.0 - lifted loads). Forces shall be applied at top of rail and may be
disturbed among rails of multiple rail cranes and shall be
4. Ceiling framing
All uses distributed with due regard for lateral stiffness of the structures
(live load) supporting these rails.
except over 0.5 4 -
7
stages A load per lineal meter (kN/m) to be applied horizontally at right
angles to the top rail.
5. Partitions and
- - 0.25 8
Intermediate rails, panel fillers and their connections shall be
interior walls,
capable of withstanding a load of 1.2 kPa applied horizontally at
6. Elevators and right angles over the entire tributary area, including openings
dumbwaiters 2 x total and spaces between rails. Reactions due to this loading need not
- be combined with those of Footnote 7.
(dead and live loads
9
loads) A horizontal load in kN applied at right angles to the vehicle
Total load barrier at a height of 450 mm above the parking surface. The
0.10 x force may be distributed over a 300-mm-square area.
7. Cranes (dead including 1.25 x total
total 10
The mounting of handrails shall be such that the completed
and live loads) impact load5
load6 handrail and supporting structure are capable of withstanding a
increase
load of at least 890 N applied in any direction at any point on
Exit facilities the rail. These loads shall not be assumed to act cumulatively
serving an with Item 9.
0.75
occupant load - 11
kN/m 7 Vertical members of storage racks shall be protected from
greater than impact forces of operating equipment, or racks shall be designed
8. Balcony railings 50 so that failure of one vertical member will not cause collapse of
and guardrails more than the bay or bays directly supported by that member.
Other than 0.30
- 12
The 1.1 kN load is to be applied to any single fire sprinkler
exit facilities kN/m 7
support point but not simultaneously to all support joints.
.
Components - 1.2 8
9. Vehicle barriers -- - 27 kN9
See See
10. Handrails
Note 10 Note 10
See
Over 2.4 m Total
11. Storage racks Table
high loads11
208-12
1.1 kN plus
12. Fire sprinkler See
weight of
structural - Table
water-filled
support 208-12
pipe12

Table 205-3 Minimum Roof Live Loads 1

METHOD 1 METHOD 2
Tributary Area (m2) Maximum
Uniform Rate of
ROOF SLOPE 0 to 20 20 to 60 Over 60 Reduction
Load 2 Reduction,
R
Uniform Load (kPa) (kPa) r
(percentage)
3
1. Flat or rise less than 4 units vertical in
12 units horizontal (33.3% slope). Arch
1.00 0.75 0.60 1.00 0.08 40
and dome with rise less than one-eighth
of span.
2. Rise 4 units vertical to less than 12 units
vertical in 12 units horizontal (33.3% to
less than 100% slope). Arch and dome 0.75 0.70 0.60 0.75 0.06 25
with rise one-eighth of span to less than
three-eighths of span.
3. Rise 12 units vertical in 12 units
horizontal (100% slope) and greater.
0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
Arch or dome with rise three-eighths of
span or greater.
No reduction permitted
4. Awnings except cloth covered. 4 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
5. Greenhouses, lath houses and

0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
agricultural buildings. 5
1
For special-purpose roofs, see Section 205.4.4.
2
See Sections 205.5 and 205.6 for live-load reductions. The rate of reduction r in Equation 205-1 shall be as indicated in the table. The maximum
reduction, R, shall not exceed the value indicated in the table.
3
A flat roof is any roof with a slope less than 1/4 unit vertical in 12 units horizontal (2% slope). The live load for flat roofs is in addition to the
ponding load required by Section 206.7.
4
See definition in Section 202.
5
See Section 205.4.4 for concentrated load requirements for greenhouse roof members.
205.4 Roof Live Loads For those conditions where light-gage metal preformed
structural sheets serve as the support and finish of roofs,
205.4.1 General roof structural members arranged to create continuity
Roofs shall be designed for the unit live loads, Lr, set shall be considered adequate if designed for full dead
forth in Table 205-3. The live loads shall be assumed to loads on all spans in combination with the most critical
act vertically upon the area projected on a horizontal one of the following superimposed loads:
plane. 1. The uniform roof live load, Lr, set forth in Table 205-
3 on all spans.
205.4.2 Distribution of Loads
2. A concentrated gravity load, Lr, of 9 kN placed on
Where uniform roof loads are involved in the design of any span supporting a tributary area greater than 18
structural members arranged to create continuity, m2 to create maximum stresses in the member,
consideration may be limited to full dead loads on all
whenever this loading creates greater stresses than
spans in combination with full roof live loads on adjacent those caused by the uniform live load. The
spans and on alternate spans. concentrated load shall be placed on the member over
Exception: a length of 750 mm along the span. The concentrated
load need not be applied to more than one span
Alternate span loading need not be considered where the simultaneously.
uniform roof live load is 1.0 kPa or more.
3. Water accumulation as prescribed in Section 206.7.
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205.4.3 Unbalanced Loading The live load reduction shall not exceed 40 percent in
Unbalanced loads shall be used where such loading will garages for the storage of private pleasure cars having a
result in larger members or connections. Trusses and capacity of not more than nine passengers per vehicle.
arches shall be designed to resist the stresses caused by
unit live loads on one half of the span if such loading 205.6 Alternate Floor Live Load Reduction
results in reverse stresses, or stresses greater in any As an alternate to Equation (205-1), the unit live loads set
portion than the stresses produced by the required unit forth in Table 205-1 may be reduced in accordance with
live load on the entire span. For roofs whose structures Equation 205-3 on any member, including flat slabs,
are composed of a stressed shell, framed or solid, wherein having an influence area of 40 m2 or more.
stresses caused by any point loading are distributed
throughout the area of the shell, the requirements for   1 
unbalanced unit live load design may be reduced 50 L  Lo 0.25  4.57  (205-3)
  A 
percent.   I 
205.4.4 Special Roof Loads where:

Roofs to be used for special purposes shall be designed AI = influence area, m2
for appropriate loads as approved by the building official. L = reduced design live load per square meter of area
Greenhouse roof bars, purlins and rafters shall be supported by the member
designed to carry a 0.45 kN concentrated load, Lr, in Lo = unreduced design live load per square meter of area
addition to the uniform live load supported by the member (Table 205-1)
205.5 Reduction of Live Loads The influence area AI is four times the tributary area for a
column, two times the tributary area for a beam, equal to
The design live load determined using the unit live loads the panel area for a two-way slab, and equal to the
as set forth in Table 205-1 for floors and Table 205-3, product of the span and the full flange width for a precast
Method 2, for roofs may be reduced on any member T-beam
supporting more than 15 m2, including flat slabs, except
for floors in places of public assembly and for live loads The reduced live load shall not be less than 50 percent of
greater than 4.8 kPa, in accordance with the following the unit live load Lo for members receiving load from one
equation: level only, nor less than 40 percent of the unit live load Lo
for other members.
R  r(A15) (205-1)
The reduction shall not exceed 40 percent for members

receiving load from one level only, 60 percent for other
members or R, as determined by the following equation:
R  23.1(1  D / L) (205-2)
where:
A = area of floor or roof supported by the member,
square meter, m2
D = dead load per square meter of area supported by
the member, kPa
L = unit live load per square meter of area supported by
the member, kPa
R = reduction in percentage, %.
r = rate of reduction equal to 0.08 for floors. See Table
205-3 for roofs
For storage loads exceeding 4.8 kPa, no reduction shall be

made, except that design live loads on columns may be
reduced 20 percent.

SECTION 206 206.5 Interior Wall Loads

Interior walls, permanent partitions and temporary
OTHER MINIMUM LOADS partitions that exceed 1.8 m in height shall be designed to
resist all loads to which they are subjected but not less
206.1 General than a load, L, of 0.25 kPa applied perpendicular to the
In addition to the other design loads specified in this walls. The 0.25 kPa load need not be applied
chapter, structures shall be designed to resist the loads simultaneously with wind or seismic loads. The deflection
specified in this section and the special loads set forth in of such walls under a load of 0.25 kPa shall not exceed
Table 205-2. See Section 207 for design wind loads, and 1/240 of the span for walls with brittle finishes and 1/120
Section 208 for design earthquake loads. of the span for walls with flexible finishes. See Table
208-12 for earthquake design requirements where such
206.2 Other Loads requirements are more restrictive.
Buildings and other structures and portions thereof shall Exception:
be designed to resist all loads due to applicable fluid
pressures, F, lateral soil pressures, H, ponding loads, P, Flexible, folding or portable partitions are not required to
and self-straining forces, T. See Section 206.7 for ponding meet the load and deflection criteria but must be
loads for roofs. anchored to the supporting structure to meet the
provisions of this code.
206.3 Impact Loads
The live loads specified in Sections 205.3 shall be 206.6 Retaining Walls
assumed to include allowance for ordinary impact Retaining walls shall be designed to resist loads due to the
conditions. Provisions shall be made in the structural lateral pressure of retained material in accordance with
design for uses and loads that involve unusual vibration accepted engineering practice. Walls retaining drained
and impact forces. See Section 206.9.3 for impact loads soil, where the surface of the retained soil is level, shall
for cranes, and Section 206.10 for heliport and helistop be designed for a load, H, equivalent to that exerted by a
landing areas. fluid weighing not less than 4.7 kPa per meter of depth
and having a depth equal to that of the retained soil. Any
206.3.1 Elevators surcharge shall be in addition to the equivalent fluid
All elevator loads shall be increased by 100% for impact. pressure.
206.3.2 Machinery Retaining walls shall be designed to resist sliding by at

least 1.5 times the lateral force and overturning by at least
For the purpose of design, the weight of machinery and 1.5 times the overturning moment, using allowable stress
moving loads shall be increased as follows to allow for design loads.
impact:
1. Elevator machinery 100% 206.7 Water Accumulation
2. Light machinery, shaft- or motor-driven 20% All roofs shall be designed with sufficient slope or
camber to ensure adequate drainage after the long-term
3. Reciprocating machinery or power-driven units 50% deflection from dead load or shall be designed to resist
ponding load, P, combined in accordance with Section
4. Hangers for floors and balconies 33%
203.3 or 203.4. Ponding load shall include water
accumulation from any source due to deflection.
All percentages shall be increased where specified by the
manufacturer.
206.8 Uplift on Floors and Foundations
206.4 Anchorage of Concrete and Masonry Walls In the design of basement floors and similar
approximately horizontal elements below grade, the
Concrete and masonry walls shall be anchored as required
upward pressure of water, where applicable, shall be
by Section 104.3.3. Such anchorage shall be capable of
taken as the full hydrostatic pressure applied over the
resisting the load combinations of Section 203.3 or 203.4
entire area. The hydrostatic load shall be measured from
using the greater of the wind or earthquake loads required
the underside of the construction. Any other upward
by this chapter or a minimum horizontal force of 4 kN/m
loads shall be included in the design.
of wall, substituted for E.
Where expansive soils are present under foundations or
slabs-on-ground, the foundations, slabs, and other
components shall be designed to tolerate the movement or
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resist the upward loads caused by the expansive soils, or 206.10 Heliport and Helistop Landing Areas
the expansive soil shall be removed or stabilized around In addition to other design requirements of this chapter,
and beneath the structure. heliport and helistop landing or touchdown areas shall be
designed for the following loads, combined in accordance
206.9 Crane Loads with Section 203.3 or 203.4:
206.9.1 General 1. Dead load plus actual weight of the helicopter.

The crane load shall be the rated capacity of the crane. 2. Dead load plus a single concentrated impact load, L,
Design loads for the runway beams, including covering 0.1 m2 of 0.75 times the fully loaded weight
connections and support brackets, of moving bridge of the helicopter if it is equipped with hydraulic-type
cranes and monorail cranes shall include the maximum shock absorbers, or 1.5 times the fully loaded weight
wheel loads of the crane and the vertical impact, lateral, of the helicopter if it is equipped with a rigid or skid-
and longitudinal forces induced by the moving crane. type landing gear.
206.9.2 Maximum Wheel Load The dead load plus a uniform live load, L, of 4.8 kPa. The
The maximum wheel loads shall be the wheel loads required live load may be reduced in accordance with
produced by the weight of the bridge, as applicable, plus Section 205.5 or 205.6.
the sum of the rated capacity and the weight of the trolley
with the trolley positioned on its runway where the
resulting load effect is maximum.
206.9.3 Vertical Impact Force

The maximum wheel loads of the crane shall be increased
by the percentages shown below to determine the induced
vertical impact or vibration force:
1. Monorail cranes (powered) 25%
2. Cab-operated or remotely operated bridge
cranes (powered) 25%
3. Pendant-operated bridge cranes (powered) 10%
4. Bridge cranes or monorail cranes with
hand-geared ridge, trolley and hoist 0%
206.9.4 Lateral Force

The lateral force on crane runway beams with electrically
powered trolleys shall be calculated as 20% of the sum of
the rated capacity of the crane and the weight of the hoist
and trolley. The lateral force shall be assumed to act
horizontally at the traction surface of a runway beam, in
either direction perpendicular to the beam, and shall be
distributed with due regard to the lateral stiffness of the
runway beam and supporting structure.
206.9.5 Longitudinal Forces

The longitudinal force on crane runway beams, except for
bridge cranes with hand-geared bridges, shall be
calculated as 10% of the maximum wheel loads of the
crane. The longitudinal force shall be assumed to act
horizontally at the traction surface of a runway beam, in
either direction parallel to the beam.

SECTION 207 APPROVED. Acceptable to the authority having

jurisdiction.
WIND LOADS
BASIC WIND SPEED, V Three-second gust speed at
207.1 General 10 m above the ground in Exposure C (see Section
207.5.6.3) as determined in accordance with Section
207.1.1 Scope 207.5.4 and associated with an annual probability for 0.02
Buildings, towers and other vertical structures, including of being equaled or exceeded. (50-years mean recurrence
the Main Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS) and all interval).
components and cladding thereof, shall be designed and
constructed to resist wind loads as specified herein. BUILDING, ENCLOSED is a building that does not
comply with the requirements for open or partially
207.1.2 Allowed Procedures enclosed buildings.
The design wind loads for buildings, towers and other
vertical structures, including the MWFRS and component BUILDING ENVELOPE. Cladding, roofing, exterior
and cladding elements thereof, shall be determined using wall, glazing, door assemblies, window assemblies,
one of the following procedures: (1) Method 1 – skylight assemblies, and other components enclosing the
Simplified Procedure as specified in Section 207.4 for building.
building meeting the requirements specified therein; (2)
Method 2 – Analytical Procedure as specified in Section BUILDINGS, FLEXIBLE. Slender buildings that have
207.5 for buildings meeting the requirements specified a fundamental natural frequency less than 1 Hz.
therein; (3) Method 3 – Wind Tunnel Procedure as
specified in Section 207.6. BUILDING, LOW-RISE. Enclosed or partially enclosed
building that comply with the following conditions:
207.1.3 Wind Pressures Acting on Opposite Faces of 1. Mean roof height h less than or equal to 18 m.
Each Building Surface
2. Mean roof height h does not exceed least horizontal
In the calculation of design wind loads for the MWFRS
dimension.
and for components and cladding for buildings, the
algebraic sum of the pressures acting on opposite faces of
BUILDING, OPEN. A building having each wall at least
each building surface shall be taken into account.
80 percent open. This condition is expressed for each
wall by the equation Ao ≥ 0.8 Ag where
207.1.4 Minimum Design Wind Loading
The design wind load, determined by any one of the BUILDING, PARTIALLY ENCLOSED is a building
procedures specified in Section 207.1.2, shall be not less that complies with both of the following conditions:
than specified in this section.
1. the total area of openings in a wall that receives
207.1.4.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System positive external pressure exceeds the sum of the
areas of openings in the balance of the building
The wind load to be used in the design of the MWFRS for
envelope (walls and roof) by more than 10%; and
an enclosed or partially enclosed building or other
structure shall not be less than 0.5 kPa multiplied by the 2. the total area of openings in a wall that receives
area of the building or structure projected onto a vertical positive external pressure exceeds 0.5 m² or 1
plane normal to the assumed wind direction. The design percent of the area of that wall, whichever is smaller,
wind force for open buildings and other structures shall be and the percentage of openings in the balance of the
not less than 0.5 kPa multiplied by the area Af as defined building envelope does not exceed 20 percent.
in Section 207.3.
207.1.4.2 Components and Cladding

The design wind pressure for components and cladding of
buildings shall not be less than a net pressure of 0.5 kPa
acting in either direction normal to the surface.
207.2 Definitions
The following definitions apply to the provisions of
Section 207.
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These conditions are expressed by the following GLAZING. Glass or transparent or translucent plastic
equations: sheet used in windows, doors, skylights, or curtain walls.
1. Ao > 1.10 Aoi
GLAZING, IMPACT RESISTANT. Glazing that has
2. Ao > smaller of (0.5m² or 0.01 Ag) and been shown by testing in accordance with ASTM E1886
Aoi /Agi 0.20 and ASTM E1996 or other approved test methods to
withstand the impact of wind-borne missiles likely to be
BUILDING OR OTHER STRUCTURE, REGULAR- generated in wind-borne debris regions during design
SHAPED. A building or other structure having no winds.
unusual geometrical irregularity in spatial form.
HILL. With respect to topographic effects in Section
BUILDING RIGID. A building or other structure whose 207.5.7, a land surface characterized by strong relief in
fundamental frequency is greater than or equal to 1 Hz. any horizontal direction (Figure 207-4)
BUILDING, SIMPLE DIAPHRAGM. A building in IMPACT RESISTANT COVERING. A covering

which both windward and leeward wind loads are designed to protect glazing, which has been shown by
transmitted through floor and roof diaphragms to the same testing in accordance with ASTM E1886 and ASTM
vertical MWFRS (e.g., no structural separations). E1996 or other approved test methods to withstand the
impact or wind-borne debris missiles likely to be
COMPONENTS AND CLADDING. Elements of the generated in wind-borne debris regions during design
building envelope that do not qualify as part of the winds.
MWFRS.
IMPORTANCE FACTOR, Iw. A factor that accounts
DESIGN FORCE, F, is the equivalent static force to be for the degree of hazard to human life and damage to
used in the determination of wind loads for open property.
buildings and other structures.
MAIN WIND-FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM
DESIGN PRESSURE, p, is the equivalent static pressure (MWFRS). An assemblage of structural elements
to be used in the determination of wind loads for assigned to provide support and stability for the overall
buildings. structure. The system generally receives wind loading
from more than one surface.
EAVE HEIGHT, h. The distance from the ground
surface adjacent to the building to the roof eave line at a MEAN ROOF HEIGHT, h. The average of the roof
particular wall. If the height of the eave varies along the eave height and the height to the highest point on the roof
wall, the average height shall be used. surface, except that, for roof angles of less than or equal
to 10°, the mean roof height shall be the roof heave
EFFECTIVE WIND AREA is the area used to height.
determine GCp. For component and cladding elements,
the effective wind area in Figures 207-11 through 207-17 OPENINGS. Apertures or holes in the building envelope
and Figure 207-19 is the span length multiplied by an that allow air to flow through the building envelope and
effective width that need not be less than one-third the that are designed as “open” during design winds as
span length. For cladding fasteners, the effective wind defined by these provisions.
area shall not be greater than the area that is tributary to
an individual fastener. OTHER STRUCUTURES are nonbuilding structures
including poles, masts, trussed towers, and billboards that
ESCARPMENT. Also known as scarp, with respect to are not typically occupied by persons but are also covered
topographic effect in Section 207.5.7, a cliff or steep by this Code.
slope generally separating two levels or gently sloping
areas (see Figure 207-4). RECOGNIZED LITERATURE. Published research
findings and technical papers that are approved.
FREE ROOF. Roof with a configuration generally
conforming to those shown in Figures 207-18A through RIDGE. With respect to topographic effects in Section
207-18D (monoslope, pitched, or troughed) in an open 207.5.7 an elongated crest of a hill characterized by
building with no enclosing walls underneath the roof strong relief in two directions (see Figure 207-4).
surface.

WIND-BORNE DEBRIS REGIONS. Areas within equivalent to Gf with R (resonant response factor)
typhoon prone regions located: assumed as zero
Gf = gust effect factor for MWFRS of flexible buildings
1. Within 1.6 km of the coastal mean high water line
and other structures, including poles, masts,
where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than
billboards, and trussed towers; also called
180 kph.
“dynamic response factor”
2. In areas where the basic wind speed is equal to or GCpn= combined net pressure coefficient for a parapet
greater than 190 kph. GCp = product of external pressure coefficient and gust
effect factor to be used in the determination of
207.3 Symbols and Notations wind loads for buildings
The following symbols and notation apply only to the GCpf = product of equivalent external pressure
provisions of Section 207: coefficient and gust effect factor to be used in the
determination of wind loads for MWFRS of low-
A = effective wind area, m2 rise buildings
Aa = amplitude factor for estimation of n1 for other GCpi = product of internal pressure coefficient and gust
structures. effect factor to be used in the determination of
Af = area of open buildings and other structures either wind loads for buildings
normal to the wind direction or projected on a gQ = peak factor for background response in Eqs. 207-4
plane normal to the wind direction, m2 and 207-8
Ag = the gross area of that wall in which Ao is identified, gR = peak factor for resonant response in Eq. 207-8
m2 gr = peak factor for wind response in Eqs. 207-4 and
Agi = the sum of the gross surface areas of the building 207-8
envelope (walls and roof) not including Ag, m2 H = height of hill or escarpment in Figure 207-4, m
Ao = total area of openings in a wall that receives h = mean roof height of a building or height of other
positive external pressure, m2 structure, except that eave height shall be used for
Aoi = the sum of the areas of openings in the building roof angle  of less than or equal to 10º, m
envelope (walls and roof) not including Ao, m2 he = roof eave height at a particular wall, or the average
Aog = total area of openings in the building envelope, m2 height if the eave varies along the wall
As = gross area of the solid freestanding wall or solid Iw = importance factor
sign, m2 Iz = intensity of turbulence from Eq. 207-5
a = width of pressure coefficient zone, m km = weight distribution factor for estimation of n1 for
B = horizontal dimension of a building, tower or other other structures
structure measured normal to wind direction, m K1, K2, K3 = multipliers in Figure 207-4 to obtain Kzt
B0 = horizontal dimension at the base of a structure, m Kd = wind directionality factor in Table 207-2
Bh = horizontal dimension at the top of a structure, m Kh = velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated at
B0h = average horizontal dimension of a structure, or height z = h
taken as average of B0 and Bh, m Kz = velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated at
b = mean hourly wind speed factor in Eq. 207-14 from height z
Kzt = topographic factor as defined in Section 207.5.7
Table 207-5
L = horizontal dimension of a building measured
b̂ = 3-second gust speed factor from Table 207-5 parallel to the wind direction, m
Cf = force coefficient to be used in the determination of Lh = distance upwind of crest of hill or escarpment in
wind loads for other structures Fig 207-4 to where the difference in ground
CN = net pressure coefficient to be used in determination elevation is half the height of hill or escarpment, m
of wind loads for open buildings Lz = integral length scale of turbulence, m.
Cp = external pressure coefficient to be used in the
Lr = horizontal dimension of return corner for a solid
determination of wind loads for buildings
freestanding wall or solid sign from Figure 207-20,
c = turbulence intensity factor in Eq. 207-5 from Table
m
207-5
ℓ = integral length scale factor from Table 207-5, m
D = diameter of a circular structure or member, m
mr = mass ratio, or the ratio of attached masses (e.g.
D’ = depth of protruding elements such as ribs and
antennas, cables, lighting, and other appurtenances)
spoilers, m
at the top 5% of the tower or other vertical
D0 = surface drag coefficient
structure to the total mass of the tower or other
F = design wind force for other structures, kN
structure alone; for attached masses at lower levels
G = gust effect factor for rigid buildings; also called
“simplified dynamic response factor” and is
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of the tower, an equivalent mass ratio shall be zg = nominal height of the atmospheric boundary layer
taken used in this standard Values appear in Table 207-5
Ma = mass factor for estimation of n1 for other structures zmin = exposure constant from Table 207-5
N1 = reduced frequency from Eq. 207-12 α = 3-second gust-speed power law exponent from
n1 = building natural frequency, Hz Table 207-5
p = design pressure to be used in the determination of â = reciprocal of α from Table 207-5
wind loads for buildings, kPa ā = mean hourly wind-speed power law exponent in
pL = wind pressure acting on leeward face in Figure Eq. 207-14 from Table 207-5
207-9, kPa β = damping ratio, percent critical for buildings or
pnet = net design wind pressure from Eq. 207-2, kPa other structures
pnet9 = net design wind pressure for Exposure B at h = 9 m βs = structural damping ratio, percent critical for other
and Iw = 1.0 from Figure 207-3, kPa structures
pp = combined net pressure on a parapet from Βa = aerodynamic damping ratio, percent critical for
Eq. 207-20, kPa other structures
ps = simplified design wind pressure from Eq. 207-1,  = ratio of solid area to gross area for open sign, face
kPa or a trussed tower, or lattice structure
ps9 = simplified design wind pressure for Exposure B at   adjustment factor for building height and exposure
h = 9 m and Iw = 1.0 from Figure 207-3, kPa from Figures 207-2A and 207-3
pW = wind pressure acting on windward face in Figure  = integral length scale power law exponent in Eq.
207-9, kPa 207.7 from Table 207-5
Pa = plan-shape factor for estimation of n1 for other η = value used in Eq. 207.13 (see Section 207.5.8.2)
structures  = roughness factor
Q = background response factor from Eq. 207-6  = angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
q = velocity pressure, kPa
 = height-to-width ratio for solid sign
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at height z = h, kPa
qi = velocity pressure for internal pressure
207.4 Method 1 – Simplified Procedure
determination, kPa
qp = velocity pressure at top of parapet, kPa
qz = velocity pressure evaluated at height z above 207.4.1 Scope
ground, kPa A building whose design wind loads are determined in
R = resonant response factor from Eq. 207-10 accordance with this section shall meet all the conditions
Ra0 = aspect ratio factor for estimation of n1, for other of Sections 207.4.1.1 or 207.4.1.2. If a building qualifies
structures, evaluated at the base width, B0 only under Section 207.4.1.2 for design of its components
RB, Rh, RL = values from Eq. 207-13 and cladding, then its MWFRS shall be designed by
Ri = reduction factor from Eq. 207-16 Method 2 or Method 3.
Rn = value from Eq. 207-11
s = vertical dimension of the solid freestanding wall or 207.4.1.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems
solid sign from Figure 207-20, m. For the design of MWFRSs the building must meet all of
r = rise-to-span ratio for arched roofs. the following conditions:
V = basic wind speed obtained from Table 207-1, kph.
The basic wind speed corresponds to a 3-second 1. The building is a simple diaphragm building as
gust speed at 10 m above ground in exposure defined in Section 207.2.
category C 2. The building is a low-rise building as defined in
Vi = unpartitioned internal volume, m³ Section 207.2.
Vz = mean hourly wind speed at height z, kph
W = width of a building in Figures 207-12 and 207-14A 3. The building is enclosed as defined in Section 207.2
and B and width of span in Figures 207-13 and and conforms to the wind-borne debris provisions of
207-15, m Section 207.5.9.3.
X = distance to center of pressure from windward edge 4. The building is a regular-shaped building or structure
in Figure 207-18, m as defined in Section 207.2.
x = distance upwind or downwind of crest in Figure
207-4, m 5. The building is not classified as a flexible building as
z = height above ground level, m defined in Section 207.2
z = equivalent height of structure, m 6. The building does not have response characteristics
making it subject to across wind loading, vortex

shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter; and windward and leeward net pressures, ps shall be
does not have a site location for which channeling determined by the following equation:
effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind
ps  K zt I w ps 9 (207-1)
obstructions warrant special consideration.
7. The building has and approximately symmetrical 207.4.2.1 .1 Minimum Pressures
cross-section in each direction with either a flat roof
The load effects of the design wind pressures from
or a gable or hip roof with θ ≤ 45°.
Section 207.4.2.1 shall not be less than the minimum load
8. The building is exempted from torsional load cases as case from Section 207.1.4.1 assuming the pressures, ps,
indicated in Note 5 of Figure 207-10, or the torsional for zones A, B, C, and D all equal to +0.50 kPa, while
load cases defined in Note 5 do not control the design assuming zones E, F, G, and H all equal to 0 kPa.
of any of the MWFRSs of the building.
207.4.1.2 Components and Cladding Net design wind pressures, pnet, for the components and
For the design of components and cladding the building cladding of buildings designed using Method 1 represent
must meet all the conditions: the net pressures (sum of internal and external) to be
applied normal to each building surface as shown in Fig.
1. The mean roof height h must be less than or equal
207-3. pnet shall be determined by the following equation:
to 18 m.
pnet  K zt I w pnet9 (207-2)
2. The building is enclosed as defined in Section 207.2
and conforms to the wind-borne debris provisions of
Section 207.5.9.3. 207.4.2.2.1 Minimum Pressures
The positive design wind pressures, pnet, from Section
3. The building is a regular-shaped building or structure
207.4.2.2 shall not be less than +0.50 kPa, and the
as defined in Section 207.2.
negative design wind pressures, pnet, from Section
4. The building does not have response characteristics 207.4.2.2 shall not be less than -0.50 kPa.
making it subject to across wind loading, vortex
shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter; and 207.4.3 Air Permeable Cladding
does not have a site location for which channeling Design wind loads determined from Figure 207.3 shall be
effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind used for all air permeable cladding unless approved test
obstructions warrant special consideration. data or the recognized literature demonstrate lower loads
5. The building has either a flat roof, a gable roof with θ for the type of air permeable cladding being considered.
< 45°, or a hip roof w/ θ ≤ 27°.
207.5 Method 2 – Analytical Procedure
207.4.2 Design Procedure
207.5.1 Scope
1. The basic wind speed V shall be determined in
accordance with Section 207.5.4. The wind shall be A building or other structure whose design wind loads are
assumed to come from any horizontal direction. determined in accordance with this section shall meet all
of the following conditions:
2. An importance factor Iw shall be determined in
accordance with Section 207.5.5. 1. The building or other structure is a regular-shaped
building or structure as defined in Section 207.2.
3. An exposure category shall be determined in
accordance with Section 207.5.6. 2. The building or other structure does not have
response wind loading, vortex shedding, instability
4. A height and exposure adjustment coefficient,, shall due to galloping or flutter; or does not have a site
be determined from Figures 207-2 and 207-3. location for which channeling effect or buffeting in
the wake of upwind obstructions warrant special
207.4.2.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System consideration.
Simplified design wind pressures, ps, for the MWFRSs of
low-rise simple diaphragm buildings represent the net 207.5.2 Limitations
pressures (sum of internal and external) to be applied to The provision of Section 207.5 take into consideration the
the horizontal and vertical projections of building surfaces load magnification effect caused by gusts in resonance
as shown in Figures 207-1 and 207-2. For the horizontal with along-wind vibrations of flexible building or other
pressures (zones A, B, C, D), ps is the combination of the structures. Buildings or other structures not meeting the
th
requirements of Section 207.5.1, or having unusual shapes 207.5.4.1 and 207.5.4.2. The wind shall be assumed to
or response characteristics shall be designed using come from any horizontal direction.
recognized literature documenting such wind load effects
or shall use the wind tunnel procedure specified in 207.5.4.1 Special Wind Regions
Section 207.6. The basic wind speed shall be increased where records or
experience indicate that the wind speeds are higher than
207.5.2.1 Shielding those reflected in Table 207-1. Mountainous terrain,
There shall be no reductions in velocity pressure due to gorges, and special regions shall be examined for unusual
apparent shielding afforded by buildings and other wind conditions. The authority having jurisdiction shall,
structures or terrain features. if necessary, adjust the values given in Table 207-1 to
account for higher local wind speeds. Such adjustment
207.5.2.2 Air Permeable Cladding shall be based on meteorological information and an
Design wind loads determined from Section 207.5 shall estimate of the basic wind speed obtained in accordance
be used for air permeable cladding unless approved test with the provisions of Section 207.5.4.2.
data or recognized literature demonstrate lower loads for
the type of air permeable cladding being considered. 207.5.4.2 Estimation of Basic Wind Speeds from
Regional Climatic Data
207.5.3 Design Procedure Regional climatic data shall only be used in lieu of the
basic wind speeds given in Table 207-1 when: (1)
1. The basic wind speed V and wind directionality approved extreme-value statistical-analysis procedures
factor Kd shall be determined in accordance with have been employed in reducing the data; and (2) the
Section 207.5.4 and Table 207-2 respectively. length of record, sampling error, averaging time,
2. An importance factor Iw shall be determined in anemometer height, data quality, and terrain exposure
accordance with Section 207.5.5. have been taken into account.
3. An exposure category or exposure categories and
207.5.4.3 Limitation
velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz or Kh, as
applicable, shall be determined for each wind Extreme typhoons have not been considered in
direction in accordance with Section 207.5.6. developing the basic wind-speed distributions.
4. A topographic factor Kzt shall be determined in 207.5.4.4 Wind Directionality Factor

accordance with Section 207.5.7.
The wind directionality factor, Kd, shall be determined
5. A gust effect Factor G or Gf, as applicable, shall be from Table 207-2. This factor shall only be applied when
determined in accordance with Section 207.5.8. used in conjunction with load combinations specified in
Sections 203.3 and 203.4.
6. An enclosure classification shall be determined in
7. Internal pressure coefficient GCpi shall be determined
in accordance with Section 207.5.11.1.
8. External pressure coefficients Cp or GCpf, or force
coefficients Cf, as applicable, shall be determined in
accordance with Section 207.5.11.2 or 207.5.11.3,
respectively.
9. Velocity pressure qz or qh, as applicable, shall be
determined in accordance with Section 207.5.10.
10. Design wind load p or F shall be determined in
accordance with Sections 207.5.12, 207.5.13,
207.5.14, and 207.5.15, as applicable.
207.5.4 Basic Wind Speed

The basic wind speed, V, used in the determination of
design wind loads on buildings and other structures shall
be as given in Table 207-1 except as provided in Sections

Table 207-1 Wind Zone for the Different Provinces of the

Philippines Table 207-2 Wind Directionality Factor, Kd
Zone Classification Directionality
Provinces Structural Type
(Basic Wind Speed) Factor Kd *
Albay, Aurora, Batanes,
Cagayan, Camarines Norte, Buildings
Zone 1 Camarines Sur, Catanduanes, Main Wind Force Resisting System 0.85
(V = 250 kph) Eastern Samar, Isabela, Components and Cladding 0.85
Northern Samar, Quezon,
Quirino, Samar, Sorsogon
Abra, Agusan del Norte, Arched Roofs 0.85
Agusan del Sur, Aklan,
Antique, Apayao, Bataan,
Batangas, Benguet, Biliran, Chimneys, Tanks, and Similar Structures
Bohol, Bulacan, Camiguin, Square 0.90
Capiz, Cavite , Cebu , Hexagonal 0.95
Compostela Valley , Davao Round 0.95
Oriental, Guimaras, Ifugao,
Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Iloilo,
Kalinga, La Union, Laguna, Solid Signs 0.85
Zone 2 Leyte, Marinduque, Masbate ,
(V = 200 kph) Misamis Oriental, Mountain
Province, National Capital Open Signs and Lattice Framework 0.85
Region, Negros Occidental,
Negros Oriental, Nueva Ecija,
Nueva Vizcaya, Occidental Trussed Towers
Mindoro, Oriental Mindoro, Triangular, square, rectangular 0.85
Pampanga, Pangasinan, Rizal, All other cross sections 0.95
Romblon, Siquijor, Southern
Leyte, Surigao del Norte,
* Directionality Factor Kd has been calibrated with combinations of
Surigao del Sur, Tarlac, loads specified in Section 203. This factor shall only be applied when
Zambales used in conjunction with load combinations specified in Section 203.3
Basilan, Bukidnon, Davao del and 203.4.
Norte, Davao del Sur, Lanao
del Norte, Lanao del Sur,
Maguindanao, Misamis
Zone 3 Occidental, North Cotabato ,
(V = 150 kph) Palawan , Sarangani, South
Cotabato , Sultan Kudarat,
Sulu, Tawi-tawi, Zamboanga
del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur,
Zamboanga Sibugay
th
Surface Roughness D. Flat, unobstructed areas and water

207.5.5 Importance Factor
surfaces. This category includes smooth mud flats and
An importance factor, Iw, for the building or other salt flats.
structure shall be determined from Table 207-3 based on
building and structure categories listed in Table 103-1. 207.5.6.3 Exposure Categories
Exposure B. Exposure B shall apply where the ground
207.5.6 Exposure
surface roughness condition, as defined by Surface
For each wind direction considered, the upwind exposure Roughness B, prevails in the upwind direction for a
category shall be based on ground surface roughness that distance of at least 800 m or 20 times the height of the
is determined from natural topography, vegetation, and building, whichever is greater.
constructed facilities.
Exception:
Table 207-3 Importance Factor, Iw (Wind Loads)
For buildings whose mean roof height is less than or
Occupancy equal to 10 m, the upwind distance may be reduced to
Category 1
Description Iw
450 m.
I Essential 1.15
Exposure C. Exposure C shall apply for all cases where
II Hazardous 1.15 Exposure B or D does not apply.
Special Exposure D. Exposure D shall apply where the ground
III Occupancy
1.15
surface roughness, as defined by Surface Roughness D,
Standard
IV 1.00 prevails in the upwind direction for a distance greater than
Occupancy
1.5 km or 20 times the building height, which is greater.
V Miscellaneous 0.87 Exposure D shall extend into downwind areas of Surface
Roughness B or C for a distance of 180 m or 20 times the
1
see Table 103-1 for types of occupancy under each height of the building, whichever is greater.
category.
For a site located in the transition zone between exposure

207.5.6.1 Wind Directions and Sectors categories, the category resulting in the largest wind
For each selected wind direction at which the wind loads forces shall be used.
are to be evaluated, the exposure of the building or
structure shall be determined for the two upwind sectors Exception:
extending 45° either side of the selected wind direction. An intermediate exposure between the preceding
The exposures in these two sectors shall be determined in categories is permitted in a transition zone provided that
accordance with Sections 207.5.6.2 and 207.5.6.3 and the it is determined by a rational analysis method defined in
exposure resulting in the highest wind loads shall be used the recognized literature.
to represent the winds from that direction.
207.5.6.4 Exposure Category for Main Wind-Force
207.5.6.2 Surface Roughness Categories Resisting System
A ground surface roughness within each 45° sector shall
be determined for a distance upwind of the site as defined 207.5.6.4.1 Buildings and Other Structures
in Section 207.5.6.3 from the categories defined in the For each wind direction considered wind loads for the
following text, for the purpose of assigning an exposure design of the MWFRS determined from Figure 207-6
category as defined in Section 207.5.6.3. shall be based on the exposure categories defined in
Section 207.5.6.3.
Surface Roughness B. Urban and suburban areas,
wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous closely 207.5.6.4.2 Low-Rise Buildings
spaced obstructions having the size of single-family
Wind loads for the design of the MWFRSs for low-rise
dwellings or larger.
buildings shall be determined using a velocity pressure qh
based on the exposure resulting in the highest wind loads
Surface Roughness C. Open terrain with scattered
for any wind direction at the site where external pressure
obstructions having heights generally less than 9m. This
coefficients GCpf given in Fig. 207-10 are used.
category includes flat open country, grasslands, and all
water surfaces in regions with records of extreme
typhoons.

207.5.6.5 Exposure Category for Components and Notes:

Cladding 1. Case 1: a. All components and cladding.
Components and cladding design pressures for all b. Main wind force resisting system in low-rise buildings
buildings and other structures shall be based on the designed using Figure 207-10.
Case 2: a. All main wind force resisting systems in buildings
exposure resulting in the highest wind loads for any except those in low-rise buildings designed using
direction at the site. Figure 207-10.
b. All main wind force resisting systems in other
207.5.6.6 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient structures.
2. The velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz may be determined
Based on the exposure category determined in Section from the following formula:
207.5.6.3, a velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz or For z < 4.5 m  4 .5 
2 /
K z  2.01 
Kh, as applicable, shall be determined from Table 207-4.  zg 
 
For a site located in a transition zone between exposure For 4.5 m ≤ z ≤ zg  z 
2 /
categories, that is, near to a change in ground surface K z  2.01 

 zg 
 
roughness, intermediate values of Kz or Kh, between those Note: z shall not be taken less than 9.0 m for Case 1 in exposure B.
shown in Table 207-4, are permitted, provided that they 3. α and zg are tabulated in Table 207-5.
are determined by a rational analysis method defined in 4. Linear interpolation for intermediate values of height z is
acceptable.
the recognized literature. 5. Exposure categories are defined in Section 207.5.6.
Table 207-4 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients 1,
Kh and Kz 207.5.7 Topographic Effects
Height Exposure (Note 1)
above B C D 207.5.7.1 Wind Speed-Up Over Hills, Ridges, and
Ground Escarpments
level, z Cases Cases
Case 1 Case 2
(m)
1&2 1&2 Wind speed-up effects at isolated hills, ridges, and
escarpments constituting abrupt changes in the general
0 - 4.5 0.70 0.57 0.85 1.03
topography, located in any exposure category, shall be
6 0.70 0.62 0.90 1.08 included in the design when buildings and other site
7.5 0.70 0.66 0.94 1.12 conditions and locations of structures meet all of the
9 0.70 0.70 0.98 1.16 following conditions:
12 0.76 0.76 1.04 1.22
1. The hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated and
15 0.81 0.81 1.09 1.27 unobstructed upwind by other similar topographic
18 0.85 0.85 1.13 1.31 features of comparable height for 100 times the
21 0.89 0.89 1.17 1.34 height of the topographic feature (100H) or 3.2 km
24 0.93 0.93 1.21 1.38 whichever is less. This distance shall be measured
27 0.96 0.96 1.24 1.40 horizontally from the point at which the height H of
30 0.99 0.99 1.26 1.43
the hill, ridge, or escarpment is determined.
36 1.04 1.04 1.31 1.48 2. The hill, ridge, or escarpment protrudes above the
42 1.09 1.09 1.36 1.52 height of upwind terrain features within a 3.2 km
48 1.13 1.13 1.39 1.55 radius in any quadrant by a factor of two or more.
54 1.17 1.17 1.43 1.58 3. The structure is located as shown in Figure 207-4 in
60 1.20 1.20 1.46 1.61 the upper one-half of a hill or ridge or near the crest
75 1.28 1.28 1.53 1.68 of an escarpment.
90 1.35 1.35 1.59 1.73 4. H/Lh ≥ 0.2.
105 1.41 1.41 1.64 1.78
5. H is greater than or equal to 4.5m for Exposures C
120 1.47 1.47 1.69 1.82
and D and 18m for Exposure B.
135 1.52 1.52 1.73 1.86
150 1.56 1.56 1.77 1.89
th
207.5.8.2 Flexible or Dynamically Sensitive Structures

207.5.7.2 Topographic Factor For flexible or dynamically sensitive structures as defined
The wind speed-up effect shall be included in the in Section 207.2 the gust-effect factor shall be calculated
calculation of design wind loads by using the factor Kzt: by
Kzt  (1K1K2 K3 )2 (207-3)  1  1.7 I g 2 Q Q 2  g 2 R R 2 

 z  (207-8)
G f  0.925 
where K1, K2 and K3 are given in Figure 207-4.  1  1.7 g v I z
 
If site conditions and locations of structures do not meet gQ and gv shall be taken as 3.4 and gR is given by
all the conditions specified in Section 207.5.7.1 the Kzt =
1.0. 0.577
g R  2 ln(3,600n1 )  (207-9)
207.5.8 Gust Effect Factor 2 ln(3,600n1 )
The gust effect factor shall be calculated as permitted in R = the resonant response factor is given by
Sections 207.5.8.1 to 207.5.8.5, using appropriate values
for natural frequency and damping ratio as permitted in 1
Section 207.5.8.6. R R n R h R B (0.53  0.47 R L ) (207-10)

207.5.8.1 Rigid Buildings  7.47 N1 
Rn    (207-11)
For rigid buildings as defined in Section 207.2, the gust- 53 
 (1  10 .3 N1 ) 
effect factor shall be taken as 0.85 or calculated by the
formula: n1 L z
N1  (207-12)
 1  1 .7 g Q I z Q  Vz
G  0.925  

(207-4)
 1  1 .7 g v I z  1 1
R   (1  e  2 ) for η > 0 (207-13a)
where  2 2
 10 
16
(207-5)
R 1 for η = 0 (207-13b)
I z  c 
 z 
where the subscript ℓ in Eq. 207-13 shall be taken as h, B,
where and L, respectively, where h, B, and L are defined in
Section 207.3.
Iz = the intensity of turbulence at height z where
n1 = building natural frequency
z = the equivalent height of the structure
Rℓ = Rh setting η = 4.6n1h Vz
defined as 0.6h, but not less than zmin for all
building heights, zmin and c are listed for each Rℓ = RB setting η = 4.6n1EB Vz
exposure in Table 207-5; gQ and gv shall be taken
as 3.4. The background response Q is given by: Rℓ = RL setting η = 15.4n1L Vz
β = damping ratio, percent of critical
1
Q 0.63 (207-6) Vzˆ = mean hourly wind speed (m/s) at height z
 Bh determined from Eq. 207-14
1  0.63 
 Lz  a
 z  (207-14)
Vz  b   V
where B, h are defined in Section 207.3; and Lz  the  10 
integral length scale of turbulence at the equivalent height
given by where b and a are constants listed in Table 207-5 and V
is the basic wind speed in kph.

 z  (207-7)
L z   
 10 
In which  and  are constants listed in Table 207-5.

Table 207-5 Terrain Exposure Constants 207.5.9.2 Openings

Exposure B C D A determination shall be made of the amount of openings
 7.0 9.5 11.5 in the building envelope to determine the enclosure
classification as defined in Section 207.5.9.1.
zg (m) 365 275 215
â 1/7 1/9.5 1/11.5
207.5.9.3 Wind-Borne Debris
0.84 1.00 1.07
b̂ Glazing in buildings located in wind-borne debris regions
ā 1/4 1/6.5 1/9 shall be protected with an impact-resistant covering or be
0.45 0.65 0.80 impact-resistant glazing according to the requirements
b specified in ASTM E1886 and ASTM E1996 or other
c 0.30 0.20 0.15 approved test methods and performance criteria. The
D0 0.010 0.005 0.003 levels of impact resistance shall be a function of Missile
ℓ (m) 100 150 200 Levels and Wind Zones specified in ASTM E1886 and
 1/3 1/5 1/8 ASTM E1996.
*zmin (m) 9 4.5 2.10
Exceptions:
* zmin = minimum height used to ensure that the equivalent height z is
greater of zmin or 2 3 h for trussed towers, the height of the 1. Glazing in category I, II or III buildings located over
transmission cable above ground, or 0.6h for buildings and other 18m above the ground and over 9 m above aggregate
structures. For h ≤ zmin, z shall be taken as zmin. surface roofs located within 458 m of the building
shall be permitted to be unprotected.
207.5.8.3 Rational Analysis 2. Glazing in category IV buildings shall be permitted
In lieu of the procedure defined in Sections 207.5.8.1 and to be unprotected.
207.5.8.2, determination of the gust-effect factor by any
rational analysis defined in the recognized literature is 207.5.9.4 Multiple Classifications
permitted. If a building by definition complies with both the “open”
and “partially enclosed” definitions, it shall be classified
207.5.8.4 Limitations as an “open” building. A building that does not comply
Where combined gust-effect factors and pressure with either the “open” or “partially enclosed” definitions
coefficients (GCp, GCpi, and GCpf) are given in figures shall be classified as an “enclosed” building.
and tables, the gust-effect factor shall not be determined
separately. 207.5.10 Velocity Pressure
Velocity pressure, qz, evaluated at height z shall be
207.5.8.5 Other Structures calculated by the following equation:
Procedures for calculation of the gust effect factor for
other structures shall be taken from Section 207.7. qz  47.3106 Kz Kzt KdV 2 I w (207-15)
207.5.8.6 Dynamic Properties where Kd is the wind directionality factor defined in

Section 207.5.4.4, Kz is the velocity pressure exposure
Values of natural frequency and damping ratio when used
coefficient defined in Section 207.5.6.6, Kzt is the
as input parameters in calculations of the gust effect
topographic factor defined in Section 207.5.7.2, and qh is
factor shall be obtained from full-scale measurements of
the velocity pressure calculated using Eq. 207-15 at mean
the actual structure, from computer simulation, or from
roof height h.
the estimation formulas given in Section 207.8.
The numerical coefficient 47.3 x 10-6 shall be used except
207.5.9 Enclosure Classifications
where sufficient climatic data are available to justify the
selection of a different value of this factor for a design
207.5.9.1 General
application.
For the purpose of determining internal pressure
coefficients, all buildings shall be classified as enclosed, 207.5.11 Pressure and Force Coefficients
partially enclosed, or open as defined in Section 207.2.
207.5.11.1 Internal Pressure Coefficient
Internal pressure coefficients, GCpi, shall be determined
from Fig. 207-5 based on building enclosure
classifications determined from Section 207.5.9.
th
207.5.11.1.1 Reduction Factor for Large Volume 207.5.11.4.2 Components and Cladding
Buildings, Ri For all buildings, roof overhangs shall be designed for
For a partially enclosed building containing a single, pressures determined from pressure coefficients given in
unpartitioned large volume, the internal pressure Figures 207-11B, C, D.
coefficient, GCpi, shall be multiplied by the following
reduction factor, Ri: 207.5.11.5 Parapets
Ri = 1.0 or
207.5.11.5.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System
  The pressure coefficients for the effect of parapets on the
 
  MWFRS loads are given in Section 207.5.12.2.4.
1
Ri  0.51    1.0 (207-16)
 Vi  207.5.11.5.2 Components and Cladding
 1 
6,952 Aog The pressure coefficients for the design of parapet
 
component and cladding elements are taken from the wall
where and roof pressure coefficients as specified in Section
207.5.12.4.4.
Aog = total area of openings in the building envelope
walls and roof, in m²
207.5.12 Design Wind Loads on Enclosed and
Vi = unpartitioned internal volume, m³
Partially Enclosed Buildings
207.5.11.2 External Pressure Coefficients
207.5.12.1 General
207.5.11.2.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems
207.5.12.1.1 Sign Convention
External pressure coefficients for MWFRSs Cp are given
Positive pressure acts toward the surface and negative
in Figures 207-6, 207-7, and 207-8. Combined gust effect
pressure acts away from the surface.
factor and external pressure coefficients, GCpf, are given
in Figure 207-10 for low-rise buildings. The pressure
coefficient values and gust effect factor in Figure 207-10 207.5.12.1.2 Critical Load Condition
shall not be separated. Values of external and internal pressures shall be
combined algebraically to determine the most critical
207.5.11.2.2 Components and Cladding load.
Combined gust-effect factor and external pressure
coefficients for components and cladding GCp are given 207.5.12.1.3 Tributary Areas Greater than 65 m²
in Figures 207-11 through 207-17. The pressure Component and cladding elements with tributary areas
coefficient values and gust-effect factor shall not be greater than 65 m² shall be permitted to be designed using
separated. the provisions for MWFRS.
207.5.11.3 Force Coefficients 207.5.12.2 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems

Force coefficients Cf are given in Figures 207-20 through
207-23. 207.5.12.2.1 Rigid Buildings of All Heights
Design wind pressures for the MWFRS of buildings of all
207.5.11.4 Roof Overhangs heights shall be determined by the following equation:
p  qGC p  qi GC pi  (207-17)
207.5.11.4.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System
Roof overhangs shall be designed for a positive pressure where
on the bottom surface of windward roof overhangs
corresponding to Cp = 0.8 in combination with the q = qz for windward walls evaluated at height z
pressures determined from using Figures 207-6 and 207- above the ground
10. q = qh for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs,
evaluated at height h
qi = qh for windward walls, side walls, leeward walls,
and roofs of enclosed buildings and for negative
internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed
buildings

qi = qz for positive internal pressure evaluation in pp = combined net pressure on the parapet due to the
partially enclosed buildings where height z is combination of the net pressures from the
defined as the level of the highest opening in the front and back parapet surfaces. Plus (and minus)
building that could affect the positive internal signs signify net pressure acting toward (and
pressure. For buildings sited in wind-borne away from) the front (exterior) side of the
debris regions, glazing that is not impact parapet
resistant or protected with an impact resistant qp = velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the
covering, shall be treated as an opening in parapet
accordance with Section 207.5.9.3. For positive GCpn = combined net pressure coefficient
internal pressure evaluation, qi may = +1.5 for windward parapet
conservatively be evaluated at height h (qi = qh) = -1.0 for leeward parapet
G = gust effect factor from Section 207.5.8.
Cp = external pressure coefficient from Figure 207-6 207.5.12.3 Design Wind Load Cases
or 207-8. The MWFRS of buildings of all heights, whose wind
(GCpi) = internal pressure coefficient from Figure 207-5 loads have been determined under the provisions of
q and qi shall be evaluated using exposure Sections 207.5.12.2.1 and 207.5.12.2.3, shall be designed
defined in Section 207.5.6.3. Pressure shall be for the wind load cases as defined in Fig. 207-9. The
applied simultaneously on windward and eccentricity e for rigid structures shall be measured from
leeward walls and on roof surface as defined in the geometric center of the building face and shall be
Figures 207-6 and 207-8. considered for each principal axis (eX, eY). The
eccentricity e for flexible structures shall be determined
207.5.12.2.2 Low-Rise Building from the following equation and shall be considered for
Alternatively, design wind pressures for the MWFRS of each principal axis (eX, eY):
low-rise buildings shall be determined by the following
equation: eQ  1.7I z ( g Q QeQ ) 2  ( g R ReR ) 2
e (207-21)
p  qh  (GC pf )  (GC pi )  (207-18) 1  1.7I z ( g Q Q) 2  ( g R R) 2
where where
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof eQ = eccentricity e as determined for rigid structures
height h using exposure defined in in Figure 207-9
Section 207.5.6.3 eR = distance between the elastic shear center and
(GCpf) = external pressure coefficient from Figure 207- center of mass of each floor
10
(GCpi) = internal pressure coefficient from Figure 207-5 I z , gQ , Q, g R , R shall be as defined in Section 207.5.8
207.5.12.2.3 Flexible Buildings The sign of the eccentricity e shall be plus or minus,
Design wind pressures for the MWFRS of flexible whichever causes the more severe load effect.
buildings shall be determined from the following
Exception:
equation:
One-story buildings with h less than or equal to 10 m,
p  qG f C p  qi (GC pi ) (207-19)
buildings two stories or less framed with light-frame
construction, and buildings two stories or less designed
where q, qi, Cp, and (CGpi) are as defined in Section
with flexible diaphragms need only be designed for load
207.5.12.2.1 and Gf = gust effect factor is defined as in
case 1 and load case 3 in Figure 207-9.
Section 207.5.8.2.
207.5.12.2.4 Parapets
The design wind pressure for the effect of parapets on 207.5.12.4.1 Low-Rise Buildings and Buildings with h
MWFRSs of rigid, low-rise, or flexible buildings with ≤ 18 m
flat, gable, or hip roofs shall be determined by the
following equation: Design wind pressures on component and cladding
elements of low-rise buildings with h ≤ 18 m shall be
p p  q p GC pn (207-20) determined from the following equation:
where p  qh  (GC p )  (GC pi )  (207-22)
th
where 207.5.12.4.4 Parapets

qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h The design wind pressure on the components and
using exposure defined in Section 207.5.6.3 cladding elements of parapets shall be designed by the
(GCp) = external pressure coefficients given in Figure following equation:
207-11 through 207-16
(GCpi) = internal pressure coefficient given in Figure p  q p  (GC p )  (GC pi )  (207-24)
207-5
where
207.5.12.4.2 Buildings with h  18 m qp = velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the
Design wind pressures on components and cladding for parapet
all buildings with h  18m shall be determined from the GCp = external pressure coefficients from Figures
following equation: 207-11 through 207-17
GCpi = internal pressure coefficient from Figures 207-5,
p  q (GC p )  qi (GC pi )  (207-23) based on the porosity of the parapet envelope
where Two load cases shall be considered. Load Case A shall
q = qz for windward walls calculated at height z consist of applying the applicable positive wall pressure
above the ground from Figure 207-11A or Figure 207-17 to the front
q = qh for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs, surface of the parapet while applying the applicable
evaluated at height h negative edge or corner zone roof pressure from Figures
qi = qh for windward walls, side walls, leeward walls, 207-11 through 207-17 to the back surface. Load Case B
and roofs of enclosed buildings and for negative shall consist of applying the applicable positive wall
internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed pressure from Figure 207-11A or Figure 207-17 to the
buildings back of the parapet surface, and applying the applicable
qi = qz for positive internal pressure evaluation in negative wall pressure from Figure 207-11A or Figure
partially enclosed buildings where height z is 207-17 to the front surface. Edge and corner zones shall
defined as the level of the highest opening in the be arranged as shown in Figures 207-11 through 207-17.
building that could affect the positive internal GCp shall be determined for appropriate roof angle and
pressure. For buildings sited in wind-borne effective wind area from Figures 207-11 through 207-17.
debris regions, glazing that is not impact If internal pressure is present, both load cases should be
resistant or protected with an impact-resistant evaluated under positive and negative internal pressure.
covering, shall be treated as an opening in
accordance with Section 207.5.9.3. For positive 207.5.13 Design Wind Loads on Open Buildings
internal pressure evaluation, qi may with Monoslope, Pitched, or Troughed Roofs
conservatively be evaluated at height h (qi = qh)
(GCp) = external pressure coefficient from Figure 207-17 207.5.13.1 General
(GCpi) = internal pressure coefficient given in Figure
207-5 207.13.1.1 Sign Convention
q and qi shall be evaluated using exposure defined in Plus and minus signs signify pressure acting toward and
Section 207.5.6.3. away from the top surface of the roof, respectively.
207.5.12.4.3 Alternative Design Wind Pressures for 207.5.13.1.2 Critical Load Condition
Components and Cladding in Buildings with 18m < h Net pressure coefficients CN include contributions from
< 27m top and bottom surfaces. All load cases shown for each
Alternative to the requirements of Section 207.5.12.4.2, roof angle shall be investigated.
the design of components and cladding for buildings with
a mean roof height greater than 18m and less than 27m 207.5.13.2 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems
values from Figures 207-11 through 207-17 shall be used The net design pressure for the MWFRSs of monoslope,
only if the height to width ratio is one or less (except as pitched, or troughed roofs shall be determined by the
permitted by Note 6 of Figure 207-17) and Eq. 207-22 is following equation:
used.
p  qhGCN (207-25)
where

qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h qz = velocity pressure evaluated at height z of the
using the exposure as defined in Section centroid of area Af using exposure defined in
207.5.6.3 that results in the highest wind loads Section 207.5.6.3
for any wind direction at the site G = gust-effect factor from Section 207.5.8
G = gust effect factor from Section 207.5.8 Cf = force coefficients from Figures 207-21 through
CN = net pressure coefficient determined from Figures 207-23
207-18A through 207-18D Af = projected area normal to the wind except where
Cf is specified for the actual surface area, m²
For free roofs with an angle of plane of roof from
horizontal θ less than or equal to 5° and containing fascia 207.5.15.1 Rooftop Structures and Equipment for
panels, the fascia panel shall be considered an inverted Buildings with h ≤ 18 m
parapet. The contribution of loads on the fascia to the The force on rooftop structures and equipment with Af
MWFRS loads shall be determined using Section less than 0.10Bh located on buildings with h ≤ 18 m shall
207.5.12.2.4 with qp equal to qh. be determined from Eq. 207-28, increased by a factor of
1.9. The factor shall be permitted to be reduced linearly
207.5.13.3 Component and Cladding Elements from 1.9 to 1.0 as the value of Af is increased from 0.10Bh
The net design wind pressure for component and cladding to Bh.
elements of monoslope, pitched, and troughed roofs shall
be determined by the following equation: 207.5.15.2 Structures Supporting Antennas, Cables,
and Other Attachments and Appurtenances
p  qhGCN (207-26) The wind loads on all structures supporting attachments
and appurtenances including antenna- and cable-
where
supporting structures shall take into account the wind
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h loads on all supported antennas, cables, attachments, and
using the exposure as defined in Section appurtenances.
207.5.6.3 that results in the highest wind loads
for any wind direction at the site Guidance on wind loads on supported antennas shall be
G = gust-effect factor from Section 207.5.8 obtained from the TIA-222-G (2005) standard unless
CN = net pressure coefficient determined from Figures sufficient supporting evidence can be obtained from
207-19A through 207-19C recognized literature or from wind tunnel tests.
207.5.14 Design Wind Loads on Solid Freestanding Guidance on wind loads on supported cables shall be
Walls and Solid Signs obtained from the ASCE Manual of Practice #74
The design wind force for solid freestanding walls and (Guidelines on Electrical Transmission Line Structural
solid signs shall be determined by the following formula: Loading) except that the gust effect factor for cables as
given in Section 207.7.3, or unless sufficient supporting
F  qhGC f As (207-27) evidence can be obtained from recognized literature or
from wind tunnel tests.
where
qh = the velocity pressure evaluated at height h The wind loads on supported antennas, cables,
(defined in Figure 207-20) using exposure in attachments, and appurtenances shall be applied at the
Section 207.5.6.4.1 location of support on the supporting structure.
Gf = gust-effect factor from Section 207.5.8
Cf = net force coefficient from Figure 207-20 207.6 Method 3 – Wind Tunnel Procedure
As = the gross area of the solid freestanding wall or
solid sign, m² 207.6.1 Scope
Wind tunnel tests shall be used where required by Section
207.5.15 Design Wind Loads on Other Structures 207.5.2. Wind tunnel testing shall be permitted in lieu of
The design wind force for other structures shall be Methods 1 and 2 for any building or structure.
determined by the following equation:
207.6.2 Test Conditions
F  qzG f C f Af (207-28)
Wind tunnel tests, or similar employing fluids other than
where air, used for the determination of design wind loads for
any building or other structure, shall be conducted in
th
accordance with this section. Tests for the determination 207.7 Gust Effect Factor for Other Structures
of mean and fluctuating forces and pressures shall meet
all of the following conditions: 207.7.1 Poles, Masts, and Trussed Towers
1. The natural atmospheric boundary layer has been For other structures such as poles, masts, trussed towers,
modeled to account for the variation of wind speed and the like, that function as communication towers or
with height. antenna-supporting structures, electrical transmission
towers and poles, structures supporting lighting
2. The relevant macro-integral length and micro-length equipment, and the like, the gust effect factor shall be
scales of the longitudinal component of atmospheric calculated by
turbulence are modeled to approximately the same
scale as that used to model the building or structure. 1  0.85 ge  Q 2  R 2 (207-29)
Gf 
3. The modeled building or other structure and 1  0.85 g
surrounding structures and topography are
where   4.9 D 0 (10 z ) 1 /  (207-30)
geometrically similar to their full-scale counterparts,
except that, for low-rise buildings meeting the
requirements of Section 207.5.1, tests shall be Q= 1 (207-31)
permitted for the modeled building in a single 1  0.27 h 
exposure site as defined in Section 207.5.6.3.
5 / 3
4. The projected area of the modeled building or other and R= 0.017  n1 z  (207-32)
 
structure and surroundings is less than 8 percent of   V z 
the test section cross-sectional area unless correction
is made for blockage. The peak factor g shall be taken as 4.0. The value of e
shall be 0.75 for electrical transmission towers and poles
5. The longitudinal pressure gradient in the wind tunnel with cables, or 1.0 for all other cases. The parameters that
test section is accounted for.
define the wind field characteristics, specifically D0, , l,
6. Reynolds number effects on pressures and forces are  , b , and  , shall be obtained from Table 207-11. The
minimized. effective height z shall be taken as two-thirds the height
7. Response characteristics of the wind tunnel of the tower (2/3h), but not less than zmin as listed in Table
instrumentation are consistent with the required 207-11. Vz is calculated using Eqn. 207-14.
measurements.
207.7.2 Billboard Structures, Free-Standing Walls,
207.6.3 Dynamic Response and Solid Signs
Tests for the purpose of determining the dynamic For billboard structures, free-standing walls, and solid
response of a building or other structure shall be in signs with height-to-least-horizontal dimension greater
accordance with Section 207.6.2. The structural model than 4, the procedures in Section 207.7.1 shall be used.
and associated analysis shall account for mass Otherwise, the procedures in Section 207.5.8.2 shall be
distribution, stiffness, and damping. used.
207.6.4 Limitations 207.7.3 Cables

For cables, Equations 207-29, 207-30, and 207-32 shall be
207.6.4.1 Limitations on Wind Speeds used together with:
Variation of basic wind speeds with direction shall not be
permitted unless the analysis for wind speeds conforms to Q= 1 (207-33)
the requirements of Section 207.5.4.2. 1  0 .4 B 
207.6.5 Wind-Borne Debris where B is the total length of the cable.

Glazing in buildings in wind-borne debris regions shall be
protected in accordance with Section 207.5.9.3. 207.8 Estimates of Dynamic Properties
When values for natural frequency and damping ratio as
required input parameters in the calculation of the gust
effect factor for buildings and other structures are not
available from full-scale measurements of the actual
structure or from computer simulation, the estimation

formulas given in Sections 207.8.1 and 207.8.2 shall be 207.8.1.3 Poles, Masts, Solid Signs, Guyed Structures,
used. Cables, and Other Structures
For poles, masts, solid signs, guyed structures, cables, and
207.8.1 Approximate Fundamental Frequency other structures, the natural frequency may be estimated
from full-scale measurements or computer simulation
207.8.1.1 Buildings taking into account the effect of tension-only element
For buildings, the natural frequency n1 may be estimated properties and other attachments.
using the following general formulas:
207.8.2 Approximate Damping Ratio
207.8.2.1 General
Type Service-level Strength-level
Concrete 67/h 56/h For wind loading purposes, the total damping ratio may be
Steel 50/h 42/h taken as 0.015 for concrete structures, and 0.010 for steel
and other structures.
207.8.1.2 Free-Standing Trussed Towers and Billboard
207.8.2.2 Poles, Masts, Trussed Towers, Billboards,
Structures
and Similar Structures
For free-standing trussed towers, and billboard structures,
Alternatively for poles, masts, trussed towers, billboards,
the natural frequency n1 may be estimated using the
following formula: and similar structures, the structural damping ratio s at
service-level condition may be taken as
n1  107 M a Ra 0 Pa Aa (207-34)
0.16
h (207-38)
s   0.003
where Ra0 = 1.25(h/B0) -0.2
(207-35) h
1 where n1 is the service-level natural frequency.

Ma  (207-36)
1  k m mr The structural damping ratio s at strength-level condition
for poles, masts, trussed towers, billboards, and the like,
and 3 (207-37) may be taken as
km  2
 B0h   0.15
 B0  0.23
 s   0.004 (207-39)
h
Pa = 0.9 for triangular (3-legged) towers, and 1.0 for other
conditions. Aa = 1.0 for service-level condition, and 0.83 where n1 is the strength-level natural frequency.
for strength-level condition. B0h is the average tower
width, or average of the base and top widths, or B0 and Bh The aerodynamic damping ratio a at service-level
respectively, for tapered towers. km shall be taken as 2.6 condition for trussed towers, billboards, and the like, may
for billboards, poles, masts, and non-tapering towers and be taken as
other structures.
0 .007 (207-40)
a   0.007
Alternatively, for free-standing towers or billboard n1
structures in the Philippines without attached antennas or
where n1 is the service-level natural frequency.
cables,
The aerodynamic damping ratio a at strength-level
Plan-shape Service-level Strength-level condition for trussed towers, billboards, and the like, may
Triangular 81/h 68/h be taken as
Others 91/h 75/h
0 .011 for Wind Zone 1 or 2,
a   0 .007
For antenna towers or electrical transmission towers in the n1
Philippines with mass ratio mr as 5% (or approximately 3 or for V > 162 kph, (207-41)
attached antennas):
0 .009 for Wind Zone 3,
a   0 .007
Plan-shape Service-level Strength-level n1
Square 81/h 68/h or for V ≤ 162 kph (207-42)
Triangular 73/h 61/h
where n1 is the strength-level natural frequency.
th
The aerodynamic damping ratio a may be obtained from

a more detailed analysis with the appropriate basic wind
speed V as parameter, the hourly mean wind speed from
Eq. 207-14, a mode shape exponent of 3.0, unit mass at
the base, and solidity ratio  and drag force coefficient Cf
evaluated at the effective height.
The total damping ratio  shall be taken as
  s  a  0.06 (207-43)
207.9 Consensus Standards and Other Referenced

Documents
This section lists the consensus standards and other
documents which are adopted by reference within this
section:
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)

ASTM International
100 Barr Harbor Drive
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959

WALLS AND ROOFS
Notes:
1. Pressures shown are applied to the horizontal and vertical projections, for exposure B, at h= 9 m, Iw=1.0, and Kzt = 1.0. Adjust to
other conditions using Equation 207-1.
2. The load patterns shown shall be applied to each corner of the building in turn as the reference corner. (See Figure 207-10).
3. For the design of the longitudinal MWFRS use θ = 0°, and locate the zone E/F, G/H boundary at the mid-length of the building.
4. Load cases 1 and 2 must be checked for 25° < θ ≤ 45°. Load case 2 at 25° is provided only for interpolation between 25° to 30°.
5. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the projected surfaces, respectively.
6. For roof slopes other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
7. The total horizontal load shall not be less than that determined by assuming pS = 0 in zones B & D.
8. The zone pressures represent the following:
Horizontal pressure zones – Sum of the windward and leeward net (sum of internal and external) pressures on vertical
projection of:
A – End zone of wall C – Interior zone of wall
B – End zone of roof D – Interior zone of roof
Vertical pressure zones – Net (sum of internal and external) pressures on horizontal projection of:
E – End zone of windward roof G – Interior zone of windward roof
F – End zone of leeward roof H – Interior zone of leeward roof
9. Where zone E or G falls on a roof overhang on the windward side of the building, use EOH and GOH for the pressure on the
horizontal projection of the overhang. Overhangs on the leeward and side edges shall have the basic zone pressure applied.
10. Notation:
a = 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal
dimension or 0.9 m.
h = Mean roof height, m, except that eave height shall be used for roof angles < 10°.
θ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees.
Figure 207-1 Design Wind Pressures on

Walls and Roofs of Enclosed Buildings with h ≤ 18m,
Main Wind-Force Resisting System – Method 1
th
Adjustment Factor
for Building Height and Exposure 
Mean roof Exposure
height (m) B C D
4.5 1.00 1.21 1.47
6.0 1.00 1.29 1.55
7.5 1.00 1.35 1.61
9.0 1.00 1.40 1.66
11.0 1.05 1.45 1.70
12.0 1.09 1.49 1.74
13.7 1.12 1.53 1.78
15.2 1.16 1.56 1.81
16.8 1.19 1.59 1.84
18.0 1.22 1.62 1.87
WALLS AND ROOFS
Basic
Roof Horizontal Pressures, kPa Vertical Pressures, kPa Overhangs
Wind Load
Angle
Speed Case
(°) A B C D E F G H Eoh Goh
(kph)
150 0 to 5 1 0.66 -0.34 0.44 -0.21 -0.79 -0.45 -0.55 -0.35 -1.11 -0.87
10 1 0.75 -0.31 0.50 -0.18 -0.79 -0.48 -0.55 -0.37 -1.11 -0.87
15 1 0.83 -0.28 0.55 -0.16 -0.79 -0.52 -0.55 -0.40 -1.11 -0.87
20 1 0.92 -0.24 0.61 -0.13 -0.79 -0.55 -0.55 -0.42 -1.11 -0.87
1 0.83 0.13 0.60 0.14 -0.37 -0.50 -0.27 -0.40 -0.69 -0.59
25 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.14 -0.27 -0.04 -0.18 0.00 0.00
1 0.74 0.51 0.59 0.41 0.06 -0.45 0.02 -0.39 -0.26 -0.30
30 to 45 2 0.74 -0.08 0.59 0.41 0.29 -0.22 0.25 -0.16 -0.26 -0.30
200 0 to 5 1 1.18 -0.62 0.79 -0.36 -1.42 -0.81 -0.99 -0.63 -2.00 -1.57
10 1 1.34 -0.56 0.89 -0.32 -1.42 -0.87 -0.99 -0.67 -2.00 -1.57
15 1 1.49 -0.49 0.99 -0.28 -1.42 -0.93 -0.99 -0.71 -2.00 -1.57
20 1 1.64 -0.43 1.10 -0.24 -1.42 -0.99 -0.99 -0.75 -2.00 -1.57
1 1.48 0.24 1.08 0.24 -0.66 -0.90 -0.48 -0.72 -1.23 -1.05
25 2 - - - - -0.25 -0.49 -0.07 -0.31 - -
1 1.34 0.91 1.06 0.73 0.11 -0.81 0.04 -0.69 -0.47 -0.54
30 to 45 2 1.34 0.91 1.06 0.73 0.51 -0.40 0.45 -0.29 -0.47 -0.54
250 0 to 5 1 1.84 -0.95 1.22 -0.57 -2.21 -1.26 -1.54 -0.97 -3.09 -2.42
10 1 2.07 -0.86 1.38 -0.50 -2.21 -1.35 -1.54 -1.04 -3.09 -2.42
15 1 2.31 -0.77 1.54 -0.44 -2.21 -1.44 -1.54 -1.10 -3.09 -2.42
20 1 2.54 -0.67 1.70 -0.37 -2.21 -1.54 -1.54 -1.17 -3.09 -2.42
1 2.31 0.37 1.67 0.38 -1.03 -1.40 -0.74 -1.12 -1.91 -1.63
25 2 - - - - -0.39 -0.76 -0.11 -0.49 - -
1 2.07 1.41 1.65 1.13 0.16 -1.26 0.05 -1.08 -0.73 -0.83
30 to 45 2 2.07 1.41 1.65 1.13 0.79 -0.62 0.69 -0.44 -0.73 -0.83
Figure 207-2 Design Wind Pressures on
Walls and Roofs of Enclosed Buildings with h ≤ 18m,

WALLS AND ROOFS

Notes:
1. Pressure shown are applied normal to the surface, for exposure B, at h = 9 m, Iw = 1.0, and Kzt = 1.0. Adjust to other conditions using
Equation 207-2.
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. For hip roofs with θ ≤ 25°, Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
4. For effective wind areas between those given, value may be interpolated, otherwise use the value associated with the lower effective wind
area.
5. Notation:
a = 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or
0.9 m.
h = Mean roof height, in m, except that eave height shall be used for roof angles < 10°.
ɵ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees.
Figure 207-3 Design Wind Pressures on Walls & Roof of Enclosed

Buildings with h ≤ 18 m, Components and Cladding – Method 1
th
Adjustment Factor for

Buildings Height and Exposure, 
Mean roof Exposure
height (m) B C D
4.5 1.00 1.21 1.47
6.0 1.00 1.29 1.55
7.5 1.00 1.35 1.61
9.0 1.00 1.40 1.66
11.0 1.05 1.45 1.70
12.0 1.09 1.49 1.74
13.7 1.12 1.53 1.78
15.2 1.16 1.56 1.81
16.8 1.19 1.59 1.84
18.0 1.22 1.62 1.87
WALLS AND ROOFS
Net Design Wind Pressure, pnet, kPa (Exposure B at h =10 m with I = 1.0 and Kd = 1.0)
Effective
Roof Basic Wind Speed V (kph)
wind
Angle
Zone area
(°) 150 200 250
(m2)
1 1.0 0.30 -0.75 0.55 0.55 0.85 -2.09
1 2.0 0.29 -0.73 0.51 0.51 0.79 -2.03
1 4.5 0.26 -0.71 0.47 0.47 0.73 -1.96
1 9.5 0.24 -0.69 0.44 0.44 0.67 -1.91
2 1.0 0.30 -1.26 0.55 0.55 0.85 -3.50
0<θ 2 2.0 0.29 -1.12 0.51 0.51 0.79 -3.13
<7 2 4.5 0.26 -0.95 0.47 0.47 0.73 -2.64
2 9.5 0.24 -0.81 0.44 0.44 0.67 -2.26
3 1.0 0.30 -1.90 0.55 0.55 0.85 -5.27
3 2.0 0.29 -1.57 0.51 0.51 0.79 -4.37
3 4.5 0.26 -1.14 0.47 0.47 0.73 -3.17
3 9.5 0.24 -0.81 0.44 0.44 0.67 -2.26
Figure 207-3a (cont’d) - Design Wind Pressures on Walls & Roof of Enclosed

Net Design Wind Pressure, pnet, kPa (Exposure B at h =10 m with I = 1.0 and Kd = 1.0)
Effective
Roof Basic Wind Speed V (kph)
wind
Angle Zone
area
(deg) 150 200 250
(m2)
1 1.0 0.43 -0.69 0.78 0.78 1.20 -1.91
1 2.0 0.40 -0.67 0.71 0.71 1.10 -1.86
1 4.5 0.34 -0.64 0.62 0.62 0.95 -1.78
1 9.5 0.30 -0.62 0.55 0.55 0.85 -1.73
2 1.0 0.43 -1.20 0.78 0.78 1.20 -3.33
θ > 7 to 2 2.0 0.40 -1.10 0.71 0.71 1.10 -3.06
27 2 4.5 0.34 -0.97 0.62 0.62 0.95 -2.71
2 9.5 0.30 -0.88 0.55 0.55 0.85 -2.44
3 1.0 0.43 -1.77 0.78 0.78 1.20 -4.92
3 2.0 0.40 -1.65 0.71 0.71 1.10 -4.60
3 4.5 0.34 -1.50 0.62 0.62 0.95 -4.18
3 9.5 0.30 -1.39 0.55 0.55 0.85 -3.86
1 1.0 0.69 -0.75 1.23 1.23 1.91 -2.09
1 2.0 0.67 -0.71 1.20 1.20 1.86 -1.98
1 4.5 0.64 -0.66 1.15 1.15 1.78 -1.84
1 9.5 0.62 -0.62 1.12 1.12 1.73 -1.73
2 1.0 0.69 -0.88 1.23 1.23 1.91 -2.44
θ > 27 2 2.0 0.67 -0.84 1.20 1.20 1.86 -2.33
to 45 2 4.5 0.64 -0.79 1.15 1.15 1.78 -2.19
2 9.5 0.62 -0.75 1.11 1.11 1.73 -2.09
3 1.0 0.69 -0.88 1.23 1.23 1.91 -2.44
3 2.0 0.67 -0.84 1.20 1.20 1.86 -2.33
3 4.5 0.64 -0.79 1.15 1.15 1.78 -2.19
3 9.5 0.62 -0.75 1.12 1.12 1.73 -2.09
4 1.0 0.75 -0.81 1.35 1.35 2.09 -2.26
4 2.0 0.72 -0.78 1.28 1.28 1.99 -2.17
4 4.5 0.67 -0.74 1.21 1.21 1.87 -2.05
4 9.5 0.64 -0.70 1.14 1.14 1.77 -1.95
4 46.5 0.56 -0.62 1.01 1.01 1.56 -1.73
Wall 5 1.0 0.75 -0.26 1.35 1.35 2.09 -2.79
5 2.0 0.72 -0.24 1.28 1.28 1.99 -2.60
5 4.5 0.67 -0.22 1.21 1.21 1.87 -2.36
5 9.5 0.64 -0.20 1.14 1.14 1.77 -2.17
5 46.5 0.56 -0.62 1.01 1.01 1.56 -1.73
Figure 207-3b (cont’d) - Design Wind Pressures on Walls & Roof of Enclosed
th
K1 Multiplier K2 Multiplier K3 Multiplier

3-D All 3-D
H/Lh 2-D 2-D x/Lh 2-D z/Lh 2-D 2-D
Axisym. Other Axisym.
Ridge Escarp Escarp Ridge Escarp
Hill Cases Hill
0.2 0.29 0.17 0.21 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.25 0.36 0.21 0.26 0.50 0.88 0.67 0.10 0.74 0.78 0.67
0.30 0.43 0.26 0.32 1.00 0.75 0.33 0.20 0.55 0.61 0.45
0.35 0.51 0.30 0.37 1.50 0.63 0.00 0.30 0.41 0.47 0.30
0.40 0.58 0.34 0.42 2.00 0.50 0.00 0.40 0.30 0.37 0.20
0.45 0.65 0.38 0.47 2.50 0.38 0.00 0.50 0.22 0.29 0.14
0.50 0.72 0.43 0.53 3.00 0.25 0.00 0.60 0.17 0.22 0.09
3.50 0.13 0.00 0.70 0.12 0.17 0.06
4.00 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.09 0.14 0.04
0.90 0.07 0.11 0.03
1.00 0.05 0.08 0.02
1.50 0.01 0.02 0.00
2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Notes:
1. For values H/Lh and z/Lh other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
2. For H/Lh  0.5, assume H/Lh = 0.5 for evaluating K1 and substitute 2H for Lh for evaluating K2 and K3.
3. Multipliers are based on the assumption that approaches the hill or escarpment along the direction of maximum slope.
4. Notation:
H = Height of hill or escarpment relative to the upwind terrain, m.
Lh = Distance upwind of crest to where the difference in ground elevation is half the height of hill or escarpment, m.
K1 = Factor to account for shape of topographic feature and maximum speed-up effect.
K2 = Factor to account for reduction in speed-up with distance upwind or downwind of crest.
K3 = Factor to account for reduction in speed-up with height above local terrain.
X = Distance (upwind or downwind) from the crest to the building site, m.
Z = Height above local ground leve3, m.
µ = Horizontal attenuation factor.
Γ = Height attenuation factor.
Figure 207-4: Topographic Factor, Kzt – Method 2

Equations:
Kzt  (1 K1K2K3)2
K1 determined from table below
x
K 2  (1  )
L h
K 3  e z / Lh
Parameters for Speed-Up over Hills and Escarpments

K1/(H/Lh) µ
Hill Shape Exposure γ Upwind Downwind
B C D of Crest of Crest
2-dimensional ridges (or valleys
1.30 1.45 1.55 3 1.5 1.5
with negative H in K1/(H/Lh)
2-dimensional escarpments 0.75 0.85 0.95 2.5 1.5 4
3-dimensional axisym. hill 0.95 1.05 1.15 4 1.5 1.5
Figure 207-4 (cont’d): Topographic Factor, Kzt – Method 2
th
Enclosure Classification GCpi

Open Buildings 0.00
Partially Enclosed Buildings +0.55
-0.55
Enclosed Buildings +0.18
-0.18
WALLS AND ROOFS
Notes:
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the internal surfaces,
respectively.
2. Values of GCpi shall be used with qz or qh as specified in Section 207.5.12.
3. Two cases shall be considered to determine the critical load requirements for the appropriate
condition:
(i) a positive value of GCpi applied to all internal surfaces
(ii) a negative value of GCpi applied to all internal surfaces
Figure 207-5 Internal Pressure Coefficients, GCpi on

Walls and Roofs of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed and Open Buildings for all Heights
Main Wind-Force Resisting System/Components & Cladding - Method 2

WALLS AND ROOFS

Figure 207-6 External Pressure Coefficients, Cp on
Walls and Roofs of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings for all Heights
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Wall Pressure Coefficients, Cp

Surface L/B Cp Use With
Windward Wall All values 0.8 qz
0-1 -0.5
Leeward Wall 2 -0.3 qh
≥4 -0.2
Side Wall All values -0.7 qh
Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp, for use with qh

Wind
Windward Leeward
Direction
Angle, θ (degrees) Angle, θ (degrees)
h/L 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 ≥ 60 10 10 15 ≥ 20
-0.7 -0.5 -0.3 -0.2 -0.2 0.0* -0.3 -0.5 -0.6
≤ 0.25 -0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.01θ
Normal to
-0.9 -0.7 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.2 0.0 * -0.5 -0.5 -0.6
ridge for θ
0.5 -0.18 -0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.01θ
≥ 10°
-1.3 ** -1.0 -0.7 -0.5 -0.3 -0.2 0.0* -0.7 -0.6 -0.6
≥ 1.0 -0.18 -0.18 -0.18 0.0 * 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.01θ
Horizontal distance from * Value is provided for interpolation purposes.
Cp
windward edge
Normal to 0 to h/2 -0.9, -0.18
≤ 0.5
ridge for θ h/2 to h -0.9, -0.18
< 10 and h to 2h -0.5, -0.18 ** Value can be reduced linearly with area over
Parallel to ˃ 2h -0.3, -0.18 which it is applicable as follows:
ridge for Area (m²) Reduction Factor
all θ 0 to h/2 -1.3 **, -0.18
≤ 9 1.0
≥ 1.0
23 0.9
˃ h/2 -0.7, -0.18
≥ 93 0.8
WALLS AND ROOFS

Notes:
2. Linear interpolation is permitted for values of L/B; h/L and θ other than shown. Interpolation shall only be carried out between values of the same sign.
Where no value of the same sign is given, assume 0.0 for interpolation purposes.
3. Where two values of Cp are listed, this indicates that the windward roof slope is subjected to either positive or negative pressures and the roof structure
shall be designed for both conditions. Interpolation for intermediate ratios of h/L in this case shall only be carried out between Cp values of like sign.
4. For monoslope roofs, entire roof surface is either a windward or leeward surface.
5. For flexible buildings use appropriate Gf as determined by Section 207.5.8.
6. Refer to Figure 207-7 for domes and Figure 207-8 for arched roofs.
7. Notation:
B = Horizontal dimension of building, in m, measured normal to wind direction.
L = Horizontal dimension of building, in m, measured parallel to wind direction.
H = Mean roof height in m, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10 degrees.
Z = Height above ground, m.
G = Gust effect factor.
qz, ,qh = Velocity pressure, N/m², evaluated at respective height.
8. For mansard roofs, the top horizontal surface and leeward inclined surface shall be treated as leeward surfaces from the table.
9. Excepts for MWFRS’s at the roof consisting of moment resisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not be less than that determined by neglecting
wind forces on roof surfaces.
10. For roof slopes greater than 80°, use Cp = 0.8
Figure 207-6(cont’d) - External Pressure Coefficients, Cp on

Walls and Roofs of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings for all Heights
Main Wind Force Resisting System – Method 2

Notes:
1. Two load cases shall be considered:
Case A. Cp values between A and B and between B and C shall be determined by linear interpolation along arcs on the dome parallel to the wind
direction;
Case B. Cp shall be the constant value of A for θ ≤ 25 degrees, and shall be determined by linear interpolation from 25 degrees to B and from B to C.
2. Values denote Cp to be used with q(hD  f ) where hD + f is the height at the top of the dome.
4. Cp is constant on the dome surface for arcs of circles perpendicular to the wind direction; for example, the arc passing through B-B-B and all arcs
parallel to B-B-B.
5. For values of hp/D between those listed on the graph curves, linear interpolation shall be permitted.
6. θ = 0 degrees on dome spring line, θ = 90 degrees at dome center top point, f is measured from springline to top.
7. The total horizontal shear shall not be less than that determined by neglecting wind forces on roof surfaces.
8. For f/D values less than 0.05, use Figure 207-6.
Figure 207-7 External Pressure Coefficients, Cp for loads on Domed Roofs

of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings and Structures for all Heights
Main Wind- Force Resisting System – Method 2
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ARCHED ROOFS
Cp
Rise-to-span
Conditions Windward Center half Leeward
ratio, r
quarter quarter
Roof on elevated structure 0 < r < 0.2 -0.9 -0.7 - r -0.5
0.2 ≤ r < 0.3 * 1.5r – 0.3 -0.7 - r -0.5
0.3 ≤ r ≤ 0.6 2.75r – 0.7 -0.7 - r -0.5
Roof springing from ground
0 < r ≤ 0.6 1.4r -0.7 - r -0.5
level
* When the rise-to-span ratio is 0.2 ≤ r ≤ 0.3, alternate coefficients given by 6r-2.1 shall also be used for the
windward quarter.
Notes:
1. Values listed are for the determination of average loads on main wind force resisting systems.
3. For wind directed parallel to the axis of the arch, use pressure coefficients from Figure 207-6 with wind directed parallel to
ridge.
4. For components and cladding: (1) At roof perimeter, use the external pressure coefficients in Figure 207-11 with θ based
on spring line slope and (2) for remaining roof areas, use external pressure coefficients of this table multiplied by 0.87.
Figure 207-8 External Pressure Coefficients, Cp for loads on Arched Roofs

of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings and Structures for all Heights
Main Wind- Force Resisting System/Components and Cladding – Method 2

Case 1. Full design wind pressure acting on the projected area perpendicular to each principal axis of the structure,
considered separately along each principal axis.
Case 2. Three quarters of the design wind pressure acting on the projected area perpendicular to each principal axis of
the structure in conjunction with a torsional moment as shown, considered separately for each principal axis.
Case 3. Wind loading as defined in Case 1, but considered to act simultaneously at 75% of the specified value.
Case 4. Wind loading as defined in Case 2, but considered to act simultaneously at 75% of the specified value.
Notes:
1. Design wind pressures for windward and leeward faces shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of Sects. 207.5.12.2.1 and
207.5.12.2.3 as applicable for buildings of all heights.
2. Diagrams show plan views of building.
3. Notation:
PWX, PWY = Windward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis, respectively.
PLX, PLY = Leeward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis, respectively.
e (eX,eY) = Eccentricity for the x, y principal axis of the structure, respectively.
Mɼ = Torsional moment per unit height acting about a vertical axis of the building.
Figure 207-9 Design Wind Load Cases for All Heights

th
Figure 207-10 External Pressure Coefficients, GCpf on Low-Rise Walls & Roofs
of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings with h ≤ 18 m,

Roof Building Surface

Angle θ
1 2 3 4 5 6 1E 2E 3E 4E
(degrees)
0-5 0.40 -0.69 -0.37 -0.29 -0.45 -0.45 0.61 -1.07 -0.53 -0.43
20 0.53 -0.69 -0.48 -0.43 -0.45 -0.45 0.80 -1.07 -0.69 -0.64
30-45 0.56 0.21 -0.43 -0.37 -0.45 -0.45 0.69 0.27 -0.53 -0.48
90 0.56 0.56 -0.37 -0.37 -0.45 -0.45 0.69 0.69 -0.48 -0.48
Notes:
2. For values of θ other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
3. The building must be designed for all wind directions using the 8 loading patterns shown. The load patterns are applied to each
building corner in turns as the Reference Corner.
4. Combinations of external and internal pressures (see Figure 207-5) shall be evaluated as required to obtain the most severe
loadings.
5. For the torsional load cases shown below, the pressures in zones designated with a “I” (1T, 2T, 3T, 4T) shall be 25% of the full
design wind pressures (zone 1, 2, 3, 4).
6. Exception: One storey buildings with less than or equal to 10 m buildings two stories or less framed with light frame construction,
and buildings two stories or less designated with flexible diaphragms need not be designed for the torsional load cases.
7. Torsional loading shall apply to all eight basic load patterns using the figures below applied at each reference corner.
8. Except for moment-resisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not be less than that determined by neglecting wind forces on
roof surfaces.
9. For the design of the MWFRS providing lateral resistance in a direction parallel to a ridge line or for flat roofs, use θ = 0° and
locate the zone 2/3 boundary at the mid-length of the building.
10. The roof pressure coefficient GCpf, when negative in zone 2 or 2E, shall be applied in zone 2/2 E, for a distance from the edge of roof
equal to 0.5 times the horizontal dimension of the building parallel to the direction of the MWFRS being designed or 2.5 times the
eave height, he, at the windward wall, whichever is less; the remainder of zone 2/2 E, extending to the ridge line shall use the
pressure coefficient GCpf for zone 3/3 E.
11. Notation:
a = 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension
or 0.9 m
h = Mean roof height, m, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10°
Θ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Torsional Load Cases

LOW-RISE WALLS AND ROOFS
Figure 207-10 (cont’d) External Pressure Coefficients, GCpf on Low-Rise Walls & Roofs
of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings with h ≤ 18 m,
Main Wind-Force Resisting System-Method 2
th
WALLS
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, m2.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. Values of GCp for walls shall be reduced by 10% when  10º
6. Notation:
a = 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal
dimension or 0.9 m
h = Mean roof height, m, except that eave height shall be used for10º
Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees.
Figure 207-11A External Pressure Coefficients, GCp for Loads on Walls

of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings with h ≤ 18 m
Components and Cladding – Method 2

GABLE ROOFS θ ≤ 7°
Notes:
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, m2.
5. For º, values of GCp from Figure 207-5B shall be used.
6. For buildings sited within Exposure B, calculated pressures shall be multiplied by 0.85.
7. Notation:
a = 10% of least horizontal dimension of a single-span module or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4 percent of
least horizontal dimension of a single-span module or 1 m
h = Eve height shall be used for θ ≤ 10º
W = Building width, m
Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Figure 207-11B External Pressure Coefficients, GCp on Gable Roofs

th
GABLE/HIP ROOFS 7° < θ ≤ 27°

Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qh. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square meters, m².
4. Values of GCp for roof overhangs include pressure contributions from both upper and lower surfaces.
5. For hip roofs with 7° < θ ≤ 27°, edge / ridge strips and pressure coefficients for ridges of gabled roofs shall apply on each hip.
6. For hip roofs with θ ≤ 25°, zone 3 shall be treated as zone 2.
7. Notations:
a = 10 percent of least horizontal dimensions or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension
or 0.9 m
θ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Figure 207-11C External Pressure Coefficients, GCp on Gable/Hip Roofs

GABLE ROOFS 27° < θ ≤ 45°

Notes:
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, m².
5. Values of GCp for roof overhangs include pressure contributions from both upper and lower surfaces.
6. Notations:
a = 10 percent of least horizontal dimensions or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension
or 0.9 m.
h = Mean roof height, m.
Figure 207-11D External Pressure Coefficients, GCp on Gable Roofs

th
h1  3m
b  1.5h1
b1  30m
h1
 0 .3 to 0.7
h
W1
 0 .25 to 0.75
W
STEPPED ROOFS
Notes:
1. On the lower level of flat, stepped roofs shown in Figure 207-12, the zone designations and pressure coefficients shown in Figure 207-
11B shall apply, except that at the roof-upper wall intersection(s), zone 3 shall be treated as zone 2 and zone 2 shall be treated as
zone 1. Positive values of GCp equal to those for walls in Figure 207-11A shall apply on the cross-hatched areas shown in Figure
207-12.
2. Notations:
b = 1.5h1 in Figure 207-12, but not greater than 30 m
h = Mean roof height, m
h1 = h1 or h2 in Figure 207-12; h = h1 + h2; h1 ≥ 3 m; h1/h = 0.3 to 0.7
W = Building width in Figure 207-12
W1 = W1 or W2 or W3 in Figure 207.12. W = W1 + W2 or W1 + W2 + W3; W1/W = 0.25 to 0.75
Figure 207-12 External Pressure Coefficients, GCp on Stepped Roofs

MULTI-SPAN GABLE ROOFS

Notes:
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, m2.
5. For θ ≤ 10°, values of GCp from Figure 207-11 shall be used.
6. Notations:
a = 10 percent of least horizontal dimensions of a single-span module or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4 percent
of least horizontal dimension of a single-span module or 0.9 m
W = Building module width, m
Figure 207-13 External Pressure Coefficients, GCp on Multispan Gable Roofs

th
MONOSLOPE ROOFS 3° ≤ θ ≤ 10°
Notes:
5. For θ ≤ 3°, values of GCp from Figure 207-11B shall be used.
6. Notations:
a = 10 percent of least horizontal dimensions or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4 percent of least horizontal
dimension or 0.9 m
h = Eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10°
ɵ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Figure 207-14A External Pressure Coefficients, GCp on Monoslope Roofs 3° < θ ≤ 10°
MONOSLOPE ROOFS 10° ≤ θ ≤ 30°
Notes:
5. Notations:
dimension or 0.9 m
h = Mean roof height,m
ɵ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Figure 207-14B External Pressure Coefficients, GCp on Monoslope Roofs 10° < θ ≤ 30°
th
SAWTOOTH ROOFS
Notes:
5. For θ ≤ 10°, values of GCp from Figure 207-11 shall be used.
6. Notations:
dimension or 0.9m
W = Building module width, m
Figure 207-15 External Pressure Coefficients, GCp on Sawtooth Roofs


DOMED ROOFS
External Pressure Coefficients for Domes with a Circular Base

Negative Positive Positive
θ, degrees Pressures Pressures Pressures
0 – 90 0 – 60 61 – 90
GCp -0.9 +0.9 +0.5
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with q(hD  f ) where (hD  f ) is the height at the top of the dome.
4. Values apply to 0 ≤ hD/D ≤ 0.5, 0.2 ≤ f/D ≤ 0.5.
5. θ = 0 degrees on dome spring line, θ = 90 degrees at dome center top point, f is measured from spring line to top.
Figure 207-16 External Pressure Coefficients, GCp on Domed Roofs

of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings and Structures with all Heights
th
WALLS AND ROOFS
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qz or qh
4. Use qz with positive values of GCp and qh with negative values of GCp.
6. Coefficients are for roofs with angle θ ≤ 10°. For other roof angles and geometry, use GCp values from Figure 207-11 and attendant
qh based on exposure defined in Section 207.5.6.
7. If a parapet equal to or higher than 0.9 m is provided around the perimeter of the roof with θ ≤ 10°, Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
8. Notations:
a = 10 percent of least horizontal dimensions, but not less than 0.9 m
z = Height above ground, m
Figure 207-17 External Pressure Coefficients GCp on Walls and Roofs

of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings with h ˃ 18 m

Wind Direction γ = 0 Wind Direction γ = 180

Roof Load Obstructed Wind Obstructed Wind
Clear Wind Flow Clear Wind Flow
Angle, θ Case Flow Flow
CNW CNL CNW CNL CNW CNL CNW CNL
A 1.2 0.3 -0.5 -1.2 1.2 0.2 -0.5 -1.2
0°
B -1.1 -0.1 -1.1 -0.6 -1.1 -0.1 -1.1 -0.6
A -0.6 -1 -1 -1.5 0.9 1.5 -0.2 -1.2
7.5°
B -1.4 0 -1.3 -0.8 1.6 0.3 0.8 -0.3
A -0.9 -1.3 -1.1 -1.5 1.3 1.6 0.4 -1.1
15°
B -1.9 0 -2.1 -0.6 1.8 0.6 1.2 -0.3
A -1.5 -1.6 -1.5 -1.7 1.7 1.8 0.5 -1
22.5°
B -2.4 -0.3 -2.3 -0.9 2.2 0.7 1.3 0
A -1.8 -1.8 -1.5 -1.3 2.1 2.1 0.6 -1
30°
B -2.5 -0.5 -2.3 -1.1 2.6 1 1.6 0.1
A -1.8 -1.8 -1.5 -1.8 2.1 2.2 1.7 -0.9
37.5°
B -2.4 -0.6 -2.2 -1.1 2.7 1.1 1.9 0.3
A -1.6 -1.8 -1.3 -1.8 2.2 2.5 0.8 -0.9
45°
B -2.3 -0.7 -1.9 -1.2 2.0 1.4 2.1 0.4
Notes:
1. CNW and CNL denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces) for windward and leeward half of roof surfaces, respectively.
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects below
roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. For values of θ between 7.5° and 45°, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of θ less than 7.5°, use monoslope roof load coefficients.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof surface, respectively.
5. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated.
6. Notations:
L = Horizontal dimensions of roof, measured in the along wind direction, m
H = Mean roof height, m
γ = Direction of wind, degrees
Figure 207-18A Net Pressure Coefficients, CN on Monoslope Free

Roofs θ ≤ 45°, γ = 0°, 180° of Open Buildings
Main Wind- Force Resisting System
th
Wind Direction γ - 0°, 180°

Roof Obstructed Wind
Load Case Clear Wind Flow
Angle, θ Flow
CNW CNL CNW CNL
A 1.1 -0.3 -1.6 -1
7.5°
B 0.2 -1.2 -0.9 -1.7
A 1.1 -0.4 -1.2 -1
15°
B 0.1 -1.1 -0.6 -1.6
A 1.1 0.1 -1.2 -1.2
22.5°
B -0.1 -0.8 -0.8 -1.7
A 1.3 0.3 -0.7 -0.7
30°
B -0.1 -0.9 -0.2 -1.1
A 1.3 0.6 -0.6 -0.6
37.5°
B -0.2 -0.6 -0.3 -0.9
A 1.1 0.9 -0.5 -0.5
45°
B -0.3 -0.5 -0.3 -0.7
PITCHED FREE ROOFS θ ≤ 45°, γ = 0°, 180°

Notes:
1. CNW and CNL denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces) for windward and leeward half of roof surfaces,
respectively.
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes
objects below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. For values of θ between 7.5° and 45°, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of θ less than 7.5°, use monoslope roof load
coefficients.
6. Notations:
Figure 207-18B Net Pressure Coefficients, CN on Pitched Free

Roofs θ ≤ 45°, γ = 0°, 180° of Open Buildings with
Height h to Length L ratio, 0.25 ≤ h/L ≤ 1.0
Main Wind-Force Resisting System
Wind Direction γ - 0°, 180°

Roof Obstructed Wind
Load Case Clear Wind Flow
Angle, θ Flow
CNW CNL CNW CNL
A -1.1 0.3 -1.6 -0.5
7.5°
B -0.2 1.2 -0.9 -0.8
A -1.1 0.4 -1.2 -0.5
15°
B 0.1 1.1 -0.6 -0.8
A -1.1 -0.1 -1.2 -0.6
22.5°
B -0.1 0.8 -0.8 -0.8
A -1.3 -0.3 -1.4 -0.4
30°
B -0.1 0.9 -0.2 -0.5
A -1.3 -0.6 -1.4 -0.3
37.5°
B 0.2 0.6 -0.3 -0.4
A -1.1 -0.9 -1.2 -0.3
45°
B 0.3 0.5 -0.3 -0.4
TROUGHED FREE ROOFS θ ≤ 45°, γ = 0°, 180°
Notes:
1. CNW and CNL denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces) for windward and leeward half of roof surfaces,
respectively.
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes
objects below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. For values of θ between 7.5° and 45°, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of θ less than 7.5°, use monoslope roof load
coefficients.
6. Notations:
θ = Aangle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Figure 207-18C Net Pressure Coefficients, CN on Troughed Free

Main Wind Force Resisting System th
Horizontal Obstructed
Clear Wind Flow
Distance from Roof Angle Wind Flow
Load Case
Windward θ
Edge CN CN
All Shapes A -0.8 -1.2

≤h
θ ≤ 45° B 0.8 0.5

> h, ≤ 2h
θ ≤ 45° B 0.5 0.5

> 2h
θ ≤ 45° B 0.3 0.3
TROUGHED FREE ROOFS θ ≤ 45°, γ = 0°, 180°

Notes:
1. CN denotes net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces)
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow
denotes objects below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
5. For monoslope roofs with theta less than 5 degrees. CN values shown apply also for cases where gamma = 0 degrees and 0.05
less than or equal to h/L less than or equal 0.25. See Figure 207-18A for other h/L values.
6. Notations:
Figure 207-18D Net Pressure Coefficients, CN on Troughed Free

Main Wind-Force Resisting System
Roof Effective CN
Angle Wind Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow
θ Area Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1 Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1
≤ a² 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -3.6 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
θ° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
> 4a² 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
≤ a² 3.2 -4.2 2.4 -2.1 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -5.1 1.2 -2.6 0.8 -1.7
7.5° >a², ≤ 4a² 2.4 -2.1 2.4 -2.1 1.6 -1.4 1.2 -2.6 1.2 -2.6 0.8 -1.7
> 4a² 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -1.4 0.8 -1.7 0.8 -1.7 0.8 -1.7
≤ a² 3.6 -3.8 2.7 -2.9 1.8 -1.9 2.4 -4.2 1.8 -3.2 1.2 -2.1
15° >a², ≤ 4a² 2.7 -2.9 2.7 -2.9 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -3.2 1.8 -3.2 1.2 -2.1
> 4a² 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -1.9 1.2 -2.1 1.2 -2.1 1.2 -2.1
≤ a² 5.2 -5 3.9 -3.8 2.6 -2.5 3.2 -4.6 2.4 -3.5 1.6 -2.3
30° >a², ≤ 4a² 3.9 -3.8 3.9 -3.8 2.6 -2.5 2.4 -3.5 2.4 -3.5 1.6 -2.3
> 4a² 2.6 -2.5 2.6 -2.5 2.6 -2.5 1.6 -2.3 1.6 -2.3 1.6 -2.3
≤ a² 5.2 -4.6 3.9 -3.5 2.6 -2.3 4.2 -3.8 3.2 -2.9 2.1 -1.9
45° >a², ≤ 4a² 3.9 -3.5 3.9 -3.5 2.6 -2.3 3.2 -2.9 3.2 -2.9 2.1 -1.9
> 4a² 2.6 -2.3 2.6 -2.3 2.6 -2.3 2.1 -1.9 2.1 -1.9 2.1 -1.9
Notes:
1. CN denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces)
5. Components and cladding elements shall be designed for positive and negative pressure coefficients shown.
6. Notations:
a = 10% of least horizontal dimensions or 0.4h, whichever is smaller but not less than 4% of least horizontal dimensions or 0.9 m
L = Horizontal dimension of building measured in along wind direction, m
Θ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Figure 207-19A Net Pressure Coefficients, CN on Monoslope Free

Roofs θ ≤ 45° of Open Buildings with Height h to Length L ratio, 0.25 ≤ h/L ≤ 1.0
Components and Cladding
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Roof Effective CN
≤ a² 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -3.6 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
θ° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
> 4a² 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
≤ a² 2.2 -4.2 2.4 -2.1 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -5.1 1.2 -2.6 0.8 -1.7
7.5° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.7 -2.1 2.4 -2.1 1.6 -1.4 1.2 -2.6 1.2 -2.6 0.8 -1.7
> 4a² 1.1 -1.4 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -1.4 0.8 -1.7 0.8 -1.7 0.8 -1.7
≤ a² 2.2 -3.8 2.7 -2.9 1.8 -1.9 2.4 -4.2 1.8 -3.2 1.2 -2.1
15° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.7 2.9 -2.7 -2.9 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -3.2 1.8 -3.2 1.2 -2.1
> 4a² 1.1 -1.9 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -1.9 1.2 -2.1 1.2 -2.1 1.2 -2.1
≤ a² 2.6 -5 3.9 -3.8 2.6 -2.5 3.2 -4.6 2.4 -3.5 1.6 -2.3
30° >a², ≤ 4a² 2.0 -3.8 3.9 -3.8 2.6 -2.5 2.4 -3.5 2.4 -3.5 1.6 -2.3
> 4a² 1.3 -2.5 2.6 -2.5 2.6 -2.5 1.6 -2.3 1.6 -2.3 1.6 -2.3
≤ a² 2.2 -4.6 3.9 -3.5 2.6 -2.3 4.2 -3.8 3.2 -2.9 2.1 -1.9
45° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.7 -3.5 3.9 -3.5 2.6 -2.3 3.2 -2.9 3.2 -2.9 2.1 -1.9
> 4a² 1.1 -2.3 2.6 -2.3 2.6 -2.3 2.1 -1.9 2.1 -1.9 2.1 -1.9
Notes:
6. Notations:
Figure 207-19B Net Pressure Coefficients, CN on Troughed Free

Roof Effective CN
≤ a² 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -3.6 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
θ° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
> 4a² 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
≤ a² 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -4.8 0.8 -2.4 0.5 -1.6
7.5° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 0.8 -2.4 0.8 -2.4 0.5 -1.6
> 4a² 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.6 0.5 -1.6 0.5 -1.6
≤ a² 2.2 -2.2 1.7 -1.7 1.1 -1.1 1 -2.4 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
15° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.7 -1.7 1.7 -1.7 1.1 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
> 4a² 1.1 -1.1 1.1 -1.1 1.1 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
≤ a² 1.8 -2.6 1.4 -2 0.9 -1.3 1 -2.8 0.8 -2.1 0.5 -1.4
30° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.4 -2 1.4 -2 0.9 -1.3 0.8 -2.1 0.8 -2.1 0.5 -1.4
> 4a² 0.9 -1.3 1.9 -1.3 0.9 -1.3 0.5 -1.4 0.5 -1.4 0.5 -1.4
≤ a² 1.6 -2.2 1.2 -1.7 0.8 -1.1 1 -2.4 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
45° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.2 -1.7 1.2 -1.7 0.8 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
> 4a² 0.8 -1.1 1.8 -1.1 0.8 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
Notes:
6. Notations:
Figure 207-19C Net Pressure Coefficients, CN on Troughed Free

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Cf, CASE A & CASE B

Clearance Aspect Ratio, B/s
Ratio, s/h ≤ 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 5 10 20 30 40
1 1.80 1.70 1.65 1.55 1.45 1.40 1.35 1.35 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30
0.9 1.85 1.75 1.70 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.45 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40
0.7 1.90 1.85 1.75 1.70 1.65 1.60 1.60 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55
0.5 1.95 1.85 1.80 1.75 1.75 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.75
0.3 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.85 1.85
0.2 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.90 1.95
≤ 0.16 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.90 1.90 1.95
Cf, CASE C
Aspect Ratio.
Region Aspect Ratio, B/s Region
B/s
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 13 ≥ 45
0 to s 2.25 2.60 2.90 3.10* 3.30* 3.40* 3.55* 3.65* 3.75* 0 to s 4.00* 4.30*
s to 2s 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.00 2.15 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.45 s to 2s 2.60 2.55
2s to 3s 1.15 1.30 1.45 1.55 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.85 2s to 3s 2.00 1.95
3s to 10s 1.10 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.00 0.95 3s to 4s 1.50 1.85
4s to 5s 1.35 1.85
5s to 0.90 1.10
10s
> 10s 0.55 0.55
Notes:
1. The term “signs” in notes below also applies to “freestanding walls”.
2. Signs with openings comprising less than 30% of the gross area are classified as solid signs. Force coefficients for solid signs with openings shall be permitted
to be multiplied by the reduction factor (1- (1 –ε) 1.5).
3. To allow both normal and oblique wind directions, the following cases shall be considered:
For s/h < 1:
CASE A: resultant force acts normal to the face of the sign through the geometric center.
CASE B: resultant force acts normal to the face of the sign at a distance from the geometric center toward the windward edge equal to 0.2 times the
average width of the sign.
For B/s ≥ 2, CASE C must also be considered:
CASE C: resultant forces act normal to the face of the sign through the geometric centers of each region.
For s/h = 1:
The same cases as above except that the vertical locations of the resultant forces occur at a distance above the geometric center equal to 0.05 times the
average height of the sign.
For CASE C where s/h > 0.8, force coefficients shall be multiplied by the reduction factor (1.8 – s/h).
4. Linear interpolation is permitted for values of s/h. B/s and Lr/s other than shown.
5. The “Region” in the table above is the horizontal distance from windward edge
6. Notation:
B = Horizontal dimension of sign, m
h = Height of the sign, m
s = Vertical dimension of the sign, m
ε = Ratio of solid area to gross area
Lf = Horizontal dimension of return corner, m
Figure 207-20 Force Coefficients, Cf on Solid Freestanding Walls & Solid Signs
of all Heights Other Structures – Method 2
Cross-Section Type of Surface h/D
Square (wind normal to face) All 1.3 1.4 2.0

Square (wind along diagonal) All 1.0 1.1 1.5
Hexagonal or Octagonal All 1.0 1.2 1.4
Moderately Smooth 0.5 0.6 0.7
Rough (D’/D = 0.02) 0.7 0.8 0.9
Round ( D q z > 2.5) Very rough (D’/D = 0.08) 0.8 1.0 0.2
( D q z >5.3, D in m, qz in kPa
All 0.7 0.8 1.2
Notes:
1. The design wind force shall be calculated based on the area of the structure projected on a plane normal to the wind direction. The force shall be
assumed to act parallel to the wind direction.
2. Linear interpolation is permitted for h/D values other than shown.
3. Notation:
D = Diameter of circular cross-section and least horizontal dimensions of square, hexagonal or octagonal cross-sections at elevation under
consideration, m;
D’ = Depth of protruding elements such as ribs and spoilers, m;
h = Height of structure, m; and
qz = Velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, kPa.
Figure 207-21 Force Coefficients, Cf on Chimneys, Tanks,

Rooftop Equipment and Similar Structures of All Heights
Other Structures – Method 2
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Rounded Members
Flat- Sided D q z  2 .5 D qz >2.5
ε
Members
D q z  5 .3 D qz >5.3
< 0.1 2.0 1.2 0.8
0.1 to 0.29 1.8 1.3 0.9
0.3 to 0.7 1.6 1.5 1.1
Notes:
1. Signs with openings comprising 30% or more of the gross area are classified as open signs.
2. The calculation of the design wind forces shall be based on the area of all exposed members and elements projected on a plane normal
to the wind direction. Forces shall be assumed to act parallel to the wind direction.
3. The area Af consistent with these force coefficients is the solid area projected normal to the wind direction.
4. Notation:
ε = Ratio of solid area to gross area
D = Diameter of a typical round member, m
qz = Velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, kPa
Figure 207-22 Force Coefficients, Cf on Open Signs and

Lattice Frameworks of All Heights

Tower Cross Section Cf
Square 4.0 2 5.9 4.0
Triangle 3.4 2 4.7 3.4
Notes:
1. For all wind directions considered, the area Af consistent with the specified force coefficients shall be the solid area of a tower face
projected on the plane of that face for the tower segment under consideration.
2. The specified force coefficients are for towers with structural angles or similar flat-sided members.
3. For towers containing rounded members, it is acceptable to multiply the specified force coefficients by the following factor when
determining wind forces on such members:
0.51 ε² + 0.57, but not > 1.0
4. Wind forces shall be applied in the directions resulting in maximum member forces and reactions. For towers with square cross-
sections, wind forces shall be multiplied by the following factor when the wind is directed along a tower diagonal:
1 + 0.75 ε, but not > 1.2
5. Wind forces on tower appurtenances such as ladders, conduits, lights, elevators, etc., shall be calculated using appropriate force
coefficients for these elements.
6. Notation:
ε = Ratio of solid area to gross area of one tower face for the segment under consideration.
Figure 207-23 Force Coefficients, Cf on Trussed Towers of All Heights

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Figure 207-24 Referenced Wind Zone Map of the Philippines

SECTION 208
COMPONENT is a part or element of an architectural,
EARTHQUAKE LOADS electrical, mechanical or structural system.
208.1 General COMPONENT, EQUIPMENT, is a mechanical or

electrical component or element that is part of a
208.1.1 Purpose mechanical and/or electrical system.
The purpose of the earthquake provisions herein is
primarily to safeguard against major structural failures COMPONENT, FLEXIBLE, is a component, including
and loss of life, not to limit damage or maintain function. its attachments, having a fundamental period greater than
0.06 second.
208.1.2 Minimum Seismic Design
Structures and portions thereof shall, as a minimum, be COMPONENT, RIGID, is a component, including its
designed and constructed to resist the effects of seismic attachments, having a fundamental period less than or
ground motions as provided in this section. equal to 0.06 second.
208.1.3 Seismic and Wind Design CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME is a braced

frame in which the members are subjected primarily to
When the code-prescribed wind design produces greater
axial forces.
effects, the wind design shall govern, but detailing
requirements and limitations prescribed in this section and
DESIGN BASIS GROUND MOTION is that ground
referenced sections shall be followed.
motion that has a 10 percent chance of being exceeded in
50 years as determined by a site-specific hazard analysis
208.2 Definitions
or may be determined from a hazard map. A suite of
ground motion time histories with dynamic properties
BASE is the level at which the earthquake motions are representative of the site characteristics shall be used to
considered to be imparted to the structure or the level at represent this ground motion. The dynamic effects of the
which the structure as a dynamic vibrator is supported. Design Basis Ground Motion may be represented by the
Design Response Spectrum. See Section 208.6.2.
BASE SHEAR, V, is the total design lateral force or
shear at the base of a structure. DESIGN RESPONSE SPECTRUM is an elastic
response spectrum for 5 percent equivalent viscous
BEARING WALL SYSTEM is a structural system with- damping used to represent the dynamic effects of the
out a complete vertical load-carrying space frame. See Design Basis Ground Motion for the design of structures
Section 208.4.6.1. in accordance with Sections 208.5 and 208.6. This
response spectrum may be either a site-specific spectrum
BOUNDARY ELEMENT is an element at edges of based on geologic, tectonic, seismological and soil
openings or at perimeters of shear walls or diaphragms. characteristics associated with a specific site or may be a
spectrum constructed in accordance with the spectral
BRACED FRAME is an essentially vertical truss system shape in Figure 208-3 using the site-specific values of Ca
of the concentric or eccentric type that is provided to and Cv and multiplied by the acceleration of gravity,
resist lateral forces. 9.815 m/sec2. See Section 208.6.2.
BUILDING FRAME SYSTEM is an essentially com- DESIGN SEISMIC FORCE is the minimum total
plete space frame that provides support for gravity loads. strength design base shear, factored and distributed in
See Section 208.4.6.2. accordance with Section 208.5.
CANTILEVERED COLUMN ELEMENT is a column

element in a lateral-force-resisting system that cantilevers
from a fixed base and has minimal moment capacity at the
top, with lateral forces applied essentially at the top.
COLLECTOR is a member or element provided to

transfer lateral forces from a portion of a structure to
vertical elements of the lateral-force-resisting system.
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DIAPHRAGM is a horizontal or nearly horizontal MOMENT-RESISTING WALL FRAME (MRWF) is

system acting to transmit lateral forces to the vertical- a masonry wall frame especially detailed to provide
resisting elements. The term "diaphragm" includes ductile behavior and designed in conformance with
horizontal bracing systems. Section 708.2.6.
DIAPHRAGM or SHEAR WALL CHORD is the ORDINARY BRACED FRAME (OBF) is a steel-
boundary element of a diaphragm or shear wall that is braced frame designed in accordance with the provisions
assumed to take axial stresses analogous to the flanges of of Section 527 or 528 or concrete-braced frame designed
a beam. in accordance with Section 421.
DIAPHRAGM STRUT (drag strut, tie, collector) is the ORDINARY MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME
element of a diaphragm parallel to the applied load that (OMRF) is a moment-resisting frame not meeting special
collects and transfers diaphragm shear to the vertical- detailing requirements for ductile behavior.
resisting elements or distributes loads within the
diaphragm. Such members may take axial tension or ORTHOGONAL EFFECTS are the earthquake load
compression. effects on structural elements common to the lateral-
force-resisting systems along two orthogonal axes.
DRIFT. See "story drift."
OVERSTRENGTH is a characteristic of structures
DUAL SYSTEM is a combination of moment-resisting where the actual strength is larger than the design
frames and shear walls or braced frames designed in strength. The degree of overstrength is material-and
accordance with the criteria of Section 208.4.6.4. system-dependent.
ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME (EBF) is a P EFFECT is the secondary effect on shears, axial
steel-braced frame designed in conformance with Section forces and moments of frame members due to the action
528. of the vertical loads induced by horizontal displacement
of the structure resulting from various loading.
ELASTIC RESPONSE PARAMETERS are forces and
deformations determined from an elastic dynamic analysis SHEAR WALL is a wall designed to resist lateral forces
using an unreduced ground motion representation, in parallel to the plane of the wall (sometimes referred to as
accordance with Section 208.6. vertical diaphragm or structural wall).
ESSENTIAL FACILITIES are those structures that are SHEAR WALL-FRAME INTERACTIVE SYSTEM
necessary for emergency operations subsequent to a uses combinations of shear walls and frames designed to
natural disaster. resist lateral forces in proportion to their relative
rigidities, considering interaction between shear walls and
FLEXIBLE ELEMENT or SYSTEM is one whose frames on all levels.
deformation under lateral load is significantly larger than
adjoining parts of the system. Limiting ratios for defining SOFT STORY is one in which the lateral stiffness is less
specific flexible elements are set forth in Section 208.5.6. than 70 percent of the stiffness of the story above. See
Table 208-9.
HORIZONTAL BRACING SYSTEM is a horizontal
truss system that serves the same function as a diaphragm. SPACE FRAME is a three-dimensional structural
system, without bearing walls, composed of members
INTERMEDIATE MOMENT RESISTING FRAME interconnected so as to function as a complete self-
(IMRF) is a concrete frame designed in accordance with contained unit with or without the aid of horizontal
Section 412. diaphragms or floor-bracing systems.
LATERAL-FORCE-RESISTING SYSTEM is that part SPECIAL CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME

of the structural system designed to resist the Design (SCBF) is a steel-braced frame designed in conformance
Seismic Forces. with the provisions of Section 526.
MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME is a frame in which SPECIAL MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME (SMRF)

members and joints are capable of resisting forces is a moment-resisting frame specially detailed to provide
primarily by flexure.

ductile behavior and comply with the requirements given Ca = seismic coefficient, as set forth in Table 208-7
in Chapter 4 or 5. Ct = numerical coefficient given in Section 208.5.2.2
Cv = seismic coefficient, as set forth in Table 208-8
SPECIAL TRUSS MOMENT FRAME (STMF) is a D = dead load on a structural element
moment-resisting frame specially detailed to provide De = the length of a shear wall in the first story in the
ductile behavior and comply with the provisions of direction parallel to the applied forces, m
Section 525. E, Eh, Em, Ev = earthquake loads set forth in Section
208.5.1., N
STORY is the space between levels. Story x is the story Fi, Fn,Fx = design seismic force applied to Level i, n
below level x. or x, respectively, N
Fp = design seismic force on a part of the structure, N
STORY DRIFT is the lateral displacement of one level Fpx = design seismic force on a diaphragm, N
relative to the level above or below. Ft = that portion of the base shear, V, considered
concentrated at the top of the structure in addition
STORY DRIFT RATIO is the story drift divided by the to Fn, N
story height. fi = lateral force at Level i for use in Equation 208-10,
N
STORY SHEAR, Vx, is the summation of design lateral g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.815 m/sec2
forces above the story under consideration. hi, hn,hx = height above the base to Level i, n or x,
respectively, m
STRENGTH is the capacity of an element or a member I = importance factor given in Table 208-1
to resist factored load as specified in Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5 Ip = importance factor for nonstructural component
and 7. as given in Table 208-1
L = live load on a structural element
STRUCTURE is an assemblage of framing members Level i = level of the structure referred to by the
designed to support gravity loads and resist lateral forces. subscript i
Structures may be categorized as building structures or "i = 1" designates the first level above the base
nonbuilding structures. Level n = that level that is uppermost in the main
portion of the structure
SUBDIAPHRAGM is a portion of a diaphragm used to Level x = that level that is under design
transfer wall anchorage forces to diaphragm cross ties. consideration
"x = 1" designates the first level above the base
VERTICAL LOAD-CARRYING FRAME is a space M = maximum moment magnitude
frame designed to carry vertical gravity loads. Na = near-source factor used in the determination of Ca
in Seismic Zone 4 related to both the proximity of
WALL ANCHORAGE SYSTEM is the system of the building or structure to known faults with
magnitudes as set forth in Tables 208-4 and 208-6
elements anchoring the wall to the diaphragm and those
Nv = near-source factor used in the determination of Cv
elements within the diaphragm required to develop the
anchorage forces, including subdiaphragms and in Seismic Zone 4 related to both the proximity of
the building or structure to known faults with
continuous ties, as specified in Sections 208.8.2.7 and
magnitudes as set forth in Tables 208-5 and 208-6
208.8.2.8.
PI = plasticity index of soil determined in accordance
with approved national standards
WEAK STORY is one in which the story strength is less
than 80 percent of the story above. See Table 208-9. R = numerical coefficient representative of the inherent
overstrength and global ductility capacity of
lateral-force-resisting systems, as set forth in Table
208.3 Symbols and Notation
208-11 or 208-13
AB = ground floor area of structure to include area r = a ratio used in determining . See Section 208.5.1
covered by all overhangs and projections, m2 SA, SB, SC, SD, SE, SF = soil profile types as set forth in
Ac = the combined effective area of the shear walls in Table 208-2
the first story of the structure, m2 T = elastic fundamental period of vibration of the
Ae = the minimum cross-sectional area in any horizontal structure in the direction under consideration, sec
plane in the first story of a shear wall, m2 V = the total design lateral force or shear at the base
Ax = the torsional amplification factor at Level x given by Equations 208-4, 208-5, 208-6, 208-7 or
ap = numerical coefficient specified in Section 208.7 208-11, N
and set forth in Table 208-12 Vx = the design story shear in Story x, N
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W = the total seismic dead load defined in Sections the design approach used in the design of the structure,
208.5.1.1 and 208.5.2.1, N provided load combinations of Section 203.4 are utilized.
wi, wx = that portion of W located at or assigned to Level i
or x, respectively, N 208.4.2 Occupancy Categories
Wp = the weight of an element or component, N For purposes of earthquake-resistant design, each
wpx = the weight of the diaphragm and the element structure shall be placed in one of the occupancy
tributary thereto at Level x, including applicable categories listed in Table 103-1. Table 208-1 assigns
portions of other loads defined in Section importance factors, I and Ip, and structural observation
208.5.1.1, N requirements for each category.
Z = seismic zone factor as given in Table 208-3
M = Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, which Table 208-1 - Seismic Importance Factors
is the total drift or total story drift that occurs Seismic Seismic
Occupancy
when the structure is subjected to the Design Importance Importance 2
Basis Ground Motion, including estimated elastic Category 1
Factor, I Factor, Ip
and inelastic contributions to the total deformation I.
Essential
defined in Section 208.5.9.2, mm 1.50 1.50
Facilities 3
S = Design Level Response Displacement, which is the II. Hazardous
total drift or total story drift that occurs when the 1.25 1.50
Facilities
structure is subjected to the design seismic forces, III. Special
mm Occupancy 1.00 1.00
 = horizontal displacement at Level i relative to the Structures 4
base due to applied lateral forces, f, for use in IV. Standard
Equation 208-10, mm Occupancy 1.00 1.00
 = Redundancy/Reliability Factor given by Equation Structures 4
208-3 V. Miscellaneous
Ωo = Seismic Force Amplification Factor, which is 1.00 1.00
structures
required to account for structural overstrength and 1
See Table 103-1 for occupancy category listing.
set forth in Table 208-11 2
The limitation of Ip for panel connections in Section 208.8.2.3 shall
be 1.0 for the entire connector.
208.4 Criteria Selection 3
Structural observation requirements are given in Section 107.9.
4
For anchorage of machinery and equipment required for life-safety
systems, the value of IP shall be taken as 1.5.
208.4.1 Basis for Design
The procedures and the limitations for the design of 208.4.3 Site Geology and Soil Characteristics
structures shall be determined considering seismic zoning, Each site shall be assigned a soil profile type based on
site characteristics, occupancy, configuration, structural properly substantiated geotechnical data using the site
system and height in accordance with this section. categorization procedure set forth in Section 208.10 and
Structures shall be designed with adequate strength to Table 208-2.
withstand the lateral displacements induced by the Design Exception:
Basis Ground Motion, considering the inelastic response
of the structure and the inherent redundancy, overstrength When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail
and ductility of the lateral force-resisting system. to determine the soil profile type, Type SD shall be used.
Soil Profile Type SE or SF need not be assumed unless the
The minimum design strength shall be based on the building official determines that Type SE or SF may be
Design Seismic Forces determined in accordance with the present at the site or in the event that Type SE or SF is
static lateral force procedure of Section 208.5, except as established by geotechnical data.
modified by Section 208.6.5.4
208.4.3.1 Soil Profile Type
Where strength design is used, the load combinations of Soil Profile Types SA, SB, SC, SD and SE are defined in
Section 203.3 shall apply. Where Allowable Stress Table 208-2 and Soil Profile Type SF is defined as soils
Design is used, the load combinations of Section 203.4 requiring site-specific evaluation as follows:
shall apply.
1. Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse under
Allowable Stress Design may be used to evaluate sliding seismic loading, such as liquefiable soils, quick and
or overturning at the soil-structure interface regardless of

highly sensitive clays, and collapsible weakly

cemented soils. 208.4.4.1 Seismic Zone
2. Peats and/or highly organic clays, where the The Philippine archipelago is divided into two seismic
thickness of peat or highly organic clay exceeds 3.0 zones only. Zone 2 covers the provinces of Palawan, Sulu
m. and Tawi-Tawi while the rest of the country is under Zone
4 as shown in Figure 208-1. Each structure shall be
3. Very high plasticity clays with a plasticity index, PI assigned a seismic zone factor Z, in accordance with
> 75, where the depth of clay exceeds 7.5 m. Table 208-3.
4. Very thick soft/medium stiff clays, where the depth Table 208-3 Seismic Zone Factor Z
of clay exceeds 35 m.
ZONE 2 4
The criteria set forth in the definition for Soil Profile Type Z 0.20 0.40
SF requiring site-specific evaluation shall be considered.
If the site corresponds to these criteria, the site shall be 208.4.4.2 Seismic Zone 4 Near-Source Factor
classified as Soil Profile Type SF and a site-specific In Seismic Zone 4, each site shall be assigned near-source
evaluation shall be conducted. factors in accordance with Tables 208-4 and 208-5 based
Table 208-2 - Soil Profile Types on the Seismic Source Type as set forth in Section
208.4.4.4.
Average Soil Properties for Top
Soil Soil
Profile 30 m of Soil Profile
Profile The value of Na used to determine Ca need not exceed 1.1
Name / Shear Undrained
Wave
SPT, N
Shear
for structures complying with all the following
Generic (blows/ conditions:
Type Description Velocity, Vs Strength,
300 mm) SU (kPa)
(m/s) 1. The soil profile type is SA, SB, SC or SD.
Hard
SA > 1500 2.  = 1.0.
Rock
760 to 3. Except in single-story structures, residential building
SB Rock
1500 accommodating 10 or fewer persons, private garages,
Very carports, sheds and agricultural buildings, moment
Dense frame systems designated as part of the lateral-force-
360 to
SC Soil ad > 50 > 100 resisting system shall be special moment-resisting
760
Soft frames.
Rock
Stiff Soil 180 to 15 to 50 to 4. The exceptions to Section 515.6.5 shall not apply,
SD except for columns in one-story buildings or columns
Profile 360 50 100
Soft Soil at the top story of multistory buildings.
SE1 < 180 < 15 < 50
Profile 5. None of the following structural irregularities is
Soil Requiring Site-specific Evaluation. present: Type 1, 4 or 5 of Table 208-9, and Type 1 or
SF
See Section 208.4.3.1 4 of Table 208-10.
1
Soil Profile Type SE also includes any soil profile with more than
3.0 m of soft clay defined as a soil with plasticity index, PI > 20,
wmc 40 percent and su < 24 kPa. The Plasticity Index, PI, and
208.4.4.3 Seismic Response Coefficients
the moisture content, wmc, shall be determined in accordance with Each structure shall be assigned a seismic coefficient, Ca,
approved national standards. in accordance with Table 208-7 and a seismic coefficient,
Cv, in accordance with Table 208-8.
208.4.4 Site Seismic Hazard Characteristics
Seismic hazard characteristics for the site shall be 208.4.4.4 Seismic Source Types
established based on the seismic zone and proximity of Table 208-6 defines the types of seismic sources. The
the site to active seismic sources, site soil profile location and type of seismic sources to be used for design
characteristics and the structure's importance factor. shall be established based on approved geological data;
see Figure 208-2A. Type A sources shall be determined
from Figures 208-2B, C, D, E or the most recent mapping
of active faults by the Philippine Institute of Volcanology
and Seismology (PHIVOLCS).
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Table 208-4 Near-Source Factor Na 1 Table 208-6 - Seismic Source Types 1

Seismic Closest Distance To Seismic Source
Source Known Seismic Source2 Seismic
Seismic Source Definition
Type  5 km  10 km Source
Description Maximum Moment
A 1.2 1.0 Type
Magnitude, M
B 1.0 1.0 Faults that are
C 1.0 1.0 capable of
Table 208-5 Near-Source Factor, Nv 1 producing large
A magnitude events M ≥ 7.0
Seismic Closest Distance To
and that have a
Source Known Seismic Source2
Type 5 km 10 km 15 km
high rate of seismic
activity.
A 1.6 1.2 1.0 All faults other
B 1.2 1.0 1.0 B than Types A and 6.5 ≤ M < 7.0
C.
C 1.0 1.0 1.0 Faults that are not
Notes for Tables 208.4 and 208.5: capable of
1
The Near-Source Factor may be based on the linear interpolation producing large
of values for distances other than those shown in the table. magnitude
C M < 6.5
2
The closest distance to seismic source shall be taken as the earthquakes and
minimum distance between the site and the area described by the that have a
vertical projection of the source on the surface (i.e., surface
projection of fault plane). The surface projection need not include
relatively low rate
portions of the source at depths of 10 km or greater. The largest of seismic activity.
value of the Near-Source Factor considering all sources shall be 1
Subduction sources shall be evaluated on a site-specific basis.
used for design.
Table 208-7 - Seismic Coefficient, Ca
Soil Profile Seismic Zone Z
Type Z = 0.2 Z = 0.4
SA 0.16 0.32Na
SB 0.20 0.40Na
SC 0.24 0.40Na
SD 0.28 0.44Na
SE 0.34 0.44Na
SF See Footnote 1 of Table 208-8
Table 208-8 - Seismic Coefficient, Cv
Soil Profile Seismic Zone Z
Type Z=0.2 Z=0.4
SA 0.16 0.32NV
SB 0.20 0.40NV
SC 0.32 0.56NV
SD 0.40 0.64NV
SE 0.64 0.96NV
SF See Footnote 1 of Table 208-8
1
Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response
analysis shall be performed to determine seismic coefficients.

208.4.6.3 Moment Resisting Frame System

208.4.5 Configuration Requirements A structural system with an essentially complete space
Each structure shall be designated as being structurally frame providing support for gravity loads. Moment-
regular or irregular in accordance with Sections 208.4.5.1 resisting frames provide resistance to lateral load
and 208.4.5.2. primarily by flexural action of members.
208.4.5.1 Regular Structures 208.4.6.4 Dual System

Regular structures have no significant physical A structural system with the following features:
discontinuities in plan or vertical configuration or in their
lateral-force-resisting systems such as the irregular 1. An essentially complete space frame that provides
features described in Section 208.4.5.2. support for gravity loads.
2. Resistance to lateral load is provided by shear walls
208.4.5.2 Irregular Structures or braced frames and moment-resisting frames
1. Irregular structures have significant physical (SMRF, IMRF, MMRWF or steel OMRF). The
discontinuities in configuration or in their lateral- moment-resisting frames shall be designed to
force-resisting systems. Irregular features include, but independently resist at least 25 percent of the design
are not limited to, those described in Tables 208-9 base shear.
and 208-10. All structures in occupancy Categories 4 3. The two systems shall be designed to resist the total
and 5 in Seismic Zone 2 need to be evaluated only for design base shear in proportion to their relative
vertical irregularities of Type 5 (Table 208-9) and rigidities considering the interaction of the dual
horizontal irregularities of Type 1 (Table 208-10). system at all levels.
2. Structures having any of the features listed in Table
208-9 shall be designated as if having a vertical 208.4.6.5 Cantilevered Column System
irregularity. A structural system relying on cantilevered column
elements for lateral resistance.
Exception:
Where no story drift ratio under design lateral forces is 208.4.6.6 Undefined Structural System
greater than 1.3 times the story drift ratio of the story A structural system not listed in Table 208-11.
above, the structure may be deemed to not have the
structural irregularities of Type 1 or 2 in Table 208-9.
208.4.6.7 Nonbuilding Structural System
The story drift ratio for the top two stories need not be
considered. The story drifts for this determination may be A structural system conforming to Section 208.9.
calculated neglecting torsional effects.
208.4.7 Height Limits
3. Structures having any of the features listed in Table
Height limits for the various structural systems in Seismic
208-10 shall be designated as having a plan
Zone 4 are given in Table 208-11.
irregularity.
Exception:
208.4.6 Structural Systems Regular structures may exceed these limits by not more
Structural systems shall be classified as one of the types than 50 percent for unoccupied structures, which are not
listed in Table 208-11 and defined in this section. accessible to the general public.
208.4.6.1 Bearing Wall System 208.4.8 Selection of Lateral Force Procedure

A structural system without a complete vertical load- Any structure may be, and certain structures defined
carrying space frame. Bearing walls or bracing systems below shall be, designed using the dynamic lateral-force
provide support for all or most gravity loads. Resistance procedures of Section 208.6.
to lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced
frames.
208.4.6.2 Building Frame System

A structural system with an essentially complete space
frame providing support for gravity loads. Resistance to
lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced frames.
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Table 208-10 Horizontal Structural Irregularities

Table 208-9 Vertical Structural Irregularities Reference
Irregularity Type and Definition
Reference Section
Irregularity Type and Definition
Section 1. Torsional Irregularity - To Be
1. Stiffness Irregularity – Soft Considered When Diaphragms Are
Story Not Flexible
A soft story is one in which the Torsional irregularity shall be
208.4.8.3
lateral stiffness is less than 70 percent considered to exist when the 208.8.2.8
Item 2
of that in the story above or less than maximum story drift, computed Item 6
80 percent of the average stiffness of including accidental torsion, at one
the three stories above. end of the structure transverse to an
2. Weight (Mass) Irregularity axis is more than 1.2 times the
Mass irregularity shall be considered average of the story drifts of the two
to exist where the effective mass of 208.4.8.3 ends of the structure.
any story is more than 150 percent of Item 2 2. Re-Entrant Corner Irregularity
the effective mass of an adjacent Plan configurations of a structure and
story. A roof that is lighter than the its lateral-force-resisting system 208.8.2.8
floor below need not be considered. contain re-entrant corners, where both Items 6
3. Vertical Geometric Irregularity projections of the structure beyond a and 7
Vertical geometric irregularity shall re-entrant corner are greater than 15
be considered to exist where the percent of the plan dimension of the
horizontal dimension of the lateral- 208.4.8.3 structure in the given direction.
force-resisting system in any story is Item 2 3. Diaphragm Discontinuity
more than 130 percent of that in an Irregularity
adjacent story. One-story penthouses Diaphragms with abrupt dis-
need not be considered. continuities or variations in stiffness,
4. In-Plane Discontinuity In Vertical including those having cutout or open 208.8.2.8
Lateral-Force-Resisting Element areas greater than 50 percent of the Item 6
Irregularity gross enclosed area of the diaphragm,
208.5.8.1
An in-plane offset of the lateral-load- or changes in effective diaphragm
resisting elements greater than the stiffness of more than 50 percent from
length of those elements. one story to the next.
5. Discontinuity In Capacity – Weak 4. Out-Of-Plane Offsets Irregularity 208.5.8.1
Story Irregularity Discontinuities in a lateral force path, 208.8.2.8
A weak story is one in which the such as out-of-plane offsets of the Item 6;
story strength is less than 80 percent vertical elements 515.7
of that in the story above. The story 208.4.9.1 5. Nonparallel Systems Irregularity
strength is the total strength of all The vertical lateral-load-resisting
seismic-resisting elements sharing elements are not parallel to or
208.8.1
the story for the direction under symmetric about the major orthogonal
consideration. axes of the lateral force-resisting
systems.

208.4.8.1 Simplified Static soils at the site and shall conform to Section 208.6.2,
The simplified static lateral-force procedure set forth in Item 4.
Section 208.5.2.3 may be used for the following
structures of Occupancy Category IV or V: 208.4.9 System Limitations
1. Buildings of any occupancy (including single-family 208.4.9.1 Discontinuity
dwellings) not more than three stories in height
excluding basements that use light-frame Structures with a discontinuity in capacity, vertical
irregularity Type 5 as defined in Table 208-9, shall not be
construction.
over two stories or 9 m in height where the weak story has
2. Other buildings not more than two stories in height a calculated strength of less than 65 percent of the story
excluding basements. above.
Exception:
208.4.8.2 Static
Where the weak story is capable of resisting a total
The static lateral force procedure of Section 208.5 may be
used for the following structures: lateral seismic force of o times the design force
prescribed in Section 208.5.
1. All structures, regular or irregular in Occupancy
Categories IV and V in Seismic Zone 2. 208.4.9.2 Undefined Structural Systems
2. Regular structures under 75 m in height with lateral For undefined structural systems not listed in Table 208-
force resistance provided by systems listed in Table 11, the coefficient R shall be substantiated by approved
208-11, except where Section 208.4.8.3, Item 4, cyclic test data and analyses. The following items shall be
applies. addressed when establishing R:
3. Irregular structures not more than five stories or 20 m 1. Dynamic response characteristics,
in height. 2. Lateral force resistance,
4. Structures having a flexible upper portion supported 3. Overstrength and strain hardening or softening,
on a rigid lower portion where both portions of the
structure considered separately can be classified as 4. Strength and stiffness degradation,
being regular, the average story stiffness of the lower 5. Energy dissipation characteristics,
portion is at least 10 times the average story stiffness
of the upper portion and the period of the entire 6. System ductility, and
structure is not greater than 1.1 times the period of
7. Redundancy.
the upper portion considered as a separate structure
fixed at the base.
208.4.9.3 Irregular Features
208.4.8.3 Dynamic All structures having irregular features described in Table
208-9 or 208-10 shall be designed to meet the additional
The dynamic lateral-force procedure of Section 208.6
requirements of those sections referenced in the tables.
shall be used for all other structures, including the
following:
208.4.10 Alternative Procedures
1. Structures 75 m or more in height, except as Alternative lateral-force procedures using rational
permitted by Section 208.4.8.2, Item 1. analyses based on well-established principles of
2. Structures having a stiffness, weight or geometric mechanics may be used in lieu of those prescribed in
vertical irregularity of Type 1, 2 or 3, as defined in these provisions.
Table 208-9, or structures having irregular features
not described in Table 208-9 or 208-10, except as 208.4.10.1 Seismic Isolation
permitted by Section 208.5.4.1. Seismic isolation, energy dissipation and damping
systems may be used in the design of structures when
3. Structures over five stories or 20 m in height in
approved by the building official and when special
Seismic Zone 4 not having the same structural system
detailing is used to provide results equivalent to those
throughout their height except as permitted by
obtained by the use of conventional structural systems.
Section 208.6.2.
4. Structures, regular or irregular, located on Soil
Profile Type SF, that have a period greater than 0.7
second. The analysis shall include the effects of the
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208.5 Minimum Design Lateral Forces and Related For braced frames, the value of ri is equal to the
Effects maximum horizontal force component in a single brace
element divided by the total story shear.
208.5.1 Earthquake Loads and Modeling
Requirements For moment frames, ri shall be taken as the maximum of
the sum of the shears in any two adjacent columns in a
208.5.1.1 Earthquake Loads moment frame bay divided by the story shear. For
Structures shall be designed for ground motion producing columns common to two bays with moment-resisting
structural response and seismic forces in any horizontal connections on opposite sides at Level i in the direction
direction. The following earthquake loads shall be used in under consideration, 70 percent of the shear in that
the load combinations set forth in Section 203: column may be used in the column shear summation.
E  Eh  Ev (208-1) For shear walls, ri shall be taken as the maximum value of
the product of the wall shear multiplied by 3/ lw and
Em  oEh (208-2) divided by the total story shear, where lw is the length of
the wall in meter.
where:
E = the earthquake load on an element of the structure For dual systems, ri shall be taken as the maximum value
resulting from the combination of the horizontal of ri as defined above considering all lateral-load-resisting
component, Eh, and the vertical component, Ev. elements. The lateral loads shall be distributed to
Eh = the earthquake load due to the base shear, V, as set elements based on relative rigidities considering the
forth in Section 208.5.2 or the design lateral force, interaction of the dual system. For dual systems, the value
Fp, as set forth in Section 208.7. of  need not exceed 80 percent of the value calculated
Em = the estimated maximum earthquake force that can above.
be developed in the structure as set forth in Section
208.5.1.1, and used in the design of specific  shall not be taken less than 1.0 and need not be greater
elements of the structure, as specifically identified than 1.5. For special moment-resisting frames, except
in this code. when used in dual systems,  shall not exceed 1.25. The
Ev = the load effect resulting from the vertical number of bays of special moment-resisting frames shall
component of the earthquake ground motion and is be increased to reduce r, such that  is less than or equal
equal to an addition of 0.5CaIDto the dead load to 1.25.
effect, D, for Strength Design, and may be taken as Exception:
zero for Allowable Stress Design.
AB may be taken as the average floor area in the upper
o = the seismic force amplification factor that is setback portion of the building where a larger base area
required to account for structural overstrength, as exists at the ground floor.
set forth in Section 208.5.3.1.
ρ = Reliability/Redundancy Factor as given by the When calculating drift, or when the structure is located in
following equation:
Seismic Zone 2,  shall be taken equal to 1.0.
6.1
  2 (208-3) The ground motion producing lateral response and design
rmax AB
seismic forces may be assumed to act non-concurrently in
where: the direction of each principal axis of the structure, except
as required by Section 208.8.1.
rmax = the maximum element-story shear ratio. For a
given direction of loading, the element-story shear
Seismic dead load, W, is the total dead load and
ratio is the ratio of the design story shear in the
most heavily loaded single element divided by the applicable portions of other loads listed below.
total design story shear. 1. In storage and warehouse occupancies, a minimum of
25 percent of the floor live load shall be applicable.
For any given Story Level i, the element-story shear ratio
2. Where a partition load is used in the floor design, a
is denoted as ri. The maximum element-story shear ratio
load of not less than 0.5 kN/m2 shall be included.
rmax is defined as the largest of the element story shear
ratios, ri, which occurs in any of the story levels at or 3. Total weight of permanent equipment shall be
below the two-thirds height level of the building. included.

208.5.1.2 Modelling Requirements

The total design base shear shall not be less than the
The mathematical model of the physical structure shall following:
include all elements of the lateral-force-resisting system.
The model shall also include the stiffness and strength of V  0.11Ca I W (208-6)
elements, which are significant to the distribution of
forces, and shall represent the spatial distribution of the
In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear shall
mass and stiffness of the structure. In addition, the model
also not be less than the following:
shall comply with the following:
1. Stiffness properties of reinforced concrete and 0.8ZN v I
V W (208-7)
masonry elements shall consider the effects of R
cracked sections.
208.5.2.2 Structure Period
2. For steel moment frame systems, the contribution of
panel zone deformations to overall story drift shall be The value of T shall be determined from one of the
included. following methods:
208.5.1.3 P Effects 1. Method A:

The resulting member forces and moments and the story For all buildings, the value T may be approximated from
drifts induced by P effects shall be considered in the the following equation:
evaluation of overall structural frame stability and shall be
evaluated using the forces producing the displacements of T  Ct (hn )3 / 4 (208-8)
S. Pneed not be considered when the ratio of
where:
secondary moment to primary moment does not exceed
0.10; the ratio may be evaluated for any story as the Ct = 0.0853 for steel moment-resisting frames.
product of the total dead and floor live loads, as required Ct = 0.0731 for reinforced concrete moment-
in Section 203, above the story times the seismic drift in resisting frames and eccentrically braced frames.
that story divided by the product of the seismic shear in Ct = 0.0488 for all other buildings.
that story times the height of that story. In Seismic Zone
4, Pneed not be considered when the story drift ratio Alternatively, the value of Ct for structures with concrete
does not exceed 0 . 02 / R . or masonry shear walls may be taken as 0 . 0743 / A c .
208.5.2 Static Force Procedure The value of Ac shall be determined from the following
equation:
208.5.2.1 Design Base Shear
The total design base shear in a given direction shall be Ac   Ae  0.2  (De / hn ) 2  (208-9)
determined from the following equation:
Cv I The value of De / hn used in Equation (208-9) shall not
V W (208-4)
RT exceed 0.9.
The total design base shear need not exceed the 2. Method B:
following:
The fundamental period T may be calculated using the
2.5C a I structural properties and deformational characteristics of
V W (208-5) the resisting elements in a properly substantiated analysis.
R
The analysis shall be in accordance with the requirements
of Section 208.5.1.2. The value of T from Method B shall
not exceed a value 30 percent greater than the value of T
obtained from Method A in Seismic Zone 4, and 40
percent in Seismic Zone 2.
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Table 208-11A Earthquake-Force-Resisting Structural Systems of Concrete

System Limitation and
Building Height Limitation by
Basic Seismic-Force Resisting System R Ω0
Seismic Zone, m
Zone 2 Zone 4
A. Bearing Wall Systems
 Special reinforced concrete shear walls 4.5 2.8 NL 50
 Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 4.5 2.8 NL NP
B. Building Frame Systems
 Special reinforced concrete shear walls or
5.5 2.8 NL 75
braced frames
 Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls or
5.6 2.2 NL NP
braced frames
 Intermediate precast shear walls or braced
5.5 2.8
frames
C. Moment-Resisting Frame Systems
 Special reinforced concrete moment frames 8.5 2.8 NL NL
 Intermediate reinforced concrete moment
5.5 2.8 NL NP
frames
 Ordinary reinforced concrete moment frames 3.5 2.8 NL NP
D. Dual Systems
 Special reinforced concrete shear walls 8.5 2.8 NL NL
 Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 6.5 2.8 NP NP
E. Dual System with Intermediate Moment Frames
 Special reinforced concrete shear walls 6.5 2.8 NL 50
 Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 4.2 2.8 NL 50
 Shear wall frame interactive system with
ordinary reinforced concrete moment frames 4.2 2.8 NP NP
and ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls
F. Cantilevered Column Building Systems
 Cantilevered column elements 2.2 2.0 NL 10
G. Shear Wall- Frame Interaction Systems 5.5 2.8 NL 50

Table 208-11B Earthquake-Force-Resisting Structural Systems of Steel

Seismic Zone, m
Zone 2 Zone 4
 Light steel-framed bearing walls with tension-
2.8 2.2 NL 20
only bracing
 Braced frames where bracing carries gravity
4.4 2.2 NL 50
load
 Light framed walls sheathed with wood
structural panels rated for shear resistance or 4.5 2.8 NL 20
steel sheets
 Light-framed walls with shear panels of all
4.5 2.8 NL 20
other light materials
 Light-framed wall systems using flat strap
2.8 2.2 NL NP
bracing
 Steel eccentrically braced frames (EBF),
moment-resisting connections at columns 8.5 2.8 NL 30
away from links
 Steel eccentrically braced frames (EBF), non
moment-resisting connections at columns 6.0 2.2 NL 30
away from links
 Special concentrically braced frames (SCBF) 6.0 2.2 NL 30
 Ordinary concentrically braced frames (OCBF) 3.2 2.2 NL NP
 Light-framed walls sheathed with wood
6.5 2.8 NL 20
structural panels / sheet steel panels
 Light frame walls with shear panels of all other
2.5 2.8 NL NP
materials
 Buckling-restrained braced frames (BRBF),
non moment-resisting beam-column 7 2.8 NL 30
connection
 Buckling-restrained braced frames, moment-
8 2.8 NL 30
resisting beam-column connections
 Special steel plate shear walls (SPSW) 7 2.8 NL 30
 Special moment-resisting frame (SMRF) 8.0 3 NL NL
 Intermediate steel moment frames (IMF) 4.5 3 NL NP
 Ordinary moment frames (OMF) 3.5 3 NL NP
 Special truss moment frames (STMF) 6.5 3 NL NP
 Special composite steel and concrete moment
8 3 NL NL
frames
 Intermediate composite moment frames 5 3 NL NP
 Composite partially restrained moment frames 6 3 48 NP
 Ordinary composite moment frames 3 3 NP NP
D. Dual Systems with Special Moment Frames
 Steel eccentrically braced frames 8 2.8 NL NL
 Special steel concentrically braced frames 7 2.8 NL NL
 Composite steel and concrete eccentrically
8 2.8 NL NL
braced frame
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Table 208-11B(cont’d) Earthquake-Force-Resisting Structural Systems of Steel

R Ω0
Basic Seismic-Force Resisting System Seismic Zone, m
Zone 2 Zone 4
 Composite steel and concrete concentrically
6 2.8 NL NL
braced frame
 Composite steel plate shear walls 7.5 2.8 NL NL
 Buckling-restrained braced frame 8 2.8 NL NL
 Special steel plate shear walls 8 2.8 NL NL
 Masonry shear wall with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 NL 50
 Steel EBF with steel SMRF 8.5 2.8 NL NL
 Steel EBF with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 NL 50
 Special concentrically braced frames with steel
7.5 2.8 NL NL
SMRF
 Special concentrically braced frames with steel
4.2 2.8 NL 50
OMRF
E. Dual System with Intermediate Moment Frames
 Special steel concentrically braced frame 6 2.8 NL NP
 Composite steel and concrete concentrically
5.5 2.8 NL NP
braced frame
 Ordinary composite braced frame 3.5 2.8 NL NP
 Ordinary composite reinforced concrete shear
5 2.8 NL NP
walls with steel elements
F. Cantilevered Column Building Systems
 Special steel moment frames 2.2 2.0 10 10
 Intermediate steel moment frames 1.2 2.0 10 NP
 Ordinary steel moment frames 1.0 2.0 10 NP
 Cantilevered column elements 2.2 2.0 NL 10
G. Steel Systems not Specifically Detailed for
3 3 NL NP
Seismic Resistance, Excluding Cantilever Systems
Table 208-11C Earthquake-Force-Resisting Structural Systems of Masonry

Seismic Zone, m
Zone 2 Zone 4
 Masonry shear walls 4.5 2.8 NL 50
 Masonry shear walls 5.5 2.8 NL 50
 Masonry moment-resisting wall frames
6.5 2.8 NL 50
(MMRWF)
D. Dual Systems
 Masonry shear walls with SMRF 5.5 2.8 NL 50
 Masonry shear walls with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 NL 50
 Masonry shear walls with concrete IMRF 4.2 2.8 NL NP
 Masonry shear walls with masonry MMRWF 6.0 2.8 NL 50

Table 208-11D Earthquake-Force-Resisting Structural Systems of Wood

Seismic Zone (meters)
Zone 2 Zone 4
 Light-framed walls with shear panels: wood
structural panel walls for structures three 5.5 2.8 NL 20
stories or less
 Heavy timber braced frames where bracing
2.8 2.2 NL 20
carries gravity load
 Light-framed walls with wood shear panels
NA NA
walls for structures three stories or less
 All other light framed walls NA NA
 Heavy timber-braced frames where bracing
2.8 2.2 NL 20
carries gravity load
 Light-framed walls with shear panels: wood
structural panel walls for structures three 6.5 2.8 NL 20
stories or less
 Ordinary heavy timber-braced frames 5.6 2.2 NL 20
where the value of Ca shall be based on Table 208-7 for
The fundamental period T may be computed by using the the soil profile type. When the soil properties are not
following equation: known in sufficient detail to determine the soil profile
type, Type SD shall be used in Seismic Zone 4, and Type
 n 

 wi i2 
 SE shall be used in Seismic Zone 2. In Seismic Zone 4,
T  2  i 1  (208-10) the Near-Source Factor, Na, need not be greater than 1.2 if
 n  none of the following structural irregularities are present:
g
  f i i 
 1. Type 1, 4 or 5 of Table 208-9, or
 i 1 
2. Type 1 or 4 of Table 208-10.
The values of fi represent any lateral force distributed
approximately in accordance with the principles of 208.5.2.3.2 Vertical Distribution
Equations (208-13), (208-14) and (208-15) or any other The forces at each level shall be calculated using the
rational distribution. The elastic deflections, i, shall be following equation:
calculated using the applied lateral forces, fi.
3Ca
Fx  wi (208-12)
208.5.2.3 Simplified Design Base Shear R
Structures conforming to the requirements of Section where the value of Ca shall be determined as in Section
208.4.8.1 may be designed using this procedure. 208.5.2.3.1.
208.5.2.3.1 Base Shear 208.5.2.3.3 Applicability

The total design base shear in a given direction shall be Sections 208.5.1.2, 208.5.1.3, 208.5.2.1, 208.5.2.2,
determined from the following equation: 208.5.5, 208.5.9, 208.5.10 and 208.6 shall not apply when
3C a using the simplified procedure.
V  W (208-11)
R
th
1.1 The flexible upper portion shall be designed as a

Exception:
separate structure, supported laterally by the
For buildings with relatively flexible structural systems, rigid lower portion, using the appropriate values
the building official may require consideration of P of R and .
effects and drift in accordance with Sections 208.5.1.3,
208.5.9 and 208.5.10. s shall be determined using 1.2 The rigid lower portion shall be designed as a
design seismic forces from Section 208.5.2.3.1. separate structure using the appropriate values of
R and . The reactions from the upper portion
Where used, M shall be taken equal to 0.01 times the shall be those determined from the analysis of
story height of all stories. In Section 208.8.2.8, Equation the upper portion amplified by the ratio of the
(R/) of the upper portion over (R/) of the lower
3C
(208-20) shall read F px  a w px and need not portion.
R
exceed a px , but shall not be less than 0.5Cawpx . R
C w 208.5.4.2 Combinations along Different Axes
and o shall be taken from Table 208-11. In Seismic Zone 4 where a structure has a bearing wall
system in only one direction, the value of R used for
208.5.3 Determination of Seismic Factors design in the orthogonal direction shall not be greater than
that used for the bearing wall system.
208.5.3.1 Determination of o
Any combination of bearing wall systems, building frame
For specific elements of the structure, as specifically
systems, dual systems or moment-resisting frame systems
identified in this code, the minimum design strength shall
may be used to resist seismic forces in structures less than
be the product of the seismic force overstrength factor o 50 m in height. Only combinations of dual systems and
and the design seismic forces set forth in Section 208.5. special moment-resisting frames shall be used to resist
For both Allowable Stress Design and Strength Design, seismic forces in structures exceeding 50 m in height in
the Seismic Force Overstrength Factor, o, shall be taken Seismic Zone 4.
from Table 208-11.
208.5.4.3 Combinations along the Same Axis
208.5.3.2 Determination of R
Where a combination of different structural systems is
The value for R shall be taken from Table 208-11. utilized to resist lateral forces in the same direction, the
value of R used for design in that direction shall not be
208.5.4 Combinations of Structural Systems greater than the least value for any of the systems utilized
Where combinations of structural systems are in that same direction.
incorporated into the same structure, the requirements of
this section shall be satisfied. 208.5.5 Vertical Distribution of Force
The total force shall be distributed over the height of the
208.5.4.1 Vertical Combinations structure in conformance with Equations (208-13), (208-
The value of R used in the design of any story shall be 14) and (208-15) in the absence of a more rigorous
less than or equal to the value of R used in the given procedure.
direction for the story above.
n
Exception: V  Ft   Fi (208-13)
i 1
This requirement need not be applied to a story where the
dead weight above that story is less than 10 percent of the The concentrated force Ft at the top, which is in addition
total dead weight of the structure. to Fn, shall be determined from the equation:
Structures may be designed using the procedures of this Ft  0.07TV (208-14)

section under the following conditions:
The value of T used for the purpose of calculating Ft shall
The entire structure is designed using the lowest R of the be the period that corresponds with the design base shear
lateral force-resisting systems used, or as computed using Equation (208-4). Ft need not exceed
0.25V and may be considered as zero where T is 0.7
1. The following two-stage static analysis procedures
second or less. The remaining portion of the base shear
may be used for structures conforming to Section
shall be distributed over the height of the structure,
208.4.8.2, Item 4.
including Level n, according to the following equation:

(V  Ft ) wx hx
Fx  n (208-15) 208.5.7 Horizontal Torsional Moments
w h
i 1
i i Provisions shall be made for the increased shears resulting
from horizontal torsion where diaphragms are not
flexible. The most severe load combination for each
At each level designated as x, the force Fx shall be applied element shall be considered for design.
over the area of the building in accordance with the mass
distribution at that level. Structural displacements and The torsional design moment at a given story shall be the
design seismic forces shall be calculated as the effect of moment resulting from eccentricities between applied
forces Fx and Ft applied at the appropriate levels above design lateral forces at levels above that story and the
the base. vertical-resisting elements in that story plus an accidental
torsion.
208.5.6 Horizontal Distribution of Shear
The design story shear, Vx, in any story is the sum of the The accidental torsional moment shall be determined by
forces Ft and Fx above that story. Vx shall be distributed to assuming the mass is displaced as required by Section
the various elements of the vertical lateral force-resisting 208.5.6.
system in proportion to their rigidities, considering the
rigidity of the diaphragm. See Section 208.8.2.3 for rigid Where torsional irregularity exists, as defined in Table
elements that are not intended to be part of the lateral 208-10, the effects shall be accounted for by increasing
force- resisting systems. the accidental torsion at each level by an amplification
factor, Ax, determined from the following equation:
Where diaphragms are not flexible, the mass at each level
2
shall be assumed to be displaced from the calculated   
center of mass in each direction a distance equal to 5 Ax   max  (208-16)
percent of the building dimension at that level 1.2 avg 
perpendicular to the direction of the force under
consideration. The effect of this displacement on the where:
story shear distribution shall be considered. avg = the average of the displacements at the extreme
points of the structure at Level x, mm
Diaphragms shall be considered flexible for the purposes max = the maximum displacement at Level x, mm
of distribution of story shear and torsional moment when
the maximum lateral deformation of the diaphragm is The value of Ax need not exceed 3.0
more than two times the average story drift of the
associated story. This may be determined by comparing 208.5.8 Overturning
the computed midpoint in-plane deflection of the
Every structure shall be designed to resist the overturning
diaphragm itself under lateral load with the story drift of
effects caused by earthquake forces specified in Section
adjoining vertical-resisting elements under equivalent
208.5.5. At any level, the overturning moments to be
tributary lateral load.
resisted shall be determined using those seismic forces (Ft
and Fx) that act on levels above the level under
consideration. At any level, the incremental changes of
the design overturning moment shall be distributed to the
various resisting elements in the manner prescribed in
Section 208.5.6. Overturning effects on every element
shall be carried down to the foundation. See Sections
207.1 and 208.8 for combining gravity and seismic forces.
th
6. Steel elements designed primarily as flexural

208.5.8.1 Elements Supporting Discontinuous members or trusses shall have bracing for both top
Systems and bottom beam flanges or chords at the location of
the support of the discontinuous system and shall
208.5.8.1.1 General comply with the requirements of Section 515.6.1.3.
Where any portion of the lateral load-resisting system is 7. Wood elements designed primarily as flexural
discontinuous, such as for vertical irregularity Type 4 in members shall be provided with lateral bracing or
Table 208-9 or plan irregularity Type 4 in Table 208-10, solid blocking at each end of the element and at the
concrete, masonry, steel and wood elements supporting connection location(s) of the discontinuous system.
such discontinuous systems shall have the design strength
to resist the combination loads resulting from the special 208.5.8.2 At Foundation
seismic load combinations of Section 203.5.
See Sections 208.4.1 and 308.4 for overturning moments
Exceptions: to be resisted at the foundation soil interface.
1. The quantity Em in Section 203.5 need not exceed the
208.5.9 Drift
maximum force that can be transferred to the element
by the lateral-force-resisting system. Drift or horizontal displacements of the structure shall be
computed where required by this code. For both
2. Concrete slabs supporting light-frame wood shear Allowable Stress Design and Strength Design, the
wall systems or light-frame steel and wood structural Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, M, of the
panel shear wall systems. structure caused by the Design Basis Ground Motion shall
be determined in accordance with this section. The drifts
For Allowable Stress Design, the design strength may be corresponding to the design seismic forces of Section
determined using an allowable stress increase of 1.7 and a 208.5.2.1 or Section 208.6.5, S, shall be determined in
resistance factor, , of 1.0. This increase shall not be accordance with Section 208.5.9.1. To determine M,
combined with the one- third stress increase permitted by these drifts shall be amplified in accordance with Section
Section 203.4, but may be combined with the duration of 208.5.9.2.
load increase permitted in Section 615.3.4.
208.5.9.1 Determination of S
208.5.8.1.2 Detailing requirements in Seismic Zone 4
A static, elastic analysis of the lateral force-resisting
In Seismic Zone 4, elements supporting discontinuous system shall be prepared using the design seismic forces
systems shall meet the following detailing or member from Section 208.5.2.1. Alternatively, dynamic analysis
limitations: may be performed in accordance with Section 208.6.
1. Reinforced concrete or reinforced masonry elements Where Allowable Stress Design is used and where drift is
designed primarily as axial-load members shall being computed, the load combinations of Section 203.3
comply with Section 421.4.4.5. shall be used. The mathematical model shall comply with
2. Reinforced concrete elements designed primarily as Section 208.5.1.2. The resulting deformations, denoted as
flexural members and supporting other than light- S, shall be determined at all critical locations in the
frame wood shear wall system or light-frame steel structure. Calculated drift shall include translational and
and wood structural panel shear wall systems shall torsional deflections.
comply with Sections 421.3.2 and 421.3.3. Strength
computations for portions of slabs designed as 208.5.9.2 Determination of M
supporting elements shall include only those portions The Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, M,
of the slab that comply with the requirements of these shall be computed as follows:
sections.
3. Masonry elements designed primarily as axial-load
M  0.7RS (208-17)
carrying members shall comply with Sections Exception:
706.1.12.4, Item 1, and 708.2.6.2.6.
Alternatively, M may be computed by nonlinear time
4. Masonry elements designed primarily as flexural history analysis in accordance with Section 208.6.6.
members shall comply with Section 708.2.6.2.5.
5. Steel elements designed primarily as axial-load The analysis used to determine the Maximum Inelastic
members shall comply with Sections 515.4.2 and Response Displacement M shall consider P effects.
515.4.3.

208.5.10 Story Drift Limitation representation and shall be performed using accepted
Story drifts shall be computed using the Maximum principles of dynamics.
Inelastic Response Displacement, M.
Structures that are designed in accordance with this
208.5.10.1 Calculated section shall comply with all other applicable
requirements of these provisions.
Calculated story drift using M shall not exceed 0.025
times the story height for structures having a fundamental 208.6.2 Ground Motion
period of less than 0.7 sec. For structures having a
fundamental period of 0.7 sec or greater, the calculated The ground motion representation shall, as a minimum, be
story drift shall not exceed 0.020 times the story height. one having a 10-percent probability of being exceeded in
50 years, shall not be reduced by the quantity R and may
Exceptions: be one of the following:
1. These drift limits may be exceeded when it is 1. An elastic design response spectrum constructed in
demonstrated that greater drift can be tolerated by accordance with Figure 208-3, using the values of Ca
both structural elements and nonstructural elements and Cv consistent with the specific site. The design
that could affect life safety. The drift used in this acceleration ordinates shall be multiplied by the
assessment shall be based upon the Maximum acceleration of gravity, 9.815 m/sec2.
Inelastic Response Displacement, M.
2. A site-specific elastic design response spectrum
2. There shall be no drift limit in single-story steel- based on the geologic, tectonic, seismologic and soil
framed structures whose primary use is limited to characteristics associated with the specific site. The
storage, factories or workshops. Minor accessory spectrum shall be developed for a damping ratio of
uses shall be allowed. Structures on which this 0.05, unless a different value is shown to be
exception is used shall not have equipment attached consistent with the anticipated structural behavior at
to the structural frame or shall have such equipment the intensity of shaking established for the site.
detailed to accommodate the additional drift. Walls
that are laterally supported by the steel frame shall 3. Ground motion time histories developed for the
be designed to accommodate the drift in accordance specific site shall be representative of actual
with Section 208.8.2.3. earthquake motions. Response spectra from time
histories, either individually or in combination, shall
approximate the site design spectrum conforming to
208.5.10.2 Limitations
Section 208.6.2, Item 2.
The design lateral forces used to determine the calculated
drift may disregard the limitations of Equation (208-6) 4. For structures on Soil Profile Type SF, the following
and (208-7) and may be based on the period determined requirements shall apply when required by Section
from Equation (208-10) neglecting the 30 or 40 percent 208.4.8.3, Item 4:
limitations of Section 208.5.2.2, Item 2. 4.1 The ground motion representation shall be
developed in accordance with Items 2 and 3.
208.5.11 Vertical Component
4.2 Possible amplification of building response due
The following requirements apply in Seismic Zone 4
to the effects of soil-structure interaction and
only. Horizontal cantilever components shall be designed
lengthening of building period caused by
for a net upward force of 0.7Ca IWp . inelastic behavior shall be considered.
5. The vertical component of ground motion may be
In addition to all other applicable load combinations, defined by scaling corresponding horizontal
horizontal prestressed components shall be designed using accelerations by a factor of two- thirds. Alternative
not more than 50 percent of the dead load for the gravity factors may be used when substantiated by site-
load, alone or in combination with the lateral force specific data. Where the Near Source Factor, Na, is
effects. greater than 1.0, site-specific vertical response
spectra shall be used in lieu of the factor of two-
208.6 Dynamic Analysis Procedures thirds.
208.6.1 General 208.6.3 Mathematical Model

Dynamic analyses procedures, when used, shall conform A mathematical model of the physical structure shall
to the criteria established in this section. The analysis represent the spatial distribution of the mass and stiffness
shall be based on an appropriate ground motion of the structure to an extent that is adequate for the
th
calculation of the significant features of its dynamic combined by recognized methods. When three-
response. A three-dimensional model shall be used for dimensional models are used for analysis, modal
the dynamic analysis of structures with highly irregular interaction effects shall be considered when combining
plan configurations such as those having a plan modal maxima.
irregularity defined in Table 208-10 and having a rigid or
semi-rigid diaphragm. The stiffness properties used in the 208.6.5.4 Reduction of Elastic Response Parameters
analysis and general mathematical modeling shall be in for Design
accordance with Section 208.5.1.2. Elastic Response Parameters may be reduced for purposes
of design in accordance with the following items, with the
208.6.4 Description of Analysis Procedures limitation that in no case shall the Elastic Response
Parameters be reduced such that the corresponding design
208.6.4.1 Response Spectrum Analysis base shear is less than the Elastic Response Base Shear
An elastic dynamic analysis of a structure utilizing the divided by the value of R.
peak dynamic response of all modes having a significant
1. For all regular structures where the ground motion
contribution to total structural response. Peak modal
representation complies with Section 208.6.2, Item 1,
responses are calculated using the ordinates of the
Elastic Response Parameters may be reduced such
appropriate response spectrum curve which correspond to
that the corresponding design base shear is not less
the modal periods. Maximum modal contributions are
than 90 percent of the base shear determined in
combined in a statistical manner to obtain an approximate
total structural response.
2. For all regular structures where the ground motion
representation complies with Section 208.6.2, Item 2,
208.6.4.2 Time History Analysis Elastic Response Parameters may be reduced such
An analysis of the dynamic response of a structure at each that the corresponding design base shear is not less
increment of time when the base is subjected to a specific than 80 percent of the base shear determined in
ground motion time history. accordance with Section 208.5.2.
208.6.5 Response Spectrum Analysis 3. For all irregular structures, regardless of the ground
motion representation, Elastic Response Parameters
208.6.5.1 Response Spectrum Representation and may be reduced such that the corresponding design
Interpretation of Results base shear is not less than 100 percent of the base
shear determined in accordance with Section 208.5.2.
The ground motion representation shall be in accordance
with Section 208.6.2. The corresponding response The corresponding reduced design seismic forces shall be
parameters, including forces, moments and displacements, used for design in accordance with Section 203.
shall be denoted as Elastic Response Parameters. Elastic
Response Parameters may be reduced in accordance with 208.6.5.5 Directional Effects
Section 208.6.5.4. Directional effects for horizontal ground motion shall
conform to the requirements of Section 208.5.1. The
The base shear for a given direction, determined using effects of vertical ground motions on horizontal
dynamic analysis must not be less than the value obtained cantilevers and prestressed elements shall be considered
by the equivalent lateral force method of Section 208.5.2. in accordance with Section 208.5.11. Alternately, vertical
In this case, all corresponding response parameters are seismic response may be determined by dynamic response
adjusted proportionately. methods; in no case shall the response used for design be
less than that obtained by the static method.
208.6.5.2 Number of Modes
The requirement of Section 208.6.4.1 that all significant 208.6.5.6 Torsion
modes be included may be satisfied by demonstrating that The analysis shall account for torsional effects, including
for the modes considered, at least 90 percent of the accidental torsional effects as prescribed in Section
participating mass of the structure is included in the 208.5.7. Where three-dimensional models are used for
calculation of response for each principal horizontal analysis, effects of accidental torsion shall be accounted
direction. for by appropriate adjustments in the model such as
adjustment of mass locations, or by equivalent static
208.6.5.3 Combining Modes procedures such as provided in Section 208.5.6.
The peak member forces, displacements, story forces,
story shears and base reactions for each mode shall be

208.6.5.7 Dual Systems 208.6.6.3 Nonlinear Time History Analysis

Where the lateral forces are resisted by a dual system as
defined in Section 208.4.6.4, the combined system shall 208.6.6.3.1 Nonlinear Time History
be capable of resisting the base shear determined in Nonlinear time history analysis shall meet the
accordance with this section. The moment-resisting frame requirements of Section 208.4.10, and time histories shall
shall conform to Section 208.4.6.4, Item 2, and may be be developed and results determined in accordance with
analyzed using either the procedures of Section 208.5.5 or the requirements of Section 208.6.6.1. Capacities and
those of Section 208.6.5. characteristics of nonlinear elements shall be modeled
consistent with test data or substantiated analysis,
208.6.6 Time History Analysis considering the Importance Factor. The maximum
inelastic response displacement shall not be reduced and
208.6.6.1 Time History shall comply with Section 208.5.10.
Time-history analysis shall be performed with pairs of
appropriate horizontal ground-motion time- history 208.6.6.3.2 Design Review
components that shall be selected and scaled from not less When nonlinear time-history analysis is used to justify a
than three recorded events. Appropriate time histories structural design, a design review of the lateral- force-
shall have magnitudes, fault distances and source resisting system shall be performed by an independent
mechanisms that are consistent with those that control the engineering team, including persons licensed in the
design-basis earthquake (or maximum capable appropriate disciplines and experienced in seismic
earthquake). Where three appropriate recorded ground- analysis methods. The lateral-force-resisting system
motion time-history pairs are not available, appropriate design review shall include, but not be limited to, the
simulated ground-motion time-history pairs may be used following:
to make up the total number required. For each pair of 1. Reviewing the development of site-specific spectra
horizontal ground- motion components, the square root of and ground-motion time histories.
the sum of the squares (SRSS) of the 5 percent-damped
site-specific spectrum of the scaled horizontal 2. Reviewing the preliminary design of the lateral-
components shall be constructed. The motions shall be force-resisting system.
scaled such that the average value of the SRSS spectra 3. Reviewing the final design of the lateral-force-
does not fall below 1.4 times the 5 percent-damped resisting system and all supporting analyses.
spectrum of the design-basis earthquake for periods from
0.2T second to 1.5T seconds. Each pair of time histories The engineer-of-record shall submit with the plans and
shall be applied simultaneously to the model considering calculations a statement by all members of the
torsional effects. engineering team doing the review stating that the above
review has been performed.
The parameter of interest shall be calculated for each
time- history analysis. If three time-history analyses are 208.7 Lateral Force on Elements of Structures,
performed, then the maximum response of the parameter Nonstructural Components and Equipment Supported
of interest shall be used for design. If seven or more time- by Structures
history analyses are performed, then the average value of
the response parameter of interest may be used for design. 208.7.1 General
Elements of structures and their attachments, permanent
208.6.6.2 Elastic Time History Analysis
nonstructural components and their attachments, and the
Elastic time history shall conform to Sections 208.6.1, attachments for permanent equipment supported by a
208.6.2, 208.6.3, 208.6.5.2, 208.6.5.4, 208.6.5.5, structure shall be designed to resist the total design
208.6.5.6, 208.6.5.7 and 208.6.6.1. Response parameters seismic forces prescribed in Section 208.7.2.
from elastic time-history analysis shall be denoted as
Elastic Response Parameters. All elements shall be Attachments for floor- or roof-mounted equipment
designed using Strength Design. Elastic Response weighing less than 1.8 kN, and furniture need not be
Parameters may be scaled in accordance with Section designed.
208.6.5.4.
Attachments shall include anchorages and required
bracing. Friction resulting from gravity loads shall not be
considered to provide resistance to seismic forces.
th
When the structural failure of the lateral-force-resisting Forces determined using Equation (208-18) or (208-19)
systems of nonrigid equipment would cause a life hazard, shall be used to design members and connections that
such systems shall be designed to resist the seismic forces transfer these forces to the seismic-resisting systems.
prescribed in Section 208.7.2. Members and connection design shall use the load
combinations and factors specified in Section 203.3 or
When permissible design strengths and other acceptance 203.4. The Reliability/Redundancy Factor, , may be
criteria are not contained in or referenced by this code, taken equal to 1.0.
such criteria shall be obtained from approved national
standards subject to the approval of the building official. For applicable forces and Component Response
Modification Factors in connectors for exterior panels and
208.7.2 Design for Total Lateral Force diaphragms, refer to Sections 208.8.2.3, 208.8.2.7, and
The total design lateral seismic force, Fp, shall be 208.8.2.8.
determined from the following equation:
Forces shall be applied in the horizontal directions, which
Fp  4Ca I pWp (208-18) result in the most critical loadings for design.
Alternatively, Fp may be calculated using the following 208.7.3 Specifying Lateral Forces
equation: Design specifications for equipment shall either specify
a p Ca I p  h  the design lateral forces prescribed herein or reference
Fp  1  3 x W p (208-19) these provisions.
R p  hr 
Except that Fp shall not be less than 0.7Ca I pWp and 208.7.4 Relative Motion of Equipment Attachments
need not be more than 4Ca I pWp. For equipment in Categories I and II buildings as defined
in Table 103-1, the lateral-force design shall consider the
where: effects of relative motion of the points of attachment to
the structure, using the drift based upon M.
hx = the element or component attachment elevation
with respect to grade. hx shall not be taken less than
0.0. 208.7.5 Alternative Designs
hr = the structure roof elevation with respect to grade. Where an approved national standard or approved
ap = the in-structure Component Amplification Factor physical test data provide a basis for the earthquake-
that varies from 1.0 to 2.5. resistant design of a particular type of equipment or other
nonstructural component, such a standard or data may be
A value for ap shall be selected from Table 208-12. accepted as a basis for design of the items with the
Alternatively, this factor may be determined based on the following limitations:
dynamic properties or empirical data of the component 1. These provisions shall provide minimum values for
and the structure that supports it. The value shall not be the design of the anchorage and the members and
taken less than 1.0. connections that transfer the forces to the seismic-
resisting system.
Rp is the Component Response Modification Factor that
shall be taken from Table 208-12, except that Rp for 2. The force, Fp, and the overturning moment used in
anchorages shall equal 1.5 for shallow expansion anchor the design of the nonstructural component shall not
bolts, shallow chemical anchors or shallow cast-in-place be less than 80 percent of the values that would be
anchors. Shallow anchors are those with an embedment obtained using these provisions.
length-to-diameter ratio of less than 8. When anchorage is
constructed of nonductile materials, or by use of adhesive,
Rp shall equal 1.0.
The design lateral forces determined using Equation (208-

18) or (208-19) shall be distributed in proportion to the
mass distribution of the element or component.

Table 208-12 Horizontal Force Factors, ap and Rp for

Elements of Structures and Nonstructural Components and Equipment
Category Element or Component ap Rp Footnote

1. Walls including the following:
a. Unbraced (cantilevered) parapets 2.5 3.0

b. Exterior walls at or above the ground floor and
1.0 3.0 2
1. Elements of parapets braced above their centers of gravity
Structures c. All interior-bearing and non-bearing walls 1.0 3.0 2
2. Penthouse (except when framed by an extension of the
2.5 4.0
structural frame)
3. Connections for prefabricated structural elements other
1.0 3.0 3
walls. See also Section 208.7.2
1. Exterior and interior ornamentations and appendages. 2.5 3.0
2. Chimneys, stacks and trussed towers supported on or
projecting above the roof
a. Laterally braced or anchored to the structural frame at
2.5 3.0
a point below their centers of mass
b. Laterally braced or anchored to the structural frame at
1.0 3.0
or above their centers of mass
3. Signs and billboards 2.5 3.0
2. Nonstructural
Components 4. Storage racks (include contents) over 1.8 m tall. 2.5 4.0 4
5. Permanent floor-supported cabinets and book stacks more
1.0 3.0 5
than 1.8 m in height (include contents)
6. Anchorage and lateral bracing for suspended ceilings and
1.0 3.0 3, 6, 7, 8
light fixtures
7. Access floor systems 1.0 3.0 4, 5, 9
8. Masonry or concrete fences over 1.8 m high 1.0 3.0
9. Partitions. 1.0 3.0

1. Tanks and vessels (include contents), including support
1.0 3.0
systems.
5, 10, 11,
2. Electrical, mechanical and plumbing equipment and
1.0 3.0 12, 13, 14,
associated conduit and ductwork and piping.
15, 16
3. Any flexible equipment laterally braced or anchored to the 5, 10, 14,
2.5 3.0
structural frame at a point below their center of mass 15, 16
3. Equipment
4. Anchorage of emergency power supply systems and
essential communications equipment. Anchorage and
support systems for battery racks and fuel tanks necessary 1.0 3.0 17, 18
for operation of emergency equipment. See also Section
208.7.2
5. Temporary containers with flammable or hazardous
1.0 3.0 19
materials.
1. Rigid components with ductile material and attachments. 1.0 3.0 1
2. Rigid components with nonductile material or attachments 1.0 1.5 1

4. Other
Components 3. Flexible components with ductile material and
2.5 3.0 1
attachments.
4. Flexible components with nonductile material or
2.5 1.5 1
attachments.
th
Notes for Table 208.12

1
See Section 208.2 for definitions of flexible components and rigid components.
2
See Section 208.8.2.3 and 208.8.2.7 for concrete and masonry walls and Section 208.7.2 for connections for panel connectors for panels.
3
Applies to Seismic Zones 2 and 4 only.
4
Ground supported steel storage racks may be designed using the provisions of Sections 208.9. Load and resistance factor design may be
used for the design of cold-formed steel members, provided seismic design forces are equal to or greater than those specified in Section
208.7.2 or 208.9.2 as appropriate.
5
Only anchorage or restraints need be designed.
6
Ceiling weight shall include all light fixtures and other equipment or partitions that are laterally supported by the ceiling. For purposes
of determining the seismic force, a ceiling weight of not less than 0.2 kPa shall be used.
7
Ceilings constructed of lath and plaster or gypsum board screw or nail attached to suspended members that support a ceiling at one
level extending from wall to wall need not be analyzed, provided the walls are not over 15 meters apart.
8
Light fixtures and mechanical services installed in metal suspension systems for acoustical tile and lay-in panel ceilings shall be
independently supported from the structure above as specified in UBC Standard 25-2, Part III.
9
WP for access floor systems shall be the dead load of the access floor system plus 25 percent of the floor live load plus a 0.5 kPa partition
load allowance.
10
Equipment includes, but is not limited to, boilers, chillers, heat exchangers, pumps, air-handling units, cooling towers, control panels,
motors, switchgear, transformers and life-safety equipment. It shall include major conduit, ducting and piping, which services such
machinery and equipment and fire sprinkler systems. See Section 208.7.2 for additional requirements for determining ap for nonrigid or
flexibly mounted equipment.
11
Seismic restraints may be omitted from piping and duct supports if all the following conditions are satisfied:
11.1
Lateral motion of the piping or duct will not cause damaging impact with other systems.
11.2
The piping or duct is made of ductile material with ductile connections.
11.3
Lateral motion of the piping or duct does not cause impact of fragile appurtenances (e.g., sprinkler heads) with any other equipment,
piping or structural member.
11.4
Lateral motion of the piping or duct does not cause loss of system vertical support.
11.5
Rod-hung supports of less than 300 mm in length have top connections that cannot develop moments.
11.6
Support members cantilevered up from the floor are checked for stability.
12
Seismic restraints may be omitted from electrical raceways, such as cable trays, conduit and bus ducts, if all the following conditions are
satisfied:
12.1
Lateral motion of the raceway will not cause damaging impact with other systems.
12.2
Lateral motion of the raceway does not cause loss of system vertical support.
12.3
Rod-hung supports of less than 300 mm in length have top connections that cannot develop moments.
12.4
Support members cantilevered up from the floor are checked for stability.
13
Piping, ducts and electrical raceways, which must be functional following an earthquake, spanning between different buildings or
structural systems shall be sufficiently flexible to withstand relative motion of support points assuming out-of-phase motions.
14
Vibration isolators supporting equipment shall be designed for lateral loads or restrained from displacing laterally by other means.
Restraint shall also be provided, which limits vertical displacement, such that lateral restraints do not become disengaged. ap and Rp for
equipment supported on vibration isolators shall be taken as 2.5 and 1.5, respectively, except that if the isolation mounting frame is
supported by shallow or expansion anchors, the design forces for the anchors calculated by Equation (208-18),or (208-19) (including
limits), shall be additionally multiplied by factor of 2.0.
15
Equipment anchorage shall not be designed such that loads are resisted by gravity friction (e.g., friction clips).
16
Expansion anchors, which are required to resist seismic loads in tension, shall not be used where operational vibrating loads are
present.
17
Movement of components within electrical cabinets, rack-and skid-mounted equipment and portions of skid-mounted electromechanical
equipment that may cause damage to other components by displacing, shall be restricted by attachment to anchored equipment or
support frames.
18
Batteries on racks shall be restrained against movement in all direction due to earthquake forces.
19
Seismic restraints may include straps, chains, bolts, barriers or other mechanisms that prevent sliding, falling and breach of containment
of flammable and toxic materials. Friction forces may not be used to resist lateral loads in the restraints unless positive uplift restraint is
provided which ensures that the friction forces act continuously.

208.8.2 Structural Framing Systems

208.8 Detailed Systems Design Requirements Four types of general building framing systems defined in
Section 208.4.6 are recognized in these provisions and
208.8.1 General shown in Table 208-11. Each type is subdivided by the
All structural framing systems shall comply with the types of vertical elements used to resist lateral seismic
requirements of Section 208.4. Only the elements of the forces. Special framing requirements are given in this
designated seismic-force-resisting system shall be used to section and in Chapters 4 through 7.
resist design forces. The individual components shall be
designed to resist the prescribed design seismic forces 208.8.2.1 Detailing for Combinations of Systems
acting on them. The components shall also comply with For components common to different structural systems,
the specific requirements for the material contained in the more restrictive detailing requirements shall be used.
Chapters 4 through 7. In addition, such framing systems
and components shall comply with the detailed system 208.8.2.2 Connections
design requirements contained in Section 208.8.
Connections that resist design seismic forces shall be
designed and detailed on the drawings.
All building components in Seismic Zones 2 and 4 shall
be designed to resist the effects of the seismic forces
208.8.2.3 Deformation Compatibility
prescribed herein and the effects of gravity loadings from
dead and floor live loads. All structural framing elements and their connections, not
required by design to be part of the lateral-force-resisting
Consideration shall be given to design for uplift effects system, shall be designed and/or detailed to be adequate
caused by seismic loads. to maintain support of design dead plus live loads when
subjected to the expected deformations caused by seismic
In Seismic Zones 2 and 4, provision shall be made for the forces. P effects on such elements shall be considered.
effects of earthquake forces acting in a direction other Expected deformations shall be determined as the greater
than the principal axes in each of the following of the Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, M,
circumstances: considering Peffects determined in accordance with
Section 208.5.9.2 or the deformation induced by a story
1. The structure has plan irregularity Type 5 as given in drift of 0.0025 times the story height. When computing
Table 208-10. expected deformations, the stiffening effect of those
2. The structure has plan irregularity Type 1 as given in elements not part of the lateral-force-resisting system
Table 208-10 for both major axes. shall be neglected.
3. A column of a structure forms part of two or more For elements not part of the lateral-force-resisting system,
intersecting lateral-force-resisting systems. the forces inducted by the expected deformation may be
Exception: considered as ultimate or factored forces. When
computing the forces induced by expected deformations,
If the axial load in the column due to seismic forces the restraining effect of adjoining rigid structures and
acting in either direction is less than 20 percent of the nonstructural elements shall be considered and a rational
column axial load capacity. value of member and restraint stiffness shall be used.
Inelastic deformations of members and connections may
The requirement that orthogonal effects be considered be considered in the evaluation, provided the assumed
may be satisfied by designing such elements for 100 calculated capacities are consistent with member and
percent of the prescribed design seismic forces in one connection design and detailing.
direction plus 30 percent of the prescribed design seismic
forces in the perpendicular direction. The combination For concrete and masonry elements that are part of the
requiring the greater component strength shall be used for lateral- force-resisting system, the assumed flexural and
design. Alternatively, the effects of the two orthogonal shear stiffness properties shall not exceed one half of the
directions may be combined on a square root of the sum gross section properties unless a rational cracked-section
of the squares (SRSS) basis. When the SRSS method of analysis is performed. Additional deformations that may
combining directional effects is used, each term computed result from foundation flexibility and diaphragm
shall be assigned the sign that will result in the most deflections shall be considered. For concrete elements not
conservative result. part of the lateral-force-resisting system, see Section
421.9.
th
208.8.2.3.1 Adjoining Rigid Elements A positive connection for resisting horizontal force acting
Moment-resisting frames and shear walls may be parallel to the member shall be provided for each beam,
enclosed by or adjoined by more rigid elements, provided girder or truss. This force shall not be less than 0.3 CaI
it can be shown that the participation or failure of the times the dead plus live load.
more rigid elements will not impair the vertical and
lateral- load-resisting ability of the gravity load and 208.8.2.4 Collector Elements
lateral-force-resisting systems. The effects of adjoining Collector elements shall be provided that are capable of
rigid elements shall be considered when assessing transferring the seismic forces originating in other
whether a structure shall be designated regular or irregular portions of the structure to the element providing the
in Section 208.4.5. resistance to those forces.
208.8.2.3.2 Exterior Elements Collector elements, splices and their connections to

Exterior non-bearing, non-shear wall panels or elements resisting elements shall resist the forces determined in
that are attached to or enclose the exterior shall be accordance with Equation (208-20). In addition, collector
designed to resist the forces per Equation (208-18) or elements, splices, and their connections to resisting
(208-19) and shall accommodate movements of the elements shall have the design strength to resist the
structure based on M and temperature changes. Such combined loads resulting from the special seismic load of
elements shall be supported by means of cast-in-place Section 203.5.
concrete or by mechanical connections and fasteners in Exception:
accordance with the following provisions:
In structures, or portions thereof, braced entirely by light-
1. Connections and panel joints shall allow for a relative frame wood shear walls or light-frame steel and wood
movement between stories of not less than two times structural panel shear wall systems, collector elements,
story drift caused by wind, the calculated story drift splices and connections to resisting elements need only be
based on M or 12.7 mm, whichever is greater. designed to resist forces in accordance with Equation
2. Connections to permit movement in the plane of the (208-20).
panel for story drift shall be sliding connections using
slotted or oversize holes, connections that permit The quantity EM need not exceed the maximum force that
movement by bending of steel, or other connections can be transferred to the collector by the diaphragm and
providing equivalent sliding and ductility capacity. other elements of the lateral-force-resisting system. For
Allowable Stress Design, the design strength may be
3. Bodies of connections shall have sufficient ductility determined using an allowable stress increase of 1.7 and a
and rotation capacity to preclude fracture of the resistance factor, , of 1.0. This increase shall not be
concrete or brittle failures at or near welds. combined with the one-third stress increase permitted by
4. The body of the connection shall be designed for the Section 203.4, but may be combined with the duration of
force determined by Equation (208-19), where Rp = load increase permitted in Section 615.3.4.
3.0 and ap = 1.0.
208.8.2.5 Concrete Frames
5. All fasteners in the connecting system, such as bolts,
Concrete frames required by design to be part of the
inserts, welds and dowels, shall be designed for the
lateral-force-resisting system shall conform to the
forces determined by Equation (208-19), where Rp =
following:
1.0 and ap = 1.0.
1. In Seismic Zone 4 they shall be special moment-
6. Fasteners embedded in concrete shall be attached to,
resisting frames.
or hooked around, reinforcing steel or otherwise
terminated to effectively transfer forces to the 2. In Seismic Zone 2 they shall, as a minimum, be
reinforcing steel. intermediate moment-resisting frames.
208.8.2.3 Ties and Continuity 208.8.2.6 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Walls

All parts of a structure shall be interconnected and the Concrete or masonry walls shall be anchored to all floors
connections shall be capable of transmitting the seismic and roofs that provide out-of-plane lateral support of the
force induced by the parts being connected. As a wall. The anchorage shall provide a positive direct
minimum, any smaller portion of the building shall be tied connection between the wall and floor or roof
to the remainder of the building with elements having at construction capable of resisting the larger of the
least a strength to resist 0.5 CaI times the weight of the horizontal forces specified in this section and Sections
smaller portion. 206.4 and 208.7. In addition, in Seismic Zone 4,

diaphragm to wall anchorage using embedded straps shall n

have the straps attached to or hooked around the Ft   Fi
ix
reinforcing steel or otherwise terminated to effectively F px  n
w px (208-20)
transfer forces to the reinforcing steel. Requirements for  wi
developing anchorage forces in diaphragms are given in i x
Section 208.8.2.8. Diaphragm deformation shall be
considered in the design of the supported walls. The force Fpx determined from Equation (208-20) need
not exceed 1.0CaIwpx, but shall not be less than 0.5CaIwpx.
208.8.2.6.1 Out-of-Plane Wall Anchorage to Flexible
Diaphragms When the diaphragm is required to transfer design seismic
This section shall apply in Seismic Zone 4 where flexible forces from the vertical-resisting elements above the
diaphragms, as defined in Section 208.5.6, provide lateral diaphragm to other vertical-resisting elements below the
support for walls. diaphragm due to offset in the placement of the elements
or to changes in stiffness in the vertical elements, these
1. Elements of the wall anchorage system shall be forces shall be added to those determined from Equation
designed for the forces specified in Section 208.7 (208-20).
where Rp = 3.0 and ap = 1.5.
3. Design seismic forces for flexible diaphragms
2. In Seismic Zone 4, the value of Fp used for the design providing lateral supports for walls or frames of
of the elements of the wall anchorage system shall masonry or concrete shall be determined using
not be less than 6.1 kN per lineal meter of wall Equation (208-20) based on the load determined in
substituted for E. accordance with Section 208.5.2 using a R not
3. See Section 206.4 for minimum design forces in exceeding 4.
other seismic zones. 4. Diaphragms supporting concrete or masonry walls
4. When elements of the wall anchorage system are not shall have continuous ties or struts between
loaded concentrically or are not perpendicular to the diaphragm chords to distribute the anchorage forces
wall, the system shall be designed to resist all specified in Section 208.8.2.7. Added chords of
components of the forces induced by the eccentricity. subdiaphragms may be used to form subdiaphragms
to transmit the anchorage forces to the main
5. When pilasters are present in the wall, the anchorage continuous crossties. The maximum length-to-width
force at the pilasters shall be calculated considering ratio of the wood structural sub-diaphragm shall be
the additional load transferred from the wall panels to 2½:1.
the pilasters. However, the minimum anchorage force
at a floor or roof shall be that specified in Section 5. Where wood diaphragms are used to laterally support
208.8.2.7.1, Item 1. concrete or masonry walls, the anchorage shall
conform to Section 208.8.2.7. In Seismic Zone 2
6. The strength design forces for steel elements of the and 4, anchorage shall not be accomplished by use of
wall anchorage system shall be 1.4 times the forces toenails or nails subject to withdrawal, wood ledgers
otherwise required by this section. or framing shall not be used in cross-grain bending or
7. The strength design forces for wood elements of the cross-grain tension, and the continuous ties required
wall anchorage system shall be 0.85 times the force by Item 4 shall be in addition to the diaphragm
otherwise required by this section and these wood sheathing.
elements shall have a minimum actual net thickness 6. Connections of diaphragms to the vertical elements in
of 63.5 mm. structures in Seismic Zone 4, having a plan
irregularity of Type 1, 2, 3 or 4 in Table 208-10, shall
208.8.2.7 Diaphragms be designed without considering either the one-third
1. The deflection in the plane of the diaphragm shall not increase or the duration of load increase considered
exceed the permissible deflection of the attached in allowable stresses for elements resisting
elements. Permissible deflection shall be that earthquake forces.
deflection that will permit the attached element to 7. In structures in Seismic Zone 4 having a plan
maintain its structural integrity under the individual irregularity of Type 2 in Table 208-10, diaphragm
loading and continue to support the prescribed loads. chords and drag members shall be designed
2. Floor and roof diaphragms shall be designed to resist considering independent movement of the projecting
the forces determined in accordance with the wings of the structure. Each of these diaphragm
following equation:
th
elements shall be designed for the more severe of the shall be designed to provide the strength required to resist
following two assumptions: the displacements induced by the minimum lateral forces
specified in this section. Design shall conform to the
a. Motion of the projecting wings in the same
applicable provisions of other sections as modified by the
direction.
provisions contained in Section 208.9.
b. Motion of the projecting wings in opposing
directions. 208.9.1.2 Criteria
Exception: The minimum design seismic forces prescribed in this
section are at a level that produces displacements in a
This requirement may be deemed satisfied if the fixed base, elastic model of the structure, comparable to
procedures of Section 208.6 in conjunction with a three- those expected of the real structure when responding to
dimensional model have been used to determine the the Design Basis Ground Motion. Reductions in these
lateral seismic forces for design. forces using the coefficient R is permitted where the
design of nonbuilding structures provides sufficient
208.8.2.8 Framing Below the Base strength and ductility, consistent with the provisions
The strength and stiffness of the framing between the base specified herein for buildings, to resist the effects of
and the foundation shall not be less than that of the seismic ground motions as represented by these design
superstructure. The special detailing requirements of forces.
Chapters 4, 5 and 7, as appropriate, shall apply to
columns supporting discontinuous lateral-force-resisting When applicable, design strengths and other detailed
elements and to SMRF, IMRF, EBF, STMF and design criteria shall be obtained from other sections or
MMRWF system elements below the base, which are their referenced standards. The design of nonbuilding
required to transmit the forces resulting from lateral loads structures shall use the load combinations or factors
to the foundation. specified in Section 203.3 or 203.4. For nonbuilding
structures designed using Section 208.9.3, 208.9.4 or
208.8.2.9 Building Separations 208.9.5, the Reliability/Redundancy Factor, , may be
All structures shall be separated from adjoining structures. taken as 1.0.
Separations shall allow for the displacement M. Adjacent
buildings on the same property shall be separated by at When applicable design strengths and other design
least MT where criteria are not contained in or referenced by this code,
such criteria shall be obtained from approved national
standards.
 MT   M 1 2   M 2 2 (208-21)
208.9.1.3 Weight W
and M1 and M2 are the displacements of the adjacent The weight, W, for nonbuilding structures shall include all
buildings. dead loads as defined for buildings in Section 208.5.1.1.
For purposes of calculating design seismic forces in
When a structure adjoins a property line not common to a nonbuilding structures, W shall also include all normal
public way, that structure shall also be set back from the operating contents for items such as tanks, vessels, bins
property line by at least the displacement M of that and piping.
structure.
Exception: 208.9.1.4 Period
The fundamental period of the structure shall be
Smaller separations or property line setbacks may be
determined by rational methods such as by using Method
permitted when justified by rational analyses based on
B in Section 208.5.2.2.
maximum expected ground motions.
208.9.1.5 Drift
208.9 Nonbuilding Structures
The drift limitations of Section 208.5.10 need not apply to
208.9.1General nonbuilding structures. Drift limitations shall be
established for structural or nonstructural elements whose
208.9.1.1 Scope failure would cause life hazards. P effects shall be
considered for structures whose calculated drifts exceed
Nonbuilding structures include all self- supporting
the values in Section 208.5.1.3.
structures other than buildings that carry gravity loads and
resist the effects of earthquakes. Nonbuilding structures

208.9.1.6 Interaction Effects 208.9.5 Other Nonbuilding Structures

In Seismic Zone 4, structures that support flexible Nonbuilding structures that are not covered by Sections
nonstructural elements whose combined weight exceeds 208.9.3 and 208.9.4 shall be designed to resist design
25 percent of the weight of the structure shall be designed seismic forces not less than those determined in
considering interaction effects between the structure and accordance with the provisions in Section 208.5 with the
the supported elements. following additions and exceptions:
1. The factors R and o shall be as set forth in Table
208.9.2 Lateral Force
208-13. The total design base shear determined in
Lateral-force procedures for nonbuilding structures with accordance with Section 208.5.2 shall not be less
structural systems similar to buildings (those with than the following:
structural systems which are listed in Table 208-11) shall
be selected in accordance with the provisions of Section V  0.56CaIW (208-23)
208.4.
Exception: Additionally, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear
shall also not be less than the following:
Intermediate moment-resisting frames (IMRF) may be
used in Seismic Zone 4 for non-building structures in 1.6 ZN v I
Occupancy Categories III and IV if (1) the structure is V W (208-24)
R
less than 15 m in height and (2) the value R used in
reducing calculated member forces and moments does not 2. The vertical distribution of the design seismic forces
exceed 2.8. in structures covered by this section may be
determined by using the provisions of Section
208.9.3 Rigid Structures 208.5.5 or by using the procedures of Section 208.6.
Rigid structures (those with period T less than 0.06 Exception:
second) and their anchorages shall be designed for the
lateral force obtained from Equation (208-22). For irregular structures assigned to Occupancy
Categories I and II that cannot be modeled as a single
V  0.7CaI W (208-22) mass, the procedures of Section 208.6 shall be used.
3. Where an approved national standard provides a basis
The force V shall be distributed according to the for the earthquake-resistant design of a particular
distribution of mass and shall be assumed to act in any type of nonbuilding structure covered by this section,
horizontal direction. such a standard may be used, subject to the
limitations in this section:
208.9.4 Tanks with Supported Bottoms
Flat bottom tanks or other tanks with supported bottoms, The seismic zones and occupancy categories shall be in
founded at or below grade, shall be designed to resist the conformance with the provisions of Sections 208.4.4 and
seismic forces calculated using the procedures in Section 208.4.2, respectively.
208.7 for rigid structures considering the entire weight of
the tank and its contents. Alternatively, such tanks may be The values for total lateral force and total base
designed using one of the two procedures described overturning moment used in design shall not be less than
below: 80 percent of the values that would be obtained using
these provisions.
1. A response spectrum analysis that includes
consideration of the actual ground motion anticipated 208.10 Site Categorization Procedure
at the site and the inertial effects of the contained
fluid. 208.10.1 Scope
2. A design basis prescribed for the particular type of This section describes the procedure for determining Soil
tank by an approved national standard, provided that Profile Types SA through SF as defined in Table 208-2.
the seismic zones and occupancy categories shall be
in conformance with the provisions of Sections
208.4.4 and 208.4.2, respectively.
th
Table 208-13 R and  Factors for Nonbuilding 3. (H > 3 m of peat and/or highly organic clay
Structures where H = thickness of soil).
STRUCTURE TYPE R  4. Very high plasticity clays

1. Vessels, including tanks and 5. (H > 7.5 m with PI > 75).
pressurized spheres, on braced or 2.2 2.0 6. Very thick soft/medium stiff clays
unbraced legs.
2. Cast-in-place concrete silos and 7. (H > 36 m).
chimneys having walls continuous 3.6 2.0
to the foundations Exception:
3. Distributed mass cantilever
When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail
structures such as stacks,
chimneys, silos and skirt-
2.9 2.0 to determine the soil profile type, Type SD shall be used.
supported vertical vessels. Soil Profile Type SE need not be assumed unless the
4. Trussed towers (freestanding or building official determines that Soil Profile Type SE may
guyed), guyed stacks and 2.9 2.0 be present at the site or in the event that Type SE is
chimneys. established by geotechnical data.
5. Cantilevered column-type
structures.
2.2 2.0
The criteria set forth in the definition for Soil Profile Type
6. Cooling towers. 3.6 2.0 SF requiring site-specific evaluation shall be considered. If
the site corresponds to these criteria, the site shall be
7. Bins and hoppers on braced or classified as Soil Profile Type SF and a site-specific
unbraced legs.
2.9 2.0
evaluation shall be conducted.
8. Storage racks. 3.6 2.0
208.10.2.1 vs, Average Shear Wave Velocity
9. Signs and billboards. 3.6 2.0 vs shall be determined in accordance with the following
10. Amusement structures and equation:
monuments.
2.2 2.0
n
11. All other self-supporting structures
2.9 2.0  di
not otherwise covered.
vs  i 1 (208-25)
n d
208.10.2 Definitions  i
i 1vsi
Soil profile types are defined as follows:
where:
SA Hard rock with measured shear wave velocity,
vs > 1500 m/s. di = thickness of Layer i in m
vsi = shear wave velocity in Layer i in m/s
SB Rock with 760 m/s < vs  1500 m/s.
SC Very dense soil and soft rock with 208.10.2.2 N, Average Field Standard Penetration
360 m/s < vs  760 m/s or with Resistance and Nch, Average Standard Penetration
either N > 50 or su  100 kPa. Resistance for Cohesionless Soil Layers
N and NCH shall be determined in accordance with the
SD Stiff soil with 180 m/s vs  360 m/s or following equation:
with 15  N  50 or 50 kPa  su  100 kPa.
n
SE A soil profile with vs < 180 m/s or  di
any profile with more than 3 m of soft clay defined N i 1
(208-26)
n d
as soil with PI > 20, wmc  40 percent and
su < 25 kPa.
 i
i 1 Ni
SF Soils requiring site-specific evaluation:
ds
1. Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse NCH  (208-27)
n d
under seismic loading such as liquefiable soils,  i
quick and highly sensitive clays, collapsible i 1 N i
weakly cemented soils. where:
2. Peats and/or highly organic clays di = thickness of Layer i in mm

ds = the total thickness of cohesionless soil layers in the and fracturing. Where hard rock conditions are known to
top 30 m be continuous to a depth of 30 m, surficial shear wave
NI = the standard penetration resistance of soil layer in velocity measurements may be extrapolated to assess vs.
accordance with approved nationally recognized The rock categories, Soil Profile Types SA and SB, shall
standards not be used if there is more than 3 meters of soil between
the rock surface and the bottom of the spread footing or
208.10.2.3 su, Average Undrained Shear Strength mat foundation.
su shall be determined in accordance with the following
equation: The definitions presented herein shall apply to the upper
30 meters of the site profile. Profiles containing distinctly
dc different soil layers shall be subdivided into those layers
Su  (208-28) designated by a number from 1 to n at the bottom, where
n d
 i there are a total of n distinct layers in the upper 30 meters.
S
i 1 ui The symbol i then refer to any one of the layers between 1
where: and n.
dc = the total thickness (100-ds) of cohesive soil layers 208.11 Alternative Earthquake Load Procedure
in the top 30 m The earthquake load procedure of ASCE/SEI 7-05 may be
Sui = the undrained shear strength in accordance with used in determining the earthquake loads as an alternative
approved nationally recognized standards, not to procedure subject to reliable research work commissioned
exceed 250 kPa by the owner or the engineer-on-record to provide for all
data required due to the non-availability of Phivolcs-
208.10.2.4 Soft Clay Profile, SE issued spectral acceleration maps for all areas in the
The existence of a total thickness of soft clay greater than Philippines.
3 m shall be investigated where a soft clay layer is
defined by su < 24 kPa, wmc.>40 percent and PI > 20. If The engineer-on-record shall be responsible for the
these criteria are met, the site shall be classified as Soil spectral acceleration and other related data not issued by
Profile Type SE. Phivolcs used in the determination of the earthquake
loads. This alternative earthquake load procedure shall be
208.10.2.5 Soil Profiles SC, SD and SE subject to Peer Review and approval of the Building
Sites with Soil Profile Types SC, SD and SE shall be Official.
classified by using one of the following three methods
with vs , N and su computed in all cases as specified in
Section 208.10.2.
1. vs for the top 30 meters (vs method).
2. N for the top 30 meters (N method).
3. NCH for cohesionless soil layers (PI < 20) in the top
30 m and average su for cohesive soil layers (PI > 20)
in the top 30 m (su method).
208.10.2.6 Rock Profiles, SA and SB

The shear wave velocity for rock, Soil Profile Type SB,
shall be either measured on site or estimated by a
geotechnical engineer, engineering geologist or
seismologist for competent rock with moderate fracturing
and weathering. Softer and more highly fractured and
weathered rock shall either be measured on site for shear
wave velocity or classified as Soil Profile Type SC.
The hard rock, Soil Profile Type SA, category shall be

supported by shear wave velocity measurement either on
site or on profiles of the same rock type in the same
formation with an equal or greater degree of weathering
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Figure 208-2A - Type A and Type B Seismic Sources

Figure 208-2A. Seismic Sources: Active Faults and Trenches in the Philippines

Figure 208-2B. Seismic Sources: Active Faults in Northern Philippines
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Figure 208-2C. Seismic Sources: Active Faults in East Central Philippines

Figure 208-2D. Seismic Sources: Active Faults in West Central Philippines
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Figure 208-2E. Seismic Sources: Active Faults in Southern Philippines

2.5Ca
Control Periods
Ts = Cv / 2.5Ca
To = 0 2Ts
Cv /T
Ca
0
0 0.2 1 2 3 4 5
T o /T s Period (T/TS )
Figure 208-3 - Design Response Spectra
Table 209-1 - Soil Lateral Load
Design Lateral Soil Load a

Unified Soil kPa per m width
Description Of Backfill Material c Classification Active pressure At-rest pressure
Well-graded, clean gravels; gravel-sand mixes GW 5 10
Poorly graded clean gravels; gravel-sand mixes GP 5 10
Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand mixes GM 6 10
Clayey gravels, poorly graded gravel-and-clay mixes GC 7 10
Well-graded, clean sands; gravelly sand mixes SW 5 10
Poorly graded clean sands; sand-gravel mixes SP 5 10
Silty sands, poorly graded sand-silt mixes SM 7 10
Sand-silt clay mix with plastic fines SM-SC 7 16
Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixes SC 10 16
Inorganic silts and clayey silts ML 7 16
Mixture of inorganic silt and clay ML-CL 10 16
Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity CL 10 16
Organic silts and silt clays, low plasticity OL Note b Note b
Inorganic clayey silts, elastic silts MH Note b Note b
Inorganic clays of high plasticity CH Note b Note b
Organic clays and silty clays OH Note b Note b
a
Design lateral soil loads are given for moist conditions for the specified soils at their optimum densities. Actual field conditions shall
govern. Submerged or saturated soil pressures shall include the weight of the buoyant soil plus the hydrostatic loads.
b
Unsuitable as backfill material.
c
The definition and classification of soil materials shall be in accordance with ASTM D 2487.
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Figure 208-4 Referenced Seismic Map of the Philippines

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SECTION 209 SECTION 210

SOIL LATERAL LOADS RAIN LOADS
209.1 General 210.1 Roof Drainage
Basement, foundation and retaining walls shall be Roof drainage systems shall be designed in accordance
designed to resist lateral soil loads. Soil loads specified in with the provisions of the code having jurisdiction in the
Table 209-1 shall be used as the minimum design lateral area. The flow capacity of secondary (overflow) drains or
soil loads unless specified otherwise in a soil investigation scuppers shall not be less than that of the primary drains
report approved by the building official. Basement walls or scuppers.
and other walls in which horizontal movement is
restricted at the top shall be designed for at-rest pressure. 210.2 Design Rain Loads
Retaining walls free to move and rotate at the top are Each portion of a roof shall be designed to sustain the
permitted to be designed for active pressure. Design load of rainwater that will accumulate on it if the primary
lateral pressure from surcharge loads shall be added to the drainage system for that portion is blocked plus the
lateral earth pressure load. Design lateral pressure shall be uniform load caused by water that rises above the inlet of
increased if soils with expansion potential are present at the secondary drainage system at its design flow.
the site.
Exception: R  0.0098ds  dh  (210-1)
Basement walls extending not more than 2400 mm below where:

grade and supporting flexible floor systems shall be dh = additional depth of water on the undeflected roof
permitted to be designed for active pressure. above the inlet of secondary drainage system at
its design flow (i.e., the hydraulic head), in mm
d = depth of water on the undeflected roof up to the
inlet of secondary drainage system when the
primary drainage system is blocked (i.e., the static
head), in mm
R = rain load on the undeflected roof, in kN/m2
When the phrase “undeflected roof” is used, deflections

from loads (including dead loads) shall not be considered
when determining the amount of rain on the roof.
210.3 Ponding Instability

For roofs with a slope less than 6 mm per 300 mm (1.19
degrees or 0.0208 radian), the design calculations shall
include verification of adequate stiffness to preclude
progressive deflection in accordance with Section 8.4 of
ASCE-7-05.
210.4 Controlled Drainage

Roofs equipped with hardware to control the rate of
drainage shall be equipped with a secondary drainage
system at a higher elevation that limits accumulation of
water on the roof above that elevation. Such roofs shall be
designed to sustain the load of rainwater that will
accumulate on them to the elevation of the secondary
drainage system plus the uniform load caused by water
that rises above the inlet of the secondary drainage system
at its design flow determined from Section 210.2. Such
roofs shall also be checked for ponding instability in
accordance with Section 210.3.

SECTION 211 first flood plain management code, ordinance or standard.

“Existing construction” is also referred to as “existing
FLOOD LOADS structures.”
211.1 General EXISTING STRUCTURE. See “Existing

Within flood hazard areas as established in Section 211.3, construction.”
all new construction of buildings, structures and portions
of buildings and structures, including substantial FLOOD or FLOODING. A general and temporary
improvement and restoration of substantial damage to condition of partial or complete inundation of normally
buildings and structures, shall be designed and dry land from:
constructed to resist the effects of flood hazards and flood
1. The overflow of inland or tidal waters.
loads. For buildings that are located in more than one
flood hazard area, the provisions associated with the most 2. The unusual and rapid accumulation or runoff of
restrictive flood hazard area shall apply. surface waters from any source.
211.2 Definitions FLOOD DAMAGE-RESISTANT MATERIALS. Any

The following words and terms shall, for the purposes of construction material capable of withstanding direct and
this section, have the meanings shown herein. prolonged contact with floodwaters without sustaining
any damage that requires more than cosmetic repair.
BASE FLOOD. The flood having a 1-percent chance of
being equaled or exceeded in any given year. FLOOD HAZARD AREA. The greater of the following
two areas:
BASE FLOOR ELEVATION. The elevation of the base 1. The area within a flood plain subject to a 1-percent or
flood, including wave height, relative to the datum to be greater chance of flooding in any year.
set by the specific national or local government agency.
2. The area designated as a flood hazard area on a
BASEMENT. The portion of a building having its floor community’s flood hazard map, or otherwise legally
subgrade (below ground level) on all sides. designated.
DESIGN FLOOD. The flood associated with the greater FLOOD HAZARD AREA SUBJECT TO HIGH
of the following two areas: VELOCITYWAVE ACTION. Area within the flood
hazard area that is subject to high velocity wave action.
1. Area with a flood plain subject to a 1-percent or
greater chance of flooding in any year; or FLOODWAY. The channel of the river, creek or other
2. Area designated as a flood hazard area on a watercourse and the adjacent land areas that must be
community’s flood hazard map, or otherwise legally reserved in order to discharge the base flood without
designated. cumulatively increasing the water surface elevation more
than a designated height.
DESIGN FLOOD ELEVATION. The elevation of the
“design flood,” including wave height, relative to the LOWEST FLOOR. The floor of the lowest enclosed
datum specified on the community’s legally designated area, including basement, but excluding any unfinished or
flood hazard map. The design flood elevation shall be the
elevation of the highest existing grade of the building’s flood-resistant enclosure, usable solely for vehicle
perimeter plus the depth number (in meters) specified on parking, building access or limited storage provided that
the flood hazard map. such enclosure is not built so as to render the structure in
violation of this section.
DRY FLOODPROOFING. A combination of design
modifications that results in a building or structure, START OF CONSTRUCTION. The date of permit
including the attendant utility and sanitary facilities, being issuance for new construction and substantial
water tight with walls substantially impermeable to the improvements to existing structures, provided the actual
passage of water and with structural components having start of construction, repair, reconstruction, rehabilitation,
the capacity to resist loads as identified in the code. addition, placement or other improvement is within 180
days after the date of issuance. The actual start of
EXISTING CONSTRUCTION. Any buildings and construction means the first placement of permanent
structures for which the “start of construction” construction of a building (including a manufactured
commenced before the effective date of the community’s home) on a site, such as the pouring of a slab or footings,
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installation of pilings or construction of columns. 211.5 Flood Hazard Documentation

Permanent construction does not include land preparation The following documentation shall be prepared and
(such as clearing, excavation, grading or filling), the sealed by an engineer-of-record and submitted to the
installation of streets or walkways, excavation for a building official:
basement, footings, piers or foundations, the erection of
1. For construction in flood hazard areas not subject to
temporary forms or the installation of accessory buildings
shigh-velocity wave action:
such as garages or sheds not occupied as dwelling units or
not part of the main building. For a substantial 1.1. The elevation of the lowest floor, including the
improvement, the actual “start of construction” means the basement, as required by the lowest floor elevation.
first alteration of any wall, ceiling, floor or other
1.2. For fully enclosed areas below the design flood
structural part of a building, whether or not that alteration
affects the external dimensions of the building. elevation where provisions to allow for the automatic
entry and exit of floodwaters do not meet the
minimum requirements, construction documents shall
SUBSTANTIAL DAMAGE. Damage of any origin
include a statement that the design will provide for
sustained by a structure whereby the cost of restoring the
equalization of hydrostatic flood forces.
structure to its before-damaged condition would equal or
exceed 50 percent of the market value of the structure 1.3. For dry flood-proofed nonresidential buildings,
before the damage occurred. construction documents shall include a statement that
the dry flood-proofing is designed.
SUBSTANTIAL IMPROVEMENT. Any repair,
2. For construction in flood hazard areas subject to
reconstruction, rehabilitation, addition or improvement of
high-velocity wave action:
a building or structure, the cost of which equals or
exceeds 50 percent of the market value of the structure 2.1. The elevation of the bottom of the lowest horizontal
before the improvement or repair is started. If the structural member as required by the lowest floor
structure has sustained substantial damage, any repairs are elevation.
considered substantial improvement regardless of the
actual repair work performed. The term does not, 2.2 Construction documents shall include a statement
however, include either: that the building is designed, including that the pile
or column foundation and building or structure to be
1. Any project for improvement of a building required attached thereto is designed to be anchored to resist
to correct existing health, sanitary or safety code flotation, collapse and lateral movement due to the
violations identified by the building official and that effects of wind and flood loads acting simultaneously
are the minimum necessary to assure safe living on all building components, and other load
conditions. requirements of Chapter 2.
2. Any alteration of a historic structure provided that the 2.3 For breakaway walls designed to resist a nominal load
alteration will not preclude the structure’s continued of less than 0.48 kN/m2, or more than 0.96 kN/m2,
designation as a historic structure. construction documents shall include a statement that
the breakaway wall is designed.
211.3 Establishment of Flood Hazard Areas
To establish flood hazard areas, the governing body shall
adopt a flood hazard map and supporting data. The flood
hazard map shall include, at a minimum, areas of special
flood hazard where records are available.
211.4 Design and Construction

The design and construction of buildings and structures
located in flood hazard areas, including flood hazard areas
subject to high velocity wave action.

NSCP C101-10
Chapter 3
EXCAVATIONS AND
GEOMATERIALS

VOLUME I
SIXTH EDITION

Tel. No : (+632) 410-0483

Fax No.: (+632) 411-8606
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CHAPTER 3 – General & Excavation and Fills 3-1
Table of Contents
SECTION 301 - GENERAL ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
301.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 3
301.2 Quality and Design ........................................................................................................................................................ 3
301.3 Allowable Bearing Pressures ......................................................................................................................................... 3
SECTION 302 - EXCAVATION AND FILLS ........................................................................................................................ 3
302.1 General .......................................................................................................................................................................... 3
302.2 Cuts ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
302.3 Excavations.................................................................................................................................................................... 3
302.4 Fills ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
302.5 Setbacks ......................................................................................................................................................................... 5
302.5 Drainage and Terracing ................................................................................................................................................. 6
302.6 Erosion Control.............................................................................................................................................................. 6
SECTION 303 - FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION ............................................................................................................ 7
303.1 General .......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
303.2 Soil Classification .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
303.3 Questionable Soil ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
303.4 Liquefaction Study ........................................................................................................................................................ 7
303.5 Expansive Soil ............................................................................................................................................................... 7
303.6 Compressible Soils ........................................................................................................................................................ 8
303.7 Reports ........................................................................................................................................................................... 8
303.8 Soil Tests ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9
303.9 Liquefaction Potential and Soil Strength Loss............................................................................................................... 9
303.10 Adjacent Loads .......................................................................................................................................................... 10
303.11 Drainage..................................................................................................................................................................... 10
303.12 Plate Load Test .......................................................................................................................................................... 10
SECTION 304 - ALLOWABLE FOUNDATION AND LATERAL PRESSURES ......................................................... 10
304.1 From Geotechnical Site Investigation and Assessment ............................................................................................... 10
304.2 Presumptive Load-Bearing and Lateral Resisting Values ........................................................................................... 10
304.3 Minimum Allowable Pressures.................................................................................................................................... 11
304.4 Foundations Adjacent to Existing Retaining/Basement Walls .................................................................................... 11
SECTION 305 - FOOTINGS .................................................................................................................................................. 12
305.1 General ........................................................................................................................................................................ 12
305.2 Footing Design ............................................................................................................................................................ 12
305.3 Bearing Walls .............................................................................................................................................................. 12
305.4 Stepped Foundations .................................................................................................................................................... 12
305.5 Footings on or Adjacent to Slopes ............................................................................................................................... 13
305.6 Foundation Plates Or Sills ........................................................................................................................................... 13
305.7 Designs Employing Lateral Bearing ............................................................................................................................ 14
305.8 Grillage Footings ......................................................................................................................................................... 14
305.9 Bleacher Footings ........................................................................................................................................................ 14
SECTION 306 - PILES - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................... 15
306.1 General ........................................................................................................................................................................ 15
306.2 Interconnection ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
306.3 Determination of Allowable Loads.............................................................................................................................. 15
306.4 Static Load Test ........................................................................................................................................................... 15
306.5 Dynamic Load Test ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
306.6 Column Action ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
306.7 Group Action ............................................................................................................................................................... 15
306.8 Piles In Subsiding Areas .............................................................................................................................................. 16
306.9 Jetting .......................................................................................................................................................................... 16
306.10 Protection Of Pile Materials ...................................................................................................................................... 16
306.11 Allowable Loads ........................................................................................................................................................ 16
306.12 Use of Higher Allowable Pile Stresses ...................................................................................................................... 16
SECTION 307 - PILES - SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS .................................................................................................... 17
3-2 CHAPTER 3 – General & Excavation and Fills
307.1 Round Wood Piles ....................................................................................................................................................... 17

307.2 Uncased Cast-In-Place Concrete Piles ......................................................................................................................... 17
307.3 Metal-Cased Concrete Piles ......................................................................................................................................... 17
307.4 Precast Concrete Piles .................................................................................................................................................. 17
307.5 Precast Prestressed Concrete Piles (Pretensioned) ...................................................................................................... 18
307.6 Structural Steel Piles .................................................................................................................................................... 18
307.7 Concrete-Filled Steel Pipe Piles ................................................................................................................................... 19
SECTION 308 - FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION-SEISMIC ZONE 4 ......................................................................... 19
308.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................................... 19
308.2 Foundation and Geotechnical Investigations ............................................................................................................... 19
308.3 Footings and Foundations ............................................................................................................................................ 19
308.4 Pier and Pile Foundations ............................................................................................................................................ 20
308.5 Driven Pile Foundations............................................................................................................................................... 20
306.6 Cast-In-Place Concrete Foundations ............................................................................................................................ 21
SECTION 309 - SPECIAL FOUNDATION, SLOPE STABILIZATION AND MATERIALS OF
CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................... 22


GENERAL EXCAVATION AND FILLS
301.1 Scope 302.1 General
This chapter sets forth requirements for excavations, fills, Excavation or fills for buildings or structures shall be
footings and foundations for any building or structure. constructed or protected such that they do not endanger life
or property. Reference is made to Section 109 of this code
301.2 Quality and Design for requirements governing excavation, grading and
The quality and design of materials used structurally in earthwork construction, including fills and embankments.
excavations, fills, footings and foundations shall conform to
the requirements specified in Chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7. 302.2 Cuts
301.3 Allowable Bearing Pressures 302.2.1 General

Allowable stresses and design formulas provided in this Unless otherwise recommended in the approved
chapter shall be used with the allowable stress design load geotechnical engineering, cuts shall conform to the
combinations specified in Section 203.4. provisions of this section. In the absence of an approved
geotechnical engineering report, these provisions may be
waived for minor cuts not intended to support structures.
302.2.2 Slope
The slope of cut surfaces shall be no steeper than is safe for
the intended use and shall be no steeper than 1 unit vertical
in 2 units horizontal (50% slope) unless a geotechnical
engineering, or both, stating that the site has been
investigated, and giving an opinion that a cut at a steeper
slope will be stable and not create a hazard to public or
private property, is submitted and approved. Such cuts shall
be protected against erosion or degradation by sufficient
cover, drainage, engineering and/or biotechnical means.
302.3 Excavations
302.3.3 Existing footings or foundations which may be

affected by any excavation shall be underpinned adequately
or otherwise protected against settlement and shall be
protected against lateral movement.
302.3.4 Protection of Adjoining Property

The requirement for protection of adjacent property and the
depth to which protection is required shall be defined by
prevailing law. Where not defined by law, the following
shall apply:
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Top of
Slope PA*
H/5 but
0.60 m
min. and
Toe of 3 m max.
PA*
Slope
Cut or Fill Natural or Finish

H/2 but 0.6 m Slope Grade
min. and 6 m
max. H
Natural or Finish
Grade
* Permit Area Boundary
Figure 302-1 Setback Dimensions for Cut and Fill Slopes
1. Before commencing the excavation, the person making

302.4 Fills
or causing the excavation to be made shall notify in
writing the owners of adjoining building not less than
10 days before such excavation is to be made and that 302.4.1 General
the adjoining building will be protected. The condition Unless otherwise recommended in the approved
of the adjoining building will be documented to include geotechnical engineering report, fills shall conform to the
photographs prior to excavation. Technical documents provisions of this section. In the absence of an approved
pertaining to the proposed underpinning and geotechnical engineering report, these provisions may be
excavation plan shall be provided the owner of the waived for minor fills not intended to support structures.
adjacent property.
Fills to be used to support the foundations of any building
2. Unless it can shown through a detailed geotechnical or structure shall be placed in accordance with accepted
investigation that underpinning is unnecessary, any engineering practice. A geotechnical investigation report
person making or causing an excavation shall protect and a report of satisfactory placement of fill, both
the excavation so that the soil of adjoining property acceptable to the building official, shall be submitted when
will not cave in or settle, required by the building official.
In cases where the existing adjacent building will have No fill or other surcharge loads shall be placed adjacent to
more basements than the proposed building, the foundation any building or structure unless such building or structure is
of the proposed building should be designed so as not to capable of withstanding the additional vertical and
impart additional lateral earth pressures on the existing horizontal loads caused by the fill or surcharge.
building (see section 304.4).
Fill slopes shall not be constructed on natural slopes steeper
than 1 unit vertical in 2 units horizontal (50% slope),
provided further that benches shall be made to key in the
subsequent fill material.

302.4.2 Preparation of Ground be used based on ASTM D5030 -04. A minimum of three
The ground surface shall be prepared to received fill by tests for every 500 m2 area should be performed for every
removing vegetation, non-complying fill, top soil and other lift to verify compliance with compaction requirements.
unsuitable materials by scarifying and benching in the case
of sloping ground The existing ground surface shall be 302.4.5 Slope
adequately prepared to receive fill by removing vegetation The slope of fill surfaces shall be no steeper than is safe for
or any materials, non-complying fill, topsoil and other the intended use. Fill slopes shall be no steeper than 1 unit
unsuitable materials, and by scarifying to provide a bond vertical in 2 units horizontal (50% slope) unless
with the new fill. substantiating slope stability analyses justifying steeper
slopes are submitted and approved.
Where the natural slopes are steeper than 1 unit vertical in 5
units horizontal (20% slope) and the height is greater than 302.5 Setbacks
1.5 m, the ground surface shall be prepared by benching
into sound bedrock or other competent material as 302.5.1 General
determined by the geotechnical engineer. The bench under Cut and fill slopes shall be set back from site boundaries in
the toe of a fill on a slope steeper than 1 unit vertical in 5 accordance with this section subject to verification with
units horizontal (20% slope) shall be at least 3 m wide. detailed slope stability study. Setback dimensions shall be
horizontal distances measured perpendicular to the site
The area beyond the toe of fill shall be sloped to drain or a boundary. Setback dimensions shall be as shown in Figure
paved drain shall be provided. When fill is to be placed 302-1.
over a cut, the bench under the toe of fill shall be at least 3
m wide but the cut shall be made before placing the fill and 302.5.2 Top of Cut Slope
only after acceptance by the geotechnical engineer as a
suitable foundation for fill. The top of cut slopes shall not be made nearer to a site
boundary line than one fifth of the vertical height of cut
with a minimum of 0.6 m and a maximum of 3 m. The
302.4.3 Fill Material
setback may need to be increased for any required
Any organic or deleterious material shall be removed and interceptor drains.
will not be permitted in fills. Except as permitted by the
geotechnical engineer, no rock or similar irreducible 302.5.3 Toe of Fill Slope
material with a maximum dimension greater than 200 mm
shall be buried or placed in fills. The toe of fill slope shall be made not nearer to the site
boundary line than one half the height of the slope with a
Exception: minimum of 0.6 m and a maximum of 6 m. Where a fill
The placement of larger rock may be permitted when the slope is to be located near the site boundary and the
adjacent off-site property is developed, special precautions
geotechnical engineer properly devises a method of
placement, and continuously inspects its placement and shall be incorporated in the work as the building official
approves the fill stability. The following conditions shall deems necessary to protect the adjoining property from
also apply: damage as a result of such grading. These precautions may
include but are not limited to:
1. Prior to issuance of the grading permit, potential rock
1. Additional setbacks.
disposal areas shall be delineated on the grading plan.
2. Rock sizes greater than 300 mm in maximum 2. Provision for retaining or slough walls.
dimension shall be 3 m or more below grade, measured 3. Mechanical stabilization or chemical treatment of the
vertically. fill slope surface to minimize erosion.
3. Rocks shall be placed so as to assure filling of all voids 4. Rockfall protection
with well-graded soil.
5. Provisions for the control of surface waters.
302.4.4 Compaction
302.5.4 Modification of Slope Location
All fills shall be compacted in lifts not exceeding 200 mm
in thickness to a minimum of 95 percent of maximum The building official may approve alternate setbacks. The
density as determined by ASTM Standard D-1557. In- building official may require an investigation and
place density shall be determined in accordance with recommendation by a qualified geotechnical engineer to
ASTM D-1556, D-2167, D-2922, D-3017 or equivalent. demonstrate that the intent of this section has been satisfied.
For clean granular materials, the use of the foregoing
procedures is inappropriate. Relative density criteria shall
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Exception:
302.5 Drainage and Terracing
The gradient from the building pad may be 1 percent if all
302.5.1 General of the following conditions exist throughout the permit
Unless otherwise indicated on the approved grading plan, area:
drainage facilities and terracing shall conform to the 1. No proposed fills are greater than 3 m maximum depth.
provisions of this section for cut or fill slopes steeper than 1
unit vertical in 3 units horizontal (33.3% slope). 2. No proposed finish cut or fill slope faces have a
vertical height in excess of 3 m.
302.5.2 Terrace 3. No existing slope faces steeper than 1 unit vertical in
Terraces at least 2 m in width shall be established at not 10 units horizontal (10% slope) have a vertical height
more than 10 m vertical intervals on all cut or fill slopes to in excess of 3 m.
control surface drainage and debris except that where only
one terrace is required, it shall be at mid-height. For cut or 302.5.5 Interceptor Drains
fill slopes greater than 20 m and up to 40 m in vertical Paved or Lined interceptor drains shall be installed along
height, one terrace at approximately mid-height shall be 4 the top of all cut slopes where the tributary drainage area
m in width. Terrace widths and spacing for cut and fill above slopes toward the cut has a drainage path greater than
slopes greater than 40 m in height shall be designed by the 12 m measured horizontally. Interceptor drains shall be
civil engineer and approved by the building official. paved with a minimum of 75 mm of concrete or gunite and
Suitable access shall be provided to permit proper cleaning reinforced. They shall have a minimum depth of 300 mm
and maintenance. and a minimum paved width of 750 mm measured
horizontally across the drain. The slope of drain shall be
Swales or ditches on terraces shall be designed to approved by the building official.
effectively collect surface water and discharge to an outfall.
It shall have a minimum gradient of 0.5 percent and must be 302.6 Erosion Control
paved with reinforced concrete not less than 75 mm in
thickness or an approved equal paving material. 302.6.1 Slopes
The faces of cut and fill slopes shall be prepared and
A single run of swale or ditch shall not collect runoff from a
maintained to control against erosion. This control may
tributary area exceeding 1,000 m2 (projected area) without
consist of effective planting adapted to or indigenous to the
discharging into a down drain.
locality. The protection for the slopes shall be installed as
soon as practicable and prior to calling for final approval.
302.5.3 Subsurface Drainage
Where cut slopes are not subject to erosion due to the
Cut and fill slopes shall be provided with surface drainage erosion-resistant character of the materials, such protection
as necessary for stability. may be omitted.
302.5.4 Disposal 302.6.2 Other Devices

All drainage facilities shall be designed to carry waters to Where necessary, check dams, cribbing, riprap or other
the nearest practicable drainage way approved by the devices or methods shall be employed to control erosion
building official or other appropriate jurisdiction as a safe and provide safety.
place to deposit such waters. Erosion of ground in the area
of discharge shall be prevented by installation of non-
erosive down drains or other devices or splash blocks and
sedimentation basins.
Building pads shall have a drainage gradient of 2 percent

toward approved drainage facilities, unless waived by the
building official.

SECTION 303 Additional studies may be necessary to evaluate soil

strength, the effect of moisture variation on soil-bearing
FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION capacity, compressibility, liquefaction and expansiveness.
303.1 General 303.3 Questionable Soil

Foundation investigation shall be conducted and a Where the classification, strength or compressibility of the
Professional Report by a Registered Civil Engineer soil are in doubt, or where a load bearing value superior to
experienced or knowledgeable in Soil Mechanics and that specified in this code is claimed, the building official
Foundations shall be submitted at each building site. shall require that the necessary soil investigation be made.
For structures to two stories or higher, it is recommended 303.4 Liquefaction Study

that an exhaustive geotechnical study be performed to
The building official may require a Liquefaction evaluation
evaluate in-situ soil parameters for foundation design and
study in accordance with Section 303.6 when, during the
analysis. It is recommended that a minimum of one
course of the foundation investigation, all of the following
borehole per two hundred, 200 m2 of the structure’s
conditions are discovered:
footprint be drilled to a depth of at least 5 m into hard strata
or until a suitable bearing layer is reached unless otherwise 1. Shallow ground water, 2 m or less.
specified by the consulting geotechnical engineer. The total
2. Unconsolidated saturated sandy alluvium (N < 15)
number of boreholes per structure should be no less than 2
for structures whose footprints are less than 300 m2 and no 3. Seismic Zone 4.
less than 3 for those structures with larger footprints. Exception:
For buildings with basements, it is recommended that the The building official may waive this evaluation upon receipt
depth of boring should extend to twice the least plan of written opinion of a qualified geotechnical engineer that
dimension of the structure’s footprint plus the depth of the liquefaction is not probable.
basement.
303.5 Expansive Soil
An exhaustive geotechnical investigation should also be Soils meeting all four of the following provisions shall be
conducted in cases of questionable soils, expansive soils, considered expansive, except that tests to show compliance
unknown groundwater table to determine whether the with Items 1, 2 and 3 shall not be required if the test
existing ground water table is above or within 1.5 m below prescribed in Item 4 is conducted:
the elevation of the lowest floor level or where such floor is
located below the finished ground level adjacent to the 1. Plasticity index (PI) of 15 or greater, determined in
foundation, pile foundations, or in rock strata where the accordance with ASTM D 4318.and Liquid Limit > 50.
rock is suspected to be of doubtful characteristics or 2. More than 10 percent of the soil particles pass a No.
indicate variations in the structure of the rock or where 200 sieve (75 m), determined in accordance with
solution cavities or voids are expected to be present in the ASTM D 422.
rock.
3. More than 10 percent of the soil particles are less than
The building official may require that the interpretation and 5 micrometers in size, determined in accordance with
evaluation of the results of the foundation investigation be ASTM D 422.
made by a registered civil engineer experienced and 4. Expansion index greater than 20, determined in
knowledgeable in the field of geotechnical engineering. accordance with ASTM D 4829.
303.2 Soil Classification 303.5.1 Design for Expansive Soils

For the purposes of this chapter, the definition and Footings or foundations for buildings and structures
classification of soil materials for use in Table 304-1 shall founded on expansive soils shall be designed in accordance
be according to ASTM D-2487. with Section 1805.8.1 or 1805.8.2.
Soil classification shall be based on observation and any Footing or foundation design need not comply with Section
necessary field or laboratory tests of the materials disclosed 303.5.3 or 303.5.4 where the soil is removed in accordance
by borings or excavations made in appropriate locations. with Section 303.5.4, nor where the building official
approves stabilization of the soil in accordance with Section
303.5.5.
th
303.5.5 Stabilization
303.5.2 Foundations Where the active zone of expansive soils is stabilized in lieu
Footings or foundations placed on or within the active zone of designing footings or foundations in accordance with
of expansive soils shall be designed to resist differential Section 306.2, the soil shall be stabilized by chemical
volume changes and to prevent structural damage to the treatment, dewatering, pre-saturation or equivalent
supported structure. Deflection and racking of the techniques.
supported shall be limited to that which will not interfere
with the usability and serviceability of the structure. 303.6 Compressible Soils
If the boreholes show that the proposed structures are to be
Foundations placed below where volume change occurs or built above compressible fine-grained soils (with N< 6), it
below expansive soil shall comply with the following is recommended that consolidation tests be performed in
provisions: accordance with ASTM D 2435 to determine the settlement
1. Foundations extending into or penetrating expansive parameters for the site.
soils shall be designed to prevent uplift of the
supported structure. If wide, massive loads within the structures to be built on
compressible fine-grained soils are to be expected for
2. Foundations penetrating expansive soils shall be prolonged periods of time built, the settlement effects on
designed to resist forces exerted on the foundation due adjacent structures should be evaluated as well.
to soil volume changes or shall be isolated from the
expansive soil. 303.7 Reports
The soil classification and design bearing capacity shall be
303.5.3 Slab on Ground Foundations
shown on the plans, unless the foundation conforms to
Moments, shears and deflections for use in designing slab- Table 305-1. The building official may require submission
on-ground mat or raft foundations on expansive soils shall of a written report of the investigation, which shall include,
be determined in accordance with WRI/CRSI Design of but need not be limited to, the following information:
Slab-on-Ground Foundations or PTI Standard
Requirements for Analysis of Shallow Concrete 1. A plot showing the location of all test borings and/or
Foundations on Expansive Soils. Using the moments, excavations.
shears and deflections determined above, prestressed slabs- 2. Descriptions and classifications of the materials
on-ground, mat or raft foundations on expansive soils shall encountered.
be designed in accordance with PTI Standard Requirements
for Design of Shallow Post-Tensioned Concrete 3. Elevation of the water table, if encountered.
Foundations on Expansive Soils. It shall be permitted to 4. Recommendations for foundation type and design
analyze and design such slabs by other methods that criteria, including bearing capacity, provisions to
account for soil-structure interaction, the deformed shape of mitigate the effects of differential settlements and
the soil support, the place or stiffened plate action of the expansive soils, provisions to mitigate the effects of
slab as well as both center lift and edge lift conditions. liquefaction and soil strength, provisions for special
Such alternative methods shall be rational and the basis for foundation solutions and ground improvement , and the
all aspects and parameters of the method shall be available effects of adjacent loads.
for peer review.
5. Expected total and differential settlement.
303.5.4 Removal of Expansive Soil 6. Laboratory test results of soil samples.
Where expansive soil is removed in lieu of designing
7. Field borehole log containing the following
footings or foundations in accordance with Section 302.3.2,
the soil shall be removed to a depth sufficient to ensure a information
constant moisture content in the remaining soil. Fill a) Project location
material shall not contain expansive soils and shall comply b) Depth of borehole
with Section 302.3.3. c) Ground elevation
Exception: d) Ground water table elevation
e) Date started and finished
Expansive soil need not be removed to the depth of constant
moisture, provided the confining pressure in the expansive The soil classification and design-bearing capacity shall be
soil created by the fill and supported structure exceeds the shown on the plans, unless the foundation conforms to
swell pressure. Table 305-1.

When expansive soils are present, the building official may

require that special provisions be made in the foundation
design and construction to safeguard against damage due to Geophysical Tests
this expansiveness. The building official may require a Seismic refraction
special investigation and report to provide these design and Seismic D5777-00 Maps subsurface
construction criteria. reflection geologic conditions,
Table 303-2 Laboratory and Field Tests lithologic units and
fractures.
Laboratory / ASTM/ Test Output Data / Ground D7128 Maps lateral
Field Test Designation Parameter Obtained
Penetrating continuity of
Classification of Soils Radar lithologic units and
Moisture content D2216-05 Moisture/ water detects changes in
content the acoustic
Grain size D422-63 Soil gradation properties of
analysis subsurface
Atterberg Limits D4318-05 Liquid limit, plastic geomaterials.
limit Crosshole D6432-99 p-wave and s-wave
USCS D2487-00 Classification of seismic survey velocity
soils determination,
Specific Gravity D854-05 Specific gravity elastic moduli
Shrinkage Limit D427-04 Shrinkage limit determination
Organic Matter D2974-00 Moisture content, ash Geo-resistivity D4428 Corrosion Potential
content and percent Survey of soils , Electrical
organic matter in soil grounding,
Swedish Weight JIS Nsw-value indicating, stratigraphic studies
Sounding Test A1221:2002 undrained soil shear
strength 303.8 Soil Tests
UCT Test (Soils) D2166-00 Strength parameters Tables 303-2 and 303-3 summarize the commonly used
Tri-axial (UU D2850-03a Strength parameters field and laboratory tests needed in determining the in-situ
Test) soil parameters for use in foundation design and analysis.
Tri-axial (CU D4767-04 Strength parameters
Test) 303.9 Liquefaction Potential and Soil Strength Loss
Oedometer (1-D D2435-04 Consolidation
Consolidation) parameters When required by Section 303.3, the potential for soil
Laboratory Vane D4648-05 Strength parameters liquefaction and soil strength loss during earthquakes shall
Shear be evaluated during the geotechnical investigation. The
Direct Shear D3080-04 Strength parameters geotechnical evaluation shall assess potential liquefaction
Test susceptibility potential consequences of any liquefaction
UCT for Intact D2938-95 Strength parameters and soil strength loss, including estimation of differential
Rock settlement, lateral movement or reduction in foundation
Standard D1586-99 N-value soil-bearing capacity, and discuss mitigating measures.
Penetration Test Such measures shall be given consideration in the design of
Modified Proctor D1557-02 Maximum dry the building and may include, but are not limited to, ground
Test density stabilization, selection of appropriate foundation type and
Standard Proctor D698-00a Maximum dry depths, selection of appropriate structural systems to
Test density accommodate anticipated displacements, or any
Field Density D1556-00 Maximum dry combination of these measures.
Test density
CBR Lab Test D1883-05 CBR The potential for liquefaction and soil strength loss shall be
Cone Penetration D3441-05 Soil strength evaluated for a site peak ground acceleration that, as a
Test parameters minimum, conforms to the probability of exceedance
specified in Section 208.6.2. Peak ground acceleration may
Table 303-3 Geophysical Tests be determined based on a site-specific study taking into
Field Test ASTM Output Data / account soil amplification effects.
Designation Parameter Obtained
th
In the absence of such a study, peak ground acceleration

may be assumed equal to the seismic zone factor in Table
208-3. SECTION 304
303.10 Adjacent Loads
ALLOWABLE FOUNDATION AND
Where footings are placed at varying elevations, the effect LATERAL PRESSURES
of adjacent loads shall be included in the foundation design.
304.1 From Geotechnical Site Investigation and
303.11 Drainage Assessment
Provisions shall be made for the control and drainage of The recommended allowable foundation and lateral
surface water around buildings and ensure that scour will pressures shall be estimated from a reasonably exhaustive
not threaten such structures through adequate embedment. geotechnical site investigation and assessment, which shall
(See also Section 305.5.5). include at least the following:
a) Description of regional geologic characteristics;
303.12 Plate Load Test
b) Characterization of in-situ geotechnical conditions;
The plate load test is generally used for determination of
soil subgrade properties for rigid foundations. If used for c) Factual report on the in-situ and laboratory tests
building foundations, it must be emphasized that the Depth performed to characterize the site (See Section
of Influence is only up to twice the width of the test plate. 303.7 for a list of in-situ and laboratory tests
Care must be used when extending the results to deeper commonly carried out for geotechnical site
depths. characterization);
d) Disclosure of the assumptions and the applicable
analytical or empirical models used in estimating
the allowable foundation and lateral pressures;
e) Calculations carried out and Factor of Safety (FS)
assumed in arriving at the recommended allowable
foundation and lateral pressures; and
f) Evaluation of existing potential geologic hazards
and those that may be induced or triggered by the
construction/installation of the structure.
The geotechnical site investigation and assessment shall be

performed by a registered civil engineer experienced and
knowledgeable in the field of geotechnical engineering.
A geotechnical investigation and assessment shall be

presented in a report. The report, together with a brief
resume and a sworn statement of accountability of the
geotechnical engineering consultant who prepared it, shall
be included in the submittals to be reviewed and examined
by the building official or government authority in charge
of issuing the relevant permits such as environmental
compliance certificate and/or building permit.
304.2 Presumptive Load-Bearing and Lateral Resisting

Values
When no exhaustive geotechnical site assessment and
investigation is performed, especially when no in-situ or
very limited tests are carried out, the presumptive load-
bearing and lateral resisting values provided in Table 304-1
shall be used. Use of these values requires that the
foundation design engineer has, at the least, carried out an
inspection of the site and has become familiar with the
predominant soil or rock characteristics of the site.
Presumptive load-bearing values shall apply to materials 304.3 Minimum Allowable Pressures.
with similar physical characteristics and dispositions. Mud, The recommended allowable foundation and lateral values
organic silt, organic clays, peat or unprepared fill shall not shall be with the allowable stress design load combinations
be assumed to have a presumptive load-bearing capacity specified in Section 203.4.
unless data from a geotechnical site assessment and
investigation to substantiate the use of such a value are 304.4 Foundations Adjacent to Existing
submitted. Retaining/Basement Walls
In cases where the adjacent building will have more
For clay, sandy clay, silty clay and clayey silt, in no case
basements than the proposed building, the foundation of the
shall the lateral sliding resistance exceed one-half the dead
proposed building should be designed so as not to impart
load.
additional lateral earth pressures on the existing building.
It is the responsibility of the engineer-of-record to
determine the applicability of these presumptive values for
the Project.
Table 304-1 Allowable Foundation and Lateral Pressure
Lateral
Allowable Bearing Lateral Sliding4
1 Foundation Below Natural
Class of Materials Grade3
Pressure2
(kPa) (kPa/m of Resistance6
Coefficient5
depth) (kPa)
1. Massive Crystalline Bedrock 200 200 0.70 -
2. Sedimentary and Foliated Rock 100 60 0.35 -
3. Sandy Gravel and /or Gravel(GW & GP) 100 30 0.35 -
4. Well-graded Sand, Poorly-graded Sand, Silty Sand,

Clayey Sand, Silty Gravel and Clayey Gravel (SW, 75 25 0.25 -
SP, SM, SC, GM and GC)
5. Clay, Sandy Clay, Silty Clay and Clayey Silt (CL, ML,
50 a 15 - 7
MH, and CH)
1
A geotechnical site investigation is recommended for soil classification (Refer to Section 303).
2
All values of allowable foundation pressure are for footings having a minimum width of 300 mm and a minimum depth of 300 mm into the natural grade.
Except as noted in Footnote ‘a’, an increase of 20% is allowed for each additional 300mm of width and/or depth to a maximum value of three times the
designated value. An increase of one-third is permitted when using the alternate load combinations in Section 203.4 that include wind or earthquake
loads.
3
The resistance values derived from the table are permitted to be increased by the tabular value for each additional 300 mm of depth to a maximum of 15
times the tabular value. Isolated poles for uses such as flagpoles or signs and poles used to support buildings that are not adversely affected by a 12 mm
motion at the ground surface due to short-term lateral loads are permitted to be designed using lateral-bearing values equal to two times the tabular
values.
4
Lateral bearing and sliding resistance may be combined.
5
Coefficient to be multiplied by the dead load.
6
Lateral sliding resistance value to be multiplied by the contact area. In no case shall the lateral sliding resistance exceed one-half the dead load.
a
No increase shall be allowed for an increase of width.
th
SECTION 305 305.2.1 Design Loads

Footings shall be designed for the most unfavorable load
FOOTINGS effects due to combinations of loads. The dead load is
permitted to include the weight of foundations, footings
305.1 General and overlying fill. Reduced live loads as permitted in the
Footings and foundations shall be constructed of masonry, Chapter on Loadings are permitted to be used in the
concrete or treated wood in conformance with Chapters 4, design of footings.
6 and 7. Footings of concrete and masonry shall be of
solid material. Foundations supporting wood shall extend 305.2.2 Vibratory Loads
at least 150 mm above the adjacent finish grade. Footings
Where machinery operations or other vibratory loads or
shall have a minimum depth as indicated in Table 305-1,
vibrations are transmitted to the foundations,
unless another depth is warranted, as established by a
consideration shall be given in the report to address the
foundation investigation.
foundation design to prevent detrimental disturbances to
the soil due to vibratory loadings.
The provisions of this section do not apply to building and
foundation systems in those areas subject to scour and Dynamic Soil Properties shall be included where required.
water pressure by wind and wave action. Buildings and
foundations subject to such loads shall be designed in
accordance with approved national standards. 305.3 Bearing Walls
Table 305-1 Minimum Requirements for Foundations 1,2,3 Bearing walls shall be supported on masonry or
reinforced concrete foundations or piles or other
Number of Thickness of Depth permitted foundation system that shall be of sufficient
Width Thickness Below
Floors Foundation Wall
of of Undisturbed
size to support all loads.
Supported (mm)
Footing Footing Ground
by the
Foundations Concrete Unit (mm) (mm) Surface Where a design is not provided, the minimum foundation
Masonry (mm) 4 requirements for stud bearing walls shall be as set forth in
1 150 150 300 150 300 Table 305-1, unless expansive soils of a severity to cause
differential movement are known to exist.
2 200 200 375 175 450 Exceptions:
3 250 250 450 200 600 1. A one-story wood or metal-frame building not used
1
for human occupancy and not over 40 m2 in floor
Where unusual conditions are found, footings and foundations shall
be as required in Section 305.1. area may be constructed with walls supported on a
2
The ground under the floor may be excavated to the elevation of the wood foundation plate permanently under the water
3
top of the footing. table when permitted by the building official.
Foundation may support a roof in addition to the stipulated number
of floors. Foundations supporting roofs only shall be as required for 2. The support of buildings by posts embedded in earth
supporting one floor. shall be designed as specified in Section 305.7. Wood
4
The depth of embedment must always be below potential depth of
scour
posts or poles embedded in earth shall be pressure
treated with an approved preservative. Steel posts or
305.2 Footing Design poles shall be protected as specified in Section
306.10.
Except for special provisions of Section 307 covering the
design of piles, all portions of footings shall be designed 305.4 Stepped Foundations
in accordance with the structural provisions of this code
and shall be designed to minimize differential settlement Foundations for all buildings where the surface of the
when necessary and the effects of expansive soils when ground slopes more than 1 unit vertical in 10 units
present. horizontal (10% slope) shall be level or shall be stepped
so that both top and bottom of such foundation are level.
Slab-on-grade and mat type footings for buildings located
on expansive soils may be designed in accordance with
the geotechnical recommendation as permitted by the
building official.

Top of Slope Face of Footing
Face of Structure Toe of Slope

H/2 but
need not
exceed H
4.5m max.
H/3 but need not
exceed 12 m max.
Figure 305-1 Setback Dimensions for Building Clearance from Slopes
305.5 Footings on or Adjacent to Slopes 305.5.4 Pools

The setback between pools regulated by this code and
305.5.1 Scope slopes shall be equal to one half the building footing
The placement of buildings and structures on or adjacent setback distance required by this section. That portion of
to slopes steeper than 1 unit vertical in 3 units horizontal the pool wall within a horizontal distance of 2 m from the
(33.3% slope) shall be in accordance with this section. top of the slope shall be capable of supporting the water
in the pool without soil support.
305.5.2 Building Clearance from Ascending Slopes
In general, buildings below slopes shall be set a sufficient 305.5.5 Foundation Elevation
distance from the slope to provide protection from slope On graded sites, the top of any exterior foundation shall
drainage, Scour erosion and shallow failures. Except as extend above the elevation of the street gutter at point of
provided for in Section 305.5.6 and Figure 305-1, the discharge or the inlet of an approved drainage device a
following criteria will be assumed to provide this minimum of 300 mm plus 2 percent. The building official
protection. Where the existing slope is steeper than 1 unit may permit alternate elevations, provided it can be
vertical in 1 unit horizontal (100% slope), the toe of the demonstrated that required drainage to the point of
slope shall be assumed to be at the intersection of a discharge and away from the structure is provided at all
horizontal plane drawn from the top of the foundation and locations on the site.
a plane drawn tangent to the slope at an angle of 45
degrees to the horizontal. Where a retaining wall is 305.5.6 Alternate Setback and Clearance
constructed at the toe of the slope, the height of the slope The building official may approve alternate setbacks and
shall be measured from the top of the wall to the top of clearances. The building official may require an
the slope. investigation and recommendation of a qualified engineer
to demonstrate that the intent of this section has been
305.5.3 Footing Setback from Descending Slope satisfied. Such an investigation shall include
Surface consideration of material, height of slope, slope gradient,
Footings on or adjacent to slope surfaces shall be founded load intensity and erosion characteristics of slope
in firm material with an embedment and setback from the material.
slope surface sufficient to provide vertical and lateral
support for the footing without detrimental settlement. 305.6 Foundation Plates or Sills
Except as provided for in Section 305.5.6 and Figure 305- Wood plates or sills shall be bolted to the foundation or
1, the following setback is deemed adequate to meet the foundation wall. Steel bolts with a minimum nominal
criteria. Where the slope is steeper than 1 unit vertical in diameter of 12 mm shall be used in Seismic Zone 2. Steel
1 unit horizontal (100% slope), the required setback shall bolts with a minimum nominal diameter of 16 mm shall
be measured from an imaginary plane 45 degrees to the be used in Seismic Zone 4. Bolts shall be embedded at
horizontal, projected upward from the toe of the slope. least 180 mm into the concrete or masonry and shall be
spaced not more than 2 m apart. There shall be a
minimum of two bolts per piece with one bolt located not
th
more than 300 mm or less than seven bolt diameters from 305.7.2.3 Vertical load
each end of the piece. A properly sized nut and washer The resistance to vertical loads is determined by the
shall be tightened on each bolt to the plate. Foundation allowable soil-bearing pressure set forth in Table 304-1.
plates and sills shall be the kind of wood specified in
Chapter 6. 305.7.3 Backfill
The backfill in the annular space around column not
305.7 Designs Employing Lateral Bearing
embedded in poured footings shall be by one of the
following methods:
305.7.1 General
Construction employing posts or poles as columns 1. Backfill shall be of concrete with an ultimate strength
embedded in earth or embedded in concrete footings in of 15 MPa at 28 days. The hole shall not be less than
the earth may be used and designed to resist both axial 100 mm larger than the diameter of the column at its
and lateral loads. The depth to resist lateral loads shall be bottom or 100 mm larger than the diagonal
determined by means of the design criteria established dimension of a square or rectangular column.
herein or other methods approved by the building official. 2. Backfill shall be of clean sand. The sand shall be
thoroughly compacted by tamping in layers not more
305.7.2 Design Criteria than 200 mm in thickness.
305.7.2.1 Non-constrained 305.7.4 Limitations

The following formula may be used in determining the The design procedure outlined in this section shall be
depth of embedment required to resist lateral loads where subject to the following limitations:
no constraint is provided at the ground surface, such as
rigid floor or rigid ground surface pavement. 305.7.4.1 The frictional resistance for retaining walls and
slabs on silts and clays shall be limited to one half of the
normal force imposed on the soil by the weight of the
A  4.3h  footing or slab.
d 1 1 (305-1)
2  A 
305.7.4.1 Posts embedded in earth shall not be used to
where: provide lateral support for structural or nonstructural
2.3 P materials such as plaster, masonry or concrete unless
A  bracing is provided.
S 1b
b = diameter of round post or footing or diagonal 305.8 Grillage Footings

dimension of square post or footing, m When grillage footings of structural steel shapes are used
d = depth of embedment in earth in m but not over 3.5 on soils, they shall be completely embedded in concrete.
m for purpose of computing lateral pressure, m Concrete cover shall be at least 150 mm on the bottom
h = distance from ground surface to point of and at least 100 mm at all other points.
application of P, m
P = applied lateral force, kN 305.9 Bleacher Footings
S1 = allowable lateral soil-bearing pressure as set forth Footings for open-air seating facilities shall comply with
in Table 304-1 based on a depth of one third the Chapter 3.
depth of embedment, kPa
S3 = allowable lateral soil-bearing pressure as set forth Exceptions:
in Table 304-1 based on a depth equal to the depth Temporary open-air portable bleachers may be supported
of embedment, kPa upon wood sills or steel plates placed directly upon the
ground surface, provided soil pressure does not exceed
305.7.2.2 Constrained 50 kPa.
The following formula may be used to determine the
depth of embedment required to resist lateral loads where
constraint is provided at the ground surface, such as a
rigid floor or pavement.
Ph
d 2  4.25 (305-2)
S3 b

SECTION 306 306.4 Static Load Test

Static axial compressive pile load test shall be in
PILES - GENERAL accordance with ASTM Standard D-1143. Performance of
REQUIREMENTS the load test require that the test be conducted under the
supervision of a registered civil engineer experienced and
306.1 General knowledgeable in the practice of static pile load testing.
Pile foundations shall be designed and installed on the
basis of a foundation investigation as defined in Section When the allowable axial compressive load of a single
303 where required by the building official. pile is determined by a static load test, one of the
following methods shall be used:
The investigation and report provisions of Section 303
shall be expanded to include, but not be limited to, the Method 1. It shall not exceed 50 percent of the yield
following: point under test load. The yield point shall be defined as
that point at which an increase in load produces a
1. Recommended pile types and installed capacities. disproportionate increase in settlement.
2. Driving criteria.
Method 2. It shall not exceed one half of the load, which
3. Installation procedures. causes a net settlement, after deducting rebound, of
4. Field inspection and reporting procedures (to include 0.03mm/kN of test load, which has been applied for a
procedures for verification of the installed bearing period of at least 24 hours.
capacity where required).
Method 3. It shall not exceed one half of that load under
5. Pile load test requirements. which, during a 40-hour period of continuous load
application, no additional settlement takes place.
The use of piles not specifically mentioned in this chapter
shall be permitted, subject to the approval of the building 306.5 Dynamic Load Test
official upon submission of acceptable test data,
High-strain dynamic load test may be used to determine
calculations or other information relating to the properties
the bearing capacity of piles, in accordance with ASTM
and load-carrying capacities of such piles.
Standard D-4945. It is required that the test be conducted
by a registered civil engineer experienced and
306.2 Interconnection
knowledgeable in the practice of pile dynamic load
Individual pile caps and caissons of every structure testing.
subjected to seismic forces shall be interconnected by tie
Beams. Such tie beams shall be capable of resisting, in 306.6 Column Action
tension or compression, a minimum horizontal force equal
All piles standing unbraced in air, water or material not
to 10 percent of the largest column vertical load.
capable of lateral support shall conform to the applicable
Exception: column formula as specified in this code. Such piles
driven into firm ground may be considered fixed and
Other approved methods may be used where it can be
laterally supported at 1.5 m below the ground surface and
demonstrated that equivalent restraint can be provided.
in soft material at 3 m from the ground surface unless
otherwise prescribed by the building official after a
306.3 Determination of Allowable Loads
foundation investigation by an approved agency.
The allowable axial and lateral loads on piles shall be
determined by an approved formula, by a foundation 306.7 Group Action
investigation or by load tests. Static axial compressive
Consideration shall be given to the reduction of allowable
pile load test shall be in accordance with ASTM Standard
pile load when piles are placed in groups.
D-1143, and lateral load testing of piles shall conform to
ASTM Standard D-3966. Dynamic pile tests shall be in
Where soil conditions make such load reductions
accordance with ASTM Standard D-4945. Static axial
advisable or necessary, the allowable axial and lateral
tensile load testing to determine the uplift capacity of
loads determined for a single pile shall be reduced by any
pile-soil systems shall be in accordance with ASTM
rational method or formula submitted to the building
Standard D-3689.
official.
th
306.8 Piles in Subsiding Areas 306.12 Use of Higher Allowable Pile Stresses
Where piles are driven through subsiding fills or other Allowable compressive stresses greater than those
subsiding strata and derive support from underlying specified in Section 307 shall be permitted when
firmer materials, consideration shall be given to the substantiating data justifying such higher stresses are
downward frictional forces, which may be imposed on the submitted to and approved by the building official. Such
piles by the subsiding upper strata which shall be substantiating data shall be included in the foundation
deductive from the net pile load capacity. investigation report in accordance with Section 306.1.
Where the influence of subsiding fills is considered as

imposing loads on the pile, the allowable stresses
specified in this chapter may be increased if satisfactory
substantiating data are submitted.
306.9 Jetting
Installation of piles by water jetting shall not be used
except where and as specifically permitted by the building
official. When used, jetting shall be carried out in such a
manner that the carrying capacity of existing piles and
structures shall not be impaired. After withdrawal of the
jet, piles shall be driven down until the required resistance
is obtained.
306.10 Protection of Pile Materials

Where the boring records of site conditions indicate
possible deleterious action on pile materials because of
soil constituents, changing water levels or other factors,
such materials shall be adequately protected by methods
or processes approved by the geotechnical engineer.
The effectiveness of such methods or processes for the

particular purpose shall have been thoroughly established
by satisfactory service records or other evidence, which
demonstrates the effectiveness of such protective
measures.
In sulfate bearing soils, the steel piles shall be protected

against corrosion or reinforced concrete piles shall use
Type II cement.
306.11 Allowable Loads

The allowable loads based on soil conditions shall be
established in accordance with Section 306.
Exception:
Any uncased cast-in-place pile may be assumed to
develop a frictional resistance equal to one sixth of the
bearing value of the soil material at minimum depth as set
forth in Table 305-1 but not to exceed 25 kPa unless a
greater value is allowed by the building official after a
foundation investigation as specified in Section 303 is
submitted. Frictional resistance and bearing resistance
shall not be assumed to act simultaneously unless
recommended after a foundation investigation as
specified in Section 303.

SECTION 307 307.3 Metal-Cased Concrete Piles

SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS 307.3.1 Material
Concrete used in metal-cased concrete piles shall have a
307.1 Round Wood Piles
specified compressive strength f’c of not less than 17
MPa.
307.1.1 Material
Except where untreated piles are permitted, wood piles 307.3.2 Installation
shall be pressure treated. Untreated piles may be used
Every metal casing for a concrete pile shall have a sealed
only when it has been established that the cutoff will be
tip with a diameter of not less than 200 mm.
below lowest groundwater level assumed to exist during
the life of the structure.
Concrete piles cast in place in metal shells shall have
shells driven for their full length in contact with the
307.1.2 Allowable Stresses
surrounding soil and left permanently in place. The shells
The allowable unit stresses for round woodpiles shall not shall be sufficiently strong to resist collapse and
exceed those set forth in Chapter 6. sufficiently watertight to exclude water and foreign
material during the placing of concrete.
The allowable values listed in, for compression parallel to
the grain at extreme fiber in bending are based on load Piles shall be driven in such order and with such spacing
sharing as occurs in a pile cluster. For piles which as to ensure against distortion of or injury to piles already
support their own specific load, a safety factor of 1.25 in place. No pile shall be driven within four and one-half
shall be applied to compression parallel to the grain average pile diameters of a pile filled with concrete less
values and 1.30 to extreme fiber in bending values. than 24 hours old unless approved by the geotechnical
engineer.
307.2 Uncased Cast-In-Place Concrete Piles
307.2.1 Material Allowable stresses shall not exceed the values specified in
Concrete piles cast in place against earth in drilled or Section 307.2.2, except that the allowable concrete stress
bored holes shall be made in such a manner as to ensure may be increased to a maximum value of 0.40f’c for that
the exclusion of any foreign matter and to secure a full- portion of the pile meeting the following conditions:
sized shaft.
1. The thickness of the metal casing is not less than 1.7
The drilled or excavated hole shall be prevented from mm (No. 14 carbon sheet steel gage);
collapse or contamination by collapsing soils. Thorough 2. The casing is seamless or is provided with seams of
cleaning of the hole shall be assured and displacement of equal strength and is of a configuration that will
the soil cuttings by flotation shall be assured. The length provide confinement to the cast-in-place concrete;
of such pile shall be limited to not more than 30 times the
average diameter. Concrete shall have a specified 3. The specified compressive strength f’c shall not
compressive strength f’c of not less than 17 MPa. exceed 35 MPa and the ratio of steel minimum
specified yield strength Fy to concrete specified
Exception: compressive strength f’c shall not be less than 6; and
The length of pile may exceed 30 times the diameter 4. The pile diameter is not greater than 400 mm.
provided the design and installation of the pile foundation
is in accordance with an approved foundation 307.4 Precast Concrete Piles
investigation report.
307.4.1 Materials
Precast concrete piles shall have a specified compressive
The allowable compressive stress in the concrete shall not strength f’c of not less than 20 MPa, and shall develop a
exceed 0.33f’c. The allowable compressive stress of compressive strength of not less than 20 MPa before
reinforcement shall not exceed 34 percent of the yield driving.
strength of the steel or 175 MPa.
307.4.2 Reinforcement Ties
The longitudinal reinforcement in driven precast concrete
piles shall be laterally tied with steel ties or wire spirals.
Ties and spirals shall not be spaced more than 75 mm
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apart, center to center, for a distance of 600 mm from the loads. The effective prestress in the pile shall not be less
ends and not more than 200 mm elsewhere. The gage of than 2.5 MPa for piles up to 10 m in length, 4 MPa for
ties and spirals shall be as follows: piles up to 15 m in length, and 5 MPa for piles greater
than 15 m in length.
1. For piles having a diameter of 400 mm or less, wire
shall not be smaller than 5 mm;
The compressive stress in the concrete due to externally
2. For piles, having a diameter of more than 400 mm applied load shall not exceed:
and less than 500 mm, wire shall not be smaller than
6 mm; and f c  0.33 f 'c 0.27 f pc (307-1)
3. For piles having a diameter of 500 mm and larger, where:

wire shall not be smaller than 7 mm.
fpc = effective prestress stress on the gross section.
Effective prestress shall be based on an assumed loss of
Precast concrete piling shall be designed to resist stresses 200 MPa in the prestressing steel. The allowable stress in
induced by handling and driving as well as by loads. The the prestressing steel shall not exceed the values specified
allowable stresses shall not exceed the values specified in in Section 418.5.
Section 307.2.2.
307.5.4 Splicing
307.5 Precast Prestressed Concrete Piles
Where required, splicing for concrete piles shall be by use
(Pretensioned)
of embedded and properly anchored thick steel plates at
the ends being joined which shall then be fully welded, or
307.5.1 Materials
by use of adequate sized dowel rods and steel receiving
Precast prestressed concrete piles shall have a specified sleeves. The dowels and the faces shall then be joined by
compressive strength f’c of not less than 35 MPa and shall structural epoxy. Metal splice cans are not allowed.
develop a compressive strength of not less than 27 MPa
before driving. 307.6 Structural Steel Piles
307.5.2 Reinforcement 307.6.1 Material

Structural steel piles, steel pipe piles and fully welded
307.5.2.1 Longitudinal Reinforcement
steel piles fabricated from plates shall conform to one of
The longitudinal reinforcement shall be high-tensile the material specifications listed in Section 501.3.
seven-wire strand conforming to ASTM Standards.
Longitudinal reinforcement shall be laterally tied with 307.6.2 Allowable Stresses
steel ties or wire spirals.
The allowable axial stresses shall not exceed 0.35 of the
minimum specified yield strength Fy or 85 MPa,
307.5.2.2 Transverse Reinforcement
whichever is less.
Ties or spiral reinforcement shall not be spaced more than
75 mm apart, center to center, for a distance of 600 mm Exception:
from the ends and not more than 200 mm elsewhere. At When justified in accordance with Section 306.12, the
each end of the pile, the first five ties or spirals shall be allowable axial stress may be increased above 85 MPa
spaced 25 mm center to center. and 0.35Fy, but shall not exceed 0.5Fy.
For piles having a diameter of 600 mm or less, wire shall 307.6.3 Minimum Dimensions
not be smaller than 5 mm.
Sections of driven H-piles shall comply with the
following:
For piles having a diameter greater than 600 mm but less
than 900 mm, wire shall not be smaller than 6 mm. 1. The flange projection shall not exceed 14 times the
minimum thickness of metal in either the flange or
For piles having a diameter greater than 900 mm, wire the web, and the flange widths shall not be less than
shall not be smaller than 7 mm. 80 percent of the depth of the section.
2. The nominal depth in the direction of the web shall
307.5.3 Allowable Stresses not be less than 200 mm.
Precast prestressed piling shall be designed to resist
stresses induced by handling and driving as well as by

3. Flanges and webs shall have a minimum nominal

thickness of 10 mm.
SECTION 308
Sections of driven pipe piles shall have an outside FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION-
diameter of not less than 250 mm and a minimum
thickness of not less than 6 mm. SEISMIC ZONE 4
307.7 Concrete-Filled Steel Pipe Piles 308.1 General
In Seismic Zones 4, the further requirements of this
307.7.1 Material section shall apply to the design and construction of
The steel pipe of concrete-filled steel pipe piles shall foundations, foundation components and the connection
conform to one of the material specifications listed in of superstructure elements thereto. See Section 421.10
Section 501.3. The concrete in concrete-filled steel pipe for additional requirements for structural concrete
piles shall have a specified compressive strength f’c of not foundations resisting seismic forces.
less than 17 MPa.
308.2 Foundation and Geotechnical Investigations
307.7.2Allowable Stresses Where a structure is determined to be in Seismic Zone 4
The allowable axial stresses shall not exceed 0.35 of the in accordance with Section 208.4, an investigation shall
minimum specified yield strength Fy of the steel plus 0.33 be conducted and shall include an evaluation of the
of the specified compressive strength f’c of concrete, following potential hazards resulting from earthquake
provided Fy shall not be assumed greater than 250 MPa motions: slope instability, liquefaction and surface rupture
for computational purposes. due to faulting or lateral spreading.
Exception: In addition, the following investigations shall also be met:

When justified in accordance with Section 306.12, the 1. A determination of lateral pressures on basement and
allowable stresses may be increased to 0.50 Fy. retaining walls due to earthquake motions.
307.7.3 Minimum Dimensions 2. An assessment of potential consequences of any

liquefaction and soil strength loss, including
Driven piles of uniform section shall have a nominal estimation of differential settlement, lateral
outside diameter of not less than 200 mm. movement or reduction in foundation soil-bearing
capacity, and shall address mitigation measures. Such
measures shall be given consideration in the design
of the structure and can include but are not limited to
ground stabilization, selection of appropriate
foundation type and depths, selection of appropriate
structural systems to accommodate anticipated
displacements or any combination of these measures.
The potential for liquefaction and soil strength loss
shall be evaluated for site peak ground acceleration
magnitudes and source characteristics consistent with
the design earthquake ground motions. Peak ground
acceleration shall be determined from a site-specific
study taking into account soil amplification effects,
as specified in Section 208.4.
308.3 Footings and Foundations

Where a structure is assigned to Seismic Zone 4 in
accordance with Section 208.4, individual spread footings
founded on soil defined in Section 208.4.3 as Soil profile
Type SE or SF shall be interconnected by tie beams. Tie
beams shall be capable of carrying, in tension or
compression, unless it is demonstrated that equivalent
restraint is provided by reinforced concrete beams within
slabs on grade or reinforced concrete slabs on grade.
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308.4 Pier and Pile Foundations within seven pile diameters of the pile cap and the
Where a structure is assigned to Seismic Zone 4 in interfaces of soft to medium stiff clay or liquefiable strata.
accordance with Section 208.4, the following shall apply. Grade beams shall be designed as beams in accordance
Individual pile caps, piers or piles shall be interconnected Section 4. When grade beams have the capacity to resist
by ties. Ties shall be capable of carrying, in tension and the forces from the load combinations in Section 203.
compression, 10 % of the maximum axial load unless it
can be demonstrated that equivalent restraint is provided 308.4.3 Flexural Strength
by reinforced concrete beams within slabs on grade,
reinforced concrete slabs on grade, confinement by Where the vertical lateral-force-resisting elements are
competent rock, hard cohesive soils or very dense columns, the grade beam or pile cap flexural strengths
granular soils. Concrete shall have a specified shall exceed the column flexural strength. The connection
compressive strength of not less than 21 MPa at 28 days. between batter piles and grade beams or pile caps shall be
designed to resist the nominal strength of the pile acting
Exception: as a short column. Batter piles and their connection shall
Piers supporting foundation walls, isolated interior posts be capable of resisting forces and moments from the load
detailed so the pier is not subject to lateral loads, lightly combinations of Section 203.
loaded exterior decks and patios and occupancy category
IV and V specified in Section 103 not exceeding two 308.5 Driven Pile Foundations
stories of light-frame construction, are not subject to
interconnection if it can be shown the soils are of 308.5.1 Precast Concrete Piles
adequate stiffness, subject to the approval of the building Where a structure is assigned to Seismic Zone 4 the
official. longitudinal reinforcement with a minimum steel ratio of
0.01 shall be provided throughout the length of precast
308.4.1 Connection to Pile Cap concrete piles. Within three pile diameters of the bottom
For piles required to resist uplift forces or to provide of the pile cap, the longitudinal reinforcement shall be
rotational restraint, design of anchorage of piles into the confined with closed ties or spirals of a minimum 10 mm
pile cap shall be provided considering the combined effect diameter. Ties or spirals shall be provided at a maximum
of axial forces due to uplift and bending moments due to spacing of eight times the diameter of the smallest
fixity to the pile cap. Anchorage shall develop a minimum longitudinal bar, not to exceed 150 mm throughout the
of 25 percent of the strength of the pile in tension. remainder of the pile, the closed ties or spirals shall have
Anchorage into the pile cap shall be capable of a maximum spacing of 16 times the smallest longitudinal
developing the following: bar diameter not to exceed 200 mm.
1. In the case of uplift, the lesser of the nominal tensile 308.5.2 Precast Prestressed Piles
strength of the longitudinal reinforcement in a
concrete pile, or the nominal tensile strength of a Where a structure is assigned to Seismic Zone 4, the
steel pile, or the pile uplift soil nominal strength following shall apply. The minimum volumetric ratio of
factored by 1.3 or the axial tension force resulting spiral reinforcement shall not be less than 0.007 or the
from the load combinations of Section 203. amount required by the following formula for the upper 6
m of the pile.
2. In the case of rotational restraint, the lesser of the
axial and shear forces and moments resulting from  s  0.12 f c f yh (308.5.1)
the load combinations of Section 203 or development
where:
of the full axial, bending and shear nominal strength
of the pile. fc = Specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
fyh = Yield strength of spiral reinforcement, 586 MPa
308.4.2 Design Details for Piers, Piles and Grade s = Spiral reinforcement index (volume of
Beams spiral/volume of core)
Piers or piles shall be designed and constructed to
withstand maximum imposed curvatures from earthquake At least one-half the volumetric ratio required by Eq. 4-1
ground motions and structure response. Curvatures shall shall be provided below the upper 6 m of the pile. The
include free-field soil strains modified for soil-pile pile cap connection by means of dowels. Pile cap
structure interaction coupled with pier or pile connection by means of developing pile reinforcing strand
deformations induced by lateral pier or pile resistance to is permitted provided that the pile reinforcing strand
structure seismic forces. Concrete piers or piles on soil results in a ductile connection.
type SE or SF sites, as determined in Section 208.4.3, shall
be designed and detailed in accordance with Sections 410
Where the total pile length in the soil is 10.5 m or less, the but not less than:
lateral transverse reinforcement in the ductile region shall
occur through the length of the pile. Where the pile length  f   1 1.4 P  (308.5.6)
Ash  0.12s hc  c   
exceeds 10.5 m, the ductile pile region shall be taken as  f   2 f A 
 yh   c g 
the greater of 10.5 m or the distance from the underside of
the pile cap to the point of zero curvature plus three where:
times the least pile dimension. fyh = ≤ 483 MPa
hc = Cross-sectional dimension of pile core measured
In the ductile region, the center-to-center spacing of the center to center of hoop reinforcement, mm
spirals or hoop reinforcement shall not exceed one-fifth s = Spacing of transverse reinforcement measured
of the least pile dimension, six times the diameter of the along length of pile, mm
longitudinal strand, or 200 mm, whichever is smaller. P = Axial load, N
Ash = Cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement,
Circular spiral reinforcement shall be spliced by lapping mm2
one full turn and bending the end of the spiral to a 90- Ag = Gross area of pile, mm2
degree hook or by use of a mechanical or welded splice. fc = Specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
Where the transverse reinforcement consists of circular The hoops and cross ties shall be equivalent to deformed
spirals, the volumetric ratio of spiral transverse bars not less than 10mm in size. Rectangular hoop ends
reinforcement in the ductile region shall comply with the shall terminate at a corner with seismic hooks. Outside of
following: the length of the pile requiring transverse confinement
reinforcing, the spiral or hoop reinforcing with a
f c  Ag   1 1.4P  (308.5.2)
s  0.12   1    volumetric ratio not less than one-half of that required for
f yh  Ach   2 f c Ag  transverse confinement reinforcing shall be provided.
but not less than: 306.6 Cast-In-Place Concrete Foundations
f c  1 1.4 P  (308.5.3) Where a structure is assigned to Seismic Zone 4, a
 s  0.12    minimum longitudinal reinforcement ratio of 0.005 shall
f yh  2 f c Ag 
be provided for uncased cast-in-place drilled or augered
and need not exceed: concrete piles, piers or caissons in the top one-half of the
pile length a minimum length of 3 m below ground or
 s  0.021 (308.5.4) throughout the flexural length of the pile, whichever
length is greatest. The flexural length shall be taken as the
where: length of the pile to a point where the concrete section
Ag = Pile cross-sectional area, mm2 cracking moment strength multiplied by 0.4 exceeds the
Ach = Core area defined by spiral outside diameter, mm2 required moment strength at that point. There shall be a
fc = Specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa minimum of four longitudinal bars with transverse
fyh = Yield strength of spiral reinforcement ≤ 586 MPa confinement reinforcement provided in the pile within
P = Axial load on pile, kN three times the least pile dimension of the bottom of the
s = Volumetric ratio (volume of spiral/ volume of core) pile cap. A transverse spiral reinforcement ratio of not
less than one-half of that required in Section 410 for other
This required amount of spiral reinforcement is permitted than Soil Profile Type SE, SF or as determined in Section
to be obtained by providing an inner and outer spiral. 208.4.3 or liquefiable sites is permitted. Tie spacing
When transverse reinforcement consists of rectangular throughout the remainder of the concrete section shall
hoops and cross ties, the total cross-sectional area of neither exceed 12-longitudinal-bar diameters, one-half the
lateral transverse reinforcement in the ductile region with least dimension of the section, nor 300 mm. Ties shall be
spacings, and perpendicular to dimension, hc, shall a minimum of 10 mm bars for piles with a least
conform to: dimension up to 500 mm, and 12 mm bars for larger piles.
 f  A  1 P  (308.5.5)
Ash  0.3s hc  c   g  1   1.4 
 f  A
 yh   ch   2 f c Ag 
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SECTION 309
SPECIAL FOUNDATION, SLOPE
STABILIZATION AND
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
309.1 Special Foundation Systems
Special foundation systems or materials other than
specified in the foregoing Sections may be introduced
provided that such systems can be supported by
calculations and theory to be providing safe foundation
solutions and when approved by the engineer-of-record.
The special foundations solutions for incorporation into
the foundation should have proven track record of
successful usage in similar applications.
309.2 Acceptance and Approval

Structure support on improved ground using such special
systems or proprietary systems may be approved subject
to submittal of calculations and other proof of acceptance
and usage.
309.3 Specific Applications

Specialty foundation systems may be applied or used
specifically to address any or combinations of the
following: bearing capacity improvement, soil
liquefaction mitigation, slope stability enhancement,
control and/or acceleration of consolidation settlements or
immediate settlements, increase in soil shear strength and
capacity, sliding resistance, increased pullout or
overturning capacity, special anchors in soil and rock and
other beneficial effects. Controlled low strength materials
(CLSM) to reduce fill loads may be allowed for use where
applicable.

NSCP C101-10
Chapter 4
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

VOLUME I
SIXTH EDITION

Tel. No : (+632) 410-0483

Fax No.: (+632) 411-8606
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CHAPTER 4 - Concrete 4-1
Table of Contents
SECTION 401 - GENERAL .................................................................................................................................................. 7
401.1 Notation ............................................................................................................................................................................. 7
401.2 Scope ................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
SECTION 402 - DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................................................ 8
SECTION 403 - SPECIFICATIONS FOR TESTS AND MATERIALS ..................................................................... 13
403.1 Notation ........................................................................................................................................................................... 13
403.2 Tests of Materials ............................................................................................................................................................ 13
403.3 Cement ............................................................................................................................................................................. 13
403.4 Aggregates ....................................................................................................................................................................... 13
403.5 Water ............................................................................................................................................................................... 13
403.6 Steel Reinforcement........................................................................................................................................................ 14
403.7 Admixtures ...................................................................................................................................................................... 15
403.8 Storage of Materials ....................................................................................................................................................... 16
403.9 Standards Cited in this Chapter ................................................................................................................................... 16
SECTION 404 - DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS ....................................................................................................... 18
404.1 Notation ........................................................................................................................................................................... 18
404.2 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................................................... 18
404.3 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 19
404.4 Exposure Categories and Classes .................................................................................................................................... 19
404.5 Special Exposure Conditions ......................................................................................................................................... 19
404.6 Requirements for Concrete Mixtures ............................................................................................................................... 19
404.7 Alternative Cementitious Materials for Sulphate Exposure............................................................................................. 19
404.8 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio .............................................................................................................................. 19
404.9 Corrosion Protection of Reinforcement ......................................................................................................................... 19
SECTION 405 - CONCRETE QUALITY, MIXING AND PLACING ....................................................................... 21
405.1 Notations.......................................................................................................................................................................... 21
405.2 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 21
405.3 Selection of Concrete Proportions ................................................................................................................................. 21
405.4 Proportioning on the Basis of Field Experience and Trial Mixtures, or Both ........................................................ 22
405.5 Proportioning without Field Experience or Trial Mixtures......................................................................................... 23
405.6 Average Strength Reduction .......................................................................................................................................... 23
405.7 Evaluation and Acceptance of Concrete ...................................................................................................................... 23
405.8 Preparation of Equipment and Place of Deposit ........................................................................................................ 25
405.9 Mixing ............................................................................................................................................................................. 25
405.10 Conveying ...................................................................................................................................................................... 25
405.11 Depositing ...................................................................................................................................................................... 26
405.12 Curing ............................................................................................................................................................................ 26
405.13 Hot Weather Requirements .......................................................................................................................................... 26
SECTION 406 - FORMWORK, EMBEDDED PIPES AND CONSTRUCTION JOINTS ..................................... 26
406.1 Design of Formwork ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
406.2 Removal of Forms, Shores and Reshoring .................................................................................................................. 27
406.3 Conduits and Pipes Embedded in Concrete ................................................................................................................. 27
406.4 Construction Joints ......................................................................................................................................................... 28
SECTION 407 - DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT .................................................................................................... 28
407.1 Notations.......................................................................................................................................................................... 29
407.2 Standard Hooks............................................................................................................................................................... 29
407.3 Minimum Bend Diameters ............................................................................................................................................ 29
407.4 Bending of Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................................. 29
407.5 Surface Conditions of Reinforcement.............................................................................................................................. 29
407.6 Placing Reinforcement.................................................................................................................................................... 29
407.7 Spacing Limits for Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................. 30
407.8 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................... 31
407.9 Special Reinforcement Details for Columns ................................................................................................................ 32
407.10 Connections ................................................................................................................................................................... 33
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4-2 CHAPTER 4 - Concrete
407.11 Lateral Reinforcement for Compression Members ..................................................................................................... 33

407.12 Lateral Reinforcement for Flexural Members ............................................................................................................ 34
407.13 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement ................................................................................................................. 34
407.14 Requirements for Structural Integrity .......................................................................................................................... 35
SECTION 408 - ANALYSIS AND DESIGN-GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS .......................................................... 38
408.1 Notations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 38
408.2 Design Methods .............................................................................................................................................................. 38
408.3 Loading ............................................................................................................................................................................ 38
408.4 Methods of Analysis ...................................................................................................................................................... 38
408.5 Redistribution of Negative Moments in Continuous Nonprestressed Flexural Members .......................................... 39
408.6 Modulus of Elasticity ....................................................................................................................................................... 39
408.7 Lightweight Concrete....................................................................................................................................................... 39
408.8 Stiffness ........................................................................................................................................................................... 39
408.9 Effective Stiffness to Determine Lateral Deflections...................................................................................................... 40
408.10 Span Length ................................................................................................................................................................... 40
408.11 Columns ......................................................................................................................................................................... 40
408.12 Arrangement of Live Load .......................................................................................................................................... 40
408.13 T-beam Construction ..................................................................................................................................................... 40
408.14 Joist Construction.......................................................................................................................................................... 41
408.15 Separate Floor Finish ..................................................................................................................................................... 41
SECTION 409 - STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS........................................................... 42
409.1 Notations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 42
409.2 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 42
409.3 Required Strength ........................................................................................................................................................... 43
409.4 Design Strength ............................................................................................................................................................... 43
409.5 Design Strength for Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................... 44
409.6 Control of Deflections.................................................................................................................................................... 44
SECTION 410 - FLEXURE AND AXIAL LOADS ........................................................................................................ 47
410.1 Notations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 47
410.2 Scope................................................................................................................................................................................ 48
410.3 Design Assumptions ....................................................................................................................................................... 48
410.4 General Principles and Requirements ............................................................................................................................ 49
410.5 Distance between Lateral Supports of Flexural Members .......................................................................................... 49
410.6 Minimum Reinforcement of Flexural Members .......................................................................................................... 50
410.7 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement in Beams and One-way Slabs ..................................................................... 50
410.8 Deep Beams .................................................................................................................................................................... 50
410.9 Design Dimensions for Compression Members ........................................................................................................... 51
410.10 Limits for Reinforcement of Compression Members................................................................................................ 51
410.11 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members .......................................................................................................... 51
410.12 Magnified Moments ...................................................................................................................................................... 52
410.13 Moment Magnification Procedure - Nonsway ............................................................................................................... 53
410.14 Moment Magnification Procedure - Sway .................................................................................................................... 53
410.15 Axially Loaded Members Supporting Slab System .................................................................................................. 54
410.16 Transmission of Column Loads through Floor System............................................................................................ 54
410.17 Composite Compression Members .............................................................................................................................. 54
410.18 Bearing Strength ........................................................................................................................................................... 55
SECTION 411 - SHEAR AND TORSION........................................................................................................................ 56
411.1 Notations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 56
411.2 Shear Strength ................................................................................................................................................................. 57
411.3 Lightweight Concrete...................................................................................................................................................... 58
411.4 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete for Nonprestressed Members .......................................................................... 58
411.5 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete for Prestressed Members ................................................................................ 59
411.6 Shear Strength Provided by Shear Reinforcement ......................................................................................................... 60
411.7 Design for Torsion ......................................................................................................................................................... 61
411.8 Shear - Friction ................................................................................................................................................................ 64
411.9 Deep Beams .................................................................................................................................................................... 65

411.10 Provisions for Brackets and Corbels .......................................................................................................................... 65

411.11 Provisions for Walls .................................................................................................................................................... 66
411.12 Transfer of Moments to Columns .................................................................................................................................. 67
411.13 Provisions for Slabs and Footings.............................................................................................................................. 67
SECTION 412 - DEVELOPMENT AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT ........................................................ 70
412.1 Notations.......................................................................................................................................................................... 70
412.2 Development of Reinforcement - General ..................................................................................................................... 71
412.3 Development of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension ............................................................................ 71
412.4 Development of Deformed Bars in Compression ....................................................................................................... 72
412.5 Development of Bundled Bars ...................................................................................................................................... 72
412.6 Development of Standard Hooks in Tension ............................................................................................................... 72
412.7 Development of Headed and Mechanically Anchored Deformed Bars in Tension ......................................................... 73
412.8 Development of Welded Deformed Wire Reinforcement in Tension........................................................................ 73
412.9 Development of Welded Plain Wire Reinforcement in Tension................................................................................. 73
412.10 Development of Prestressing Strand .............................................................................................................................. 74
412.11 Development of flexural Reinforcement - General........................................................................................................ 74
412.12 Development of Positive Moment Reinforcement....................................................................................................... 74
412.13 Development of Negative Moment Reinforcement ....................................................................................................... 75
412.14 Development of Web Reinforcement .......................................................................................................................... 75
412.15 Splices of Reinforcement - General ............................................................................................................................. 76
412.16 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension ........................................................................................ 76
412.17 Splices of Deformed Bars in Compression .................................................................................................................... 77
412.18 Special Splices Requirements for Columns .................................................................................................................. 77
412.19 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Reinforcement in Tension..................................................................................... 77
412.20 Splices of Welded Plain Wire Reinforcement in Tension ............................................................................................. 78
SECTION 413 - TWO-WAY SLAB SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................... 78
413.1 Notations.......................................................................................................................................................................... 78
413.2 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................... 79
413.3 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................................................... 79
413.4 Slab Reinforcement ......................................................................................................................................................... 79
413.5 Openings in Slab Systems ............................................................................................................................................... 81
413.6 Design Procedures ........................................................................................................................................................... 82
413.7 Direct Design Method...................................................................................................................................................... 82
413.8 Equivalent Frame Method ............................................................................................................................................... 85
SECTION 414 - WALLS ........................................................................................................................................................ 86
414.1 Notations.......................................................................................................................................................................... 87
414.2 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................... 87
414.3 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 87
414.4 Minimum Reinforcement................................................................................................................................................. 87
414.5 Walls Design as Compression Members ......................................................................................................................... 88
414.6 Empirical Design Method ................................................................................................................................................ 88
414.7 Non-Bearing Walls .......................................................................................................................................................... 88
414.8 Walls as Grade Beams ..................................................................................................................................................... 89
414.9 Alternate Design of Slender Walls .................................................................................................................................. 89
SECTION 415 - FOOTINGS .................................................................................................................................................. 89
415.1 Notations.......................................................................................................................................................................... 90
415.2 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................... 90
415.3 Loads and Reactions ........................................................................................................................................................ 90
415.4 Footings Supporting Circular or Regular Polygon-Shaped Columns or Pedestals .......................................................... 90
415.5 Moment in Footings......................................................................................................................................................... 90
415.6 Shear in Footings ............................................................................................................................................................ 90
415.7 Development of Reinforcement in Footings .................................................................................................................... 91
415.8 Minimum Footing Depth ................................................................................................................................................. 91
415.9 Transfer of Force at Base of Column, Wall or Reinforcement Pedestal .......................................................................... 91
415.10 Sloped or Stepped Footings ........................................................................................................................................... 92
415.11 Combined Footings and Mats ........................................................................................................................................ 92
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415.12 Plain Concrete Pedestals and Footings........................................................................................................................... 92

SECTION 416 – PRECAST CONCRETE ............................................................................................................................ 92
416.1 Notations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 92
416.2 Scope................................................................................................................................................................................ 92
416.3 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 92
416.4 Distribution of Forces among Members .......................................................................................................................... 92
416.5 Member Design ................................................................................................................................................................ 93
416.6 Structural Integrity ........................................................................................................................................................... 93
416.7 Connection and Bearing Design....................................................................................................................................... 93
416.8 Items Embedded After Concrete Placement .................................................................................................................... 94
416.9 Marking and Identification............................................................................................................................................... 94
416.10 Handling......................................................................................................................................................................... 94
416.11 Strength Evaluation of Precast Construction ................................................................................................................. 94
SECTION 417 - COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS ........................................................................... 95
417.1 Notations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 95
417.2 Scope................................................................................................................................................................................ 95
417.3 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 95
417.4 Shoring ............................................................................................................................................................................. 95
417.5 Vertical Shear Strength .................................................................................................................................................... 95
417.6 Horizontal Shear Strength ................................................................................................................................................ 95
417.7 Ties for Horizontal Shear ................................................................................................................................................. 96
SECTION 418 – PRESTRESSED CONCRETE ................................................................................................................... 97
418.1 Notations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 97
418.2 Scope................................................................................................................................................................................ 97
418.3 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 97
418.4 Design Assumptions ........................................................................................................................................................ 98
418.5 Permissible Stresses in Concrete – Flexural Members .................................................................................................... 98
418.6 Permissible Stress in Prestressing Tendons ..................................................................................................................... 99
418.7 Loss of Prestress .............................................................................................................................................................. 99
418.7.2 Friction Loss in Post-Tensioning Tendons.................................................................................................................... 99
418.8 Flexural Strength ............................................................................................................................................................ 100
418.9 Limits for Reinforcement of Flexural Members ............................................................................................................ 100
418.10 Minimum Bonded Reinforcement................................................................................................................................ 100
418.11 Statically Indeterminate Structures .............................................................................................................................. 101
418.12 Compression Members – Combined Flexural and Axial Loads ................................................................................. 101
418.13 Slab Systems: ............................................................................................................................................................... 102
418.14 Post-Tensioned Tendon Anchorage Zones .................................................................................................................. 103
418.15 Design of Anchorage Zones for Monostrand or Single 16 mm Diameter Bar Tendons .............................................. 104
418.16 Design of Anchorage Zones for Multistrannd Tendons ............................................................................................... 104
418.17 Corrosion Protection for Unbonded Prestressing Tendons .......................................................................................... 105
418.18 Post-Tensioning Ducts ................................................................................................................................................. 105
418.19 Grout for Bonded Prestressing Tendons ...................................................................................................................... 105
418.20 Protection for Prestressing Steel ................................................................................................................................. 105
418.21 Application and Measurement of Prestressing Force ................................................................................................... 105
418.22 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers ................................................................................................................. 106
418.23 External Post- Tensioning ............................................................................................................................................ 109
SECTION 419 - SHELLS AND FOLDED PLATE MEMBERS ....................................................................................... 109
419.1 Notations ........................................................................................................................................................................ 109
419.2 Scope And Definitions ................................................................................................................................................... 109
419.3 Analysis and Design ...................................................................................................................................................... 110
419.4 Design strength of Materials ......................................................................................................................................... 110
419.5 Shell Reinforcement...................................................................................................................................................... 110
419.6 Construction ................................................................................................................................................................... 111
SECTION 420 - STRENGTH EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES............................................................. 112
420.1 Notations ........................................................................................................................................................................ 112
420.2 Strength Evaluation-General .......................................................................................................................................... 112

420.3 Determination of Required Dimensions and Material Properties .................................................................................. 112

420.4 Load Test Procedure ...................................................................................................................................................... 112
420.5 Loading Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................... 113
420.6 Acceptance Criteria ....................................................................................................................................................... 113
420.7 Provisions for Lower Load Rating................................................................................................................................. 113
420.8 Safety ............................................................................................................................................................................. 113
SECTION 421 – EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURES .................................................................................... 113
421.1 Notations........................................................................................................................................................................ 114
421.2 Definitions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 115
421.3 General Requirements ................................................................................................................................................... 116
421.3.6 Mechanical Splices in Special Moment Frames and Special Structural Walls ........................................................... 117
421.4 Intermediate Precast Structural Walls ............................................................................................................................ 118
421.5 Flexural Members of Special Moment Frames .............................................................................................................. 118
421.6 Special Moment Frame Subjected to Bending and Axial Load ..................................................................................... 119
421.7 Joints of Special Moment Frames .................................................................................................................................. 121
421.8 Special Reinforced Concrete Structural Walls and Coupling Beams ............................................................................ 122
421.9 Structural Diaphragms and Trusses ............................................................................................................................... 125
421.10 Foundations ................................................................................................................................................................. 127
421.11 Members not Designated as Part of the Seismic-Force-Resisting System................................................................... 128
421.12 Requirements for Intermediate Moment Frames, Seismic Zone 2............................................................................... 129
421.13 Special Moment Frames Using Precast Concrete ........................................................................................................ 130
421.14 Ordinary Moment Frames............................................................................................................................................ 131
421.15 Special Structural Walls Constructed Using Precast Concrete ................................................................................... 131
SECTION 422 - STRUCTURAL PLAIN CONCRETE ..................................................................................................... 132
422.1 Notations........................................................................................................................................................................ 132
422.2 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 132
422.3 Limitations ..................................................................................................................................................................... 132
422.4 Joints .............................................................................................................................................................................. 132
422.5 Design Method .............................................................................................................................................................. 133
422.6 Strength Design ............................................................................................................................................................. 133
422. 7 Walls ............................................................................................................................................................................. 134
422.8 Footing ........................................................................................................................................................................... 134
422.9 Pedestals ........................................................................................................................................................................ 135
422.10 Precast Members.......................................................................................................................................................... 135
422.11 Plain Concrete in Earthquake-Resisting Structures ..................................................................................................... 135
SECTION 423 - ANCHORAGE TO CONCRETE .......................................................................................................... 136
423.1 Definitions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 136
423.2 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 137
423.4 General Requirements for Strength of Anchors ............................................................................................................. 138
423.5 Design Requirements for Tensile Loading .................................................................................................................... 139
426.6 Desing Requirements for Shear Loading ....................................................................................................................... 141
423.7 Interaction of Tensile and Shear Forces......................................................................................................................... 143
423.8 Required Edge Distances, Spacings, and Thickness to Preclude Splitting Failure ........................................................ 143
423.9 Installation of Anchors .................................................................................................................................................. 144
SECTION 424 - ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD ......................................................................................................... 144
424.1 Notations........................................................................................................................................................................ 144
424.2 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 145
424.3 General .......................................................................................................................................................................... 145
424.4 Permissible Service Load Stresses ................................................................................................................................. 145
424.5 Development and Splices of Reinforcement.................................................................................................................. 145
424.7 Compression Members With or Without Flexure .......................................................................................................... 146
424.8 Shear and Torsion .......................................................................................................................................................... 146
SECTION 425 – ALTERNATIVE PROVISIONS FOR REINFORCED AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
FLEXURAL AND COMPRESSION MEMBERS ............................................................................................................. 148
425.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 149
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425.2 Redistribution of Negative Moments in Continuous Non-Prestressed Flexural Members ............................................ 149
SECTION 426 - ALTERNATIVE LOAD AND STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS .............................................. 150
SECTION 427 STRUT AND TIE MODELS....................................................................................................................... 152
427.1 Definitions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 152
427.2 Strut-andTie Model Design Procedure........................................................................................................................... 157
427.3 Strength of Struts .......................................................................................................................................................... 157
427.4 Strength of Ties .............................................................................................................................................................. 158
427.5 Strength of Nodal Zones ................................................................................................................................................ 159

SECTION 401 401.2.7 Concrete on Steel Form Deck

GENERAL 401.2.7.1 Design and construction of structural concrete
slabs cast on stay-in-place, noncomposite steel form deck
401.1 Notation are governed by this chapter.
f'c = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa 401.2.7.2 This chapter does not govern the composite
design of structural concrete slabs cast on stay-in-place,
401.2 Scope composite steel form deck. Concrete used in the
construction of such slabs shall be governed by Sections
401.2.1 This chapter provides minimum requirements for 401 to 406 of this chapter, where applicable. Portions of
the design and construction of structural concrete elements such slabs designed as reinforced concrete are governed by
of any building or other structure under requirements of the this Chapter.
National Building Code of the Philippines of which this
Section of the National Structural Code of the Philippines, 401.2.8 Special Provisions for Earthquake Resistance
Volume I, forms a part of. This section also covers the
strength evaluation of existing concrete structures. 401.2.8.1 In regions of moderate (seismic Zone 2) or high
seismic risk (seismic Zone 4), provisions of Section 421
For structural concrete, f'c shall not be less than 17 MPa. shall be satisfied. See Section 421.3.1.
No maximum value of f'c shall apply unless restricted by a
specific code provision. 401.2.9 This chapter does not govern design and
construction of tanks and reservoirs.
401.2.2 This chapter shall govern in all matters pertaining to
the design, construction, and material properties of Guidance on design and construction of concrete tanks and
structural concrete elements wherever this chapter is in reservoir shall be obtained from the American Concrete
conflict with requirements contained in other standards Institute ACI 350-01 or ACI 350-06 “Code Requirements
referenced in this chapter. for Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures” unless
sufficient supporting evidence can be obtained from
401.2.3 Design and construction of one- and two-family recognized literature.
dwellings and multiple single-family dwellings
(townhouses) and their accessory structures will be covered
by provisions of the National Structural Code of the
Philippines, Volume III, Housing.
401.2.4 For unusual structures, such as arches, tanks,

reservoirs, bins and silos, blast-resistant structures, and
chimneys, provisions of this chapter shall govern where
applicable. See also 422.2.3.
401.2.5 This chapter does not govern design and installation

of portions of concrete piles and drilled piers embedded in
ground except for structures in regions of high seismic risk
or assigned to high seismic performance or design
categories. See Section 421.10.4 for requirements for
concrete piles, drilled piers, and caissons in structures in
regions of high seismic risk or assigned to high seismic
performance or design categories..
401.2.6 This chapter does not govern design and

construction of soil-supported slabs, unless the slab
transmits vertical loads from other portions of the structure
to the soil.
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wires, or single bars larger than 16 mm diameter, that

satisfies Section 418.22.1 and the bearing stress and
SECTION 402 minimum plate stiffness requirements of AASHTO Standard
DEFINITIONS Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition, 2002,
Division I, Sections 9.21.7.2.1 through 9.21.7.2.4.
The following terms are defined for general use in this BONDED TENDON is a prestressing tendon that is bonded
chapter. Specialized definitions appear in individual to concrete either directly or through grouting.
sections.
BOUNDARY ELEMENT is that portion along structural
ADMIXTURE is material other than water, aggregate, or wall and structural diaphragm edge strengthened by
hydraulic cement used as an ingredient of concrete and longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. Boundary
added to concrete before or during its mixing to modify its elements do not necessarily require increase in the thickness
properties. of wall or diaphragm. Edges of opening within walls and
diaphragms shall be provided with boundary elements as
AGGREGATE is granular material, such as sand, gravel, required by Section 421.8.6.2 or 421.9.7.5. See Section 421.
crushed stone and iron blast-furnace slag, and when used
with a cementing medium forms a hydraulic cement CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS are materials as
concrete or mortar. specified in Section 403 which have cementing value when
used in concrete either by themselves, such as portland
AGGREGATE, LIGHTWEIGHT is aggregate with a dry, cement, blended hydraulic cements and expansive cement,
loose weight of 1120 kg/m3 or less. or such materials in combination with fly ash, raw or other
calcined natural pozzolans, silica fume, or ground
AIR-DRY WEIGHT is the unit weight of a lightweight granulated blast-furnace slag.
concrete specimen cured for seven days with neither loss
nor gain of moisture at 15° C to 27° C and dried for 21 days COLLECTOR ELEMENT is an element that acts in axial
in 50 7 percent relative humidity at 23° C 1.1° C. tension or compression to transmit earthquake-induced
forces between a structural diaphragm and a vertical
ANCHORAGE DEVICE IN POST-TENSIONING is a element of the seismic-force-resisting system. See Section
device used to anchor tendons to concrete member; in 421.
pretensioning, a device used to anchor tendons during
hardening of concrete. COLUMN is a member with a ratio of height-to-least-
lateral dimension of 3 or greater used primarily to support
ANCHORAGE ZONE IN POST-TENSIONED axial compressive load. For a tapered member, the least
MEMBERS is the portion of the member through which lateral dimension is the average of the top and bottom
the concentrated prestressing force is transferred to the dimensions of the smaller side.
concrete and distributed more uniformly across the section.
Its extent is equal to the largest dimension of the cross COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS
section. For intermediate anchorage devices, the anchorage are concrete flexural members of precast and cast-in-place
zone includes the disturbed regions ahead of and behind the concrete elements, or both, constructed in separate place-
anchorage devices. ments but so interconnected that all elements respond to
loads as a unit.
BASE OF STRUCTURE is that level at which the
horizontal earthquake ground motions are assumed to be COMPRESSION-CONTROLLED SECTION is a cross
imparted to a building. This level does not necessarily section in which the net tensile strain in the extreme tension
coincide with the ground level. See Section 421. steel at nominal strength is less than or equal to the
compression-controlled strain limit.
BASIC MONOSTRAND ANCHORAGE DEVICE is
an anchorage device used with any single strand or a single COMPRESSION-CONTROLLED STRAIN LIMIT is
16 mm or smaller diameter bar that satisfies Section the net tensile strain at balanced strain conditions. See
418.22.1 and the anchorage device requirements of the Post- Section 410.4.3.
Tensioning Institute's "Specification for Unbonded Single
Strand Tendons". CONCRETE is a mixture of portland cement or any other
hydraulic cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and
BASIC MULTISTRAND ANCHORAGE DEVICE is water, with or without admixtures.
an anchorage device used with multiple strands, bars or

CONCRETE, NORMALWEIGHT is concrete containing hooks with at least six-diameter extension at the other end.
only aggregate that conforms to ASTM C33. The hooks shall engage peripheral longitudinal bars. The
90-degree hooks of two successive crossties engaging the
CONCRETE, SAND-LIGHTWEIGHT is lightweight same longitudinal bars shall be alternated end for end. See
concrete containing only normal weight aggregate that Sections 407, 421.
conforms to ASTM C33 and only lightweight aggregate that
conforms to ASTM C330. CURVATURE FRICTION is friction resulting from bends
or curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile.
CONCRETE, SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH OF (f'c) is the compressive strength of DEFORMED REINFORCEMENTS are deformed
concrete used in design and evaluated in accordance with reinforcing bars, bar and rod mats, deformed wire, welded
provisions of Section 405 in MPa. Whenever the quantity smooth wire fabric and welded deformed wire fabric
f'c is under a radical sign, square root of numerical value conforming to Section 403.6.3.
only is intended, and result has units of MPa.
DESIGN DISPLACEMENT is the total lateral
CONCRETE, STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT is displacement expected for the design-basis earthquake, as
concrete containing lightweight aggregate that conforms to required by the governing code for earthquake-resistant
Section 403.4 and has an air-dry unit weight as determined design. See Section 421.
by "Test Method for Unit Weight of Structural Lightweight
Concrete" (ASTM C 567) not exceeding 1840 kg/m3. In DESIGN LOAD COMBINATIONS are the combination
this code, a lightweight concrete containing only lightweight of factored loads and forces in Section 409.3.
coarse and fine aggregates that conform to ASTM C330 is
termed "concrete, all-lightweight'', and lightweight concrete DESIGN STORY DRIFT RATIO is the relative
containing lightweight aggregate and an equilibrium difference of design displacement in between the top and
density, as determined by ASTM C567, between 1440 bottom of a story, divided by the story height. See Section
kg/m3 and 1840 kg/m3, is termed "concrete, lightweight.'' 421.
CONNECTION is a region that joins two or more DEVELOPMENT LENGTH is the length of embedded
members. In Section 421, a connection also refers to a reinforcement required to develop the design strength of
region that joins members of which one or more is precast, reinforcement at a critical section. See Section 409.4.3.
for which the following more specific definitions apply:
DROP PANEL is a projection below the slab used to
DUCTILE CONNECTION is a connection that reduce the amount of negative reinforcement over a column
experiences yielding as a result of the earthquake design or the minimum required slab thickness, and to increase the
displacements. slab shear strength. See Sections 413.3.5 and 413.4.7.
STRONG CONNECTION a connection that remains DUCT is a conduit (plain or corrugated) to accommodate
elastic while adjoining members experience yielding as a prestressing steel for post-tensioned installation.
result of the earthquake design displacements. Requirements for post-tensioning ducts are given in Section
418.18.
CONTRACT DOCUMENTS are documents, including
the project drawings and project specifications, covering the EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF SECTION (d) is the distance
required Work. measured from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
tension reinforcement.
CONTRACTION JOINT is a formed, sawed, or tooled
groove in a concrete structure to create a weakened plane EFFECTIVE PRESTRESS is the stress remaining in
and regulate the location of cracking resulting from the prestressing tendons after all losses have occurred,
dimensional change of different parts of the structure. excluding effects of dead load and superimposed load.
COVER, SPECIFIED CONCRETE is the distance EMBEDMENT LENGTH is the length of embedded
between the outermost surface of embedded reinforcement reinforcement provided beyond a critical section.
and the closest outer surface of the concrete indicated on
design drawings or in project specifications. EQUILIBRIUM DENSITY is the density of lightweight
concrete after exposure to a relative humidity of 50 ± 5
CROSSTIE is a continuous reinforcing bar having a percent and a temperature of 23.00 ± 2.00° C for a period of
seismic hook at one end and a hook not less than 90-degree time sufficient to reach constant density (see ASTM C567).
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EXTREME TENSION STEEL is the reinforcement MODULUS OF ELASTICITY is the ratio of normal stress
(prestressed or nonprestressed) that is the farthest from the to corresponding strain for tensile or compressive stresses
extreme compression fiber. below proportional limit of material. See Section 408.6.
HEADED DEFORMED BARS are deformed reinforcing MOMENT FRAME is a frame in which members and
bars with heads attached at one or both ends. Heads are joints resist forces through flexure, shear, and axial force.
attached to the bar end by means such as welding or forging Moment frames designated as part of the seismic-force-
onto the bar, internal threads on the head mating to threads resisting system shall be categorized as follows:
on the bar end, or a separate threaded nut to secure the head
of the bar. The net bearing area of headed deformed bar ORDINARY MOMENT FRAME is a cast-in-place or
equals the gross area of the head minus the larger of the area precast concrete frame complying with the requirements of
of the bar and the area of any obstruction. Sections 401 to 418, and, in the case of ordinary moment
frames assigned to areas with low seismic risk, also
HEADED SHEAR STUD REINFORCEMENT is a complying with Section 421.14.
reinforcement consisting of individual headed studs, or
groups of studs, with anchorage provided by a head at each INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAME is a cast-in-place
end or a common base rail consisting of a steel plate or frame complying with the requirements of Section 421.12 in
shape. addition to the requirements for ordinary moment frames.
HOOP is a closed tie or continuously wound tie. A closed SPECIAL MOMENT FRAME a cast-in-place frame
tie can be made up of several reinforcement elements each complying with the requirements of Section 421.3.4 through
having hooks at both ends. A continuously wound tie shall 421.3.7, 421.5 through 421.7, or a precast frame complying
have a seismic hook at both ends. See Section 421. with the requirements of Section 421.5 through 421.8,
421.13.1 through 421.13.4. In addition, the requirements for
ISOLATION JOINT is a separation between adjoining ordinary moment frames shall be satisfied.
parts of a concrete structure, usually a vertical plane, at a
designed location such as to interfere least with performance NET TENSILE STRAIN is the tensile strain at nominal
of the structure, yet such as to allow relative movement in strength exclusive of strains due to effective prestress,
three directions and avoid formation of cracks elsewhere in creep, shrinkage and temperature.
the concrete and through which all or part of the bonded
reinforcement is interrupted. PEDESTAL is an upright compression member with a ratio
of unsupported height to average least lateral dimension not
JACKING FORCE is the temporary force exerted by exceeding 3. For a tapered member, the least lateral
device that introduces tension into prestressing tendons in dimension is the average of the top and bottom dimensions
prestressed concrete. of the smaller side.
JOINT is a portion of structure common to intersecting PLAIN CONCRETE is structural concrete with no
members. The effective cross-sectional area of a joint of a reinforcement or with less reinforcement than the minimum
special moment frame, Af , for shear strength computations is amount specified for reinforced concrete.
defined in Section 421.7.4.1.
PLAIN REINFORCEMENT is reinforcement that does
LOAD, DEAD is the dead weight supported by a member, not conform to definition of deformed reinforcement. See
as defined by Section 204 (without load factors). Section 403.6.4.
LOAD, FACTORED is the load, multiplied by appropriate PLASTIC HINGE REGION is the length of frame
load factors, used to proportion members by the strength element over which flexural yielding is intended to occur
design method of this chapter. See Sections 408.2.1 and due to earthquake design displacements, extending not less
409.3. than a distance h from the critical section where flexural
yielding initiates. See Section 421.
LOAD, LIVE is the live load specified by Section 205
(without load factors). POST-TENSIONING is a method of prestressing in which
tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened.
LOAD, SERVICE is the load specified by Sections 204 to
207 (without load factors). PRECAST CONCRETE is a structural concrete element
cast in other than its final position in the structure.

PRECOMPRESSED TENSILE ZONE is that portion of concrete, to provide corrosion protection, and to contain the
a prestressed member where flexural tension, calculated corrosion inhibiting coating.
using gross section properties, would occur under
unfactored dead and live loads if the prestress force was not SHORES are vertical or inclined support members
present. designed to carry the weight of the formwork, concrete and
construction loads above.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE is structural concrete in
which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce SPAN LENGTH. See Section 408.10.
potential tensile stresses in concrete resulting from loads.
SPECIAL ANCHORAGE DEVICE is an anchorage
PRESTRESSING STEEL is a high-strength steel element device that satisfies Section 418.16.1 and the standardized
such as wire, bar, or strand, or a bundle of such elements, acceptance tests of AASHTO "Standard Specifications for
used to impart prestress forces to concrete. Highway Bridges", 17th Edition, 2002, Division II, Section
10.3.2.3.
PRETENSIONING is a method of prestressing in which
tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed. SPECIAL BOUNDARY ELEMENT is a boundary
element required by Sections 421.8.6.2 or 421.8.6.3.
REINFORCED CONCRETE is structural concrete
reinforced with no less than the minimum amounts of SPIRAL REINFORCEMENT is continuously wound
prestressing tendons or nonprestressed reinforcement reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix.
specified in this chapter.
SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH (fct) is the tensile
REINFORCEMENT is material that conforms to Section strength of concrete determined in accordance with ASTM
403.6, excluding prestressing tendons unless specifically C496M as described in "Specifications for Lightweight
included. Aggregate for Structural Concrete" (ASTM C330). See
Section 405.2.4.
RESHORES are shores placed snugly under a concrete slab
or other structural member after the original forms and STEEL FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE. Concrete
shores have been removed from a larger area, thus requiring containing dispersed randomly oriented steel fibers.
the new slab or structural member to deflect and support its
own weight and existing construction loads applied prior to STIRRUP is reinforcement used to resist shear and torsion
the installation of the reshores. stresses in a structural member; typically bars, wires, or
welded wire fabric (plain or deformed) bent into L, U or
SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY is a classification rectangular shapes and located perpendicular to or at an
assigned to a structure based on its occupancy category and angle to longitudinal reinforcement. The term "stirrups'' is
the severity of the design earthquake ground motion at the usually applied to lateral reinforcement in flexural members
site, as defined by the legally adopted general building code. and the term "ties'' to those in compression members. See
also "Tie."
SEISMIC-FORCE-RESISTING SYSTEM is a portion of
the structure designed to resist earthquake design forces STRENGTH, DESIGN is the nominal strength multiplied
required by the legally adopted general building code using by a strength-reduction factor, . See Section 409.4.
the applicable provisions and load combinations.
STRENGTH, NOMINAL is the strength of a member or
SEISMIC HOOK is a hook on a stirrup, or crosstie having cross section calculated in accordance with provisions and
a bend not less than 135 degrees, except that circular hoops assumptions of the strength design method of this chapter
shall have a bend not less than 90 degrees. Hooks shall have before application of any strength-reduction factors. See
a 6db, but not less than 75 mm extension that engages the Section 409.4.1.
longitudinal reinforcement and projects into the interior of
the stirrup or hoop. See Section 407.2.4 and Section 421.2. STRENGTH, REQUIRED is the strength of a member or
cross section required to resist factored loads or related
SHEAR CAP is a project below the slab used to increase internal moments and forces in such combinations as are
the slab shear strength. See Section 413.3.6. stipulated in this chapter. See Section 409.2.1.
SHEATHING is a material encasing a prestressing tendon STRESS is the intensity of force per unit area.
to prevent bonding the tendon with the surrounding
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STRUCTURAL CONCRETE is all concrete used for TRANSFER LENGTH is the length of embedded pre-
structural purposes, including plain and reinforced concrete. tensionedstrand required to transfer the effective prestress to
the concrete.
STRUCTURAL DIAPHRAGM is a structural member,
such as a floor or roof slab, that transmits forces acting in UNBONDED TENDON is tendon in which the
the plane of the member to the vertical elements of the prestressing steel is prevented from bonding to the concrete
seismic-force-resisting system. See Section 421 for and is free to move relative to the concrete. The prestressing
requirements in the earthquake-resisting structures. force is permanently transferred to the concrete at the
tendon ends by anchorage only.
STRUCTURAL TRUSS is an assemblage of reinforced
concrete members subjected primarily to axial forces. WALL is a member, usually vertical, used to enclose or
separate spaces.
STRUCTURAL WALL is a wall proportioned to resist
combinations of shears, moments, and axial forces. A shear WELDED WIRE REINFORCEMENTS are reinforcing
wall is a structural wall. A structural wall designated as part elements consisting of carbon-steel plain or deformed wires,
of the seismic-force-resisting system shall be categorized as conforming to ASTM A82 or A496, respectively, fabricated
follows: into sheets or rolls in accordance with ASTM A185 or
A497M, respectively; or reinforcing elements consisting of
ORDINARY STRUCTURAL PLAIN CONCRETE stainless-steel plain or deformed wires fabricated into
WALL is a wall complying with the requirements of sheets or rolls conforming to ASTM A1022.
Section 422.
WOBBLE FRICTION in prestressed concrete is friction
ORDINARY REINFORCED CONCRETE caused by unintended deviation of prestressing sheath or
STRUCTURAL WALL is a wall complying with the duct from its specified profile.
requirements of Sections 401 through 418.
WORK is the entire construction or separately identifiable
INTERMEDIATE PRECAST STRUCTURAL WALL is parts thereof that are required to be furnished under the
a wall complying with all applicable requirements of contract documents.
Sections 401 through 418 in addition to 421.
YIELD STRENGTH is the specified minimum yield
SPECIAL STRUCTURAL WALL is a cast-in-place or strength or yield point of reinforcement in MPa. Yield
precast wall shall comply with the requirements of Sections strength or yield point shall be determined in tension
421.3.3 through 421.3.7, 421.8 and 421.15 as applicable, in according to applicable ASTM standards as modified by
addition to the requirements for ordinary reinforced concrete Section 403.6 of this code.
structural walls.
TENDON. In pretensioned applications, the tendon is the

prestressing steel. In post-tensioned applications, the tendon
is a complete assembly consisting of anchorages,
prestressing steel, and sheating with coating for unbounded
applications or ducts with grout for bonded applications.
TENSION-CONTROLLED SECTION is a cross section

in which the net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel at
nominal strength is greater than or equal to 0.005.
TIE is a loop of reinforcing bar or wire enclosing

longitudinal reinforcement. A continuously wound bar or
wire in the form of a circle, rectangle or other polygon
shape without re-entrant corners is acceptable. See
"Stirrup."
TRANSFER is the act of transferring stress in prestressing

tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete
member.

403.4 Aggregates
SECTION 403 SPECIFICATIONS 403.4.1 Concrete aggregates shall conform to one of the
FOR TESTS AND MATERIALS following specifications:
"Specifications for Concrete Aggregates" (ASTM C 33);

403.1 Notation
fy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed "Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural
reinforcement, MPa Concrete" (ASTM C 330).
db = nominal diameter of bar, wire, or prestressing strand,
mm Aggregates failing to meet the above specifications but
which have been shown by special test or actual service to
produce concrete of adequate strength and durability may be
403.2 Tests of Materials used where authorized by the engineer-of-record.
403.2.1 The engineer may require the testing of any 403.4.2 The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate
materials used in concrete construction to determine if shall not be larger than:
materials are of quality specified.
1. One fifth (1/5) the narrowest dimension between sides
403.2.2 Tests of materials and of concrete shall be made in of forms; or
accordance with the standards listed in Section 403.9. 2. One third (1/3) the depth of slabs; or
403.2.3 Complete record of tests of materials and of 3. Three fourths (3/4) the minimum clear spacing between
concrete shall be available for inspection during progress of individual reinforcing bars or wires, bundles of bars, or
work and for two (2) years after completion of the project, prestressing tendons or ducts.
or as required by the implementing agency and shall be
preserved by the engineer for that purpose. These limitations may be waived if, in the judgment of the
engineer, workability and methods of consolidation are such
that concrete can be placed without honeycomb or voids.
403.3 Cement
403.3.1 Cement shall conform to one of the following 403.5 Water

specifications:
403.5.1 Water used in mixing concrete shall be clean and
"Specifications for Portland Cement" (ASTM C150). free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts,
organic materials or other substances deleterious to concrete
"Specifications for Blended Hydraulic Cements" (ASTM C or reinforcement.
595M), excluding Types S and SA which are not intended
as principal cementing constituents of structural concrete. 403.5.2 Mixing water for prestressed concrete or for
concrete that will contain aluminum embedments, including
"Specifications for Expansive Hydraulic Cement" (ASTM that portion of mixing water contributed in the form of free
C 845). moisture on aggregates, shall not contain deleterious
amounts of chloride ions. See Section 404.6.1.
Fly ash and natural pozzolan: ASTM C618.
403.5.3 Non-potable water shall not be used in concrete
unless the following are satisfied:
Ground-granulated blast-furnace slag: ASTM C989.
403.5.3.1 Selection of concrete proportions shall be based
Silica fume: ASTM C1240.
on concrete mixes using water from the same source.
403.3.2 Cement used in the work shall correspond to that on
403.5.3.2 Mortar test cubes made with nonpotable mixing
which selection of concrete proportions was based. See
water shall have 7-day and 28-day strengths equal to at least
Section 405.3.
90 percent of strengths of similar specimens made with
potable water. Strength test comparison shall be made on
mortars, identical except for the mixing water, prepared and
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tested in accordance with "Test Method for Compressive Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 496M). except that
Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 50-mm Cube wire shall not be smaller than size MD25 or larger than size
Specimens)" (ASTM C 109). MD200 unless as permitted in Section 403.6.3.7. For wire
with a specified yield strength fy exceeding 415 MPa, fy
shall be the stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent.
403.6 Steel Reinforcement
403.6.3.6 Welded plain wire fabric for concrete
403.6.1 Reinforcement shall be deformed reinforcement, reinforcement shall conform to "Specifications for Steel
except that plain reinforcement shall be permitted for spirals Welded Wire, Fabric, Plain for Concrete Reinforcement"
or prestressing steels; and reinforcement consisting of (ASTM A 185M), except that for wire with a specified yield
headed shear studs, structural steel, steel pipe or steel tubing strength fy exceeding 415 MPa, fy shall be taken as the
shall be permitted only for resisting shear under conditions
stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent. Welded
specified in Section 411.6.6.1(6). intersections shall not be spaced farther apart than 300 mm
in direction of calculated stress, except for wire fabric used
403.6.2 Welding of reinforcing bars shall conform to as stirrups in accordance with Section 412.14.2.
"Structural Welding Code - Reinforcing Steel", ANSI/AWS
D1.4 of the American Welding Society. Type and location 403.6.3.7 Welded deformed wire fabric for concrete
of welded splices and other required welding of reinforcing
reinforcement shall conform to "Specifications for Steel
bars shall be indicated on the design drawings or in the Welded Wire Fabric, Deformed, for Concrete
project specifications. ASTM reinforcing bar specifications, Reinforcement" (ASTM A 497M), except that for wire
except for ASTM A 706M, shall be supplemented to require
with a specified yield strength fy exceeding 415 MPa, fy
a report of material properties necessary to conform to shall be the stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent.
requirements in ANSI/AWS D1.4. Welded intersections shall not be spaced farther apart than
400 mm in direction of calculated stress, except for wire
403.6.3 Deformed Reinforcements fabric used as stirrups in accordance with Section 412.14.2.
Deformed wire larger than MD200 is permitted when used
403.6.3.1 Deformed reinforcing bars shall conform to one of in welded wire reinforcement conforming to ASTM
the following specifications, except as permitted by Section A497M, but shall be treated as plain wire for development
403.6.3.3: and splice design.
1. "Specifications for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel 403.6.3.8 Galvanized reinforcing bars shall comply with
Bars for Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 615M) "Specifications for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for
for seismic resisting members. Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 767M). Epoxy-coated
2. "Specifications for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed Bars for reinforcing bars shall comply with "Specification for
Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 706M) for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars" (ASTM A 775M) or
members resisting earthquake induced forces. with "Specifications for Epoxy-Coated Prefabricated Steel
Reinforcing Bars" (ASTM A 934M). Galvanized or epoxy-
403.6.3.2 Deformed reinforcing bars shall conform to one coated reinforcement shall conform to one of the
of the ASTM specifications listed in Section 403.6.3.1, specifications listed in Section 403.6.3.1.
except that for bars with fy exceeding 415 MPa, fy shall be
taken as the stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent. 403.6.3.9 Epoxy-coated wires and welded wire fabric shall
See Section 409.5. comply with "Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated
Steel Wire and Welded Wire Fabric for Reinforcement"
403.6.3.3 Deformed reinforcing bars conforming to ASTM (ASTM A 884M). Epoxy-coated wires shall conform to
A1035 shall be permitted to be used as transverse Section 403.6.3.5 and epoxy-coated welded wire fabric shall
reinforcement in Section 421.6.4 or spiral reinforcement in conform to Section 403.6.3.5 or 403.6.3.6.
Section 410.10.3.
403.6.3.10 Deformed stainless-steel wire and deformed and
403.6.3.4 Bar mats for concrete reinforcement shall conform plain stainless-steel welded wire for concrete reinforcement
to "Specifications for Fabricated Deformed Steel Bar Mats shall conform to ASTM 1022M, except deformed wire shall
for Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 184M). not be smaller than size MD25 or larger than size MD200,
Reinforcing bars used in bar mats shall conform to one of and the yield strength for wire with fy exceeding 415 MPa
the specifications listed in Section 403.6.3.1. shall be taken as the stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35
403.6.3.5 Deformed wire for concrete reinforcement shall percent. Deformed wire larger than MD200 is permitted
conform to "Specifications for Steel Wire, Deformed, for where used in welded wire reinforcement conforming to

ASTM A1022M, but shall be treated as plain wire for Section 410.17.7 or 410.17.8, shall conform to one of the
development and splice design. Spacing of welded following specifications:
intersections shall not exceed 300 mm for plain welded wire
and 400 mm for deformed welded wire in direction of 1. "Specifications for Carbon Steel" (ASTM A 36M).
calculated stress, except for welded wire reinforcement used 2. "Specifications for High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural
as stirrups in accordance with Section 412.14.2. Steel" (ASTM A 242M).
3. "Specifications for High-Strength Low-Alloy
403.6.4 Plain Reinforcement Columbium-Vanadium Steels of Structural Quality"
(ASTM A 572M).
403.6.4.1 Plain bars for spiral reinforcement shall conform
to one of the following specification: ASTM A615M or 4. "Specifications for High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural
A706M. Steel" with 345 MPa (ASTM A 588M).
5. "Specifications for Structural shapes” (ASTM
403.6.4.2 Plain wire for spiral reinforcement shall conform A992M).
to "Specifications for Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete
Reinforcement" (ASTM A 82M), except that for wire with 403.6.7.2 Steel pipe or tubing for composite compression
a specified yield strength fy exceeding 415 MPa, fy shall be members composed of a steel-encased concrete core
the stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent. meeting requirements of Section 410.17.6 shall conform to
one of the following specifications:
403.6.5 Headed Shear Stud Reinforcement 1. Grade B of "Specifications for Pipe, Steel, Black and
Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated Welded and Seamless"
403.6.5.1 Headed studs and headed stud assemblies shall (ASTM A 53M).
conform to ASTM A1044M.
2. "Specifications for Cold-Formed Welded and Seamless
Carbon Steel Structural Tubing in Rounds and Shapes"
403.6.6 Prestressing Tendons
(ASTM A 500M).
403.6.6.1Tendons for prestressed reinforcement shall 3. "Specifications for Hot-Formed Welded and Seamless
conform to one of the following specifications: Carbon Steel Tubing" (ASTM A 501M).
1. Wire conforming to "Specifications for Uncoated
403.6.8 Steel discontinuous fiber reinforcement for concrete
Stress-Relieved Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete"
shall be deformed and conform to ASTM A820M. Steel
(ASTM A 421M).
fibers have a length-to-diameter ratio not smaller than 50
2. Low-relaxation wire conforming to "Specifications for and not greater than 100.
Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire for Prestressed
Concrete" including Supplement "Low-Relaxation 403.6.9 Headed deformed bars shall conform to ASTM
Wire" (ASTM A 421M) A970M and obstructions or interruptions of the bar
deformations, if any, shall not extend more than 2db from
3. Strand conforming to "Specifications for Steel Strand,
the bearing face of the head.
Uncoated Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete"
(ASTM A 416M).
403.7 Admixtures
4. Bar conforming to "Specifications for Uncoated High-
Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete" (ASTM
A 722M) 403.7.1 Admixtures for water reduction and setting time
modification shall conform ASTM C494M. Admixtures for
use in producing flowing concrete shall conform ASTM
403.6.6.2 Wire, strands, and bars not specifically listed in
C1017M.
ASTM A 416M, A 421M and A 722M are allowed,
provided they conform to minimum requirements of these
specifications and do not have properties that make them 403.7.2 Air-entraining admixtures shall conform to
less satisfactory than those listed in these specifications. "Specifications for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete"
(ASTM C 260).
403.6.7 Structural Steel, Steel Pipe or Tubing 403.7.3 Admixtures to be used in concrete that do not
conform to Sections 403.7.1.and 403.7.2 shall be subject to
403.6.7.1 Structural steel used with reinforcing bars in prior approval by the engineer.
composite compression members meeting requirements of
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403.7.4 Calcium chloride or admixtures containing chloride A185/A185-07 Standard Specifications for Steel Welded
from other than impurities from admixture ingredients shall Wire Fabric, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement
not be used in prestressed concrete, in concrete containing
embedded aluminum, or in concrete cast against stay-in- A242/A242M-04a Standard Specifications for High-
place galvanized steel forms. See Sections 404.6.1 and Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel
406.3.2.
A307/A307-07a Standard Specification for Carbon
403.7.5 Fly ash or other pozzolans used as admixtures shall Steel Bolts and Studs, 415 MPa Tensile Strength.
conform to "Specifications for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in A416/A416M-06 Standard Specifications for Steel Strand,
Portland Cement Concrete" (ASTM C 618). Uncoated Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete
403.7.6 Ground granulated blast-furnace slag used as an A421/A421-05 Standard Specifications for Uncoated
admixture shall conform to "Specifications for Ground Stress-Relieved Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete
Granulated Blast-furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and
Mortars" (ASTM C 989). A496/A496-07 Standard Specifications for Steel Wire,
Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement
403.7.7 Admixtures used in concrete containing ASTM
C845 expansive cements shall be compatible with the A497/A497-07 Standard Specifications for Steel Welded
cement and produce no deleterious effects. Wire Fabric, Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement
403.7.8 Silica fume used as an admixture shall conform to A500/A500-07 Standard Specifications for Cold-Formed
"Specification for Silica Fume for Use in Hydraulic-Cement Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel Structural Tubing in
Concrete and Mortar" (ASTM C 1240). Rounds and Shapes
403.8 Storage of Materials A501/A501-07 Standard Specifications for Hot-Formed

Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel Structural Tubing
403.8.1 Cementitious materials and aggregate shall be
stored in such manner as to prevent deterioration or A572/A572-07 Standard Specifications for High-
intrusion of foreign matter. Strength Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium Structural
Steels
403.8.2 Any material that has deteriorated or has been
contaminated shall not be used for concrete. A588/A588M-05 Standard Specifications for High-
Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel up to 345 MPa
minimum yield point with Atmospheric Corrosion
403.9 Standards Cited in this Chapter Resistence
403.9.1 In the absence of the Philippine National Standard A615/A615M-07 Standard Specifications for Deformed
(PNS), Standards of the American Society for Testing and and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
Materials (ASTM) referred to in this chapter listed below
with their serial designations, including year of adoption or A706/A706M-06a Standard Specifications for Low-Alloy
revision, are declared to be part of this code as if fully set Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
forth herein:
A722/A722-07 Standard Specifications for Uncoated
A36/A36M-05 Standard Specifications for Carbon High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete
Structural Steel
A767/A767M-05 Standard Specifications for Zinc-Coated
A-53/A53-07 Standard Specifications for Pipe, Steel, (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated Welded and Seamless
A775/A775M-07 Standard Specifications for Epoxy-
A82/A82-07 Standard Specifications for Steel Wire, Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars
Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement
A820/A820M-06 Standard Specifications for Steel Fibers
A184/A184-06 Standard Specifications for Fabricated for Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Deformed Steel Bar Mats for Concrete Reinforcement

A884/A884M-06 Standard Specifications for Epoxy- C150-05 Standard Specifications for Portland
Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Fabric for Cement
Reinforcement
C172-04 Standard Method of Sampling Freshly
A934/A934M-07 Standard Specifications for Epoxy- Mixed Concrete
Coated Prefabricated Steel Reinforcing Bars
C192/C192M-06 Standard Method of Sampling Freshly
A955/A955M-07a Standard Specifications for Deformed Mixed Concrete
and Plain and Stainless Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement C231-04 Standard Method for Air Content of
Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
A970/A970M-06 Standard Specifications for Headed Steel
Bars for Concrete Reinforcement C260-06 Standard Specifications for Air-
Entraining Admixtures for Concrete
A992/A992M-06a Standard Specifications for Structural
Steel Shapes C330-05 Standard Specifications for Lightweight
Aggregates for Structural Concrete
A996/A996M-06a Standard Specifications for Rail-Steel
and Axle Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete C494/C494M-05a Standard Specifications for Chemical
Reinforcement Admixtures for Concrete
A1022/A1022M-07 Standard Specification for Deformed C496/C496M-04 Standard Test Method for Splitting
and Plain Stainless Steel Wire and Welded Wire for Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
Concrete Reinforcement
C567-05a Standard Test Method for Unit Weight of
A1035/A1035M-07 Standard Specification for Deformed Structural Lightweight Concrete
and Plain, Low-Carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement C595M-07 Standard Specifications for Blended
Hydraulic Cements
A1044/A1044M-05 Standard Specification for Steel Stud
Assemblies for Shear Reinforcement of Concrete C618-05 Standard Specifications for Fly Ash and
Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral
C29/C29M-03 Standard Method for Bulk Density (Unit Admixture on Portland Cement Concrete
Weight) and Voids in Aggregate
C685/C685M-01 Standard Specifications for Concrete
C31/C31M-06 Standard Practice for Making and Made by Volumetric Batching and Continuous Mixing
Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
C845-04 Standard Specifications for Expansive
C33-03 Standard Specifications for Concrete Hydraulic Cement
Aggregate
C989-06 Standard Specifications for Ground
C39/C39M-05 Standard Test Method for Compressive Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens Mortars
C42/C42M-04 Standard Method of Obtaining and C1012-04 Test Method for Length Change of
Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete Hydraulic-Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution
C94/C94M-06 Standard Specifications for Ready-Mixed C1017/C1017M-03 Standard Specifications for Chemical
Concrete Admixtures for Use in Producing Flowing Concrete
C109/C109M-05 Standard Test Method for Compressive C1116-06/C1116M-06 Standard Specifications for Fiber-
Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 50-mm Cube Reinforced Concrete
Specimens)
C1157-03 Standard Performance Specifications
C144-04 Standard Specifications for Aggregate for for Hydraulic Cement
Masonry Mortar
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C1218/C1218M-99 Standard Test Method for Water SECTION 404

Soluble Chloride in Mortar and Concrete
DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS
C1240-05 Standard Specifications for Silica Fume
for Use in Hydraulic-Cement Concrete and Mortar 404.1 Notation
C1602/C1602M-06 Standard Specifications for Mixing f'c = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa.
Water used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement w/cm = maximum water-cementitious material ratio.
Concrete
404.2 Definitions
C1609/C1609M-06 Standard Test Method for Flexural
Performance of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (Using Beam The Section addresses three exposure categories that affect
With Third-Point Loading) the requirements for concrete to ensure adequate durability:
403.9.2. "Structural Welding Code - Reinforcing Steel" Exposure Category S applies to concrete in contact with
(ANSI/AWS D1.4/D1.4M:2005) of the American Welding soil or water containing deleterious amounts of watersoluble
Society is declared part of this code as if fully set forth sulfate ions as defined in Section 404.4.1.
herein.
Exposure Category P applies to concrete in contact with
403.9.3 Section 203.3 Combining Loads Using Strength water requiring low permeability.
Design, or Load and Resistance Factor Design of this code
as if fully set forth herein, for the purposes cited in Sections Exposure Category C applies to reinforced and prestressed
409.3.3 and 426. concrete exposed to conditions that require additional
protection against corrosion of reinforcement. Severity of
403.9.4 "Specification for Unbonded Single Strand Tendon exposure within each category is defined by classes with
Materials (ACI 423.7-07)" is declared to be part of this increasing numerical values representing increasingly severe
Code as if fully set forth herein. exposure conditions. A classification of “0” is assigned
when the exposure severity has negligible effect or does not
apply to the structural member.
403.9.5 Sections 9.21.7.2 and 9.21.7.3 of Division I and
Section 10.3.2.3 of Division II of AASHTO "Standard
Specification for Highway Bridges" (AASHTO 17th Edition, Exposure Category F is subdivided into four exposure
2002) are declared to be part of this code as if fully set forth classes. However only Exposure Class F0 applies to
herein for the purpose cited in Section 418.16.1. Philippine condition; Exposure Class F1, Exposure Class
F2, Exposure Class F3 do not apply as it involve concrete
exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing, in continuous
403.9.6 “Qualification of Post-Installed Mechanical
contact with moisture, and where exposure to deicing
Anchors in Concrete (ACI 355.2-07)” is declared to be part
chemicals is anticipated:
of this Code as if fully set forth herein, for the purpose cited
in Section 423, Anchoring to Concrete.
Exposure Class F0 is assigned to concrete that will not be
exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing.
403.9.7 “Structural Welding Code Steel (AWS
D1.1/D1.1M:2006)” of the American Welding Society is
declared to be part of this Code as if fully set forth herein. Exposure Category S is subdivided into four exposure
classes:
403.9.8 “Acceptance Criteria for Moment Frames Based on
Structural Testing (ACI 374.1-05)” is declared to be part of Exposure Class S0 is assigned for conditions where the
this Code as if fully set forth herein. water-soluble sulfate concentration in contact with concrete
is low and injurious sulfate attack is not a concern.
403.9.9 “Acceptance Criteria for Special Unbonded
Post-Tensioned Precast Structural Walls Based on Exposure Classes S1, S2, and S3 are assigned for
Validation Testing (ACI ITG-5.1-07)” is declared to be part structural concrete members in direct contact with soluble
of this Code as if fully set forth herein. sulfates in soil or water. The severity of exposure increases
from Exposure Class S1 to S3 based on the more critical

value of measured water-soluble sulfate concentration in
soil or the concentration of dissolved sulfate in water. Sea
water exposure is classified as Exposure Class S1.

Exposure Category P is subdivided into two exposure 404.5 Special Exposure Conditions
classes: Concrete that will be subject to the exposure given in Table
404-2 shall conform to the corresponding maximum water-
Exposure Class P0 Structural members should be assigned cementitious materials ratios and minimum specified
to when there are no specific permeability requirements. concrete compressive strength requirements of that table.
Exposure Class P1 is assigned on the basis of the need for

concrete to have a low permeability to water when the 404.6 Requirements for Concrete Mixtures
permeation of water into concrete might reduce durability or
affect the intended function of the structural member. 404.6.1 Based on the exposure classes assigned from Table
Exposure Class P1 should typically be assigned when other 404-1, concrete mixtures shall comply with the most
exposure classes do not apply. An example is an interior restrictive requirements according to Table 404-2.
water tank.
404.6.2 Calcium chloride as an admixture shall not be used
Exposure Category C is subdivided into three exposure in concrete to be exposed to severe or very severe sulfate-
classes: containing solutions, as defined in Table 3.1 of ACI 222R.
Exposure Class C0 is assigned when exposure conditions 404.7 Alternative Cementitious Materials for Sulphate
do not require additional protection against the initiation of Exposure
corrosion of reinforcement.
404.7.1 Alternative combinations of cementitious materials
Exposure Classes C1 and C2 are assigned to reinforced to those listed in Table 404-2 shall be permitted when tested
and prestressed concrete members depending on the degree for sulfate resistance and meeting the criteria in Table 404-
of exposure to external sources of moisture and chlorides in 3.
service.
Examples of external sources of chlorides include concrete 404.8 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio
in direct contact with deicing chemicals, salt, salt water, The water-cementitious materials ratios specified in Tables
brackish water, seawater, or spray from these sources. 404-1 and 404-2 shall be calculated using the weight of
cement meeting ASTM C 150, C 595M, C 845 or C 1157
plus the weight of fly ash and other pozzolans meeting
404.3 General
ASTM C 618, slag meeting ASTM C 989, and silica fume
meeting ASTM C 1240, if any.
404.3.1 The value of f’c shall be the greatest of the values
required by Section 404.3.1, for durability in Section 404,
and for structural strength requirements and shall apply for 404.9 Corrosion Protection of Reinforcement
mixture proportioning in Section 405.4 and for evaluation
and acceptance of concrete in Section 405.7. Concrete 404.9.1 For corrosion protection of reinforcement in
mixtures shall be proportioned to comply with the concrete, maximum water soluble chloride ion
maximum water-cementitious material ratio (w/cm) and concentrations in hardened concrete at ages from 28 to 42
other requirements based on the exposure class assigned to days contributed from the ingredients, including water,
the concrete structural member. All cementitious materials aggregates, cementitious materials and admixtures shall not
specified in Section 403.3.1 and the combinations of these exceed the limits of Table 404-2. When testing is performed
materials shall be included in calculating the w/cm of the to determine water soluble chloride ion content, test
concrete mixture. procedures shall conform to ASTM C 1218.
404.3.2 The maximum w/cm limits in Section 404 do not 404.9.2 If concrete with reinforcement will be exposed to
apply to lightweight concrete. chlorides from salt, salt water, brackish water, sea water or
spray from these sources, requirements of Table 404-2 for
water- water-cementitious materials ratio and concrete
404.4 Exposure Categories and Classes
strength and the minimum concrete cover requirements of
Section 407.8 shall be satisfied. In addition, see Section
404.4.1 The engineer-of-record shall assign exposure
418.15 for unbonded prestressed tendons.
classes based on the severity of the anticipated exposure of
structural concrete members for each exposure category
according to Table 404-1.
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Table 404-1 Exposure Categories And Classes

Table 404-2 Requirements for Concrete by Exposure Class
Min.
Category
Expo
Severity
Max.
Class
Condition
sure fc’ Additional Minimum Requirements
Class w/cm* MPa
Limits on
Water-soluble Dissolved Cemen-
Air Content
Titious
sulfate (SO4) in sulfate
soil, percent by (SO4) in Materials
weight water, ppm F0 N/A 17 N/A N/A
N/A F1 0.45 31 N/A N/A

S0 SO4 < 0.10 SO4 < 150
SULFATE
150 ≤ SO4 <1500 F2 0.45 31 N/A N/A

S
Moderate S1 0.10 ≤ SO4 < 0.20

Seawater
N/A
F3 0.45 31 N/A
1500 ≤ SO4 ≤
Severe S2 0.20 ≤ SO4 ≤ 2.00
10,000 Cementitious Materials + Types Calcium
Very Chloride
S3 SO4 > 2.00 SO4 > 10,000 ASTM ASTM ASTM Admixture
Severe C150 C595 C1157
No Type No Type No Type No
In contact with water where N/A 17
P - Requiring
N/A P0
permeability
restriction restriction restriction Restriction

permeability is not required. IP(MS),
Low
No
S1 0.50 28 II ‡ IS (<70) MS Restriction
In contact with water where (MS)
Required P1 IP (HS)
permeability is not required. Not
S2 0.45 31 V§ IS (<70) HS Permitted
(HS)
Concrete dry or protected IP (HS) +

N/A C0 pozzolan or
from moisture V+ slag|| or IS HS+
Not
S3 0.45 31 Pozzolan (<70) Pozzolan Permitted
(HS) +
reinforcement
or Slag || or Slag
C - Corrosion
Protection of
Concrete exposed to moisture pozzolan or

Moderate C1 but not to external sources of slag ||
chloride.
P0 N/A 17 None
Concrete exposed to moisture and
an external source of chloride from P1 0.50 28 None
Severe C2 salt, brackish water, seawater, or
spray from these sources. Maximum water-soluble
chloride ion (Cl–) content in
concrete, percent by weight
of cement #
Reinforced Prestressed Related Provisions
Concrete Concrete
C0 N/A 17 1.00 0.06
C1 N/A 17 0.30 0.06 None

Section 407.8.5,
C2 0.40 35 0.15 0.06
Section 418.17**
* For lightweight concrete, see Section 404.3.2.

†Alternative combinations of cementitious materials of those listed in Table 404-2
shall be permitted when tested for sulfate resistance and meeting the criteria in
Section 404.7.1.
‡ For seawater exposure, other types of portland cements with tricalcium aluminate
(C3A) contents up to 10 percent are permitted is the w/cm does not exceed 0.40.
§ Other available types of cement such as Type III or Type I are permitted in Exposure
Classes S1 or S2 if the C3A contents are less than 8 or 5 percent, respectively.
|| The amount of the specific source of the pozzolan or slag to be used shall not be less
than the amount that has been determined by service record to improve sulfate
resistance when used in concrete containing Type V cement. Alternatively, the amount
of the specific source of the pozzolan or slag to be used shall not be less than the
amount tested in accordance with ASTM C1012 and meeting the criteria in Section
404.7.1.
# Water-soluble chloride ion content that is contributed from the ingredients including
water, aggregates, cementitious materials, and admixtures shall be determined on the
concrete mixture by ASTM C1218M at age between 28 and 42 days.
** Requirements of Section 407.8.5 shall be satisfied. See Section 418.17 for unbonded
tendons.

Table 404-3 Requirements for Establishing Suitability of

Cementitious Materials Combinations Exposed to Water-
Soluble Sulfate SECTION 405 CONCRETE
QUALITY, MIXING AND PLACING
Maximum expansion when tested using ASTM C1012
Exposure
Class 405.1 Notations
At 6 months At 12 months At 18 months
f'c = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
S1 0.10 percent f'cr = required average compressive strength of concrete
used as the basis for selection of concrete
proportions, MPa
S2 0.05 percent 0.10 percent fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight
aggregate concrete, MPa
S3 0.10 percent s = standard deviation, MPa
ss = sample standard deviation, MPa
The 12-month expansion limit applies only when the measured expansion
exceeds the 6-month maximum expansion limit.
405.2 General
405.2.1 Concrete shall be proportioned to provide an

average compressive strength, f’cr as prescribed in Section
405.4.2, as well as satisfy the durability criteria of Section
404. Concrete shall be produced to minimize frequency of
strengths below f'c as prescribed in Section 405.7.3.3. For
concrete designed and constructed in accordance with the Code,
fc′ shall not be less than 17 MPa.
405.2.2 Requirements for f'c shall be based on tests of

cylinders made and tested as prescribed in Section 405.7.3.
405.2.3 Unless otherwise specified, f'c shall be based on 28-

day tests. If other than 28 days, test age for f'c shall be as
indicated in design drawings or specifications.
405.2.4 Where design criteria in Sections 408.7.1,

412.3.4(4), and 422.6.6, provide for use of a splitting
tensile strength value of concrete, laboratory tests shall be
made in accordance with Specification for Lightweight
Aggregates for Structural Concrete (ASTM C 330) to
establish value of fct corresponding to specified values of f'c.
405.2.5 Splitting tensile strength tests shall not be used as a

basis for field acceptance of concrete.
405.2.6 Steel fiber-reinforced concrete shall conform to

ASTM C1116. The minimum fc′ for steel fiber-reinforced
concrete shall conform to 405.2.1.
405.3 Selection of Concrete Proportions
405.3.1Proportions of materials for concrete shall be

established to provide:
1. Workability and consistency to permit concrete to be
worked readily into forms and around reinforcement
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under conditions of placement to be employed without Table 405-1 Modification Factor for Standard Deviation
segregation or excessive bleeding. When Less Than 30 Tests are Available
2. Resistance to special exposures as required by Section Number of Tests 1
Modification Factor for
404. Standard Deviation2
Less than 15 Use Table 405-2
3. Conformance with strength test requirements of Section
405.7. 15 1.16
405.3.2 Where different materials are to be used for 20 1.08

different portions of proposed work, each combination shall 25 1.03
be evaluated.
30 or more 1.00
405.3.3 Concrete proportions, including water-cementitious 1
Interpolate for intermediate number of tests.
materials ratio, shall be established on the basis of field 2
Modified standard deviation to be used to determine required average
experience and/or trial mixtures with materials to be strength f'cr from Section 405.4.2.1
employed (see Section 405.4), except as permitted in
Section 405.5 or required by Section 404. 405.4.2 Required Average Strength
405.4 Proportioning on the Basis of Field Experience 405.4.2.1 Required average compressive strength f'cr used as
and Trial Mixtures, or Both the basis for selection of concrete proportions shall be the
larger of Equation (405-1) or (405-2) using the sample
standard deviation, ss, calculated in accordance with Section
405.4.1 Sample Standard Deviation 405.4.1.1 or 405.4.1.2.
405.4.1.1 Where a concrete production facility has test f'c ≤ 35MPa: f'cr = f'c + 1.34 ss (405-1)
records not more than 12 months old, a sample standard f'cr = f'c + 2.33 ss – 3.5 (405-2)
deviation, ss, shall be established. Test records from which a
standard deviation ss, is calculated: Use the larger value computed from Eq. 405-1 and 405-2,
or:
1. Must represent materials, quality control procedures
and conditions similar to those expected, and changes f'c >35MPa: f'cr = f'c + 1.34 ss (405-1)
in materials and proportions within the test records shall
f'cr = 0.90 f'c + 2.33 ss (405-3)
not have been more restricted than those for proposed
work. Use the larger value computed from Eq. 405-1 and 405-3.
2. Must represent concrete produced to meet a specified
405.4.2.2 When a concrete production facility does not have
strength or strengths f'c within 7 MPa of that specified
field strength test records for calculation of standard
for proposed work.
deviation meeting requirements of Section 405.4.1.1 or
3. Must consist of at least 30 consecutive tests or two 405.4.1.2, required average strength f'cr shall be determined
groups of consecutive tests totaling at least 30 tests as from Table 405-2 and documentation of average strength
defined in Section 405.7.2.4, except as provided in shall be in accordance with requirements of Section 405.4.3.
Section 405.4.1.2.
Table 405-2 Required Average Compressive Strength
When Data are not Available to Establish a Standard
405.4.1.2 Where a concrete production facility does not
Deviation
have test records meeting requirements of Section
405.4.1.1(3), but does have test records not more than 12 Specified Compressive Required Average Compressive
months old based on 15 to 29 consecutive tests, a standard Strength, f'c, MPa Strength, f'cr, MPa
sample deviation ss, shall be established as the product of Less than 21 MPa f'c + 7.0
the calculated sample standard deviation and the
modification factor of Table 405-1. To be acceptable, test 21 ≤ f'c ≤ 35 f'c + 8.3
records shall meet the requirements of Section 405.4.1.1,
Items 1 and 2, and represent only a single record of Over 35 1.10f'c + 5.0
consecutive tests that span a period of not less than 45
calendar days.

405.4.3 Documentation of Average Strength. 6. Maximum water-cementitious materials ratio or

Documentation that proposed concrete proportions will minimum cementitious materials content for concrete to
produce an average compressive strength equal to or greater be used in proposed work shall be that shown by the
than required average compressive strength (see Section curve to produce the average strength required by
405.4.2) shall consist of a field strength test record, several Section 405.4.2, unless a lower water-cementitious
strength test records, or trial mixtures. materials ratio or higher strength is required by Section
404.
405.4.3.1 When test records in accordance with Sections
405.4.1.1 and 405.4.1.2, are used to demonstrate that 405.5 Proportioning without Field Experience or Trial
proposed concrete proportions will produce the required Mixtures
average strength f'cr (see Section 405.4.2), such records shall
represent materials and conditions similar to those expected. 405.5.1 If data required by Section 405.4 are not available,
Changes in materials, conditions and proportions within the concrete proportions shall be based upon other experience
test records shall not have been more restricted than those or information, if approved by the engineer. The required
for proposed work. For the purpose of documenting average average compressive strength f'cr of concrete produced with
strength potential, test records consisting of less than 30 but materials similar to those proposed for use shall be at least
not less than 10 consecutive tests may be used, provided test 8.5 MPa greater than the specified compressive strength, f'c.
records encompass a period of time not less than 45 days. This alternative shall not be used for specified compressive
Required concrete proportions may be established by strength greater than 35 MPa.
interpolation between the strengths and proportions of two
or more test records each of which meets other requirements 405.5.2 Concrete proportioned by Section 405.5 shall
of this section. conform to the durability requirements of Section 404 and to
compressive strength test criteria of Section 405.7.
405.4.3.2 When an acceptable record of field test results is
not available, concrete proportions established from trial
mixtures meeting the following restrictions shall be 405.6 Average Strength Reduction
permitted: As data become available during construction, it shall be
1. Combination of materials shall be those for proposed permitted to reduce the amount by which f'cr must exceed
work. the specified value of f'c, provided:
2. Trial mixtures having proportions and consistencies 1. Thirty or more test results are available and average of
required for proposed work shall be made using at least test results exceeds that required by Section 405.4.2.1,
three different water-cementitious materials ratios or using a sample standard deviation calculated in
cementitious materials contents that will produce a accordance with Section 405.4.1.1, or
range of strengths encompassing the required average 2. Fifteen to 29 test results are available and average of
strength f'cr, and meet the durability requirements of test results exceeds that required by Section 405.4.2.1,
Section 404. using a sample standard deviation calculated in
3. Trial mixtures shall be designed to produce a slump accordance with Section 405.4.1.2, and
within ±20 mm of maximum permitted, and for air- 3. Special exposure requirements of Section 404 are met.
entrained concrete, within ±0.5 percent of maximum
allowable air content, or within the tolerance specified
for the proposed Work. 405.7 Evaluation and Acceptance of Concrete
4. For each water-cementitious materials ratio or 405.7.1 Concrete shall be tested in accordance with the
cementitious materials content, at least three test requirements of Section 405.7.2 through 405.7.5. Qualified
cylinders for each test age shall be made and cured in field testing technicians shall perform tests on fresh concrete
accordance with "Method of Making and Curing at the job site, prepare specimens required for curing under
Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory" (ASTM C field conditions, prepare specimens required for testing in
192). Cylinders shall be tested at 28 days or at test age the laboratory, and record the temperature of the fresh
designated for determination of f'c. concrete when preparing specimens for strength tests.
5. From results of cylinder tests, a curve shall be plotted Qualified laboratory technicians shall perform all required
showing relationship between water-cementitious laboratory tests.
materials ratio or cementitious materials content and
compressive strength at designated test age.
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405.7.2 Frequency of Testing 405.7.4 Field-Cured Specimens
405.7.2.1 Samples for strength tests of each class of 405.7.4.1 If required by the engineer-of-record, results of
concrete placed each day shall be taken not less than once a strength tests of cylinders cured under field conditions shall
day, or not less than once for each 120 m3 of concrete, or be provided.
not less than once for each 500 m2 of surface area for slabs
or walls. 405.7.4.2 Field-cured cylinders shall be cured under field
conditions, in accordance with "Practice for Making and
405.7.2.2 On a given project, if the total volume of concrete Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field" (ASTM C
is such that the frequency of testing required by Section 31M).
405.7.2.1 would provide less than five strength tests for a
given class of concrete, tests shall be made from at least five 405.7.4.3 Field-cured test cylinders shall be molded at the
randomly selected batches or from each batch if fewer than same time and from the same samples as laboratory-cured
five batches are used. test cylinders.
405.7.2.3 When total quantity of a given class of concrete is 405.7.4.4 Procedures for protecting and curing concrete
less than 40 m3, strength tests are not required when shall be improved when strength of field-cured cylinders at
evidence of satisfactory strength is submitted to and test age designated for determination of f'c is less than 85
approved by the engineer. percent of that of companion laboratory-cured cylinders.
The 85 percent limitation shall not apply if field-cured
405.7.2.4 A strength test shall be the average of the strength exceeds f'c by more than 3.5 MPa.
strengths of two cylinders made from the same sample of
concrete and tested at 28 days or at test age designated for
determination of f'c. 405.7.5 Investigation of Low-Strength Test Results
405.7.5.1 If any strength test (see Section 405.7.2.4) of

405.7.3 Laboratory-Cured Specimens laboratory-cured cylinders falls below specified values of f'c
by more than 3.5 MPa (see Section 405.7.3.3, Item 2) or if
405.7.3.1 Samples for strength tests shall be taken in
tests of field-cured cylinders indicate deficiencies in
accordance with "Method of Sampling Freshly Mixed
protection and curing (see Section 405.7.4.4), steps shall be
Concrete" (ASTM C 172).
taken to ensure that load-carrying capacity of the structure is
405.7.3.2 Cylinders for strength tests shall be molded and not jeopardized.
laboratory cured in accordance with "Practice for Making
and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field" (ASTM 405.7.5.2 If the likelihood of low-strength concrete is
C 31M) and tested in accordance with "Test Method for confirmed and calculations indicate that load-carrying
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens" capacity is significantly reduced, tests of cores drilled from
(ASTM C 39M). the area in question in accordance with "Method of
Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of
405.7.3.3 Strength level of an individual class of concrete
Concrete" (ASTM C 42M) shall be permitted. In such cases,
shall be considered satisfactory if both the following
three cores shall be taken for each strength test more than
requirements are met:
3.5 MPa below specified value of f'c.
1. Every arithmetic average of any three consecutive
strength tests (see Section 405.7.2.4) equals or exceeds 405.7.5.3 If concrete in the structure will be dry under
f'c ; service conditions, cores shall be air dried (temperatures
15ºC to 25ºC, relative humidity less than 60 percent) for
2. No individual strength test (average of two cylinders)
seven days before test and shall be tested dry. If concrete in
falls below f'c by more than 3.5 MPa, when f’c is 35
the structure will be more than superficially wet under
MPa or less; or by more than 0.10f’c when f’c is more
service conditions, cores shall be immersed in water for at
than 35 MPa.
least 40 hours and be tested wet.
405.7.3.4 If either of the requirements of Section 405.7.3.3
405.7.5.4 Concrete in an area represented by core tests shall
are not met, steps shall be taken to increase the average of
be considered structurally adequate if the average of three
subsequent strength test results. Requirements of Section
cores is equal to at least 85 percent of f'c and if no single
405.7.5 shall be observed if the requirement of Item 2 of
core is less than 75 percent of f'c. Additional testing of cores
Section 405.7.3.3 is not met.
extracted from locations represented by erratic core strength
results shall be permitted.

405.7.5.5 If criteria of Section 405.7.5.4 are not met, and if 7. All laitance and other unsound material shall be
structural adequacy remains in doubt, the engineer of record removed before additional concrete is placed against
shall be permitted to order a strength evaluation in hardened concrete.
accordance with Section 420 for the questionable portion of
the structure, or take other appropriate action.
405.9 Mixing
405.7.6 Steel Fiber-Reinforced Concrete 405.9.1 All concrete shall be mixed until there is a uniform
distribution of materials and shall be discharged completely
405.7.6.1 Acceptance of steel fiber-reinforced concrete used before mixer is recharged.
in beams in accordance with 411.6.6.1(6) shall be
determined by testing in accordance with ASTM C1609. In 405.9.2 Ready-mixed concrete shall be mixed and delivered
addition, strength testing shall be in accordance with in accordance with requirements of "Specifications for
405.7.1. Ready-Mixed Concrete" (ASTM C 94M) or "Specifications
for Concrete Made by Volumetric Batching and Continuous
405.7.6.2 Steel fiber-reinforced concrete shall be considered Mixing" (ASTM C 685M).
acceptable for shear resistance if conditions (1), (2), and (3)
are satisfied: 405.9.3 Job-mixed concrete shall be mixed in accordance
with the following:
1. The weight of deformed steel fibers per cubic meter of
concrete is greater than or equal to 60 kg. 1. Mixing shall be done in a batch mixer of an approved
type;
2. The residual strength obtained from flexural testing
in accordance with ASTM C1609 at a mid-span 2. Mixer shall be rotated at a speed recommended by the
deflection of 1/300 of the span length is greater than or manufacturer;
equal to 90 percent of the measured first-peak strength
obtained from a flexural test or 90 percent of the 3. Mixing shall be continued for at least 1-1/2 minutes
strength corresponding to fr from Eq. (409-10), 4. After all materials are in the drum, unless a shorter time
whichever is larger; and is shown to be satisfactory by the mixing uniformity
3. The residual strength obtained from flexural testing in tests of "Specifications for Ready-Mixed Concrete"
(ASTM C 94M);
accordance with ASTM C1609 at a mid-span deflection
of 1/150 of the span length is greater than or equal to 75 5. Materials handling, batching and mixing shall conform
percent of the measured first-peak strength obtained to applicable provisions of "Specifications for Ready-
from a flexural test or 75 percent of the strength Mixed Concrete" (ASTM C 94M);
corresponding to fr from Eq. (409-10), whichever is
larger. 6. A detailed record shall be kept to identify:
a. Number of batches produced;
405.8 Preparation of Equipment and Place of Deposit b. Proportions of materials used;
405.8.1 Preparation before concrete placement shall include c. Approximate location of final deposit in
the following: structure;
1. All equipment for mixing and transporting concrete d. Time and date of mixing and placing.
shall be clean;
2. All debris shall be removed from spaces to be occupied 405.10 Conveying
by concrete;
405.10.1 Concrete shall be conveyed from mixer to place of
3. Forms shall be properly coated; final deposit by methods that will prevent separation or loss
4. Masonry filler units that will be in contact with of materials.
concrete shall be well drenched;
405.10.2 Conveying equipment shall be capable of
5. Reinforcement shall be thoroughly clean of deleterious providing a supply of concrete at site of placement without
coatings; separation of ingredients and without interruptions sufficient
6. Water shall be removed from place of deposit before to permit loss of plasticity between successive increments.
concrete is placed unless a tremie is to be used or unless
otherwise permitted by the engineer;
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405.11 Depositing 405.12.3.2 Accelerated curing shall provide a compressive

strength of concrete at the load stage considered at least
405.11.1 Concrete shall be deposited as nearly as equal to required design strength at that load stage.
practicable in its final position to avoid segregation due to
re-handling or flowing. 405.12.3.3 Curing process shall be such as to produce
concrete with a durability at least equivalent to the curing
405.11.2 Concreting shall be carried on at such a rate that method of Section 405.12.1 or 405.12.2.
concrete is at all times plastic and flows readily into spaces
between reinforcement. 405.12.4 When required by the engineer, supplementary
strength tests in accordance with Section 405.7.4 shall be
405.11.3 Concrete that has partially hardened or been performed to assure that curing is satisfactory.
contaminated by foreign materials shall not be deposited in
the structure.
405.13 Hot Weather Requirements
405.11.4 Re-tempered concrete or concrete that has been re- During hot weather, proper attention shall be given to
mixed after initial set shall not be used unless approved by ingredients, production methods, handling, placing,
the engineer-of-record. protection and curing to prevent excessive concrete
temperatures or water evaporation that may impair required
405.11.5 After concreting is started, it shall be carried on as strength or serviceability of the member or structure.
a continuous operation until placing of a panel or section, as
defined by its boundaries or predetermined joints, is
completed, except as permitted or prohibited by Section
406.4.
405.11.6 Top surfaces of vertically formed lifts shall be

generally level.
405.11.7 When construction joints are required, joints shall

be made in accordance with Section 406.4.
405.11.8 All concrete shall be thoroughly consolidated by

suitable means during placement and shall be thoroughly
worked around reinforcement and embedded fixtures and
into corners of forms.
405.12 Curing
405.12.1 Concrete (other than high-early-strength) shall be

maintained above 10ºC and in a moist condition for at least
the first seven days after placement, except when cured in
405.12.2 High-early-strength concrete shall be maintained

above 10ºC and in a moist condition for at least the first
three days, except when cured in accordance with Section
405.12.3.
405.12.3 Accelerated Curing
405.12.3.1 Curing by high-pressure steam, steam at

atmospheric pressure, heat and moisture or other accepted
processes, may be employed to accelerate strength gain and
reduce time of curing.

1. The structural analysis and concrete strength data used

in planning and implementing form removal and
SECTION 406 FORMWORK, shoring shall be furnished by the contractor to the
EMBEDDED PIPES AND building official when so requested.
CONSTRUCTION JOINTS 2. No construction loads shall be supported on, or any
shoring removed from, any part of the structure under
construction except when that portion of the structure in
406.1 Design of Formwork combination with remaining forming and shoring
system has sufficient strength to support safely its
406.1.1 Forms shall result in a final structure that conforms weight and loads placed thereon.
to shapes, lines and dimensions of the members as required
by the design drawings and specifications. 3. Sufficient strength shall be demonstrated by structural
analysis considering proposed loads, strength of
406.1.2 Forms shall be substantial and sufficiently tight to forming and shoring system and concrete strength data.
prevent leakage of mortar. Concrete strength data may be based on tests of field-
cured cylinders or, when approved by the engineer-of-
406.1.3 Forms shall be properly braced or tied together to record, on other procedures to evaluate concrete
maintain position and shape. strength.
406.1.4 Forms and their supports shall be designed so as 406.2.2.2 No construction loads exceeding the combination
not to damage previously placed structure. of superimposed dead load plus specified live load shall be
supported on any unshored portion of the structure under
construction, unless analysis indicates adequate strength to
406.1.5 Design of formwork shall include consideration of
support such additional loads.
the following factors:
1. Rate and method of placing concrete; 406.2.2.3 Form supports for prestressed concrete members
shall not be removed until sufficient prestressing has been
2. Construction loads, including vertical, horizontal and
applied to enable prestressed members to carry their dead
impact loads;
load and anticipated construction loads.
3. Special form requirements for construction of shells,
folded plates, domes, architectural concrete or similar
types of elements. 406.3 Conduits and Pipes Embedded in Concrete
406.1.6 Forms for prestressed concrete members shall be 406.3.1 Conduits, pipes and sleeves of any material not
designed and constructed to permit movement of the harmful to concrete and within limitations of this subsection
member without damage during application of prestressing may be embedded in concrete with approval of the engineer,
force. provided they are not considered to replace structurally the
displaced concrete.
406.2 Removal of Forms, Shores and Reshoring 406.3.2 Conduits and pipes of aluminum shall not be
embedded in structural concrete unless effectively coated or
covered to prevent aluminum-concrete reaction or
406.2.1 Removal of Forms
electrolytic action between aluminum and steel.
Forms shall be removed in such a manner as not to impair
safety and serviceability of the structure. Concrete to be 406.3.3 Conduits, pipes and sleeves passing through a slab,
exposed by form removal shall have sufficient strength not wall or beam shall not impair significantly the strength of
to be damaged by removal operation. the construction.
406.2.2 Removal of Shores and Reshoring 406.3.4 Conduits and pipes, with their fittings, embedded
within a column shall not displace more than 4 percent of
The provisions of Section 406.2.2.1 through 406.2.2.3 shall
the area of cross section on which strength is calculated or
apply to slabs and beams except where cast on the ground.
which is required for fire protection.
406.2.2.1 Before starting construction, the contractor shall
406.3.5 Except when plans for conduits and pipes are
develop a procedure and schedule for removal of shores and
approved by the structural engineer, conduits and pipes
installation of reshores and for calculating the loads
embedded within a slab, wall or beam (other than those
transferred to the structure during the process.
merely passing through) shall satisfy the following:
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406.3.5.1 They shall not be larger in outside dimension than 406.4.2 Immediately before new concrete is placed, all
one third the overall thickness of slab, wall or beam in construction joints shall be wetted and standing water
which they are embedded. removed.
406.3.5.2 They shall be spaced not closer than three 406.4.3 Construction joints shall be so made and located so
diameters or widths on center. as not to impair the strength of the structure. Provision shall
be made for transfer of shear and other forces through
406.3.5.3 They shall not impair significantly the strength of construction joints. See Section 411.8.9.
the construction.
406.4.4 Construction joints in floors shall be located within
406.3.6 Conduits, pipes and sleeves may be considered as the middle third of spans of slabs, beams and girders.
replacing structurally in compression the displaced concrete,
provided: 406.4.5 Joints in girders shall be offset a minimum distance
of two times the width of intersecting beams.
406.3.6.1 They are not exposed to rusting or other
deterioration. 406.4.6 Beams, girders or slabs supported by columns or
walls shall not be cast or erected until concrete in the
406.3.6.2 They are of uncoated or galvanized iron or steel vertical support members is no longer plastic.
not thinner than standard Schedule 40 steel pipe.
406.4.7 Beams, girders, haunches, drop panels and capitals
406.3.6.3 They have a nominal inside diameter not over 50 shall be placed monolithically as part of a slab system,
mm and are spaced not less than three diameters on centers. unless otherwise shown in design drawings or
specifications.
406.3.7 Pipes and fittings shall be designed to resist effects
of the material, pressure and temperature to which they will
be subjected.
406.3.8 No liquid, gas or vapor, except water not exceeding

30.ºC or 0.35 MPa pressure, shall be placed in the pipes
until the concrete has attained its design strength.
406.3.9 In solid slabs, piping, unless it is used for radiant

heating or snow melting, shall be placed between top and
bottom reinforcement.
406.3.10 Concrete cover for pipes, conduit and fittings shall

not be less than 40 mm for concrete exposed to earth or
weather, or less than 20 mm for concrete not exposed to
weather or in contact with ground.
406.3.11 Reinforcement with an area not less than 0.002

times the area of concrete section shall be provided normal
to the piping.
406.3.12 Piping and conduit shall be so fabricated and

installed that cutting, bending or displacement of
reinforcement from its proper location will not be required.
406.4 Construction Joints
406.4.1 Surface of concrete construction joints shall be

cleaned and laitance removed.

SECTION 407 DETAILS OF Table 407-1 - Minimum Diameters of Bend
REINFORCEMENT Bar Size Minimum Diameter

ɸ10 mm through ɸ25 mm 6db
407.1 Notations ɸ28 mm, ɸ32 mm and
8db
ɸ36 mm
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid ɸ42 mm and ɸ58 mm 10db
of tension reinforcement, mm
db = nominal diameter of bar, wire or prestressing strand,
mm 407.4 Bending of Reinforcement
f'ci = compressve strength of concrete at time of initial
prestress, MPa 407.4.1 All reinforcement shall be bent cold, unless
fy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed otherwise permitted by the engineer-of-record.
reinforcement, MPa
Ld = development length, mm. See Section 412. 407.4.2 Reinforcement partially embedded in concrete
shall not be field bent, except as shown on the design
drawings or permitted by the engineer-of-record.
407.2 Standard Hooks
"Standard hook'' as used in this code is one of the
following: 407.5 Surface Conditions of Reinforcement
407.2.1 180-degree bend plus 4db extension, but not less 407.5.1 At the time concrete is placed, reinforcement shall
than 60 mm at free end of bar. be free from mud, oil or other nonmetallic coatings that
decrease bond. Epoxy coatings of steel reinforcement in
407.2.2 90-degree bend plus 12db extension at free end of accordance with Sections 403.6.3.8 and 403.6.3.9 shall be
bar. permitted.
407.2.3 For stirrup and tie hooks: 407.5.2 Reinforcement, except prestressing tendons, with
rust, mill scale or a combination of both, shall be considered
1. ɸ16 mm bar and smaller, 90-degree bend plus 6db satisfactory, provided the minimum dimensions (including
extension at free end of bar; or height of deformations) and weight of a hand-wire-brushed
2. ɸ20 mm and ɸ25 mm bar, 90-degree bend, plus 12db test specimen comply with applicable ASTM specifications
extension at free end of bar; or referenced in Section 403.6.
3. ɸ25 mm bar and smaller, 135-degree bend plus 6db 407.5.3 Prestressing tendons shall be clean and free of oil,
extension at free end of bar. dirt, scale, pitting and excessive rust. A light coating of rust
shall be permitted.
407.2.4 Seismic hooks as defined in Section 402.
407.6 Placing Reinforcement
407.3 Minimum Bend Diameters
407.6.1 Reinforcement, prestressing tendons and ducts
407.3.1 Diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar, shall be accurately placed and adequately supported before
other than for stirrups and ties in sizes ɸ10 mm through ɸ16 concrete is placed, and shall be secured against
mm, shall not be less than the values in Table 407-1. displacement within tolerances of this section.
407.3.2 Inside diameter of bends for stirrups and ties shall 407.6.2 Unless otherwise specified by the engineer-of-
not be less than 4db for ɸ16 mm bar and smaller. For bars record, reinforcement, prestressing tendons and prestressing
larger than ɸ16 mm, diameter of bend shall be in accordance ducts shall be placed within the following tolerances:
with Table 407-1.
407.3.3 Inside diameter of bends in welded wire fabric

(plain or deformed) for stirrups and ties shall not be less
than 4db for deformed wire larger than MD40 and 2db for all
other wires. Bends with inside diameter of less than 8db
shall not be less than 4db from nearest welded intersection.
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407.6.2.1 Tolerance for depth d, and minimum concrete 407.7.3 In spirally reinforced or tied reinforced compression
cover in flexural members, walls and compression members members, clear distance between longitudinal bars shall not
shall be as follows: be less than 1.5db or less than 40 mm. See also Section
403.4.2.
Tolerance on
Effective Depth, Tolerance on d
Minimum Concrete
d 407.7.4 Clear distance limitation between bars shall apply
Cover
also to the clear distance between a contact lap splice and
d  200 mm ± 10 mm -10 mm adjacent splices or bars.
d > 200 mm ± 12 mm -12 mm 407.7.5 In walls and slabs other than concrete joist
construction, primary flexural reinforcement shall not be
spaced farther apart than three times the wall or slab
except that tolerance for the clear distance to formed soffits
thickness, nor farther than 450 mm.
shall be minus 6 mm and tolerance for cover shall not
exceed minus one-third the minimum concrete cover
required by the approved plans or specifications. 407.7.6 Bundled Bars
407.6.2.2 Tolerance for longitudinal location of bends and 407.7.6.1 Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in
ends of reinforcement shall be 50 mm except at contact to act as a unit shall be limited to four bars in one
discontinuous ends of members where tolerance shall be bundle.
±12 mm at the discontinuous ends of brackets and corbels,
and 5 mm at the discontinuous ends of other members. 407.7.6.2 Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or
The tolerance for concrete cover of Section 407.6.2.1 shall ties.
also apply at the discontinuous ends of members.
407.7.6.3 Bars larger than ɸ36 mm shall not be bundled in
407.6.3 Welded wire fabric (with wire size not greater than beams.
MW30 or MD30) used in slabs not exceeding 3 m in span
shall be permitted to be curved from a point near the top of 407.7.6.4 Individual bars within a bundle terminated within
slab over the support to a point near the bottom of slab at the span of flexural members shall terminate at different
midspan, provided such reinforcement is either continuous points with at least 40db stagger.
over, or securely anchored at, support.
407.7.6.5 Where spacing limitations and minimum concrete
407.6.4 Welding of crossing bars shall not be permitted for cover are based on bar diameter db, a unit of bundled bars
assembly of reinforcement. shall be treated as a single bar of a diameter derived from
the equivalent total area.
Exceptions:
1. Reinforcing steel bars are not required by design.
407.7.7 Prestressing Tendons and Ducts
2. When specifically approved by the engineer-of-record,
welding of crossing bars for assembly purposes in 407.7.7.1 Center-to-center spacing of pre-tensioning
Seismic Zone 2 may be permitted, provided that data tendons at each end of a member shall not be less than 5db
are submitted to the engineer to show that there is no for wire, nor 4db for strands, except that if concrete strength
detrimental effect on the action of the structural at transfer of prestress, f`ci is 28 MPa or more, minimum
member as a result of welding of the crossing bars. center to center spacing of strands shall be 45 mm for
strands of 12 mm nominal diameter or smaller and 50 mm
for strands of 16 mm nominal diameter. See also Section
407.7 Spacing Limits for Reinforcement
403.4.2. Closer vertical spacing and bundling of tendons
shall be permitted in the middle portion of a span.
407.7.1 The minimum clear spacing between parallel bars in
a layer shall be db but not less than 25 mm. See also Section
407.7.7.2 Bundling of post-tensioning ducts shall be
403.4.2.
permitted if it is shown that concrete can be satisfactorily
placed and if provision is made to prevent the tendons, when
407.7.2 Where parallel reinforcement is placed in two or
tensioned, from breaking through the duct.
more layers, bars in the upper layers shall be placed directly
above bars in the bottom layer with clear distance between
layers not less than 25 mm.

407.8 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement

407.8.2 Precast Concrete (Manufactured Under Plant
407.8.1 Cast-in-Place Concrete (Nonprestressed) Control Conditions)
Unless a greater cover is required by Section 407.8.6 or Unless a greater cover is required by Section 407.8.6 or
407.8.8, specified cover for reinforcement shall not less than 407.8.8, specified cover for prestressed and nonprestressed
the following: reinforcement, ducts, and end fittings shall not less than the
following:
Minimum Cover Minimum Cover
1. Concrete cast against and permanently 1. Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
exposed to earth .......................................... 75 mm
a. Wall panels:
2. Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
ɸ42 mm and ɸ58 mm bars .................... 40 mm
ɸ20 mm bar through ɸ36 mm bar ... .............. 50 mm ɸ36 bar and smaller, prestressing
ɸ16 mm bar, MW200 or MD200 wire, tendons larger than 40 mm and smaller,
and smaller ................................................ 40 mm MW200 or MD200 wire and smaller....... 20 mm
3. Concrete not exposed to weather or in b. Other members:
contact with ground:
ɸ42 and ɸ58 bars, prestressing tendons
a. Slabs, walls, joists: larger than 40 mm ................................... 50 mm
ɸ42 mm and ɸ58 mm bars ..................... 40 mm ɸ20 through ɸ36 bars, prestressing
tendons larger than 16 mm through
ɸ36 mm bars and smaller ..................... 20 mm
40 mm ..................................................... 40 mm
b. Beams, columns: ɸ16 bar and smaller, prestressing
Primary reinforcement, ties, tendons 16 mm diameter and smaller,
stirrups, spirals .................................... 40 mm MW200 or MD200 wire, and smaller...... 30 mm
c. Shells, folded plate members: 2. Concrete not exposed to weather or in

contact with ground:
ɸ20 mm bar and larger ........................ 20 mm
a. Slabs, walls, joists:
ɸ16 mm bar, MW200 or MD200
wire, and smaller ................................. 12 mm ɸ42 mm and ɸ58 mm bars, prestressing
tendons larger than 40 mm..................... 30 mm
Prestressing tendons 40 mm
and smaller …………………………….. 20 mm
ɸ36 mm bar and smaller, MW200 or
MD200 wire and smaller ...................... 15 mm
b. Beams, columns:
Primary reinforcement db but not less
than ɸ15 mm and need not exceed ........ 40 mm
Ties, stirrups, spirals ........................... 10 mm
c. Shells, folded plate members:
Prestressing tendons .............................. 20 mm
ɸ20 mm bar and larger .......................... 15 mm
ɸ16 mm bar, MW200 or MD200
wire, and smaller ................................... 10 mm
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407.8.3 Cast-In-Place Concrete (Prestressed) 407.8.6 Corrosive Environments

In corrosive environments or other severe exposure
407.8.3.1 Unless a greater cover is required by Sections conditions, amount of concrete protection shall be suitably
407.8.6 and 407.8.8, specified cover for prestressed and increased, and the pertinent requirements for concrete based
nonprestressed reinforcement, ducts and end fittings, shall on applicable exposure categories in Section 404 shall be
not less than the following: met, denseness and nonporosity of protecting concrete shall
Minimum Cover be considered, or other protection shall be provided.
1. Concrete cast against and permanently 407.8.6.1 For prestressed concrete members exposed to
exposed to earth .......................................... 75 mm corrosive environments or other severe exposure categories
2. Concrete exposed to earth or weather: such as those defined in Section 404, and which are
classified as Class T or C in Section 418.4.3, specified
Wall panels, slabs, joists ........................... 25 mm concrete cover shall not be less than 1.5 times the cover for
Other members .......................................... 40 mm prestressed reinforcement required by Sections 407.8.2 and
407.8.3. This requirement shall be permitted to be waived if
3. Concrete not exposed to weather or in the precompressed tensile zone is not in tension under
contact with ground: sustained loads.
a. Slabs, walls, joists .............................. 20 mm
b. Beams, columns: 407.8.7 Future Extensions
Primary reinforcement ....................... 40 mm Exposed reinforcement, inserts and plates intended for
bonding with future extensions shall be protected from
Ties, stirrups, spirals .......................... 25 mm corrosion.
c. Shells, folded plate members:
ɸ16 mm bars, MW200 or MD200 wire, 407.8.8 Fire Protection
and smaller .......................................... 10 mm
If the National Building Code, of which the National
Other reinforcement ........................... db > 20 mm Structural Code of the Philippines forms a part, requires a
thickness of cover for fire protection greater than the
407.8.3.2 For prestressed concrete members exposed to minimum concrete cover specified in Sections 407.8.1
earth, weather or corrosive environments, and in which through 407.8.7, such greater thickness shall be specified.
permissible tensile stress of Section 418.5.1, Item 3, is
exceeded, minimum cover shall be increased 50 percent.
407.9 Special Reinforcement Details for Columns
407.8.3.3 For prestressed concrete members manufactured
under plant control conditions, minimum concrete cover for 407.9.1 Offset Bars
nonprestressed reinforcement shall be as required in Section
Offset bent longitudinal bars shall conform to the following:
407.8.2.
407.9.1.1 Slope of inclined portion of an offset bar with axis
407.8.4 Bundled Bars of column shall not exceed 1 in 6.
For bundled bars, minimum concrete cover shall not be less
than the equivalent diameter of the bundle, but need not be 407.9.1.2 Portions of bar above and below an offset shall be
greater than 50 mm; except for concrete cast against and parallel to axis of column.
permanently exposed to earth, minimum cover shall not be
less than 75 mm. 407.9.1.3 Horizontal support at offset bends shall be
provided by lateral ties, spirals or parts of the floor
construction. Horizontal support provided shall be designed
407.8.5 Headed Shear Stud Reinforcement to resist one and one-half times the horizontal component of
For headed shear stud reinforcement, specified concrete the computed force in the inclined portion of an offset bar.
cover for the heads or base rails shall not be less than that Lateral ties or spirals, if used, shall be placed not more than
required for the reinforcement in the type of member in 150 mm from points of bend.
which the headed shear stud reinforcement is placed.
407.9.1.4 Offset bars shall be bent before placement in the
forms. See Section 407.4.

407.9.1.5 Where a column face is offset 75 mm or greater, 407.11.3 It shall be permitted to waive the lateral
longitudinal bars shall not be offset bent. Separate dowels, reinforcement requirements of Sections 407.11, 410.17 and
lap spliced with the longitudinal bars adjacent to the offset 418.12 where tests and structural analyses show adequate
column faces, shall be provided. Lap splices shall conform strength and feasibility of construction.
to Section 412.18.
407.11.4 Spirals
407.9.2 Steel Cores Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall
Load transfer in structural steel cores of composite conform to Section 410.10.3 and to the following:
compression members shall be provided by the following:
407.11.4.1 Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous
407.9.2.1 Ends of structural steel cores shall be accurately bar or wire of such size and so assembled as to permit
finished to bear at end-bearing splices, with positive handling and placing without distortion from designed
provision for alignment of one core above the other in dimensions.
concentric contact.
407.11.4.2 For cast-in-place construction, size of spirals
407.9.2.2 At end-bearing splices, bearing shall be shall not be less 10 mm diameter.
considered effective to transfer not more than 50 percent of
the total compressive stress in the steel core. 407.11.4.3 Clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed
75 mm or be less than 25 mm. See also Section 403.4.2.
407.9.2.3 Transfer of stress between column base and
footing shall be designed in accordance with Section 415.9. 407.11.4.4 Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be
provided by one and one-half extra turns of spiral bar or
407.9.2.4 Base of structural steel section shall be designed wire at each end of a spiral unit.
to transfer the total load from the entire composite member
to the footing; or, the base may be designed to transfer the 407.11.4.5 Spiral reinforcement shall be spliced, if needed,
load from the steel core only, provided ample concrete by any one of the following methods:
section is available for transfer of the portion of the total
load carried by the reinforced concrete section to the footing 1. Lap splices not less than the larger of 300 mm and the
by compression in the concrete and by reinforcement. length indicated in one of (a) through (e) below:
a. deformed uncoated bar or wire ................ 48 db
407.10 Connections b. plain uncoated bar or wire ....................... 72 db
c. epoxy-coated deformed bar or wire .......... 72 db
407.10.1 At connections of principal framing elements (such
as beams and columns), enclosure shall be provided for d. plain uncoated bar or wire with a
splices of continuing reinforcement and for anchorage of standard stirrup or tie hook in
reinforcement terminating in such connections. accordance with Section 407.2.3 at
ends of lapped spiral reinforcement.
407.10.2 Enclosure at connections may consist of external The hooks shall be embedded within
concrete or internal closed ties, spirals or stirrups. the core confined by the spiral
reinforcement ........................................... 48 db
407.11 Lateral Reinforcement for Compression e. epoxy-coated deformed bar or wire
Members with a standard stirrup or tie hook in
accordance with Section 407.2.3 at
407.11.1 Lateral reinforcement for compression members ends of lapped spiral reinforcement.
shall conform to the provisions of Sections 407.11.4 and The hooks shall be embedded within
407.11.5 and, where shear or torsion reinforcement is the core confined by the spiral
required, shall also conform to provisions of Section 411. reinforcement ........................................... 48 db
2. Full mechanical or welded splices in accordance with
407.11.2 Lateral reinforcement requirements for composite Section 412.15.3.
compression members shall conform to Section 410.17.
Lateral reinforcement requirements for prestressing tendons
407.11.4.6 Spirals shall extend from top of footing or slab in
shall conform to Section 418.12. any story to level of lowest horizontal reinforcement in
members supported above.
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407.11.4.7 Where beams or brackets do not frame into all 407.12 Lateral Reinforcement for Flexural Members
sides of a column, ties shall extend above termination of
spiral to bottom of slab, drop panel, or shear cap. 407.12.1 Compression reinforcement in beams shall be
enclosed by ties or stirrups satisfying the size and spacing
407.11.4.8 In columns with capitals, spirals shall extend to limitations in Section 407.11.5 or by welded wire fabric of
a level at which the diameter or width of capital is two times equivalent area. Such ties or stirrups shall be provided
that of the column. throughout the distance where compression reinforcement is
required.
407.11.4.9 Spirals shall be held firmly in place and true to
line. 407.12.2 Lateral reinforcement for flexural framing
members subject to stress reversals or to torsion at supports
407.11.5 Tie reinforcement for compression members shall shall consist of closed ties, closed stirrups, or spirals
conform to the following: extending around the flexural reinforcement.
407.11.5.1 All nonprestressed bars shall be enclosed by 407.12.3 Closed ties or stirrups may be formed in one piece
lateral ties, at least ɸ10 mm in size for longitudinal bars ɸ32 by overlapping standard stirrup or tie end hooks around a
mm or smaller, and at least ɸ12 mm in size for ɸ36 mm, longitudinal bar, or formed in one or two pieces lap spliced
ɸ42 mm, ɸ58 mm bars, and bundled longitudinal bars. with a Class B splice (lap of 1.3ld), or anchored in
Deformed wire or welded wire fabric of equivalent area accordance with Section 412.14.
shall be permitted.
407.13 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement
407.11.5.2 Vertical spacing of ties shall not exceed 16
longitudinal bar diameters, 48 tie bar or wire diameters, or 407.13.1 Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature
least dimension of the compression member. stresses normal to flexural reinforcement shall be provided
in structural slabs where the flexural reinforcement extends
407.11.5.3 Ties shall be arranged such that every corner and in one direction only.
alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral support provided
by the corner of a tie with an included angle of not more 407.13.1.1 Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall
than 135 degrees and a bar shall be not farther than 150 mm be provided in accordance with either Section 407.13.2 or
clear on each side along the tie from such a laterally 407.13.3.
supported bar. Where longitudinal bars are located around
the perimeter of a circle, a complete circular tie shall be 407.13.1.2 Where shrinkage and temperature movements
permitted. are significantly restrained, the requirements of Sections
408.3.4 and 409.3.3 shall be considered.
407.11.5.4 Ties shall be located vertically not more than one
half a tie spacing above the top of footing or slab in any 407.13.2 Deformed reinforcement conforming to Section
story and shall be spaced as provided herein to not more 403.6.3 used for shrinkage and temperature reinforcement
than one half a tie spacing below the lowest horizontal shall be provided in accordance with the following:
reinforcement in slab, drop panel, or shear cap above.
407.13.2.1 Area of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement
407.11.5.5 Where beams or brackets frame from four shall provide at least the following ratios of reinforcement
directions into a column, termination of ties not more than area to gross concrete area, but not less than 0.0014:
75 mm below reinforcement in shallowest of such beams or
brackets shall be permitted. 1. Slabs where Grade 280 and Grade 530
deformed bars are used ............................... 0.0020
407.11.5.6 Where anchor bolts are placed in the top of
columns or pedestals, the bolts shall be enclosed by lateral 2. Slabs where Grade 415 deformed bars
reinforcement that also surrounds at least four vertical bars or welded wire fabric (smooth or
of the column or pedestal. The lateral reinforcement shall be deformed) are used ..................................... 0.0018
distributed within 125 mm of the top of column or pedestal,
and shall consist of at least two ɸ12 mm or three ɸ10 mm 3. Slabs where reinforcement with yield .
bars. stress exceeding 415 MPa measured at
a yield strain of 0.35 percent is used ...... 0.0018 415
fy

407.13.2.2 Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall 2. At least one-quarter of the positive moment
be spaced not farther apart than five times the slab thickness reinforcement required at midspan, but not less than
or 450 mm. two bars.
407.13.2.3 At all sections where required, reinforcement for At non-continuous supports, the reinforcement shall be
shrinkage and temperature stresses shall develop the anchored to develop fy at the face of the support using a
specified yield strength fy in tension in accordance with standard hook satisfying Section 412.6 or headed deformed
Section 412. bar satisfying Section 412.7.
407.13.3 Prestressing tendons conforming to Section 407.14.2.3 The continuous moment reinforcement required
403.6.6 used for shrinkage and temperature reinforcement in Section 407.14.2.2 shall be enclosed by transverse
shall be provided in accordance with the following: reinforcement of the type specified in Section 411.7.4.1.
The transverse reinforcement shall be anchored as specified
407.13.3.1 Tendons shall be proportioned to provide a in Section 411.7.4.2. The transverse reinforcement need not
minimum average compressive stress of 0.70 MPa on gross be extended through the column.
concrete area using effective prestress, after losses, in
accordance with Section 418.7. 407.14.2.4 Where splices are required to satisfy Section
407.14.2.2 , the top reinforcement shall be spliced at or near
407.13.3.2 Spacing of prestressed tendons shall not exceed midspan and bottom reinforcement shall be spliced near the
1.8 meters. support. Splices shall be Class B tension splices, or
mechanical or welded splices satisfying Section 412.15.3.
407.13.3.3 When the spacing of prestressed tendons exceeds
1.4 m, additional bonded shrinkage and temperature 407.14.2.5 In other than perimeter beams, where transverse
reinforcement conforming with Section 407.13.2 shall be reinforcement as defined in Section 407.14.2.3 is provided,
provided between the tendons at slab edges extending from there are no additional requirements for longitudinal
the slab edge for a distance equal to the tendon spacing. integrity reinforcement. Where such transverse
reinforcement is not provided, at least one-quarter of the
positive moment reinforcement at midspan, but not less than
407.14 Requirements for Structural Integrity two bars, shall pass through the region bounded by the
longitudinal reinforcementof the column and shall be
407.14.1 In the detailing of reinforcement and connections, continuous or shall be spliced over or near the support with
members of a structure shall be effectively tied together to a Class B tension splice, or mechanical or welded splices
improve integrity of the overall structure. satisfying Section 412.15.3. At non continuous supports, the
reinforcement shall be anchored to develop fy at the face of
407.14.2 For cast-in-place construction, the following shall the support using a standard hook satisfying Section 412.6
constitute minimum requirements: or headed deformed bar satisfying Section 412.7. .
407.14.2.1 In joist construction, as defined in Sections 407.14.2.6 For nonprestressed two-way slab construction,
408.14.1 through 408.14.3, at least one bottom bar shall be see Section 413.4.8.5.
continuous or shall be spliced over the support with a Class
B tension splice or a mechanical or welded splice satisfying 407.14.2.7 For prestressed two-way slab construction, see
Section 412.15.3 and at non-continuous supports shall be Section 418.13.6 and 418.13.7 .
anchored to develop fy at the face of the support using a
standard hook satisfying Section 412.6 or headed deformed 407.14.3 For precast concrete construction, tension ties
bar satisfying Section 412.7. shall be provided in the transverse, longitudinal, and vertical
directions and around the perimeter of the structure to
407.14.2.2 Beams at the perimeter of the structure shall effectively tie elements together. The provisions of Section
have continuous reinforcement ove the span length passing 416.6 shall apply.
through the region bounded by the longitudinal
reinforcement of the column consisting of (1) and (2): 407.14.4 For lift-slab construction, see Sections 413.4.8.6
1. At least one-sixth of the tension reinforcement and 418.13.8.
required for negative moment at the support, but not
less than two bars;
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Table 407-2 Steel Reinforcement Information

Information on Sizes, Areas and Weights of Various Steel Reinforcements
ASTM STANDARD PHILIPPINE STANDARD (SI)
Nominal Nominal Nominal Bar Size Nominal Nominal mass,

Diameter, mm Area, mm2 mass, kg/m Designation Area, mm2 kg/m
9.5 71 0.560 10 79 0.618

12.7 129 0.994 12 113 0.890
15.9 199 1.552 16 201 1.580
19.1 284 2.235 20 314 2.465
22.2 387 3.042 n.a n.a n.a
25.4 510 3.973 25 491 3.851
28.7 645 5.060 28 616 4.831
32.3 819 6.404 32 804 6.310
35.8 1006 7.907 36 1019 7.986
43.0 1452 11.380 42 1385 10.870
57.3 2581 20.240 58 2642 20.729

Table 407-3 WRI Standard Wire Reinforcement

AREA, mm2 / m OF WIDTH FOR
MW and MD VARIOUS SPACINGS
SIZE
CENTER-TO-CENTER SPACING, mm
Nominal Nominal
PLAIN DEFORMED Diameter, mass,
50 75 100 150 200 250 300
mm kg/m
MW290 MD290 19.22 2.270 5800 3900 2900 1900 1450 1160 970
MW200 MD200 15.95 1.570 4000 2700 2000 1300 1000 800 670
MW130 MD130 12.90 1.020 2600 1700 1300 870 650 520 430
MW120 MD120 12.40 0.942 2400 1600 1200 800 600 480 400
MW100 MD100 11.30 0.785 2000 1300 1000 670 500 400 330
MW90 MD90 10.70 0.706 1800 1200 900 600 450 360 300
MW80 MD80 10.10 0.628 1600 1100 800 530 400 320 270
MW70 MD70 9.40 0.549 1400 930 700 470 350 280 230
MW65 MD65 9.10 0.510 1300 870 650 430 325 260 220
MW60 MD60 8.70 0.471 1200 800 600 400 300 240 200
MW55 MD55 8.44 0.432 1100 730 550 370 275 220 180
MW50 MD50 8.00 0.393 1000 670 500 330 250 200 170
MW45 MD45 7.60 0.353 900 600 450 300 225 180 150
MW40 MD40 7.10 0.314 800 530 400 270 200 160 130
MW35 MD35 6.70 0.275 700 470 350 230 175 140 120
MW30 MD30 6.20 0.236 600 400 300 200 150 120 100
MW25 MD25 5.60 0.196 500 330 250 170 125 100 83
MW20 5.00 0.157 400 270 200 130 100 80 67
MW15 4.40 0.118 300 200 150 100 75 60 50
MW10 3.60 0.079 200 130 100 70 50 40 33
MW5 2.50 0.039 100 67 50 33 25 20 17
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SECTION 408 ANALYSIS AND 408.3 Loading

DESIGN 408.3.1 Design provisions of this code are based on the
assumption that structures shall be designed to resist all
applicable loads.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
408.3.2 Service loads shall be in accordance with Chapter 2
408.1 Notations of this code with appropriate live load reductions as
permitted therein.
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, mm2
A's = area of compression reinforcement, mm2 408.3.3 In design for wind and earthquake loads, integral
b = width of compression face of member, mm structural parts shall be designed to resist the total lateral
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid loads.
of tension reinforcement, mm
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa. See Section 408.3.4 Consideration shall be given to effects of forces due
208.6.1 to prestressing, crane loads, vibration, impact, shrinkage,
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, MPa. See temperature changes, creep, expansion of shrinkage-
Sections 408.6.2 and 408.6.3 compensating concrete and unequal settlement of supports.
fy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed
reinforcement, MPa 408.4 Methods of Analysis
ln = length of clear span measured face-to-face of
supports, mm 408.4.1 All members of frames or continuous construction
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete shall be designed for the maximum effects of factored loads
wc = unit weight of concrete, kg/m3 as determined by the theory of elastic analysis, except as
wu = factored load per unit length of beam or per unit area modified by Section 408.5. It shall be permitted to simplify
of slab the design by using the assumptions specified in Sections
1 = factor defined in Section 410.3.7.3 408.8 through 408.12.
t = net tensile strain in extreme tension steel at nominal
strength 408.4.2 Except for prestressed concrete, approximate
 = ratio of nonprestressed tension reinforcement methods of frame analysis may be used for buildings of
  As/bd usual types of construction, spans and story heights.
' = ratio of nonprestressed compression reinforcement
= A's/bd 408.4.3 As an alternate to frame analysis, the following
b = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain approximate moments and shears shall be permitted to be
conditions. See Section 410.4.2 used in design of continuous beams and one-way slabs
 = strength-reduction factor. See Section 409.4 (slabs reinforced to resist flexural stresses in only one
direction), provided:
1. There are two or more spans;
408.2 Design Methods
2. Spans are approximately equal, with the larger of two
408.2.1 In design of structural concrete, members shall be adjacent spans not greater than the shorter by more than
proportioned for adequate strength in accordance with 20 percent;
provisions of this chapter, using load factors and strength-
3. Loads are uniformly distributed;
reduction factors specified in Section 409.
4. Unfactored live load, L, does not exceed three times
408.2.2 Design of reinforced concrete using the provisions unfactored dead load, D; and
of Section 425 shall be permitted.
5. Members are prismatic.
408.2.3 Anchors within the scope of Section 423 installed
in concrete to transfer loads between connected elements
shall be designed using Section 423.

Static equilibrium shall be maintained after redistribution of

For calculating negative moments, ln is taken as the average
moments for each loading arrangement.
of the adjacent clear span lengths.
POSITIVE MOMENT: 408.6 Modulus of Elasticity

End spans
408.6.1 Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete shall be
Discontinuous end unrestrained .......... wu ln2/11
Discontinuous end integral with permitted to be taken as wc1.50.043 f 'c (in MPa) for
support .......................................... wu ln2/14 values of wc between 1,500 and 2,500 kg/m3. For
normal. weight concrete, Ec shall be permitted to be taken
Interior spans ............................................ wu ln2/16
as 4700 f 'c
NEGATIVE MOMENT:
at exterior face of first interior support 408.6.2 Modulus of elasticity Es for nonprestressed
Two spans ............................................. wuln2/9 reinforcement shall be permitted to be taken as 200,000
More than two spans ............................ wuln2/10 MPa.
at other faces of interior supports ............. wuln2/11
408.6.3 Modulus of elasticity Es for prestressing tendons
at face of all supports for: slabs with shall be determined by tests or supplied by the
spans not exceeding 3 meters; and manufacturer.
beams where ratio of sum of column
stiffnesses to beam stiffness exceeds
eight at each end of the span .................... wuln2/12 408.7 Lightweight Concrete
at interior face of exterior support for 408.7.1 To account for the use of lightweight concrete,
members built integrally with supports: unless specifically noted otherwise, a modification factor λ
where support is a spandrel beam ........ wuln2/24 appears as a multiplier of f 'c in all applicable equations
where support is a column ................... wuln2/16
and sections of this code, where λ = 0.85 for sand-
SHEAR: lightweight concrete and 0.75 for all-lightweight concrete.
Linear interpolation between 0.75 and 0.85 shall be
at face of first interior support .............. 1.15 wuln/2 permitted, on the basis of volumetric fractions, when a
at face of all other supports ......................... wuln/2 portion of the lightweight fine aggregate is replaced with
normal-weight fine aggregate. Linear interpolation between
0.85 and 1.0 shall be permitted, on the basis of volumetric
408.4.4 Strut-and-tie models shall be permitted to be used fractions, for concrete containing normal-weight fine
in the design of structural concrete. See Section 427. aggregate and a blend of lightweight and normal-weight
coarse aggregates. For normal-weight concrete, λ = 1.0. If
average splitting tensile strength of lightweight concrete, f'ct,
408.5 Redistribution of Negative Moments in
Continuous Nonprestressed Flexural Members is specified, λ = f'ct /(0.56 f 'c . ) ≤ 1.0.
408.5.1 Except where approximate values for moments are

used, it is permitted to decrease factored moments 408.8 Stiffness
calculated by elastic theory at sections of maximum
negative or positive moment in any span of continuous 408.8.1 Use of any set of reasonable assumptions shall be
flexural members for any assumed loading arrangement by permitted for computing relative flexural and torsional
not more than 1000t percent, with a maximum of 20 stiffnesses of columns, walls, floors and roof systems. The
percent. assumptions adopted shall be consistent throughout
analysis.
408.5.2 Redistribution of negative moments shall be made
408.8.2 Effect of haunches shall be considered both in
only when t is equal to or greater than 0.0075 at the section
determining moments and in design of members.
at which moment is reduced.
408.5.3 The reduced moment shall be used for calculating

redistributed moments at all other sections within the spans.
th
408.11 Columns
408.9 Effective Stiffness to Determine Lateral
408.11.1 Columns shall be designed to resist the axial forces
Deflections
from factored loads on all floors or roof and the maximum
moment from factored loads on a single adjacent span of the
408.9.1 Lateral deflections of reinforced concrete building floor or roof under consideration. Loading condition giving
systems resulting from service lateral loads shall be the maximum ratio of moment to axial load shall also be
computed by either a linear analysis with member stiffness considered.
determined using 1.4 times the flexural stiffness defined in
408.9.2 and 408.9.3 or by a more detailed analysis. Member
408.11.2 In frames or continuous construction,
properties shall not be taken greater than the gross section
consideration shall be given to the effect of unbalanced floor
properties.
or roof loads on both exterior and interior columns and of
eccentric loading due to other causes.
408.9.2 Lateral deflections of reinforced concrete building
systems resulting from factored lateral loads shall be
408.11.3 In computing gravity load moments in columns, it
computed either by linear analysis with member stiffness
shall be permitted to assume far ends of columns built
defined by (1) or (2), or by a more detailed analysis
integrally with the structure to be fixed.
considering the reduced stiffness of all members under the
loading conditions:
408.11.4 Resistance to moments at any floor or roof level
1. By section properties defined in 410.12.3 (1) through shall be provided by distributing the moment between
(3); or columns immediately above and below the given floor in
proportion to the relative column stiffnesses and conditions
2. 50 percent of stiffness values based on gross section
of restraint.
properties.
408.9.3 Where two-way slabs without beams are designated 408.12 Arrangement of Live Load
as part of the seismic-force-resisting system, lateral
deflections resulting from factored lateral loads shall be 408.12.1 It is permissible to assume that:
permitted to be computed by using linear analysis. The
stiffness of slab members shall be defined by a model that is 1. The live load is applied only to the floor or roof under
consideration; and
in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests
and analysis and the stiffness of other frame members shall 2. The far ends of columns built integrally with the
be as defined in Section 408.9.2. structure are considered to be fixed.
408.12.2 It is permitted to assume that the arrangement of

408.10 Span Length
live load is limited to combinations of:
408.10.1 Span length of members not built integrally with 1. Factored dead load on all spans with full-factored live
supports shall be considered the clear span plus depth of load on two adjacent spans, and
member, but need not exceed distance between centers of
supports. 2. Factored dead load on all spans with full-factored live
load on alternate spans.
408.10.2 In analysis of frames or continuous construction
for determination of moments, span length shall be taken as 408.13 T-beam Construction
the distance center to center of supports.
408.13.1 In T-beam construction, the flange and web shall
408.10.3 For beams built integrally with supports, design be built integrally or otherwise effectively bonded together.
on the basis of moments at faces of support shall be
permitted. 408.13.2 Width of slab effective as a T-beam flange shall
not exceed one-fourth the span length of the beam, and the
408.10.4 It shall be permitted to analyze solid or ribbed effective overhanging slab width on each side of the web
slabs built integrally with supports, with clear spans not shall not exceed:
more than 3 m, as continuous slabs on knife edge supports
with spans equal to the clear spans of the slab and width of 1. Eight times the slab thickness; or
beams otherwise neglected. 2. One-half the clear distance to the next web.

408.13.3 For beams with a slab on one side only, the 408.14.5.2 Slab thickness over permanent fillers shall not be
effective overhanging flange width shall not exceed: less than one twelfth the clear distance between ribs nor less
than 40 mm.
1. One-twelfth the span length of the beam;
2. Six times the slab thickness; or 408.14.5.3 In one-way joists, reinforcement normal to the
ribs shall be provided in the slab as required by Section
3. One-half the clear distance to the next web.
407.13.
408.13.4 Isolated beams, in which the T-shape is used to
408.14.6 When removable forms or fillers not complying
provide a flange for additional compression area, shall have
with Section 408.14.5 are used:
a flange thickness not less than one half the width of web
and an effective flange width not more than four times the
408.14.6.1 Slab thickness shall not be less than one twelfth
width of web.
the clear distance between ribs, or less than 50 mm.
408.13.5 Where primary flexural reinforcement in a slab
408.14.6.2 Reinforcement normal to the ribs shall be
that is considered as a T-beam flange (excluding joist
provided in the slab as required for flexure, considering load
construction) is parallel to the beam, reinforcement
concentrations, if any, but not less than required by Section
perpendicular to the beam shall be provided in the top of the
407.13.
slab in accordance with the following:
408.14.7 Where conduits or pipes as permitted by Section
408.13.5.1 Transverse reinforcement shall be designed to
406.3 are embedded within the slab, slab thickness shall be
carry the factored load on the overhanging slab width
at least 25 mm greater than the total overall depth of the
assumed to act as a cantilever. For isolated beams, the full
conduits or pipes at any point. Conduits or pipes shall not
width of overhanging flange shall be considered. For other
impair significantly the strength of the construction.
T-beams, only the effective overhanging slab width need be
considered.
408.14.8 For joist construction, contribution of concrete to
shear strength Vc is permitted to be 10 percent more than
408.13.5.2 Transverse reinforcement shall be spaced not
that specified in Section 411. It shall be permitted to
farther apart than five times the slab thickness or 450 mm.
increase shear strength using shear reinforcement or by
widening the ends of the ribs.
408.14 Joist Construction
408.15 Separate Floor Finish
408.14.1 Joist construction consists of a monolithic
combination of regularly spaced ribs and a top slab arranged
408.15.1 A floor finish shall not be included as part of a
to span in one direction or two orthogonal directions.
structural member unless placed monolithically with the
floor slab or designed in accordance with requirements of
408.14.2 Ribs shall not be less than 100 mm in width and
Section 417.
shall have a depth of not more than three and one-half times
the minimum width of rib.
408.15.2 It shall be permitted to consider all concrete floor
finishes as part of required cover or total thickness for
408.14.3 Clear spacing between ribs shall not exceed 750
nonstructural considerations.
mm.
408.14.4 Joist construction not meeting the limitations of

Sections 408.14.1 through 408.14.3 shall be designed as
slabs and beams.
408.14.5 When permanent burned clay or concrete tile

fillers of material having a unit compressive strength at least
equal to that of the specified strength of concrete in the
joists are used:
408.14.5.1 For shear and negative-moment strength

computations, it shall be permitted to include the vertical
shells of fillers in contact with ribs. Other portions of fillers
shall not be included in strength computations.
th
SECTION 409 STRENGTH AND Pb = nominal axial load strength at balanced strain
conditions. See Section 410.4.2
SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS Pn = nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity
R = rain load, or related internal moments and forces,
409.1 Notations Section 409.3.1
T = cumulative effects of temperature, creep,
Ag = gross area of section, mm2 shrinkage, differential settlement and shrinkage
A's = area of compression reinforcement, mm2 compensating concrete
b = width of compression face of member, mm U = required strength to resist factored loads or related
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral internal moments and forces
axis, mm W = wind load, or related internal moments and forces
D = dead loads, or related internal moments and forces wc = weight of concrete, kg/m3
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to yt = distance from centroidal axis of gross section,
centroid of tension reinforcement, mm neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in
d' = distance from extreme compression fiber to tension
centroid of compression reinforcement, mm
f  ratio of flexural stiffness of beam section to
ds = distance from extreme tension fiber to centroid of
flexural stiffness of a width of slab bounded
tension reinforcement, mm
laterally by center line of adjacent panel, if any, on
dt = distance from extreme compression fiber to
each side of beam. See Section 413
extreme tension steel, mm
fm = average value of f for all beams on edges of a
E = load effects of earthquake, or related internal
panel
moments and forces
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa. See Section   ratio of clear spans in long-to-short direction of
408.6.1 two-way slabs
F = loads due to weight and pressures of fluids with   time-dependent factor for sustained load. See
well defined densities and controllable maximum Section 409.6.2.5
heights, or related internal moments and forces t = net tensile strain in extreme tension steel at
f'c = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa nominal strength
  modification factor reflecting the reduced
f 'c = square root of specified compressive strength of
mechanical properties of lightweight concrete. See
concrete, MPa Section 408.7.1
fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight Δ  multiplier for additional long-time deflection as
aggregate concrete, MPa defined in Section 409.6.2.5
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete, MPa  = ratio of nonprestressed tension reinforcement,
fy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed As/bd
reinforcement, MPa '  reinforcement ratio for nonprestressed compression
H = loads due to weight and pressure of soil, water in reinforcement, A's/bd
soil, or other materials, or related internal moments b = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain
and forces conditions. See Section 410.4.2
h = overall thickness of member, mm
  strength-reduction factor. See Section 409.4
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed
to concrete, mm4
Ie = effective moment of inertia for computation of 409.2 General
deflection, mm4
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about 409.2.1 Structures and structural members shall be designed
centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement, mm4 to have design strengths at all sections at least equal to the
L = live loads, or related internal moments and forces required strengths calculated for the factored loads and
l = span length of beam or one-way slab, as defined in forces in such combinations as are stipulated in this code.
Section 408.10; clear projection of cantilever, mm
ln = length of clear span in long direction of two-way 409.2.2 Members also shall meet all other requirements of
construction, measured face to face of supports in this code to ensure adequate performance at service load
slabs without beams and face to face of beams or levels.
other supports in other cases
Ma = maximum moment in member at stage deflection is 409.2.3 Design of structures and structural members using
computed the load factor combinations and strength reduction factors
Mcr = cracking moment. See Equation 409-9 of Section 426 shall be permitted. Use of load factor

combinations from this chapter in conjunction with strength the appropriate load combinations of ASCE / SEI 7 shall be
reduction factors of Section 426 shall not be permitted. used.
409.3.5 For post-tensioned anchorage zone design, a load

409.3 Required Strength
factor of 1.2 shall be applied to the maximum tendon
jacking force.
409.3.1 Required strength U shall be at least equal to the
effects of factored loads in Eq. 409-1 through Eq. 409-7.
The effect of one or more loads not acting simultaneously 409.4 Design Strength
shall be investigated.
409.4.1 Design strength provided by a member, its
U = 1.4(D + F) (409-1) connections to other members and its cross sections, in
terms of flexure, axial load, shear and torsion, shall be taken
U = 1.2 (D+ F+T ) + 1.6 (L+H) + 0.5(L, or R) (409-2) as the nominal strength calculated in accordance with
requirements and assumptions of this Section, multiplied by
U = 1.2 D + 1.6 (L, or R) + (1.0L or 0.80 W) (409-3) a strength-reduction factor  in Sections 409.4.2, 409.4.4
and 409.4.5
U = 1.2 D + 1.6 W + 1.0 L +0.5 (L, or R) (409-4)
U = 1.2 D + 1.0 E+ 1.0 L (409-5) 409.4.2 Strength-Reduction Factor

Strength-reduction factor shall be given in Sections
U = 0.9 D + 1.6 W + 1.6 H (409-6) 409.4.2.1 through 409.4.2.7:
U = 0.90 D + 1.0 E + 1.6 H (409-7) 409.4.2.1 Tension controlled sections as defined in Section
except as follows: 410.4.4 (see also Section 409.4.2.7) ………………... 0.90
1. The load factor on the live load L in Eq. 409-3 to 409-5 409.4.2.2 Compression controlled sections, as defined in
shall be permitted to be reduced to 0.5 except for Section 410.4.3:
garages, areas occupied as places of public assembly,
2 1. Members with spiral reinforcement
and all areas where L is greater than 4.8 kN/m .
conforming to Section 410.10.3 .. .................. …. 0.75
2. Where wind load W has not been reduced by a
2. Other reinforced members ............................. …. 0.65
directionality factor, it shall be permitted to use 1.3W in
place of 1.6W in Eq. 409-4 and 409-6.
For sections in which the net tensile strength, t, is between
3. Where E, the load effects of earthquake, is based on the limits for compression-controlled and tension-controlled
service-level seismic forces, 1.4E shall be used in place sections, shall be permitted to be linearly increased from
of 1.0E in Eq. 409-5 and 409-7. that for compression-controlled sections to 0.90 as εt
4. The load factor on H, loads due to weight and pressure increases from the compression-controlled strain limit to
of soil, water in soil, or other materials, shall be set 0.005.
equal to zero in Eq. 409-6 and 409-7 if the structural
action due to H counteracts that due to W or E. Where Alternatively, when Section 425 is used, for members in
lateral earth pressure provides resistance to structural which fy does not exceed 415 MPa, with symmetric
actions from other forces, it shall not be included in H reinforcement, and with (h - d')/h not less than 0.70, shall
but shall be included in the design resistance. be permitted to be increased linearly to 0.90 as  Pn
decreases from 0.10 f'c Ag to zero. For other reinforced
409.3.2 If resistance to impact effects is taken into account members, shall be permitted to be increased linearly to
in design, such effects shall be included with live load L. 0.90 as  Pn decreases from 0.10 f'c Ag or  Pb, whichever is
smaller, to zero.
409.3.3 Estimations of differential settlement, creep,
shrinkage, expansion of shrinkage-compensating concrete or 409.4.2.3 Shear and torsion (See also Section 409.4.4 for
temperature change shall be based on a realistic assessment shear walls and frames in Seismic Zone 4) ………… 0.75
of such effects occurring in service.
409.4.2.4 Bearing on concrete (except for post-
409.3.4 If a structure is in a flood zone, or is subjected to tensioning anchorage zones) .................................. …. 0.65
forces from atmospheric precipitations, the flood loads and
409.4.2.5 Post-tensioned anchorage zones ........... …. 0.85
th
409.4.2.6 Strut-and-tie models (Section 427),

and struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing areas in
such models ........................................................ …. 0.75 409.5 Design Strength for Reinforcement
The values of fy and fyt used in design calculations shall not
409.4.2.7 Flexural sections in pre-tensioned members where exceed 550 MPa, except for prestressing tendons and for
strand embedment is less than the development length as transverse reinforcement in Section 410.10.3 and 421.3.5.4.
provided in Section 412.10.1.1:
1. From the end of the member to the end of the transfer 409.6 Control of Deflections
length ……..................................... 0.75
409.6.1 Reinforced concrete members subject to flexure
2. From the end of the transfer length to the end of shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit
the development length shall be permitted to be deflections or any deformations that adversely affect
strength or serviceability of a structure.
linearly increased from..........................0.75 to 0.9
Where bonding of a strand does not extend to the end of the 409.6.2 One-Way Construction (Nonprestressed)
member, strand embedment shall be assumed to begin at the
end of the debonded length. See also Section 412.10.3. 409.6.2.1 Minimum thickness stipulated in Table 409-1
shall apply for one-way construction not supporting or
409.4.3 Development lengths specified in Section 412 do attached to partitions or other construction likely to be
not require a factor. damaged by large deflections, unless computation of
deflection indicates a lesser thickness may be used without
409.4.4 For structures that rely on intermediate precast adverse effects.
structural walls in Seismic Zone 4, special moment frames,
or special structural walls to resist earthquake effects, E, 409.6.2.2 Where deflections are to be computed, deflections
shall be modified as given in Section 409.4.4.1 through that occur immediately on application of load shall be
409.4.4.3: computed by usual methods or formulas for elastic
deflections, considering effects of cracking and
409.4.4.1 For any structural member that is designed to reinforcement on member stiffness.
resist E,  for shear shall be 0.60 if the nominal shear
strength of the member is less than the shear corresponding 409.6.2.3 Unless stiffness values are obtained by a more
to the development of the nominal flexural strength of the comprehensive analysis, immediate deflection shall be
member. The nominal flexural strength shall be determined computed with the modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete as
considering the most critical factored axial loads and specified in Section 408.6.1 (normal-weight or lightweight
concrete) and with the effective moment of inertia as
including E;
follows, but not greater than Ig.
409.4.4.2 For diaphragms,  for shear shall not exceed the 3
 M 3

M  
minimum  for shear used for the vertical components of the I e   cr  I g  1   cr   I cr (409-8)
primary seismic-force-resisting system;  Ma    Ma  
 
409.4.4.3 For joints and diagonally reinforced coupling where:

beams,  for shear shall be 0.85. fr Ig
M cr  (409-9)
409.4.5 Strength reduction factor  for flexure, yt
compression, shear and bearing of structural plain concrete
and for normal-weight concrete
in Section 422 shall be 0.60.
fr = 0.62λ f 'c (409-10)

Table 409-1 - Minimum Thickness of Nonprestressed 409.6.3 Two-Way Construction (Nonprestressed)

Beams or One-Way Slabs Unless Deflections are
Computed 409.6.3.1 This section shall govern the minimum thickness
of slabs or other two-way construction designed in
Minimum Thickness, h accordance with the provisions of Section 413 and
Simply One end Both ends conforming with the requirements of Section 413.7.1.2. The
Member Cantilever
Supported continuous continuous thickness of slabs without interior beams spanning between
Members not supporting or attached to partitions or other the supports on all sides shall satisfy the requirements of
construction likely to be damaged by large deflections Section 409.6.3.2 or 409.6.3.4. Thickness of slabs with
Solid one- ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ beams spanning between the supports on all sides shall
way slabs 20 24 28 10 satisfy the requirements of Section 409.6.3.3 or 409.6.3.4.
Beams or
ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ 409.6.3.2 For slabs without interior beams spanning
ribbed one
way slabs 16 18.5 21 8 between the supports and having a ratio of long to short
Values given shall be used directly for members with normal weight
span not greater than 2, the minimum thickness shall be in
concrete (wc = 2,400 kg/m3) and Grade 415 reinforcement. For other accordance with the provisions of Table 409-3 and shall not
conditions, the values shall be modified as follows: be less than the following values:
a) For structural lightweight concrete having unit weight in the range
1,500-2,000 kg.m3, the values shall be multiplied by (1.65 - 1. Slabs without drop panels as defined in
0.0003wc) but not less than 1.09, where wc is the unit weight in Sections 413.3.5 ....................................... 125 mm
kg/m3.
b) For fy other than 415 MPa, the values shall be multiplied by (0.4 + 2. Slabs with drop panels as defined in
fy/700) Sections 413.3.5. .......................................... 100 mm
409.6.2.4 For continuous members, effective moment of 409.6.3.3 For slabs with beams spanning between the
inertia shall be permitted to be taken as the average of supports on all sides, the minimum thickness shall be as
values obtained from Eq. 409-8 for the critical positive and follows:
negative moment sections. For prismatic members, effective
moment of inertia shall be permitted to be taken as the value 1. For fm equal to or less than 0.2, the provisions of
obtained from Eq. 409-8 at midspan for simple and Section 409.6.3.2 shall apply.
continuous spans, and at support for cantilevers.
2. For fm greater than 0.2 but not greater than 2.0,
the thickness shall not be less than:
409.6.2.5 Unless values are obtained by a more
comprehensive analysis, additional longtime deflection ln  fy  (409-12)
h   0 . 8  
resulting from creep and shrinkage of flexural members 36  5   fm  0 .2  1400 
(normal-weight or lightweight concrete) shall be determined
by multiplying the immediate deflection caused by the and not less than 125 mm.;
sustained load considered, by the factor λΔ .
 3. For fm greater than 2.0, the thickness shall not be less
  (409-11) than:
1  50  '
 fy 
where ' shall be the value at midspan for simple and l n  0 . 8  
1400
continuous spans, and at support for cantilevers. It is h    (409-13)
36  9 
permitted to assume the time-dependent factor  for
sustained loads to be equal to: and not less than 90 mm.
5 years or more .............................. 2.0 4. At discontinuous edges, an edge beam shall be provided
12 months .................................. 1.4 with a stiffness ratio fm not less than 0.80; or the
6 months ..................................... 1.2 minimum thickness required by Eq. 409-12 or 409-13
shall be increased by at least 10 percent in the panel
3 months ....................................... 1.0 with a discontinuous edge.
409.6.2.6 Deflection computed in accordance with Sections
409.6.2.2 through 409.6.2.5 shall not exceed limits
stipulated in Table 409-2.
th
Table 409-2 - Maximum Permissible Computed Table 409-3 - Minimum Thickness of Slabs
Deflections without Interior Beams
Without drop panels1 With drop panels2
Deflection to be Deflection Yield
Type of Member Interior Interior
considered Limitation strength Exterior panels Exterior panels
fy panels panels
1 without with without With
Flat roofs not MPa
edge edge edge edge
supporting or attached beam beam beam beam3
to non-structural Immediate deflection l 1
elements likely to be due to live load, L 180 ℓn ℓn ℓn ℓn ℓn ℓn
280
damaged by large 33 36 36 36 40 40
deflections
Floors not supporting ℓn ℓn ℓn ℓn ℓn ℓn
415
or attached to non- 30 33 33 33 36 36
Immediate deflection l 2
structural elements
due to live load, L 360 ℓn ℓn ℓn ℓn ℓn ℓn
likely to be damaged by 520
large deflections 28 31 31 31 34 34
Roof or floor 1
For values of reinforcement yield strength between the values given in
construction supporting That part of the total the table, minimum thickness shall be determined by linear
3
or attached to non- deflection occurring l interpolation.
structural elements after attachment of 480 2
Drop panels is defined in 413.3.5.
likely to be damaged by nonstructural elements 3
Slabs with beams between columns along exterior edges. The value of a
large deflections (sum of the long-term for the edge beam shall not be less than 0.8.
Floor or floor deflection due to all
construction supporting sustained loads and the Term ln in (2) and (3) is length of clear span in long
or attached to non- immediate deflection l 4 direction measured face-to-face of beams. Term β in (2) and
structural elements not due to any additional 240 (3) is ratio of clear spans in long to short direction of slab.
likely to be damaged by live load) 
large deflections
409.6.3.4 Slab thickness less than the minimum thickness
 
Limit not intended to safeguard against ponding. Ponding should be required by Sections 409.6.3.1, 409.6.3.2 and 409.6.3.3
checked by suitable calculations of deflection, including added shall be permitted to be used if shown by computation that
deflections due to ponded water, and considering long-term effects of
all sustained loads, camber, construction tolerances, and reliability of the deflection will not exceed the limits stipulated in Table
provisions for drainage. 409-2. Deflections shall be computed taking into account
2
Long term deflection shall be determined in accordance with 409.6.2.5 size and shape of the panel, conditions of support, and
or 409.6.4.3, but may be reduced by amount of deflection calculated to nature of restraints at the panel edges. The modulus of
occur before attachment of nonstructural elements. The amount shall be
determined on basis of accepted engineering data relating to time- elasticity of concrete Ec shall be as specified in Section
deflection characteristics of members similar to those being considered. 408.6.1. The effective moment of inertia shall be that given
3
Limit may be exceeded if adequate measures are taken to prevent by Eq. 409-8; other values shall be permitted to be used if
damage to supported or attached elements. they result in computed deflections in reasonable agreement
4
But not greater than tolerance provided for nonstructural elements.
Limit may be exceeded if camber is provided so that total deflection with the results of comprehensive tests. Additional long-
minus camber does not exceed limit. term deflection shall be computed in accordance with
Section 409.6.2.5.
409.6.4 Prestressed Concrete Construction
409.6.4.1 For flexural members designed in accordance with

provisions of Section 418, immediate deflection shall be
computed by usual methods or formulas for elastic
deflections, and the moment of inertia of the gross concrete
section, Ig, shall be permitted to be used for Class U flexural
members, as defined in Sections 418.4.3.
409.6.4.2 For Class C and Class T flexural members, as

defined in Section 418.4.3, deflection calculations shall be
based on a cracked transformed section analysis. It shall be
permitted to base computations on a bilinear moment-
deflection relationship, or an effective moment of inertia, Ie,
as defined by Eq. 409-8.

409.6.4.3 Additional long-time deflection of prestressed SECTION 410 FLEXURE AND

concrete members shall be computed taking into account
stresses in concrete and steel under sustained load and AXIAL LOADS
including effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete and
relaxation of steel. 410.1 Notations
409.6.4.4 Deflection computed in accordance with Sections A = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block as
409.6.4.1, 409.6.4.2, and 409.6.4.3 shall not exceed limits defined in Section 410.3.7.1, mm
stipulated in Table 409-2. Ach = cross-sectional area of a structural member
measured to outside edges of transverse
reinforcement, mm2
409.6.5 Composite Construction Ag = gross area of section, mm2
As = area of nonprestressed longitudinal tension
reinforcement, mm2
409.6.5.1 Shored Construction
As,min =minimum amount of flexural reinforcement, mm2.
If composite flexural members are supported during See Section 410.6
construction so that, after removal of temporary supports, Asx = area of structural steel shape, pipe, or tubing in
dead load is resisted by the full composite section, it shall be composite section, mm2. See Section 410.17.5
permitted to consider the composite member equivalent to a Ast =total area of nonprestressed longitudinal
monolithically cast member for computation of deflection. reinforcement (bars or steel shapes), mm2
For nonprestressed members, the portion of the member in At = area of structural steel shape, pipe or tubing in a
compression shall determine whether values in Table 409-1 composite section, mm2
for normal-weight or lightweight concrete shall apply. If A1 = loaded area, mm2
deflection is computed, account shall be taken of curvatures A2 = the area of the lower base of the largest frustum of
resulting from differential shrinkage of precast and cast-in- a pyramid, cone, or tapered wedge contained
place components, and of axial creep effects in a prestressed wholly within the support and having for its upper
concrete member. base the loaded area, and having side slopes of 1
unit vertical in 2 units horizontal (50% slope),
409.6.5.2 Unshored Construction mm2
b = width of compression face of member, mm
If the thickness of a nonprestressed precast flexural member bw = web width, mm
meets the requirements of Table 409-1, deflection need not c = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral
be computed. If the thickness of a nonprestressed composite axis, mm
member meets the requirements of Table 409-1, it is not cc = clear cover from the nearest surface in tension to
required to compute deflection occurring after the member the surface of the flexural tension reinforcement,
becomes composite, but the long-time deflection of the mm
precast member shall be investigated for magnitude and Cm = a factor relating actual moment diagram to an
duration of load prior to beginning of effective composite equivalent uniform moment diagram
action. d = distance from extreme compression fiber to
centroid of tension reinforcement, mm
409.6.5.3 Deflection computed in accordance with Sections dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme
409.6.5.1, or 409.6.5.2 shall not exceed limits stipulated in tension fiber to center of bar or wire located closest
Table 409-2. thereto, mm
dt = distance from extreme compression fiber to
extreme tension steel, mm
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, MPa
EI = flexural stiffness of compression member, N-mm2
See Eq. 410-15 and 410-16
fs = calculated stress in reinforcement at service loads,
MPa
fyt = specified yield strength fy of transversed
reinforcement, MPa
h = overall dimension of member in direction of action
considered, mm
th
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about 1 = factor defined in Section 410.3.7.3
centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement, mm4 dns = ratio used to account for reduction of stiffness of
Ise = moment of inertia of reinforcement about columns due to sustained axial loads
centroidal axis of member cross section, mm4 ds = ratio used to account for reduction of stiffness of
Isx = moment of inertia of structural steel shape, pipe or columns due to sustained lateral loads
tubing about centroidal axis of composite member o = relative lateral deflection between the top and
cross section, mm4 bottom of a story due to Vu, computed using a first-
k = effective length factor for compression members order elastic frame analysis and stiffness values
lc = length of a compression member in a frame, satisfying Section 410.12.4.2
measured from center to center of the joints in the ns = moment magnification factor for frames braced
frame against sidesway to reflect effects of member
lu = unsupported length of compression member, mm. curvature between ends of compression members
Mc = factored moment to be used for design of s = moment magnification factor for frames not braced
compression member against sidesway to reflect lateral drift resulting
Ms = moment due to loads causing appreciable sway from lateral and gravity loads
Mu = factored moment at section
t = net tensile strain in extreme tension steel at
M1 = smaller factored end moment on a compression
nominal strength
member, positive if member is bent in single
 = ratio of nonprestressed tension reinforcement
curvature, negative if bent in double curvature
= As/bd
M1ns = factored end moment on a compression member at
the end at which M1 acts, due to loads that cause no b = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain
appreciable sidesway, calculated using a first-order conditions. See Section 410.4.2
elastic frame analysis s = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total
M1s = factored end moment on compression members at volume of core (out-to-out of spirals) of a spirally
the end at which M1 acts, due to loads that cause reinforced compression member
appreciable sidesway, calculated using a first-order   strength-reduction factor. See Section 409.4
elastic frame analysis k = stiffness reduction factor
M2 = larger factored end moment on compression
member, always positive 410.2 Scope
M2,min = minimum value of M2
M2ns = factored end moment on compression member at Provisions of Section 410 shall apply for design of members
the end at which M2 acts, due to loads that cause no subject to flexure or axial loads or to combined flexure and
appreciable sidesway, calculated using a first-order axial loads.
elastic frame analysis
M2s = factored end moment on compression member at 410.3 Design Assumptions
the end at which M2 acts, due to loads that cause
appreciable sidesway, calculated using a first-order 410.3.1 Strength design of members for flexure and axial
elastic frame analysis loads shall be based on assumptions given in Sections
Pb = nominal axial load strength at balanced strain 410.3.2 through 410.3.7 and on satisfaction of applicable
conditions. See Section 410.4.2 conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains.
Pc = critical load. See Eq. 410-14
Pn = nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity 410.3.2 Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be
Po = nominal axial load strength at zero eccentricity assumed directly proportional to the distance from the
Pu = factored axial load at given eccentricity neutral axis, except that, for deep flexural beams as defined
< Pn in Section 410.8.1, an analysis that considers a nonlinear
Q = stability index for a story. See Section 410.12.4.2 distribution of strain shall be used. Alternatively, it shall be
r = radius of gyration of cross section of a compression permitted to use a strut-and-tie model. See Section 410.8,
member 411.9, and Section 427.
s = maximum center-to-center spacing of flexural
tension reinforcement nearest to the extreme 410.3.3 Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete
tension face, mm (where there is only one bar or compression fiber shall be assumed equal to 0.003.
wire nearest to the extreme tension face, s is the
maximum width of the extreme tension face.)
Vus = factored horizontal shear in a story, N
z = quantity limiting distribution of flexural
reinforcement. See Section 410.7

410.3.4 Stress in reinforcement below specified yield conditions. For Grade 415 reinforcement, and for all
strength fy for grade of reinforcement used shall be taken as prestressed reinforcement, it shall be permitted to set the
Es times steel strain. For strains greater than that compression-controlled strain limit equal to 0.002.
corresponding to fy, stress in reinforcement shall be
considered independent of strain and equal to fy. 410.4.4 Sections are tension-controlled if the net tensile
strain in the extreme tension steel, εt, is equal to or greater
410.3.5 Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in than 0.005 when the concrete in compression reaches its
axial and flexural calculations of reinforced concrete, except assumed strain limit of 0.003. Sections with εt between the
where meeting requirements of Section 418.5. compression-controlled strain limit and 0.005 constitute a
transition region between compression-controlled and
410.3.6 The relationship between concrete compressive tension-controlled sections.
stress distribution and concrete strain shall be assumed to be
rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic or any other shape that 410.4.5 For nonprestressed flexural members and
results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement nonprestressed members with factored axial compressive
with results of comprehensive tests. load less than 0.10fc′ Ag, εt at nominal strength shall not be
less than 0.004.
410.3.7 Requirements of Section 410.3.6 may be
considered satisfied by an equivalent rectangular concrete 410.4.5.1 Use of compression reinforcement shall be
stress distribution defined by the following: permitted in conjunction with additional tension
reinforcement to increase the strength of flexural members.
410.3.7.1 Concrete stress of 0.85f'c shall be assumed
uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression zone 410.4.6 Design axial load strength Pn of compression
bounded by edges of the cross section and a straight line members shall not be taken greater than the following:
located parallel to the neutral axis at a distance a = 1 c
from the fiber of maximum compressive strain. 410.4.6.1 For nonprestressed members with spiral
reinforcement conforming to Section 407.11.4 or composite
410.3.7.2 Distance from fiber of maximum strain to the members conforming to Section 410.17:
neutral axis, c, shall be measured in a direction
perpendicular to the axis.  n (max) = 0.85[0.85f'c (Ag -Ast) + fy Ast] (410-1)
410.4.6.2 For nonprestressed members with tie

410.3.7.3 Factor 1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete
reinforcement conforming to Section 407.11.5:
strengths f'c for 17 MPa up to 28 MPa. For strengths above
28 MPa, 1 shall be reduced linearly at a rate of 0.05 for  n (m ax ) = 0.80[0.85f'c (Ag - Ast) + fy Ast] (410-2)
each 7 MPa of strength in excess of 28 MPa, but 1 shall not
be taken less than 0.65. 410.4.6.3 For prestressed members, design axial load
strength, Pn shall not be taken greater than 0.85 (for
members with spiral reinforcement) or 0.80 (for members
410.4 General Principles and Requirements
with tie reinforcement) of the design axial load strength at
zero eccentricity,  Po.
410.4.1 Design of cross section subject to flexure or axial
loads or to combined flexure and axial loads shall be based
on stress and strain compatibility using assumptions in 410.4.7 Members subject to compressive axial load shall be
Section 410.3. designed for the maximum moment that can accompany the
axial load. The factored axial load Pu at given eccentricity
shall not exceed that given in Section 410.4.6. The
410.4.2 Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section
maximum factored moment Mu shall be magnified for
when tension reinforcement reaches the strain
slenderness effects in accordance with Section 410.11.
corresponding to its specified yield strength fy just as
concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain
of 0.003. 410.5 Distance between Lateral Supports of Flexural
Members
410.4.3 Sections are compression-controlled if the net
tensile strain in the extreme tension steel, εt, is equal to or 410.5.1 Spacing of lateral supports for a beam shall not
less than the compression-controlled strain limit when the exceed 50 times b, the least width of compression flange or
concrete in compression reaches its assumed strain limit of face.
0.003. The compression-controlled strain limit is the net
tensile strain in the reinforcement at balanced strain
th
410.5.2 Effects of lateral eccentricity of load shall be taken 410.7.3 Flexural tension reinforcement shall be well
into account in determining spacing of lateral supports. distributed within maximum flexural tension zones of a
member cross section as required by Section 410.7.4.
410.6 Minimum Reinforcement of Flexural Members
410.7.4 The spacing s of reinforcement closest to a surface
in tension, s, shall not exceed that given by:
410.6.1 At every section of a flexural member where tensile
reinforcement is required by analysis, except as provided in  280 
Sections 410.6.2, 410.6.3 and 410.6.4, As provided shall not s  380    2 .5 c c
 (410-5)
be less than that given by:  fs 
f 'c
A s ,min  bw d (410-3) but not greater than 300(280/fs), where cc is the least
4 fy distance from surface of reinforcement or prestressing
steelto the tension face. If there is only one bar or wire
and not less than 1.4 bw d / fy nearest to the extreme tension face, s used in Eq. 410-5 is
the width of the extreme tension face.
410.6.2 For a statically determinate T-section with flange
in tension, the area As,min shall be equal to or greater than the Calculated stress in reinforcement fs in MPa closest to the
smaller value given either by: tension face shall be computed based on the unfactored
f 'c moment. It shall be permitted to take fs as 2/3 of specified
As ,min  bw d (410-4) yield strength fy.
2 fy
410.7.5 Provisions of Section 410.7.4 are not sufficient for

or Eq. 410-3, except that bw is replaced by either 2 bw or the structures subject to very aggressive exposure or designed to
width of the flange, whichever is smaller. be watertight. For such structures, special investigations and
precautions are required.
410.6.3 The requirements of Sections 410.6.1 and 410.6.2
need not be applied if at every section, As provided is at 410.7.6 Where flanges of T-beam construction are in
least one-third greater than that required by analysis. tension, part of the flexural tension reinforcement shall be
distributed over an effective flange width as defined in
410.6.4 For structural slabs and footings of uniform Section 408.12, or a width equal to one-tenth the span,
thickness, the minimum area of tensile reinforcement in the whichever is smaller. If the effective flange width exceeds
direction of span shall be the same as that required by one tenth the span, some longitudinal reinforcement shall be
Section 407.13.2.1. Maximum spacing of this reinforcement provided in the outer portions of the flange.
shall not exceed the lesser of three times the thickness, nor
450 mm. 410.7.7 Where h of a beam or joist exceeds 900 mm,
longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be uniformly
410.6.5 In structures located at areas of low level seismic distributed along both side faces of the member. Skin
risk, beams in ordinary moment frames forming part of the reinforcement shall extend for a distance h/2 from the
seismic-force-resisting system shall have at least two main tension face. The spacing s shall be as provided in Section
flexural reinforcing bars continuously top and bottom 410.7.4, where cc, is the least distance from the surface of
throughout the beam and continuous through or developed the skin reinforcement or prestressing tendons to the side
within exterior columns or boundary elements. face. It shall be permitted to include such reinforcement in
strength computations if a strain compatibility analysis is
410.7 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement in Beams made to determine stresses in the individual bars or wires.
and One-way Slabs
410.8 Deep Beams
410.7.1 This section prescribes rules for distribution of
flexural reinforcement to control flexural cracking in beams 410.8.1 Deep beams are members loaded on one face and
and in one-way slabs (slabs reinforced to resist flexural supported on the opposite face so that compression struts
stresses in only one direction). can develop between the loads and the supports, and have
either:
410.7.2 Distribution of flexural reinforcement in two-way
slabs shall be as required by Section 413.4.

1. Clear spans, ln, equal to or less than four times the area. This provision shall not apply to special moment
overall member depth; or frames or special structural walls in Seismic Zone 4 that are
designed in accordance with Section 421.
2. Regions with concentrated loads within twice the
member depth from the face of the support.
410.10 Limits for Reinforcement of Compression
Deep beams shall be designed either taking into account Members
nonlinear distribution of strain, or by Section 427. (See also
Section 411.9.1and 412.11.6). Lateral buckling shall be 410.10.1 Area of longitudinal reinforcement, Ast, for non-
considered. composite compression members shall not be less than 0.01
or more than 0.08 times gross area Ag of section.
410.8.2 Vn of deep beams shall be in accordance with
Section 411.9. 410.10.2 Minimum number of longitudinal bars in
compression members shall be 4 for bars within rectangular
410.8.3 Minimum flexural tension reinforcement, As, min, or circular ties, 3 for bars within triangular ties, and 6 for
shall conform to Section 410.6. bars enclosed by spirals conforming to Section 410.10.3.
410.8.4 Minimum horizontal and vertical reinforcement in 410.10.3 Volumetric spiral reinforcement ratio, s, shall not
the side faces of deep flexural members shall be the greater be less than the value given by:
of the requirements of Sections 411.9.4, 411.9.5 and
427.3.3.  Ag  f' (410-6)
 s  0.45  1 c
A
 ch  f yt
410.9 Design Dimensions for Compression Members
where the value of fyt used in Eq. 410-6 shall not exceed
700 MPa. For fyt greater than 415 MPa, lap splices
410.9.1 Isolated Compression Member with Multiple according to Section 407.11.4.5(1) shall not be used.
Spirals
Outer limits of the effective cross section of a compression
member with two or more interlocking spirals shall be taken 410.11 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members
at a distance outside the extreme limits of the spirals equal
to the minimum concrete cover required by Section 407.8. 410.11.1 Slenderness effects shall be permitted to be
neglected in the following cases:
410.9.2 Compression Member Built Monolithically With 1. For compression members not braced against sidesway
Wall when:
Outer limits of the effective cross section of a spirally klu
reinforced or tied reinforced compression member built  22 (410-7)
r
monolithically with a concrete wall or pier shall be taken
not greater than 40 mm outside the spiral or tie 2. For compression members braced against sidesway
reinforcement. when:
k lu M 
 34  12  1  ≤ 40 (410-8)
410.9.3 Equivalent Circular Compression Member r M2 
As an alternative to using the full gross area for design of a
compressive member with a square, octagonal or other where M1/M2 is positive if the column is bent in single
shaped cross section, it shall be permitted to use a circular curvature, and negative if the member is bent in double
section with a diameter equal to the least lateral dimension curvature.
of the actual shape. Gross area considered, required
percentage of reinforcement, and design strength shall be It shall be permitted to consider compression members
based on that circular section. braced against sideway when bracing elements have a total
stiffness, resisting lateral movement of that story, of at least
410.9.4 Limits of Section 12 times the gross stiffness resisting lateral movement of
For a compression member with a cross section larger than that story, of at least 12 times the gross stiffness of the
required by considerations of loading, it shall be permitted columns within the story.
to base the minimum reinforcement and design strength on a
reduced effective area Ag not less than one half the total
th
410.12.3 It shall be permitted to use the following

410.11.1.1 The unsupported length of a compression properties for the members in the structure:
member, lu, shall be taken as the clear distance between
1. Modulus of elasticity ................. Ec from Section 408.6.1
floor slabs, beams, or other members capable of providing
lateral support in the direction being considered. Where 2. Moments of inertia, I
column capitals or haunches are present, lu shall be Compression members:
measured to the lower extremity of the capital or haunch in Columns..................................................... 0.70Ig
the plane considered. Walls Uncracked. .................................... 0.70Ig
Walls Cracked …....................................... 0.35Ig
410.11.1.2 It shall be permitted to take the radius of
Flexural members:
gyration, r, equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in the
direction stability is being considered for rectangular Beams......................................................... 0.35Ig
compression members and 0.25 times the diameter for Flat plates and flat slabs ............................ 0.25Ig
circular compression members. For other shapes, it shall be 3. Area ….......................................................... 1.00Ag
permitted to compute r for the gross concrete section.
Alternatively, the moments of inertia of compression and
410.11.2 When slenderness effects are not neglected as flexural members, I, shall be permitted to be computed as
permitted by Section 410.11.1, the design of compression follows:
members, restraining beams, and other supporting members
shall be based on the factored forces and moments from a Compression members:
second-order analysis satisfying Sections 410.11.3,
410.11.4, or 410.11.5. These members shall also satisfy I = ( 0.80+ 25Ast ) (1 – Mu - 0.50 Pu ) Ig ≤ 0.875 Ig (410-9)
Sections 410.11.2.1 and 410.11.2.2. The dimensions of each Ag P uh Po
member cross section used in the analysis shall be within 10
percent of the dimensions of the members shown on the Where Pu and Mu shall be determined from the particular
design drawings or the analysis shall be repeated. load combination under consideration, or the combination of
Pu and Mu resulting in the smallest value of I. I need not be
410.11.2.1 Total moment including second-order effects in taken less than 0.35Ig.
compression members, restraining beams, or other structural
members shall not exceed 1.4 times the moment due to first- Flexural members:
order effects.
I = (0.10 + 25ρ)( 1.2 - 0.2 bw) Ig ≤ 0.5Ig (410-10)
410.11.2.2 Second-order effects shall be considered along d
the length of compression members. It shall be permitted to
account for these effects using the moment magnification For continuous flexural members, I shall be permitted to be
procedure outlined in Section 410.13. taken as the average of values obtained from Eq. 410-10 for
the critical positive and negative moment sections. I need
not be taken less than 0.25Ig.
410.12 Magnified Moments
The cross-sectional dimensions and reinforcement ratio used
in the above formulas shall be within 10 percent of the
410.12.1 Nonlinear Second-Order Analysis
dimensions and reinforcement ratio shown on the design
Second-order analysis shall considermaterial on linearity, drawings or the stiffness evaluation shall be repeated.
member curvature and lateral drift, duration of loads,
shrinkage and creep, and interaction with the supporting 410.12.3.1 When sustained lateral loads are present, I for
foundation. The analysis procedure shall have been shown compression members shall be divided by (1 + βds). The
to result in prediction of strength in substantial agreement term βds shall be taken as the ratio of maximum factored
with results of comprehensive tests of columns in statically sustained shear within a story to the maximum factored
indeterminate reinforced concrete structures. shear in that story associated with the same load
combination, but shall not be taken greater than 1.0.
410.12.2 Elastic Second-Order Analysis
Elastic second-order analysis shall consider section 410.12.4 Moment Magnification Procedure
properties determined taking into account the influence of Columns and stories in structures shall be designated as
axial loads, the presence of cracked regions along the length nonsway or sway columns or stories. The design of columns
of the member, and the effects of load duration. in nonsway frames or stories shall be based on Section

410.13. The design of columns in sway frames or stories 410.13.1.3 The effective length factor, k, shall be permitted
shall be based on Section 410.14. to be taken as 1.0.
410.12.4.1 It shall be permitted to assume a column in a 410.13.1.4 For members without transverse loads between
structure is nonsway if the increase in column end moments supports, Cm shall be taken as:
due to second-order effects does not exceed 5 percent of the
first-order end moments. Cm = 0.6 + 0.4 (M1/M2) (410-17)
410.12.4.2 It also shall be permitted to assume a story where M1/M2 is positive if the column is bent in single
within a structure is nonsway if: curvature, and negative if the member is bent in double
curvature. For members with transverse loads between
supports, Cm shall be taken as 1.0.
 Pu  o (410-11)
Q
V us l c 410.13.1.5 The factored moment M2 in Equation (410-12)
shall not be taken less than
is less than or equal to 0.05, where Pu and Vus are the
total vertical load and the story shear, respectively, in the M2,min = Pu (15 + 0.03h) 
story in question and o is the first-order relative deflection
about each axis separately, where 15 and h are in
between the top and bottom of that story due to Vus.
millimeters. For members for which M2,min exceeds M2, the
value of Cm in Equation (410-17) shall either be taken equal
410.13 Moment Magnification Procedure - Nonsway to 1.0, or shall be based on the ratio of the computed end
moments, M1 /M2.
410.13.1 Compression members shall be designed for the
factored axial load, Pu, and the moment amplified for the
410.14 Moment Magnification Procedure - Sway
effects of member curvature, Mc, as follows:
Mc =  M2 (410-12) 410.14.1 The moments M1 and M2 at the ends of an
individual compression member shall be taken as:
where:
M1 = M1ns + s M1s (410-19)
Cm (410-13)
   1 .0
Pu M2 = M2ns + s M2 s (410-20)
1
0 .75 Pc
where s M1s and s M2s shall be computed according to
 2E I Sections 410.14.1.3 or 410.14.1.4.
Pc  (410-14)
klu 2 410.14.1.1 Flexural members shall be designed for the total
magnified end moments of the compression members at the
410.13.1.1 EI shall be taken as: joint.
EI
0.2 Ec I g  Es I se  (410-15) 410.14.1.2 The effective length factor k shall be determined
1   dns using the values of Ec and I given in Section 410.12.2 and
shall not be less than 1.0.
or
EI
0.4 Ec I g  (410-16)
410.14.1.3 The moment magnifier δs shall be calculated as
1   dns 1.0
s  1 (410-21)
1 Q
Alternatively, EI shall be permitted to be computed using
the value of I from Eq. 410-9 divided by (1 + βdns ). If δs calculated by Eq. 410-21 exceeds 1.5, δs shall be
calculated using second-order elastic analysis or Section
410.13.1.2 The term βdns shall be taken as the ratio of 410.14.1.4.
maximum factored axial sustained load to maximum
factored axial load associated with the same load
combination, but shall not be taken greater than 1.0.
th
410.14.1.4 Alternatively, it shall be permitted to calculate 410.17.2 Strength of a composite member shall be
δs as: computed for the same limiting conditions applicable to
1 ordinary reinforced concrete members.
s  1 (410-22)
1
 Pu
0.75 Pc 410.17.3 Any axial load strength assigned to concrete of a
composite member shall be transferred to the concrete by
members or brackets in direct bearing on the composite
where ΣPu is the summation for all the factored vertical member concrete.
loads in a story and ΣPc is the summation for all sway-
resisting columns in a story. Pc is calculated using Eq. 410-
410.17.4 All axial load strength not assigned to concrete of
14 with k determined from Section 410.14.1.2 and EI from a composite member shall be developed by direct
Section 410.13.1.1, where βds shall be substituted for βdns. connection to the structural steel shape, pipe or tube.
410.15 Axially Loaded Members Supporting Slab 410.17.5 For evaluation of slenderness effects, radius of
System gyration, r, of a composite section shall not be greater than
Axially loaded members supporting slab system included the value given by:
within the scope of Section 413.2 shall be designed as
provided in Section 410 and in accordance with the 0.2 Ec I g  Es I sx
r (410-23)
additional requirements of Section 413. 0.2 Ec Ag  Es Asx
410.16 Transmission of Column Loads through Floor and, as an alternative to a more accurate calculation, EI in
System Eq. 410-14 shall be taken either as Eq. 410-15; or
When the specified compressive strength of concrete in a  0.2  (410-24)
column is greater than 1.4 times that specified for a floor EI    Ec I g  Es I sx
 1   dns 
system, transmission of load through the floor system shall
be provided by Sections 410.16.1, 410.16.2, or 410.16.3:
410.17.6 Structural Steel Encased Concrete Core
410.16.1 Concrete of strength specified for the column shall
be placed in the floor at the column location. Top surface of 410.17.6.1 For a composite member with concrete core
the column concrete shall extend 600 mm into the slab from encased by structural steel, thickness of the steel encasement
face of column. Column concrete shall be well integrated shall not be less than:
with floor concrete, and shall be placed in accordance with
Sections 406.4.6 and 406.4.7. fy
b for each face of width b
3 Es
410.16.2 Strength of a column through a floor system shall
be based on the lower value of concrete strength with nor
vertical dowels and spirals as required.
fy
410.16.3 For columns laterally supported on four sides by h for circular sections of diameter h
8 Es
beams of approximately equal depth or by slabs, it shall be
permitted to base strength of the column on an assumed
concrete strength in the column joint equal to 75 percent of 410.17.6.2 Longitudinal bars located within the encased
column concrete strength plus 35 percent of floor concrete concrete core shall be permitted to be used in computing Asx
strength. In the application of this Section, the ratio of and Isx.
column concrete strength to slab concrete strength shall not
be taken greater than 2.5 for design. 410.17.7 Spiral Reinforcement Around Structural Steel
Core
410.17 Composite Compression Members A composite member with spirally reinforced concrete
around a structural steel core shall conform to Sections
410.17.1 Composite compression members shall include all 410.17.7.1 through 410.17.7.4.
such members reinforced longitudinally with structural steel
shapes, pipe or tubing with or without longitudinal bars. 410.17.7.1 Design yield strength of structural steel core
shall be the specified minimum yield strength for grade of
structural steel used but not to exceed 350 MPa.

410.17.7.2 Spiral reinforcement shall conform to Section 410.18.2 Section 410.18 does not apply to post-tensioning
410.10.3. anchorages.
410.17.7.3 Longitudinal bars located within the spiral shall

not be less than 0.01 or more than 0.08 times net area of
concrete section.
410.17.7.4 Longitudinal bars located within the spiral shall

be permitted to be used in computing Asx and Itx.
410.17.8 Tie Reinforcement Around Structural Steel

Core
A composite member with laterally tied concrete around a
structural steel core shall conform to Sections 410.17.8.1
through 410.17.8.7:
410.17.8.1 Design yield strength of structural steel core

shall be the specified minimum yield strength for grade of
structural steel used but not to exceed 350 MPa.
410.17.8.2 Lateral ties shall extend completely around the

structural steel core.
410.17.8.3 Lateral ties shall have a diameter not less than

0.02 times the greatest side dimension of composite
member, except that ties shall not be smaller than 10 mm
diameter and are not required to be larger than 16 mm
diameter. Welded wire fabric of equivalent area shall be
permitted.
410.17.8.4 Vertical spacing of lateral ties shall not exceed

16 longitudinal bar diameters, 48 tie bar diameters, or one
half times the least side dimension of the composite
member.
410.17.8.5 Longitudinal bars located within the ties shall

not be less than 0.01 or more than 0.08 times net area of
concrete section.
410.17.8.6 A longitudinal bar shall be located at every

corner of a rectangular cross section, with other longitudinal
bars spaced not farther apart than one half the least side
dimension of the composite member.
410.17.8.7 Longitudinal bars located within the ties shall be

permitted to be used in computing Asx and Isx.
410.18 Bearing Strength
410.18.1 Design bearing strength on concrete shall not

exceed (0.85f'c A1), except when the supporting surface is
wider on all sides than the loaded area, then the design
bearing strength on the loaded area shall be permitted to be
multiplied by A2 /A1, but by not more than 2.
th
SECTION 411 SHEAR AND direction of the span for which moments are being
determined, mm
TORSION c2 = dimension of rectangular or equivalent rectangular
column, capital or bracket measured transverse to
411.1 Notations the direction of the span for which moments are
being determined, mm
Ac = area of concrete section resisting shear transfer, d = distance from extreme compression fiber to
mm2 centroid of longitudinal tension reinforcement, mm
Acp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to
cross section, mm2. See Section 411.7.1 centroid of prestressing steel, mm
Af = area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting f'c = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
factored moment [Vu a + Nuc (h - d)], mm2
Ag = gross area of section, mm2. For a hollow section,
Ag is the area of the concrete only and does not concrete, MPa
include the area of the void(s) fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight
Ah = area of shear reinforcement parallel to primary aggregate concrete, MPa
tension reinforcement in crbel or bracket, mm2 fd = stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme fiber
Al = total area of longitudinal reinforcement to resist of section where tensile stress is caused by
torsion, mm2 externally applied loads, MPa
Al,min = minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement to fpc = compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for
resist torsion, mm2. See Section 411.7.5.3 all prestress losses) at centroid of cross section
An = area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting resisting externally applied loads or at junction of
tensile force Nuc, mm2. See Section 411.10 web and flange when the centroid lies within the
Ao = gross area enclosed by shear flow path, mm2 flange, MPa. (In a composite member, fpc is
Aoh = area enclosed by centerline of the outermost closed resultant compressive stress at centroid of
transverse torsional reinforcement, mm2 composite section, or at junction of web and flange
As = area of nonprestressed longitudinal tension when the centroid lies within the flange, due to
reinforcement, mm2 both prestress and moments resisted by precast
Asc = area of primary tension reinforcement in a corbel member acting alone).
or bracket, mm2. See Section 411.10.3.5 fpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective
At = area of one leg of a closed stirrup resisting torsion prestress forces only (after allowance for all
within a distance s, mm2 prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads,
mm2 MPa
Avf = area of shear-friction reinforcement, mm2 fps = stress in prestressing steel at nominal flexural
Avh = area of shear reinforcement parallel to flexural strength, MPa
tension reinforcement within a spacing s2, mm2 fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel, MPa
Av, min = minimum area of shear reinforcement within a fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, MPa
Spacing s, mm2. See Sections 411.6.6.3 and fyt = specified yield strength fy of transverse
411.6.6.4 reinforcement, MPa
a = shear span, distance between concentrated load and h = overall thickness or height of member, mm
face of supports, mm hv = total depth of shearhead cross section, mm
b = width of compression face of member, mm hw = height of entire wall from base to top or height of
bo = perimeter of critical section for shear in slabs and the segment of wall considered, mm
footings, mm. See Section 411.13.1.2 I = moment of inertia of section of beam about the
bt = width of that part of cross section containing the centroidal axis, mm4
closed stirrups resisting torsion, mm ln = length of clear span measured face to face of
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section, mm supports, mm
b1 = dimension of the critical section b0 defined in lv = length of shearhead arm from centroid of
Section 411.13.1.2 measured in the direction of the concentrated load or reaction, mm
span for which moments are determined, mm lw = length of entire wall or length of segment of wall
b2 = dimension of the critical section b0 defined in considered in direction of shear force, mm
Section 411.13.1.2 measured in the direction Mcre = moment causing flexural cracking at section due to
perpendicular to b1, mm externally applied loads, N-mm. See Section
c1 = dimension of rectangular or equivalent rectangular 411.5.3.1
column, capital or bracket measured in the Mm = factored moment modified to account for effect of
axial compression, N-mm. See Section 411.4.2.2

Mmax = maximum factored moment at section due to  = ratio of long to short dimension; sides of column,
externally applied loads, N-mm concentrated load or reaction area, or sides of
Mn = nominal flexural strength at section, N-mm footing, see Section 411
Mp = required plastic moment strength of shearhead p = factor used to compute Vc in prestressed slabs.
cross section, N-mm f = factor used to determine the unbalanced moment
Mu = factored moment at section, N-mm transferred by flexure at slab-column connection.
Mv = moment resistance contributed by shearhead See Section 411
reinforcement, N-mm v = factor used to determine the unbalanced moment
n  number of items, such as strength tests, bars, wires, transferred by eccentricity of shear at slab-column
monostrand anchorage devices, anchors or connections. See Section 411.13.7.1
shearhead arms =1-f
Nu = factored axial load normal to cross section   number of identical arms of shearhead
occurring simultaneously with Vu or Tu; to be taken   coefficient of friction. See Section 411.8.4.3
as positive for compression, negative for tension, N
  modification factor reflecting the reduced
Nuc = factored horizontal tensile force applied at top of
mechanical properties of lightweight concrete, all
bracket or corbel acting simultaneously with Vu to
relative to normalweight concrete of the same
be taken as positive for tension, N
compressive strength. See Section 411.8.4.3.
pcp = outside perimeter of the concrete cross section, mm
  ratio of nonprestressed tension reinforcement.
ph = perimeter of centerline of outermost closed
= As/bd
transverse torsional reinforcement, mm
s = center-to-center spacing of items, such as l = ratio of area of distributed longitudinal
longitudinal reinforcement, transverse reinforcement to gross concrete area perpendicular
reinforcement, prestressing tendons, wires, or to that reinforcement
anchors, mm t = ratio of area of distributed transverse
s2 = center-to-center spacing of longitudinal shear or reinforcement to gross concrete area perpendicular
torsion reinforcement, mm to that reinforcement
Tn = nominal torsional moment strength, N-mm w = As/bwd
Tu = factored torsional moment at section, N-mm  = angle of compression diagonals in truss analogy for
t = thickness of a wall of a hollow section, mm torsion
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete, N   strength reduction factor. See Section 409.4
Vci = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when
diagonal cracking results from combined shear and 411.2 Shear Strength
moment, N
Vcw = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when
411.2.1 Except for members designed in accordance with
diagonal cracking results from high principal
Section 427, design of cross sections subject to shear shall
tensile stress in web, N
be based on
Vd = shear force at section due to unfactored dead load,
N Vn  Vu (411-1)
Vl = factored shear force at section due to externally
applied loads occurring simultaneously with Mmax, where Vu is factored shear force at section considered and Vn
N is nominal shear strength computed by
Vn = nominal shear strength, N
Vp = vertical component of effective prestress force at Vn = Vc + Vs (411-2)
section, N
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by shear where Vc is nominal shear strength provided by concrete in
reinforcement, N accordance with Section 411.4 or Section 411.5, and Vs is
Vu = factored shear force at section, N nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement in
vn = nominal shear stress, MPa. See Section 411.13.6.2 accordance with Section 411.6.6.
yt = distance from centroidal axis of gross section,
neglecting reinforcement, to tension face, mm 411.2.1.1 In determining shear strength Vn, the effect of any
  angle defining the orientation of reinforcement openings in members shall be considered.
s  constant used to compute Vc in slabs and footings
v = ratio of flexural stiffness of shearhead arm to 411.2.1.2 In determining shear strength Vc, whenever
surrounding composite slab section. See Section applicable, effects of axial tension due to creep and
411.13.4.5 shrinkage in restrained members shall be considered and
effects of inclined flexural compression in variable-depth
members shall be permitted to be included.
th
411.2.2 The values of f 'c used in Section 411 shall not λ = f'ct /(0.56 f 'c . ) ≤ 1.0.
exceed 8.0 MPa, except as allowed in Section 411.2.2.1.
N.B. Sect. 411.3 not in ACI, adapted from NSCP 5th Ed.
411.2.2.1 Values of f 'c greater than 8.0 MPa are
411.4 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete for
allowed in computing Vc, V ci and Vcw for reinforced or
Nonprestressed Members
prestressed concrete beams and concrete joist construction
having minimum web reinforcement in accordance with
Sections 411.6.6.3, 411.6.6.4 and 411.7.5.2. 411.4.1 Simplified Calculation for Vc
Shear strength Vc shall be computed by provisions of
411.2.3 Computations of maximum factored shear force Vu Sections 411.4.1.1 through 411.4.1.3 unless a more detailed
at supports in accordance with Section 411.2.3.1 or calculation is made in accordance with Section 411.4.2.
411.2.3.2 shall be permitted if all of the following three Throughout this Section, except in Section 411.8, λ, shall be
conditions are satisfied: as defined in Section 408.7.1.
1. Support reaction, in direction of applied shear,
introduces compression into the end regions of 411.4.1.1 For members subject to shear and flexure only:
member;
Vc = 0.17λ f 'c bw d (411-3)
2. Loads are applied at or near the top of the member; and
3. No concentrated load occurs between face of support 411.4.1.2 For members subject to axial compression,
and location of critical section defined in Sections
411.2.3.1 and 411.2.3.2.  Nu 
V c  0 . 17  1   f ' c b w d (411-4)
 14 A g 
411.2.3.1 For nonprestressed members, sections located less  
than a distance d from face of support shall be permitted to
Quantity Nu /Ag shall be expressed in MPa.
be designed for the same shear Vu as that computed at a
distance d.
411.4.1.3 For members subject to significant axial tension,
Vc shall be taken as zero, unless a more detailed analysis is
made using Section 411.4.2.3.
411.2.3.2 For prestressed members, sections located less
than a distance h/2 from face of support shall be permitted
to be designed for the same shear Vu as that computed at a 411.4.2 Detailed Calculation for Vc
distance h/2. Shear strength Vc shall be permitted to be computed by the
more detailed calculation of Sections 411.4.2.1 through
411.2.4 For deep beams, brackets and corbels, walls and 411.4.2.3.
slabs and footings, the special provisions of Sections 411.9
through 411.13 shall apply. 411.4.2.1 For members subject to shear and flexure only,
411.3 Lightweight Concrete  Vu d  (411-5)

V c   0 . 17  f 'c  17  w  bw d
 M u 
411.3.1 Provisions for shear strength Vc apply to normal-
weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate concrete is
used, one of the following modifications shall apply: but not greater than 0.29 f 'c bw d. When computing Vc
by Eq. 411-5, Vu d /Mu shall not be taken greater than 1.0,
411.3.1.1 When fct is not specified, all values of f 'c where Mu occurs simultaneously with Vu at section
considered.
affecting Vc, Tc and Mcr shall be multiplied by a
modification factor λ, where λ is 0.75 for all-lightweight
concrete and 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete. Linear
411.4.2.2 For members subject to axial compression, it
interpolation between 0.85 and 1.0 shall be permitted, on the
shall be permitted to compute Vc using Eq. 411-5 with Mm
basis of volumetric fractions, for concrete containing normal
substituted for Mu and Vud/Mu not then limited to 1.0,
weight fine aggregate and a blend of lightweight and normal
weight coarse aggregates. For normal weight concrete, λ =  4h  d 
1.0. If average splitting tensile strength of lightweight where: M m  M u  Nu   (411-6)
 8 
concrete, f'ct, is specified,

However, Vc shall not be taken greater than: 411.5.3.1 Shear strength Vci shall be computed by
 0 . 29 N  (411-7) f 'c V i M cre
Vc  0 . 29  1 u  f 'c b w d V ci   bw d p  Vd  (411-10)
 Ag  20 M max
 
where dp need not be taken less than 0.80h and
Nu/Ag shall be expressed in MPa. When Mm as computed by
Equation (411-6) is negative, Vc shall be computed by
Equation (411-7).

M cre  0.5  f 'c  f pe  f d  yI (411-11)
t
411.4.2.3 For members subject to significant axial tension, and values of Mmax and Vi shall be computed from the load
combination causing maximum factored moment to occur at
 0 . 29 N u 
V c  0 . 17  1   f 'c bw d (411-8) the section. Vci need not be taken less than 0.17λ f 'c bwd.
 Ag 
 
411.5.3.2 Shear strength Vcw shall be computed by
but not less than zero, where Nu is negative for tension.
Nu/Ag shall be expressed in MPa.  
Vcw  0.29  f 'c  f pc bw d p  V p (411-12)
411.4.3 Circular Members

where dp need not be taken less than 0.80h.
For circular members, the area used to compute Vc shall be
taken as the product of the diameter and effective depth of Alternatively, Vcw may be computed as the shear force
the concrete section. It shall be permitted to take the corresponding to dead load plus live load that results in a
effective depth as 0.8 times the diameter of the concrete
section. principal tensile stress of 0.33λ f 'c at the centroidal axis
of member, or at intersection of flange and web when
411.5 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete for centroidal axis is in the flange. In composite members,
Prestressed Members principal tensile stress shall be computed using the cross
section that resists live load.
411.5.1 For the provisions of Section 411.5, d shall be taken
as the distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid 411.5.4 In a pretensioned member in which the section at a
of prestressed and nonprestressed longitudinal tension distance h/2 from face of support is closer to end of member
reinforcement, if any, but need not be taken less than 0.80h. than the transfer length of the prestressing steel, the reduced
prestress shall be considered when computing Vcw. This
value of Vcw shall also be taken as the maximum limit for
411.5.2 For members with effective prestress force not less
Eq. 411-9. The prestress force due to tendons for which
than 40 percent of the tensile strength of flexural
bonding does not extend to the end of the member shall be
reinforcement, unless more detailed calculation is made in
assumed to vary linearly from zero at point at which
bonding commences to a maximum at a distance from this
point equal to the transfer length, assumed to be 50
  f 'c V u d  diameters for strand and 100 diameters for single wire.
Vc    4 .8 bw d (411-9)
 20 M u 

411.5.5 In a pretensioned member where bonding of some
but Vc need not be taken less than 0.17λ f 'c bwd nor shall tendons does not extend to end of member, a reduced
prestress shall be considered when computing Vc in
Vc be taken greater than 0.42λ f 'c bwd nor the value accordance with Section 411.5.2 or 411.5.3. The value of
given in Sections 411.5.4 or 411.5.5. Vud/Mu shall not be Vcw calculated using the reduced prestress shall also be taken
taken greater than 1.0, where Mu occurs simultaneously as the maximum limit for Equation (411-9). Prestress force
with Vu at section considered. due to tendons for which bonding does not extend to end of
member may be assumed to vary linearly from zero at the
411.5.3 Vc shall be permitted to be computed in accordance point at which bonding commences to a maximum at a
with Sections 411.5.3.1 and 411.5.3.2 where Vc shall be the distance from this point equal to the transfer length,
lesser of Vci or Vcw. assumed to be 50 diameters for strand and 100 diameters for
single wire.
th
411.6 Shear Strength Provided by Shear Reinforcement 411.6.5.3 Where Vs exceeds 0.33 f 'c bw d, maximum
spacing given in Sections 411.6.5.1 and 411.6.5.2 shall be
411.6.1 Types of Shear Reinforcement reduced by one half.
411.6.1.1 Shear reinforcement consisting of the following

shall be permitted: 411.6.6 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
1. Stirrups perpendicular to axis of member; 411.6.6.1 A minimum area of shear reinforcement, Av,min,
2. Welded wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to shall be provided in all reinforced concrete flexural
axis of member; and members (prestressed and nonprestressed) where Vu exceeds
0.5Vc, except in members satisfying one or more of (1)
3. Spirals, circular ties, or hoops. through (6):
411.6.1.2 For nonprestressed members, shear reinforcement Solid slabs and footings;
shall be permitted to also consist of:
1. Hollow-core units with total untopped depth not
1. Stirrups making an angle of 45 degrees or more with
longitudinal tension reinforcement; greater than 300 mm and hollow-core units where
2. Longitudinal reinforcement with bent portion making 2. Vu is not greater than 0.5Vcw;
an angle of 30 degrees or more with the longitudinal
3. Concrete joist construction defined by Section 408.14;
tension reinforcement;
4. Beams with total depth, h not greater than 250 mm;
3. Combination of stirrups and bent longitudinal
reinforcement. 5. Beams integral with slabs with total depth, h not greater
than 600 mm, and not greater than 2.5 times thickness
411.6.2 The values of fy and fyt used in the design of shear of flange or 0.50 the width of web;
reinforcement shall not exceed 415 MPa, except the value 6. Beams constructed of steel fiber-reinforced, normal
shall not exceed 550 MPa for a welded deformed wire
weight concrete with fc′ not exceeding 40 MPa, h not
reinforcement.
greater than 600 mm, and Vu not greater than 0.17
411.6.3 Where the provisions of Section 411.6 are applied f 'c bwd.
to prestressed members, d shall be taken as the distance
from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the 411.6.6.2 Minimum shear reinforcement requirements of
prestressed and nonprestressed longitudinal tension Section 411.6.6.1 shall be waived if shown by test that
reinforcement, if any, but need not be taken less than 0.80h. required nominal flexural, Mn and shear strength, Vn can be
developed when shear reinforcement is omitted. Such tests
411.6.4 Stirrups and other bars or wires used as shear shall simulate effects of differential settlement, creep,
reinforcement shall extend to a distance d from extreme shrinkage and temperature change, based on a realistic
compression fiber and shall be anchored at both ends assessment of such effects occurring in service.
according to Section 412.14 to develop the design yield
strength of reinforcement. 411.6.6.3 Where shear reinforcement is required by Section
411.6.6.1 or for strength and where Section 411.7.1 allows
411.6.5 Spacing Limits for Shear Reinforcement torsion to be neglected, the minimum area of shear
reinforcement for prestressed (except as provided in Section
411.6.5.1 Spacing of shear reinforcement placed 411.6.6.4) and nonprestressed members shall be computed
perpendicular to axis of member shall not exceed d/2 in by:
nonprestressed members and 0.75h in prestressed members, bw s
nor 600 mm. Av , min .  0.062 f 'c (411-13)
f yt
411.6.5.2 Inclined stirrups and bent longitudinal
reinforcement shall be so spaced that every 45-degree line, but shall not be less than (0.35bws)/fyt, where bw and s are
extending toward the reaction from mid-depth of member in millimeters.
d/2 to longitudinal tension reinforcement, shall be crossed
by at least one line of shear reinforcement.

411.6.6.4 For prestressed members with effective prestress 411.6.7.6 Where shear reinforcement consists of a series of
force not less than 40 percent of the tensile strength of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at
flexural reinforcement, Av,min shall not be less than the different distances from the support, shear strength Vs shall
smaller value from Equations (411-13) and (411-14). be computed by Eq. 411-16.
A ps f pu s d (411-14) 411.6.7.7 Only the center three fourths of the inclined
Av , min 
80 f y d bw portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be considered
effective for shear reinforcement
411.6.7 Design of Shear Reinforcement 411.6.7.8 Where more than one type of shear reinforcement
is used to reinforce the same portion of a member, shear
411.6.7.1 Where factored shear force Vu exceeds shear strength, Vs shall be computed as the sum of the Vs values
strength Vc, shear reinforcement shall be provided to computed for the various types of shear reinforcement.
satisfy Equations (411-1) and (411-2), where shear strength
Vs shall be computed in accordance with Sections 411.6.7.2 411.6.7.9 Shear strength Vs shall not be taken greater than
through 411.6.7.9. 0.66 f 'c bw d.
411.6.7.2 Where shear reinforcement perpendicular to axis

of member is used, 411.7 Design for Torsion
Av f yt d Design for torsion shall be in accordance with Sections
Vs  (411-15) 411.7.1 through 411.7.6, or 411.7.7.
s
where Av is the area of shear reinforcement within spacing s. 411.7.1 Threshold Torsion
It shall be permitted to neglect torsion effects if the factored
411.6.7.3 Where circular ties, hoops, or spirals are used as torsional moment Tu is less than:
shear reinforcement, Vs shall be computed using equation
(411-15) where d is defined in Section 411.4.3 for circular 1. For nonprestressed members:
members, Av shall be taken as two times the area of the bar
 f ' c  A cp2  (411-18)
in a circular tie, hoop, or spiral at a spacing s, s is measured  
in a direction parallel to longitudinal reinforcement, and fyt 12  p cp 
 
is the specified yield strength of circular tie, hoop or spiral
reinforcement. 2. For prestressed members:
411.6.7.4 Where inclined stirrups are used as shear  f ' c  A cp2  f pc (411-19)
  1
reinforcement, 12  p cp  0 . 33  f 'c
 
Av f yt d
Vs  sin   cos   (411-16) 3. For nonprestressed members subjected to an axial
s tensile or compressive force:
where α is angle between inclined stirrups and longitudinal

axis of the member, and s is measured in direction parallel  f ' c  Acp2  Nu (411-20)
  1
to longitudinal reinforcement. 12  p cp  0 . 33 A g  f 'c
 
411.6.7.5 Where shear reinforcement consists of a single
bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same For members cast monolithically with a slab, the
distance from the support, overhanging flange width used in computing Acp and pcp
shall conform to Section 413.3.4. For a hollow section, Ag
Vs = Av fy sin (411-17) shall be used in place of Acp in Section 411.7.1, and the outer
boundaries of the section shall conform to Section 413.3.4.
but not greater than 0.25 f 'c bwd, where α is angle
411.7.1.1 For isolated members with flanges and for
between bent-up reinforcement and longitudinal axis of the members cast monolithically with a slab, the overhanging
member. flange width used to compute Acp and pcp shall conform to
Section 413.3.4, except that the overhanging flanges shall be
neglected in cases where the parameter A2cp /pcp calculated
th
for a beam with flanges is less than that computed for the a concentrated torque occurs within this distance, the critical
same beam ignoring the flanges. section for design shall be at the face of the support.
411.7.2 Calculation of Factored Torsional Moment 411.7.3 Torsional Moment Strength
411.7.2.1 If the factored torsional moment, Tu, in a member 411.7.3.1 The cross-sectional dimensions shall be such that:
is required to maintain equilibrium and exceeds the
1. For solid sections:
minimum value given in Section 411.7.1, the member shall
be designed to carry Tu in accordance with Sections 411.7.3
through 411.7.6.  Vu 
2 2
 V 
 Tu p h  2 f 'c (411-24)
    
   c
 
 bw d  2  bw d 3 
411.7.2.2 In a statically indeterminate structure where    1 . 7 A oh   
reduction of the torsional moment in a member can occur
2. For hollow sections:
due to redistribution of internal forces upon cracking, the
maximum factored torsional moment, Tu shall be permitted  Vu   Tu p h   V 2 f 'c 
to be reduced to the values given in (1), (2), or (3), as        c   (411-25)
 1 .7 A 2   bw d 
applicable:  bw d   oh   3 
1. For nonprestressed members, at the sections described
For prestressed members, d shall be determined in
in Section 411.7.2.4:
  f ' c  A cp2  (411-21)
  411.7.3.2 If the wall thickness varies around the perimeter
3  p cp 
  of a hollow section, Eq. 411-25 shall be evaluated at the
2. For prestressed members, at the sections described in location where the left-hand side of Eq. 411-25 is a
Section 411.7.2.5: maximum.
411.7.3.3 If the wall thickness is less than Aoh/ph, the

  f ' c  A cp2  f (411-22) second term in Eq. 411-25 shall be taken as:
  1 
pc
3  p  0 . 33  f 'c
 cp 
 Tu 
3. For nonprestressed members subjected to an axial  
 1.7 A t 
tensile or compressive force:  oh

 f ' c  Acp2  Nu where t is the thickness of the wall of the hollow section at
  1 (411-23)
3   0 .33 A g  the location where the stresses are being checked.
 p cp  f 'c
411.7.3.4 The values of fy and fyt used for design of
In (1), (2), or (3), the correspondingly redistributed bending torsional reinforcement shall not exceed 415 MPa.
moments and shears in the adjoining members shall be used
in the design of these members. For hollow sections, Acp 411.7.3.5 Where Tu exceeds the threshold torsion, design of
shall not be replaced with Ag in Section 411.7.2.2. the cross section shall be based on:
411.7.2.3 Unless determined by a more exact analysis, it
shall be permitted to take the torsional loading from a slab   Tn > Tu (411-26)
as uniformly distributed along the member.
411.7.3.6 Tn shall be computed by:
411.7.2.4 In nonprestressed members, sections located less 2 Ao At f yt
than a distance d from the face of a support shall be Tn  cot (411-27)
designed for not less than the torsion Tu computed at a s
distance d. If a concentrated torque occurs within this
distance, the critical section for design shall be at the face of where Ao shall be determined by analysis except that it shall
the support. be permitted to take Ao equal to 0.85Aoh;  shall not be
taken smaller than 30 degrees nor larger than 60 degrees. It
411.7.2.5 In prestressed members, sections located less than shall be permitted to take  equal to:
a distance h/2 from the face of a support shall be designed 1. 45 degrees for nonprestressed members or members
for not less than the torsion Tu computed at a distance h/2. If with less prestress than in Item 2 below,
2. 37.5 degrees for prestressed members with an effective 2. A closed cage of welded wire fabric with transverse
prestress force not less than 40 percent of the tensile wires perpendicular to the axis of the member; or
strength of the longitudinal reinforcement.
3. In nonprestressed beams, spiral reinforcement.
411.7.3.7 The additional longitudinal reinforcement
411.7.4.2 Transverse torsional reinforcement shall be
required for torsion shall not be less than:
anchored by one of the following:
At f yt 1. A 135-degree standard hook, or seismic hook as
Al  p h cot 2 (411-28)
s fy defined in Section 402, around a longitudinal bar;
2. According to Sections 412.14.2.1, 412.14.2.2 or
where  shall be the same value used in Eq. 411-27 and At 412.14.2.3 in regions where the concrete surrounding
/s shall be taken as the amount computed from Eq. 411-27 the anchorage is restrained against spalling by a flange
not modified in accordance with Section 411.7.5.2 or or slab or similar member.
411.7.5.3; fyt refers to closed transverse torsional
reinforcement, and fy refers to longitudinal torsional 411.7.4.3 Longitudinal torsion reinforcement shall be
reinforcement. developed at both ends.
411.7.3.8 Reinforcement required for torsion shall be added 411.7.4.4 For hollow sections in torsion, the distance
to that required for the shear, moment and axial force that measured from the centerline of the transverse torsional
act in combination with the torsion. The most restrictive reinforcement to the inside face of the wall of a hollow
requirements for reinforcement spacing and placement must section shall not be less than 0.5Aoh/ph
be met.
411.7.3.9 It shall be permitted to reduce the area of 411.7.5 Minimum Torsion Reinforcement
longitudinal torsion reinforcement in the flexural
compression zone by an amount equal to Mu /(0.9dfy), where 411.7.5.1 A minimum area of torsional reinforcement shall
Mu occurs at the section simultaneous with Tu, except that be provided in all regions where the factored torsional
the reinforcement provided shall not be less than that moment Tu exceeds the values specified in Section 411.7.1.
required by Sections 411.7.5.3 or 411.7.6.2.
411.7.5.2 Where torsional reinforcement is required by
Section 411.7.5.1, the minimum area of transverse closed
411.7.3.10 In Prestressed Beams: stirrups shall be computed by:
1. The total longitudinal reinforcement including bw s
prestressing steel at each section shall resist the factored  Av  2 At   0 .062 f 'c (411-29)
f yt
bending moment, Mu at that section plus an additional
concentric longitudinal tensile force equal to Al fy, based
on the factored torsion, Tu at that section; and but shall not be less than (0.35bw s)/fyt .
2. The spacing of the longitudinal reinforcement including 411.7.5.3 Where torsional reinforcement is required by
tendons shall satisfy the requirements in Section Section 411.7.5.1, the minimum total area of longitudinal
411.7.6.2. torsional reinforcement, Al,min shall be computed by:
411.7.3.11 In prestressed beams, it shall be permitted to 5 f 'c Acp A  f

Al , min    t  yt p h (411-30)
reduce the area of longitudinal torsional reinforcement on 12 f y  s  fy
the side of the member in compression due to flexure below
that required by Section 411.7.3.10 in accordance with where At /s shall not be taken less than 0.175bw /fyt; fyt refers
Section 411.7.3.9. to closed transverse torsional reinforcement, and fy refers to
longitudinal reinforcement.
411.7.4 Details of Torsional Reinforcement
411.7.6 Spacing of Torsion Reinforcement
411.7.4.1 Torsion reinforcement shall consist of
longitudinal bars or tendons and one or more of the 411.7.6.1 The spacing of transverse torsion reinforcement
following: shall not exceed the smaller of ph /8 or 300 mm.
1. Closed stirrups or closed ties, perpendicular to the axis
of the member;
th
411.7.6.2 The longitudinal reinforcement required for 411.8.4.2 Where shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to
torsion shall be distributed around the perimeter of the shear plane, such that the shear force produces tension in
closed stirrups with a maximum spacing of 300 mm. The shear-friction reinforcement, shear strength Vn shall be
longitudinal bars or tendons shall be inside the stirrups. computed by:
There shall be at least one longitudinal bar or tendon in each
corner of the stirrups. Longitudinal bars shall have a Vn = Avf fy (sin + cos) (411-32)
diameter at least 1/24 of the stirrup spacing but not less than where  is angle between shear-friction reinforcement and
a 10 mm. shear plane.
411.7.6.3 Torsion reinforcement shall be provided for a 411.8.4.3 The coefficient of friction  in Eq. 411-31 and
distance of at least (bt + d) beyond the point required by Eq. 411-32 shall be taken as:
analysis.
Concrete placed monolithically .................. 1.4
411.7.7 Alternative Design For Torsion Concrete placed against hardened concrete with
surface intentionally roughened as specified in
For torsion design of solid sections within the scope of this
Chapter with an aspect ratio, h/bt , of 3 or greater, it shall be Section 411.8.9 ......................................... 1.0
permitted to use another procedure, the adequacy of which Concrete placed against hardened
has been shown by analysis and substantial agreement with concrete not intentionally roughened ...... 0.6
results of comprehensive tests. Sections 411.7.4 and 411.7.6
shall apply. Concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by
headed studs or by reinforcing bars (see Section
411.8.10) ………………………………….... 0.7
411.8 Shear - Friction
where = 1.0 for normal-weight concrete, 0.75 for all-
411.8.1 Provisions of Section 411.8 are to be applied where lightweight concrete. Otherwise, λ shall be determined
it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given based on volumetric proportions of lightweight and normal-
plane, such as an existing or potential crack, an interface weight aggregates as specified in Section 408.7.1, but shall
between dissimilar materials, or an interface between two not exceed 0.85.
concretes cast at different times.
411.8.5 For normal-weight concrete either placed
411.8.2 Design of cross sections subject to shear transfer as monolithically or placed against hardened concrete with
described in Section 411.8.1 shall be based on Eq. 411-1 surface intentionally roughened as specified in Section
where Vn is calculated in accordance with provisions of 411.8.9, Vn shall not exceed the smallest of 0.2fc′Ac, (3.3 +
Sections 411.8.3 or 411.8.4. 0.08fc′ ) Ac and 11Ac, where Ac is area of concrete section
resisting shear transfer. For all other cases, Vn shall not
411.8.3 A crack shall be assumed to occur along the shear exceed the smaller of 0.2fc′Ac or 5.5Ac. Where concretes of
plane considered. The required area of shear-friction different strengths are cast against each other, the value of
reinforcement Avf across the shear plane may be designed fc′ used to evaluate Vn shall be that of the lower-strength
using either Section 411.8.4 or any other shear transfer concrete.
design methods that result in prediction of strength in
substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. 411.8.6 The value of fy used for design of shear-friction
reinforcement shall not exceed 415 MPa.
411.8.3.1 Provisions of Sections 411.8.5 through 411.8.10
shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength. 411.8.7 Net tension across shear plane shall be resisted by
additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across
shear plane shall be permitted to be taken as additive to
411.8.4 Shear-Friction Design Method Avffy, the force in the shear-friction reinforcement, when
calculating required Avf.
411.8.4.1 Where shear-friction reinforcement is
perpendicular to shear plane, shear strength Vn shall be 411.8.8 Shear-friction reinforcement shall be appropriately
computed by: placed along the shear plane and shall be anchored to
Vn = Avf fy (411-31) develop fy , on both sides by embedment, hooks or welding
to special devices.
where is coefficient of friction in accordance with Section
411.8.9 For the purpose of Section 411.8, when concrete is
411.8.4.3.
placed against previously hardened concrete, the interface

for shear transfer shall be clean and free of laitance. If  is 411.10.2 Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall not be
assumed equal to 1.0, interface shall be roughened to a full less than 0.5d.
amplitude of approximately 6 mm.
411.10.3 Section at face of support shall be designed to
411.8.10 When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel resist simultaneously a shear Vu, a factored moment [Vuav +
and concrete using headed studs or welded reinforcing bars, Nuc (h - d)], and a factored horizontal tensile force Nuc.
steel shall be clean and free of paint.
411.10.3.1 In all design calculations in accordance with
Section 411.10, strength-reduction factor  shall be taken
411.9 Deep Beams equal to 0.75.
411.9.1 The provisions of this section shall apply for 411.10.3.2 Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to
members with ln not exceeding four times the overall resist shear Vu shall be in accordance with Section 411.8.
member depth or regions of beams with concentrated loads
within twice the member depth from the support that are
411.10.3.2.1 For normal-weight concrete, shear strength Vn
loaded on one face and supported on the opposite face so
shall not exceed the smallest of 0.2 f'cbwd,(3.3+ 0.08fc′ )bwd,
that the compression struts can develop between the loads
and 11bwd.
and the supports. See also Section 412.11.6.
411.10.3.2.2 For all lightweight or sand-lightweight
411.9.2 Deep beams shall be designed using either
concrete, shear strength Vn shall not be taken greater than
nonlinear analysis as permitted in Section 410.8.1, or
the smaller of (0.2 - 0.07av/d)f'cbwd and (5.5 - 1.9av/d) bwd.
Section 427.
411.10.3.3 Reinforcement Af to resist moment [Vuav + Nuc
411.9.3 Vn for deep beams shall not exceed 0.83 f 'c bwd. (h-d)] shall be computed in accordance with Sections 410.3
and 410.4.
411.9.4 The area of shear reinforcement perpendicular to
the flexural tension reinforcement, Av shall not be less than 411.10.3.4 Reinforcement An to resist factored tensile force
0.0025 bws2, and s2 shall not exceed d/5 and 300 mm. Nuc shall be determined from Anfy ≥ Nuc. Factored tensile
force, Nuc, shall not be taken less than 0.2Vu unless
411.9.5 The area of shear reinforcement parallel to the provisions are made to avoid tensile forces. Nuc shall be
flexural tension reinforcement, Avh shall not be less than regarded as a live load even if tension results from restraint
0.0015 bws2, and s2 shall not exceed d/5 and 300 mm. of creep, shrinkage or temperature change.
411.9.6 It shall be permitted to provide reinforcement 411.10.3.5 Area of primary tension reinforcement Asc shall
satisfying Section 427.3.3 instead of the minimum be made less than the larger of (Af + An) or (2Avf /3 + An).
horizontal and vertical reinforcement specified in Sections
411.9.4 and 411.9.5. 411.10.4 Total area, of Ah, of closed stirrups or ties parallel
to primary tension reinforcement shall not less than 0.5(Asc-
An). Distribute Ah uniformly within (2/3)d, adjacent to
411.10 Provisions for Brackets and Corbels primary tension reinforcemen.
411.10.1 Brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth 411.10.5 Asc / bd shall not be less than 0.04 (f'c /fy).
ratio av / d less than 2 shall be permitted to be designed
using Section 427. Design shall be permitted using Sections 411.10.6 At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension
411.10.3 and 411.10.4 for brackets and corbels with: reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the following:
1. av /d not greater than 1; and 1. By a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal
2. Subject to factored horizontal tensile force, Nuc, not size; weld to be designed to develop specified yield
larger than Vu. strength fy of primary tension reinforcement;
2. By bending primary tension reinforcement back to form
The requirements of Sections 411.10.2, 411.10.3.2.1, a horizontal loop; or
411.10.3.2.2, 411.10.5, 411.10.6, and 411.10.7 shall apply
to design of brackets and corbels. Effective depth d shall be 3. By some other means of positive anchorage.
determined at the face of the support.
th
411.10.7 Bearing area on bracket or corbel shall not project where lw is the overall length of the wall, and Nu is positive
beyond straight portion of primary tension reinforcement, for compression and negative for tension. If (Mu/Vu – lw /2)
nor project beyond interior face of transverse anchor bar (if is negative, Eq. 411-34 shall not apply.
one is provided).
411.11.7 Sections located closer to wall base than a distance
lw/2 or one half the wall height, whichever is less, shall be
411.11 Provisions for Walls
permitted to be designed for the same Vc as that computed at
a distance lw/2 or one half the height.
411.11.1 Design for shear forces perpendicular to face of
wall shall be in accordance with provisions for slabs in
411.11.8 When factored shear force Vu is less than Vc/2,
Section 411.13. Design for horizontal shear forces in plane
reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Section
of wall shall be in accordance with Section 411.11.2 through
411.11.9 or in accordance with Section 414. When Vu
411.11.9. Alternatively, it shall be permitted to design walls
with a height not exceeding two times the length of the wall exceeds Vc /2, wall reinforcement for resisting shear shall
for horizontal shear forces in accordance with Sections 427 be provided in accordance with Section 411.11.9.
and 411.11.9.2 through 411.11.9.5.
411.11.9 Design of Shear Reinforcement for Walls
411.11.2 Design of horizontal section for shear in plane of
wall shall be based on Eqs. 411-1 and 411-2, where shear 411.11.9.1 Where factored shear force Vu exceeds shear
strength Vc shall be in accordance with Section 411.11.5 or strength Vc, horizontal shear reinforcement shall be
411.11.6 and shear strength Vs shall be in accordance with provided to satisfy Eqs. 411-1 and 411-2, where shear
Section 411.11.9. strength Vs shall be computed by
Av f y d
411.11.3 Shear strength Vn at any horizontal section for Vs  (411-35)
shear in plane of wall shall not be taken greater than s
(5/6) f 'c hd, where h is thickness of wall, and d is defined
where Av is area of horizontal shear reinforcement within
in Section 411.11.4. spacing s, and distance d is determined in accordance with
Section 411.11.4. Vertical shear reinforcement shall be
411.11.4 For design for horizontal shear forces in plane of provided in accordance with Section 411.11.9.4.
wall, d shall be taken equal to 0.8 lw. A larger value of d,
equal to the distance from extreme compression fiber to 411.11.9.2 Ratio of horizontal shear reinforcement area to
center of force of all reinforcement in tension, shall be gross concrete area of vertical section, t , shall not be less
permitted to be used when determined by a strain than 0.0025.
compatibility analysis.
411.11.9.3 Spacing of horizontal shear reinforcement shall
411.11.5 Unless a more detailed calculation is made in not exceed the smallest of lw /5, 3h and 450 mm, where lw
accordance with Section 411.11.6, shear strength Vc shall is the overall length of the wall.
not be taken greater than (1/6) f 'c h d for walls subject
411.11.9.4 Ratio of vertical shear reinforcement area to
to axial compression, or Vc shall not be taken greater than
gross concrete area of horizontal section, l, shall not be less
the value given in Section 411.4.2.3 for walls subject to
than the larger of:
axial tension.
 hw 
411.11.6 Shear strength Vc shall be permitted to be lesser of  l  0.0025  0.5 2.5   t  0.0025 (411-36)
the values computed from Eqs. 411-33 and 411-34.  lw 
Nud (411-33) and 0.0025. The value of ρl calculated by Eq. 411-36 need
V c  0 . 27  f 'c h d  not be greater than ρt required by Section 411.11.9.1. In Eq.
4 lw
411-36, lw is the overall length of the wall, and hw is the
or overall height of the wall.
  Nu 
 l w  0 . 1  f 'c  0 . 2  
411.11.9.5 Spacing of vertical shear reinforcement shall not
 lw h  h d
Vc   0 . 05  f 'c  exceed lw /3, 3h or 450 mm, where lw is the overall length of
 M u l 
  w  the wall.
 Vu 2 
(411-34)

411.12 Transfer of Moments to Columns transferred between a slab and a column, Section 411.13.7
shall apply.
411.12.1 When gravity load, wind, earthquake, or other
lateral forces cause transfer of moment at connections of 411.13.2.1 For nonprestressed slabs and footings, Vc shall be
framing elements to columns, the shear resulting from the smallest of (1), (2), and (3):
moment transfer shall be considered in the design of lateral
1. 1  2  (411-37)
reinforcement in the columns. Vc   1    f 'c b o d
6   
411.12.2 Except for connections not part of a primary where  is the ratio of long side to short side of the column,
seismic load-resisting system that are restrained on four concentrated load or reaction area;
sides by beams or slabs of approximately equal depth,
connections shall have lateral reinforcement not less than 2. 1   sd  (411-38)
Vc    2   f 'c bo d
that required by Eq. 411-13 within the column for a depth 12  bo 
not less than that of the deepest connection of framing
elements to the columns. See also Section 407.10. where s is 40 for interior columns, 30 for edge columns
and 20 for corner columns; and
411.12.3 For structures built in areas of low seismicity,
3. 1 (411-39)
columns of ordinary moment frames having a clear height- Vc   f 'c bo d
to-maximum-plan-dimension ratio of five or less shall be 3
designed for shear in accordance with Section 421.9.3.
411.13.2.2 At columns of two-way prestressed slabs and
footings that meet the requirements of Section 418.10.3:
411.13 Provisions for Slabs and Footings
 
Vc   p  f ' c  0.3 f pc bo d  V p (411-40)
411.13.1 The shear strength of slabs and footings in the
vicinity of columns, concentrated loads or reactions is where p is the smaller of 3.5 or (s d/bo + 1.5)/12, s is 40
governed by the more severe of two conditions: for interior columns, 30 for edge columns and 20 for corner
columns, bo is perimeter of critical section defined in
411.13.1.1 Beam action where each critical section to be Section 411.13.1.2, fpc is the average value of fpc for the two
investigated extends in a plane across the entire width. For directions, and Vp is the vertical component of all effective
beam action the slab or footing shall be designed in prestress forces crossing the critical section. Vc shall be
accordance with Sections 411.2, 411.4, 411.5, and 411.6. permitted to be computed by Eq. 411-40 if the following are
satisfied; otherwise, Section 411.13.2.1 shall apply:
411.13.1.2 For two-way action where each of the critical
sections to be investigated shall be located so that its 1. No portion of the column cross section shall be closer
perimeter, bo, is a minimum, but need not approach closer to the discontinuous edge than four times the slab
than d/2 to: thickness;
1. Edges or corners of columns, concentrated loads or 2. The value of f 'c in Eq. 411-40 shall not be taken
reaction areas; and
greater than 5.8 MPa; and
2. Changes in slab thickness such as edges of capitals,
3. In each direction, fpc shall not be less than 0.9 MPa, nor
drop panels, or shear caps. be taken greater than 3.5 MPa.
For two-way action, the slab of footing shall be designed in 411.13.3 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires
accordance with Sections 411.13.2 through 411.13.6. and single-leg or multiple-leg stirrups shall be permitted in
slabs and footings with d greater than or equal to 150 mm,
411.13.1.3 For square or rectangular columns, concentrated but not less than 16 times the shear reinforcement bar
loads or reactions areas, the critical sections with four diameter. Shear reinforcement shall be in accordance with
straight sides shall be permitted. Sections 411.13.3.1 through 411.13.3.4.
411.13.2 The design of a slab or footing for two-way action 411.13.3.1 Vn shall be computed by Eq. 411-2, where Vc
is based on Eqs. 411-1 and 411-2. Vc shall be computed in
accordance with Section 411.13.2.1, 411.13.2.2 or
shall not be taken greater than (1/6) λ f 'c bod, and Vs shall
411.13.3.1. Vs shall be computed in accordance with be calculated in accordance with Section 411.6 In Eq. 411-
Section 411.13.3. For slabs with shear heads, Vn shall be in 15, Av shall be taken as the cross-sectional area of all legs of
accordance with Section 411.13.4. When moment is
th
reinforcement on one peripheral line that is geometrically where  is for tension-controlled members,  is the number
similar to the perimeter of the column section. of spearhead arms, and lv is the minimum length of each
shearhead arm required to comply with requirements of
411.13.3.2 Vn shall not be taken greater than 0.5 Sections 411.13.4.7 and 411.13.4.8.
f 'c bo d.
411.13.4.7 The critical slab section for shear shall be
perpendicular to the plane of the slab and shall cross each
411.13.3.3 The distance between the column face and the shearhead arm at three fourths the distance [lv - (c1 /2)] from
first line of of stirrup legs that surround the columns shall the column face to the end of the shearhead arm. The critical
not exceed d/2. The spacing between adjacent stirrups legs section shall be located so that its perimeter bo is a
in the first line of shear reinforcement shall not exceed 2d minimum, but need not be closer than the perimeter defined
measured in a direction parallel to a column face. The in Section 411.13.1.2(1).
spacing between the successive lines of shear reinforcement
that surround the column shall not exceed d/2 measured in a
direction perpendicular to the column face. 411.13.4.8 Vn shall not be taken greater than (1/3) f 'c
bod, on the critical section defined in Section 411.13.4.7.
411.13.3.4 Slab shear reinforcement shall satisfy the When shearhead reinforcement is provided, Vn shall not be
anchorage requirements of Section 412.14 and shall engage
taken greater than 0.58 f 'c bod on the critical section
the longitudinal flexural reinforcement in the direction being
considered. defined in Section 411.13.1.2(1).
411.13.4 Shear reinforcement consisting of steel I- or 411.13.4.9 The moment resistance Mv contributed to each
channel- shaped sections (shearheads) shall be permitted in slab column strip computed by a shearhead shall not be
slabs. The provisions of Sections 411.13.4.1 through taken greater than:
411.13.4.9 shall apply where shear due to gravity load is
transferred at interior column supports. Where moment is
  v Vu  c  (411-42)
Mv   lv  1 
transferred to columns, Section 411.13.7.3 shall apply. 2  2 
411.13.4.1 Each shearhead shall consist of steel shapes where is for tension-controlled members,  is the number
fabricated by welding with a full penetration weld into of arms, and lv is the length of each shearhead arm actually
identical arms at right angles. Shearhead arms shall not be provided. However, Mv shall not be taken larger than the
interrupted within the column section. smallest of:
411.13.4.2 A shearhead shall not be deeper than 70 times

the web thickness of the steel shape. 1. Thirty percent of the total factored moment required for
each slab column strip;
411.13.4.3 The ends of each shearhead arm shall be 2. The change in column strip moment over the length lv;
permitted to be cut at angles not less than 30 degrees with and
the horizontal, provided the plastic moment strength of the
remaining tapered section is adequate to resist the shear 3. The value of Mp computed by Eq. 411-41.
force attributed to the arm of the shearhead.
411.13.4.10 When unbalanced moments are considered, the
411.13.4.4 All compression flanges of steel shapes shall be shearhead must have adequate anchorage to transmit Mp to
located within 0.3d of compression surface of slab. column.
411.13.4.5 The ratio v between the stiffness of each 411.13.5 Headed shear stud reinforcement, placed
shearhead arm and that of the surrounding composite perpendicular to the plane of a slab or footing, shall be
cracked slab section of width (c2 + d) shall not be less than permitted in slabs and footings in accordance with Sections
0.15. 411.13.5.1 through 411.13.5.4. The overall height of the
shear stud assembly shall not be less than the thickness of
the member less the sum of: (1) the concrete cover on the
411.13.4.6 The plastic moment strength Mp required for
top flexural reinforcement; (2) the concrete cover on the
each arm of the shearhead shall be computed by:
base rail; and (3) one-half the bar diameter of the tension
Vu   c   (411-41) flexural reinforcement. Where flexural tension
 M  hv    lv  1  reinforcement is at the bottom of the section, as in a footing,
2 
p v
 2 
the overall height of the shear stud assembly shall not be
less than the thickness of the member less the sum of: (1)
the concrete cover on the bottom flexural reinforcement; (2) concentrated load or reaction area and tangent to the
the concrete cover on the head of the stud; and (3) one-half boundaries of the openings shall be considered ineffective.
the bar diameter of the bottom flexural reinforcement.
411.13.6.2 For slabs with shearheads, the ineffective
411.13.5.1 For the critical section defined in Section portion of the perimeter shall be one half of that defined in
411.13.1.2, Vn shall be computed using Eq. 411-2, with Vc Section 411.13.6.1
and Vn not exceeding 0.25λ f 'c bod and 0.66 f 'c bod,
respectively. Vs shall be calculated using Eq. 411-15 with Av 411.13.7 Transfer of Moment in Slab-Column
equal to the cross-sectional area of all the shear Connections
reinforcement on one peripheral line that is approximately
parallel to the perimeter of the column section, where s is 411.13.7.1 Where gravity load, wind, earthquake or other
the spacing of the peripheral lines of headed shear stud lateral forces cause transfer of unbalanced moment, Mu,
between a slab and a column, a fraction γfMu of the
reinforcement. Avfyt /(bos) shall not be less than 0.17 f 'c . unbalanced moment shall be transferred by flexure in
accordance with Section 413.6.3. The remainder of the
411.13.5.2 The spacing between the column face and the unbalanced moment given by vMu shall be considered to be
first peripheral line of shear reinforcement shall not exceed transferred by eccentricity of shear about the centroid of the
d/2. The spacing between peripheral lines of shear critical section defined in Section 411.13.1.2 where:
reinforcement, measured in a direction perpendicular to any
face of the column, shall be constant. For prestressed slabs  v = (1 -f ) (411-43)
or footings satisfying Section 411.13.2.2, this spacing shall
not exceed 0.75d; for all other slabs and footings, the 411.13.7.2 The shear stress resulting from moment transfer
spacing shall be based on the value of the shear stress due to by eccentricity of shear shall be assumed to vary linearly
factored shear force and unbalanced moment at the critical about the centroid of the critical sections defined in Section
section defined in Section 411.13.1.2, and shall not exceed: 411.13.1.2. The maximum shear stress due to the factored
shear force, Vu and moment, Mu shall not exceed vn:
1. 0.75d where maximum shear stresses due to factored
1. For members without shear reinforcement:
loads are less than or equal to 0.5 f 'c ; and
 V 
 v n    c  (411-44)
2. 0.50d where maximum shear stresses due to factored
 bo d 
loads are greater than 0.5 f 'c . where Vc is as defined in Section 411.13.2.1 or 411.13.2.2.
411.13.5.3 The spacing between adjacent shear 2. For members with shear reinforcement other than
reinforcement elements, measured on the perimeter of the shearheads:
first peripheral line of shear reinforcement, shall not exceed
V V  (411-45)
2d.  v n    c s

 bo d 
411.13.5.4 Shear stress due to factored shear force and
moment shall not exceed 0.17λ f 'c at the critical where Vc and Vs are defined in Section 411.13.3.1. If shear
reinforcement is provided, the design shall take into account
section located d/2 outside the outermost peripheral line of the variation of shear stress around the column. The shear
shear reinforcement. stress due to factored shear force and moment shall not
exceed 0.17λ f 'c at the critical section located d/2
411.13.6 Openings in Slabs
outside the outermost line of the stirrup legs that surround
When openings in slabs are located at a distance less than 10 the column.
times the slab thickness from a concentrated load or reaction
area, or when openings in flat slabs are located within 411.13.7.3 When shear reinforcement consisting of steel I-
column strips as defined in Section 413, the critical slab or channel-shaped sections (shearheads) is provided, the
sections for shear defined in Section 411.13.1.2 and Section sum of the shear stresses due to vertical load acting on the
411.13.4.7 shall be modified as follows: critical section defined by Section 411.13.4.7 and the shear
stresses resulting from moment transferred by eccentricity
411.13.6.1 For slabs without shearheads, that part of the of shear about the centroid of the critical section defined in
perimeter of the critical section that is enclosed by straight
lines projecting from the centroid of the column,
th
Sections 411.13.1.2 (1) and 411.13.1.3 shall not exceed

0.33 λ f 'c
. SECTION 412 DEVELOPMENT
AND SPLICES OF
REINFORCEMENT
412.1 Notations
Ab = area of an individual bar or wire, mm2
Abrg = net bearing area of the head of stud, anchor bolt, or
headed deformed bar, mm2
As = area of nonprestressed longitudinal tension
reinforcement, mm2
Atr = total cross-sectional area of all transverse
reinforcement which is within the spacing s and
which crosses the potential plane of splitting
through the reinforcement being developed, mm2
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section, mm
cb = smaller of: (1) the distance from center of a bar or
wire to the nearest concrete surface, and (2) one-
half the center-to-center spacing of bars or wires
being developed, mm. See Section 412.3.4
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to
centroid of tension reinforcement, mm
db = nominal diameter of bar, wire or prestressing
strand, mm
concrete, MPa
fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight
aggregate concrete, MPa
fps = stress in prestressed reinforcement at nominal
flexural strength, MPa
fse = effective stress in prestressed reinforcement (after
allowance for all prestress losses), MPa
fy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed
reinforcement, MPa
fyt = specified yield strength fy of transverse
reinforcement, MPa
h = overall thickness or height of member, mm
Ktr = transverse reinforcement index. See Section
412.3.3
= Atr fyt /10sn
la = additional embedment length beyond centerline of
support or point of inflection, mm
ld = development length in tension of deformed bar,
deformed wire, plain and deformed welded wire
reinforcement, or pretensioned strand, mm
ldc = development length in compression of deformed
bars and deformed wire, mm
ldh = development length in tension of deformed bar or
deformed wire with a standard hook, measured
from critical section to outside end of hook
(straight embedment length between critical section
and start of hook (point of tangency) plus inside

radius of bend and one bar diameter), mm. See 412.3 Development of Deformed Bars and Deformed
Section 412.6 Wire in Tension
ldt = development length in tension of headed deformed
bar, measured from the critical section to the 412.3.1 Development length, ld, in terms of diameter, db, for
bearing face of the head, mm. See Section 412.7 deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall be
Mn = nominal moment strength at section, N-mm determined from either Section 412.3.2 or 412.3.3 and the
= Asfy(d - a/2) applicable modification factors of Section 412.3.4 and
N = number of bars in a layer being spliced or 412.3.5, but ld shall not be less than 300 mm.
developed at a critical section
n = number of bars or wires being spliced or developed 412.3.2 For deformed bars or deformed wire, ld shall be as
along the plane of splitting follows:
s = center-to-center spacing of items, such as
longitudinal reinforcement, transverse ɸ20 mm bars and
reinforcement, prestressing tendons, wires, or ɸ25 mm bars and
smaller and
anchors, mm larger
deformed wires
sw = spacing of wire to be developed or spliced, mm Clear spacing of bars
Vu = factored shear force at section, N being developed or
b = ratio of area of reinforcement cut off to total area spliced not less than
db, clear cover not less
of tension reinforcement at section. than db, and stirrups or
λ = modification factor reflecting the reduced ties throughout ld not  f y t e   f y t e 
 d
mechanical properties of lightweight concrete, all less than the code
 2 . 1 f '  b  d b
relative to normal-weight concrete of the same minimum  c   1 .7  f ' 
or  c 
compressive strength. See Sections 412.3.4(4) and Clear spacing of bars
412.6.2 being developed or
ψe = factor used to modify development length based on spliced not less than
reinforcement coating, see Section 412.3.4 2db and clear cover
not less than db
ψs = factor used to modify development length based on
reinforcement size, see Section 412.3.4  f y t e   f y t e 
Other Cases  d b  d b
ψt = factor used to modify development length based on  1.4 f '   1.1 f ' 
reinforcement location, see Section 412.3.4  c   c 
ψw = factor used to modify development length for
welded deformed wire reinforcement in tension,
412.3.3 For deformed bars or deformed wire, ld shall be:
see Section 412.8
 
  (412-1)
412.2 Development of Reinforcement - General  fy  t e 
ld   s
d b
 1 . 1  f 'c  c b  k tr  
 
 db 
412.2.1 Calculated tension or compression in reinforcement    
at each section of structural concrete members shall be
developed on each side of that section by embedment in which the term (cb + Ktr)/db shall not be taken greater than
length, hook, headed deformed bar or mechanical device, or 2.5, and
a combination thereof. Hooks and heads shall not be used to
develop bars in compression. 40 Atr
K tr  (412-2)
sn
412.2.2 The values of f 'c used in Section 412 shall not where n is the number of bars or wires being spliced or
exceed 8.0 MPa. developed along the plane of splitting. It shall be permitted
to use Ktr = 0 as a design simplification even if transverse
412.2.3 In addition to this requirements in this section that reinforcement is present.
affect detailing of reinforcements, structural integrity
requirements of Section 407.14 shall be satisfied. 412.3.4 The factors used in the expressions for development
of deformed bars and deformed wires in tension in Section
412.3 are as follows:
1. Where horizontal reinforcement is placed such that
more than 300 mm of fresh concrete is cast below
th
the development length or splice, ψt = 1.3. For other 412.5.2 For determining the appropriate spacing and cover
situations, ψt = 1.0; values in Section 412.3.2, the confinement term in Section
412.3.3, and the ψe factor in Section 412.3.4(2), a unit of
2. For epoxy-coated bars or wires with cover less than
bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a diameter
3db, or clear spacing less than 6db, ψe = 1.5. For all
derived from the equivalent total area and having a centroid
other epoxy-coated bars or wires, ψe = 1.2. For
that coincides with that of the bundled bars.
uncoated and zinc-coated (galvanized)
reinforcement, ψe = 1.0. However, the product ψtψe
need not be greater than 1.7; 412.6 Development of Standard Hooks in Tension
3. For ɸ20 mm bars and smaller and deformed wires, ψs
412.6.1 Development length ldh in mm for deformed bars in
= 0.80. For 25 mm diameter and larger bars;
tension terminating in a standard hook (see Section 407.2),
4. ψs = 1.0; and shall be determined from Section 412.6.2 and the applicable
modification factor or factors of Section 412.6.3 but, ldh
5. Where lightweight concrete is used, λ shall not
shall not be less than 8db or less than 150 mm.
exceed 0.75 unless fct is specified (see Section 408.7).
Where normal-weight concrete is used, λ = 1.0.

412.6.2 For deformed bars, ldh shall be 0.24 e f y  f 'c d b 
with ψe taken as 1.2 for epoxy-coated reinforcement, and λ
412.3.5 Excess Reinforcement
taken as 0.75 for lightweight concrete. For other cases, ψe
Reduction in development length shall be permitted where and λ shall be taken as 1.0.
reinforcement in a flexural member is in excess of that
required by analysis except where anchorage or 412.6.3 Length ldh in Section 412.6.2 shall be permitted to
development for fy is specifically required or the be multiplied by the following applicable factors:
reinforcement is designed under provisions of Section
421.3.1.5 …. .................................. [(As,required)/(As,provided)] 1. For 36 mm bar diameter and smaller hooks with side
cover normal to plane of hook) not less than 65 mm,
and for 90-degree hook with cover on bar extension
412.4 Development of Deformed Bars in Compression beyond hook not less than 50 mm
…………………………............................................ 0.7
412.4.1 Development length for deformed bars and
deformed wire in compression, ldc, shall be determined from 2. For 90-degree hooks of ɸ36 mm bars and smaller that
Section 412.4.2 and applicable modification factors of are either enclosed within ties or stirrups perpendicular
Section 412.4.3, but ldc shall not be less than 200 mm. to the bar being developed, spaced not greater than 3db
along ldh; or enclosed within ties or stirrups parallel to
412.4.2 For deformed bars and deformed wire, ldc shall be the bar being developed, spaced not greater than 3db
 
taken as the larger of 0.24 f y  f ' c d b and 0.043 f y  d b along the length of the tail extension of the hook plus
bend
with λ as given in Section 412.3.4 (4). ...................................................................................0.80
412.4.3 Length ldc in Section 412.4.2 shall be permitted to 3. For 180-degree hooks of ɸ36 mm bars and smaller that
be multiplied by the applicable factors for: are enclosed within ties or stirrups perpendicular to the
bar being developed, spaced not greater than 3db along
1. Reinforcement in excess of that required by analysis ldh............................................................................. 0.80
......................................................... (As required)/(As provided)
4. Where anchorage or development for fy is not
2. Reinforcement enclosed within spiral reinforcement not specifically required, reinforcement in excess of that
less than 6 mm diameter and not more than 100 mm required by analysis ...................... (As required)/(As provided)
pitch or within 12 mm diameter ties in conformance
with Section 407.11.5 and spaced at not more than 100 In Sections 412.6.3 (2) and 412.6.3 (3), db is the diameter of
mm on center ………………………..…….............. 0.75 the hooked bar, and the first tie or stirrup shall enclose the
bent portion of the hook, within 2db of the outside of the
412.5 Development of Bundled Bars bend.
412.5.1 Development length of individual bars within a 412.6.4 For bars being developed by a standard hook at
bundle, in tension or compression, shall be that for the discontinuous ends of members with side cover and top (or
individual bar, increased 20 percent for 3-bar bundle, and 33 bottom) cover over hook less than 65 mm, the hooked bar
percent for 4-bar bundle. shall be enclosed within ties or stirrups perpendicular to the
bar being developed, spaced not greater than 3db along ldh .

The first tie or stirrup shall enclose the bent portion of the Section 412.3.2 or 412.3.3, times welded deformed wire
hook, within 2 db of the outside of the bend, where db is reinforcement factor, w, from Section 412.8.2 or 412.8.3. It
diameter of hooked bar. For this case, the factors of shall be permitted to reduce the development length in
Sections 412.6.3 (2) and (3) shall not apply. accordance with Section 412.3.5 when applicable, but ld
shall not be less than 200 mm except in computation of lap
412.6.5 Hooks shall not be considered effective in splices by Section 412.19. When using the welded deformed
developing bars in compression. wire reinforcement factor, w, from Section 412.8.2, it shall
be permitted to use an epoxy-coating factor, e, of 1.0 for
412.7 Development of Headed and Mechanically epoxy-coated welded deformed wire reinforcement in
Anchored Deformed Bars in Tension Sections 412.3.2 and 412.3.3.
412.7.1 Development length for headed deformed bars in 412.8.2 For welded deformed wire reinforcement with at
tension, ldt, shall be determined from Section 412.7.2. Use least one cross wire within the development length, ld and
of heads to develop deformed bars in tension shall be not less than 50 mm from the point of the critical section,
limited to conditions satisfying (1) through (6): the welded deformed wire reinforcement factor shall be the
greater of:
1. Bar fy shall not exceed 415 MPa;
 f y  240   5d b 
2. Bar size shall not exceed ɸ36 mm;   or  
 f 
3. Concrete shall be normal-weight;
 y   sw 
4. Net bearing area of head Abrg shall not be less than 4Ab; but need not be taken greater than 1, where s is the spacing
between the wires to be developed.
5. Clear cover for bar shall not be less than 2db; and
6. Clear spacing between bars shall not be less than 4db. 412.8.3 For welded deformed wire reinforcement with no
cross wires within the development length or with a single
412.7.2 For headed deformed bars satisfying Section cross wire less than 50 mm from the point of the critical
403.6.9, development length in tension ldt shall be (0.19ψefy/ section, the wire fabric factor shall be taken as 1, and the
development length shall be determined as for deformed
f ' c )db, where the value of fc′ used to calculate ldt shall
wire.
not exceed 40 MPa, and factor ψe shall be taken as 1.2 for
epoxy-coated reinforcement and 1.0 for other cases. Where 412.8.4 When any plain wires, or deformed wires larger
reinforcement provided is in excess of that required by than 16 mm diameter, are present in the welded deformed
analysis, except where development of fy is specifically wire reinforcement in the direction of the development
required, a factor of (As required)/(As provided) may be length, the reinforcement shall be developed in accordance
applied to the expression for ldt. Length ldt shall not be less with Section 412.9.
than the larger of 8db and 150 mm.
412.7.3 Heads shall not be considered effective in 412.9 Development of Welded Plain Wire
developing bars in compression. Reinforcement in Tension
412.7.4 Any mechanical attachment or device capable of 412.9.1 Yield strength of welded plain wire reinforcement
developing fy of reinforcement is allowed, provided that test shall be considered developed by embedment of two cross
results showing the adequacy of such attachment or device wires with the closer cross wire not less than 50 mm from
are approved by the building official. Development of the point of the critical section. However, the development
reinforcement shall be permitted to consist of a combination length ld, in millimeters, shall not be less than:
of mechanical anchorage plus additional embedment length
of reinforcement between the critical section and the Ab  fy 
l d  3 .3   (412-3)
mechanical attachment or device. s  f' 
 c 
412.8 Development of Welded Deformed Wire Where ld is measured from the point of the critical section to
Reinforcement in Tension the outermost crosswire, s is the spacing between the wires
to be developed, and as given in Section 412.3.4 (4).
412.8.1 Development length of welded deformed wire Where reinforcement provided is in excess of that required,
reinforcement in tension, ld, in millimeters, measured from this length may be reduced in accordance with Section
the point of critical section to the end of wire shall be 412.3.5. Length ld shall not be less than 150 mm except in
computed as the product of the development length ld, from computation of lap splices by Section 412.20.
th
412.10 Development of Prestressing Strand 412.11.5 Flexural reinforcement shall not be terminated in a
tension zone unless one of the following conditions is
412.10.1 Except as provided in Section 412.10.1.1, seven- satisfied:
wire strand shall be bonded beyond the critical section, a
distance not less than: 412.11.5.1 Vu at the cutoff point does not exceed (2/3)Vn.
 f   f  f se  (412-4)
l d   se  d b   ps  d b 412.11.5.2 Stirrup area in excess of that required for shear
 21   7  and torsion is provided along each terminated bar or wire
over a distance from the termination point equal to three
Expressions in parentheses are used as constants without fourths the effective depth of member. Excess stirrup area
units, where db is strand diameter in millimeters, and fps and Av shall not be less than 0.41bwsfyt . Spacing s shall not
fse are expressed in MPa. exceed d/(8b) where b is the ratio of area of reinforcement
cut off to total area of tension reinforcement at the section.
412.10.1.1 Embedment less than ld shall be permitted at a
section of a member provided the design strand stress at that 412.11.5.3 For ɸ36 mm bar and smaller, continuing
section does not exceed values obtained from the bilinear reinforcement provides double the area required for flexure
relationship defined by Eq. 412-4. at the cutoff point and Vu does not exceed (3/4)Vn.
412.10.2 Limiting the investigation to cross sections nearest 412.11.6 Adequate anchorage shall be provided for tension
each end of the member that are required to develop full reinforcement in flexural members where reinforcement
design strength under specified factored loads shall be stress is not directly proportional to moment, such as sloped,
permitted except where bonding of one or more strands does stepped or tapered footings; brackets; deep flexural
not extend to the end of the member, or where concentrated members; or members in which tension reinforcement is not
loads are applied within the strand development length. parallel to compression face. See Sections 412.12.4 and
412.13.4 for deep flexural members.
412.10.3 Where bonding of a strand does not extend to end
of member, and design includes tension at service load in
pre-compressed tensile zone as permitted by Section 412.12 Development of Positive Moment Reinforcement
418.5.2, development length, ld specified in Section
412.10.1 shall be doubled. 412.12.1 At least one third the positive moment
reinforcement in simple members and one fourth the
positive moment reinforcement in continuous members shall
412.11 Development of flexural Reinforcement - General extend along the same face of member into the support. In
beams, such reinforcement shall extend into the support at
412.11.1 Development of tension reinforcement by bending least 150 mm.
across the web to be anchored or made continuous with
reinforcement on the opposite face of member shall be 412.12.2 When a flexural member is part of a primary
permitted. lateral-load-resisting system, positive moment reinforce-
ment required to be extended into the support by Section
412.11.2 Critical sections for development of reinforcement 412.12.1 shall be anchored to develop the specified yield
in flexural members are at points of maximum stress and at strength fy in tension at the face of support.
points within the span where adjacent reinforcement
terminates or is bent. Provisions of Section 412.12.3 must 412.12.3 At simple supports and at points of inflection,
be satisfied. positive moment tension reinforcement shall be limited to a
diameter such that ld computed for fy by Section 412.3
412.11.3 Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at satisfies Eq. 412-5, except Eq. 412-5 need not be satisfied
which it is no longer required to resist flexure for a distance for reinforcement terminating beyond center line of simple
equal to the effective depth of member or 12db, whichever is supports by a standard hook or a mechanical anchorage at
greater, except at supports of simple spans and at free end of least equivalent to a standard hook.
cantilevers.
Mn
ld   la (412-5)
412.11.4 Continuing reinforcement shall have an Vu
embedment length not less than the development length ld
beyond the point where bent or terminated tension
reinforcement is no longer required to resist flexure.

where: 412.14.2.1 For ɸ16 mm bar and MD 200 wire, and smaller,
and for ɸ20 mm and ɸ25 mm bars with fyt of 280 MPa or
Mn is calculated assuming all reinforcement at the section
to be stressed to fy; less, a standard stirrup hook around longitudinal
reinforcement.
Vu is calculated at the section;
la at a support shall be the embedment length beyond 412.14.2.2 For ɸ20 mm and ɸ25 mm stirrups with fyt greater
center of support; or than 280 MPa, a standard stirrup hook around a
longitudinal bar plus an embedment between mid-height of
la at a point of inflection shall be limited to the effective the member and the outside end of the hook equal to or
depth of member or 12db, whichever is greater. 0.17db f yt
greater than
An increase of 30 percent in the value of Mn/Vu shall be  f 'c
permitted when the ends of reinforcement are confined by a
compressive reaction. 412.14.2.3 For each leg of welded smooth wire fabric
forming simple U-stirrups, either:
412.12.4 At simple supports of deep flexural members, 1. Two longitudinal wires spaced at a 50 mm spacing
positive moment tension reinforcement shall be anchored to along the member at the top of the U; or
develop the specified yield strength fy in tension at the face
of support except that if design is carried out using Section 2. One longitudinal wire located not more than d/4 from
427, the positive moment tension reinforcement shall be the compression face and a second wire closer to the
anchored in accordance with Section 427.4.3. At interior compression face and spaced not less than 50 mm from
supports of deep beams, positive moment tension the first wire. The second wire shall be permitted to be
reinforcement shall be continuous or be spliced with that of located on the stirrup leg beyond a bend, or on a bend
the adjacent spans. with an inside diameter of bend not less than 8db.
412.14.2.4 For each end of a single-leg stirrup of welded

412.13 Development of Negative Moment Reinforcement plain or deformed wire fabric, two longitudinal wires at a
minimum spacing of 50 mm and with the inner wire at least
412.13.1 Negative moment reinforcement in a continuous, the greater of d/4 or 50 mm from mid-depth of member d/2.
restrained or cantilever member, or in any member of a rigid Outer longitudinal wire at tension face shall not be farther
frame, shall be anchored in or through the supporting from the face than the portion of primary flexural
member by embedment length, hooks or mechanical reinforcement closest to the face.
anchorage.
412.14.2.5 In joist construction as defined in Section
412.13.2 Negative moment reinforcement shall have an 408.12, for 12 mm diameter bar and MD130 wire and
embedment length into the span as required by Sections smaller, a standard hook.
412.2 and 412.11.3.
412.14.3 Between anchored ends, each bend in the
412.13.3 At least one third the total tension reinforcement continuous portion of a simple U-stirrup or multiple U-
provided for negative moment at a support shall have an stirrups shall enclose a longitudinal bar.
embedment length beyond the point of inflection not less
than effective depth of member, 12db, or 1/16 the clear span, 412.14.4 Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear
whichever is greater. reinforcement, if extended into a region of tension, shall be
continuous with longitudinal reinforcement and, if extended
412.13.4 At interior supports of deep flexural members, into a region of compression, shall be anchored beyond mid-
negative moment tension reinforcement shall be continuous depth d/2 as specified for development length in Section
with that of the adjacent spans. 412.3 for that part of fy required to satisfy Eq. 411-17.
412.14 Development of Web Reinforcement 412.14.5 Pairs of U-stirrups or ties so placed as to form a
closed unit shall be considered properly spliced when
412.14.1 Web reinforcement shall be carried as close to lengths of laps are 1.3ld. In members at least 450 mm deep,
compression and tension surfaces of member as cover such splices with Abfyt not more than 40 kN per leg may be
requirements and proximity of other reinforcement permits. considered adequate if stirrup legs extend the full available
depth of member.
412.14.2 Ends of single leg, simple U- or multiple U-
stirrups shall be anchored as required by the following:
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412.15 Splices of Reinforcement - General

412.16 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in
412.15.1 Splices of reinforcement shall be made only as
Tension
required or permitted on design drawings or in
specifications, or as authorized by the engineer-of-record.
412.16.1 Minimum length of lap for tension lap splices shall
be as required for Class A or B splice, but not less than 300
412.15.2 Lap Splices mm, where:
Class A splice .................................... 1.0ld
412.15.2.1 Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than
36 mm diameter, except as provided in Sections 412.17.2 Class B splice .................................... 1.3ld
and 415.9.2.3.
where ld is calculated in accordance with Section 412.3 to
412.15.2.2 Lap splices of bars in a bundle shall be based on develop fy , but without the 300 mm minimum of Section
the lap splice length required for individual bars within the 412.3.1 and without the modification factor of Section
bundle, increased in accordance with Section 412.5. 412.3.5.
Individual bar splices within a bundle shall not overlap.
Entire bundles shall not be lap spliced. 412.16.2 Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed wire
in tension shall be Class B splices except that Class A
412.15.2.3 Bars spliced by non-contact lap splices in splices may be used when:
flexural members shall not be spaced transversely farther
1. The area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that
apart than one fifth the required lap splice length, or 150
required by analysis over the entire length of the splice;
mm.
and
2. One half or less of the total reinforcement is spliced
412.15.3 Mechanical and Welded Splices
within the required lap length.
412.15.3.1 Mechanical and welded splices shall be
412.16.3 When bars of different size are lap spliced in
permitted.
tension, splice length shall be the larger of ld of larger bar
and tension lap splice length of smaller bar.
412.15.3.2 A full mechanical splice shall develop in tension
or compression, as required, at least 1.25fy of the bar.
412.16.4 Mechanical or welded splices used where area of
reinforcement provided is less than twice that required by
412.15.3.3 Except as provided in this chapter, all welding
analysis shall meet requirements of Sections 412.15.3.2 or
shall conform to "Structural Welding Code - Reinforcing 412.15.3.4.
Steel" (ANSI/AWS D1.4).
412.16.5 Mechanical or welded splices not meeting the
412.15.3.4 A full-welded splice shall develop at least 1.25 requirements of Sections 412.15.3.2 or 412.15.3.4 shall be
fy of the bar. permitted for 16 mm diameter bars and smaller if the
requirements of Sections 412.16.5.1 through 412.16.5.3 are
412.15.3.5 Welded splices and mechanical connections not met:
meeting requirements of Section 412.15.3.2 or 412.15.3.4
are allowed only for ɸ16 mm bars and smaller and in 412.16.5.1 Splices shall be staggered at least 600 mm.
412.16.5.2 In computing the tensile forces that can be
412.15.3.6 Welded splices and mechanical connections shall developed at each section, the spliced reinforcement stress
maintain the clearance and coverage requirements of shall be taken as the specified splice strength, but not greater
Sections 407.7 and 407.8. than fy. The stress in the unspliced reinforcement shall be
taken as fy times the ratio of the shortest length embedded
beyond the section to ld, but not greater than fy.
412.16.5.3 The total tensile force that can be developed at

each section must be at least twice that required by analysis,
and at least 140 MPa times the total area of reinforcement
provided.

412.16.6 Splices in tension tie members shall be made with if one half or fewer of the bars are spliced at any section and
a full mechanical or full welded splice in accordance with alternate lap splices are staggered by ld.
Sections 412.15.3.2 or 412.15.3.4 and splices in adjacent
bars shall be staggered at least 750 mm. 412.18.2.3 Where the bar stress due to factored loads is
greater than 0.5 fy in tension, lap splices shall be Class B
tension lap splices.
412.17 Splices of Deformed Bars in Compression
412.18.2.4 In tied reinforced compression members, where
412.17.1 Compression lap splice length shall be 0.071 fydb ,
ties throughout the lap splice length have an effective area
for fy of 420 MPa or less, or (0.13 fy - 24) db for fy greater
not less than 0.0015h s, lap splice length shall be permitted
than 415 MPa, but not less than 300 mm. For f'c less than
to be multiplied by 0.83, but lap length shall not be less than
21 MPa, length of lap shall be increased by one third.
300 mm. Tie legs perpendicular to dimension h shall be
used in determining effective area.
412.17.2 When bars of different size are lap spliced in
compression, splice length shall be the larger ldc, of larger
412.18.2.5 In spirally reinforced compression members, lap
bar and compression lap splice length of smaller bar. Lap
splice length of bars within a spiral shall be permitted to be
splices of 42 and 58 mm diameter bars to 36 mm diameter
multiplied by 0.75, but lap length shall not be less than 300
and smaller bars shall be permitted.
mm.
412.17.3 Welded splices or mechanical connections used in
compression shall meet requirements of Sections 412.15.3.3 412.18.3 Welded Splices or Mechanical Connectors in
and 412.15.3.4. Columns
412.17.4 End-Bearing Splices Welded splices or mechanical connectors in columns shall
meet the requirements of Section 412.15.3.3 or 412.15.3.4.
412.17.4.1 In bars required for compression only,
transmission of compressive stress by bearing of square cut
ends held in concentric contact by a suitable device shall be 412.18.4 End-bearing Splices in Columns
permitted. End-bearing splices complying with Section 412.17.4 shall
be permitted to be used for column bars stressed in
412.17.4.2 Bar ends shall terminate in flat surfaces within compression provided the splices are staggered or additional
1.5 degrees of a right angle to the axis of the bars and shall bars are provided at splice locations. The continuing bars in
be fitted within 3 degrees of full bearing after assembly. each face of the column shall have a tensile strength, based
on the specified yield strength fy, not less than 0.25fy times
412.17.4.3 End-bearing splices shall be used only in the area of the vertical reinforcement in that face.
members containing closed ties, closed stirrups or spirals.
412.19 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire
412.18 Special Splices Requirements for Columns Reinforcement in Tension
412.18.1 Lap splices, butt welded splices, mechanical 412.19.1 Minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded
connections or end-bearing splices shall be used with the deformed wire fabric measured between the ends of each
limitations of Sections 412.18.2 through 412.18.4. A splice fabric sheet shall not be less than 1.3ld or 200 mm, and the
shall satisfy requirements for all load combinations for the overlap measured between outermost cross wires of each
column. fabric sheet shall not be less than 50 mm, ld shall be the
development length for the specified yield strength fy in
412.18.2 Lap Splices in Columns
412.19.2 Lap splices of welded deformed wire
412.18.2.1 Where the bar stress due to factored loads is reinforcement, with no cross wires within the lap splice
compressive, lap splices shall conform to Sections 412.17.1 length, shall be determined as for deformed wire.
and 412.17.2, and where applicable, to Section 412.18.2.4 or
412.18.2.5.
412.19.3 Where any plain wires, or deformed wires larger
than MD200, are present in the welded deformed wire
412.18.2.2 Where the bar stress due to factored loads is reinforcement in the direction of the lap splice or where
tensile and does not exceed 0.5fy in tension, lap splices shall welded deformed wire reinforcement is lap spliced to
be Class B tension lap splices if more than one half of the welded plain wire reinforcement, the reinforcement shall be
bars are spliced at any section, or Class A tension lap splices lap spliced in accordance with Section 412.20.
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412.20 Splices of Welded Plain Wire Reinforcement in

Tension
Minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded plain wire SECTION 413 TWO-WAY SLAB
reinforcement shall be in accordance with the following: SYSTEMS
412.20.1 When area of reinforcement provided is less than
twice that required by analysis at splice location, length of 413.1 Notations
overlap measured between outermost cross wires of each b1 = dimension of the critical section b0 measured in the
reinforcement sheet shall not be less than the largest of one direction of the span for which moments are
spacing of cross wires plus 50 mm, or less than 1.5 ld, or determined, mm
150 mm, ld shall be the development length for the specified b2 = dimension of the critical section b0 measured in the
yield strength fy in accordance with Section 412.9. direction perpendicular to b1, mm
C = cross-sectional constant to define torsional
412.20.2 Where area of reinforcement provided is at least properties of slab and beam. See Section 413.7.4.2
twice that required by analysis at splice location, length of  x  x3
overlap measured between outermost cross wires of each  1  0.63  y
 y 3
reinforcement sheet shall not be less than 1.5 ld, or 50 mm,
ld shall be the development length for the specified yield c1 = dimension of rectangular or equivalent rectangular
strength fy in accordance with Section 412.9. column, capital, or bracket measured in the
direction of the span for which moments are being
determined, mm
c2 = dimension of rectangular or equivalent rectangular
column, capital or bracket measured transverse to
the direction of the span for which moments are
being determined, mm
Ecb = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete, MPa
Ecs = modulus of elasticity of slab concrete, MPa
Ib = moment of inertia about centroidal axis of gross
section of beam as defined in Section 413.7.1.6
Is = moment of inertia about centroidal axis of gross
section of slab defined for calculating fand t ,
mm4
= h3/12 times width of slab defined in notations
and t
Kt = torsional stiffness of torsional member; moment
per unit rotation
ln = length of clear span in direction that moments are
being determined, measured face to face of
supports
l1 = length of span in direction that moments are being
determined, measured center to center of supports
l2 = length of span transverse to l1, measured center to
center of supports. See also Sections 413.7.2.3 and
413.7.2.4
Mo = total factored static moment
qu = factored load per unit area
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete. See
Section 411.13.2.1
Vu = factored shear force at section
wd = factored dead load per unit area
wl = factored live load per unit area
x = shorter overall dimension of rectangular part of
cross section, mm

y = longer overall dimension of rectangular part of

cross section, mm
413.3 Definitions
 =ratio of flexural stiffness of beam section to
flexural stiffness of a width of slab bounded
413.3.1 Column strip is a design strip with a width on each
laterally by center lines of adjacent panels (if any)
side of a column center line equal to 0.25l2 or 0.25l1,
on each side of the beam
whichever is less. Column strip includes beams, if any.
= E cb I b
E cs I s
413.3.2 Middle strip is a design strip bounded by two
1 = in direction of l1 column strips.
2 = in direction of l2
t = ratio of torsional stiffness of edge beam section to 413.3.3 A panel is bounded by column, beam or wall center
flexural stiffness of a width of slab equal to span lines on all sides.
length of beam, center to center of supports
= EcbC 413.3.4 For monolithic or fully composite construction, a
2 Ecs I s beam includes that portion of slab on each side of the beam
f = fraction of unbalanced moment transferred by extending a distance equal to the projection of the beam
flexure at slab-column connections. See Section above or below the slab, whichever is greater, but not
413.6.3.2 greater than four times the slab thickness.
v = fraction of unbalanced moment transferred by
eccentricity of shear at slab-column connections 413.3.5 When used to reduce the amount of negative
= 1 - f moment reinforcement over a column or minimum required
 = ratio of nonprestressed tension reinforcement slab thickness, a drop panel shall:
b = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain 1. Project below the slab at least one-quarter of the
conditions adjacent slab thickness; and
 = strength reduction factor
2. Extend in each direction from the centerline of support
a distance not less than one-sixth the span length
413.2 Scope measured from center-to-center of supports in
that direction.
413.2.1 The provisions of this Section shall apply for design
of slab systems reinforced for flexure in more than one 413.3.6 When used to increase the critical condition section
direction, with or without beams between supports. for shear at a slab-column joint, a shear cap shall project
below the slab and extend a minimum horizontal distance
413.2.2 For a slab system supported by columns or walls, from the face of the column that is equal to the thickness of
the dimensions c1 and c2 and the clear span ln shall be based the projection below the slab soffit.
on an effective support area defined by the intersection of
the bottom surface of the slab, or of the drop panel if there is
one, with the largest right circular cone, right pyramid, or 413.4 Slab Reinforcement
tapered wedge whose surfaces are located within the column
and capital or bracket and are oriented no greater than 45 413.4.1 Area of reinforcement in each direction for two-way
degrees to the axis of the column. slab systems shall be determined from moments at critical
sections, but shall not be less than required by Section
407.13.2.1.
413.2.3 Solid slabs and slabs with recesses or pockets made
by permanent or removable fillers between ribs or joists in
two directions are included within the scope of this Section. 413.4.2 Spacing of reinforcement at critical sections shall
not exceed two times the slab thickness, except for portions
of slab area of cellular or ribbed construction. In the slab
413.2.4 Minimum thickness of slabs designed in accordance
over cellular spaces, reinforcement shall be provided as
with this Section shall be as required by Section 409.6.3.
required by Section 407.13
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Figure 413-1 Extensions for Reinforcements in Slabs without Beams (See Section 412.12.1 for reinforcement extension into
supports)

413.4.3 Positive moment reinforcement perpendicular to a 413.4.8 Details of Reinforcement in Slabs without Beams
discontinuous edge shall extend to the edge of slab and have
embedment, straight or hooked, at least 150 mm in spandrel 413.4.8.1 In addition to the other requirements of Section
beams, columns or walls. 413.4, reinforcement in slabs without beams shall have
minimum extensions as prescribed in Figure 413-1.
413.4.4 Negative moment reinforcement perpendicular to a
discontinuous edge shall be bent, hooked or otherwise 413.4.8.2 Where adjacent spans are unequal, extension of
anchored, in spandrel beams, columns or walls, to be negative moment reinforcement beyond the face of support
developed at face of support according to provisions of as prescribed in Figure 413-1 shall be based on requirements
Section 412. of longer span.
413.4.5 Where a slab is not supported by a spandrel beam 413.4.8.3 Bent bars shall be permitted only when depth-
or wall at a discontinuous edge or where a slab cantilevers span ratio permits use of bends 45 degrees or less.
beyond the support, anchorage of reinforcement shall be
permitted within the slab. 413.4.8.4 In frames where two-way slabs act as primary
members resisting lateral loads, lengths of reinforcement
413.4.6 At exterior corners of slabs supported by edge shall be determined by analysis but shall not be less than
walls or where one or more edge beams have a value of αf those prescribed in Figure 413-1.
greater than 1.0, top and bottom slab reinforcement shall be
provided at exterior corners in accordance with Sections 413.4.8.5 All bottom bars or wires within the column strip,
413.4.6.1 through 413.4.6.4: in each direction, shall be continuous or spliced with Class
B splices or with mechanical or welded splices satisfying
413.4.6.1 Corner reinforcement in both top and bottom of Section 412.15.3. Splices shall be located as shown in
slab shall be sufficient to resist a moment equal to the Figure 413-1. At least two of the column strip bottom bars
maximum positive moment (per meter of width) in the slab or wires in each direction shall pass within the region
panel. bounded by the longitudinal reinforcement of the column
and shall be anchored at exterior supports.
413.4.6.2 The moment shall be assumed to be about an axis
perpendicular to the diagonal from the corner in the top of 413.4.8.6 In slabs with shearheads and in lift-slab
the slab and about an axis parallel to the diagonal from the construction where it is not practical to pass the bottom bars
corner in the bottom of the slab. required by Section 413.4.8.5 through the column, at least
two bonded bottom bars or wires in each direction shall pass
413.4.6.3 Corner reinforcement shall be provided for a through the shearhead or lifting collar as close to the column
distance in each direction from the corner equal to one-fifth as practicable and be continuous or spliced with a Class A
the longer span. splice. At exterior columns, the reinforcement shall be
anchored at the shearhead or lifting collar.
413.4.6.4 Corner reinforcement shall be placed parallel to
the diagonal in the top of the slab and perpendicular to the
413.5 Openings in Slab Systems
diagonal in the bottom of the slab. Alternatively, the special
reinforcement shall be placed in two layers parallel to the
sides of the slab in both the top and bottom of the slab. 413.5.1 Openings of any size shall be permitted in slab
systems if shown by analysis that the design strength is at
least equal to the strength considering Sections 409.3 and
413.4.7 When a drop panel is used to reduce the amount of
409.4, and that all serviceability conditions, including the
negative moment reinforcement over the column of a flat
specified limits on deflections, are met.
slab, the dimensions of the drop panel shall be in accordance
with Section 413.3.5. In computing required slab
413.5.2 As an alternate to special analysis as required by
reinforcement, the thickness of the drop panel below the
slab shall not be assumed to be greater than one-quarter the Section 413.5.1, openings shall be permitted in slab systems
without beams only in accordance with the following:
distance from the edge of drop panel to the face of the
column or column capital.
413.5.2.1 Openings of any size shall be permitted in the area
common to intersecting middle strips, provided total amount
of reinforcement required for the panel without the opening
is maintained.
th
413.5.2.2 In the area common to intersecting column strips, one-half slab or drop panel thickness (1.5h) outside opposite
not more than one-eighth the width of column strip in either faces of the column or capital, where Mu is the moment to
span shall be interrupted by openings. An amount of be transferred and
reinforcement equivalent to that interrupted by an opening
 1 (413-1)
shall be added on the sides of the opening. f 
b1
1  23
413.5.2.3 In the area common to one column strip and one b2
middle strip, not more than one-fourth the reinforcement in
either strip shall be interrupted by openings. An amount of 413.6.3.3 For unbalanced moments about an axis parallel to
reinforcement equivalent to that interrupted by an opening the edge at exterior supports, the value of f by Eq. 413-1
shall be added on the sides of the opening. shall be in accordance with the following:
413.5.2.4 Shear requirements of Section 411.13.6 shall be 1. For edge columns with unbalanced moments about an
satisfied. an axis parallel to the edge, f = 1.0 provided that Vu at
an edge support does not exceed 0.75Vc or at a corner
support does not exceed 0.5Vc.
413.6 Design Procedures
2. For unbalanced moments at interior supports, and for
413.6.1 A slab system shall be designed by any procedure edge columns with unbalanced moments about an axis
satisfying conditions of equilibrium and geometric transverse to the edge, increase f to as much as 1.25
compatibility, if shown that the design strength at every times the value from Eq. 413-1, but not more than f =
section is at least equal to the required strength set forth in 1.0, provided that Vu at the support does not exceed
Sections 409.3 and 409.4 and that all serviceability 0.4Vc. The net tensile strain t, calculated for the
conditions, including limits on deflections, are met. effective slab width defined in Section 413.6.3.2, shall
not be less than 0.010.
413.6.1.1 Design of a slab system for gravity loads
including the slab and beams, if any, between supports and The value of Vc in items (1) and (2) shall be calculated in
supporting columns or walls forming orthogonal frames, by accordance with Section 411.13.2.1.
either the Direct Design Method of Section 413.7 or the
Equivalent Frame Method of Section 413.8, shall be 413.6.3.4 Concentration of reinforcement over the column
permitted. by closer spacing or additional reinforcement shall be used
to resist moment on the effective slab width defined in
413.6.1.2 For lateral loads, analysis of frames shall take into Section 413.6.3.2.
account effects of cracking and reinforcement on stiffness of
frame members. 413.6.4 Design for transfer of load from slab to supporting
columns or walls through shear and torsion shall be in
413.6.1.3 Combining the results of the gravity load analysis accordance with Section 411.
with the results of the lateral load analysis shall be
permitted.
413.7 Direct Design Method
413.6.2 The slab and beams, if any, between supports shall
be proportioned for factored moments prevailing at every 413.7.1 Limitations
section.
Design of slab systems within the following limitations by
the direct design method shall be permitted:
413.6.3 When gravity load, wind, earthquake or other lateral
forces cause transfer of moment between slab and column, a 413.7.1.1 There shall be a minimum of three continuous
fraction of the unbalanced moment shall be transferred by spans in each direction.
flexure in accordance with Sections 413.6.3.2 and 413.6.3.4.
413.7.1.2 Panels shall be rectangular, with a ratio of longer
to shorter span center-to-center supports within a panel not
413.6.3.1 Fraction of unbalanced moment not transferred
greater than 2.
by flexure shall be transferred by eccentricity of shear in
accordance with Section 411.13.7. 413.7.1.3 Successive span lengths center-to-center supports
in each direction shall not differ by more than one-third the
413.6.3.2 A fraction of the unbalanced moment given longer span.
by f Mu shall be considered to be transferred by flexure
within an effective slab width between lines that are one and

413.7.1.4 Offset of columns by a maximum of 10 percent of polygon-shaped supports shall be treated as square supports
the span in direction of offset from either axis between with the same area.
center lines of successive columns shall be permitted.
413.7.3 Negative and Positive Factored Moments
413.7.1.5 All loads shall be due to gravity only and
uniformly distributed over an entire panel. Live load shall
not exceed two times dead load. 413.7.3.1 Negative factored moments shall be located at
face of rectangular supports. Circular or regular polygon-
413.7.1.6 For a panel with beams between supports on all shaped supports shall be treated as square supports with the
sides, the relative stiffness of beams in two perpendicular same area.
directions
413.7.3.2 In an interior span, total static moment Mo shall
 l
2
be distributed as follows:
f1 2
 (413-2)
 l
f 2 1
2
Negative factored moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . …….. . . . 0.65
shall not be less than 0.2 nor greater than 5.0, wheref1 and Positive factored moment . . . . . . . . . . . . …….. . . . . 0.35
f2 are calculated in accordance with Equation (413-3).
413.7.3.3 In an end span, total factored static moment Mo
E I shall be distributed as follows:
 f  cb b (413-3)
E cs I s
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Slabs Slab without
413.7.1.7 Moment redistribution as permitted by Section with Beams between
Exterior Exterior
408.5 shall not be applied for slab systems designed by the Edge
Beams Interior Supports Edge Fully
between Without With
Direct Design Method. See Section 413.7.7. Unrestrained
All
Restrained
Edge Edge
Supports Beams Beams
413.7.1.8 Variations from the limitations of Section 413.7.1 Interior
shall be permitted if demonstrated by analysis as long as Negative
factored
0.75 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.65
requirements of Section 413.6.1 are satisfied. moment
Positive
factored 0.63 0.57 0.52 0.50 0.35
413.7.2 Total Factored Static Moment for a Span Moment
Exterior
413.7.2.1 Total factored static moment for a span shall be negative
factored
0 0.16 0.26 0.30 0.65
determined in a strip bounded laterally by centerline of moment
panel on each side of centerline of supports.
413.7.3.4 Negative moment sections shall be designed to
413.7.2.2 Absolute sum of positive and average negative resist the larger of the two interior negative factored
factored moments in each direction shall not be less than moments determined for spans framing into a common
support unless an analysis is made to distribute the
2
qu l2ln unbalanced moment in accordance with stiffness of
Mo  (413-4) adjoining elements.
8
where ln is length of clear span in direction that moments 413.7.3.5 Edge beams or edges of slab shall be proportioned
are being determined. to resist in torsion their share of exterior negative factored
moments.
413.7.2.3 Where the transverse span of panels on either side
of the centerline of supports varies, l2 in Eq. 413-4 shall be 413.7.3.6 The gravity load moment to be transferred
taken as the average of adjacent transverse spans. between slab and edge column in accordance with Section
413.6.3.1 shall be 0.3Mo.
413.7.2.4 When the span adjacent and parallel to an edge is
being considered, the distance from edge to panel centerline
shall be substituted for l2 in Eq. 413-4.
413.7.2.5 Clear span ln shall extend from face to face of

columns, capitals, brackets or walls. Value of ln used in Eq.
413-4 shall not be less than 0.65l1. Circular or regular
th
413.7.4.5 For slabs with beams between supports, the slab

portion of column strips shall be proportioned to resist that
413.7.4 Factored Moments in Column Strips portion of column strip moments not resisted by beams.
413.7.4.1 Column strips shall be proportioned to resist the
following percentage of interior negative factored moments: 413.7.5 Factored Moments in Beams
l2 /l1 0.5 1.0 2.0 413.7.5.1 Beams between supports shall be proportioned to
resist 85 percent of column strip moments if (ll1) is
(α1l2/l1) = 0 75 75 75 equal to or greater than 1.0.
(α1l2/l1) 1.0 90 75 45
413.7.5.2 For values of (ll1) between 1.0 and zero,
Linear interpolations shall be made between values shown. proportion of column strip moments resisted by beams shall
be obtained by linear interpolation between 85 and zero
413.7.4.2 Column strips shall be proportioned to resist the percent.
following percentage of exterior negative factored moments:
413.7.5.3 In addition to moments calculated for uniform
l2 /l1 0.5 1.0 2.0 loads according to Sections 413.7.2.2, 413.7.5.1 and
413.7.5.2, beams shall be proportioned to resist all moments
βτ = 0 100 100 100 caused by concentrated or linear loads applied directly to
(α1l2/l1) = 0 beams, including weight of projecting beam stem above or
βτ ≥ 2.5 75 75 75
below the slab.
βτ = 0 100 100 100
(α1l2/l1) 1.0
βτ ≥ 2.5 90 75 45 413.7.6 Factored Moments in Middle Strips
Linear interpolations shall be made between values shown, 413.7.6.1 That portion of negative and positive factored
where  is calculated in Eq. 413-5 and C is calculated in moments not resisted by column strips shall be
Eq. 413-6. proportionately assigned to corresponding half middle
strips.
E cb C (413-5)
t 
2 E cs I s 413.7.6.2 Each middle strip shall be proportioned to resist
the sum of the moments assigned to its two half middle
x x3 y
C   (1  0.63 ) (413-6) strips.
y 3
413.7.6.3 A middle strip adjacent to and parallel with an
The constant C or T or L-sections shall be permitted to be edge supported by a wall shall be proportioned to resist
evaluated by dividing the section into separate rectangular twice the moment assigned to the half middle strip
parts, as defined in Section 413.3.4, and summing the values corresponding to the first row of interior supports.
of C for each part.
413.7.7 Modification of Factored Moments
413.7.4.3 Where supports consist of columns or walls
extending for a distance equal to or greater than three Modification of negative and positive factored moments by
fourths the span length l2 used to compute Mo, negative 10 percent shall be permitted provided the total static
moments shall be considered to be uniformly distributed moment for a panel in the direction considered is not less
across l2. than that required by Eq. 413-4.
413.7.4.4 Column strips shall be proportioned to resist the 413.7.8 Factored Shear in Slab Systems with Beams
following percentage of positive factored moments:
413.7.8.1 Beams with ll1 equal to or greater than 1.0
l2 / l1 0.5 1.0 2.0 shall be proportioned to resist shear caused by factored
loads on tributary areas bounded by 45-degree lines drawn
(α1l2/l1) = 0 60 60 60 from the corners of the panels and the center lines of the
(α1l2/l1) 1.0 90 75 45 adjacent panels parallel to the long sides.
Linear interpolations shall be made between values shown:

413.7.8.2 In proportioning of beams with ll1 less than 413.8.2.2 Each frame shall consist of a row of columns or
1.0 to resist shear, linear interpolation, assuming beams supports and slab-beam strips, bounded laterally by the
carry no load at  = 0, shall be permitted. centerline of panel on each side of the centerline of columns
or supports.
413.7.8.3 In addition to shears calculated according to
Sections 413.7.8.1 and 413.7.8.2, beams shall be 413.8.2.3 Columns or supports shall be assumed to be
proportioned to resist shears caused by factored loads attached to slab-beam strips by torsional members (Section
applied directly on beams. 413.8.5) transverse to the direction of the span for which
moments are being determined and extending to bounding
413.7.8.4 Computations of slab shear strength on the lateral panel center lines on each side of a column.
assumption that load is distributed to supporting beams in
accordance with Section 413.7.8.1 or 413.7.8.2 shall be 413.8.2.4 Frames adjacent and parallel to an edge shall be
permitted. Resistance to total shear occurring on a panel bounded by that edge and the centerline of adjacent panel.
shall be provided.
413.8.2.5 Analysis of each equivalent frame in its entirety
413.7.8.5 Shear strength shall satisfy requirements of shall be permitted. Alternatively, for gravity loading, a
Section 411. separate analysis of each floor or roof with far ends of
columns considered fixed shall be permitted.
413.7.9 Factored Moments in Columns and Walls 413.8.2.6 Where slab-beams are analyzed separately,
determination of moment at a given support assuming that
413.7.9.1 Columns and walls built integrally with a slab the slab-beam is fixed at any support two panels distant
system shall resist moments caused by factored loads on the therefrom, shall be permitted provided the slab continues
slab system. beyond that point.
413.7.9.2 At an interior support, supporting elements above
and below the slab shall resist the factored moment 413.8.3 Slab-Beams
specified by Eq. 413-7 in direct proportion to their
stiffnesses unless a general analysis is made. 413.8.3.1 Determination of the moment of inertia of slab-
beams at any cross section outside of joints or column
M = 0.07 [(qDu + 0.5 qLu) l2 ln2 2
– q’Du l’2 (l’n) ] (413-7) capitals using the gross area of concrete shall be permitted.
where q’d, l’2 and l’n refer to shorter span.
413.8.3.2 Variation in moment of inertia along axis of slab-
beams shall be taken into account.
413.8 Equivalent Frame Method
413.8.3.3 Moment of inertia of slab-beams from center of
413.8.1 Design of slab systems by the equivalent frame column to face of column, bracket or capital shall be
method shall be based on assumptions given in Sections assumed equal to the moment of inertia of the slab-beam at
413.8.2 through 413.8.6 and all sections of slabs and face of column, bracket or capital divided by the quantity
supporting members shall be proportioned for moments and (1 – c2/l2)2 where c2 and l2 are measured transverse to the
shears thus obtained. direction of the span for which moments are being
determined.
413.8.1.1 Where metal column capitals are used, it shall be
permitted to take account of their contributions to stiffness
and resistance to moment and to shear. 413.8.4 Columns
413.8.1.2 Neglecting the change in length of columns and 413.8.4.1 Determination of the moment of inertia of
slabs due to direct stress, and deflections due to shear, shall columns at any cross section outside of joints or column
be permitted. capitals using the gross area of concrete shall be permitted.
413.8.4.2 Variation in moment of inertia along axis of

413.8.2 Equivalent Frame columns shall be taken into account.
413.8.2.1 The structure shall be considered to be made up of 413.8.4.3 Moment of inertia of columns from top to bottom
equivalent frames on column lines taken longitudinally and of the slab-beam at a joint shall be assumed infinite.
transversely through the building.
th
413.8.5 Torsional Members from face of supporting element not greater than one-half
the projection of bracket or capital beyond face of
413.8.5.1 Torsional members (see Section 413.8.2.3) shall supporting element.
be assumed to have a constant cross section throughout their
length consisting of the largest of: 413.8.7.3 Circular or regular polygon-shaped supports shall
be treated as square supports with the same area for location
1. A portion of slab having a width equal to that of the
of critical section for negative design moment.
column, bracket or capital in the direction of the span
for which moments are being determined; or
413.8.7.4 When slab systems within limitations of Section
2. For monolithic or fully composite construction, the 413.7.1 are analyzed by the Equivalent Frame Method, it
portion of slab specified in (1) above plus that part of shall be permitted to reduce the resulting computed
the transverse beam above and below the slab; and moments in such proportion that the absolute sum of the
positive and average negative moments used in the design
3. The transverse beam as defined in Section 413.3.4.
need not exceed the value obtained from Eq. 413-4.
413.8.5.2 Where beams frame into columns in the direction
413.8.7.5 Distribution of moments at critical sections across
of the span for which moments are being determined, the
the slab-beam strip of each frame to column strips, beams
torsional stiffness shall be multiplied by the ratio of moment
and middle strips as provided in Sections 413.7.4, 413.7.5
of inertia of slab with such beam to moment of inertia of
and 413.7.6 shall be permitted if the requirement of Section
slab without such beam.
413.7.1.6 is satisfied.
413.8.6 Arrangement of Live Load
413.8.6.1 When loading pattern is known, the equivalent

frame shall be analyzed for that load.
413.8.6.2 When live load is variable but does not exceed

three-fourths of the dead load, or the nature of live load is
such that all panels will be loaded simultaneously, it shall be
permitted to assume that maximum factored moments occur
at all sections with full factored live load on entire slab
system.
413.8.6.3 For loading conditions other than those defined

in Section 413.8.6.2, it shall be permitted to assume that
maximum positive factored moment near midspan of a
panel occurs with three-fourths of the full factored live load
on the panel and on alternate panels; and it shall be
permitted to assume that maximum negative factored
moment in the slab at a support occurs with three-fourths of
the full live load on adjacent panels only.
413.8.6.4 Factored moments shall not be taken less than

those occurring with full factored live load on all panels.
413.8.7 Factored Moments
413.8.7.1 At interior supports, critical section for negative

factored moment in both column and middle strips shall be
taken at face of rectilinear supports, but not greater than
0.175l1 from center of a column.
413.8.7.2 At exterior supports provided with brackets or

capitals, critical section for negative factored moment in the
span perpendicular to an edge shall be taken at a distance

b = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain

conditions
SECTION 414 l = minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement area to
WALLS gross concrete area
414.1 Notations 414.2 Scope
Ag = gross area of section, mm2 414.2.1 Provisions of Section 414 shall apply for design of
As = area of longitudinal tension reinforcement in wall walls subjected to axial load, with or without flexure.
segment, mm2
Ase = area of effective longitudinal tension reinforcement 414.2.2 Cantilever retaining walls are designed according to
in wall segment, mm2 as calculated by Eq. 414-8 flexural design provisions of Section 410 with minimum
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral horizontal reinforcement according to Section 414.4.3.
axis, mm
d = distance of extreme compression fiber to centroid
of longitudinal tension reinforcement, mm 414.3 General
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa
f’ c = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa 414.3.1 Walls shall be designed for eccentric loads and any
fy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed lateral or other loads to which they are subjected.
reinforcement, MPa
h = overall thickness of member, mm 414.3.2 Walls subject to axial loads shall be designed in
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed accordance with Sections 414.3, 414.4 and either Sections
to concrete, mm4 414.5, 414.6 or 414.9.
Ie = effective moment of inertia for computation of
deflection, mm4 414.3.3 Design for shear shall be in accordance with Section
k = effective length factor 411.11.
lc = vertical distance between supports, mm
lw = horizontal length of wall, mm 414.3.4 Unless demonstrated by a detailed analysis,
M = maximum unfactored moment due to service loads, horizontal length of wall to be considered as effective for
including P effects each concentrated load shall not exceed center-to-center
Ma = maximum moment in member at stage deflection is distance between loads, nor width of bearing plus four times
computed the wall thickness.
Mcr = moment causing flexural cracking due to applied
lateral and vertical loads 414.3.5 Compression members built integrally with walls
Mn = nominal moment strength at section shall conform to Section 410.9.2.
Msa = maximum unfactored applied moment due to
service loads, not including P effects 414.3.6 Walls shall be anchored to intersecting elements
Mu = factored moment at section including P effects such as floors or roofs; or to columns, pilasters, buttresses,
Mua = moment at the midheight section of the wall due to and intersecting walls; and to footings.
factored lateral and eccentric vertical loads
n = modular ratio of elasticity, but not less than 6 414.3.7 Quantity of reinforcement and limits of thickness
= Es/Ec required by Sections 414.4 and 414.6 shall be permitted to
Pn = nominal axial load strength of wall designed by be waived where structural analysis shows adequate strength
Section 414.5 and stability.
Ps = unfactored axial load at the design (midheight)
section including effects of self-weight 414.3.8 Transfer of force to footing at base of wall shall be
Pu = factored axial load in accordance with Section 415.9.
s = maximum deflection at or near midheight due to
service loads, mm
414.4 Minimum Reinforcement
u = deflection at midheight of wall due to factored
loads, mm
414.4.1 Minimum vertical and horizontal reinforcement
 =strength-reduction factor. See Section 409.4
shall be in accordance with Sections 414.4.2 and 414.4.3
 =ratio of tension reinforcement unless a greater amount is required for shear by Sections
 = s/(lwd) 411.11.8 and 411.11.9.
th
414.4.2 Minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement area to 414.5 Walls Design as Compression Members
gross concrete area, ρl, shall be: Except as provided in Section 414.6, walls subject to axial
1. 0.0012 for deformed bars not larger than ɸ16 mm with load or combined flexure and axial load shall be designed as
a specified yield strength not less than 415 MPa; or compression members in accordance with provisions of
Sections 410.3, 410.4, 410.11, 410.15, 410.18, 414.3 and
2. 0.0015 for other deformed bars; or 414.4.
3. 0.0012 for welded wire reinforcement (plain or
deformed) not larger than MW200 or MD200 414.6 Empirical Design Method
414.4.3 Minimum ratio of horizontal reinforcement area to 414.6.1 Walls of solid rectangular cross section shall be
gross concrete are, ρt, shall be: permitted to be designed by the empirical provisions of
1. 0.0020 for deformed bars not larger than 16 mm Section 414.6 if resultant of all factored loads is located
diameter with a specified yield strength not less than within the middle third of the overall thickness of wall and
415 MPa; or all limits of Sections 414.3, 414.4 and 414.6 are satisfied.
2. 0.0025 for other deformed bars; or 414.6.2 Design axial strength Pn of a wall satisfying
3. 0.0020 for welded wire reinforcement (plain or limitations of Section 414.6.1 shall be computed by Eq.
deformed) not larger than MW200 or MD200. 414-1 unless designed in accordance with Section 414.5.
  kl c    (414-1)
2
414.4.4 Walls more than 250 mm thick, except basement  Pn  0 . 55  f 'c A g 1    

walls, shall have reinforcement for each direction placed in   32 h  
two layers parallel with faces of wall in accordance with the
following: where  shall correspond to compression-controlled sections
1. One layer consisting of not less than one half and not in accordance with Section 409.4.2.2 and effective length
more than two-thirds of total reinforcement required for factor k shall be:
each direction shall be placed not less than 50 mm or
more than one-third the thickness of wall from exterior For walls braced top and bottom against lateral translation
surface. and
2. The other layer, consisting of the balance of required 1. Restrained against rotation at one or both ends
reinforcement in that direction, shall be placed not less (top, bottom, or both) . . . . .. . . . . . . . 0.8
than 20 mm or more than one-third the thickness of 2. Unrestrained against rotation at both ends . . 1.0
wall from interior surface.
For walls not braced against lateral translation . . . 2.0
414.4.5 Vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall not be
spaced farther apart than three times the wall thickness, nor 414.6.3 Minimum Thickness of Walls Designed by
farther apart than 450 mm. Empirical Design Method
414.6.3.1 Thickness of bearing walls shall not be less than

414.4.6 Vertical reinforcement need not be enclosed by 1/25 the supported height or length, whichever is shorter,
lateral ties if vertical reinforcement area is not greater than nor less than 100 mm.
0.01 times gross concrete area, or where vertical
reinforcement is not required as compression reinforcement. 414.6.3.2 Thickness of exterior basement walls and
foundation walls shall not be less than 190 mm.
414.3.7 In addition to the minimum reinforcement required
by Section 414.4.1, not less than two ɸ16 mm bars in walls
having two layers of reinforcement in both directions and 414.7 Non-Bearing Walls
one ɸ16 mm bar in walls having a single layer of
reinforcement in both direction shall be provided around 414.7.1 Thickness of nonbearing walls shall not be less than
window, door, and similar sized openings. Such bars shall 100 mm, or not less than 1/30 the least distance between
be anchored to develop fy in tension at the corners of the members that provide lateral support.
openings.

414.8 Walls as Grade Beams where:

M = Mua + Puu (414-4)
414.8.1 Walls designed as grade beams shall have top and
bottom reinforcement as required for moment in accordance
with provisions of Sections 410.3 through 410.8. Design for Mua is the maximum factored moment at the midheight
shear shall be in accordance with provisions of Section 411. section of the wall due to lateral and eccentric vertical loads,
not including Peffects and u is:
414.8.2 Portions of grade beam walls exposed above grade 2
5 M u lc
shall also meet requirements of Section 414.4. u  (414-5)
( 0 .75 ) 48 E c I cr
414.9 Alternate Design of Slender Walls
Mu shall be obtained by iteration of deflections, or by direct
calculation using Eq. 414-6.
414.9.1 When flexural tension controls the out-of-plane
design of a wall, the requirements of Section 414.9 are M ua (414-6)
considered to satisfy Section 410.11. Mu  2
5 Pu l c
1
( 0 . 75 ) 48 E c I cr
414.9.2 Walls designed by the provisions of Section 414.9
shall satisfy Sections 414.9.2.1 through 414.9.2.6. where:
414.9.2.1 The wall panel shall be designed as a simply Es Ph l c3

( Ase  u d  c   w (414-7)
2
supported, axially loaded member subjected to an out-of-
I cr 
Ec f y 2d 3
plane uniform lateral load, with maximum moments and
deflections occurring at midspan.
and the value of Es/Ec shall not be taken less than 6.
414.9.2.2 The cross section shall be constant over the
height of the panel.
414.8.4 The maximum deflection s, due to service loads,
The wall shall be tension-controlled. including P effects, shall not exceed lc/150.
414.9.2.4 Reinforcement shall provide a design strength If Ma, maximum moment at midheight of wall due to service
loads, including Peffects, exceeds (2/3) Mcr, Δs shall be
Mn  Mcr (414-2) calculated by Eq. 414-8
( M a  2 / 3 M cr )
where Mcr shall be obtained using the modulus of rupture, fr,  s  2 / 3 cr (  n  2 / 3 cr ) (414-8)
given by Eq. 409-9. ( M n  2 / 3 M cr
414.9.2.5 Concentrated gravity loads applied to the wall If Ma does not exceed (2/3) Mcr, Δs shall be calculated by
above the design flexural section shall be assumed to be Eq. 414-10
distributed over a width: Ma
s   cr (414-9)
1. Equal to the bearing width, plus a width on each side M cr
that increases at a slope of 2 vertical to 1 horizontal where:
down to the design section; but 2
5 M cr lc
2. Not greater than the spacing of the concentrated loads;  cr  (414-10)
48 E c I g
and
2
5 M n lc
3. Does not extend beyond the edges of the wall panel. n  (414-11)
48 Ec I cr
414.9.2.6 Vertical stresses Pu/Ag at the midheight section
shall not exceed 0.06f’c. Icr shall be calculated by Eq. 414-7 and Ma shall be obtained
by iteration of deflections.
414.9.3 The design moment strength Mn for combined
flexure and axial loads at the midheight shall be
Mn  Mu (414-3)
th
415.5.2 Maximum factored moment for an isolated footing

shall be computed as prescribed in Section 415.4.1 at critical
SECTION 415 sections located as follows:
FOOTINGS 1. At face of column, pedestal, or wall, for footings
supporting a concrete column, pedestal, or wall;
415.1 Notations 2. Halfway between middle and edge of wall, for footings
Ag = gross area of section, mm2 supporting a masonry wall;
dp = diameter of pile at footing base, mm 3. Halfway between face of column and edge of steel base
 ratio of long side to short side of footing plate, for footings supporting a column with steel base
plate.
415.2 Scope
415.5.3 In one-way footings and two-way square footings,
415.2.1 Provisions of Section 415 shall apply for design of reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly across entire
isolated footings and, where applicable, to combined width of footing.
footings and mats.
415.5.4 In two-way rectangular footings, reinforcement
415.2.2 Additional requirements for design of combined shall be distributed as follows:
footings and mats are given in Section 415.11.
415.5.4.1 Reinforcement in long direction shall be
distributed uniformly across entire width of footing.
415.3 Loads and Reactions
415.5.4.2 For reinforcement in short direction, a portion of
415.3.1 Footings shall be proportioned to resist the factored the total reinforcement γsAs given by Eq. 415-1 shall be
loads and induced reactions, in accordance with the distributed uniformly over a band width (centered on
appropriate design requirements of this code and as centerline of column or pedestal) equal to the length of short
provided in this section. side of footing. Remainder of reinforcement required
in short direction, (1 – γs)As, shall be distributed
415.3.2 Base area of footing or number and arrangement of uniformly outside center band width of footing.
piles shall be determined from unfactored forces and
moments transmitted by footing to soil or piles and Reinforcement in
permissible soil pressure or permissible pile capacity γs A s = band width = 2 (415-1)
selected through principles of soil mechanics.
Total Reinforcement (β+ 1)
415.3.3 For footings on piles, computations for moments in short direction
and shears may be based on the assumption that the reaction
from any pile is concentrated at pile center. where β is ratio of long to short sides of footing.
415.4 Footings Supporting Circular or Regular Polygon- 415.6 Shear in Footings

Shaped Columns or Pedestals
For location of critical sections for moment, shear and 415.6.1 Shear strength in footings shall be in accordance
development of reinforcement in footings, it shall be with Section 411.13.
permitted to treat circular or regular polygon-shaped
concrete columns or pedestals as square members with the 415.6.2 Location of critical section for shear in accordance
same area. with Section 411 shall be measured from face of column,
pedestal or wall, for footings supporting a column, pedestal
or wall. For footings supporting a column or pedestal with
415.5 Moment in Footings steel base plates, the critical section shall be measured from
location defined in Section 415.5.2, Item 3.
415.5.1 External moment on any section of a footing shall
be determined by passing a vertical plane through the 415.6.3 Where the distance between the axis of any pile to
footing and computing the moment of the forces acting over the axis of the column is more than two times the distance
the entire area of footing on one side of that vertical plane. between the top of the pile cap and the top of the pile, the
pile cap shall satisfy Sections 411.13 and 415.6.4. Other pile
caps shall satisfy either Section 427, or both Sections

411.13 and 415.6.4. If Section 427 is used, the effective bearing strength for either surface as given by Section
concrete compression strength of the struts, fce, shall be 410.18.
determined using Section 427.3.2.2, Item 2.
415.9.1.2 Reinforcement, dowels, or mechanical connectors
415.6.4 Computation of shear on any section through a between supported and supporting members shall be
footing supported on piles shall be in accordance with adequate to transfer:
Sections 415.6.4.1, 415.6.4.2, and 415.6.4.3: 1. All compressive force that exceeds concrete bearing
strength of either member; and
415.6.4.1 Entire reaction from any pile whose center is
located dpile/2 or more outside the section shall be 2. Any computed tensile force across interface.
considered as producing shear on that section.
In addition, reinforcement, dowels or mechanical
415.6.4.2 Reaction from any pile whose center is located connectors shall satisfy Section 415.9.2 or 415.9.3.
dpile/2 or more inside the section shall be considered as
producing no shear in that section. 415.9.1.3 If calculated moments are transferred to
supporting pedestal or footing, reinforcement, dowels or
415.6.4.3 For intermediate positions of pile center, the mechanical connectors shall be adequate to satisfy Section
portion of the pile reaction to be considered as producing 412.18.
shear on the section shall be based on straight-line
interpolation between full value at dpile/2 outside the section 415.9.1.4 Lateral forces shall be transferred to supporting
and zero value at dpile/2 inside the section. pedestal or footing in accordance with shear-friction
provisions of Section 411.8 or by other appropriate means.
415.7 Development of Reinforcement in Footings 415.9.2 In cast-in-place construction, reinforcement
required to satisfy Section 415.9.1 shall be provided either
415.7.1 Development of reinforcement in footings shall be by extending longitudinal bars into supporting pedestal or
in accordance with Section 412. footing, or by dowels.
415.7.2 Calculated tension or compression in reinforcement 415.9.2.1 For cast-in-place columns and pedestals, area of
at each section shall be developed on each side of that reinforcement across interface shall not be less than
section by embedment length, hook tension only or 0.005Ag, where Ag is the gross area of supported member.
mechanical device, or combinations thereof.
415.9.2.2 For cast-in-place walls, area of reinforcement
415.7.3 Critical sections for development of reinforcement across interface shall not be less than minimum vertical
shall be assumed at the same locations as defined in Section reinforcement given in Section 414.4.2.
415.5.2 for maximum factored moment, and at all other
vertical planes where changes of section or reinforcement 415.9.2.3 At footings, ɸ42 mm and ɸ58 mm longitudinal
occur. See also Section 412.11.6.
bars, in compression only, may be lap spliced with dowels
to provide reinforcement required to satisfy Section 415.9.1.
415.8 Minimum Footing Depth Dowels shall not be larger than ɸ32 mm bar and shall
Depth of footing above bottom reinforcement shall not be extend into supported member a distance not less than the
less than 150 mm for footings on soil, or not less than 300 larger of ldc, of ɸ42 mm or ɸ58 mm bars or the splice length
mm for footings on piles. of the dowels, whichever is greater, and into the footing a
distance not less than the development length, ldc of the
dowels.
415.9 Transfer of Force at Base of Column, Wall or
Reinforcement Pedestal 415.9.2.4 If a pinned or rocker connection is provided in
cast-in-place construction, connection shall conform to
415.9.1 Forces and moments at base of column, wall, or Sections 415.9.1 and 415.9.3.
pedestal shall be transferred to supporting pedestal or
footing by bearing on concrete and by reinforcement, 415.9.3 In precast construction, anchor bolts or suitable
dowels, and mechanical connectors. mechanical connectors shall be permitted for satisfying
Section 415.9.1. Anchor bolts shall be designed in
415.9.1.1 Bearing on concrete at contact surface between accordance with Section 423.
supported and supporting member shall not exceed concrete
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415.9.3.1 Connection between precast columns or pedestals

and supporting members shall meet the requirements of
Section 416.6.1.3, Item 1. SECTION 416
PRECAST CONCRETE
415.9.3.2 Connection between precast walls and supporting
members shall meet the requirements of Section 416.6.1.3,
Items 2 and 3. 416.1 Notations
Ag = gross area of column, mm2
415.9.3.3 Anchor bolts and mechanical connectors shall be l = clear span, mm
designed to reach their design strength prior to anchorage
failure or failure of surrounding concrete. Anchor bolts shall
416.2 Scope
be designed in accordance with Section 423.
416.2.1 All provisions of this code not specifically excluded
415.10 Sloped or Stepped Footings
and not in conflict with the provisions of Section 416, shall
apply to structures incorporating precast concrete structural
415.10.1 In sloped or stepped footings, angle of slope or
members.
depth and location of steps shall be such that design
requirements are satisfied at every section. (See also Section
412.11.6). 416.3 General
415.10.2 Sloped or stepped footings designed as a unit shall 416.3.1 Design of precast members and connections shall
be constructed to ensure action as a unit. include loading and restraint conditions from initial
fabrication to end use in the structure, including form
removal, storage, transportation and erection.
415.11 Combined Footings and Mats
416.3.2 When precast members are incorporated into a
415.11.1 Footings supporting more than one column,
structural system, the forces and deformations occurring in
pedestal, or wall (combined footings or mats) shall be
and adjacent to connections shall be included in the design.
proportioned to resist the factored loads and induced
reactions, in accordance with appropriate design
416.3.3 Tolerances for both precast members and
requirements of this code.
interfacing members shall be specified. Design of precast
members and connections shall include the effects of these
415.11.2 The Direct Design Method of Section 413 shall
tolerances.
not be used for design of combined footings and mats.
416.3.4 In addition to the standard requirements for
415.11.3 Distribution of soil pressure under combined
drawings and specifications in Section 106.3.2, (1) and (2):,
footings and mats shall be consistent with properties of the
the following shall be included in either the contract
soil and the structure and with established principles of soil
documents or shop drawings:
mechanics.
1. Details of reinforcement, inserts and lifting devices
415.11.4 Minimum reinforcing steel in nonprestressed mat required to resist temporary loads from handling,
foundations shall meet the requirements of Section 407.13.2 storage, transportation and erection;
in each principal direction. Maximum spacing shall not
2. Required concrete strength at stated ages or stages of
exceed 450 mm.
construction.
415.12 Plain Concrete Pedestals and Footings

416.4 Distribution of Forces among Members
See Section 422.
416.4.1 Distribution of forces that are perpendicular to the
plane of members shall be established by analysis or by test.
416.4.2 Where the system behavior requires in-plane forces

to be transferred between the members of a precast floor or
wall system, the following shall apply:

416.4.2.1 In-plane force paths shall be continuous through 2. Precast wall panels shall have a minimum of two ties
both connections and members. per panel, with a nominal tensile strength not less than
44 kN per tie;
416.4.2.2 Where tension forces occur, a continuous path of
3. When design forces result in no tension at the base, the
steel or steel reinforcement shall be provided.
ties required by Section 416.6.1.3, Item 2, shall be
permitted to be anchored into an appropriately
416.5 Member Design reinforced concrete floor slab on grade.
416.6.1.4 Connection details that rely solely on friction
416.5.1 In one-way precast floor and roof slabs and in one- caused by gravity loads shall not be used.
way precast, prestressed wall panels, all not wider than 3.7
m, and where members are not mechanically connected to 416.6.2 For precast concrete bearing wall structures three or
cause restraint in the transverse direction, the shrinkage and more stories in height, the following minimum provisions
temperature reinforcement requirements of Section 407.13 shall apply:
in the direction normal to the flexural reinforcement shall be 416.6.2.1 Longitudinal and transverse ties shall be provided
permitted to be waived. This waiver shall not apply to in floor and roof systems to provide a nominal strength of
members which require reinforcement to resist transverse 22 kN/m of width or length. Ties shall be provided over
flexural stresses.
interior wall supports and between members and exterior
walls. Ties shall be positioned in or within 600 mm of the
416.5.2 For precast, nonprestressed walls the reinforcement plane of the floor or roof system.
shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of
Sections 410 or 414, except that the area of horizontal and 416.6.2.2 Longitudinal ties parallel to floor or roof slab
vertical reinforcement shall each be not less than 0.001Ag, spans shall be spaced not more than 3 m on centers.
where Ag is the gross cross-sectional area of the wall panel. Provisions shall be made to transfer forces around openings.
Spacing of reinforcement shall not exceed 5 times the wall
416.6.2.3 Transverse ties perpendicular to floor or roof slab
thickness nor 750 mm for interior walls or 450 mm for spans shall be spaced not greater than the bearing wall
exterior walls. spacing.
416.6.2.4 Ties around the perimeter of each floor and roof,
416.6 Structural Integrity within 1.2 m of the edge, shall provide a nominal strength in
tension not less than 70 kN.
416.6.1 Except where the provisions of Section 416.6.2
govern, the minimum provisions of Sections 416.6.1.1 416.6.2.5 Vertical tension ties shall be provided in all walls
through 416.6.1.4 for structural integrity shall apply to all and shall be continuous over the height of the building.
precast concrete structures: They shall provide a nominal tensile strength not less than
44 kN per horizontal meter of wall. Not less than two ties
416.6.1.1 Longitudinal and transverse ties required by shall be provided for each precast panel.
Section 407.14.3 shall connect members to a lateral load
resisting system. 416.7 Connection and Bearing Design
416.6.1.2 Where precast elements form floor or roof 416.7.1 Forces shall be permitted to be transferred between
diaphragms, the connections between diaphragm and those members by grouted joints, shear keys, mechanical
members being laterally supported shall have a nominal connectors, reinforcing steel connections, reinforced topping
tensile strength capable of resisting not less than 4.4 kN/m. or a combination of these means.
416.6.1.3 Vertical tension tie requirements of Section 416.7.1.1 The adequacy of connections to transfer forces
407.14.3 shall apply to all vertical structural members, between members shall be determined by analysis or by test.
except cladding, and shall be achieved by providing Where shear is the primary result of imposed loading, it
connections at horizontal joints in accordance with the shall be permitted to use the provisions of Section 411.8 as
following: applicable.
1. Precast columns shall have a nominal strength in
tension not less than 1.4Ag, in N. For columns with a 416.7.1.2 When designing a connection using materials with
larger cross section than required by consideration of different structural properties, their relative stiffnesses,
loading, a reduced effective area Ag, based on cross strengths and ductilities shall be considered.
section required but not less than one-half the total area,
shall be permitted;
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416.7.2 Bearing for precast floor and roof members on

simple supports shall satisfy the following:
416.9 Marking and Identification
416.7.2.1 The allowable bearing stress at the contact surface
between supported and supporting members and between 416.9.1 Each precast member shall be marked to indicate
any intermediate bearing elements shall not exceed the its location and orientation in the structure and date of
bearing strength for both surface and the bearing element. manufacture.
Concrete bearing strength shall be as given in Section
410.18. 416.9.2 Identification marks shall correspond to placing
drawings.
416.7.2.2 Unless shown by test or analysis that performance
will not be impaired, the following minimum requirements 416.10 Handling
shall be met:
1. Each member and its supporting system shall have 416.10.1 Member design shall consider forces and
design dimensions selected so that, after consideration distortions during curing, stripping, storage, transportation
of tolerances, the distance from the edge of the support and erection so that precast members are not overstressed or
to the end of the precast member in the direction of the otherwise damaged.
span is at least 1/180 of the clear span, l, but not less
than: 416.10.2 During erection, precast members and structures
shall be adequately supported and braced to ensure proper
For solid or hollow-core slabs…… . . . . . . . . . . 50 mm alignment and structural integrity until permanent
For beams or stemmed members ……. . . . . . . . 75 mm connections are completed.
2. Bearing pads at unarmored edges shall be set back a
416.11 Strength Evaluation of Precast Construction
minimum of 13 mm from the face of the support, or at
least the chamfer dimension at chamfered edges.
416.11.1 A precast element to be made composite with cast-
in-place concrete shall be permitted to be tested in flexure as
416.7.2.3 The requirements of Section 412.12.1 shall not a precast element alone in accordance with the following:
apply to the positive bending moment reinforcement for
statically determinate precast members, but at least one-
416.11.1.1 Test loads shall be applied only when
third of such reinforcement shall extend to the center of the
calculations indicate the isolated precast element will not be
bearing length.
critical in compression or buckling.
416.8 Items Embedded After Concrete Placement 416.11.1.2 The test load shall be that load which, when
applied to the precast member alone, induces the same total
416.8.1 When approved by the engineer, embedded items force in the tension reinforcement as would be induced by
such as dowels or inserts that either protrude from the loading the composite member with the test load required by
concrete or remain exposed for inspection shall be permitted Section 420.4.2.
to be embedded while the concrete is in a plastic state
provided that: 416.11.2 The provisions of Section 420.6 shall be the basis
for acceptance or rejection of the precast element.
416.8.1.1 Embedded items are not required to be hooked or
tied to reinforcement within the concrete.
416.8.1.2 Embedded items are maintained in the correct

position while the concrete remains plastic.
416.8.1.3 The concrete is properly consolidated around the

embedded item.

417.3.4 In strength computations of composite members, no

distinction shall be made between shored and unshored
SECTION 417 COMPOSITE members.
CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS
417.3.5 All elements shall be designed to support all loads
introduced prior to full development of design strength of
417.1 Notations composite members.
Ac = area of contact surface being investigated for
horizontal shear, mm2 417.3.6 Reinforcement shall be provided as required to
Av = area of ties within a distance s, mm2 control cracking and to prevent separation of individual
bv = width of cross section at contact surface being elements of composite members.
investigated for horizontal shear, mm
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to 417.3.7 Composite members shall meet requirements for
centroid of tension reinforcement for entire control of deflections in accordance with Section 409.6.5.
composite section, mm
h = overall thickness of composite members, mm
417.4 Shoring
s = spacing of ties measured along the longitudinal
axis of the member, mm When used, shoring shall not be removed until supported
Vnh = nominal horizontal shear strength elements have developed design properties required to
Vu = factored shear force at section support all loads and limit deflections and cracking at time
 = correction factor related to unit weight of concrete of shoring removal.
v = ratio of tie reinforcement area to area of contact
surface 417.5 Vertical Shear Strength
v = Av
bv s 417.5.1 When an entire composite member is assumed to
 = strength-reduction factor. See Section 409.4 resist vertical shear, design shall be in accordance with
requirements of Section 411 as for a monolithically cast
member of the same cross-sectional shape.
417.2 Scope
417.5.2 Shear reinforcement shall be fully anchored into
417.2.1 Provisions of Section 417 shall apply for design of interconnected elements in accordance with Section 412.14.
composite concrete flexural members defined as precast or
cast-in-place concrete elements or both constructed in 417.5.3 Extended and anchored shear reinforcement shall
separate placements but so interconnected that all elements be permitted to be included as ties for horizontal shear.
respond to loads as a unit.
417.2.2 All provisions of this code shall apply to composite 417.6 Horizontal Shear Strength
concrete flexural members, except as specifically modified
in this Section. 417.6.1 In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal
shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of
interconnected elements.
417.3 General
417.6.2 For the provisions of 417.6, d shall be taken as the
417.3.1 The use of an entire composite member or portions distance from extreme compression fiber for entire
thereof for resisting shear and moment shall be permitted. composite section to centroid of prestressed and
nonprestressed longitudinal tension reinforcement, if any,
417.3.2 Individual elements shall be investigated for all but need not be taken less than 0.80h for prestressed
critical stages of loading. concrete members.
417.3.3 If the specified strength, unit weight or other
properties of the various elements are different, properties of
the individual elements or the most critical values shall be
used in design.
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417.6.3 Unless calculated in accordance with Section 417.7 Ties for Horizontal Shear
417.6.4, design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear
shall be based on 417.7.1 When ties are provided to transfer horizontal shear,
tie area shall not be less than that required by Section
Vu ≤ Vnh (417-1)
411.6.5.3 and tie spacing shall not exceed four times the
where Vu is factored shear force at section considered and least dimension of supported element, or 600 mm.
Vnh is nominal horizontal shear strength in accordance with
the following: 417.7.2 Ties for horizontal shear shall consist of single bars
or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded wire
417.6.3.1 Where contact surfaces are clear, free of laitance fabric (plain or deformed).
and intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh shall not be
taken greater than 0.55bvd, in newtons. 417.7.3 All ties shall be fully anchored into interconnected
elements in accordance with Section 412.14.
417.6.3.2 Where minimum ties are provided in accordance
with Section 417.7 and contact surfaces are clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh
shall not be taken greater than 0.55bvd, in newtons.
417.6.3.3 Where minimum ties are provided in accordance

with Section 417.7 and contact surfaces are clean, free of
laitance, and intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of
approximately 5 mm, shear strength Vnh shall be taken equal
to (1.8 + 0.6vfy)bvd in newtons, but not greater than
3.5bvd, in newtons. Values for in Section 411.8.4.3 shall
apply, and v is Av/(bvs).
417.6.3.4 Where factored shear force Vu at section

considered exceeds 3.5bvd, design for horizontal shear
shall be in accordance with Section 411.8.4.
417.6.3.5 Where determining nominal horizontal shear

strength over prestressed concrete elements, d shall be as
defined or 0.8h, whichever is greater.
417.6.4 As an alternative to Section 417.6.3, horizontal

shear shall be permitted to be determined by computing the
actual change in compressive or tensile force in any
segment, and provisions shall be made to transfer that force
as horizontal shear to the supporting element. The factored
horizontal shear force shall not exceed horizontal shear
strength Vnh as given in Sections 417.6.3.1 through
417.6.3.4 where area of contact surface Ac shall be
substituted for bvd.
417.6.4.1 When ties provided to resist horizontal shear are

designed to satisfy Section 417.6.3, the tie-area-to-tie-
spacing ratio along the member shall approximately reflect
the distribution of shear forces in the member.
417.6.5 Where tension exists across any contact surface

between interconnected elements, shear transfer by contact
may be assumed only when minimum ties are provided in

Nc = tensile force in concrete due to unfactored dead

load plus live load (D + L)
SECTION 418 Ps = prestressing tendon force at jacking end
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE Px = prestressing tendon force at any point x
Psu = factored post-tensioned tendon force at the
anchorage device
418.1 Notations  = total angular change of prestressing tendon profile
A = area of that part of cross section between flexural in radians from tendon jacking end to any point x
tension face and center of gravity of gross section,  = factor defined in Section 410.3.7.3
mm2 p = factor for type of prestressing tendon.
Acf = larger gross cross-sectional area of the slab-beam = 0.55 for fpy/fpu not less than 0.80
strips of the two orthogonal equivalent frames = 0.40 for fpy/fpu not less than 0.85
intersecting at a column of a two-way slab, mm2 = 0.28 for fpy/fpu not less than 0.90
Aps = area of prestressed reinforcement in tension zone,  = correction factor related to unit weight of concrete
mm2 (See Section 411.8.4.3)
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, mm2   curvature friction coefficient
As’ = area of compression reinforcement, mm2   ratio of nonprestressed tension reinforcement
b = width of compression face of member, mm = As/(bd)
D = dead loads or related internal moments and forces ' = ratio of compression reinforcement
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to = As’/(bd)
centroid of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, p  ratio of prestressed reinforcement
mm = Aps/(bdp)
d' = distance from extreme compression fiber to  strength-reduction factor. See Section 409.4
centroid of compression reinforcement, mm
 fy/f’c
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to
’ ' fy/f’c
centroid of prestressed reinforcement, mm
e = base of Napierian logarithms p p fps/f’c
f’c = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa w, pw, ’w = reinforcement indices for flanged sections
computed as for , p, and ' except that b shall
fc' = square root of specified compressive strength of
be the web width, and reinforcement area shall be
concrete, MPa that required to develop compressive strength of
f’ci = compressive strength of concrete at time of initial web only
prestress, MPa
fpc = average compressive stress in concrete due to
effective prestress force only (after allowance for 418.2 Scope
all prestress losses), MPa
fps = stress in prestressed reinforcement at nominal 418.2.1 Provisions of this Section shall apply to members
strength, MPa prestressed with wire, strands or bars conforming to
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing tendons, provisions for prestressing tendons in Section 403.6.6.
MPa
fpy = specified yield strength of prestressing tendons, 418.2.2 All provisions of this code not specifically
MPa excluded, and not in conflict with provisions of this Section,
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete, MPa shall apply to prestressed concrete.
fse = effective stress in prestressed reinforcement (after
allowance for all prestress losses), MPa 418.2.3 The following provisions of this code shall not
fy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed apply to prestressed concrete, except as specifically noted:
reinforcement, MPa Sections 407.7.5, 408.5, 408.11.2 through 408.11.4, 408.12,
h = overall dimension of member in direction of action 410.4.2 and 410.4.3, 410.6, 410.7, 410.10.1, 410.10.2, 413,
considered, mm 414.4, 414.6 and 414.7.
K = wobble friction coefficient per mm of prestressing
tendon
lx = length of prestressing tendon element from jacking
end to any point x, m. See Eqs. 418-1 and 418-2
L = live loads or related internal moments and forces
n = number of monostrand anchorage devices in a
group
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418.4.3 Prestressed flexural members shall be classified as

418.3 General
Class U, Class T, or Class C based on ft, the computed
extreme fiber stress in tension in the pre-compressed tensile
418.3.1 Prestressed members shall meet the strength zone calculated at service loads, as follows:
requirements specified in this code.
1. Class U: ft ≤ 0.62 fc' .
418.3.2 Design of prestressed members shall be based on
strength and on behavior at service conditions at all stages 2. Class T: 0.62 fc' < ft ≤ 1.0 fc'
that may be critical during the life of the structure from the
time prestress is first applied. 3. Class C: ft > 1.0 fc'
418.3.3 Stress concentrations due to prestressing shall be Prestressed two-way slab systems shall be designed as Class
considered in design. U with ft ≤ 0.50 fc' .
418.3.4 Provisions shall be made for effects on adjoining
construction of elastic and plastic deformations, deflections, The serviceability requirements for each class are
changes in length and rotations due to prestressing. Effects summarized in Table 418-2. For comparison, Table 418-2
of temperature and shrinkage shall also be included. also shows corresponding requirements for nonprestressed
members.
418.3.5 Possibility of buckling in a member between points
where concrete and prestressing tendons are in contact and 418.4.4 For Class U and Class T flexural members, stresses
of buckling in thin webs and flanges shall be considered. at service loads shall be permitted to be calculated using the
uncracked section. For Class C flexural members, stresses at
418.3.6 In computing section properties prior to bonding of service loads shall be calculated using the cracked
prestressing tendons, effect of loss of area due to open ducts transformed section.
shall be considered.
418.4.5 Deflections of prestressed flexural members shall be
418.3.7 The serviceability requirements for each class are calculated in accordance with Section 409.6.
summarized in Table 418-1. For comparison, Table 418-1
also shows corresponding requirements for nonprestressed
members. 418.5 Permissible Stresses in Concrete – Flexural
Members
418.4 Design Assumptions 418.5.1 Stresses in concrete immediately after prestress

transfer (before time-dependent prestress losses):
418.4.1 Strength design of prestressed members for flexure
and axial loads shall be based on assumptions given in 1. Extreme fiber stress in compression except as
Section 410.3, except that Section 410.3.4 shall apply only permitted in (2) shall not exceed . . . . . . . . . . 0.60 f’ci
to reinforcement conforming to Section 403.6.3. 2. Extreme fiber stress in compression at ends of simply
supported members shall not exceed . . . . . . . 0.70 fci′
418.4.2 For investigation of stresses at transfer of prestress,
at service loads, and at cracking loads, straight-line theory 3. Where computed concrete tensile strength, ft , exceeds
shall be used with the following assumptions: 0.5 fc'i at ends of simply supported members, or
418.4.2.1 Strains vary linearly with depth through entire 0.25 fc'i at other locations, additional bonded
load range. reinforcement shall be provided in the tensile zone to
resist the total tensile force in concrete computed with
418.4.2.2 At cracked sections, concrete resists no tension. the assumption of an uncracked section.

418.5.2 For Class U and Class T prestressed flexural 418.5.4.4 Where h of a beam exceeds 900 mm, the area of
members, stresses in concrete at service loads (based on longitudinal skin reinforcement consisting of reinforcement
uncracked section properties, and after allowance for all or bonded tendons shall be provided as required by Section
prestress losses) shall not exceed the following: 410.7.7.
1. Extreme fiber stress in compression due to prestress
plus sustained loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …. 0.45f’c 418.6 Permissible Stress in Prestressing Tendons
2. Extreme fiber stress in compression due to prestress
plus total load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ….0.60f’c 418.6.1 Tensile stress in prestressing tendons shall not
exceed the following:
3. Extreme fiber stress in tension in precompressed tensile
1. Due to prestressing tendon jacking force . . . . . 0.94fpy
zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.50√ ′
but not greater than the lesser of 0.80 fpu and the
4. Extreme fiber stress in tension in precompressed tensile
maximum value recommended by manufacturer of
zone of members (except two-way slab systems), where
prestressing tendons or anchorage devices.
analysis based on transformed cracked sections and on
bilinear moment-deflection relationships show that 2. Immediately after prestress transfer . . . .. . . . . . 0.82 fpy
immediate and long time deflections comply with but not greater than . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.74 fpu
requirements of Section 409.6.4, and where cover
3. Post-tensioning tendons, at anchorage devices
requirements comply with Section 407.8.3.2 . . 1.0√ ′
and couplers, immediately after force transfer . . .70fpu
418.5.3 Permissible stresses in concrete of Sections 418.5.1
and 418.5.2 may be exceeded if shown by test or analysis
418.7 Loss of Prestress
that performance will not be impaired.
418.7.1 To determine effective prestress fse, allowance for
418.5.4 For Class C prestressed flexural members not
the following sources of loss of prestress shall be
subject to fatigue or to aggressive exposure, the spacing of considered:
bonded reinforcement nearest the extreme tension face shall
not exceed that given by Section 410.7.4 1. Tendon seating at transfer;
2. Elastic shortening of concrete;
For structures subject to fatigue or exposed to corrosive
environments, investigations and precautions are required. 3. Creep of concrete;
4. Shrinkage of concrete;
418.5.4.1 The spacing requirements shall be met by
nonprestressed reinforcement and bonded tendons. The 5. Relaxation of tendon stress;
spacing of bonded tendons shall not exceed 2/3 of the 6. Friction loss due to intended or unintended curvature
maximum spacing permitted for nonprestressed in post-tensioning tendons.
reinforcement.
Where both reinforcement and bonded tendons are used to 418.7.2 Friction Loss in Post-Tensioning Tendons
meet the spacing requirement, the spacing between a bar
418.7.2.1 Ppx force in post-tensioning tendons a distance lpx
and a tendon shall not exceed 5/6 of that permitted by
from the jacking end shall be computed by:
Section 410.7.4. See also Section 418.5.4.3.
 ( Kl   p )
418.5.4.2 In applying Eq. 10-4 to prestressing tendons, Δfps P px  P pj e px px
8-1)
shall be substituted for fs, where Δfps shall be taken as the
calculated stress in the prestressing steel at service loads
based on a cracked section analysis minus the When (Klpx+ppx) is not greater than 0.3, Ppx shall be
decompression stress fdc. It shall be permitted to take fdc permitted to be computed by:
equal to the effective stress in the prestressing steel fse. See
Ppx = Ppj (1 + Klpx+ ppx(418-2)
also Section 418.5.4.3.
418.7.2.2 Friction loss shall be based on experimentally
418.5.4.3 In applying Eq. 10-5 to prestressing tendons, the
determined wobble K and curvature  p friction coefficients
magnitude of Δfps shall not exceed 250 MPa. When Δfps is
and shall be verified during tendon stressing operations.
less than or equal to 140 MPa, the spacing requirements of
Sections 418.5.4.1 and 418.5.4.2 shall not apply.
th
418.7.2.3 Values of K and  p coefficients used in design and to be included in moment strength computations at a
shall be shown on design drawings. stress equal to the specified yield strength fy. Other
nonprestressed reinforcement shall be permitted to be
418.7.3 Where loss of prestress in member may occur due included in strength computations only if a strain
to connection of member to adjoining construction, such compatibility analysis is made to determine stresses in such
loss of prestress shall be allowed for in design. reinforcement.
418.8 Flexural Strength 418.9 Limits for Reinforcement of Flexural Members
418.8.1 Design moment strength of flexural members shall 418.9.1 Prestressed concrete sections shall be classified as
be computed by the strength design methods of this chapter. either tension-controlled, transition, or compression-
For prestressing tendons, fps shall be substituted for fy in controlled sections, in accordance with Sections 410.3.3 and
strength computations. 410.3.4. The appropriate strength reduction factors, ϕ , from
Section 409.4 shall apply.
418.8.2 As an alternative to a more accurate determination
of fps based on strain compatibility, the following 418.9.2 Total amount l of prestressed and nonprestressed
approximate values of fps shall be permitted to be used if fse reinforcement in members with bonded prestressed
is not less than 0.5fpu. reinforcement shall be adequate to develop a factored load
1. For members with bonded tendons: at least 1.2 times the cracking load computed on the basis of
the modulus of rupture fr specified in Section 409.6.2.3.
 p  f pu d  (418-3) This provision shall be permitted to be waived for flexural
f ps  f pu  1 
  p     '  members with shear and flexural strength at least twice that
  
1  f ' c d p  
required by Section 409.3.
where ω is ρfy/fc′ , ω′ is ρ′fy/fc′, and γp is 0.55 for fpy/fpu
not less than 0.80; 0.40 for fpy/fpu not less than 0.85; and 418.9.3 Part or all of the bonded reinforcement consisting
0.28 for fpy/fpu not less than 0.90. of bars or tendons shall be provided as close as practicable
to the tension face in prestressed flexural members. In
members prestressed with unbonded tendons, the minimum
If any compression reinforcement is taken into account bonded reinforcement consisting of bars or tendons shall be
when calculating fps by Eq. 418-3, the term as required by Section 418.10.
 f pu d 
 p     ' 418.10 Minimum Bonded Reinforcement
 f ' c d p 
shall be taken not less than 0.17 and d' shall be no 418.10.1 A minimum area of bonded reinforcement shall be
greater than 0.15 dp. provided in all flexural members with unbonded
prestressing tendons as required by Sections 418.10.2 and
2. For members with unbonded tendons and with a span- 418.10.3.
to-depth ratio of 35 or less:
f 'c (418-4) 418.10.2 Except as provided in Section 418.10.3, minimum
f ps  f se  70  area of bonded reinforcement shall be computed by:
100  p
As = 0.004Act (418-6)
but fps in Eq. 418-4 shall not be taken greater than fpy,
nor greater than (fse + 415).
where Act is area of that part of cross section between the
3. For members with unbonded prestressing tendons flexural tension face and center of gravity of gross section.
and with a span-to-depth ratio greater than 35:
418.10.2.1 Bonded reinforcement required by Eq. 418-6
f 'c shall be uniformly distributed over pre-compressed tensile
f ps  f se  70  (418-5)
300p zone as close as practicable to extreme tension fiber.
but fps in Eq. 418-5 shall not be taken greater than fpy, 418.10.2.2 Bonded reinforcement shall be required
nor greater than (fse + 210). regardless of service load stress conditions.
418.8.3 Nonprestressed reinforcement conforming to 418.10.3 For two-way flat slab systems, minimum area and
Section 403.6.3, if used with prestressing tendons, shall be distribution of bonded reinforcement shall be as required in
permitted to be considered to contribute to the tensile force Sections 418.10.3.1, 418.10.3.2, and 418.10.3.3.
418.10.3.1 Bonded reinforcement shall not be required in

positive moment areas where ft, the extreme fiber stress in
tension in the pre-compressed tensile zone at service load 418.11 Statically Indeterminate Structures
(after allowance for prestress losses) does not exceed 0.17
418.11.1 Frames and continuous construction of
fci' . prestressed concrete shall be designed for satisfactory
performance at service load conditions and for adequate
418.10.3.2 In positive moment areas where computed strength.
tensile stress in concrete at service load exceeds 0.17 fci'
418.11.2 Performance at service load conditions shall be
minimum area of bonded reinforcement shall be computed
determined by elastic analysis, considering reactions,
by:
moments, shears, and axial forces produced by prestressing,
Nc creep, shrinkage, temperature change, axial deformation,
As  (418-7)
0 .5 f y restraint of attached structural elements and foundation
settlement.
where design yield strength fy used in Eq. 418-7 shall not
exceed 415 MPa. Bonded reinforcement shall be uniformly 418.11.3 Moments used to compute required strength shall
distributed over pre-compressed tensile zone as close as be the sum of the moments due to reactions induced by
practicable to extreme tension fiber. prestressing (with a load factor of 1.0) and the moments due
to factored loads. Adjustment of the sum of these moments
418.10.3.3 In negative moment areas at column supports, shall be permitted as allowed in Section 418.11.4.
minimum area of bonded reinforcement As in the top of the
slab in each direction shall be computed by: 418.11.4 Redistribution of Negative Moments in
Continuous Prestressed Flexural Members
As = 0.00075Acf (418-8)
418.11.4.1 Where bonded reinforcement is provided at
where Acf is the larger gross cross-sectional area of the slab- supports in accordance with Section 418.10, it shall be
beam strips in two orthogonal equivalent frames intersecting
permitted to decrease negative or positive moments
at a column in a two-way slab.
calculated by elastic theory for any assumed loading, in
Bonded reinforcement required by Eq. 418-8 shall be
distributed between lines that are 1.5h outside opposite faces
of the column support. At least four bars or wires shall be 418.11.4.2 The reduced moment shall be used for
calculating redistributed moments at all other sections
provided in each direction. Spacing of bonded
reinforcement shall not exceed 300 mm. within the spans. Static equilibrium shall be maintained after
redistribution of moments for each loading arrangement.
418.10.4 Minimum length of bonded reinforcement
required by Sections 418.10.2 and 418.10.3 shall be as 418.12 Compression Members – Combined Flexural and
required in Sections 418.10.4.1, 418.10.4.2, and 418.10.4.3. Axial Loads
418.10.4.1 In positive moment areas, minimum length of 418.12.1 Prestressed concrete members subject to
bonded reinforcement shall be one-third the clear span combined flexure and axial load, with or without
length, ln, and centered in positive moment area. nonprestressed reinforcement, shall be proportioned by the
strength design methods of this chapter. Effects of prestress,
418.10.4.2 In negative moment areas, bonded creep, shrinkage and temperature change shall be included.
reinforcement shall extend one-sixth the clear span, ln, on
each side of support.
418.10.4.3 Where bonded reinforcement is provided for

design moment strength, Mn, in accordance with Section
418.8.3, or for tensile stress conditions in accordance with
Section 418.10.3.2, minimum length also shall conform to
provisions of Section 412.
th
be met, with appropriate consideration of the factors listed

in Section 418.11.2.
418.12.2 Limits for Reinforcement of Prestressed
Compression Members
418.13.4 For uniformly distributed live loads, spacing of
tendons or groups of tendons in at least one direction shall
418.12.2.1 Members with average compressive stress in
concrete less than 1.6 MPa, due to effective prestress force not exceed the smaller of eight times the slab thickness, and
only, shall have minimum reinforcement in accordance with 1.5 m. Spacing of tendons also shall provide a minimum
Sections 407.11, 410.10.1 and 410.10.2 for columns, or average prestress of 0.9 MPa on the slab section tributary to
Section 414.4 for walls. the tendon or tendon group. For slabs with varying cross
section along the slab span, either parallel or perpendicular
418.12.2.2 Except for walls, members with average to the tendon or tendon group, the minimum average
prestress fpc equal to or greater than 1.6 MPa shall have all effective prestress of 0.9 MPa is required at every cross
prestressing tendons enclosed by spirals or lateral ties in section tributary to the tendon or tendon group along the
accordance with the following: span. Concentrated loads and opening in slabs shall be
considered when determining tendon spacing.
1. Spirals shall conform to Section 407.11.4;
2. Lateral ties shall be at least 10 mm diameter in size or 418.13.5 In slabs with unbonded prestressing tendons,
welded wire fabric of equivalent area, and spaced bonded reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with
vertically not to exceed 48 tie bar or wire diameters or Sections 418.10.3 and 418.10.4.
least dimension of compression member;
418.13.6 Except as permitted in Section 418.13.7, in slabs
3. Ties shall be located vertically not more than half a tie
spacing above top of footing or slab in any story, and with unbonded tendons, a minimum of two 12 mm diameter
shall be spaced as provided herein to not more than half or larger, seven-wire post-tensioned strands shall be
a tie spacing below lowest horizontal reinforcement in provided in each direction at columns, either passing
members supported above; through or anchored within the region bounded by the
longitudinal reinforcement of the column. Outside column
4. Where beams or brackets frame into all sides of a and shear cap faces, these two structural integrity tendons
column, it shall be permitted to terminate ties not more shall pass under any orthogonal tendons in adjacent spans.
than 75 mm below lowest reinforcement in such beams Where the two structural integrity tendons are anchored
or brackets. within the region bounded by the longitudinal reinforcement
of the column, the anchorage shall be located beyond the
418.12.2.3 For walls with average prestress fpc equal to or
column centroid and away from the anchored span.
greater than 1.6 MPa, minimum reinforcement required by
Section 414.4 may be waived where structural analysis
418.13. 7 Prestressed slabs not satisfying Section 418.13.6
shows adequate strength and stability.
shall be permitted provided they contain bottom
reinforcement in each direction passing within the region
418.13 Slab Systems bounded by the longitudinal reinforcement of the column
and anchored at exterior supports as required by Section
418.13.1 Factored moments and shears in prestressed slab 413.4.8.5. The area of bottom reinforcement in each
systems reinforced for flexure in more than one direction direction shall be not less than 1.5 times that required by Eq.
shall be determined in accordance with provisions of 410-3 and not less than 2.1bwd/fy, where bw is the width of
Section 413.8, (excluding Sections 413.8.7.4 and 413.8.7.5), the column face through which the reinforcement passes.
or by more detailed design procedures. Minimum extension of these bars beyond the column shear
cap face shall be equal to or greater than the bar
418.13.2 Moment strength, Mn of prestressed slabs development length required by Section 412.2.1.
required by Section 409.4 at every section shall be at least
equal to the required strength Mu, considering Sections 418.13.8 In lift slabs, bonded bottom reinforcement shall
409.3, 418.11.3 and 418.11.4. Shear strength Vn, of be detailed in accordance with Section 413.4.8.6.
prestressed slabs at columns shall be at least equal to the
required strength considering Sections 409.3, 411.2,
411.13.2 and 411.13.6.2.
418.13.3 At service load conditions, all serviceability

limitations, including specified limits on deflections, shall

418.14 Post-Tensioned Tendon Anchorage Zones

418.14.4.2 Except for concrete confined within spirals or
418.14.1 Anchorage Zone hoops providing confinement equivalent to that
corresponding to Eq. 410-6, nominal compressive strength
The anchorage zone shall be considered as composed of two of concrete in the general zone shall be limited to 0.f’ci.
zones:
1. The local zone is the rectangular prism (or equivalent 418.14.4.3 Compressive strength of concrete at time of
rectangular prism for circular or oval anchorages) of post-tensioning shall be specified in the contract documents.
concrete immediately surrounding the anchorage device Unless oversize anchorage devices are sized to compensate
and any confining reinforcement; for the lower compressive strength or the tendons are
2. The general zone is the anchorage zone as defined in stressed to no more than 50 percent of the final tendon
Section 402 and includes the local zone. force, tendons shall not be stressed until compressive
strength of concrete, as indicated by tests consistent with the
curing of the member, is at least 28 MPa for multistrand
418.14.2 Local Zone tendons or at least 17 MPa for single-strand or bar tendons.
418.14.2.1 Design of local zones shall be based upon the
factored tendon force, Psu, and the requirements of Sections 418.14.5 Design Methods
409.3.5 and 409.4.2.5
418.13.5.1 The following methods shall be permitted for
418.14.2.2 Local-zone reinforcement shall be provided the design of general zones provided that the specific
where required for proper functioning of the anchorage procedures used result in prediction of strength in
device. substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests:
1. Equilibrium based plasticity models (strut-and-tie
418.14.2.3 Local-zone requirements of Section 418.14.2.2 models);
are satisfied by Section 418.15.1 or 418.16.1 and 418.16.2.
2. Linear stress analysis (including finite element analysis
or equivalent); or
418.14.3 General Zone
3. Simplified equations where applicable.
418.14.3.1 Design of general zones shall be based upon the
factored tendon force, Psu, and the requirements of Sections 418.14.5.2 Simplified equations shall not be used where
409.3.5 and 409.4.2.5 member cross sections are nonrectangular, where
discontinuities in or near the general zone cause deviations
418.14.3.2 General-zone reinforcement shall be provided in the force flow path, where minimum edge distance is less
where required to resist bursting, spalling, and longitudinal than 1.5 times the anchorage device lateral dimension in that
edge tension forces induced by anchorage devices. Effects direction, or where multiple anchorage devices are used in
of abrupt change in section shall be considered. other than one closely spaced group.
418.14.3.3 The general-zone requirements of Section 418.14.5.3 The stressing sequence shall be specified on the
418.14.3.2 are satisfied by Sections 418.14.4, 418.14.5, design drawings and considered in the design.
418.14.6 and whichever one of Section 418.15.2 or 418.15.3
or 418.16.3 is applicable. 418.14.5.4 Three-dimensional effects shall be considered
in design and analyzed using three-dimensional procedures
or approximated by considering the summation of effects
418.14.4 Nominal Material Strengths
for two orthogonal planes.
418.14.4.1 Nominal tensile strength of bonded
418.14.5.5 For intermediate anchorage devices, bonded
reinforcement is limited to fy for nonprestressed
reinforcement shall be provided to transfer at least 0.35 Psu
reinforcement and to fpy for prestressed reinforcement.
into the concrete section behind the anchor. Such
Nominal tensile stress of unbonded prestressed rein-
reinforcement shall be placed symmetrically around the
forcement for resisting tensile forces in the anchorage zone
anchorage devices and shall be fully developed both behind
shall be limited to fps = fse+70.
and ahead of the anchorage devices.
th
considered as a group. For each group of six or more

418.14.5.6 Where curved tendons are used in the general anchorage devices, n+1 hairpin bars or closed stirrups at
zone, except for monostrand tendons in slabs or where least 10 mm diameter in size shall be provided, where n is
analysis shows reinforcement is not required, bonded the number of anchorage devices. One hairpin bar or stirrup
reinforcement shall be provided to resist radial and splitting shall be placed between each anchorage device and one on
forces. each side of the group. The hairpin bars or stirrups shall be
placed with the legs extending into the slab perpendicular to
418.14.5.7 Except for monostrand tendons in slabs or the edge. The center portion of the hairpin bars or stirrups
where analysis shows reinforcement is not required, shall be placed perpendicular to the plane of the slab from
minimum reinforcement with a nominal tensile strength 3h/8 to h/2 ahead of the anchorage devices.
equal to 2 percent of each factored tendon force shall be
provided in orthogonal directions parallel to the back face of 418.15.2.4 For anchorage devices not conforming to Section
all anchorage zones to limit spalling. 418.15.2.1, minimum reinforcement shall be based upon a
detailed analysis satisfying Section 418.14.5.
418.14.5.8 Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected
in calculations of reinforcement requirements.
418.15.3 General-Zone Design for Groups of
Monostrand Tendons in Beams and Girders
418.14.6 Detailing Requirements Design of general zones for groups of monostrand tendons
Selection of reinforcement sizes, spacings, cover, and other in beams and girders shall meet the requirements of Sections
details for anchorage zones shall make allowances for 418.14.3 through 418.14.5.
tolerances on the bending, fabrication, and placement of
reinforcement, for the size of aggregate, and for adequate 418.16 Design of Anchorage Zones for Multistrannd
placement and consolidation of the concrete. Tendons
418.15 Design of Anchorage Zones for Monostrand or 418.16.1 Local Zone Design
Single 16 mm Diameter Bar Tendons
Basic multistrand anchorage devices and local zone
reinforcement shall meet the requirements of AASHTO
418.15.1 Local Zone Design “Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges,” Division I,
Monostrand or single ɸ16 mm or smaller bar anchorage Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through 9.21.7.2.4.
devices and local zone reinforcement shall meet the
requirements of the ACI 423.7 or the special anchorage Special anchorage devices shall satisfy the tests required in
device requirements of Section 418.16.2. AASHTO “Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges,”
Division I, Article 9.21.7.3 and described in AASHTO
“Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges,” 17th
418.15.2 General-Zone Design for Slab Tendons Edition, 2002, Division II, Article 10.3.2.3.
418.15.2.1 For anchorage devices for 12 mm or smaller

diameter strands in normalweight concrete slabs, minimum 418.16.2 Use of Special Anchorage Devices
reinforcement meeting the requirements of Section Where special anchorage devices are to be used, sup-
418.15.2.2 and 418.15.2.3 shall be provided unless a plemental skin reinforcement shall be furnished in the
detailed analysis satisfying Section 418.14.5 shows such corresponding regions of the anchorage zone, in addition to
reinforcement is not required. the confining reinforcement specified for the anchorage
device. This supplemental reinforcement shall be similar in
418.15.2.2 Two horizontal bars at least ɸ12 mm in size configuration and at least equivalent in volumetric ratio to
shall be provided parallel to the slab edge. They shall be any supplementary skin reinforcement used in the qualifying
permitted to be in contact with the front face of the acceptance tests of the anchorage device.
anchorage device and shall be within a distance of ½ h
ahead of each device. Those bars shall extend at least 150 418.16.3 General-Zone Design
mm either side of the outer edges of each device.
Design for general zones for multistrand tendons shall meet
418.15.2.3 If the center-to-center spacing of anchorage the requirements of Sections 418.14.3 through 418.14.5.
devices is 300 mm or less, the anchorage devices shall be

418.17 Corrosion Protection for Unbonded Prestressing 418.19.2.4 Admixtures conforming to Section 403.7 and
Tendons known to have no injurious effects on grout, steel, or
concrete shall be permitted. Calcium chloride shall not be
418.17.1 Unbonded tendons shall be encased with used.
sheathing. The tendons shall be completely coated and the
sheathing around the tendon filled with suitable material to
418.19.3 Selection of Grout Proportions
inhibit corrosion.
418.19.3.1 Proportions of materials for grout shall be based
418.17.2 Sheathing shall be watertight and continuous over
on either of the following:
entire length to be unbonded.
1. Results of tests on fresh and hardened grout prior to
418.17.3 For applications in corrosive environments, the beginning grouting operations; or
sheathing shall be connected to all stressing, intermediate 2. Prior documented experience with similar materials and
and fixed anchorages in a watertight fashion. equipment and under comparable field conditions.
418.17.4 Unbonded single strand tendons shall be protected 418.19.3.2 Cement used in the work shall correspond to
against corrosion in accordance with ACI 423.7. that on which selection of grout proportions was based.
418.18 Post-Tensioning Ducts 418.19.3.3 Water content shall be minimum necessary for
proper pumping of grout; however, water-cement ratio shall
418.18.1 Ducts for grouted tendons shall be mortar-tight and not exceed 0.45 by weight.
nonreactive with concrete, tendons, grout, and corrosion
inhibitor. 418.19.3.4 Water shall not be added to increase grout
flowability that has been decreased by delayed use of the
418.18.2 Ducts for grouted single wire, single strand, or grout.
single bar tendons shall have an inside diameter at least 6
mm larger than tendon diameter. 418.19.4 Mixing and Pumping Grout
418.18.3 Ducts for grouted multiple wire, multiple strand, or 418.19.4.1 Grout shall be mixed in equipment capable of
multiple bar tendons shall have an inside cross-sectional continuous mechanical mixing and agitation that will
area at least two times the cross-sectional area of tendons. produce uniform distribution of materials, passed through
screens, and pumped in a manner that will completely fill
418.18.4 Ducts shall be maintained free of ponded water if the ducts.
members to be grouted are exposed to temperatures below
freezing prior to grouting. 418.19.4.2 Temperature of members at time of grouting
shall be above 2oC and shall be maintained above 2oC until
418.19 Grout for Bonded Prestressing Tendons field-cured 50 mm cubes of grout reach a minimum
compressive strength of 5.5 MPa.
418.19.1 Grout shall consist of portland cement and water;
or portland cement, sand, and water. 418.19.4.3 Grout temperatures shall not be above 32oC
during mixing and pumping.
418.19.2 Materials for grout shall conform to Sections
418.19.2.1 through 418.19.2.4.
418.20 Protection for Prestressing Steel
418.19.2.1 Portland cement shall conform to Section 403.3. Burning or welding operations in the vicinity of prestressing
steel shall be performed so that prestressing steel is not
418.19.2.2 Water shall conform to Section 403.5. subject to excessive temperatures, welding sparks, or ground
currents.
418.19.2.3 Sand, if used, shall conform to “Standard
Specification for Aggregate for Masonry Mortar” (ASTM
C144) except that gradation shall be permitted to be
modified as necessary to obtain satisfactory workability.
th
418.22 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers

418.21 Application and Measurement of Prestressing
418.22.1 Anchorages and couplers for bonded and
Force
unbonded tendons shall develop at least 95 percent of the
specified breaking strength of the tendons, fpu,, when tested
418.21.1 Prestressing force shall be determined by both of
in an unbonded condition, without exceeding anticipated set.
the following methods:
For bonded tendons, anchorages and couplers shall be
1. Measurement of steel elongation. Required elongation located so that 100 percent of the specified breaking
shall be determined from average load-elongation strength of the tendons, fpu, , shall be developed at critical
curves for the prestressing steel used; sections after the prestressing steel are bonded in the
member.
2. Observation of jacking force on a calibrated gage or
load cell or by use of a calibrated dynamometer.
418.22.2 Couplers shall be placed in areas approved by the
Cause of any difference in force determination between engineer-on-record and enclosed in housing long enough to
permit necessary movements.
methods 1 and 2 that exceeds 5 percent for pretensioned
elements or 7 percent for post-tensioned construction shall
418.22.3 In unbonded construction subject to repetitive
be ascertained and corrected.
loads, special attention shall be given to the possibility of
fatigue in anchorages and couplers.
418.21.2 Where the transfer of force from the bulkheads of
pre-tensioning bed to the concrete is accomplished by flame
418.22.4 Anchorages, couplers, and end fittings shall be
cutting pre-stressing tendons, cutting points and cutting
permanently protected against corrosion.
sequence shall be predetermined to avoid undesired
temporary stresses.
418.21.3 Long lengths of exposed pre-tensioned strand shall

be cut near the member to minimize shock to concrete.
418.21.4 Total loss of prestress due to unreplaced broken

tendons shall not exceed 2 percent of total prestress.
Table 418-1 Friction Coefficients for Post-Tensioned
Tendons for Use in Equation 418-1 or 418-2
Wobble Curvature
Tendons in
Sheathing
Grouted
coefficient, K per meter coefficient, μp per radian

Metal
Wire tendons 0.0033-0.0049 0.15-0.25

High-strength bars 0.0003-0.0020 0.08-0.30
7-wire strand 0.0016-0.0066 0.15-0.25
Wire tendons 0.0033-0.0066 0.05-0.15

Mastic
7-wire strand 0.0033-0.0066 0.05-0.15

Unbonded
Tendons
Pre-greased
Wire tendons 0.0010-0.0066 0.05-0.15
7-wire strand 0.0010-0.0066 0.05-0.15

Table 418-2 Serviceability Design Requirements
Prestressed
Nonprestressed
Class U Class T Class C
Transition between
Assumed behavior Uncracked Cracked Cracked
uncracked and cracked
Gross section
Section properties for stress Gross section Crack section
Section No requirement
calculation at service loads Section 418.4.4 Section 418.4.4
418.4.4
Section
Allowable stress at transfer Section 418.5.1 Section 418.5.1 No requirement
418.5.1
Allowable compressive stress
based on Section
Section 418.5.2 No requirement No requirement
418.5.2
uncracked section properties
Tensile stress at service loads ≤0.62 fc' 0.62 fc' < ft ≤ fc' No requirement No requirement
Sect. 418.4.3
Sect. 409.6.2,
Sect. 409.6.4.1 Sect. 409.6.4.1
Sect. 409.6.4.1 409.6.3
Deflection calculation basis Cracked section, Cracked section,
Gross section Effective moment
bilinear bilinear
of inertia
Section 410.7.4
No
Crack control No requirement Modified by Sect. Section 410.7.4
requirement
418.5.4.1
Computation of Δfps or fs for Cracked section M/(As × lever arm),
— —
crack control analysis or 0.6fy
No
Side skin reinforcement No requirement Section 410.7.7 Section 410.7.7
requirement
th
Table 418-3 ASTM Standard Prestressing Tendons
Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal

Diameter, Area, mass, Diameter, Area, mass,
Type mm mm2 kg/m Type mm mm2 kg/m
6.4 23.2 0.182 9.53 54.8 0.432

7.9 37.4 0.294 Seven-wire 11.10 74.2 0.548
Seven-wire Strand
9.5 51.6 0.405 12.70 98.7 0.730
Strand (Grade 1860)
(Grade 1725) 11.1 69.7 0.548 15.24 140.0 1.094
12.7 92.9 0.730 4.88 18.7 0.146
15.2 139.4 1.094 Prestressing 4.98 19.5 0.149
19.0 284.0 2.230 Wire 6.35 31.7 0.253
22.0 387.0 3.040 7.01 38.6 0.298
25.0 503.0 3.970 15.0 181.0 1.460
Prestressing
29.0 639.0 5.030 Prestressing 20.0 271.0 2.200
Bars (Plain)
32.0 794.0 6.210 Bars 26.0 548.0 4.480
35.0 955.0 7.520 (Deformed) 32.0 806.0 6.540
36.0 1019.0 8.280

CHAPTER 4 – Structural Concrete 4-109
418.23 External Post- Tensioning SECTION 419 SHELLS AND

418.23.1 Post-tensioning tendons shall be permitted to be FOLDED PLATE MEMBERS
external to any concrete section of a member. The strength
and serviceability design methods of this code shall be used 419.1 Notations
in evaluating the effects of external tendon forces on the Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa, See
concrete structure. Section 408.6.1
f’c = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
418.23.2 External tendons shall be considered as unbonded fc ' = square root of specified compressive strength of
tendons when computing flexural strength unless provisions
concrete, MPa
are made to effectively bond the external tendons to the fy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed
concrete section along its entire length. reinforcement, MPa
h = thickness of shell or folded plate, mm
418.23.3 External tendons shall be attached to the concrete ld = development length, mm
member in a manner that maintains the desired eccentricity  = strength-reduction factor. See Section 409.4
between the tendons and the concrete centroid throughout
the full range of anticipated member deflection.
419.2 Scope and Definitions
External tendons and tendon anchorage regions shall be
protected against corrosion, and the details of the protection 419.2.1 Provisions of Section 419 shall apply to thin-shell
method shall be indicated on the drawings or in the project and folded-plate concrete structures, including ribs and
specifications. edge members.
419.2.2 All provisions of this code not specifically

excluded, and not in conflict with provisions of Section
419, shall apply to thin-shell structures.
419.2.3 Thin Shells

Three-dimensional spatial structures made up of one or
more curved slabs or folded plates whose thicknesses are
small compared to their other dimensions. Thin shells are
characterized by their three-dimensional load-carrying
behavior, which is determined by the geometry of their
forms, by the manner in which they are supported, and by
the nature of the applied load.
419.2.4 Folded Plates

A class of shell structure formed by joining flat, thin slabs
along their edges to create a three-dimensional spatial
structure.
419.2.5 Ribbed Shells

Spatial structures with material placed primarily along
certain preferred rib lines, with the area between the ribs
filled with thin slabs or left open.
419.2.6 Auxiliary Members

Ribs or edge beams that serve to strengthen, stiffen, or
support the shell; usually, auxiliary members act jointly
with the shell.
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4-110 CHAPTER 4 – Structural Concrete
419.2.7 Elastic Analysis 419.3.7 The thickness of a shell and its reinforcement shall
An analysis of deformations and internal forces based on be proportioned for the required strength and serviceability,
equilibrium, compatibility of strains, and assumed elastic using either the strength design method of Section 408.2.1
behavior, and representing to a suitable approximation the or the alternate design method of Section 408.2.2.
three-dimensional action of the shell together with its
auxiliary members. 419.3.8 Shell instability shall be investigated and shown
by
419.2.8 Inelastic Analysis design to be precluded.

An analysis of deformations and internal forces based on
equilibrium, nonlinear stress-strain relations for concrete 419.3.9 Auxiliary members shall be designed according to
and reinforcement, consideration of cracking and time- the applicable provisions of this code. It shall be permitted
dependent effects, and compatibility of strains. The analysis to assume that a portion of the shell equal to the flange
shall represent to a suitable approximation three- width, as specified in Section 408.13, acts with the auxiliary
dimensional action of the shell together with its auxiliary member. In such portions of the shell, the reinforcement
members. perpendicular to the auxiliary member shall be at least
equal to that required for the flange of a T-beam by Section
408.13.5.
419.2.9 Experimental Analysis
An analysis procedure based on the measurement of 419.3.10 Strength design of shell slabs for membrane and
deformations or strains, or both, of the structure or its bending forces shall be based on the distribution of stresses
model; experimental analysis is based on either elastic or and strains as determined from either elastic or an inelastic
inelastic behavior. analysis.
419.3 Analysis and Design 419.3.11 In a region where membrane cracking is predicted,
the nominal compressive strength parallel to the cracks
419.3.1 Elastic behavior shall be an accepted basis for shall be taken as 0.4f’c.
determining internal forces and displacements of thin shells.
This behavior shall be permitted to be established by 419.4 Design strength of Materials
computations based on an analysis of the uncracked
concrete structure in which the material is assumed linearly 419.4.1 Specified compressive strength of concrete f’c at 28
elastic, homogeneous and isotropic. Poisson's ratio of days shall not be less than 21 MPa.
concrete shall be permitted to be taken equal to zero.
419.4.2 Specified yield strength of nonprestressed
419.3.2 Inelastic analysis shall be permitted to be used reinforcement fy shall not exceed 415 MPa.
where it can be shown that such methods provide a safe
basis for design.
419.5 Shell Reinforcement
419.3.3 Equilibrium checks of internal resistances and
external loads shall be made to ensure consistency of 419.5.1 Shell reinforcement shall be provided to resist
results. tensile stresses from internal membrane forces, to resist
tension from bending and twisting moments, to control
419.3.4 Experimental or numerical analysis procedures shrinkage and temperature cracking and as special
shall be permitted where it can be shown that such reinforcement as shell boundaries, load attachments and
procedures provide a safe basis for design. shell openings.
419.3.5 Approximate methods of analysis shall be 419.5.2 Tensile reinforcement shall be provided in two or
permitted where it can be shown that such methods provide more directions and shall be proportioned such that its
a safe basis for design. resistance in any direction equals or exceeds the component
of internal forces in that direction.
419.3.6 In prestressed shells, the analysis shall also
consider behavior under loads induced during prestressing, Alternatively, reinforcement for the membrane forces in the
at cracking load and at factored load. Where prestressing slab shall be calculated as the reinforcement required to
tendons are draped within a shell, design shall take into resist axial tensile forces plus the tensile force due to shear-
account force components on the shell resulting from the friction required to transfer shear across any cross section
tendon profile not lying in one plane.
of the membrane. The assumed coefficient of friction, , that the minimum development length shall be 1.2ld but not
shall not exceed that specified in Section 411.8.4.3. less than 500 mm.
419.5.3 The area of shell reinforcement at any section as 419.5.12 Splice development lengths of shell
measured in two orthogonal directions shall not be less than reinforcement shall be governed by the provisions of
the slab shrinkage or temperature reinforcement required by Section 412, except that the minimum splice length of
Section 407.13. tension bars shall be 1.2 times the value required by Section
412 but not less than 500 mm. The number of splices in
419.5.4 Reinforcement for shear and bending moments principal tensile reinforcement shall be kept to a practical
about axes in the plane of the shell slab shall be calculated minimum. Where splices are necessary, they shall be
in accordance with Sections 410, 411 and 413. staggered at least ld with not more than one-third of the
reinforcement spliced at any section.
419.5.5 The area of shell tension reinforcement shall be
limited so that the reinforcement will yield before either 419.6 Construction
crushing of concrete in compression or shell buckling can
take place.
419.6.1 When removal of formwork is based on a specific
modulus of elasticity of concrete because of stability or
419.5.6 In regions of high tension, membrane reinforcement deflection considerations, the value of the modulus of
shall, if practical, be placed in the general directions of the elasticity Ec shall be determined from flexural tests of field-
principal tensile membrane forces. Where this is not cured beam specimens. The number of test specimens, the
practical, it shall be permitted to place membrane dimensions of test beam specimens and test procedures
reinforcement in two or more component directions. shall be specified by the engineer-of-record.
419.5.7 If the direction of reinforcement varies more than 419.6.2 The tolerances for the shape of the shell shall be
10 degrees from the direction of principal tensile membrane specified. If construction results in deviations from the
force, the amount of reinforcement shall be reviewed in shape greater than the specified tolerances, an analysis of
relation to cracking at service loads. the effect of the deviations shall be made and any required
remedial actions shall be taken to ensure safe behavior.
419.5.8 Where the magnitude of the principal tensile
membrane stress within the shell varies greatly over the
area of the shell surface, reinforcement resisting the total
tension may be concentrated in the regions of largest tensile
stress where it can be shown that this provides a safe basis
for design. However, the ratio of shell reinforcement in any
portion of the tensile zone shall not be less than 0.0035
based on the overall thickness of the shell.
419.5.9 Reinforcement required to resist shell bending

moments shall be proportioned with due regard to the
simultaneous action of membrane axial forces at the same
location. Where shell reinforcement is required in only one
face to resist bending moments, equal amounts shall be
placed near both surfaces of the shell even though a reversal
of bending moments is not indicated by the analysis.
419.5.10 Shell reinforcement in any direction shall not be

spaced farther apart than 500 mm, or five times the shell
thickness. Where the principal membrane tensile stress on
the gross concrete area due to factored loads exceeds
0.33 f 'c reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart
than three times the shell thickness.
419.5.11 Shell reinforcement at the junction of the shell

and supporting members or edge members shall be
anchored in or extended through such members in
accordance with the requirements of Section 412, except
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420.3 Determination of Required Dimensions and

Material Properties
SECTION 420 STRENGTH
EVALUATION OF EXISTING 420.3.1 Dimensions of the structural elements shall be
established at critical sections.
STRUCTURES
420.3.2 Locations and sizes of the reinforcing bars, welded
420.1 Notations wire fabric or tendons shall be determined by measurement.
It shall be permitted to base reinforcement locations on
D = dead loads or related internal moments and forces
available drawings if spot checks are made confirming the
f’c = specified compressive strength concrete, MPa
information on the drawings.
h = overall thickness of member in the direction of
action considered, mm
420.3.3 If required, concrete strength shall be based on
L = live loads or related internal moments and forces
results of cylinder tests from the original construction or
lt = span of member under load test, mm. (The shorter
tests of cores removed from the part of the structure where
span for two-way slab systems.) Span is the
the strength is in question. For strength evaluation of an
smaller of (1) distance between centers of supports
existing structure, cylinder or core test data shall be used to
and (2) clear distance between supports plus
estimate an equivalent fc′. The method for obtaining and
thickness h of member. In Eq. 420-1, span for a
testing cores shall be in accordance with ASTM C42M.
cantilever shall be taken as twice the distance from
support to cantilever end
420.3.4 If required, reinforcement or tendon strength shall
max = measured maximum deflection, mm. See Eq. 420-
be based on tensile tests of representative samples of the
1
material in the structure in question.
r max = measured residual deflection, mm. See Eqs. 420-2
and 420-3
420.3.5 If the required dimensions and material properties
f max = maximum deflection measured during the second are determined through measurements and testing, and if
test relative to the position of the structure at the calculations can be made in accordance with Section
beginning of the second test, mm. See Eq. 420-3 420.2.2, it shall be permitted to increase the strength-
reduction factor,  from those specified in Section 409.4,
420.2 Strength Evaluation-General but the strength-reduction factor, shall not be more than:
Tension-controlled sections, as defined in Section
420.2.1 If there is a doubt that a part or all of a structure
meets the safety requirements of this code, a strength 410.4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
evaluation shall be carried out as required by the engineer- 1.0
of-record or building official.
Compression-controlled sections, as defined in Section
410.4.3:
420.2.2 If the effect of the strength deficiency is well
understood and if it is feasible to measure the dimensions Members with spiral reinforcement conforming to
and material properties required for analysis, Section 410.10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90
analytical evaluations of strength based on those
Other reinforced members . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 0.80
measurements shall suffice. Required data shall be
determined in accordance with Section 420.3. Shear and/or torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.80
Bearing on concrete .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.80
420.2.3 If the effect of the strength deficiency is not well
understood or if it is not feasible to establish the required
420.4 Load Test Procedure
dimensions and material properties by measurement, a load
test shall be required if the structure is to remain in service.
420.4.1 Load Arrangement
420.2.4 If the doubt about safety of a part or all of a The number and arrangement of spans or panels loaded
structure involves deterioration and if the observed shall be selected to maximize the deflection and stresses in
response during the load test satisfies the acceptance the critical regions of the structural elements of which
criteria, the structure or part of the structure shall be strength is in doubt. More than one test load arrangement
permitted to remain in service for a specified time period. If shall be used if a single arrangement will not
deemed necessary by the engineer, periodic reevaluations simultaneously result in maximum values of the effects
shall be conducted. (such as deflection, rotation or stress) necessary to
demonstrate the adequacy of the structure.
420.4.2 Load Intensity 420.6.2 Measured maximum deflections shall satisfy one
The total test load (including dead load already in place) of the following conditions:
shall not be less than the larger of (1), (2), and (3): 2
lt  (420-1)
1. 1.15D + 1.5L + 0.4(Lr or R) 1 
20 , 000 h
2. 1.15D + 0.9L + 1.5(Lr or R)
1
 r  (420-2)
3. 1.3D 4
The load factor on the live load L in (2) shall be permitted If the measured maximum and residual deflections, Δ1 and
to be reduced to 0.45 except for garages, areas occupied as Δr , do not satisfy Eq. 420-1 or 420-2, it shall be permitted
places of public assembly, and all areas where L is greater to repeat the load test.
2
than 4.8 kN/m . It shall be permitted to reduce L in
accordance with the provisions of the applicable code. The repeat test shall be conducted not earlier than 72 hours
after removal of the first test load. The portion of the
420.4.3 A load test shall not be made until that portion of structure tested in the repeat test shall be considered
the structure to be subject to load is at least 56 days old. If acceptable if deflection recovery satisfied the condition:
the owner of the structure, the contractor, and all involved
parties agree, it shall be permitted to make the test at an 2
 r   (420-3)
earlier age. 5
420.5 Loading Criteria where  is the maximum deflection measured during the
second test relative to the position of the structure at the
420.5.1 The initial value for all applicable response beginning of the second test.
measurements (such as deflection, rotation, strain, slip,
crack widths) shall be obtained not more than one hour 420.6.3 Structural members tested shall not have cracks
before application of the first load increment. indicating the imminence of shear failure.
Measurements shall be made at locations where maximum
response is expected. Additional measurements shall be 420.6.4 In regions of structural members without transverse
made if required. reinforcement, appearance of structural cracks inclined to
the longitudinal axis and having a horizontal projection
420.5.2 Test load shall be applied in not less than four longer than the depth of the member at mid-point of the
approximately equal increments. crack shall be evaluated.
420.5.3 Uniform test load shall be applied in a manner to 420.6.5 In regions of anchorage and lap splices, the
ensure uniform distribution of the load transmitted to the appearance along the line of reinforcement of a series of
structure or portion of the structure being tested. Arching of short inclined cracks or horizontal cracks shall be
the applied load shall be avoided. evaluated.
420.5.4 A set of response measurements shall be made 420.7 Provisions for Lower Load Rating
after each load increment is applied and after the total load
If the structure under investigation does not satisfy
has been applied on the structure for at least 24 hours.
conditions or criteria of Sections 420.2.2, 420.6.2 or
420.6.3, the structure may be permitted for use at a lower
420.5.5 Total test load shall be removed immediately after
load rating based on the results of the load test or analysis,
all response measurements defined in Section 420.5.4 are
if approved by the building official.
made.
420.5.6 A set of final response measurements shall be 420.8 Safety

made 24 hours after the test load is removed.
420.8.1 Load tests shall be conducted in such a manner as
to provide for safety of life and structure during the test.
420.6 Acceptance Criteria
420.8.2 No safety measures shall interfere with load test
420.6.1 The portion of the structure tested shall show no
procedures or affect results.
evidence of failure. Spalling and crushing of compressed
concrete shall be considered an indication of failure.
th
hw = height of entire wall or of the segment of wall

considered, mm
SECTION 421 EARTHQUAKE hx = maximum horizontal spacing of hoop or crosstie
RESISTANT STRUCTURES legs on all faces of the column, mm
ld = development length for a straight bar
ldh = development length for a bar with a standard hook
421.1 Notations as defined in Eq. 421-6, mm
Ach = cross-sectional area of a structural member ln = clear span measured face-to-face of supports, mm
measured out-to-out of transverse reinforcement, lo = minimum length, measured from joint face along
mm2 axis of structural member, over which transverse
Acp = area of concrete section, resisting shear, of an reinforcement must be provided, mm
individual pier or horizontal wall segment, mm2 lw = length of entire wall or of segment of wall
Acv = gross area of concrete section bounded by web considered in direction of shear force, mm
thickness and length of section in the direction of Mc = moment at the face of the joint, corresponding to
shear force considered, mm2 the nominal flexural strength of the column
Ag = gross area of section, mm2 framing into that joint, calculated for the factored
Aj = effective cross-sectional area within a joint (see axial force, consistent with the direction of the
Section 421.7.4.1) in a plane parallel to plane of lateral forces considered, resulting in the lowest
reinforcement generating shear in the joint, mm2. flexural strength, see Section 421.5.2.2
The joint depth shall be the overall depth of the Mg = moment at the face of the joint, corresponding to
column. Where a beam frames into a support of the nominal flexural strength of the girder
larger width, the effective width of the joint shall including slab where in tension, framing into that
not exceed the smaller of: joint, see Section 421.5.2.2
Mpr = probable flexural strength of members, with or
1. Beam width plus the joint depth; or without axial load, determined using the properties
2. Twice the smaller perpendicular distance from of the member at the joint faces assuming a tensile
the longitudinal axis of the beam to the strength in the longitudinal bars of at least 1.25fy
column side. See Section 421.7.4.1. and a strength-reduction factor  of 1.0
Ms = portion of slab moment balanced by support
Ash = total cross-sectional area of transverse rein- moment
forcement (including crossties) within spacing, s, Mu = factored moment at section
and perpendicular to dimension, hc, mm2 s = spacing of longitudinal reinforcement, transverse
Avd = total area of reinforcement in each group of reinforcement, prestressing tendons, wires, or
diagonal bars in a diagonally reinforced coupling anchors, mm, Sections 410 to 412, 417 to 421, and
beam, mm2 423
b = effective compressive flange width of a structural Se = moment, shear or axial force at connection
member, mm corresponding to development of probable strength
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section, mm at intended yield locations based on the governing
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to mechanism of inelastic lateral deformation,
neutral axis, see Section 410.3.7, calculated for the considering both gravity and earthquake load
factored axial force and nominal moment strength, effects, Section 421
consistent with the design displacement u, Sn = nominal flexural, shear or axial strength of
resulting in the largest neutral axis depth, mm connection, Section 421
d = effective depth of section, mm so = maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement
db = bar diameter, mm within lo, mm, Section 421
E = load effects of earthquake, or related internal sx = longitudinal spacing of transverse reinforcement
moments and forces within the length lx, mm
f’c = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete,
fc' = square root of specified compressive strength of Sections 408, 411, 413 and 421
concrete, MPa Ve = design shear force corresponding to the
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, MPa development of the probable moment strength of
fyh =specified yield strength of transverse the member, see Sections 421.5.4.1 or 421.6.5.1
reinforcement, MPa Vn = nominal shear strength, Sections 408, 410, 411,
hc = cross-sectional dimension of column core 421, 422 and 423
measured center-to-center of confining Vu = factored shear force at section, Sections 411 to
reinforcement, mm 413, 417, 421 and 422

 = angle defining the orientation of reinforcement, hooks of two successive crossties engaging the same
Sections 411, 421 and 427 longitudinal bars shall be alternated end for end.
c = coefficient defining the relative contribution of
concrete strength to nominal wall strength, See DESIGN DISPLACEMENT. Total lateral displacement
Equation 421-7. expected for the design-basis earthquake, as required by the
u = design displacement, mm, Section 421 governing code for earthquake-resistant design.
 = ratio of nonprestressed tension reinforcement
 = As/(bd), Sections 411, 413, 421 and 425. DESIGN LOAD COMBINATIONS. Combinations of
l = ratio of area of distributed longitudinal factored loads and forces specified in Section 409.3.
reinforcement to gross concrete area
perpendicular DETAILED PLAIN CONCRETE STRUCTURAL
to that reinforcement, Sections 411, 414 and 421 WALL. A wall complying with the requirements of Section
t = ratio of area of distributed transverse 422, including Section 422.7.
reinforcement to gross concrete area perpendicular
to that reinforcement, Sections 411, 414 and 421 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH FOR A BAR WITH A
s = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total STANDARD HOOK. The shortest distance between the
volume of core confined by the spiral critical section (where the strength of the bar is to be
reinforcement (measured out-to-out of spirals) developed) and a tangent to the outer edge of the 90-degree
v = ratio of area of distributed reinforcement hook.
perpendicular to the plane of Acv to gross concrete
area Acv DRY CONNECTION. A connection used between precast
 = strength-reduction factor members which does not qualify as a wet connection.
FACTORED LOADS AND FORCES. Loads and forces

421.2 Definitions modified by the factors in Section 409.3.
BASE OF STRUCTURE. Level at which earthquake HOOP. A closed tie or continuously wound tie. A closed
motions are assumed to be imparted to a building. This tie can be made up of several reinforcing elements, each
level does not necessarily coincide with the ground level. having seismic hooks at both ends. A continuously wound
tie shall have a seismic hook at both ends.
BOUNDARY ELEMENTS. Portions along structural wall
and structural diaphragm edges strengthened by JOINT. The geometric volume common to intersecting
longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. Boundary members.
elements do not necessarily require an increase in the
thickness of the wall or diaphragm. Edges of openings LATERAL FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM. That portion
within walls and diaphragms shall be provided with of the structure composed of members proportioned to
boundary elements as required by Sections 421.8.6, and resist forces related to earthquake effects.
421.9.7.5.
LIGHTWEIGHT-AGGREGATE CONCRETE. All-
COLLECTOR ELEMENTS. Elements that serve to lightweight or sand-lightweight aggregate concrete made
transmit the inertial forces within structural diaphragms to with lightweight aggregates conforming to Section 403.4.
members of the lateral-force-resisting systems.
MOMENT FRAME. Space frames in which members and
CONFINED CORE. The area within the core defined by joints resist forces through flexure, shear, and, axial force.
hc. Moment frames shall be categorized as follows:
CONNECTION. An element that joins two precast
INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAME. A cast-in-place
members or a precast member and a cast-in-place member.
frame complying with the requirements of Section 421.12.
COUPLING BEAM. A horizontal element in plane with
ORDINARY MOMENT FRAME. A cast-in-place or
and connecting two shear walls.
precast concrete frame complying with the requirements of
CROSSTIE. A continuous reinforcing bar having a seismic Sections 401 through 418, and in the case of ordinary
hook at one end and a hook of not less than 90 degrees with moment frames assigned to seismic zone 2, also complying
at least six-diameter extension at the other end. The hooks with 421.14.
shall engage peripheral longitudinal bars. The 90-degree
th
SPECIAL MOMENT FRAME. A cast-in-place frame ORDINARY STRUCTURAL PLAIN CONCRETE

complying with the requirements of Sections 421.3.3 WALL. A wall complying with the requirements of Section
through 421.3.7, 421.5 through 421.7, or a precast frame 422, excluding Section 422.7.
complying with the requirements of Sections 421.3.3
through 421.3.7, 421.5 through 421.7, 421.13. In addition, ORDINARY REINFORCED CONCRETE
the requirements for ordinary moment frames shall be STRUCTURAL WALLS. A wall complying with the
satisfied. requirements of Sections 401 through 418.
NONLINEAR ACTION LOCATION. The center of the INTERMEDIATE PRECAST STRUCTURAL WALL.
region of yielding in flexure, shear or axial action. A wall complying with all applicable requirements of
Sections 401 through 418 in addition to 421.4.
NONLINEAR ACTION REGION. The member length
over which nonlinear action takes place. It shall be taken as SPECIAL STRUCTURAL WALL. A cast-in-place or
extending a distance of no less than h/2 on either side of the precast wall complying with the requirements of Sections
nonlinear action location. 421.3.3 through 421.3.7, 421.8 and 421.15, as applicable, in
addition to the requirements for ordinary reinforced
SEISMIC HOOK. A hook on a stirrup, hoop or crosstie concrete structural walls.
having a bend not less than 135 degrees, except that circular
hoops shall have a bend not less than 90 degrees. Hooks STRUT. An element of a structural diaphragm used to
shall have a six-diameter (but not less than 75 mm), provide continuity around an opening in the diaphragm.
extension that engages the longitudinal reinforcement and
projects into the interior of the stirrup or hoop. TIE ELEMENTS. Elements that serve to transmit inertia
forces and prevent separation of building components such
SHELL CONCRETE. Concrete outside the transverse as footings and walls.
reinforcement confining the concrete.
WALL PIER. A wall segment with a horizontal length-to-
SPECIAL BOUNDARY ELEMENTS. Boundary thickness ratio between 2.5 and 6, and whose clear height is
elements required by Sections 421.8.6.3 or 421.8.6.4. at least two times its horizontal length.
SPECIFIED LATERAL FORCES. Lateral forces WET CONNECTION. Uses any of the splicing methods
corresponding to the appropriate distribution of the design to connect precast members and uses cast-in-place concrete
base shear force prescribed by the governing code for or grout to fill the splicing closure, see Sections 421.4 or
earthquake-resistant design. 421.13.
STRONG CONNECTION. A connection that remains 421.3 General Requirements

elastic, while the designated nonlinear action regions
undergo inelastic response under the Design Basis Ground
Motion. 421.3.1 Scope
STRUCTURAL DIAPHRAGMS. Structural members, 421.3.1.1 Section 421 contains special requirements for
such as floor and roof slabs, that transmit inertial forces design and construction of reinforced concrete members of
a structure for which the design forces, related to
acting in the plane of the member to the vertical elements of
earthquake motions, have been determined on the basis of
the seismic-force-resisting system.
energy dissipation in the nonlinear range of response.
STRUCTURAL TRUSS. Assemblage of reinforced
421.3.1.2 All structures shall be assigned to a seismic zone
concrete members subjected primarily to axial forces.
in accordance with Section 401.1.8.1
STRUCTURAL WALLS. Walls proportioned to resist
421.3.1.3 All members shall satisfy requirements of
combinations of shears, moment, and axial forces induced Sections 401 to 419 and 422. Structures assigned to seismic
by earthquake motions. A shear wall is a structural wall. zones 4, or 2 shall also satisfy Sections 421.3.1.4 through
Structural walls shall be categorized as follows: 421.3.1.7 as applicable.

421.3.1.4 Structures assigned to seismic zone 2 shall 421.3.4.3 Specified compressive strength of lightweight
satisfy Sections 421.3.1.2 and 421.3.1.7. concrete, fc′ , shall not exceed 35 MPa unless demonstrated
by experimental evidence that structural members made
421.3.1.5 Structures assigned to seismic zone 4 shall with that lightweight concrete provide strength and
satisfy Sections 421.3.1.2 through 421.3.1.7 and 421.9, toughness equal to or exceeding those of comparable
421.10, and 421.11. members made with normalweight concrete of the same
strength. Modification factor λ for lightweight concrete in
421.3.1.6 A reinforced concrete structural system not this Section shall be in accordance with Section 408.7.1
satisfying the requirements of this Section shall be unless specifically noted otherwise.
permitted if it is demonstrated by experimental evidence
and analysis that the proposed system will have strength 421.3.5 Reinforcement in Special Moment Frames and
and toughness equal to or exceeding those provided by a Special Structural Walls
comparable monolithic reinforced concrete structure
satisfying this Section. 421.3.5.1 Requirements of 421.3.5 apply to special moment
frames and special structural walls and coupling beams.
421.3.2 Analysis and Proportioning of Structural
Members 421.3.5.2 Deformed reinforcement resisting earthquake-
induced flexural and axial forces in frame members,
421.3.2.1 The interaction of all structural and nonstructural structural walls, and coupling beams, shall comply with
members which materially affect the linear and nonlinear ASTM A706M, ASTM A615M Grades 280 and 420
response of the structure to earthquake motions shall be reinforcement shall be permitted in these members if:
considered in the analysis. 1. The actual yield strength based on mill tests does not
exceed the specified yield strength by more than 125
421.3.2.2 Rigid members assumed not to be a part of the MPa; and
lateral-force resisting system shall be permitted, provided
their effect on the response of the system is considered and 2. The ratio of the actual ultimate tensile strength to the
accommodated in the structural design. Consequences of actual tensile yield strength is not less than 1.25.
failure of structural and nonstructural members, which are
not a part of the lateral-force resisting system, shall also be 421.3.5.3 Prestressing steel resisting earthquake-induced
considered. flexural and axial loads in frame members and in precast
structural walls shall comply with ASTM A416M or
421.3.2.3 Structural members extending below the base of A722M.
structure that are required to transmit forces resulting from
earthquake effects to the foundation shall comply with the 421.3.5.4 The value of fyt used to compute the amount of
requirements of Section 421 that are consistent with the confinement reinforcement shall not exceed 700 MPa.
seismic-force-resisting system above the base of structure.
421.3.5.5 The value of fy or fyt used in design of shear
reinforcement shall conform to Section 411.6.2.
421.3.3 Strength-Reduction Factors
Strength reduction factors shall be as given in Section 421.3.6 Mechanical Splices in Special Moment Frames
409.4.4. and Special Structural Walls
421.3.4 Concrete in Special Moment Frames and 421.3.6.1 Mechanical splices shall be classified as either
Special Structural Walls Type 1 or Type 2 mechanical splices, as follows:
421.3.4.1 Requirements of Section 421.3.4 apply to special Type 1 Splice. Mechanical splices shall conform to Section
412.15.3.2;
moment frames and special structural walls and coupling
beams.
Type 2 Splice. Mechanical splices shall conform to Section
412.15.3.2 and shall develop the specified tensile strength
421.3.4.2 Compressive strength f’c shall be not less than
of the spliced bar.
21 MPa.
th
421.5.1.3 Width of member bw shall not be less than the

421.3.6.2 Type 1 mechanical splices shall not be used smaller of 0.3h and 250 mm.
within a distance equal to twice the member depth from the
column or beam face for special moment frames or from 421.5.1.4 The width of member shall not exceed the width
sections where yielding of the reinforcement is likely to of the supporting member, c2 plus a distance on each side of
occur as a result of inelastic lateral displacements. Type 2 the supporting member equal to the smaller of (1) and (2):
mechanical splices shall be permitted to be used at any 1. Width of supporting member, c2, and
location.
2. 0.75 times the overall dimension of supporting
member, c1.
421.3.7 Welded Splices in Special Moment Frames and
Special Structural Walls
421.5.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement
421.3.7.1 Welded splices in reinforcement resisting
earthquake-induced forces shall conform to Section 421.5.2.1 At any section of a flexural member, except as
412.15.3.4 and shall not be used within a distance equal to provided in Section 410.6.3, for top as well as for bottom
twice the member depth from the column or beam face for reinforcement, the amount of reinforcement shall not be
less than that given by Eq. 410-3 but not less than 1.4bwd/fy,
special moment frames or from sections where yielding of
and the reinforcement ratio, , shall not exceed 0.025. At
the reinforcement is likely to occur as a result of inelastic
least two bars shall be provided continuously both top and
lateral displacements.
bottom.
421.3.7.2 Welding of stirrups, ties, inserts or other similar
421.5.2.2 Positive-moment strength at joint face shall not
elements to longitudinal reinforcement required by design
be less than one half of the negative-moment strength
shall not be permitted.
provided at that face of the joint. Neither the negative nor
the positive-moment strength at any section along member
421.4 Intermediate Precast Structural Walls length shall be less than one fourth the maximum moment
strength provided at face of either joint.
421.4.1 Scope 421.5.2.3 Lap splices of flexural reinforcement shall be
Requirements of Section 421.4 apply to intermediate permitted only if hoop or spiral reinforcement is provided
precast structural walls forming part of the seismic-force- over the lap length. Maximum spacing of the transverse
resisting system. reinforcement enclosing the lapped bars shall not exceed
d/4 or 100 mm. Lap splices shall not be used:
421.4.2 In connections between wall panels, or between
1. Within the joints;
wall panels and the foundation, yielding shall be restricted
to steel elements or reinforcement. 2. Within a distance of twice the member depth from the
face of the joint; and
421.4.3 Elements of the connection that are not designed to 3. At locations where analysis indicates flexural yielding
yield shall develop at least 1.5Sy. caused by inelastic lateral displacements of the frame.
421.5 Flexural Members of Special Moment Frames 421.5.2.4 Mechanical splices shall conform to Section
421.3.6 and welded splices shall conform to Section
421.3.7.
421.5.1 Scope
Requirements of Section 421.5 apply to special moment 21.5.2.5 Prestressing, where used, shall satisfy (1)
frame members that form part of the seismic-force-resisting through (4), unless used in a special moment frame as
system and are proportioned primarily to resist flexure. permitted by Section 421.8.3:
These frame members shall also satisfy the following
conditions: 1. The average prestress, fpc, calculated for an area equal
to the smallest cross-sectional dimension of the
421.5.1.1 Factored axial compressive force on the member, member multiplied by the perpendicular cross-sectional
Pu, shall not exceed (Ag f'c/10). dimension shall not exceed the smaller of 3.5 MPa and
fc′ /10.
421.5.1.2 Clear span for the members, ln, shall not be less
than four times its effective depth.
2. Prestressing steel shall be unbonded in potential plastic shall have their 90-degree hooks at opposite sides of the
hinge regions, and the calculated strains in prestressing flexural member. If the longitudinal reinforcing bars
steel under the design displacement shall be less than 1 secured by the crossties are confined by a slab on only one
percent. side of the flexural frame member, the 90-degree hooks of
the crossties shall all be placed on that side.
3. Prestressing steel shall not contribute to more than one-
quarter of the positive or negative flexural strength at
the critical section in a plastic hinge region and shall be 421.5.4 Shear Strength Requirements
anchored at or beyond the exterior face of the joint.
4. Anchorages of the post-tensioning tendons resisting 421.5.4.1 Design Forces
earthquake-induced forces shall be capable of allowing The design shear forces Ve shall be determined from
tendons to withstand 50 cycles of loading, bounded by consideration of the static forces on the portion of the
40 and 85 percent of the specified tensile strength of member between faces of the joint. It shall be assumed that
the prestressing steel. moments of opposite sign corresponding to probable
flexural strength Mpr act at the joint faces and that the
member is loaded with the tributary gravity load along its
421.5.3 Transverse Reinforcement span.
421.5.3.1 Hoops shall be provided in the following regions

of frame members: 421.5.4.2 Transverse Reinforcement
Transverse reinforcement over the lengths identified in
1. Over a length equal to twice the member depth
Section 421.5.3.1 shall be proportioned to resist shear
measured from the face of the supporting member
assuming Vc = 0 when both of the following conditions
toward midspan, at both ends of the flexural member;
occur:
2. Over lengths equal to twice the member depth on both
1. The earthquake-induced shear force calculated
sides of a section where flexural yielding is likely to
in accordance with Section 421.5.4.1 represents one-
occur in connection with inelastic lateral displacements
half or more of the maximum required shear strength
of the frame.
within those lengths;
421.5.3.2 The first hoop shall be located not more than 50 2. The factored axial compressive force including
mm from the face of a supporting member. Maximum earthquake effects is less than Agf’c/20.
spacing of the hoops shall not exceed:
1. d/4; 421.6 Special Moment Frame Subjected to Bending and
Axial Load
2. Eight times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal
bars;
421.6.1 Scope
3. 24 times the diameter of the hoop bars; and
The requirements of Section 421.6 apply to special moment
4. 300 mm. frame members that form part of the seismic-force-resisting
system and that resist a factored axial compressive force Pu
421.5.3.3 Where hoops are required, longitudinal bars on under any load combination exceeding Agfc′ /10. These
the perimeter shall have lateral support conforming to frame members shall also satisfy the conditions of Sections
Section 407.11.5.3. 421.6.1.1 and 421.6.1.2.
421.5.3.4 Where hoops are not required, stirrups with 421.6.1.1 The shortest cross-sectional dimension, measured
seismic hooks at both ends shall be spaced at a distance not on a straight line passing through the geometric centroid,
more than d/2 throughout the length of the member. shall not be less than 300 mm.
421.5.3.5 Stirrups or ties required to resist shear shall be 421.6.1.2 The ratio of the shortest cross-sectional
hoops over lengths of members as specified in Sections dimension to the perpendicular dimension shall not be less
421.5.3.1. than 0.4.
421.5.3.6 Hoops in flexural members shall be permitted to

be made up of two pieces of reinforcement: a stirrup having
seismic hooks at both ends and closed by a crosstie.
Consecutive crossties engaging the same longitudinal bar
th
421.6.2 Minimum Flexural Strength of Columns 421.6.4 Transverse Reinforcement
421.6.2.1 Flexural strength of any column shall satisfy 421.6.4.1 Transverse reinforcement as required in Sections
Section 421.6.2.2 or 421.6.2.3. 421.6.4.2 through 421.6.4.4 shall be provided over a length
lo from each joint face and on both sides of any section
421.6.2.2 The flexural strengths of the columns shall satisfy where flexural yielding is likely to occur as a result of
Eq. 421-1. inelastic lateral displacements of the frame. Length lo shall
Mnc  (6/5)Mnb (421-1) not be less than the largest of (1), (2), and (3):
where: 1. The depth of the member at the joint face or at the
section where flexural yielding is likely to occur;
Mnc = sum of moments at the faces of the joint
corresponding to the nominal flexural strength of 2. One-sixth of the clear span of the member; and
the columns framing into that joint. 3. 450 mm.
Column flexural strength shall be calculated for
the factored axial force, consistent with the 421.6.4.2 Transverse reinforcement shall be provided by
direction of the lateral forces considered, resulting either single or overlapping spirals satisfying Section
in the lowest flexural strength. 407.11.4, circular hoops, or rectilinear hoops with or
Mnb = sum of moments at the faces of the joint corres without crossties. Crossties of the same or smaller bar size
ponding to the nominal flexural strengths of the as the hoops shall be permitted. Each end of the crosstie
girders framing into that joint. In T-beam shall engage a peripheral longitudinal reinforcing bar.
construction, where the slab is in tension under Consecutive crossties shall be alternated end for end along
moments at the face of the joint, slab the longitudinal reinforcement. Spacing of crossties or legs
reinforcement within an effective slab width of rectilinear hoops, hx, within a cross section of the
defined in Section 408.11 shall be assumed to member shall not exceed 350 mm on center.
contribute to flexural strength, Mnb if the slab
reinforcement is developed at the critical section 421.6.4.3 Spacing of transverse reinforcement along the
for flexure. length lo of the member shall not exceed the smallest of (1),
(2), and (3):
Flexural strengths shall be summed such that the
column moments oppose the beam moments. Eq. 421-1 1. One-quarter of the minimum member dimension;
shall be satisfied for beam moments acting in both 2. Six times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar;
directions in the vertical plane of the frame considered. and
421.6.2.3 If Section 421.6.2.2 is not satisfied at a joint, the 3. so, as defined by Eq. 421-2.
lateral strength and stiffness of the columns framing into
that joint shall be ignored when determining the calculated  350  h x  (421-2)
s 0  100   
strength and stiffness of the structure. These columns shall  3 
conform to Section 421.13.
The value of so shall not exceed 150 mm, and need not be
421.6.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement taken less than 100 mm.
421.6.3.1 Area of longitudinal reinforcement, Ast, shall not 421.6.4.4 Amount of transverse reinforcement required in
be less than 0.01Ag or more than 0.06 Ag. (1) or (2) shall be provided unless a larger amount is
required by Section 421.6.5.
421.6.3.2 Mechanical splices shall conform to Section 1. The volumetric ratio of spiral or circular hoop
421.3.6.1 and welded splices shall conform to Section reinforcement, ρs, shall not be less than required by Eq.
421.3.7.1. Lap splices shall be permitted only within the 421-3:
center half of the member length, shall be designed as
tension lap splices, and shall be enclosed within transverse  s = 0.12 f’c /fyt (421-3)
reinforcement conforming to Sections 421.6.4.2 and and shall not be less than required by Eq. 410-6.
421.6.4.3.
2. The total cross-sectional area of rectangular hoop
reinforcement, Ash, shall not be less than required by
Eqs. 421-4 and 421-5.
Ash = 0.3 (sbc f’c /fyt)[(Ag/Ach) – 1] (421-4)

Ash = 0.09(sbc f’c /fyt) (421-5) the joint. In no case shall Ve be less than the factored shear
determined by analysis of the structure.
421.6.4.5 Beyond the length lo specified in Section
421.6.4.1, the column shall contain spiral or hoop 421.6.5.2 Transverse reinforcement over the lengths lo,
reinforcement satisfying Section 407.10 with center-to- identified in Section 421.6.4.1, shall be proportioned to
center spacing, s, not exceeding the smaller of six times the resist shear assuming Vc = 0 when both of the following
diameter of the smallest longitudinal column bars and 150 conditions occur:
mm, unless a larger amount of transverse reinforcement is
1. The earthquake-induced shear force, calculated in
required by Sections 421.6.3.2 or 421.6.5.
accordance with Section 421.6.5.1, represents one-half
or more of the maximum required shear strength within
421.6.4.6 Columns supporting reactions from discontinued
lo;
stiff members, such as walls, shall satisfy (1) and (2):
2. The factored axial compressive force, Pu, including
1. Transverse reinforcement as specified in Sections
earthquake effects is less than Agf’c/20.
421.6.4.2 through 421.6.4.4 shall be provided over
their full height beneath the level at which the
discontinuity occurs if the factored axial compressive 421.7 Joints of Special Moment Frames
force in these members, related to earthquake effect,
exceeds Agf’c/10. Where design forces have been 421.7.1 Scope
magnified to account for the over strength of the
vertical elements of the seismic-force-resisting system, Requirements of Section 421.7 apply to beam-column joints
the limit of Agfc′ /10 shall be increased to Agfc′/4. of special moment frames forming part of the seismic-
force-resisting system.
2. Transverse reinforcement shall extend into the
discontinued member at least ld the largest
longitudinal bar, where ld is determined in 421.7.2 General Requirements
accordance with Section 421.7.5. Where the lower
end of the column terminates on a wall, the required 421.7.2.1 Forces in longitudinal beam reinforcement at the
transverse reinforcement shall extend into the joint face shall be determined by assuming that the stress in
wall at least ld of the largest longitudinal column the flexural tensile reinforcement is 1.25 fy.
bar at the point of termination. Where the column
terminates on a footing or mat, the required 421.7.2.2 Beam longitudinal reinforcement terminated in a
transverse reinforcement shall extend at least 300 mm column shall be extended to the far face of the confined
into the footing or mat. column core and anchored in tension according to Section
421.7.5, and in compression according to Section 412.
421.6.4.7 If the concrete cover outside the confining
transverse reinforcement specified in Sections 421.6.4.1, 421.7.2.3 Where longitudinal beam reinforcement extends
421.6.4.5, and 421.6.4.6 exceeds 100 mm, additional through a beam-column joint, the column dimension
transverse reinforcement shall be provided. Concrete cover parallel to the beam reinforcement shall not be less than 20
for additional transverse reinforcement shall not exceed 100 times the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar for
mm and spacing of additional transverse reinforcement normalweight concrete. For lightweight concrete, the
shall not exceed 300 mm. dimension shall not be less than 26 times the bar diameter.
421.6.5 Shear Strength Requirements 421.7.3 Transverse Reinforcement
421.7.3.1 Joint transverse reinforcement shall satisfy either

421.6.5.1 Design Forces Section 421.6.4.4(1) or 421.6.4.4(2), and shall also satisfy
The design shear force Ve shall be determined from Sections 421.6.4.2, 421.6.4.3, and 421.6.4.7, except as
consideration of the maximum forces that can be generated permitted in Section 421.7.3.2.
at the faces of the joints at each end of the member. These
joint forces shall be determined using the maximum 421.7.3.2 Where members frame into all four sides of the
probable moment strengths Mpr, at each end of the member joint and where each member width is at least three-fourths
associated with the range of factored axial loads, Pu, acting the column width, the amount of reinforcement specified in
on the member. The member shears need not exceed those Section 421.6.4.4(1) or Section 421.6.4.4(2) shall be
determined from joint strengths based on the probable permitted to be reduced by half, and the spacing required in
moment strength Mpr of the transverse members framing in Section 421.6.4.3 shall be permitted to be increased to 150
th
mm within the overall depth h of the shallowest framing ldh = fydb/(5.4 f 'c ) (421-6)
member.
421.7.3.3 Longitudinal beam reinforcement outside the For lightweight aggregate concrete, the development length,
column core shall be confined by transverse reinforcement ldh for a bar with a standard 90-degree hook shall not be less
passing through the column that satisfies spacing than the largest of 10db, 190 mm, and 1.25 times that
requirements of Section 421.5.3.2, and requirements of required by Eq. 421-6.
Sections 421.5.3.3 and 421.5.3.6, if such confinement is not
provided by a beam framing into the joint. The 90-degree hook shall be located within the confined
core of a column or of a boundary member.
421.7.4 Shear Strength 421.7.5.2 For bar sizes 10 mm through 36 mm diameter, the
development length ld for a straight bar shall not be less
421.7.4.1 The nominal shear strength Vn, of the joint shall than the larger of (1) and (2):
not be taken greater than the values specified below for
normal weight aggregate concrete. 1. times the length required by Section 421.7.5.1 if the
depth of the concrete cast in one lift beneath the bar
For joints confined on all four faces . . . . . 1.7 f 'c Aj does not exceed 300 mm; and
For joints confined on three faces or on two opposite
2. times the length required by Section 421.7.5.1 if the
faces . . . . . . . 1.2 f 'c Aj depth of the concrete cast in one lift beneath the
bar exceeds 300 mm.
For others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 f 'c Aj
421.7.5.3 Straight bars terminated at a joint shall pass
A member that frames into a face is considered to provide through the confined core of a column or of a boundary
confinement to the joint if at least three-fourths of the face member. Any portion of the straight embedment length, ld
of the joint is covered by the framing member. Extensions not within the confined core shall be increased by a factor
of beams at least one overall beam depth h beyond the joint of 1.6.
face are permitted to be considered as confining members.
Extensions of beams shall satisfy Sections 421.5.1.3, 421.7.5.4 If epoxy-coated reinforcement is used, the
421.5.2.1, 421.5.3.2, 421.5.3.3, and 421.5.3.6. A joint is development lengths in Sections 421.7.5.1 through
considered to be confined if such confining members frame 421.7.5.3 shall be multiplied by the applicable factor
into all faces of the joint. specified in Section 412.3.4 or 412.6.2.
Aj is the effective cross-sectional area within a joint 421.8 Special Reinforced Concrete Structural Walls and
computed from joint depth times effective joint width. Joint Coupling Beams
depth shall be the overall depth of the column, h. Effective
joint width shall be the overall width of the column, except
where a beam frames into a wider column, effective joint 421.8.1 Scope
width shall not exceed the smaller of (1) and (2): The requirements of Section 421.8 apply to special rein-
1. Beam width plus joint depth; forced concrete structural walls and coupling beams serving
as part of the earthquake force-resisting system. Special
2. Twice the smaller perpendicular distance from structural walls constructed using precast concrete shall
longitudinal axis of beam to column side. also comply with Section 421.15.
421.7.4.2 For lightweight aggregate concrete, the nominal

shear strength of the joint shall not exceed three-fourths of 421.8.2 Reinforcement
the limits for normal-weight aggregate concrete given in 421.8.2.1 The distributed web reinforcement ratios, v and
Section 421.7.4.1. n, for structural walls shall not be less than 0.0025, except
if the design shear force, Vu does not exceed (1/12)Acvλ f 'c ,
421.7.5 Development Length of Bars in Tension v and n, shall be permitted to be reduced to that required
in Section 414.4. Reinforcement spacing each way in
421.7.5.1 For bar sizes 10 mm through 36 mm diameter, the structural walls shall not exceed 450 mm. Reinforcement
development length ldh for a bar with a standard 90-degree contributing to Vn shall be continuous and shall be
hook in normalweight aggregate concrete shall not be less distributed across the shear plane.
than the largest of 8db, 150 mm, and the length required by
Eq. 421-6.
421.8.2.2 At least two curtains of reinforcement shall be one of the individual wall piers, Vn shall not be taken larger
used in a wall if Vu exceeds (1/6)Acvλ f 'c . than 0.83Acw , where Acw is the area of concrete section of
the individual pier considered.
421.8.2.3 Reinforcement in structural walls shall be 421.8.4.5 For horizontal wall segments and coupling
developed or spliced for fy in tension in accordance with
Section 412 except: beams, Vn shall not be taken larger than (5/6)Acp f 'c ,
where Acp is the area of a horizontal wall segment or
1. The effective depth of the member referenced in
coupling beam.
Section 412.11.3 shall be permitted to be taken as 0.8
lw for walls.
421.8.5 Design for Flexural and Axial Loads
2. The requirements of Sections 412.12, 412.13, and
412.14 need not be satisfied.
421.8.5.1 Structural walls and portions of such walls
3. At locations where yielding of longitudinal subject to combined flexural and axial loads shall be
reinforcement is likely to occur as a result of designed in accordance with Sections 410.3 and 410.4
lateral displacements, development lengths of except that Section 410.4.7 and the nonlinear strain
longitudinal reinforcement shall be 1.25 times the requirements of Section 410.3.2 shall not apply. Concrete
values calculated for fy in tension. and developed longitudinal reinforcement within effective
flange widths, boundary elements, and the wall web shall
4. Mechanical splices of reinforcement shall conform to be considered effective. The effects of openings shall be
Section 421.3.6 and welded splices of reinforcement considered.
shall conform to Section 421.3.7.
421.8.5.2 Unless a more detailed analysis is performed,
effective flange widths of flanged sections shall extend
421.8.3 Design Forces
from the face of the web a distance equal to the smaller of
The design shear force Vu shall be obtained from the lateral one-half the distance to an adjacent wall web and 25
load analysis in accordance with the factored load percent of the total wall height.
combinations.
421.8.6 Boundary Elements of Special Reinforced

421.8.4 Shear Strength Concrete Structural Walls
421.8.4.1 Nominal shear strength Vn of structural walls 421.8.6.1 The need for special boundary elements at the
shall not exceed: edges of structural walls shall be evaluated in accordance
Vn = Acv[ c (1/12) λ with Section 421.8.6.2 or 421.8.6.3. The requirements of
f 'c + t fy ] (421-7)
Sections 421.8.6.4 and 421.8.6.5 also shall be satisfied.
where the coefficient c is 0.25 for hw/lw  1.5, is 0.17 for
hw/lw  2.0, and varies linearly between 0.25 and 0.17 for 421.8.6.2 This section applies to walls or wall piers that
hw/lw between 1 .5 and 2.0. are effectively continuous from the base of structure to top
of wall and designed to have a single critical section for
flexure and axial loads. Walls not satisfying these
421.8.4.2 In Section 421.8.4.1, the value of ratio hw/lw used
requirements shall be designed by Section 421.7.6.3.
for determining Vn for segments of a wall shall be the larger
of the ratios for the entire wall and the segment of wall 1. Compression zones shall be reinforced with special
considered. boundary elements where:
lw (421-8)
421.8.4.3 Walls shall have distributed shear reinforcement c 
600 (  u / h w )
providing resistance in two orthogonal directions in the
plane of the wall. If the ratio hw/lw does not exceed 2.0,
reinforcement ratio v shall not be less than reinforcement c in Eq. 421-8 corresponds to the largest neutral axis
ratio n. depth calculated for the factored axial force and
nominal moment strength consistent with the design
421.8.4.4 Nominal shear strength of all wall piers sharing a displacement δu. Ratio u hw in Eq. 421-8 shall not be
common lateral force, Vn shall not be assumed to exceed taken less than 0.007.
(2/3)Acv f 'c , where Acv is the gross area of concrete 2. Where special boundary elements are required by
bounded by web thickness and length of section. For any Section 421.7.6.2 (1), the special boundary element
reinforcement shall extend vertically from the critical
th
section a distance not less than the larger of lw or Mu

421.8.6.5 Where special boundary elements are not required
/(4Vu).
by Section 421.8.6.2 or 421.8.6.3, the following shall be
satisfied:
421.8.6.3 Structural walls not designed to the provisions of
Section 421.8.6.2 shall have special boundary elements at 1. If the longitudinal reinforcement ratio at the wall
boundaries and edges around openings of structural walls boundary is greater than 2.8/fy boundary transverse
where the maximum extreme fiber compressive stress, reinforcement shall satisfy Sections 421.6.4.2, and
corresponding to load combinations including earthquake 421.8.6.4 (1). The maximum longitudinal spacing of
effect, E, exceeds 0.2f’c. The special boundary element shall transverse reinforcement in the boundary shall not
be permitted to be discontinued where the calculated exceed 200 mm;
compressive stress is less than 0.15f’c. Stresses shall be
2. Except when Vu in the plane of the wall is less
calculated for the factored forces using a linearly elastic
model and gross section properties. For walls with flanges, than (1/12)Acv f 'c , horizontal reinforcement
an effective flange width as defined in Section 421.8.5.2 terminating at the edges of structural walls without
shall be used. boundary elements shall have a standard hook
engaging the edge reinforcement or the edge
421.8.6.4 Where special boundary elements are required reinforcement shall be enclosed in U-stirrups having
by Section 421.8.6.2 or 421.8.6.3, through (1) through (5) the same size and spacing as, and spliced to, the
shall be satisfied: horizontal reinforcement.
1. The boundary element shall extend horizontally from
the extreme compression fiber a distance not less 421.8.7 Coupling Beams
than the larger of c - 0.1lw and c/2, where c is the
largest neutral axis depth calculated for the factored 421.8.7.1 Coupling beams with aspect ratio ln /d  4, shall
axial force and nominal moment strength consistent satisfy the requirements of Section 421.5. The provisions of
with δu; Sections 421.5.1.3 and 421.5.1.4 shall not be required if it
2. In flanged sections, the boundary element shall include can be shown by analysis that the beam has adequate lateral
the effective flange width in compression and shall stability.
extend at least 300 mm into the web;
421.8.7.2 Coupling beams with aspect ratio, ln /h < 2, and
3. Special boundary element transverse reinforcement with factored shear force Vu, exceeding (1/3)λ f ' c Acw
shall satisfy the requirements of Sections 421.6.4.2
through 421.6.4.4, except Eq. 421-4 need not be shall be reinforced with two intersecting groups of diag-
satisfied and the transverse reinforcement spacing limit onally placed bars symmetrical about the midspan, unless it
of Section 421.6.4.3(1) shall be one-third of the least can be shown that loss of stiffness and strength of the
dimension of the boundary element; coupling beams will not impair the vertical load carrying
capacity of the structure, or the egress from the structure, or
4. Special boundary element transverse reinforcement at the integrity of nonstructural components and their
the wall base shall extend into the support at least the connections to the structure.
development length, ld, according to Section 421.8.2.3,
of the largest longitudinal reinforcement in the special 421.8.7.3 Coupling beams not governed by Sections
boundary element unless the special boundary element 421.8.7.1 or 421.8.7.2 shall be permitted to be reinforced
terminates on a footing or mat, where special boundary either with two intersecting groups of bars symmetrical
element transverse reinforcement shall extend at least about the midspan, or according to Sections 421.5.2
300 mm into the footing or mat; through 421.5.4.
5. Horizontal reinforcement in the wall web shall be
anchored to develop the specified yield strength fy
within the confined core of the boundary element;

421.8.7.4 Coupling beams reinforced with two intersecting 421.8.8 Construction Joints
groups of diagonally placed bars symmetrical about the All construction joints in structural walls shall conform to
midspan shall satisfy (1), (2), and either (3) or (4). Section 406.4 and contact surfaces shall be roughened as in
Requirements of Section 411.9 shall not apply: Section 411.8.9.
1. The nominal shear strength, Vn, shall be determined
by: 421.8.9 Discontinuous Walls
Vn = 2Avd fy sin   f 'c Acw (421-9) Columns supporting discontinuous structural walls shall be
reinforced in accordance with Section 421.6.4.6.
2. Each group of diagonal bars shall consist of a
minimum of four bars provided in two or more layers.
421.9 Structural Diaphragms and Trusses
The diagonal bars shall be embedded into the wall not
less than 1.25 times the development length for fy in
tension. 421.9.1 Scope
3. Each group of diagonal bars shall be enclosed Floor and roof slabs acting as structural diaphragms to
transmit design actions induced by earthquake ground
by transverse reinforcement having out-to-out
motions shall be designed in accordance with this Section
dimensions not smaller than bw/2 in the direction
421.9. This Section also applies to struts, ties, chords, and
parallel to bw and bw/5 along the other sides, where bw
collector elements that transmit forces induced by
is the web width of the coupling beam. The earthquakes, as well as trusses serving as parts of the
transverse reinforcement shall satisfy Sections earthquake force-resisting systems.
421.6.4.2 and 421.6.4.4, shall have spacing measured
parallel to the diagonal bars satisfying Section
421.6.4.3 (3) and not exceeding six times the diameter 421.9.2 Design Forces
of the diagonal bars, and shall have spacing of crossties The seismic design forces for structural diaphragms shall be
or legs of hoops measured perpendicular to the obtained from the lateral load analysis in accordance with
diagonal bars not exceeding 350 mm. For the purpose the design load combinations.
of computing Ag for use in Eqs. 410-6 and 421-4, the
concrete cover as required in Section 407.8 shall be 421.9.3 Seismic Load Path
assumed on all four sides of each group of diagonal
bars. The transverse reinforcement, or its alternatively 421.9.3.1All diaphragms and their connections shall be
configured transverse reinforcement satisfying the proportioned and detailed to provide for a complete transfer
spacing and volume ratio requirements of the of forces to collector elements and to the vertical elements
transverse reinforcement along the diagonals, shall of the seismic-force-resisting system.
continue through the intersection of the diagonal bars.
Additional longitudinal and transverse reinforcement 421.9.3.2 Elements of a structural diaphragm system that
shall be distributed around the beam perimeter with are subjected primarily to axial forces and used to transfer
total area in each direction not less than 0.002bws and diaphragm shear or flexural forces around openings or other
spacing not exceeding 300 mm. discontinuities, shall comply with the requirements for
4. Transverse reinforcement shall be provided for the collectors in Sections 421.9.7.5 and 421.9.7.6.
entire beam cross section satisfying Sections 421.6.4.2,
421.6.4.4, and 421.5.4.2, with longitudinal spacing not 421.9.4 Cast-in-Place Composite-Topping Slab
exceeding the smaller of 150 mm and six times the Diaphragms
diameter of the diagonal bars, and with spacing of A composite-topping slab cast in place on a precast floor or
crossties or legs of hoops both vertically and roof shall be permitted to be used as a structural diaphragm
horizontally in the plane of the beam cross section not provided the topping slab is reinforced and its connections
exceeding 200 mm. Each crosstie and each hoop leg are proportioned and detailed to provide for a complete
shall engage a longitudinal bar of equal or larger transfer of forces to chords, collector elements, and the
diameter. It shall be permitted to configure hoops as lateral-force-resisting system. The surface of the previously
specified in Section 421.5.3.6. hardened concrete on which the topping slab is placed shall
be clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened.
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421.9.5 Cast-in-Place Topping Slab Diaphragms resisting system, the limit of 0.2fc′ shall be increased to
A cast-in-place non-composite topping on a precast floor or 0.5fc′ , and the limit of 0.15fc′ shall be increased to 0.4fc′ .
roof shall be permitted to serve as a structural diaphragm,
provided the cast-in-place topping acting alone is 421.9.7.6 Longitudinal reinforcement for collector
proportioned and detailed to resist the design forces. elements at splices and anchorage zones shall have either:
1. A minimum center-to-center spacing of three
421.9.6 Minimum Thickness of Diaphragms longitudinal bar diameters, but not less than 40 mm,
Concrete slabs and composite topping slabs serving as and a minimum concrete clear cover of two and one-
structural diaphragms used to transmit earthquake forces half longitudinal bar diameters, but not less than 50
shall not be less than 50 mm thick. Topping slabs placed mm; or
over precast floor or roof elements, acting as structural
diaphragms and not relying on composite action with the 2. Transverse reinforcement as required by Section
precast elements to resist the design seismic forces, shall 411.6.6.4, except as required in Section 421.9.7.5.
have thickness not less than 65 mm.
421.9.8 Flexural Strength
421.9.7 Reinforcement Diaphragms and portions of diaphragms shall be designed
for flexure in accordance with Sections 410.4 and 410.5
421.9.7.1 The minimum reinforcement ratio for structural except that the nonlinear distribution of strain requirements
diaphragms shall be in conformance with Section 407.13. of Section 410.4.2 for deep beams need not apply. The
Reinforcement spacing each way in non-post tensioned effects of openings shall be considered.
floor or roof systems shall not exceed 450 mm. Where
welded wire fabric is used as the distributed reinforcement
to resist shear in topping slabs placed over precast floor and 421.9.9 Shear Strength
roof elements, the wires parallel to the span of the precast Nominal shear strength Vn of structural diaphragms shall
elements shall be spaced not less than 250 mm on center. not exceed:
Reinforcement provided for shear strength shall be
continuous and shall be distributed uniformly across the
Vn = Acv [(1/6)λ f 'c + t fy] (421-10)
shear plane.
For cast-in-place topping slab diaphragms on precast floor
421.9.7.2 Bonded prestressing tendons used as primary or roof members, Acv shall be computed using the thickness
reinforcement in diaphragm chords or collectors shall be of topping slab only for non-composite topping slab
proportioned such that the stress due to design seismic diaphragms and the combined thickness of cast-in-place
forces does not exceed 415 MPa. Pre-compression from and precast elements for composite topping slab
unbonded tendons shall be permitted to resist diaphragm diaphragms. For composite topping slab diaphragms, the
design forces if a complete load path is provided. value of fc′ used to determine Vn shall not exceed the
smaller of fc′ for the precast members and fc′ for the topping
421.9.7.3 All reinforcement used to resist collector forces, slab.
diaphragm shear, or flexural tension shall be developed or
spliced for fy in tension. 421.9.9.2 Nominal shear strength Vn of structural
diaphragms shall not exceed 0.66 Acv f 'c .
421.9.7.4 Type 2 splices are required where mechanical
splices are used to transfer forces between the diaphragm
and the vertical elements of the seismic-force-resisting 421.9.9.3 Above joints between precast elements in
system. noncomposite and composite cast-in-place topping slab
diaphragms, Vn shall not exceed:
421.9.7.5 Collector elements with compressive stresses Vn = Avf fy μ (421-11)
exceeding 0.2f′c at any section shall have transverse
reinforcement, as in Sections 421.8.6.4 (3) over the length
where Avf is total area of shear friction reinforcement within
of the element. The special transverse reinforcement is topping slab, including both distributed and boundary
allowed to be discontinued at a section where the calculated reinforcement, that is oriented perpendicular to joints in the
compressive strength is less than 0.15f′c.
precast system and coefficient of friction, μ, is 1.0λ, where λ
is given in Section 411.8.4.3. At least one-half of Avf shall
Where design forces have been amplified to account for the be uniformly distributed along the length of the potential
overstrength of the vertical elements of the seismic-force-

shear plane. Area of distributed reinforcement in topping 421.10.2.3 Columns or boundary elements of special
slab shall satisfy Section 407.13.2.1 in each direction. reinforced concrete structural walls that have an edge
within one-half the footing depth from an edge of the
421.9.9.4 Above joints between precast elements in footing shall have transverse reinforcement in accordance
noncomposite and composite cast-in-place topping slab with Sections 421.6.4.2 through 421.6.4.4 provided below
diaphragms, Vn shall not exceed the limits in Section the top of the footing. This reinforcement shall extend into
411.8.5 where Ac is computed using the thickness of the the footing a distance no less than the smaller of the depth
topping slab only. of the footing, mat, or pile cap, or the development length
in tension.
421.9.10 Construction Joints 421.10.2.4 Where earthquake effects create uplift forces in
All construction joints in diaphragms shall conform to boundary elements of special reinforced concrete structural
Section 406.4 and contact surfaces shall be roughened as in walls or columns, flexural reinforcement shall be provided
Section 411.8.9. in the top of the footing, mat or pile cap to resist the design
load combinations, and shall not be less than required by
421.9.11 Structural Trusses Section 410.6.
421.9.11.1 Structural truss elements with compressive 421.10.2.5 See Section 422.11 for use of plain concrete in
footings and basement walls.
stresses exceeding 0.2fc′ at any section shall have transverse
reinforcement, as given in Sections 421.5.4.2 through
421.6.4.4 and Section 421.6.4.6, over the length of the 421.10.3 Grade Beams and Slabs on Grade
element.
421.10.3.1 Grade beams designed to act as horizontal ties
421.9.11.2 All continuous reinforcement in structural truss between pile caps or footings shall have continuous
elements shall be developed or spliced for fy in tension. longitudinal reinforcement that shall be developed within or
beyond the supported column or anchored within the pile
cap or footing at all discontinuities.
421.10 Foundations
421.10.3.2 Grade beams designed to act as horizontal ties
between pile caps or footings shall be proportioned such
421.10.1 Scope
that the smallest cross-sectional dimension shall be equal to
or greater than the clear spacing between connected
421.10.1.1 Foundations resisting earthquake-induced forces
columns divided by 20, but need not be greater than 450
or transferring earthquake-induced forces between structure
mm. Closed ties shall be provided at a spacing not to
and ground in structures assigned to seismic zones 4 and 2,
exceed the lesser of one-half the smallest orthogonal cross-
shall comply with Section 421.10 and other applicable code
sectional dimension or 300 mm.
provisions.
421.10.3.3 Grade beams and beams that are part of a mat
421.10.1.2 The provisions in Section 421.10 for piles,
foundation subjected to flexure from columns that are part
drilled piers, caissons, and slabs on grade shall supplement
of the lateral-force-resisting system shall conform to
other applicable code design and construction criteria. See
Section 421.5.
Sections 401.1.5 and 401.1.6.
421.10.3.4 Slabs-on-ground that resist seismic forces from
421.10.2 Footings, Foundation Mats, and Pile Caps walls or columns that are part of the lateral-force-resisting
system shall be designed as structural diaphragms in
421.10.2.1 Longitudinal reinforcement of columns and accordance with Section 421.9. The design drawings shall
structural walls resisting forces induced by earthquake clearly state that the slab-on-ground is a structural
effects shall extend into the footing, mat, or pile cap, and diaphragm and part of the lateral-force-resisting system.
shall be fully developed for tension at the interface.
421.10.4 Piles, Piers, and Caissons
421.10.2.2 Columns designed assuming fixed-end
conditions at the foundation shall comply with Section
421.10.4.1 Provisions of Section 421.10.4 shall apply to
421.10.2.1 and, if hooks are required, longitudinal
concrete piles, piers, and caissons supporting structures
reinforcement resisting flexure shall have 90-degree hooks
designed for earthquake resistance.
near the bottom of the foundation with the free end of the
bars oriented towards the center of the column.
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421.10.4.2 Piles, piers, or caissons resisting tension loads it shall be permitted to apply the requirements of Section
shall have continuous longitudinal reinforcement over the 421.11.4. For two way slabs without beams, slab-column
length resisting design tension forces. The longitudinal connections shall meet the requirements of Section
reinforcement shall be detailed to transfer tension forces 421.11.6.
within the pile cap to supported structural members.
421.11.3 Where the induced moments and shears under
421.10.4.3 Where tension forces induced by earthquake design displacements of Section 421.11.2 combined with
effects are transferred between pile cap or mat foundation the factored gravity moments and shears do not exceed the
and precast pile by reinforcing bars grouted or post- design moment and shear strength of the frame member, the
installed in the top of the pile, the grouting system shall conditions of Sections 421.11.3.1, 421.11.3.2, and
have been demonstrated by test to develop at least 125 421.11.3.3 shall be satisfied. For this purpose, the gravity
percent of the specified yield strength of the bar. load combinations (1.2D+1.0L+0.2S) or 0.9D, whichever is
critical, shall be used. The load factor on the live load, L,
421.10.4.4 Piles, piers, or caissons shall have transverse shall be permitted to be reduced to 0.5 except for garages,
reinforcement in accordance with Sections 421.6.4.2 areas occupied as places of public assembly, and all areas
through 421.6.4.4 at the following locations: where L is greater than 4.8 kN/m2.
1. At the top of the member for at least 5 times the
421.11.3.1 Members with factored gravity axial forces not
member cross-sectional dimension, but not less than
exceeding Agf’c/10 shall satisfy Sections 421.5.2.1. Stirrups
1.8 m. below the bottom of the pile cap;
shall be spaced not more than d/2 throughout the length of
2. For the portion of piles in soil that is not capable of the member.
providing lateral support, or in air and water, along the
entire unsupported length plus the length required in 421.11.3.2 Members with factored gravity axial forces
Section 421.10.4.4(1). exceeding Agf’c/10, shall satisfy Sections 421.6.3.1,
421.6.4.2, and 421.6.5. The maximum longitudinal spacing
421.10.4.5 For precast concrete driven piles, the length of of ties shall be so for the full column height. The spacing so
transverse reinforcement provided shall be sufficient to shall not exceed the smaller of six diameters of the smallest
account for potential variations in the elevation in pile tips. longitudinal bar enclosed, and 150 mm.
421.10.4.6 Concrete piles, piers, or caissons in foundations 421.11.3.3 Members with factored gravity axial forces
supporting one- and two-story stud bearing wall exceeding 0.35Po shall satisfy Sections 421.11.3.2 and
construction are exempt from the transverse reinforcement 421.6.4.7. The amount of transverse reinforcement provided
requirements of Sections 421.10.4.4 and 421.10.4.5. shall be one-half of that required by Section 421.6.4.4 but
shall not exceed a spacing so for the full member length.
421.10.4.7 Pile caps incorporating batter piles shall be
designed to resist the full compressive strength of the batter 421.11.4 If the induced moment or shear under design
piles acting as short columns. The slenderness effects of displacements, δu, exceeds Mn or Vn of the frame
batter piles shall be considered for the portion of the piles in member, or if induced moments are not calculated, the
soil that is not capable of providing lateral support, or in air conditions of Sections 421.11.4.1, 421.11.4.2, and
or water. 421.11.4.3 shall be satisfied.
421.11.4.1 Materials shall satisfy Sections 421.3.4.2,

421.11 Members not Designated as Part of the Seismic-
421.3.4.3, 421.3.5.2, 421.3.5.4, and 421.3.5.5 Mechanical
Force-Resisting System
splices shall satisfy Section 421.3.6 and welded splices
shall satisfy Section 421.3.7.1.
421.11.1 Scope
Requirements of Section 421.11 apply to frame members 421.11.4.2 Members with factored gravity axial forces not
not designated as part of the seismic-force-resisting system exceeding Agf’c/10 shall satisfy Sections 421.5.2.1 and
in structures assigned to seismic zones 4 and 2. 421.5.4. Stirrups shall be spaced at not more than d/2
throughout the length of the member.
421.11.2 Frame members assumed not to contribute to
lateral resistance, except two-way slabs without beams, 421.11.4.3 Members with factored gravity axial forces
shall be detailed according to Sections 421.11.3 or 421.11.4 exceeding Agf’c/10 shall satisfy Sections 421.6.3, 421.6.4,
depending on the magnitude of moments induced in those 421.6.5 and 421.7.3.1.
members if subjected to the design displacement, δu. If
effects of design displacements are not explicitly checked,
421.11.5 Precast concrete frame members assumed not to reinforcement details in any span resisting moments caused
contribute to lateral resistance, including their connections, by lateral force E shall satisfy Section 421.12.6.
shall satisfy (1), (2), and (3), in addition to Sections
421.11.2 through 421.11.4: 421.12.3 Design shear strength of beams, Vn, and
1. Ties specified in Section 421.11.3.2 shall be provided columns resisting earthquake effect E shall not be less than
over the entire column height, including the depth of the smaller of (1) and (2):
the beams; 1. The sum of the shear associated with development of
2. Structural integrity reinforcement, as specified in nominal moment strengths of the member at each
Section 416.6, shall be provided; and retrained end of the clear span and the shear calculated
for factored gravity loads;
3. Bearing length at support of a beam shall be at least 50
mm longer than determined from calculations 2. The maximum shear obtained from design load
using bearing strength values from Section 410.18. combinations that include earthquake effect E, with E
assumed to be twice that prescribed in Section 208.
421.11.6 For slab-column connections of two-way slabs
without beams, slab shear reinforcement satisfying the 421.12.4 Beams
requirements of Sections 411.13.3 and 411.13.5 and
providing Vs not less than 0.29 f 'c bod shall extend at least 421.12.4.1 The positive moment strength at the face of the
four times the slab thickness from the face of the support, joint shall be not less than one-third the negative moment
unless either (1) or (2) is satisfied: strength provided at that face of the joint. Neither the
negative nor the positive moment strength at any section
1. The requirements of Section 411.13.7 using the along the length of the member shall be less than one-fifth
design shear Vug and the induced moment transferred the maximum moment strength provided at the face of
between the slab and column under the design either joint.
displacement;
2. The design story drift ratio does not exceed the larger 421.12.4.2 At both ends of the member, stirrups shall be
of 0.005 and [0.035 – 0.05(Vug/Vc)]. provided over lengths equal to twice the member depth h
measured from the face of the supporting member toward
Design story drift ratio shall be taken as the larger of the midspan. The first stirrup shall be located at not more than
design story drift ratios of the adjacent stories above and 50 mm from the face of the supporting member. Maximum
below the slab-column connection. Vc is defined in Section stirrup spacing shall not exceed the smallest of:
411.13.2. Vug is the factored shear force on the slab critical 1. d/4;
section for two-way action, calculated for the load
combination 1.2D + 1.0L + 0.2S. 2. Eight times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal
bar enclosed;
The load factor on the live load, L, shall be permitted to be 3. Twenty four times the diameter of the stirrup bar; and
reduced to 0.5 except for garages, areas occupied as places
4. 300 mm.
of public assembly, and all areas where L is greater than 4.8
kN/m2.
421.12.4.3 Stirrups shall be placed at not more than d/2
throughout the length of the member.
421.12 Requirements for Intermediate Moment Frames,
Seismic Zone 2 421.12.5 Columns
421.12.1 The requirements of Section 421.12 apply to 421.12.5.1 Columns shall be spirally reinforced in
intermediate moment frames forming part of the seismic- accordance with Sections 407.11.4 or shall conform with
force-resisting system in addition to those of Sections 401 Sections 421.12.5.2 through 421.12.5.4. Section 421.12.5.5
through 418.
shall apply to all columns, and Section 421.12.5.6 shall
apply to all columns supporting discontinuous stiff
421.12.2 Reinforcement details in a frame member shall members.
satisfy Section 421.12.4 if the factored compressive axial
load for the member does not exceed Agf’c/10. If Pu is
larger, frame reinforcement details shall satisfy Section
421.12.5. Where a two-way slab system without beams
forms a part of the seismic-force-resisting system,
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421.12.5.2 At both ends of the column, hoops shall be 421.12.6.2 Reinforcement placed within the effective
provided at spacing so over a length lo measured from the width specified in Section 413.6.3.2 shall be proportioned
joint face. Spacing so shall not exceed the smallest of (1), to resist γfMslab. Effective slab width for exterior and corner
(2), (3), and (4): connections shall not extend beyond the column face a
distance greater than ct measured perpendicular to the slab
1. Eight times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal
span.
bar enclosed;
2. 24 times the diameter of the tie bar; 421.12.6.3 Not less than one-half of the reinforcement in
the column strip at support shall be placed within the
3. One-half of the smallest cross sectional dimension of
effective slab width specified in Section 413.6.3.2.
the column; and
4. 300 mm 421.12.6.4 Not less than one-fourth of the top
reinforcement at the support in the column strip shall be
Length lo shall not be less than the largest of:
continuous throughout the span.
1. One-sixth of the clear span of the member;
421.12.6.5 Continuous bottom reinforcement in the
2. Maximum cross-sectional dimension of the column;
column strip shall be not less than one-third of the top
and
reinforcement at the support in the column strip.
3. 450 mm.
421.12.6.6 Not less than one-half of all bottom
421.12.5.3 The first tie shall be located at not more than reinforcement and all bottom column strip reinforcement at
so/2 from the joint face. midspan shall be continuous and shall develop its yield
strength, fy, at face of support as defined in Section
421.12.5.4 Outside the length lo, spacing of transverse 413.7.2.5.
reinforcement shall conform to Sections 407.11 and
411.6.5.1. 421.12.6.7 At discontinuous edges of the slab all top and
bottom reinforcement at support shall be and shall be
421.12.5.5 Joint reinforcement shall conform to Section developed at the face of support as defined in Section
411.12. 413.7.2.5.
421.12.5.6 Columns supporting reactions from 421.12.6.8 At the critical sections for columns defined in
discontinuous stiff members, such as walls, shall be Section 411.13.1.2, two-way shear caused by factored
provided with transverse reinforcement at the spacing, so, as gravity loads shall not exceed 0.4Vc, where Vc shall be
defined in Section 421.12.5.2 over the full height beneath calculated as defined in Section 411.13.2.1 for
the level at which the discontinuity occurs if the portion of nonprestressed slabs and in Section 411.13.2.2 for
factored axial compressive force in these members related prestressed slabs. It shall be permitted to waive this
to earthquake effects exceeds Agfc′ /10. Where design forces requirement if the slab design satisfies requirements of
have been magnified to account for the overstrength of the Section 421.11.6.
vertical elements of the seismic- force-resisting system, the
limit of Agfc′ /10 shall be increased to Agfc′ /4. This 421.13 Special Moment Frames Using Precast Concrete
transverse reinforcement shall extend above and below the
columns as required in 421.6.4.6 (2).
421.13.1 Scope
Requirements of Section 421.13 apply to special moment
421.12.6 Two-Way Slabs Without Beams
frames constructed using precast concrete forming part of
the seismic-force-resisting system.
421.12.6.1 Factored slab moment at support including
earthquake effects, E, shall be determined for load
combinations defined by Eqs. 409-5 and 409-7. All 421.13.2 Special moment frames with ductile connections
reinforcement provided to resist Ms, the portion of slab constructed using precast concrete shall satisfy (1) and (2)
moment balanced by support moment shall be placed within and all requirements for special moment frames constructed
the column strip defined in Section 413.3.1. with cast-in-place concrete:
1. Vn for connections computed according to Section
411.8.4 shall not be less than 2Ve, where Ve is
calculated according to Section 421.5.4.1 or 421.6.5.1;
2. Mechanical splices of beam reinforcement shall be 421.14.3 Columns having clear height less than or equal
located not closer than h/2 from the joint face and shall to five times the dimension c1 shall be designed for shear in
meet the requirements of Sections 421.3.6. accordance with Section 421.12.3.
421.13.3 Special moment frames with strong connections

421.15 Special Structural Walls Constructed Using
constructed using precast concrete shall satisfy all
Precast Concrete
requirements for special moment frames constructed with
cast-in-place concrete, as well as (1), (2), (3), and (4).
1. Provisions of Section 421.5.1.2 shall apply to segments 421.15.1 Scope
between locations where flexural yielding is intended Requirements of Section 421.15 apply to special structural
to occur due to design displacements; walls constructed using precast concrete forming part of the
seismic-force-resisting system.
2. Design strength of the strong connection, Sn, shall be
not less than Se; 421.15.2 Special structural walls constructed using
3. Primary longitudinal reinforcement shall be made precast concrete shall satisfy all requirements of Section
continuous across connections and shall be developed 421.8 in addition to Sections 421.4.2 and 421.4.3.
outside both the strong connection and the plastic
hinge region; and 421.15.3 Special structural walls constructed using precast
concrete and unbonded post-tensioning tendons and not
4. For column-to-column connections,  Sn shall not be satisfying the requirements of Section 421.15.2 are
less than 1.4 Se. At column-to-column connections, permitted provided they satisfy the requirements of ACI
Mn shall be not less than 0.4Mpr for the column ITG-5.1.
within the story height, and Vn of the connection
shall be not less than Ve determined by Section
421.6.5.1.
421.13.4 Special moment frames constructed using precast

concrete and not satisfying the requirements of Sections
421.13.2 or 421.13.3 shall satisfy the requirements of ACI
374.1 and the requirements of (1) and (2):
1. Details and materials used in the test specimens shall
be representative of those used in the structure; and
2. The design procedure used to proportion the test
specimens shall define the mechanism by which the
frame resists gravity and earthquake effects, and shall
establish acceptance values for sustaining that
mechanism. Portions of the mechanism that deviate
from Code requirements shall be contained in the test
specimens and shall be tested to determine upper
bounds for acceptance values.
421.14 Ordinary Moment Frames
421.14.1 Scope
Requirements of Section 421.14 apply to ordinary moment
frames forming part of the seismic-force-resisting system.
421.14.2 Beams shall have at least two of the longitudinal

bars continuous along both the top and bottom faces. These
bars shall be developed at the face of support.
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422.2.3 For unusual structures, such as arches, underground

utility structures, gravity walls, and shielding walls,
SECTION 422 provisions of this section shall govern where applicable.
STRUCTURAL PLAIN CONCRETE
422.3 Limitations
422.1 Notations
422.3.1 Provisions of Section 422 shall apply for design of
Ag = gross area of section, mm2 structural plain concrete members defined as either
A1 = loaded area, mm2 unreinforced or containing less reinforcement than the
A2 = the area of the lower base of the largest frustum of minimum amount specified in this code for reinforced
a pyramid, cone, or tapered wedge contained concrete. See Section 402.
wholly within the support and having for its upper
base the loaded area, and having side slopes of 1
422.3.2 Use of structural plain concrete shall be limited to:
vertical to 2 horizontal, mm2
b = width of member, mm 1. Members that are continuously supported by soil or
bo = perimeter of critical section for shear in footings, supported by other structural members capable of
mm providing continuous vertical support;
Bn = nominal bearing load
2. Members for which arch action provides compression
f’c = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
under all conditions of loading; or
See Section 405
f 'c = square root of specified compressive strength of 3. Walls and pedestals. See Sections 422.7 and 422.9.
concrete, MPa
The use of structural plain concrete columns shall not
fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight
permitted.
aggregate concrete, MPa. See Sections 405.2.4 and
405.2.5
422.3.3 Section 422 shall not govern design and
installation of cast-in-place concrete piles and piers
lc = vertical distance between supports, mm
embedded in ground.
Mn = nominal moment strength at section
Pn = nominal strength of cross section subject to 422.3.4 Minimum Specified Strength
compression Specified compressive strength of plain concrete to be used
Pnw = nominal axial load strength of wall designed by for structural purposes shall not be less than the larger of 17
Section 422.7.5 MPa and that required for durability in Section 404.
Pu = factored axial load at given eccentricity
S = elastic section modulus of section 422.3.5 Seismic Zones 2 and 4. Plain concrete shall not be
Vn = nominal shear strength at section used in Seismic Zone 2 or 4 except where specifically
vu = shear stress due to factored shear force at section. permitted by Section 422.11.1.
Vu = factored shear force at section
c = ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load
or reaction area 422.4 Joints
 = strength reduction factor. See Section 409.4.5
422.4.1 Contraction or isolation joints shall be provided to
divide structural plain concrete members into flexurally
422.2 Scope discontinuous elements. The size of each element shall limit
or control excessive buildup of internal stresses caused by
422.2.1 Section 422 provides minimum requirements for restraint to movements from creep, shrinkage and
design and construction of structural plain concrete temperature effects.
members (cast-in-place or precast).
422.4.2 In determining the number and location of
422.2.2 Unless in conflict with the provisions of Section contraction or isolation joints, consideration shall be given
422, the following provisions of this Code shall apply to
structural plain concrete members: Sections 401.1 through to: influence of climatic conditions; selection and
407.6, 407.7.1, 407.7.2, 407.7.4, 407.8, 409.2.3, 409.3, proportioning of materials; mixing, placing and curing of
409.4.5, Sections 420, 421.10.2.5, 426.409.3, 426.409.3.5, concrete; degree of restraint to movement; stresses due to
and Section 423. loads to which an element is subject; and construction
techniques.

422.5 Design Method 422.6.2 Design of cross sections subject to compression

shall be based on:
422.5.1 Structural plain concrete members shall be
designed for adequate strength in accordance with the code,
Pn  Pu (422-4)
using load factors and design strength. where Pu is factored load and Pn is nominal compression
strength computed by:
422.5.2 Factored loads and forces shall be in combinations
as in Section 409.3.   l  
2
(422-5)
Pn  0.60 f ' c 1   c   A1
  32 h  
422.5.3 Where required strength exceeds design strength,
reinforcement shall be provided and the member designed where A1 is the loaded area.
as a reinforced concrete member in accordance with
appropriate design requirements of the code. 422.6.3 Members subject to combined flexure and axial
load in compression shall be proportioned such that on the
422.5.4 Strength design of structural plain concrete compression face:
members for flexure and axial loads shall be based on a Pu / Pn + Mu / Mn  1 ] (422-6)
linear stress-strain relationship in both tension and
compression. and on the tension face:
Mu /S - Pu /Ag  0.42λ f 'c (422-7)
422.5.5 Tensile strength of concrete shall be permitted to be
considered in design of plain concrete members when
provisions of Section 422.4 have been followed. 422.6.4 Design of rectangular cross sections subject to
shear shall be based on:
422.5.6 No strength shall be assigned to steel Vn  Vu (422-8)
reinforcement that may be present.
where Vu is factored shear and Vn is nominal shear strength
422.5.7 Tension shall not be transmitted through outside computed by:
edges, construction joints, contraction joints, or isolation
Vn = 0.11λ f 'c bwh (422-9)
joints of an individual plain concrete element. No flexural
continuity due to tension shall be assumed between adjacent
for beam action and by:
structural plain concrete elements.
 2 
422.5.8 When computing strength in flexure, combined V n  0 . 11 1   f ' c bo h (422-10)
  
flexure and axial load, and shear, the entire cross section of
a member shall be considered in design, except for concrete
for two-way action but not greater than 0.22λ f 'c boh.
cast against soil where overall thickness h shall be taken as
50 mm less than actual thickness.
In Eq. 422-10, β corresponds to ratio of long side to short
side of concentrated load or reaction area.
422.6 Strength Design
422.6.5 Design of bearing areas subject to compression
422.6.1 Design of cross sections subject to flexure shall shall be based on:
be
 Bn  Bu (422-11)
based on
Mn  Mu (422-1) where Bu is factored bearing load and Bn is the nominal
bearing strength of loaded area A1 computed by:
where Mu is factored moment and Mn is nominal moment
strength computed by Bn = 0.85f’c A1 (422-12)
Mn = (5/12)λ f 'c Sm (422-2) except where the supporting surface is wider on all sides
than the loaded area, design bearing strength on the loaded
if tension controls, and
area shall be multiplied by A2 / A1 but not more than 2.
Mn = 0.85 f’c Sm (422-3)
if compression controls, where Sm is the corresponding
elastic section modulus.
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422.7.6.2 Except as provided for in Section 422.7.6.3,

thickness of bearing walls shall not be less than 1/24 the
422.6.6 Lightweight Concrete unsupported height or length, whichever is shorter, nor less
Modification factor λ for lightweight concrete in this than 140 mm.
Chapter shall be in accordance with Section 408.7.1 unless
specifically noted otherwise. 422.7.6.3 Thickness of exterior basement walls and
foundation walls shall be not less than 190 mm.
422. 7 Walls
422.7.6.4 Walls shall be braced against lateral translation.
422.7.1 Structural plain concrete walls shall be See Sections 422.4 and 422.5.7.
continuously supported by soil, footings, foundation walls,
grade beams or other structural members capable of 422.7.6.5 Not less than two ɸ16 mm bars shall be
providing continuous vertical support. provided around all window and door openings. Such bars
shall extend at least 600 mm beyond the corners of
422.7.2 Structural plain concrete walls shall be designed openings.
for vertical, lateral and other loads to which they are
subjected. 422.8 Footing
422.7.3 Structural plain concrete walls shall be designed 422.8.1 Structural plain concrete footings shall be
for an eccentricity corresponding to the maximum moment designed for factored loads and induced reactions in
that can accompany the axial load but not less than 0.10h. If accordance with appropriate design requirements of this
the resultant of all factored loads is located within the Chapter and as provided in Sections 422.8.2 through
middle- third of the overall wall thickness, the design shall 422.8.8.
be in accordance with Sections 422.6.3 or 422.7.5.
Otherwise, walls shall be designed in accordance with 422.8.2 Base area of footing shall be determined from
Section 422.6.3. unfactored forces and moments transmitted by footing to
soil and permissible soil pressure selected through
422.7.4 Design for shear shall be in accordance with principles of soil mechanics.
Section 422.6.4.
422.8.3 Plain concrete shall not be used for footings on
422.7.5 Empirical Design Method piles.
422.7.5.1 Structural plain concrete walls of solid 422.8.4 Thickness of structural plain concrete footings
rectangular cross section shall be permitted to be designed shall be not less than 200 mm. See Section 422.5.7.
by Eq. 422-13 if the resultant of all factored loads is located
within the middle-third of the overall thickness of wall. 422.8.5 Maximum factored moment shall be computed at
422.7.5.2 Design of walls subject to axial loads in critical sections located as follows:
compression shall be based on: 1. At the face of the column, pedestal or wall, for footing
 Pn  Pu (422-13) supporting a concrete column, pedestal or wall;
where Pu is the factored axial load and Pn is nominal axial 2. Halfway between center and face of the wall, for
load strength computed by: footing supporting a masonry wall;
  l 2 3. Halfway between face of column and edge of steel base

Pnw  0.45 f ' c A g 1   c   (422-14) plate, for footing supporting a column with steel base
  32 h   plate.
422.7.6 Limitations 422.8.6 Shear in Plain Concrete Footing
422.7.6.1 Unless demonstrated by a detailed analysis, 422.8.6.1 Maximum factored shear shall be computed in
horizontal length of wall to be considered effective for each accordance with Section 422.8.6.2, with location of critical
vertical concentrated load shall not exceed center-to-center section measured at face of column, pedestal or wall for
distance between loads, nor width of bearing plus four footing supporting a column, pedestal or wall. For footing
times the wall thickness. supporting a column with steel base plates, the critical

section shall be measured at location defined in Section 422.10.3 Precast members shall be connected securely to
422.8.5 (3). transfer all lateral forces into a structural system capable of
resisting such forces.
422.8.6.2 Shear strength of structural plain concrete
footings in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions 422.10.4 Precast members shall be adequately braced and
shall be governed by the more severe of two conditions: supported during erection to ensure proper alignment and
structural integrity until permanent connections are
1. Beam action for footing, with a critical section
completed.
extending in a plane across the entire footing width and
located at a distance h from face of concentrated load
or reaction area. For this condition, the footing shall be 422.11 Plain Concrete in Earthquake-Resisting
designed in accordance with Eq. 422-9; Structures
2. Two-way action for footing, with a critical section
perpendicular to plane of footing and located so that its 422.11.1 Structures designed for earthquake induced forces
perimeter bo is a minimum, but need not approach in regions of high seismic risk or assigned to high seismic
closer than h/2 to perimeter of concentrated load or performance or design categories, e.g. zone 4, shall not
reaction area. For this condition, the footing shall be have foundation elements of structural plain concrete,
except as follows:
designed in accordance with Eq. 422-10.
1. For detached one- and two-family dwellings three
422.8.7 Circular or regular polygon shaped concrete stories or less in height and constructed with stud
columns or pedestals shall be permitted to be treated as bearing walls, plain concrete footings without
square members with the same area for location of critical longitudinal reinforcements supporting walls and
sections for moment and shear. isolated plain concrete footings supporting columns or
pedestals are permitted;
422.8.8 Factored bearing load, Bu, on concrete at contact
2. For all other structures, plain concrete footings
surface between supporting and supported member shall not
supporting cast-in-place reinforced concrete or
exceed design bearing strength, Bn, for either surface as
reinforced masonry walls are permitted provided the
given in Section 422.6.5.
footings are reinforced longitudinally with not less than
two continuous reinforcing bars. Bars shall not be
422.9 Pedestals smaller than 12 mm diameter and shall have a total
area of not less than 0.002 times the gross cross-
422.9.1 Plain concrete pedestals shall be designed for sectional area of the footing. Continuity of
vertical, lateral and other loads to which they are subjected. reinforcement shall be provided at corners and
intersections;
422.9.2 Ratio of unsupported height to average least 3. For detached one- and two-family dwellings three
lateraldimension of plain concrete pedestals shall not stories or less in height and constructed with stud
exceed 3. bearing walls, plain concrete foundations or basement
walls are permitted provided the wall is not less than
422.9.3 Maximum factored axial load, Pu, applied to plain 190 mm thick and retains no more than 1.2 m of
concrete pedestals shall not exceed design bearing strength, unbalanced fill.
Bn, given in Section 422.6.5.
422.10 Precast Members
422.10.1 Design of precast plain concrete members shall

consider all loading conditions from initial fabrication to
completion of the structure, including form removal,
storage, transportation and erection.
422.10.2 Limitations of Section 422.3 apply to precast

members of plain concrete not only to the final condition
but also during fabrication, transportation and erection.
th
DUCTILE STEEL ELEMENT. An element with a tensile

SECTION 423 test elongation of at least 14 percent and reduction in area
of at least 30 percent. A steel element meeting the
ANCHORAGE TO CONCRETE requirements of ASTM A307 shall be considered ductile.
423.1 Definitions EDGE DISTANCE. The distance from the edge of the
concrete surface to the center of the nearest anchor.
ANCHOR A steel element either cast into concrete or
post-installed into a hardened concrete member and used to EFFECTIVE EMBEDMENT DEPTH. The overall depth
transmit applied loads, including headed bolts, hooked bolts through which the anchor transfers force to or from the
(J- or L-bolt), headed studs, expansion anchors, or undercut surrounding concrete. The effective embedment depth will
anchors. normally be the depth of the concrete failure surface in
tension applications. For cast-in headed anchor bolts and
ANCHOR GROUP. A number of anchors of headed studs, the effective embedment depth is measured
approximately equal effective embedment depth with each from the bearing contact surface of the head.
anchor spaced at less than 3hef from one or more adjacent
anchors when subjected to tension or 3ca1 from one or more EXPANSION ANCHOR. A post-installed anchor, inserted
adjacent anchors when subjected to shear. Only those into hardened concrete that transfers loads to or from the
anchors susceptible to the particular failure mode under concrete by direct bearing or friction or both. Expansion
investigation shall be included in the group. anchors may be torque-controlled, where the expansion is
achieved by a torque acting on the screw or bolt; or
ANCHOR PULLOUT STRENGTH. The strength displacement-controlled, where the expansion is achieved
corresponding to the anchoring device or a major by impact forces acting on a sleeve or plug and the
component of the device sliding out from the concrete expansion is controlled by the length of travel of the sleeve
without breaking out a substantial portion of the or plug.
surrounding concrete.
EXPANSION SLEEVE. The outer part of an expansion
ANCHOR REINFORCEMENT. Reinforcement used to anchor that is forced outward by the center part, either by
transfer the full design load from the anchors into the applied torque or impact, to bear against the sides of the
structural member. See Section 423.5.2.9 or 423.6.2.9. predrilled hole.
ATTACHMENT. The structural assembly, external to the FIVE PERCENT FRACTILE. A statistical term meaning
surface of the concrete, that transmits loads to or receives 90 percent confidence that there is 95 percent probability of
loads from the anchor. the actual strength exceeding the nominal strength.
BRITTLE STEEL ELEMENT. An element with a tensile HEADED STUD. A steel anchor conforming to the
test elongation of less than 14 percent, or reduction in area requirements of AWS D1.1 and affixed to a plate or similar
of less than 30 percent, or both. steel attachment by the stud arc welding process before
casting.
CAST-IN ANCHOR. A headed bolt, headed stud, or
hooked bolt installed before placing concrete. HOOKED BOLT. A cast-in anchor anchored mainly by
bearing of the 90-degree bend (L-bolt) or 180-degree bend
(J-bolt) against the concrete, at its embedded end, and
CONCRETE BREAKOUT STRENGTH. The strength
having a minimum eh of 3da.
corresponding to a volume of concrete surrounding the
anchor or group of anchors separating from the member.
POST-INSTALLED ANCHOR. An anchor installed in
hardened concrete. Expansion anchors and undercut
CONCRETE PRYOUT STRENGTH. The strength
anchors are examples of post-installed anchors.
corresponding to formation of a concrete spall behind short,
stiff anchors displaced in the direction opposite to the
applied shear force. PROJECTED AREA. The area on the free surface of the
concrete member that is used to represent the larger base of
the assumed rectilinear failure surface.
DISTANCE SLEEVE. A sleeve that encases the center
part of an undercut anchor, a torque-controlled expansion
anchor, or a displacement-controlled expansion anchor, but SIDE-FACE BLOWOUT STRENGTH. The strength of
does not expand. anchors with deeper embedment but thinner side cover
corresponding to concrete spalling on the side face around
the embedded head while no major breakout occurs at the 423.2.4 Load applications that are predominantly high cycle
top concrete surface. fatigue or impact loads are not covered by this section.
SPECIALTY INSERT. Predesigned and prefabricated

423.3 General Requirements
cast-in anchors specifically designed for attachment of
bolted or slotted connections. Specialty inserts are often
used for handling, transportation, and erection, but are also 423.3.1 Anchors and anchor groups shall be designed for
used for anchoring structural elements. Specialty inserts are critical effects of factored loads as determined by elastic
not within the scope of this appendix. analysis. Plastic analysis approaches are permitted where
nominal strength is controlled by ductile steel elements,
provided that deformational compatibility is taken into
SUPPLEMENTARY REINFORCEMENT.
account.
Reinforcement that acts to restrain the potential concrete
breakout but is not designed to transfer the full design load
from the anchors into the structural member. 423.3.2 The design strength of anchors shall equal or
exceed the largest required strength calculated from the
applicable load combinations in Section 402.
UNDERCUT ANCHOR. A post-installed anchor that
develops its tensile strength from the mechanical interlock
provided by undercutting of the concrete at the embedded 423.3.3 When anchor design includes earthquake forces for
end of the anchor. The undercutting is achieved with a structures assigned to seismic zones 2 or 4, the additional
special drill before installing the anchor or alternatively by requirements of Sections 423.3.3.1 through 423.3.3.6 shall
the anchor itself during its installation. apply.
423.3.3.1 The provisions of this section do not apply to the

423.2 Scope design of anchors in plastic hinge zones of concrete
structures under earthquake forces.
423.2.1 This section provides design requirements for
anchors in concrete used to transmit structural loads by 423.3.3.2 Post-installed structural anchors shall be
means of tension, shear, or a combination of tension and qualified for use in cracked concrete and shall have passed
shear between: the Simulated Seismic Tests in accordance with ACI 355.2.
Pullout strength Np and steel strength of the anchor in shear
1. Connected structural elements; or
Vsa shall be based on the results of the ACI 355.2 Simulated
2. Safety-related attachments and structural elements. Seismic Tests.
Safety levels specified are intended for in-service
conditions, rather than for short-term handling and 423.3.3.3 The anchor design strength associated with
construction conditions. concrete failure modes shall be taken as 0.75Nn and
0.75Vn, where  is given in Section 423.4.4 or 423.4.5, and
423.2.2 This section applies to both cast-in anchors and Nn and Vn are determined in accordance with Sections
post-installed anchors. Specialty inserts, throughbolts, 423.5.2, 423.5.3, 423.5.4, 423.6.2, and 423.6.3, assuming
multiple anchors connected to a single steel plate at the the concrete is cracked unless it can be demonstrated that
embedded end of the anchors, adhesive or grouted anchors, the concrete remains uncracked.
and direct anchors such as powder or pneumatic actuated
nails or bolts, are not included. Reinforcement used as part 423.3.3.4 Anchors shall be designed to be governed by the
of the embedment shall be designed in accordance with steel strength of a ductile steel element as determined in
other parts of this section. accordance with Sections 423.5.1 and 423.6.1, unless either
Section 423.3.3.5 or 423.3.3.6 is satisfied.
423.2.3 Headed studs and headed bolts having a geometry
that has been demonstrated to result in a pullout strength in 423.3.3.5 Instead of Section 423.3.3.4, the attachment that
uncracked concrete equal or exceeding 1.4Np (where Np is the anchor is connecting to the structure shall be designed
given by Eq. 423-15) are include. Hooked bolts that have a so that the attachment will undergo ductile yielding at a
geometry that has been demonstrated to result in a pullout force level corresponding to anchor forces no greater than
strength without the benefit of friction in uncracked the design strength of anchors specified in Section
concrete equal or exceeding 1.4Np (where Np is given by 423.3.3.3.
Eq. 423-16) are included. Post-installed anchors that meet
the assessment requirements of ACI 355.2 are included. 423.3.3.6 As an alternative to Sections 423.3.3.4 and
The suitability of the post-installed anchor for use in 423.3.3.5, it shall be permitted to take the design strength of
concrete shall have been demonstrated by the ACI 355.2 the anchors as 0.4 times the design strength determined in
prequalification tests.
th
accordance with Section 423.3.3.3. For the anchors of stud consideration of: Vsa, either Vcb or Vcbg, and either Vcp
bearing walls, it shall be permitted to take the design or Vcpg
strength of the anchors as 0.5 times the design strength
determined in accordance with Section 423.3.3.3. 423.4.1.3 When both Nua and Vua are present,
interaction effects shall be considered in accordance with
423.3.4 Modification factor λ for lightweight concrete in Section 423.4.3.
this appendix shall be in accordance with Section 408.7.1
unless specifically noted otherwise. 423.4.2 The nominal strength for any anchor or group of
anchors shall be based on design models that result in
423.3.5 The values of fc′ used for calculation purposes in predictions of strength in substantial agreement with results
this appendix shall not exceed 70 MPa for cast-in anchors, of comprehensive tests. The materials used in the tests shall
and 55 MPa for post-installed anchors. Testing is required be compatible with the materials used in the structure. The
for post-installed anchors when used in concrete with fc′ nominal strength shall be based on the 5 percent fractile of
greater than 55 MPa. the basic individual anchor strength. For nominal strengths
related to concrete strength, modifications for size effects,
the number of anchors, the effects of close spacing of
423.4 General Requirements for Strength of Anchors
anchors, proximity to edges, depth of the concrete member,
eccentric loadings of anchor groups, and presence or
423.4.1 Strength design of anchors shall be based either
absence of cracking shall be taken into account. Limits on
on computation using design models that satisfy the
edge distances and anchor spacing in the design models
requirements of Section 423.4.2, or on test evaluation using
shall be consistent with the tests that verified the model.
the 5 percent fractile of test results for the following:
1. Steel strength of anchor in tension (Section 423.5.1); 423.4.2.1 The effect of reinforcement provided to restrain
the concrete breakout shall be permitted to be included in
2. Steel strength of anchor in shear (Section 423.6.1);
the design models used to satisfy Section 423.4.2. Where
3. Concrete breakout strength of anchor in tension anchor reinforcement is provided in accordance with
(Section 423.5.2); Sections 423.5.2.9 and 423.6.2.9, calculation of the
concrete breakout strength in accordance with Sections
4. Concrete breakout strength of anchor in shear
423.5.2 and 423.6.2 is not required.
(Section 423.6.2);
5. Pullout strength of anchor in tension (Section 423.5.3); 423.4.2.2 For anchors with diameters not exceeding 50
mm, and tensile embedments not exceeding 635 mm in
6. Concrete side-face blowout strength of anchor in
depth, the concrete breakout strength requirements shall be
tension (Section 423.5.4); and
considered satisfied by the design procedure of Sections
7. Concrete pryout strength of anchor in shear (Section 423.5.2 and 423.6.2.
423.6.3).
423.4.3 Resistance to combined tensile and shear loads
In addition, anchors shall satisfy the required edge shall be considered in design using an interaction
distances, spacings, and thicknesses to preclude splitting expression that results in computation of strength in
failure, as required in Section 423.8. substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
This requirement shall be considered satisfied by Section
423.4.1.1 For the design of anchors, except as required in 423.7.
Section 423.3.3,
423.4.4 Strength reduction factor  for anchors in concrete
Nn ≥ Nua (423-1) shall be as follows when the load combinations Section 402
Vn ≥ Vua (423-2) are used:
1. Anchor governed by strength of a ductile steel element
423.4.1.2 In Eq. (423-1) and (423-2), Nn and Vn are the
lowest design strengths determined from all appropriate a) Tension loads .................................................0.75
failure modes. Nn is the lowest design strength in tension b) Shear loads .....................................................0.65
of an anchor or group of anchors as determined from
consideration of Nsa, nNpn, either Nsb or Nsbg, and either 2. Anchor governed by strength of a brittle steel element
Ncb or Ncbg. Vn is the lowest design strength in shear of a) Tension loads ..................................................0.65
an anchor or a group of anchors as determined from
b) Shear loads ......................................................0.60

3. Anchor governed by concrete breakout, side-face 423.5.2 Concrete Breakout Strength of Anchor in
blowout, pullout, or pryout strength Tension
423.5.2.1 The nominal concrete breakout strength, Ncb or

Condition A Condition B Ncbg, of a single anchor or group of anchors in tension shall
not exceed
a) Shear loads 0.75 0.70
b) Tension loads 1. For a single anchor
Cast-in headed studs,
headed bolts, or hooked  A  (423-4)
N cb   Nc  ed , N  c , N  cp , N N b
bolts 0.75 0.70  ANco 
Post-installed anchors 2. For a group of anchors
with category as determined
from ACI 355.2  A 
Ncbg   Nc ec,N ed , N c ,N cp,N Nb (423-5)
Category 1 0.75 0.65
 ANco 
(Low sensitivity
to installation and
high reliability) Factors ψec,N, ψed,N, ψc,N, and ψcp,N are defined in Sections
423.5.2.4, 423.5.2.5, 423.5.2.6, and 423.5.2.7, respectively.
Category 2 0.65 0.55 ANc is the projected concrete failure area of a single anchor
(Medium sensitivity or group of anchors that shall be approximated as the base
to installation and of the rectilinear geometrical figure that results from
medium reliability) projecting the failure surface outward 1.5hef from the
Category 3 0.55 0.45 centerlines of the anchor, or in the case of a group of
(High sensitivity anchors, from a line through a row of adjacent anchors. ANc
to installation and shall not exceed nANco, where n is the number of tensioned
lower reliability) anchors in the group. ANco is the projected concrete failure
area of a single anchor with an edge distance equal to or
Condition A applies where supplementary reinforcement is greater than 1.5hef
present except for pullout and pryout strengths.
ANco = 9hef2 (423-6)
Condition B applies where supplementary reinforcement is
423.5.2.2 The basic concrete breakout strength of a single
not present, and for pullout or pryout strength.
anchor in tension in cracked concrete, Nb, shall not exceed:
423.5 Design Requirements for Tensile Loading N b  K c  f 'c he f 1.5 (423-7)
where
423.5.1 Steel Strength of Anchor in Tension
kc = 10 for cast-in anchors; and
kc = 7 for post-installed anchors.
423.5.1.1 The nominal strength of an anchor in tension as
governed by the steel, Nsa, shall be evaluated by
calculations based on the properties of the anchor material The value of kc for post-installed anchors shall be permitted
and the physical dimensions of the anchor. to be increased above 7 based on ACI 355.2 product-
specific tests, but shall in no case exceed 10.
423.5.1.2 The nominal strength of a single anchor or group
of anchors in tension, Nsa, shall not exceed Alternatively, for cast-in headed studs and headed bolts
with 280 mm ≤ hef ≤ 635 mm, Nb shall not exceed
Nsa = nAse,N futa (423-3)
N b  16 f 'c he f 5 / 3 (423-8)
where n is the number of anchors in the group, Ase,N is the
effective cross-sectional area of a single anchor in tension, 423.5.2.3Where anchors are located less than 1.5hef from
mm2, and futa shall not be taken greater than the smaller of three or more edges, the value of hef used in Eq. 423-4
1.9fya and 860 MPa. through 423-11 shall be the greater of ca,max/1.5 and one-
third of the maximum spacing between anchors within the
group.
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423.5.2.4 The modification factor for anchor groups The cracking in the concrete shall be controlled by flexural
loaded eccentrically in tension, ψec,N, shall be computed as: reinforcement distributed in accordance with Section
410.7.4, or equivalent crack control shall be provided by
1 (423-9)
 ec, N  confining reinforcement.
 2e' N 
1  
 3h  423.5.2.7 The modification factor for post-installed
 ef 
anchors designed for uncracked concrete in accordance
but ψec,N shall not be taken greater than 1.0. with Section 423.5.2.6 without supplementary
reinforcement to control splitting, ψcp,N, shall be computed
If the loading on an anchor group is such that only some as follows using the critical distance cac as defined in
anchors are in tension, only those anchors that are in Section 423.8.6.
tension shall be considered when determining the
If ca,min ≥ cac
eccentricity e’N for use in Eq. 423-9 and for the calculation
of Ncbg in Eq. 423-5. then ψcp,N = 1.0 (423-12)
If ca,min < cac
In the case where eccentric loading exists about two axes,
the modification factor, ψec,N, shall be computed for each ca,min
axis individually and the product of these factors used as then cp,  (423-13)
ψec,N in Eq. 423-5.
N
cac
423.5.2.5 The modification factor for edge effects for but ψcp,N determined from Eq. 423-13 shall not be taken less
single anchors or anchor groups loaded in tension, ψed,N, than 1.5hef /cac, where the critical distance cac is defined in
shall be computed as Section 423.8.6.
If ca,min ≥ 1.5hef For all other cases, including cast-in anchors, ψcp,N shall be
then ψed,N = 1.0 (423-10) taken as 1.0.
If ca,min < 1.5hef 423.5.2.8 Where an additional plate or washer is added at
ca ,min the head of the anchor, it shall be permitted to calculate the
then  (423-11)
ed , N  0.7  0.3 projected area of the failure surface by projecting the failure
1.5hef
surface outward 1.5hef from the effective perimeter of the
plate or washer. The effective perimeter shall not exceed
423.5.2.6 For anchors located in a region of a concrete the value at a section projected outward more than the
member where analysis indicates no cracking at service thickness of the washer or plate from the outer edge of the
load levels, the following modification factor shall be head of the anchor.
permitted:
423.5.2.9 Where anchor reinforcement is developed in
ψc,N = 1.25 for cast-in anchors; and accordance with Section 412 on both sides of the breakout
ψc,N = 1.4 for post-installed anchors, where the surface, the design strength of the anchor reinforcement
value of kc used in Eq. 423-7 is 7. shall be permitted to be used instead of the concrete
breakout strength in determining Nn. A strength reduction
Where the value of kc used in Eq. 423-7 is taken from the factor of 0.75 shall be used in the design of the anchor
ACI 355.2 product evaluation report for post-installed reinforcement.
anchors qualified for use in both cracked and uncracked
concrete, the values of kc and ψc,N shall be based on the ACI 423.5.3 Pullout Strength of Anchor in Tension
355.2 product evaluation report.
423.5.3.1 The nominal pullout strength of a single anchor
Where the value of kc used in Eq. 423-7 is taken from the in tension, Npn, shall not exceed
ACI 355.2 product evaluation report for post-installed
anchors qualified for use in uncracked concrete, ψc,N shall Npn = ψc,PNp (423-14)
be taken as 1.0.
where ψc,P is defined in Section 423.5.3.6.
When analysis indicates cracking at service load levels, ψc,N
shall be taken as 1.0 for both cast-in anchors and post-
installed anchors. Post-installed anchors shall be qualified
for use in cracked concrete in accordance with ACI 355.2.
anchors susceptible to a side-face blowout failure Nsbg shall

423.5.3.2 For post-installed expansion and undercut not exceed
anchors, the values of Np shall be based on the 5 percent
fractile of results of tests performed and evaluated  s 
N sb g  1   N sb (423-18)
according to ACI 355.2. It is not permissible to calculate  6 c a1 
the pullout strength in tension for such anchors.
where s is the distance between the outer anchors along the
423.5.3.3 For single cast-in headed studs and headed bolts, edge, and Nsb is obtained from Eq. 423-17 without
it shall be permitted to evaluate the pullout strength in modification for a perpendicular edge distance.
tension using Section 423.5.3.4. For single J- or L-bolts, it
shall be permitted to evaluate the pullout strength in tension
using Section 423.5.3.5. Alternatively, it shall be permitted 426.6 Desing Requirements for Shear Loading
to use values of Np based on the 5 percent fractile of tests
performed and evaluated in the same manner as the ACI
423.6.1 Steel Strength of Anchor in Shear
355.2 procedures but without the benefit of friction.
423.6.1.1 The nominal strength of an anchor in shear as
423.5.3.4 The pullout strength in tension of a single
governed by steel, Vsa, shall be evaluated by calculations
headed stud or headed bolt, Np, for use in Eq. 423-14, shall
based on the properties of the anchor material and the
not exceed
physical dimensions of the anchor.
Np = 8Abrgf’c (423-15)
423.6.1.2 The nominal strength of a single anchor or group
423.5.3.5 The pullout strength in tension of a single of anchors in shear, Vsa, shall not exceed (1) through (3):
hooked bolt, Np, for use in Eq. 423-14 shall not exceed
1. For cast-in headed stud anchor
Np = 0.9fc′ehda (423-16)
Vsa = nAse,Vfuta (423-19)
where 3da ≤ eh ≤ 4.5da. where n is the number of anchors in the group, Ase,V is
the effective cross-sectional area of a single anchor in
423.5.3.6 For an anchor located in a region of a concrete shear, mm2, and futa shall not be taken greater than the
member where analysis indicates no cracking at service smaller of 1.9fya and 860 MPa.
load levels, the following modification factor shall be
2. For cast-in headed bolt and hooked bolt anchors and
permitted
for post-installed anchors where sleeves do not extend
ψc,P = 1.4 through the shear plane
Vsa = n 0.6Ase,V futa (423-20)
Where analysis indicates cracking at service load levels,
ψc,P shall be taken as 1.0. where n is the number of anchors in the group, Ase,V is
the effective cross-sectional area of a single anchor in
shear, mm2, and futa shall not be taken greater than the
423.5.4 Concrete Side-Face Blowout Strength of a smaller of 1.9fya and 860 MPa.
Headed Anchor in Tension
3. For post-installed anchors where sleeves extend
423.5.4.1 For a single headed anchor with deep through the shear plane, Vsa shall be based on the
embedment close to an edge (hef > 2.5ca1), the nominal side- results of tests performed and evaluated according to
face blowout strength, Nsb, shall not exceed ACI 355.2. Alternatively, Eq. 423-20 shall be
permitted to be used.

N sb  13 c a1 Abrg   f 'c (423-17)
423.6.1.3 Where anchors are used with built-up grout
If ca2 for the single headed anchor is less than 3ca1, the pads, the nominal strengths of Section 423.6.1.2 shall be
value of Nsb shall be multiplied by the factor (1 +ca2/ca1)/4 multiplied by a 0.80 factor.
where 1.0 ≤ ca2/ca1 ≤ 3.0.
423.5.4.2 For multiple headed anchors with deep

embedment close to an edge (hef > 2.5ca1) and anchor
spacing less than 6ca1, the nominal strength of those
th
critical, and all of the shear shall be assumed to be carried

by this critical anchor row alone.
423.6.2 Concrete Breakout Strength of Anchor in Shear
423.6.2.2 The basic concrete breakout strength in shear of
423.6.2.1 The nominal concrete breakout strength, Vcb or a single anchor in cracked concrete, Vb , shall not exceed:
Vcbg, in shear of a single anchor or group of anchors shall
not exceed: l 
0 .2
 0 .6 e  da  f 'c c a1 
1 .5
1. For shear force perpendicular to the edge on a single Vb (423-24)
anchor  da 
AVc where le is the load-bearing length of the anchor for shear:
Vcb   ed ,V c ,V h ,V Vb (423-21)
AVco le = hef for anchors with a constant stiffness over the
full length of embedded section, such as headed
2. For shear force perpendicular to the edge on a group of studs or post-installed anchors with one tubular
anchors shell over full length of the embedment depth;
AVc
Vcb g   ec ,V ed ,V c ,V h ,V Vb (423-22) le = 2da for torque-controlled expansion anchors with a
AVco
distance sleeve separated from expansion sleeve,
3. For shear force parallel to an edge, Vcb or Vcbg shall be and in no case shall le exceed 8da in all cases.
permitted to be twice the value of the shear force
determined from Eq. 423-21 or 423-22, respectively, 423.6.2.3 For cast-in headed studs, headed bolts, or
with the shear force assumed to act perpendicular to the hooked bolts that are continuously welded to steel
edge and with ψed,V taken equal to 1.0. attachments having a minimum thickness equal to the
greater of 10 mm and half of the anchor diameter, the basic
4. For anchors located at a corner, the limiting nominal concrete breakout strength in shear of a single anchor in
concrete breakout strength shall be determined for each cracked concrete, Vb, shall not exceed:
edge, and the minimum value shall be used. 0 .2
l 
Vb  0 .66  e  da  f 'c c a1  (423-25)
1 .5
 da 
Factors ψec,V, ψed,V, ψc,V, and ψh,V are defined in Sections
423.6.2.5, 423.6.2.6, 423.6.2.7, and 423.6.2.8, respectively. where le is defined in Section 423.6.2.2, provided that:
Vb is the basic concrete breakout strength value for a single
1. For groups of anchors, the strength is determined based
anchor. AVc is the projected area of the failure surface on the
on the strength of the row of anchors farthest from the
side of the concrete member at its edge for a single anchor
edge;
or a group of anchors. It shall be permitted to evaluate AVc
as the base of a truncated half pyramid projected on the side 2. Anchor spacing, s, is not less than 65 mm.; and
face of the member where the top of the half pyramid is
3. Reinforcement is provided at the corners if ca2 ≤ 1.5hef.
given by the axis of the anchor row selected as critical. The
value of ca1 shall be taken as the distance from the edge to
this axis. AVc shall not exceed AVco, where n is the number 423.6.2.4 Where anchors are influenced by three or more
of anchors in the group. edges, the value of ca1 used in Eqs. 423-23 through 423-29
shall not exceed the greatest of: ca2/1.5 in either direction,
ha /1.5; and one-third of the maximum spacing between
AVco is the projected area for a single anchor in a deep
anchors within the group.
member with a distance from edges equal or greater than
1.5ca1 in the direction perpendicular to the shear force. It
shall be permitted to evaluate AVco as the base of a half 423.6.2.5 The modification factor for anchor groups
pyramid with a side length parallel to the edge of 3ca1 and a loaded eccentrically in shear, ψec,V, shall be computed as:
depth of 1.5ca1 1 (423-26)
ec,V 
AVco = 4.5(ca1) 2
(423-23) 2e'
1 v
3ca1
Where anchors are located at varying distances from the
edge and the anchors are welded to the attachment so as to but ψec,V shall not be taken greater than 1.0.
distribute the force to all anchors, it shall be permitted to
evaluate the strength based on the distance to the farthest If the loading on an anchor group is such that only some
row of anchors from the edge. In this case, it shall be anchors are loaded in shear in the same direction, only
permitted to base the value of ca1 on the distance from the those anchors that are loaded in shear in the same direction
edge to the axis of the farthest anchor row that is selected as shall be considered when determining the eccentricity of e’V
for use in Eq. 423-26 and for the calculation of Vcbg in Eq. 423.6.3 Concrete Pryout Strength of Anchor in Shear
423-22.
423.6.3.1 The nominal pryout strength, Vcp or Vcpg shall not
423.6.2.6 The modification factor for edge effect for a exceed:
single anchor or group of anchors loaded in shear, ψed,V ,
1. For a single anchor
shall be computed as:
Vcp = kcpNcb (423-30)
If ca2 ≥ 1.5ca1
2. For a group of anchors
then ψed,V = 1.0 (423-27)
Vcpg = kcpNcbg (423-31)
If ca2 < 1.5ca1
where
then  ca 2 (423-28)
 0.7  0.3
ed , V
1.5ca1 kcp = 1.0 for hef < 65 mm.; and
kcp = 2.0 for hef ≥ 65 mm.
423.6.2.7 For anchors located in a region of a concrete
member where analysis indicates no cracking at service Ncb and Ncbg shall be determined from Eqs. 423-4 and 423-
loads, the following modification factor shall be permitted: 5, respectively.
ψc,V = 1.4
423.7 Interaction of Tensile and Shear Forces
For anchors located in a region of a concrete member where Unless determined in accordance with Section 423.4.3,
analysis indicates cracking at service load levels, the anchors or groups of anchors that are subjected to both
following modification factors shall be permitted: shear and axial loads shall be designed to satisfy the
requirements of Sections 423.7.1 through 423.7.3. The
ψc,V = 1.0 for anchors in cracked concrete with no
value of Nn shall be as required in Section 423.4.1.2. The
supplementary reinforcement or edge
value of Vn shall be as defined in Section 423.4.1.2.
reinforcement smaller than a 12mm diameter bar;
ψc,V =1.2 for anchors in cracked concrete with
reinforcement of a 12 mm diameter bar or 423.7.1 If Vua ≤ 0.2Vn, then full strength in tension shall
greater between the anchor and the edge; and be permitted: Nn ≥ Nua.
ψc,V = 1.4 for anchors in cracked concrete with
reinforcement of a 12 mm diameter bar or greater 423.7.2 If Nua ≤ 0.2Nn, then full strength in shear shall be
between the anchor and the edge, and with the permitted: Vn ≥ Vua.
reinforcement enclosed within stirrups spaced at
not more than 100 mm. 423.7.3 If Vua > 0.2Vn and Nua > 0.2Nn, then
N ua N ua (423-32)
423.6.2.8 The modification factor for anchors located in a   1 .2
concrete member where ha < 1.5ca1, ψh,V shall be computed N n  V n
as:
1.5c a1 423.8 Required Edge Distances, Spacings, and
 h ,V  (423-29)
ha
Thickness to Preclude Splitting Failure
Minimum spacings and edge distances for anchors and
but ψh,V shall not be taken less than 1.0. minimum thicknesses of members shall conform to
Sections 423.8.1 through 423.8.6, unless supplementary
423.6.2.9 Where anchor reinforcement is either developed reinforcement is provided to control splitting. Lesser values
in accordance with Section 412 on both sides of the from product-specific tests performed in accordance with
breakout surface, or encloses the anchor and is developed ACI 355.2 shall be permitted.
beyond the breakout surface, the design strength of the
anchor reinforcement shall be permitted to be used instead 423.8.1 Unless determined in accordance with Section
of the concrete breakout strength in determining Vn. A 423.8.4, minimum center-to-center spacing of anchors shall
strength reduction factor of 0.75 shall be used in the design be 4da for untorqued cast-in anchors, and 6da for torqued
of the anchor reinforcement. cast-in anchors and post-installed anchors.
423.8.2 Unless determined in accordance with Section

423.8.4, minimum edge distances for cast-in headed
anchors that will not be torqued shall be based on specified
th
cover requirements for reinforcement in Section 407.8. For SECTION 424

casting headed anchors that will be torqued, the minimum
edge distances shall be 6da. ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD
423.8.3 Unless determined in accordance with Section 424.1 Notations
423.8.4, minimum edge distances for post-installed anchors
shall be based on the greater of specified cover Some notation definitions are modified from those in the
requirements for reinforcement in Section 407.8, or main body of the code for specific use in the application of
minimum edge distance requirements for the products as Section 424.
determined by tests in accordance with ACI 355.2, and Ag = gross area of section, mm2
shall not be less than 2.0 times the maximum aggregate Av = area of shear reinforcement within a
size. In the absence of product-specific ACI 355.2 test distance s, mm2
information, the minimum edge distance shall be taken as A1 = loaded area
not less than: A2 = maximum area of the portion of the supporting
Undercut anchors ............................................... 6da surface that is geometrically similar to and
Torque-controlled anchors.................................. 8da concentric with the loaded area
bo = perimeter of critical section for slabs and
Displacement-controlled anchors..................... 10da footings, mm
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section, mm
423.8.4 For anchors where installation does not produce a d = distance from extreme compression fiber to
splitting force and that will remain untorqued, if the edge centroid of tension reinforcement, mm
distance or spacing is less than those specified in Sections Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa. See
423.8.1 to 423.8.3, calculations shall be performed by Section 408.6.1
substituting for da a smaller value d’a that meets the Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, MPa.
requirements of Sections 423.8.1 to 423.8.3. Calculated See Section 408.6.2
forces applied to the anchor shall be limited to the values f’c = specified compressive strength of concrete,
corresponding to an anchor having a diameter of d’a. MPa. See Section 405.
423.8.5 The value of hef for an expansion or undercut
post-installed anchor shall not exceed the greater of 2/3 of concrete, MPa
the member thickness and the member thickness minus 100 fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight
mm. aggregate concrete, MPa. See 405.2.4
fs = permissible tensile stress in reinforcement, MPa
423.8.6 Unless determined from tension tests in fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, MPa.
accordance with ACI 355.2, the critical edge distance, cac, See Section 403.6.3
shall not be taken less than: M = design moment
n = modular ratio of elasticity
Undercut anchors........................................... 2.5hef = Es /Ec
Torque-controlled anchors................................. 4hef N = design axial load normal to cross section
occurring simultaneously with V; to be taken as
Displacement-controlled anchors...................... 4hef positive for compression, negative for tension,
and to include effects of tension due to creep
423.8.7 Project drawings and project specifications shall and shrinkage
specify use of anchors with a minimum edge distance as s = spacing of shear reinforcement in direction
assumed in design. parallel to longitudinal reinforcement, mm
v = design shear stress
423.9 Installation of Anchors vc = permissible shear stress carried by concrete,
MPa
Vh = permissible horizontal shear stress, MPa
423.9.1 Anchors shall be installed in accordance with the
V = design shear force at section
project drawings, project specifications and/or
manufacturer’s installation procedures.  = angle between inclined stirrups and longitudinal
axis of member
c = ratio of long side to short side of concentrated
load or reaction area
w = ratio of tension reinforcement
= As/bwd

 = strength reduction factor. See Section 424.3.1 Joists:

Shear carried by concrete, vc . . . . . . . . . . 0.09 f 'c
424.2 Scope
Two-way slabs and footings:
424.2.1 Nonprestressed reinforced concrete members shall
be permitted to be designed using service loads (without Shear carried by concrete, vc † .. (1/12) (1+2/c) f 'c
load factors) and permissible service load stresses in but not greater than ……………….……… /6 1
f 'c
accordance with provisions of Section 424.
3. Bearing on loaded area‡ . . . . . . …. . . . . . . . . . 0.3f’c
424.2.2 For design of members not covered by Section 424,
appropriate provisions of this code shall apply. 424.3.2 Tensile stress in reinforcement fs shall not exceed
the following:
424.2.3 All applicable provisions of this code for 1. Grade 275 reinforcement .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 MPa
nonprestressed concrete, except Section 408.4, shall apply
to members designed by the Alternate Design Method. 2. Grade 415 reinforcement or greater and welded wire
fabric (plain or deformed)… . . . . . . . . . 170 MPa
424.2.4 Flexural members shall meet requirements for 3. For flexural reinforcement, ɸ10 mm or less, in one-
deflection control in Section 409.6, and requirements of way slabs of not more than 4 m span but not greater
Sections 410.5 through 410.8 of this code. than 200 MPa. . . . . . . 0.50 fy
424.3 General 424.5 Development and Splices of Reinforcement
424.3.1 Load factors and strength reduction factors  shall 424.5.1 Development and splices of reinforcement shall be
be taken as unity for members designed by the Alternate as required in Section 412 of this chapter.
Design Method.
424.5.2 In satisfying requirements of Section 412.12.3, Mn
424.3.2 It shall be permitted to proportion members for 75 shall be taken as computed moment capacity assuming all
percent of capacities required by other parts of Section 424 positive moment tension reinforcement at the section to be
when considering wind or earthquake forces combined with stressed to the permissible tensile stress fs, and Vu shall be
other loads, provided the resulting section is not less than taken as unfactored shear force at the section.
that required for the combination of dead and live load.
424.3.3 When dead load reduces effects of other loads, 426.6.1 Flexure
members shall be designed for 85 percent of dead load in For investigation of stresses at service loads, straight-line
combination with the other loads. theory for flexure shall be used with the following
assumptions:
424.4 Permissible Service Load Stresses 424.6.1 Strains vary linearly as the distance from the
neutral axis, except for deep flexural members with overall
424.4.1 Stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following: depth-span ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous spans and
1. Flexure 4/5 for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution of strain shall
be considered. See Section 410.8 of this Chapter.
Extreme fiber stress in compression. . . . . . . . . .0.45f’c
2. Shear
Beams and one-way slabs and footings:
Shear carried by concrete, vc . . . . . . …. . .0.09 f 'c †
If shear reinforcement is provided, see Sections 424.8.7.4 and 424.8.7.5
Maximum shear carried by concrete plus shear ‡
When the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded area,
reinforcement, vc **. . . . . . . .. . . . . 0.38 f 'c permissible bearing stress on the loaded area shall be permitted to be
multiplied by A2 / A1 but not more than 2. When the supporting surface
is sloped or stepped, A2 shall be permitted to be taken as the area of the
lower base of the largest frustum of a right pyramid or cone contained

For more detailed calculation of the shear stress carried by concrete vc wholly within the support and having for its upper base the loaded area,
and shear values for lightweight aggregate concrete, see Section 424.8.4. and having side slopes of 1 vertical-to 2 horizontal.
** Designed in accordance with Section 408.12 of this code.
th
424.6.2 Stress-strain relationship of concrete is a straight torsion shall be taken as 55 percent of the values given in
line under service loads within permissible service load Section 411.
stresses.
424.8.4 Shear Stress Carried by Concrete
424.6.3 In reinforced concrete members, concrete resists
no tension.
424.8.4.1 For members subject to shear and flexure only,
shear stress carried by concrete vc shall not exceed 0.09
424.6.4 It shall be permitted to take the modular ratio,
n = Es /Ec, as the nearest whole number (but not less than f 'c unless a more detailed calculation is made in
6). Except in calculations for deflections, value of n for accordance with Section 424.8.4.4.
lightweight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for
normal weight concrete of the same strength. 424.8.4.2 For members subject to axial compression, shear
stress carried by concrete vc , shall not exceed 0.09 f 'c
424.6.5 In doubly reinforced flexural members, an
effective modular ratio of 2Es/Ec shall be used to transform unless a more detailed calculation is made in accordance
compression reinforcement for stress computations. with 424.8.4.5.
Compressive stress in such reinforcement shall not exceed
permissible tensile stress. 424.8.4.3 For members subject to significant axial tension,
shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry total shear,
unless a more detailed calculation is made using
424.7 Compression Members With or Without Flexure
vc = 0.09(1 + 0.6N/Ag) f 'c (424-2)
424.7.1 Combined flexure and axial load capacity of
compression members shall be taken as 40 percent of that where N is negative for tension. Quantity N/Ag shall be
computed in accordance with provisions in Section 410 of expressed in MPa.
this Chapter.
424.8.4.4 For members subject to shear and flexure only,
424.7.2 Slenderness effects shall be included according to it shall be permitted to compute vc by
requirements of Sections 410.10 through 410.13. In Eqs. vc = 0.085 f 'c + 9wVd/M (424-3)
410-13 and 410-22 the term Pu shall be replaced by 2.5
times the design axial load, and the factor 0.75 shall be
but vc shall not exceed 0.14 f 'c . Quantity Vd/M shall not
taken equal to 1.0.
be taken greater than 1.0, where M is design moment
424.7.3 Walls shall be designed in accordance with occurring simultaneously with V at section considered.
Section 414 of this section with flexure and axial load
capacities taken as 40 percent of that computed using 424.8.4.5 For members subject to axial compression, it
Section 414. In Eq. 414-1,  shall be taken equal to 1.0. shall be permitted to compute vc by
vc = 0.09(1 + 0.09N/Ag) f 'c (424-4)
424.8 Shear and Torsion
Quantity N/Ag shall be expressed in MPa.
424.8.1 Design shear stress v shall be computed by
424.8.4.6 Shear stresses carried by concrete vc, apply to
v = V/(bwd) (424-1) normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate
where V is design shear force at section considered. concrete is used, one of the following modifications shall
apply:
424.8.2 When the reaction, in direction of applied shear, 1. When fct is specified and concrete is proportioned in
introduces compression into the end regions of a member, accordance with Section 405.3, fct/6.7 shall be
sections located less than a distance d from face of support
substituted for f 'c but the value of fct/6.7 shall not
shall be permitted to be designed for the same shear v as
that computed at a distance d. exceed f 'c .
424.8.3 Whenever applicable, effects of torsion, in 2. When fct is not specified, the value of f 'c shall be
accordance with provisions of Section 411 of this section,
multiplied by 0.75 for “all-lightweight” concrete and
shall be added. Shear and torsional moment strengths
by 0.85 for “sand-lightweight” concrete. Linear
provided by concrete and limiting maximum strengths for

interpolation shall be permitted when partial sand 424.8.5.5 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
replacement is used.
424.8.5.5.1 A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall
424.8.4.7 In determining shear stress carried by concrete be provided in all reinforced concrete flexural members
vc, whenever applicable, effects of axial tension due to where design shear stress v is greater than one-half the
creep and shrinkage in restrained members shall be permissible shear stress vc carried by concrete, except:
included and it shall be permitted to include effects of
1. Slabs and footings;
inclined flexural compression in variable-depth members.
2. Concrete joist construction defined by Section 408.14
of this section;
424.8.5 Shear Stress Carried by Shear Reinforcement
3. Beam with total depth not greater than 250mm, 2.5
times thickness of flange, or one-half the width of web,
424.8.5.1 Types of Shear Reinforcement whichever is greatest.
Shear reinforcement shall consist of one of the following:
1. Stirrups perpendicular to axis of member; 424.8.5.5.2 Minimum shear reinforcement require-ments
of Section 424.8.5.5.1 shall be permitted to be waived if
2. Welded wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to shown by test that required ultimate flexural and shear
axis of member making an angle of 45 degrees or more strength can be developed when shear reinforcement is
with longitudinal tension reinforcement; omitted.
3. Longitudinal reinforcement with bent portion making
an angle of 30 degrees or more with longitudinal 424.8.5.5.3 Where shear reinforcement is required by
tension reinforcement; Section 424.8.5.5.1 or by analysis, minimum area of shear
reinforcement shall be computed by:
4. Combinations of stirrups and bent longitudinal rein-
forcement; Av = bws/3fy (424-5)
5. Spirals. where bw and s are in mm.
424.8.5.2 Design yield strength of shear reinforcement 424.8.5.6 Design of Shear Reinforcement
shall not exceed 415 MPa.
424.8.5.6.1 Where design shear stress v exceeds shear
424.8.5.3 Stirrups and other bars or wires used as shear stress carried by concrete vc , shear reinforcement shall be
reinforcement shall extend to a distance d from extreme provided in accordance with Sections 424.8.5.6.2 through
compression fiber and shall be anchored at both ends 424.8.5.6.8.
according to Section 412.14 of this section to develop
design yield strength of reinforcement. 424.8.5.6.2 When shear reinforcement perpendicular to
axis of member is used:
424.8.5.4 Spacing Limits for Shear Reinforcement Av = (v – vc)bws /fy (424-6)
424.8.5.4.1 Spacing of shear reinforcement placed 424.8.5.6.3 When inclined stirrups are used as shear
perpendicular to axis of member shall not exceed d/2, nor reinforcement:
600 mm.
v  v b
c w s
(424-7)
Av 
424.8.5.4.2 Inclined stirrups and bent longitudinal f s  sin   cos  
reinforcement shall be so spaced that every 45-degree line,
extending toward the reaction from mid-depth of member
424.8.5.6.4 When shear reinforcement consists of a single
(d/2) to longitudinal tension reinforcement, shall be crossed
bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same
by at least one line of shear reinforcement.
distance from the support:
424.8.5.4.3 When (v–vc) exceeds 1/6 f 'c , maximum
Av 
v  v b d
c w
(424-8)
spacing given in Sections 424.8.5.4.1 and 424.8.5.4.2 shall f s sin 
be reduced by one-half.
where (v - vc) shall not exceed (1/8) f 'c .
th
424.8.5.6.5 When shear reinforcement consists of a series

of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at 424.8.7.2 Design shear stress v shall be computed by
different distances from the support, required area shall be
computed by Eq. 424-7. v = V/(bod) (424-9)
where V and bo , shall be taken at the critical section
424.8.5.6.6 Only the center three-quarters of the inclined defined in Section 424.8.7.1.2.
portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be considered
effective for shear reinforcement. 424.8.7.3 Design shear stress v shall not exceed vc given by
Eq. 424-10 unless shear reinforcement is provided
424.8.5.6.7 When more than one type of shear rein-
forcement is used to reinforce the same portion of a 1  2  (424-10)
vc   1   f 'c
member, required area shall be computed as the sum of the 12   c 
various types separately. In such computations, vc shall be
included only once.
but vc shall not exceed (1/6) f 'c c is the ratio of long side
424.8.5.6.8 Value of (v – vc) shall not exceed (3/8) f 'c . to short side of concentrated load or reaction area. When
lightweight aggregate concrete is used, the modifications of
Section 424.8.4.6 shall apply.
424.8.6 Shear-Friction
Where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a 424.8.7.4 If shear reinforcement consisting of bars or
given plane, such as an existing or potential crack, an wires is provided in accordance with Section 411.13.3 of
interface between dissimilar materials, or an interface this section, vc shall not exceed (1/12) f 'c , and v shall not
between two concretes cast at different times, shear-friction exceed 0.25 f 'c .
provisions of Section 411.8 of this Chapter shall be
permitted to be applied, with limiting maximum stress for
shear taken as 55 percent of that given in Section 411.8.5. 424.8.7.5 If shear reinforcement consisting of steel I- or
Permissible stress in shear-friction reinforcement shall be channel-shaped sections (shearheads) is provided in
that given in Section 424.4.2. accordance with Section 411.13.4 of this section, v on the
critical section defined in Section 424.8.7.1.2 shall not
exceed 0.3 f 'c , and v on the critical section defined in
424.8.7 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings
Section 411.13.4.7 shall not exceed (1/6) f 'c . In Eqs. 411-
424.8.7.1 Shear capacity of slabs and footings in the 41 and 411-42, design shear force V shall be multiplied by 2
vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions is governed by and substituted for Vu .
the more severe of two conditions:
428.8 Special Provisions for Other Members
424.8.7.1.1 Beam action for slab or footing, with a critical
section extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance d from face of concentrated load or For design of deep flexural members, brackets and corbels,
reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be and walls, the special provisions of Section 411 of this
designed in accordance with Sections 424.8.1 through section shall be used, with shear strengths provided by
424.8.5. concrete and limiting maximum strengths for shear taken as
55 percent of the values given in Section 411. In Section
424.8.7.1.2 Two-way action for slab or footing, with a 411.11.6, the design axial load shall be multiplied by 1.2 if
critical section perpendicular to plane of slab and located so compression and 2.0 if tension, and substituted for Nu.
that its perimeter is a minimum, but need not approach
closer than d/2 to perimeter of concentrated load or reaction 424.8.9 Composite Concrete Flexural Members
area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be
designed in accordance with Sections 424.8.7.2 and For design of composite concrete flexural members,
424.8.7.3. permissible horizontal shear stress vh shall not exceed 55
percent of the horizontal shear strengths given in Section
417.6.3 of this section.

SECTION 425 ALTERNATIVE

425.410.4 General Principles and Requirements
PROVISIONS FOR REINFORCED
AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 425.410.4.3 For flexural members and members subject to
FLEXURAL AND COMPRESSION combined flexure and compressive axial load where Pn is
less than the smaller of 0.10fc′Ag and Pb, the ratio of
MEMBERS reinforcement, ρ, provided shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio
ρb that would produce balanced strain conditions for the
425.1 Scope section under flexure without axial load. For members with
compression reinforcement, the portion of ρb equalized by
Design for flexure and axial load by provisions of Section compression reinforcement need not be reduced by the 0.75
425 shall be permitted. When Section 425 is used in design, factor.
Sections 425.2, 425.2.1, 425.2.2, and 425.2.3 shall replace
the corresponding provisions in Section 408; Section
425.410.4.3 shall replace Sections 410.4.3, 410.4.4, and 425.418.2 Scope
410.4.5, except Section 410.4.5.1 shall remain; Sections
425.418.2.3, 425.418.9.1, 425.418.9.2, and 425.418.9.3 425.418.2.3 The following provisions of this code shall not
shall replace the corresponding numbered sections in apply to prestressed concrete, except as specifically noted:
Section 418; Sections 425.418.11.4, 425.418.11.4.1, Sections 406.4.4, 407.7.5, 408.13.2, 408.13.3, 408.13.4,
425.418.11.4.2, and 425.418.11.4.3 shall replace Sections 408.13, 410.6, 410.7, 410.10.1, 410.10.2, and 425.2,
418.11.4, 418.11.4.1, 418.11.4.2 and 418.11.4.3. If any 425.410.4.3; Section 413; and Sections 414.4, 414.6 and
section in Section 425 is used, all sections in Section 425 414.7.
shall be substituted for the corresponding sections in the
body of the code, and all other sections in the body of the
425.418.9 Limits for Reinforcement of Flexural
code shall be applicable.
Members
425.2 Redistribution of Negative Moments in 425.418.9.1 Ratio of prestressed and nonprestressed

Continuous Nonprestressed Flexural Members reinforcement used for computation of moment strength of
For criteria on moment redistribution for prestressed a member, except as provided in 425.418.9.2, shall be such
concrete members, see Section 425.418.11.4. that ωp, [ωp + (d/dp)(ω – ω′ )], or [ωpw + (d/dp)(ωw – ωw′ )] is
not greater than 0.36β1, except as permitted in Section
425.2.1 Except where approximate values for moments 425.418.9.2.
are used, it shall be permitted to decrease factored moments
calculated by elastic theory at sections of maximum Ratio ωp is computed as ρpfps/fc′ . Ratios ωw and ωpw are
negative or maximum positive moment and in any span of computed as ω and ωp, respectively, except that when
continuous flexural members for any assumed loading computing ρ and ρp , bw shall be used in place of b and the
arrangement by not more than: area of reinforcement or prestressing steel required to
develop the compressive strength of the web only shall be
   ' (425-1) used in place of As or Aps. Ratio ω′w is computed as ω′,
20  1   percent
  b  except that when computing ρ′, bw shall be used in place of
b.
425.2.2 Redistribution of moments shall be made only
when the section at which moment is reduced is so designed 425.418.9.2 When a reinforcement ratio exceeds the limit
that ρ or ρ – ρ′ is not greater than 0.50ρb, specified in Section 425.418.9.1 is provided, design
moment strength shall not exceed the moment strength
where: based on the compression portion of the moment couple.
0 . 85  1 f ' c  600 
 (425-2)
b   
fy  600  f y 
425.2.3 The reduced moment shall be used for calculating

redistributed moments at all other sections within the spans.
Static equilibrium shall be maintained after redistribution of
moments at each loading arrangement.
th
425.418.9.3 Total amount of prestressed and 425.418.11.4.3 The reduced moment shall be used for
nonprestressed reinforcement shall be adequate to develop a calculating redistributed moments at all other sections
factored load at least 1.2 times the cracking load computed within the spans. Static equilibrium shall be maintained
on the basis of the modulus of rupture fr specified in Section after redistribution of moments for each loading
409.6.2.3. This provision shall be permitted to be waived arrangement.
for:
1. Two-way, unbonded post-tensioned slabs; and
2. Flexural members with shear and flexural strength at
least twice that required by Section 409.3.
425.418.11 Statically Indeterminate Structures
425.418.11.1 Frames and continuous construction of

prestressed concrete shall be designed for satisfactory
performance at service load conditions and for adequate
strength.
425.418.11.2 Performance at service load conditions shall

be determined by elastic analysis, considering reactions,
moments, shears, and axial forces produced by prestressing,
creep, shrinkage, temperature change, axial deformation,
restraint of attached structural elements, and foundation
settlement.
425.418.11.3 Moments to be used to compute required

strength shall be the sum of the moments due to reactions
induced by prestressing (with a load factor of 1.0) and the
moments due to factored loads. Adjustment of the sum of
these moments shall be permitted as allowed in Section
425.418.11.4.
425.418.11.4 Redistribution of Negative Moments in

Continuous Prestressed Flexural Members
425.418.11.4.1 Where bonded reinforcement is provided

at supports in accordance with Section 418.10, negative or
positive moments calculated by elastic theory for any
assumed loading, arrangement shall be permitted to be
increased or decreased by not more than:
  p  ( d / d p )(    ' )  percent
2 0 1  
 0 . 3 6 1 
(425-3)
425.418.11.4.2 Redistribution of moments shall be made

only when the section at which moment is reduced is so
designed that ωp, [ωp + (d/dp)(ω – ω′ )] or [ωpw + (d/dp)(ωw –
ω′w)], whichever is applicable, is not greater than 0.24β1.

426.409.2.5 If resistance to impact effects is taken into

account in design, such effects shall be included with L.
SECTION 426 ALTERNATIVE
LOAD AND STRENGTH 426.409.2.6 Where structural effects of differential
settlement, creep, shrinkage, expansion of shrinkage
REDUCTION FACTORS compensating concrete, or temperature change, T, are
significant, U shall not be less than the larger of Eqs. 426-5
426.409.1 Scope and 426-6:
Structural concrete shall be permitted to be designed using U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.4T + 1.7L) (426-5)
the load combinations and strength reduction factors of
U = 1.4(D + T) (426-6)
Section 426. When Section 426 is used in design, Sections
426.409.2.1 through 426.9.2.7 shall replace Sections
Estimations of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage,
409.3.1 through 409.3.5, and Sections 426.409.3.1 through
expansion of shrinkage-compensating concrete, or
426.409.3.5 shall replace Section 409.4.1 through 409.4.5.
temperature change shall be based on realistic assessment
of such effects occurring in service.
426.409.2 Required Strength
426.409.2.7 For post-tensioned anchorage zone design, a
426.409.2.1 Required strength U to resist dead load D load factor of 1.2 shall be applied to the maximum
and live load L shall not be less than: prestressing steel jacking force.
U = 1.4D + 1.7L (426-
1) 426.409.3 Design Strength
426.409.2.2 For structures that also resist W, wind load, or 426.409.3.1 Design strength provided by a member, its
E, the load effects of earthquake, U shall not be less than connections to other members, and its cross sections, in
the larger of Eqs. 426-1, 426-2, and 426-3: terms of flexure, axial load, shear, and torsion, shall be
taken as the nominal strength calculated in accordance with
U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L) + (1.6W or 1.0E)
requirements and assumptions of this Code, multiplied by
(426-2) the  factors in Sections 426.409.3.2, 426.409.3.4, and
426.409.3.5.
and
U = 0.9D + (1.6W or 1.0E) (426-3) 426.409.3.2 Strength reduction factor  shall be as
Where W has not been reduced by a directionality factor, it follows:
shall be permitted to use 1.3W in place of 1.6W in Eqs. 426-
2 and 426-3. Where E is based on service-level seismic 426.409.3.2.1 Tension-controlled sections, as defined in
forces, 1.4E shall be used in place of 1.0E in Eqs. 426-2 and Section 410.4.4 (See also Section 426.409.3.2.7)...........
426-3. 0.90
426.409.2.3 For structures that resist H, loads due to 426.409.3.2.2 Compression-controlled sections, as defined
weight and pressure of soil, water in soil, or other related in Section 410.4.3:
materials, U shall not be less than the larger of Eqs. 426-1 1. Members with spiral reinforcement conforming to
and 426-4: Section 410.10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75
2. Other reinforced members . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 0.70
U = 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7H (426-4)
For sections in which the net tensile strain in the extreme
In Eq. 426-4, where D or L reduce the effect of H, 0.9D tension steel at nominal strength, εt, is between the limits
shall be substituted for 1.4D, and zero value of L shall be for compression-controlled and tension-controlled sections,
used to determine the greatest required strength U.  shall be permitted to be linearly increased from that for
compression-controlled sections to 0.90 as εt increases from
426.409.2.4 For structures that resist F, load due to weight the compression controlled strain limit to 0.005.
and pressure of fluids with well-defined densities, the load
factor for F shall be 1.4, and F shall be added to all loading Alternatively, when Section 425 is used, for members in
combinations that include L. which fy does not exceed 415 MPa, with symmetric
reinforcement, and with (d – d′)/h not less than 0.70,  shall
th
be permitted to be increased linearly to 0.90 as Pn SECTION 427

decreases from 0.10f’cAg to zero. For other reinforced
members,  shall be permitted to be increased linearly to STRUT AND TIE MODELS
0.90 as Pn decreases from 0.10 fc′ Ag or  Pb , whichever is
smaller, to zero. 427.1 Definitions
426.409.3.2.3 Shear and torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.85 B-REGION. A portion of a member in which the plane
sections assumption of flexure theory from Section 410.3.2
426.409.3.2.4 Bearing on concrete (except for post- can be applied.
tensioned anchorage zones and strut-and-tie
models) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.70 DISCONTINUITY. An abrupt change in geometry or
loading.
426.409.3.2.5 Post-tensioned anchorage zones . . . . 0.80
D-REGION. The portion of a member within a distance, h,
426.409.3.2.6 Strut-and-tie models (Section 427), and from a force discontinuity or a geometric discontinuity.
struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing areas in such models .
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.85
DEEP BEAM. See Sections 410.8.1 and 411.9.1. See
Figure 427-2(a), 427-2(b), and 427-3.
426.409.3.2.7 Flexure sections without axial load in pre-
tensioned members where strand embedment is less than
the development length as provided in Section NODAL ZONE. The volume of concrete around a node
412.10.1.1....................................................................... 0.85 that is assumed to transfer strut-and-tie forces through the
node. Historically, hydrostatic nodal zones as shown in
426.409.3.3 Development lengths specified in Section 412 Figure 427-4 were used. These were largely superseded by
do not require a  -factor. what are called extended nodal zones, shown in Figure 427-
5.
426.409.3.4 For structures that rely on intermediate
precast structural walls in regions of high seismic risk or NODE. The point in a joint in a strut-and-tie model where
assigned to high seismic performance or design categories the axes of the struts, ties, and concentrated forces acting on
(seismic zone 4), special moment frames, or special the joint intersect.
structural walls to resist E,  shall be modified as given in
(1) through (3): STRUT. A compression member in a strut-and-tie model.
A strut represents the resultant of a parallel or a fan-shaped
1. For any structural member that is designed to resist E, compression field.
for shear shall be 0.60 if the nominal shear
strength of the member is less than the shear
BOTTLE-SHAPED STRUT. A strut that is wider at mid-
corresponding to the development of the nominal
length than at its ends.
flexural strength of the member. The nominal
flexural strength shall be determined considering the
most critical factored axial loads and including E; STRUT-AND-TIE MODEL. A truss model of a structural
member or of a D-region in such a member, made up of
2. For diaphragms,  for shear shall not exceed the struts and ties connected at nodes, capable of transferring
minimum  for shear used for the vertical the factored loads to the supports or to adjacent B-regions.
components of the primary lateral-force-resisting
system; TIE. A tension member in a strut-and-tie model.
3. For joints and diagonally reinforced coupling beams, 
for shear shall be 0.85.
426.409.3.5 In Section 422,  shall be 0.65 for flexure,

compression, shear, and bearing of structural plain concrete.

results in bearing stresses that are equal to the stresses in

427.1.1 Discontinuity the struts. The bearing plate on the left side of Figure 427-
A discontinuity in the stress distribution occurs at a change 4(b) is used to represent an actual tie anchorage. The tie
in the geometry of a structural element or at a concentrated force can be anchored by a plate, or through development
load or reaction. St. Venant’s principle indicates that the of straight or hooked bars, as shown in Figure 427-4(c).
stresses due to axial load and bending approach a linear
distribution at a distance approximately equal to the overall The shaded areas in Figure 427-5(a) and (b) are extended
height of the member, h, away from the discontinuity. For nodal zones. An extended nodal zone is that portion of a
this reason, discontinuities are assumed to extend a distance
member bounded by the intersection of the effective strut
h from the section where the load or change in geometry
occurs. Figure 427-1(a) shows typical geometric width, ws, and the effective tie width, wt (see Section
discontinuities, and Figure 427-1(b) shows combined 427.4.2).
geometrical and loading discontinuities.
427.1.2 D-region The shaded regions in Figure 427-1(a)

and (b) show typical D-regions. The plane sections
assumption of Section 410.3.2 is not applicable in such
regions.
Each shear span of the beam in Figure 427-2(a) is a D-

region. If two D-regions overlap or meet as shown in Figure
427-2(b), they can be considered as a single D-region for
design purposes. The maximum length-to-depth ratio of
such a D-region would be approximately 2. Thus, the
smallest angle between the strut and the tie in a D-region is
arctan ½ = 26.5 degrees, rounded to 25 degrees.
If there is a B-region between the D-regions in a shear span,

as shown in Figure 427-2(c), the strength of the shear span
is governed by the strength of the B-region if the B- and D-
regions have similar geometry and reinforcement. This is
because the shear strength of a B-region is less than the
shear strength of a comparable D-region. Shear spans
427.1.3 Hydrostatic Nodal Zone has loaded faces

perpendicular to the axes of the struts and ties acting on the
node and has equal stresses on the loaded faces. Figure 427-
4(a) shows a C-C-C nodal zone. If the stresses on the face
of the nodal zone are the same in all three struts, the ratios
of the lengths of the sides of the nodal zone, wn1: wn2: wn3
are in the same proportions as the three forces C1: C2: C3.
The faces of a hydrostatic nodal zone are perpendicular to
the axes of the struts and ties acting on the nodal zone.
These nodal zones are called hydrostatic nodal zones

because the in-plane stresses are the same in all directions.
Strictly speaking, this terminology is incorrect because the
in-plane stresses are not equal to the out-of-plane stresses.
A C-C-T nodal zone can be represented as a hydrostatic

nodal zone if the tie is assumed to extend through the node
to be anchored by a plate on the far side of the node, as
shown in Figure 427-4(b), provided that the size of the plate
th
Figure 427-1 D-Regions And Discontinuities
Figure 427-2 Description of Deep and Slender Beams

Figure 427-3 Description of Strut-and-Tie Model
Figure 427-4 Hydrostatic Nodes

N. B. : For A.4.3.2, refer to 427.4.3.2
In the nodal zone shown in Figure 427-6 (a), the reaction R

equilibrates the vertical components of the forces C1 and
C2.. Frequently, calculations are easier if the reaction R is
divided into R1, which equilibrates the vertical components
of the force C2 as shown in Figure 427-6(b).
th
Figure 427-6 Subdivision of Nodal Zone
Figure 427-5 Extended Nodal Zone Showing the

Effect of the Distribution of the Force
N. B. : For A.4.3.2, refer to Section 427.4.3.2
Figure 427-7 Classification of Nodes

427.1.4 Nodes
For equilibrium, at least three forces should act on a node in
a strut-and-tie model, as shown in Figure 427-.7. Nodes are
classified according to the signs of these forces. A C-C-C
node resists three compressive forces, a C-C-T node resists
two compressive forces and one tensile
force, and so on.
427.1.5 Strut
In design, struts are usually idealized as prismatic Figure 427-8 Bottle-shaped Strut: (a) Cracking of a
compression members, as shown by the straight line Bottle-shaped Strut; and (b) Strut-and-
outlines of the struts in Figures 427-2 and 427-3. If the Tie Model of a Bottle-shaped Strut
effective compression strength fce differs at the two ends of
a strut, due either to different nodal zone strengths at the
two ends, or to different bearing lengths, the strut is 427.2 Strut-andTie Model Design Procedure
idealized as a uniformly tapered compression member.
427.2.1 It shall be permitted to design structural concrete
Bottle-shaped struts — A bottle-shaped strut is a strut members or D-regions in such members, by modeling the
located in a part of a member where the width of the member or region as an idealized truss. The truss model
compressed concrete at midlength of the strut can spread shall contain struts, ties, and nodes as defined in Section
laterally. The curved dashed outlines of the struts in Figure 427.1. The truss model shall be capable of transferring all
427-3 and the curved solid outlines in Figure 427-8 factored loads to the supports or adjacent B-regions.
approximate the boundaries of bottle-shaped struts. A split
cylinder test is an example of a bottle-shaped strut. The 427.2.2 The strut-and-tie model shall be in equilibrium with
the applied loads and the reactions.
internal lateral spread of the applied compression force in
such a test leads to a transverse tension that splits the 427.2.3 In determining the geometry of the truss, the
specimen. dimensions of the struts, ties, and nodal zones shall be taken
into account.
To simplify design, bottle-shaped struts are idealized either
as prismatic or as uniformly tapered, and crack-control 427.2.4 Ties shall be permitted to cross struts. Struts shall
reinforcement from Section 427.3.3 is provided to resist the cross or overlap only at nodes.
transverse tension. The amount of confining transverse
reinforcement can be computed using the strut-and-tie 427.2.5 The angle, θ, between the axes of any strut and any
model shown in Figure 427-8(b) with the struts that tie entering a single node shall not be taken as less than 25
represent the spread of the compression force acting at a degrees.
slope of 1:2 to the axis of the applied compressive force.
Alternatively for fc′ not exceeding 40 MPa, Eq. 427-4 can 427.2.6 Design of struts, ties, and nodal zones shall be
be used. The cross-sectional area Ac of a bottle-shaped strut based on:
is taken as the smaller of the cross-sectional areas at the two  Fn≥ Fu (427-1)
ends of the strut. See Figure 427-8(a).
where Fu is the factored force acting in a strut, in a tie, or
on one face of a nodal zone; Fn is the nominal strength of
the strut, tie, or nodal zone; and  is specified in Section
409.3.2.6.
th
 Asi sin a  0.003 (427-4)

427.3 Strength of Struts bs S i
427.3.1 The nominal compressive strength of a strut where Asi is the total area of surface reinforcement at
without longitudinal reinforcement, Fns, shall be taken as spacing si in the i-th layer of reinforcement crossing a strut
the smaller value of: at an angle αi to the axis of the strut.
Fns = fceAcs (427-2) 427.3.3.2 The reinforcement required in Section 427.3.3

shall be placed in either two orthogonal directions at angles
at the two ends of the strut, where Acs is the cross-sectional α1 and α2 to the axis of the strut, or in one direction at an
area at one end of the strut, and fce is the smaller of (1) and angle α to the axis of the strut. If the reinforcement is in
(2): only one direction, α shall not be less than 40 degrees.
1. The effective compressive strength of the concrete in
the strut given in Section 427.3.2; 427.3.4 If documented by tests and analyses, it shall be
permitted to use an increased effective compressive
2. The effective compressive strength of the concrete in strength of a strut due to confining reinforcement.
the nodal zone given in Section 427.5.2.
427.3.5 The use of compression reinforcement shall be
427.3.2 The effective compressive strength of the permitted to increase the strength of a strut. Compression
concrete, fce, in a strut shall be taken as: reinforcement shall be properly anchored, parallel to the
fce = 0.85βsfc′ (427-3) axis of the strut, located within the strut, and enclosed in
ties or spirals satisfying Section 407.11. In such cases, the
nominal strength of a longitudinally reinforced strut is:
427.3.2.1 For a strut of uniform cross-sectional area over
its length .................................................................. βs = 1.0 Fns = fceAcs + As′ fs′ (427-5)
427.3.2.2 For struts located such that the width of the

427.4 Strength of Ties
midsection of the strut is larger than the width at the nodes
(bottle-shaped struts):
427.4.1 The nominal strength of a tie, Fnt, shall be taken as:
1. With reinforcement satisfying Section 427.3.3 ... Fnt = Atsfy + Atp(fse + δfp) (427-6)
βs = 0.75
where (fse + Δfp) shall not exceed fpy, and Atp is zero for
2. Without reinforcement satisfying Section nonprestressed members.
427.3.3 ....................................................... βs = 0.60λ
where the value of λ is defined in Section 408.7.1. In Eq. 427–6, it shall be permitted to take δfp equal to 415
MPa for bonded prestressed reinforcement, or 70 MPa for
427.3.2.3 For struts in tension members, or the tension unbonded prestressed reinforcement. Other values of δfp
flanges of members................................................ βs = 0.40 shall be permitted when justified by analysis.
427.3.2.4 For all other cases .............................. βs = 0.60λ 427.4.2 The axis of the reinforcement in a tie shall coincide
with the axis of the tie in the strut-and-tie model. The
427.3.3 If the value of βs specified in Section 427.3.2.2(1) is effective tie width assumed in design wt can vary between
used, the axis of the strut shall be crossed by reinforcement the following limits, depending on the distribution of the tie
proportioned to resist the transverse tensile force resulting reinforcement.
from the compression force spreading in the strut. It shall 1. If the bars in the tie are in one layer, the effective tie
be permitted to assume the compressive force in the strut width can be taken as the diameter of the bars in the tie
spreads at a slope of 2 longitudinal to 1 transverse to the plus twice the cover to the surface of the bars, as
axis of the strut.
shown in Figure 427-5(a); and
427.3.3.1 For fc′ not greater than 40 MPa, the 2. A practical upper limit of the tie width can be taken as
requirement of Section 427.3.3 shall be permitted to be the width corresponding to the width in a hydrostatic
satisfied by the axis of the strut being crossed by layers of nodal zone, calculated as:
reinforcement that satisfy Eq. 427-4:
wtmax = Fnt /( fcebs) (427-7)

where fce is computed for the nodal zone in where the value of βn is given in Sections 427.5.2.1 through
accordance with Section 427.5.2. If the tie width exceeds 427.5.2.3.
the value from (a), the tie reinforcement should be
distributed approximately uniformly over the width and 427.5.2.1 In nodal zones bounded by struts or bearing
thickness of the tie, as shown in Figure 427-5(b). areas, or both ......................................................... βn = 1.0;
427.4.3 Tie reinforcement shall be anchored by mechanical 427.5.2.2 In nodal zones anchoring one
devices, post-tensioning anchorage devices, standard hooks, tie.......................................................................... βn = 0.80;
or straight bar development as required by Sections
427.4.3.1 through 427.4.3.4. or
427.4.3.1 Nodal zones shall develop the difference between 427.5.2.3 In nodal zones anchoring two or more ties
the tie force on one side of the node and the tie force on the .............................................................................. βn = 0.60.
other side.
427.5.3 In a three-dimensional strut-and-tie model, the area
427.4.3.2 At nodal zones anchoring one tie, the tie force of each face of a nodal zone shall not be less than that given
shall be developed at the point where the centroid of the in Section 427.5.1, and the shape of each face of the nodal
reinforcement in a tie leaves the extended nodal zone and zones shall be similar to the shape of the projection of the
enters the span. end of the struts onto the corresponding faces of the nodal
zones.
427.4.3.3 At nodal zones anchoring two or more ties, the tie
force in each direction shall be developed at the point where
the centroid of the reinforcement in the tie leaves the
extended nodal zone.
427.4.3.4 The transverse reinforcement required by

Section
427.3.3 shall be anchored in accordance with Section
412.14.
427.5 Strength of Nodal Zones
427.5.1 The nominal compression strength of a nodal zone,

Fnn, shall be:
Fnn = fceAnz (427-8)
where fce is the effective compressive strength of the
concrete in the nodal zone as given in Sect. 427.5.2, and Anz
is the smaller of (1) and (2):
1. The area of the face of the nodal zone on which Fu acts,
taken perpendicular to the line of action of Fu;
2. The area of a section through the nodal zone,
taken perpendicular to the line of action of the
resultant force on the section.
427.5.2 Unless confining reinforcement is provided within

the nodal zone and its effect is supported by tests and
analysis, the calculated effective compressive stress, fce, on
a face of a nodal zone due to the strut-and-tie forces shall
not exceed the value given by:
fce = 0.85βnfc′ (427-9)
th
NSCP C101-10
Chapter 5
STRUCTURAL STEEL

VOLUME I
SIXTH EDITION

Tel. No : (+632) 410-0483

Fax No.: (+632) 411-8606
th
CHAPTER 5 - Steel and Metals 5-1
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 5 - STEEL AND METALS SPECIFICATION FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL BUILDINGS ..................... 11
PART 1 - SPECIFICATION FOR STEEL MEMBERS ..................................................................................................... 11
SYMBOLS................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
DEFINITIONS ......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
SECTION 501 - GENERAL PROVISIONS.......................................................................................................................... 28
501.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................... 28
501.2 Referenced Specifications, Codes and Standards ........................................................................................................... 28
501.3 Material............................................................................................................................................................................ 30
501.4 Structural Design Drawings and Specifications............................................................................................................... 32
SECTION 502 - DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ...................................................................................................................... 32
502.1 General Provisions ........................................................................................................................................................... 33
502.2 Loads and Load Combinations ........................................................................................................................................ 33
502.3 Design Basis .................................................................................................................................................................... 33
502.4 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling ................................................................................................................. 35
502.4. Unstiffened Elements...................................................................................................................................................... 35
502.5 Fabrication, Erection and Quality Control ....................................................................................................................... 36
502.6 Evaluation of Existing Structures .................................................................................................................................... 36
SECTION 503 .......................................................................................................................................................................... 39
STABILITY ANALYSIS AND DESIGN .............................................................................................................................. 39
503.1 Stability Design Requirements ........................................................................................................................................ 39
503.2 Calculation of Required Strengths ................................................................................................................................... 40
SECTION 504 - DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR TENSION ............................................................................................... 42
504.1 Slenderness Limitations ................................................................................................................................................... 43
504.2 Tensile Strength ............................................................................................................................................................... 43
504.3 Area Determination ......................................................................................................................................................... 43
504.4 Built-up Members ............................................................................................................................................................ 44
504.5 Pin-Connected Members ................................................................................................................................................. 44
504.6 Eyebars ............................................................................................................................................................................ 46
SECTION 505 - DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR COMPRESSION .................................................................................... 46
505.2 Slenderness Limitations and Effective Length ................................................................................................................ 46
505.3 Compressive Strength for Flexural Buckling of Members Without Slender Elements ................................................... 47
505.4 Compressive Strength for Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling of Members without Slender Elements ............. 47
505.5 Single Angle Compression Members .............................................................................................................................. 48
505.6 Built-up Members ............................................................................................................................................................ 49
505.7 Members with Slender Elements ..................................................................................................................................... 50
SECTION 506 -DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR FLEXURE ............................................................................................... 52
506.2 Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about their Major Axis ........................................ 55
506.3 Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Compact Webs and Noncompact or Slender Flanges Bent about their
Major Axis ...................................................................................................................................................................... 56
506.4 Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or Noncompact Webs Bent about their Major Axis ........................................ 56
506.5 Doubly Symmetric and Singly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent about their Major Axis .......... 58
506.6 I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about their Minor Axis ...................................................................................... 59
National Structural Code of the Philippines 6th Edition Volume 1

5-2 CHAPTER 5 - Steel and Metals
506.7 Square and Rectangular HSS and Box-shaped Members ................................................................................................ 59
506.8 Round HSS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 60
506.9 Tees and Double Angles Loaded in the Plane of Symmetry ........................................................................................... 60
506.10 Single Angles ................................................................................................................................................................. 61
506.11 Rectangular Bars and Rounds ........................................................................................................................................ 62
506.12 Unsymmetrical Shapes .................................................................................................................................................. 63
506.13 Proportions of Beams and Girders ................................................................................................................................. 63
SECTION 507 - DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR SHEAR................................................................................................... 65
507.2 Members with Unstiffened or Stiffened Webs ................................................................................................................ 65
507.3 Tension Field Action ....................................................................................................................................................... 66
507.4 Single Angles ................................................................................................................................................................... 67
507.5 Rectangular HSS and Box Members ............................................................................................................................... 67
507.6 Round HSS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 67
507.7 Weak Axis Shear in Singly and Doubly Symmetric Shapes............................................................................................ 67
507.8 Beams and Girders with Web Openings .......................................................................................................................... 67
SECTION 508 - DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR COMBINED FORCES AND TORSION ............................................. 68
508.1 Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members Subject to Flexure and Axial Force ............................................................... 68
508.2 Unsymmetric and other Members Subject to Flexure and Axial Force .......................................................................... 69
508.3 Members under Torsion and Combined Torsion, Flexure, Shear and/or Axial Force .................................................. 70
SECTION 509 - DESIGN OF COMPOSITE MEMBERS .................................................................................................. 72
509.2 Axial Members ................................................................................................................................................................ 72
509.3 Flexural Members ............................................................................................................................................................ 75
503.3 Flexural Strength of Concrete-Encased and Filled Members .......................................................................................... 78
509.4 Combined Axial Force and Flexure ................................................................................................................................. 79
509.5 Special Cases ................................................................................................................................................................... 79
SECTION 510 - DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS................................................................................................................... 79
510.2 Welds ............................................................................................................................................................................... 81
510.3 Bolts and Threaded Parts ................................................................................................................................................. 87
510.4 Affected Elements of Members and Connecting Elements ........................................................................................ 92
510.5 Fillers ............................................................................................................................................................................... 93
510.6 Splices.............................................................................................................................................................................. 93
510.7 Bearing Strength .............................................................................................................................................................. 93
510.8 Column Bases and Bearing on Concrete ......................................................................................................................... 94
510.9 Anchor Rods and Embedments........................................................................................................................................ 94
510.10 Flanges and Webs with Concentrated Forces ................................................................................................................ 94
SECTION 511 - DESIGN OF HSS AND BOX MEMBER CONNECTIONS.................................................................... 98
511.1 Concentrated Forces on HSS ........................................................................................................................................... 98
511.2 HSS-to-HSS Truss Connections .................................................................................................................................... 100
511.3 HSS-to-HSS Moment Connections ............................................................................................................................... 106
SECTION 512 - DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY ......................................................................................................... 110
512.1 General Provisions ......................................................................................................................................................... 110
512.2 Camber .......................................................................................................................................................................... 110
512.3 Deflections ..................................................................................................................................................................... 110
512.4 Drift ............................................................................................................................................................................... 110
512.5 Vibration ........................................................................................................................................................................ 110
512.6 Wind-Induced Motion ................................................................................................................................................... 110
512.7 Expansion and Contraction ............................................................................................................................................ 110

512.8 Connection Slip ............................................................................................................................................................. 110

SECTION 513 - FABRICATION, ERECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL ............................................................... 110
513.1 Shop and Erection Drawings ......................................................................................................................................... 111
513.2 Fabrication ..................................................................................................................................................................... 111
513.3 Shop Painting ................................................................................................................................................................. 112
513.4 Erection.......................................................................................................................................................................... 112
513.5 Quality Control .............................................................................................................................................................. 113
APPENDIX A-1 - INELASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ............................................................................................. 114
A-1.1 General Provisions ........................................................................................................................................................ 114
A-1.2 Materials ........................................................................................................................................................................ 114
A-1.3 Moment Redistribution .................................................................................................................................................. 114
A-1.4 Local Buckling .............................................................................................................................................................. 114
A-1.5 Stability and Second-Order Effects ............................................................................................................................... 115
A-1.5a Braced Frames ............................................................................................................................................................. 115
A-1.5b Moment Frames ........................................................................................................................................................... 115
A-1.6 Columns and Other Compression Members .................................................................................................................. 115
A-1.7 Beams and Other Flexural Members ............................................................................................................................. 115
A-1.8 Members under Combined Forces ................................................................................................................................. 115
A-1.9 Connections ................................................................................................................................................................... 115
APPENDIX A-2 - DESIGN FOR PONDING ...................................................................................................................... 116
A-2.1 Simplified Design for Ponding ...................................................................................................................................... 116
A-2.2 Improved Design for Ponding ....................................................................................................................................... 116
APPENDIX A-3 - DESIGN FOR FATIGUE ...................................................................................................................... 117
A-3.1 General .......................................................................................................................................................................... 117
A-3.2 Calculation of Maximum Stresses and Stress Ranges ................................................................................................... 118
A-3.3 Design Stress Range ...................................................................................................................................................... 118
A-3.4 Bolts and Threaded Parts ............................................................................................................................................... 119
A-3.5 Special Fabrication and Erection Requirements ............................................................................................................ 119
APPENDIX A-4 - STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR FIRE CONDITIONS ........................................................................ 119
A-4.2 Structural Design for Fire Conditions by Analysis ........................................................................................................ 136
A-4.3 Design by Qualification Testing .................................................................................................................................... 138
APPENDIX A-5 – EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES ................................................................................ 139
A-5.2 Material Properties ........................................................................................................................................................ 139
A-5.3 Evaluation by Structural Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 140
A-5.4 Evaluation by Load Tests .............................................................................................................................................. 140
A-5.5 Evaluation Report .......................................................................................................................................................... 140
APPENDIX A-6 - STABILITY BRACING FOR COLUMNS AND BEAMS ................................................................. 140
A-6.2 Columns ........................................................................................................................................................................ 141
A-6.3 Beams ............................................................................................................................................................................ 141
APPENDIX A-7 - DIRECT ANALYSIS METHOD .......................................................................................................... 143
A-7.1 General Requirements ................................................................................................................................................... 143
A-7.2 Notional Loads .............................................................................................................................................................. 143
A-7.3 Design-Analysis Constraints ......................................................................................................................................... 143
PART 2A - SEISMIC PROVISION FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL BUILDINGS .......................................................... 145

SYMBOLS.............................................................................................................................................................................. 145
DEFINITIONS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 147
PART 2A - SECTION 514 STRUCTURAL STEEL BUILDING PROVISIONS ........................................................... 150
514. Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................... 150
SECTION 515 - REFERENCED SPECIFICATIONS, CODES, AND STANDARDS ................................................... 151
SECTION 516 - GENERAL SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS.............................................................................. 151
SECTION 517 - LOADS, LOAD COMB INATIONS, AND NOMINAL STRENGTHS ............................................... 151
517.1 Loads and Load Combinations ...................................................................................................................................... 152
517.2 Nominal Strength ........................................................................................................................................................... 152
SECTION 518 - STRUCTURAL DESIGN DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS, SHOP DRAWINGS, AND
ERECTION DRAWINGS..................................................................................................................................................... 152
518.1 Structural Design Drawings and Specifications............................................................................................................. 152
518.2 Shop Drawings .............................................................................................................................................................. 152
518.3 Erection Drawings ......................................................................................................................................................... 153
SECTION 519 - MATERIALS ............................................................................................................................................. 153
519.1 Material Specifications .................................................................................................................................................. 153
519.2 Material Properties for Determination of Required Strength of Members and Connections ......................................... 153
519.3 Heavy Section CVN Requirements ............................................................................................................................... 154
SECTION 520 - CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS .................................................................................... 155
520.1. Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................ 155
520.2 Bolted Joints .................................................................................................................................................................. 155
520.3 Welded Joints ................................................................................................................................................................ 155
520.4 Protected Zone ............................................................................................................................................................... 158
520.5 Continuity Plates and Stiffeners .................................................................................................................................... 158
SECTION 521 - MEMBERS ................................................................................................................................................ 159
521.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 159
521.2 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling ............................................................................................................... 159
521.3 Column Strength ............................................................................................................................................................ 159
521.4 Column Splices .............................................................................................................................................................. 159
521.5 Column Bases ................................................................................................................................................................ 160
521.6 H-Piles ........................................................................................................................................................................... 160
SECTION 522 - SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES (SMF) .................................................................................................. 161
522.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 161
522.2 Beam-to-Column Connections ...................................................................................................................................... 161
522.3 Panel Zone of Beam-to-Column Connections (Beam Web Parallel to Column Web) .................................................. 162
522.4 Beam and Column Limitations ...................................................................................................................................... 162
522.5 Continuity Plates............................................................................................................................................................ 162
522.6 Column-Beam Moment Ratio ........................................................................................................................................ 162
522.7 Lateral Bracing at Beam-to-Column Connections ........................................................................................................ 163
522.8 Lateral Bracing of Beams .............................................................................................................................................. 164
522.9 Column Splices .............................................................................................................................................................. 164
SECTION 523 - INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAMES (IMF) .................................................................................... 164
523.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 165
523.3 Panel Zone of Beam-to-Column Connections (Beam Web Parallel to Column Web) .................................................. 165
523.4 Beam and Column Limitations. ..................................................................................................................................... 165


SECTION 524 - ORDINARY MOMENT FRAMES (OMF) ............................................................................................. 166
524.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 166
524.2 Beam-to-Column ........................................................................................................................................................... 166
524.3 Panel Zone of Beam-to-Column Connections (Beam Web Parallel To Column Web) ................................................. 167
524.4 Beam and Column Limitations ...................................................................................................................................... 168
524.7 Lateral Bracing at Beam-to-Column Connections ....................................................................................................... 168
524.8 Lateral Bracing of Beams .............................................................................................................................................. 168
524.9 Column Splices .............................................................................................................................................................. 168
SECTION 525 - SPECIAL TRUSS MOMENT FRAMES (STMF) .................................................................................. 169
525.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 169
525.2 Special Segment ............................................................................................................................................................ 169
525.3 Strength of Special Segment Members .......................................................................................................................... 169
525.4 Strength of Non-Special Segment rs. ............................................................................................................................. 169
525.5 Width-Thickness Limitations ........................................................................................................................................ 169
525.6 Lateral Bracing .............................................................................................................................................................. 169
SECTION 526 - SPECIAL CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAMES (SCBF) ........................................................... 170
526.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 170
526.2 Members ........................................................................................................................................................................ 170
526.3 Required Strength of Bracing Connections ................................................................................................................... 171
526.4 Special Bracing Configuration Requirements ............................................................................................................... 171
526.5 Column Splices .............................................................................................................................................................. 172
526.6 Protected Zone ............................................................................................................................................................... 172
SECTION 527 - ORDINARY CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAMES (OCBF) ...................................................... 172
527.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 172
527.2 Bracing Members .......................................................................................................................................................... 172
527.3 Special Bracing Configuration....................................................................................................................................... 172
527.4 Bracing Connections ...................................................................................................................................................... 173
527.5 OCBF above Seismic Isolation Systems........................................................................................................................ 173
SECTION 528 - ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAMES (EBF) ................................................................................... 173
528.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 173
528.2 Links .............................................................................................................................................................................. 173
528.3 Link Stiffeners ............................................................................................................................................................... 174
528.4 Link-to-Column Connections ........................................................................................................................................ 174
528.5 Lateral Bracing of Link ................................................................................................................................................. 175
528.6 Diagonal Brace and Beam Outside of Link ................................................................................................................... 175
528.8 Required Strength of Columns ...................................................................................................................................... 176
528.9 Protected Zone ............................................................................................................................................................... 176
528.10 Demand Critical Welds................................................................................................................................................ 176
SECTION 529 - BUCKLING-RESTRAINED BRACED FRAMES (BRBF) .................................................................. 176
529.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 176
529.2 Bracing Members .......................................................................................................................................................... 176
529.4 Special Requirements .................................................................................................................................................... 177
529.5 Beams and Columns ...................................................................................................................................................... 178
529.6 Protected Zone ............................................................................................................................................................... 178
SECTION 530 - SPECIAL PLATE SHEAR WALLS (SPSW) ......................................................................................... 179

530.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 179

530.2 Webs .............................................................................................................................................................................. 179
530.3 Connections of Webs to Boundary Elements ................................................................................................................ 179
530.4 Horizontal and Vertical Boundary Elements ................................................................................................................. 179
SECTION 531 - QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN ............................................................................................................. 180
531.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 180
PART B - APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................................................... 180
B-1. PREQUALIFICATION OF BEAM-COLUMN AND LINK-TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS ........................ 181
B-1.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 181
B-1.2 General Requirements ................................................................................................................................................... 181
B-1.4 Prequalification Variables ............................................................................................................................................. 181
B-1.5. Design Procedure .......................................................................................................................................................... 182
B-1.6. Prequalification Record ................................................................................................................................................ 182
B-2. QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN ................................................................................................................................ 183
B-2.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 183
B-2.2 Inspection and Nondestructive Testing Personnel ......................................................................................................... 183
B-2.3. Contractor Documents .................................................................................................................................................. 183
B-2.4 Quality Assurance Agency Documents ......................................................................................................................... 183
B-2.5 Inspection Points and Frequencies ................................................................................................................................. 183
B-3. SEISMIC DESIGN - COEFFICIENTS AND APPROXIMATE PERIOD PARAMETERS ................................. 187
B-3.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 187
B-3.2 Symbols ......................................................................................................................................................................... 187
B-4. QUALIFYING CYCLIC TESTS OF BEAM-TO-COLUMN AND LINK-TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS ...... 189
B-4.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 189
B-4.2 Symbols ......................................................................................................................................................................... 189
B-4.3 Definitions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 189
B-4.4 Test Subassemblage Requirements ................................................................................................................................ 189
B-4.5 Essential Test Variables ................................................................................................................................................. 189
B-4.6 Loading History ............................................................................................................................................................. 191
B-4.7 Instrumentation .............................................................................................................................................................. 191
B-4.8 Materials Testing Requirements .................................................................................................................................... 191
B-4.9 Test Reporting Requirements ........................................................................................................................................ 192
B-4.10 Acceptance Criteria ..................................................................................................................................................... 193
B-5. QUALIFYING CYCLIC TESTS OF BUCKLING-RESTRAINED BRACES ........................................................ 193
B-5.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 193
B-5.2 Symbols ......................................................................................................................................................................... 193
B-5.3 Definitions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 194
B-5.4 Subassemblage Test Specimen ...................................................................................................................................... 194
B-5.5 Brace Test Specimen ..................................................................................................................................................... 194
B-5.6 Loading History ............................................................................................................................................................. 195
B-5.7 Instrumentation .............................................................................................................................................................. 195
B-5.8 Materials Testing Requirements .................................................................................................................................... 195
B-5.9 Test Reporting Requirements ........................................................................................................................................ 196
B-5.10 Acceptance Criteria ..................................................................................................................................................... 196
B-6. WELDING PROVISIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 197
B-6.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 197
B-6.2 Structural Design Drawings and Specifications, Shop Drawings, and Erection Drawings ........................................... 197
B-6.3 Personnel ....................................................................................................................................................................... 197
B-6.4 Nondestructive Testing Procedures ............................................................................................................................... 198

B-6.5 Additional Welding Provisions ...................................................................................................................................... 198

B-6.6 Additional Welding Provisions for Demand Critical Welds Only ................................................................................. 199
B-7 WELD METAL/WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION NOTCH TOUGHNESS VERIFICATION TEST199
B-7.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................ 199
B-7.2 Test Conditions ............................................................................................................................................................. 200
B-7.3 Test Specimens .............................................................................................................................................................. 200
B-7.4 Acceptance Criteria ....................................................................................................................................................... 200
PART 2B - COMPOSITE STRUCTURAL STEEL AND REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS ....................... 201
DEFINITIONS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 201
SECTION 532 - SCOPE........................................................................................................................................................ 202
SECTION 533 - REFERENCED SPECIFICATIONS, CODES, AND STANDARDS ................................................... 203
SECTION 534 - GENERAL SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS.............................................................................. 203
SECTION 535 - LOADS, LOAD COMBINATIONS, AND NOMINAL STRENGTHS. ............................................... 204
535.1 Loads and Load Combinations ...................................................................................................................................... 204
535.2 Nominal Strength ........................................................................................................................................................... 204
SECTION 536 - MATERIALS ............................................................................................................................................. 204
536.1 Structural Steel .............................................................................................................................................................. 204
536.2 Concrete and Steel Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................ 204
SECTION 537 - COMPOSITE MEMBERS ....................................................................................................................... 205
537.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 205
537.2 Composite Floor and Roof Slabs ................................................................................................................................... 205
537.3 Composite Beams .......................................................................................................................................................... 205
537.4 Encased Composite Columns ........................................................................................................................................ 205
537.5 Filled Composite Columns ............................................................................................................................................ 207
SECTION 538 - COMPOSITE CONNECTIONS .............................................................................................................. 208
538.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 208
538.3 Nominal Strength of Connections.................................................................................................................................. 208
SECTION 539 - COMPOSITE PARTIALLY RESTRAINED (PR) MOMENT FRAMES (C-PRMF)...................... 209
539.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 209
539.2 Columns ......................................................................................................................................................................... 209
539.3 Composite Beams .......................................................................................................................................................... 209
539.4 Moment Connections ..................................................................................................................................................... 209
SECTION 540 - COMPOSITE SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES (C-SMF) ..................................................................... 210
540.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 210
540.2 Columns ......................................................................................................................................................................... 210
540.3 Beams ............................................................................................................................................................................ 210
SECTION 541 - COMPOSITE INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAMES (C-IMF) ....................................................... 211
541.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 211
541.2 Columns ......................................................................................................................................................................... 211
541.3 Beams ............................................................................................................................................................................ 211
SECTION 542 - COMPOSITE ORDINARY MOMENT FRAMES (C-OMF) ............................................................... 211

542.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 211

542.2 Columns. ........................................................................................................................................................................ 211
542.3 Beams ............................................................................................................................................................................ 211
SECTION 543 - COMPOSITE SPECIAL CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAMES (C-CBF) ............................. 211
543.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 212
543.2 Columns ......................................................................................................................................................................... 212
543.3 Beams ............................................................................................................................................................................ 212
543.4 Braces ............................................................................................................................................................................ 212
543.5. Connections .................................................................................................................................................................. 212
SECTION 544 - COMPOSITE ORDINARY BRACED FRAMES (C-OBF) ............................................................ 212
544.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 212
544.2 Columns ......................................................................................................................................................................... 212
544.3 Beams ............................................................................................................................................................................ 212
544.4 Braces ............................................................................................................................................................................ 212
544.5 Connections ................................................................................................................................................................... 212
SECTION 545 - COMPOSITE ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAMES (C-EBF) ...................................................... 213
545.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 213
545.2 Columns ......................................................................................................................................................................... 213
545.3 Links .............................................................................................................................................................................. 213
545.4 Braces ............................................................................................................................................................................ 213
545.5 Connections ................................................................................................................................................................... 213
SECTION 546 - ORDINARY REINFORCED CONCRETE SHEAR WALLS COMPOSITE WITH STRUCTURAL
STEEL ELEMENTS (C-ORCW)...................................................................................................................................... 213
546.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 214
546.2 Boundary Members ....................................................................................................................................................... 214
546.3 Steel Coupling Beams.................................................................................................................................................... 214
546.4 Encased Composite Coupling Beams ............................................................................................................................ 214
SECTION 547 - SPECIAL REINFORCED CONCRETE SHEAR WALLS COMPOSITE WITH STRUCTURAL
STEEL ELEMENTS (C-SRCW) ......................................................................................................................................... 215
547.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 215
547.3 Steel Coupling Beams.................................................................................................................................................... 215
547.4 Encased Composite Coupling Beams ............................................................................................................................ 215
SECTION 548 - COMPOSITE STEEL PLATE SHEAR WALLS (C-SPW) .................................................................. 216
548.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................. 216
548.2 Wall Elements................................................................................................................................................................ 216
548.4 Openings ........................................................................................................................................................................ 216
SECTION 549 - STRUCTURAL DESIGN DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS, SHOP DRAWINGS, AND
ERECTION DRAWINGS..................................................................................................................................................... 217
SECTION 550 - QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN ............................................................................................................. 217
PART 3 - DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ........................................................... 218
SYMBOLS.............................................................................................................................................................................. 218
DEFINITIONS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 224
SECTION 551 - GENERAL PROVISIONS........................................................................................................................ 228
551.1 Scope, Applicability and Definitions ............................................................................................................................. 228

551.2 Material.......................................................................................................................................................................... 229

551.2.1 Applicable Steels ........................................................................................................................................................ 229
551.3 Loads ............................................................................................................................................................................. 231
551.4 Allowable Strength Design ............................................................................................................................................ 231
551.5 Load and Resistance Factor Design ............................................................................................................................... 231
551.7 Yield Stress and Strength Increase from Cold Work of Forming .................................................................................. 232
551.8 Serviceability ................................................................................................................................................................. 232
551.9 Referenced Documents .................................................................................................................................................. 232
SECTION 552 - ELEMENTS ............................................................................................................................................... 234
552.1 Dimensional Limits and Considerations ........................................................................................................................ 234
552.2 Effective Widths of Stiffened Elements ........................................................................................................................ 235
552.3 Effective Widths of Unstiffened Elements .................................................................................................................... 238
552.4 Effective Width of Uniformly Compressed Elements with a Simple Lip Edge Stiffener .............................................. 240
522.5 Effective widths of Stiffened Elements with Single or Multiple Intermediate Stiffeners or Edge Stiffened Elements
with Intermediate Stiffener(s) ....................................................................................................................................... 241
SECTION 553 - MEMBERS ................................................................................................................................................ 243
553.1 Properties of Sections .................................................................................................................................................... 243
553.2 Tension Members .......................................................................................................................................................... 243
553.3 Flexural Members .......................................................................................................................................................... 243
553.4 Concentrically Loaded Compression Members .................................................................................................... 259
553.5 Combined Axial Load and Bending .............................................................................................................................. 262
SECTION 554 - STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLIESAND SYSTEMS ................................................................................... 265
554.1 Built-Up Sections .......................................................................................................................................................... 265
554.2 Mixed Systems .............................................................................................................................................................. 266
554.3 Lateral and Stability Bracing ......................................................................................................................................... 266
554.4 Cold-Formed Steel Light-Frame Construction .............................................................................................................. 268
554.5 Floor, Roof, or Wall Steel Diaphragm Construction ..................................................................................................... 268
554.6 Metal Roof and Wall System ......................................................................................................................................... 269
SECTION 555 - CONNECTIONS AND JOINTS .............................................................................................................. 275
555.1 General Provisions ......................................................................................................................................................... 275
555.2 Welded Connections ...................................................................................................................................................... 275
555.3 Bolted Connection ......................................................................................................................................................... 281
555.4 Screw Connections ........................................................................................................................................................ 283
555.5 Rupture .......................................................................................................................................................................... 286
555.6 Connecting to Other Materials ....................................................................................................................................... 286
SECTION 556 - TESTS FOR SPECIAL CASES ............................................................................................................... 286
556.1 Tests for Determining Structural Performance .............................................................................................................. 286
556.2 Tests for Confirming Structural Performance ................................................................................................................ 288
556.3 Tests for Determining Mechanical Properties ............................................................................................................... 288
SECTION 557 - DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS AND CONNECTIONS FOR
CYCLIC LOADING (FATIGUE)........................................................................................................................................ 290
557.1 General .......................................................................................................................................................................... 290
557.2 Calculation of Maximum Stresses and Stress Ranges ................................................................................................... 291
557.3 Design Stress Range ...................................................................................................................................................... 291
557.4 Bolts and Threaded Parts ............................................................................................................................................... 291
557.5 Special Fabrication Requirements ................................................................................................................................. 292
SECTION C-1 - DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS USING THE DIRECT
STRENGTH METHOD ........................................................................................................................................................ 292
C-1 Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members Using the Direct Strength Method.................................................... 292

SECTION C-2 - SECOND-ORDER ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................... 299

C.2.1 General Requirements .................................................................................................................................................... 299
C.2.2 Design and Analysis Constraints ................................................................................................................................... 299
SECTION C3 – ADDITIONAL PROVISIONS .................................................................................................................. 300
C.3.1 Scope .............................................................................................................................................................................. 300
C.3.2 Other Steels .................................................................................................................................................................... 300
C.3.3 Loads .............................................................................................................................................................................. 300
C.3.4 Referenced Documents ................................................................................................................................................. 300
C.3.5 Tension Members........................................................................................................................................................... 301
C.3.6 Light-Frame Steel Construction ..................................................................................................................................... 301
C.3.7 Welded Connections ...................................................................................................................................................... 302
C.3.8 Bolted Connections ........................................................................................................................................................ 302
C.3.9 Rupture........................................................................................................................................................................... 306

CHAPTER 5 - STEEL AND METALS Afn Net tension flange area, mm2
Aft Area of tension flange, mm2
SPECIFICATION FOR Ag Gross area of member, mm2
STRUCTURAL STEEL BUILDINGS Ag Gross area of section based on design wall
thickness, mm2
The Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, hereafter Ag Gross area of composite member, mm2
referred to as the Specification, shall apply to the design Ag Chord gross area, mm2
of the structural steel system, where the steel elements are Agv Gross area subject to shear, mm2
defined in the AISC Code of Standard Practice for Steel An Net area of member, mm2
Buildings and Bridges, Section 2.1. Ant Net area subject to tension, mm2
Anv Net area subject to shear, mm2
This Specification includes the following Apb Projected bearing area, mm2
Ar Area of adequately developed longitudinal
Part 1 Specification for Steel members reinforcing steel within the effective width of the
concrete slab, mm2
Part A Appendices for Part 1 As Area of steel cross section, mm2
Asc Cross-sectional area of stud shear connector,
Part 2 Seismic Provision for Structural Steel Buildings mm2
Part 2A Structural Steel Buildings – Provisions Asf Shear area on the failure path, mm2
Asr Area of continuous reinforcing bars, mm2
Part B Appendices for Part 2 Ast Stiffener area, mm2
Part 2B Composite Structural Steel and Reinforced At Net tensile area, mm2
Concrete Buildings Aw Web area, the overall depth times the web
Part 3 Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed thickness, dtw , mm2
Steel Structural Members Aw Effective area of the weld, mm2
Awi Effective area of weld throat of any ith weld
Part C Appendices for Part 3 element, mm2
A1 Area of steel concentrically bearing on a
PART 1 - SPECIFICATION FOR concrete support, mm2
STEEL MEMBERS A2 Maximum area of the portion of the supporting
surface that is geometrically similar to and
concentric with the loaded area, mm2
SYMBOLS B Overall width of rectangular HSS member,
measured 90° to the plane of the connection,
mm
A Column cross-sectional area, mm2 B Overall width of rectangular HSS main member,
A Total cross-sectional area of member, mm2 measured 90° to the plane of the connection,
AB Loaded area of concrete, mm2 mm
A BM Cross-sectional area of the base metal, mm2 B Factor for lateral-torsional buckling in tees and
Ab Nominal unthreaded body area of bolt or double angles
threaded part, mm2 Bb Overall width of rectangular HSS branch
Abi Cross-sectional area of the overlapping branch, member, measured 90° to the plane of the
mm2 connection, mm
Abj Cross-sectional area of the overlapped branch, Bbi Overall branch width of the overlapping
mm2 branch
Ac Area of concrete, mm2 Bbj Overall branch width of the overlapped branch.
Ac Area of concrete slab within effective width, Bp Width of plate, transverse to the axis of the main
mm2 member, mm
AD Area of an upset rod based on the major thread B1,B2 Factors used in determining Mu for combined
diameter, mm2 bending and axial forces when first-order
Ae Effective net area, mm2 analysis is employed
Aeff Summation of the effective areas of the cross C HSS torsional constant
section based on the reduced effective width, b e, Cb Lateral-torsional buckling modification factor
mm2 for nonuniform moment diagrams when both
Afc Area of compression flange, mm2 ends of the unsupported segment are braced
Afg Gross tension flange area, mm2

Cd Coefficient relating relative brace stiffness and Fey Elastic flexural buckling stress about the minor
curvature axis, MPa
Cf Constant based on stress category, given in Fez Elastic torsional buckling stress, MPa
Table 501-3.1 FL A calculated stress used in the calculation of
Cm Coefficient assuming no lateral translation of the nominal flexural strength, MPa
frame Fn Nominal torsional strength
Cp Ponding flexibility coefficient for primary Fn Nominal tensile stress Fnt ,or shear stress, Fnv ,
member in a flat roof from Table 510.3.2, MPa
Cr Coefficient for web sidesway buckling Fnt Nominal tensile stress from Table 510.3.2, MPa
Cs Ponding flexibility coefficient for secondary F’nt Nominal tensile stress modified to include the
member in a flat roof effects of shearing stress, MPa
Cv Web shear coefficient Fnv Nominal shear stress from Table 510.3.2, MPa
Cw Warping constant, mm6 FSR Design stress range, MPa
D Nominal dead load FTH Threshold fatigue stress range, maximum stress
D Outside diameter of round HSS member, mm. range for indefinite design life from Table 501-
D Outside diameter, mm 3.1, MPa
D Outside diameter of round HSS main member, Fu Specified minimum tensile strength of the type
mm of steel being used, MPa
D Chord diameter, mm Fu Specified minimum tensile strength of a stud
Db Outside diameter of round HSS branch member, shear connector, MPa
mm Fu Specified minimum tensile strength of the
Ds Factor used in Equation 507.3-3, dependent on connected material, MPa
the type of transverse stiffeners used in a plate Fu Specified minimum tensile strength of HSS
girder material, MPa
Du In slip-critical connections, a multiplier that Fum Specified minimum tensile strength of the type
reflects the ratio of the mean installed bolt of steel being used at elevated temperature, MPa
pretension to the specified minimum bolt Fw Nominal strength of the weld metal per unit
pretension area, MPa
E Modulus of elasticity of steel = 200 000 MPa Fwi Nominal stress in any ith weld element, MPa
Ec Modulus of elasticity of concrete = Fwix x component of stress Fwi , MPa
0.043wc1.5 f 'c , MPa Fwiy y component of stress Fwi , MPa
Fy Specified minimum yield stress of the type of
Ecm Modulus of elasticity of concrete at elevated steel being used, MPa. As used in this
temperature, MPa. Specification, “yield stress” denotes either the
EIeff Effective stiffness of composite section, N-mm2. specified minimum yield point (for those steels
Em Modulus of elasticity of steel at elevated that have a yield point) or specified yield
temperature, MPa strength (for those steels that do not have a yield
Es Modulus of elasticity of steel = 200 000 MPa point).
Fa Available axial stress at the point of Fy Specified minimum yield stress of the
consideration, MPa compression flange, MPa
FBM Nominal strength of the base metal per unit area, Fy Specified minimum yield stress of the column
MPa web, MPa
Fbw Available flexural stress at the point of Fy Specified minimum yield stress of HSS member
consideration about the major axis, MPa material, MPa
Fbz Available flexural stress at the point of Fy Specified minimum yield stress of HSS main
consideration about the minor axis, MPa member material, MPa
Fc Available stress, MPa Fyb Specified minimum yield stress of HSS branch
Fcr Critical stress, MPa member material, MPa
Fcr Buckling stress for the section as determined by Fybi Specified minimum yield stress of the
analysis, MPa overlapping branch material, MPa
Fcry Critical stress about the minor axis, MPa Fybj Specified minimum yield stress of the
Fcrz Critical torsional buckling stress, MPa overlapped branch material, MPa
Fe Elastic critical buckling stress, MPa Fyf Specified minimum yield stress of the flange,
Fex Elastic flexural buckling stress about the major MPa
axis, MPa Fym Specified minimum yield stress of the type of
FEXX Electrode classification number, MPa steel being used at elevated temperature, MPa

Fyp Specified minimum yield stress of plate, MPa flange or braced against twist of the cross
Fyr Specified minimum yield stress of reinforcing section, mm.
bars, MPa Lb Distance between braces, mm.
Fyst Specified minimum yield stress of the stiffener Lc Length of channel shear connector, mm.
material, MPa Lc Clear distance, in the direction of the force,
Fyw Specified minimum yield stress of the web, MPa between the edge of the hole and the edge of the
G Shear modulus of elasticity of steel = 77 200 adjacent hole or edge of the material, mm.
MPa Le Total effective weld length of groove and fillet
H Story shear produced by the lateral forces used to welds to rectangular HSS, mm.
compute  H , N Lp Limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit
state of yielding mm.
H Overall height of rectangular HSS member,
Lp Column spacing in direction of girder, m.
measured in the plane of the connection, mm.
Lpd Limiting laterally unbraced length for plastic
H Overall height of rectangular HSS main member,
analysis, mm.
measured in the plane of the connection, mm.
Lq Maximum unbraced length for Mr (the required
H Flexural constant.
flexural strength), mm.
Hb Overall height of rectangular HSS branch
Lr Limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit
member, measured in the plane of the
state of inelastic lateral-torsional buckling, mm.
connection, mm.
Ls Column spacing perpendicular to direction of
Hbi Overall depth of the overlapping branch.
girder, m.
I Moment of inertia in the place of bending, mm4.
Lv Distance from maximum to zero shear force,
I Moment of inertia about the axis of bending,
mm.
mm4.
MA Absolute value of moment at quarter point of the
Ic Moment of inertia of the concrete section, mm4.
unbraced segment, N-mm
Id Moment of inertia of the steel deck supported on
Ma Required flexural strength in chord, using ASD
secondary members, mm4.
load combinations, N-mm
Ip Moment of inertia of primary members, mm4.
MB Absolute value of moment at centerline of the
Is Moment of inertia of secondary members, mm4.
Is Moment of inertia of steel shape, mm4.
Mbr Required bracing moment, N-mm
Isr Moment of inertia of reinforcing bars, mm4.
MC Absolute value of moment at three-quarter point
Ix , Iy Moment of inertia about the principal axes, mm4.
of the unbraced segment, N-mm
Iy Out-of-plane moment of inertia, mm4.
Mc(x,y) Available flexural strength determined in
Iz Minor principal axis moment of inertia, mm4.
accordance with Section 506, N-mm
Iyc Moment of inertia about y-axis referred to the
Mcx Available flexural-torsional strength for strong
compression flange, or if reverse curvature
axis flexure determined in accordance with
bending referred to smaller flange, mm4.
Section 506, N-mm
J Torsional constant, mm4.
Me Elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment, N-mm
K Effective length factor determined in accordance
Mlt First-order moment under LRFD or ASD load
with Section 503.
combinations caused by lateral translation of the
Kz Effective length factor for torsional buckling.
frame only, N-mm
K1 Effective length factor in the plane of bending,
Mmax Absolute value of maximum moment in the
calculated based on the assumption of no lateral
translation set equal to 1.0 unless analysis
Mn Nominal flexural strength, N-mm
indicates that a smaller value may be used.
Mnt First-order moment using LRFD or ASD load
K2 Effective length factor in the plane of bending,
combinations assuming there is no lateral
calculated based on a sidesway buckling
translation of the frame, N-mm
analysis.
Mp Plastic bending moment, N-mm
L Story height, mm
Mr Required second-order flexural strength under
L Length of the member, mm.
LRFD or ASD load combinations, N-mm
L Actual length of end-loaded weld, mm.
Mr Required flexural strength using LRFD or ASD
L Nominal occupancy live load.
load combinations, N-mm
L Laterally unbraced length of a member, mm.
Mr Required flexural strength in chord, N-mm
L Span length, mm.
Mr-ip Required in-plane flexural strength in branch,
L Length of member between work points at truss
N-mm
chord centerlines, mm.
Mr-op Required out-of-plane flexural strength in
Lb Length between points that are either braced
branch, N-mm
against lateral displacement of compression

Mu Required flexural strength in chord, using LRFD Q Full reduction factor for slender compression
load combinations, N-mm elements.
My Yield moment about the axis of bending, N-mm Qa Reduction factor for slender stiffened
M1 Smaller moment, calculated from a first-order compression elements.
analysis, at the ends of that portion of the Qf Chord-stress interaction parameter.
member unbraced in the plane of bending under Qn Nominal strength of one stud shear connector, N
consideration, N-mm Qs Reduction factor for slender unstiffened
M2 Larger moment, calculated from a first-order compression elements.
analysis, at the ends of that portion of the R Nominal load due to rainwater or snow,
member unbraced in the plane of bending under exclusive of the ponding contribution, MPa
consideration, N-mm R Seismic response modification coefficient.
N Length of bearing (not less than k for end beam Ra Required strength (ASD).
reactions), mm. RFIL Reduction factor for joints using a pair of
N Bearing length of the load, measured parallel to transverse fillet welds only.
the axis of the HSS member, (or measured across Rg Coefficient to account for group effect.
the width of the HSS in the case of the loaded Rm Factor in Equation 503-6b dependent on type of
cap plates), mm. system.
N Number of stress range fluctuations in design Rm Cross-section monosymmetry parameter.
life. Rn Nominal strength, specified in Section 502
Nb Number of bolts carrying the applied tension. through 511.
Ni Additional lateral load. Rn Nominal slip resistance, N
Ni Notional lateral load applied at level i, N Rp Position effect factor for shear studs
Ns Number of slip planes. Rpc Web plastification factor
Ov Overlap connection coefficient. RPJP Reduction factor for reinforced or nonreinforced
P Pitch, mm per thread. transverse partial-joint-penetration (PJP) groove
Pbr Required brace strength, N welds
Pc Available axial compressive strength, N Rpt Web plastification factor corresponding to the
Pc Available tensile strength, N tension flange yielding limit state
Pco Available compressive strength out of the plane Ru Required strength (LRFD)
of bending, N Rwl Total nominal strength of longitudinally loaded
Pe1,Pe2 Elastic critical buckling load for braced and fillet welds, as determined in accordance with
unbraced frame, respectively, N Table 510.2.5
PeL Euler buckling load, evaluated in the plane of Rwt Total nominal strength of transversely loaded
bending, N fillet welds, as determined in accordance with
Pl(t,c) First-order axial force using LRFD or ASD load Table 510.2.5 without the alternate in Section
combinations as a result of lateral translation of 510.2.4 (a)
the frame only (tension or compression), N S Elastic section modulus of round HSS, mm3
Pn(t,c) First-order axial force using LRFD or ASD load S Lowest elastic section modulus relative to the
combinations, assuming there is no lateral axis of bending, mm3
translation of the frame (tension or S Spacing of secondary members, m.
compression),N S Chord elastic section modulus, mm3
Pn Nominal axial strength, N Sc Elastic section modulus to the toe in
Po Nominal axial compressive strength without compression relative to the axis of bending, mm3
consideration of length effects, N Seff Effective section modulus about major axis, mm3
Pp Nominal bearing strength of concrete, N Sxt, Sxc Elastic section modulus referred to tension and
Pr Required second-order axial strength using compression flanges, respectively, mm3
LRFD or ASD load combinations, N Sx , Sy Elastic section modulus taken about the principal
Pr Required axial compressive strength using axes, mm3
LRFD or ASD load combinations, N Sy For channels, taken as the minimum section
Pr Required tensile strength using LRFD or ASD modulus
load combinations, N T Nominal forces and deformations due to the
Pr Required strength, N design-basis fire defined in Section A-4.2.1
Pr Required axial strength in branch, N Ta Tension force due to ASD load combinations,
Pr Required axial strength in chord, N kN
Pu Required axial strength in compression, N
Py Member yield strength, N

Tb Minimum fastener tension given in Table lines of welds; for rectangular HSS, the width b
510.3.1, kN is the clear distance between the webs less the
Tc Available torsional strength, N-mm inside corner radius on each side, mm
Tn Nominal torsional strength, N-mm b Width of the angle leg resisting the shear force,
Tr Required torsional strength, N-mm mm
Tu Tension force due to LRFD load combinations, bcf Width of column flange, mm
kN be Reduced effective width, mm
U Shear lag factor beff Effective edge distance; the distance from the
U Utilization ratio edge of the hole to the edge of the part measured
Ubs Reduction coefficient, used in calculating block in the direction normal to the applied force, mm
shear rupture strength beoi Effective width of the branch face welded to the
Up Stress index chord
Us Stress index beov Effective width of the branch face welded to the
V Required shear force introduced to column, N overlapped brace
V’ Required shear force transferred by shear bf Flange width, mm
connectors, N bfc Compression flange width, mm
Vc Available shear strength, N bft Width of tension flange, mm
Vn Nominal shear strength, N bl Longer leg of angle, mm
Vr Required shear strength at the location of the bs Shorter leg of angle, mm
stiffener, N bs Stiffener width for one-sided stiffeners, mm
Vr Required shear strength using LRFD or ASD d Nominal fastener diameter, mm
load combinations, N d Full nominal depth of the section, mm
Yi Gravity load from the LRFD load combination d Full nominal depth of tee, mm
or 1.6 times the ASD load combination applied d Depth of rectangular bar, mm
at level i, N d Full nominal depth of section, mm
Yt Hole reduction coefficient, N d Full nominal depth of tee, mm
Z Plastic section modulus about the axis of d Diameter, mm
bending, mm3 d Pin diameter, mm
Zb Branch plastic section modulus about the correct d Roller diameter, mm
axis of bending, mm3 db Beam depth, mm
Zx,y Plastic section modulus about the principal axes, db Nominal diameter (body or shank diameter), mm
mm3 dc Column depth, mm
a Clear distance between transverse stiffeners, e Eccentricity in a truss connection, positive being
mm. away from the branches, mm
a Distance between connectors in a built-up emid-ht Distance from the edge of stud shank to the steel
member, mm deck web, measured at mid-height of the deck
a Shortest distance from edge of pin hole to edge rib, and in the load bearing direction of the stud
of member measured parallel to direction of (in other words, in the direction of maximum
force, mm moment for a simply supported beam), mm
a Half the length of the nonwelded root face in the fa Required axial stress at the point of
direction of the thickness of the tension-loaded consideration using LRFD or ASD load
plate, mm combinations, MPa
aw Ratio of two times the web area in compression fb(w,z) Required flexural stress at the point of
due to application of major axis bending moment consideration (major axis, minor axis) using
alone to the area of the compression flange LRFD or ASD load combinations, MPa
components f’c Specified minimum compressive strength of
b Outside width of leg in compression, mm concrete, MPa
b Full width of longest angle leg, mm f’cm Specified minimum compressive strength of
b Width of unstiffened compression element; for concrete at elevate temperatures, MPa
flanges of I-shaped members and tees, the width fo Stress due to D + R (the nominal dead load + the
b is half the full-flange width, bf ; for legs of nominal load due to rainwater or snow exclusive
angles and flanges of channels and zees, the of the ponding contribution), MPa
width b is the full nominal dimension; for plates, fv Required shear strength per unit area, MPa
the width b is the distance from the free edge to g Transverse center-to-center spacing (gage)
the first row of fasteners or line of welds, or the between fastener gage lines, mm
distance between adjacent lines of fasteners or

g Gap between toes of branch members in a rib Radius of gyration of individual component
gapped K-connection, neglecting the welds, mm relative to its centroidal axis parallel to member
h Clear distance between flanges less the fillet or axis of buckling, mm
corner radius for rolled shapes; for built-up o Polar radius of gyration about the shear center,
sections, the distance between adjacent lines of mm
fasteners or the clear distance between flanges rt Radius of gyration of the flange components in
when welds are used; for tees, the overall depth; flexural compression plus one-third of the web
for rectangular HSS, the clear distance between area in compression due to application of major
the flanges less the inside corner radius on each axis bending moment alone
side, mm rts Effective radius of gyration used in the
h Distance between centroids of individual determination of Lr for the lateral-torsional
components perpendicular to the member axis of buckling limit state for major axis bending of
buckling, mm doubly symmetric compact I-shaped members
hc Twice the distance from the centroid to the and channels
following: the inside face of the compression rx Radius of gyration about geometric axis parallel
flange less the fillet or corner radius, for rolled to connected leg, mm
shapes; the nearest line of fasteners at the ry Radius of gyration about y-axis, mm
compression flange or the inside faces of the rz Radius of gyration for the minor principal axis,
compression flange when welds are used, for mm
built-up sections, mm s Longitudinal center-to-center spacing (pitch) of
ho Distance between flange centroids, mm any two consecutive holes, mm
hp Twice the distance from the plastic neutral axis t Thickness of element, mm
to the nearest line of fasteners at the compression t Wall thickness, mm
flange or the inside face of the compression t Angle leg thickness, mm
flange when welds are used, mm t Width of rectangular bar parallel to axis of
hsc Hole factor bending, mm
j Factor defined by Equation 507.2-6 for t Thickness of connected material, mm
minimum moment of inertia for a t Thickness of plate, mm
transverse stiffener. t Design wall thickness for HSS equal to 0.93
k Distance from outer face of flange to the web toe times the nominal wall thickness for ERW HSS
of fillet, mm and equal to the nominal wall thickness for SAW
k Outside corner radius of the HSS, which is HSS, mm
permitted to be taken as 1.5t if unknown, mm t Total thickness of fillers, mm
kc Coefficient for slender unstiffened elements, mm t Design wall thickness of HSS main member, mm
ks Slip-critical combined tension and shear tb Design wall thickness of HSS branch member,
coefficient mm
kv Web plate buckling coefficient tbi Thickness of the overlapping branch, mm
l Largest laterally unbraced length along either tbj Thickness of the overlapped branch, mm
flange at the point of load, mm tcf Thickness of the column flange, mm
l Length of bearing, mm tf Thickness of the loaded flange, mm
l Length of connection in the direction of loading, tf Flange thickness of channel shear connector, mm
mm tfc Compression flange thickness, mm
n Number of nodal braced points within the span tp Thickness of plate, mm
n Threads per mm tp Thickness of tension loaded plate, mm
p Ratio of element i deformation to its deformation tp Thickness of the attached transverse plate, mm
at maximum stress ts Web stiffener thickness, mm
p Projected length of the overlapping branch on the tw Web thickness of channel shear connector, mm
chord tw Beam web thickness, mm
q Overlap length measured along the connecting tw Web thickness, mm
face of the chord beneath the two branches tw Column web thickness, mm
r Governing radius of gyration, mm tw Thickness of element, mm
rcrit Distance from instantaneous center of rotation to w Width of cover plate, mm
weld element with minimum u /ri ratio, mm w Weld leg size, mm
ri Minimum radius of gyration of individual w Subscript relating symbol to major principal axis
component in a built-up member, mm bending
w Plate width, mm

w Leg size of the reinforcing or contouring fillet, if contact of the branch with the chord in the plane
any, in the direction of the thickness of the of the connection to the chord width
tension-loaded plate, mm λ Slenderness parameter
wc Weight of concrete per unit volume (90 ≤ wc ≤ λp Limiting slenderness parameter for compact
155 lbs/ft3 or 1500 wc ≤ 2500 kg/m3). element
wr Average width of concrete rib or haunch, mm λpf Limiting slenderness parameter for compact
x Subscript relating symbol to strong axis flange
xo, yo Coordinates of the shear center with respect to λpw Limiting slenderness parameter for compact web
the centroid, mm λr Limiting slenderness parameter for noncompact
x Connection eccentricity, mm element
y Subscript relating symbol to weak axis λrf Limiting slenderness parameter for noncompact
z Subscript relating symbol to minor principal axis flange
bending λrw Limiting slenderness parameter for noncompact
a Factor used in B2 equal web
a Separation ratio for built-up compression μ Mean slip coefficient for class A or B surfaces,
h as applicable, or as established by tests
members = Resistance factor, specified in Section 502
2 rib Φ
β Reduction factor given by Equation 510.2-1 through 511
β Width ratio; the ratio of branch diameter to chord ΦB Resistance factor for bearing on concrete
diameter for round HSS; the ratio of overall Φb Resistance factor for flexure
branch width to chord width for rectangular HSS Φc Resistance factor for compression.
βT Brace stiffness requirement excluding web Φc Resistance factor for axially loaded composite
distortion, N-mm/radian columns
βbr Required brace stiffness Φsf Resistance factor for shear on the failure path
βeff Effective width ratio; the sum of the perimeters ΦT Resistance factor for torsion
of the two branch members in a K-connection Φt Resistance factor for tension
divided by eight times the chord width Φv Resistance factor for shear
βeop Effective outside punching parameter Ω Safety factor
βsec Web distortional stiffness, including the effect of ΩB Safety factor for bearing on concrete
web transverse stiffeners, if any, N-mm/radian Ωb Safety factor for flexure
βw Section property for unequal leg angles, positive Ωc Safety factor for compression
for short legs in compression and negative for Ωc Safety factor for axially loaded composite
long legs in compression columns
Δ First-order interstory drift due to the design Ωsf Safety factor for shear on the failure path
loads, mm Ωt Safety factor for torsion
ΔH First-order interstory drift due to lateral forces, Ωt Safety factor for tension
mm Ωv Safety factor for shear
Δi Deformation of weld elements at intermediate ρsr Minimum reinforcement ratio for longitudinal
stress levels, linearly proportioned to the critical reinforcing
deformation based on distance from the Ө Angle of loading measured from the weld
instantaneous center of rotation, ri , mm longitudinal axis, degrees
Δm Deformation of weld element at maximum Ө Acute angle between the branch and chord,
stress, mm degrees
Δu Deformation of weld element at ultimate stress εcu Strain corresponding to compressive strength,
(fracture), usually in element furthest from f ‘c
instantaneous center of rotation, mm τb Parameter for reduced flexural stiffness using the
γ Chord slenderness ratio; the ratio of one-half the direct analysis method
diameter to the wall thickness for round HSS; the
ratio of one-half the width to wall thickness for
rectangular HSS
ζ Gap ratio; the ratio of the gap between the
branches of a gapped K-connection to the width
of the chord for rectangular HSS
η Load length parameter, applicable only to
rectangular HSS; the ratio of the length of

DEFINITIONS BATTEN PLATE. Plate rigidly connected to two

parallel components of a built-up column or beam
designed to transmit shear between the components.
Terms that appear in this Glossary are italicized
throughout the Specification, where they first appear
within a sub-section. BEAM. Structural member that has the primary function
of resisting bending moments.
Notes:
BEAM-COLUMN. Structural member that resists both
1. Terms designated with† are common AISI-AISC axial force and bending moment.
terms that are coordinated between the two
standards developers. BEARING. In a bolted connection, limit state of shear
2. Terms designated with * are usually qualified by the forces transmitted by the bolt to the connection elements.
type of load effect, for example, nominal tensile
strength, available compressive strength, design BEARING (LOCAL COMPRESSIVE YIELDING).
flexural strength. Limit state of local compressive yielding due to the action
of a member bearing against another member or surface.
3. Terms designated with ** are usually qualified by the
type of component, for example, web local buckling, BEARING-TYPE CONNECTION. Bolted connection
flange local bending. where shear forces are transmitted by the bolt bearing
against the connection elements.
ALLOWABLE STRENGTH. Nominal strength divided
by the safety factor, R n/ Ω. BLOCK SHEAR RUPTURE. In a connection, limit
state of tension fracture along one path and shear yielding
ALLOWABLE STRESS. Allowable strength divided by or shear fracture along another path.
the appropriate section property, such as section modulus
or cross-section area. BRACED FRAME. An essentially vertical truss
system that provides resistance to lateral forces and
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR. Multiplier of the provides stability for the structural system.
results of first-order analysis to reflect second- order
effects. BRANCH FACE. Wall of HSS branch member.
ASD (ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN). Method BRANCH MEMBER. For HSS connections, member
of proportioning structural components such that the that terminates at a chord member or main member.
allowable strength equals or exceeds the required strength
of the component under the action of the ASD load BUCKLING. Limit state of sudden change in the
combinations. geometry of a structure or any of its elements under a
critical loading condition.
ASD LOAD COMBINATION. Load combination in
this code intended for allowable strength design BUCKLING STRENGTH. Nominal strength for
(allowable stress design). buckling or instability limit states.
AUTHORITY HAVING JURISDICTION. BUILT-UP MEMBER, CROSS-SECTION,

Organization, political subdivision, office or individual SECTION, SHAPE. Member, cross-section, section or
charged with the responsibility of administering and shape fabricated from structural steel elements that are
enforcing the provisions of this code. welded or bolted together.
AVAILABLE STRENGTH. Design strength or CAMBER. Curvature fabricated into a beam or truss
allowable strength, as appropriate. so as to compensate for deflection induced by loads.
AVAILABLE STRESS. Design stress or allowable CHARPY V-NOTCH IMPACT TEST. Standard
stress, as appropriate. dynamic test measuring notch toughness of a
specimen.
AVERAGE RIB WIDTH. Average width of the rib of a
corrugation in a formed steel deck. CHORD MEMBER. For HSS, primary member that
extends through a truss connection.

CLADDING. Exterior covering of structure. CROSS CONNECTION. HSS connection in which

forces in branch members or connecting elements
COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL transverse to the main member are primarily equilibrated
MEMBER. Shape manufactured by press-braking by forces in other branch members or connecting
blanks sheared from sheets, cut lengths of coils or elements on the opposite side of the main member.
plates, or by roll forming cold- or hot- rolled coils or
sheets; both forming operations being performed at DESIGN LOAD. Applied load determined in
ambient room temperature, that is, without manifest accordance with either LRFD load combinations or
addition of heat such as would be required for hot ASD load combinations, whichever is applicable.
forming.
DESIGN STRENGTH. Resistance factor multiplied by
COLUMN. Structural member that has the primary the nominal strength,Rn.
function of resisting axial force.
DESIGN STRESS RANGE. Magnitude of change in
COMBINED SYSTEM. Structure comprised of two or stress due to the repeated application and removal of
more lateral load-resisting systems of different type. service live loads. For locations subject to stress reversal
it is the algebraic difference of the peak stresses.
COMPACT SECTION. Section capable of developing a
fully plastic stress distribution and possessing a rotation DESIGN STRESS. Design strength divided by the
capacity of approximately three before the onset of local appropriate section property, such as section modulus
buckling. or cross section area.
COMPLETE-JOINT-PENETRATION GROOVE DESIGN WALL THICKNESS. HSS wall thickness

WELD (CJP). Groove weld in which weld metal assumed in the determination of section properties.
extends through the joint thickness, except as permitted
for HSS connections. DIAGONAL BRACING. Inclined structural member
carrying primarily axial force in a braced frame.
COMPOSITE. Condition in which steel and concrete
elements and members work as a unit in the DIAGONAL STIFFENER. Web stiffener at column
distribution of internal forces. panel zone oriented diagonally to the flanges, on one
or both sides of the web.
CONCRETE CRUSHING. Limit state of
compressive failure in concrete having reached the DIAPHRAGM PLATE. Plate possessing in-plane shear
ultimate strain. stiffness and strength, used to transfer forces to the
supporting elements.
CONCRETE HAUNCH. Section of solid concrete
that results from stopping the deck on each side of the DIAPHRAGM. Roof, floor or other membrane or
girder in a composite floor system constructed using a bracing system that transfers in-plane forces to the
formed steel deck. lateral force resisting system.
CONCRETE-ENCASED BEAM. Beam totally encased DIRECT ANALYSIS METHOD. Design method for
in concrete cast integrally with the slab. stability that captures the effects of residual stresses and
initial out-of-plumbness of frames by reducing
CONNECTION. Combination of structural elements stiffness and applying notional loads in a second-order
and joints used to transmit forces between two or more analysis.
members.
DIRECT BOND INTERACTION. Mechanism by
COPE. Cutout made in a structural member to remove a which force is transferred between steel and concrete
flange and conform to the shape of an intersecting in a composite section by bond stress.
member.
DISTORTIONAL FAILURE. Limit state of an HSS
COVER PLATE. Plate welded or bolted to the flange of truss connection based on distortion of a rectangular
a member to increase cross-sectional area, section HSS chord member into a rhomboidal shape.
modulus or moment of inertia.
DISTORTIONAL STIFFNESS. Out-of-plane flexural
stiffness of web.

DOUBLE CURVATURE. Deformed shape of a beam EYEBAR. Pin-connected tension member of uniform
with one or more inflection points within the span. thickness, with forged or thermally cut head of greater
width than the body, proportioned to provide
DOUBLE-CONCENTRATED FORCES. Two equal pproximately equal strength in the head and body.
and opposite forces that form a couple on the same
side of the loaded member. FACTORED LOAD. Product of a load factor and the
nominal load.
DOUBLER. Plate added to, and parallel with, a beam or
column web to increase resistance to concentrated forces. FASTENER. Generic term for bolts, rivets, or other
connecting devices.
DRIFT. Lateral deflection of structure.
FATIGUE. Limit state of crack initiation and growth
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR, K. Ratio between resulting from repeated application of live loads.
the effective length and the unbraced length of the
member. FAYING SURFACE. Contact surface of connection
elements transmitting a shear force.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH. Length of an otherwise
identical column with the same strength when analyzed FILLED COMPOSITE COLUMN. Composite column
with pinned end conditions. consisting of a shell of HSS or steel pipe filled with
structural concrete.
EFFECTIVE NET AREA. Net area modified to account
for the effect of shear lag. FILLER METAL. Metal or alloy to be added in making
a welded joint.
EFFECTIVE SECTION MODULUS. Section modulus
reduced to account for buckling of slender compression FILLER. Plate used to build up the thickness of one
elements. component.
EFFECTIVE WIDTH. Reduced width of a plate or FILLET WELD REINFORCEMENT. Fillet welds
slab with an assumed uniform stress distribution which added to groove welds.
produces the same effect on the behavior of a structural
member as the actual plate or slab width with its FILLET WELD. Weld of generally triangular cross
nonuniform stress distribution. section made between intersecting surfaces of elements.
ELASTIC ANALYSIS. Structural analysis based on the FIRST-ORDER ANALYSIS. Structural analysis in
assumption that the structure returns to its original which equilibrium conditions are formulated on the
geometry on removal of the load. undeformed structure; second-order effects are neglected.
ENCASED COMPOSITE COLUMN. Composite FITTED BEARING STIFFENER. Stiffener used at a

column consisting of a structural concrete column and support or concentrated load that fits tightly against one
one or more embedded steel shapes. or both flanges of a beam so as to transmit load through
bearing.
END PANEL. Web panel with an adjacent panel on one
side only. FLARE BEVEL GROOVE WELD. Weld in a groove
formed by a member with a curved surface in contact with
END RETURN. Length of fillet weld that continues a planar member.
around a corner in the same plane.
FLARE V-GROOVE WELD. Weld in a groove formed
ENGINEER-OF-RECORD. Licensed professional by two members with curved surfaces.
responsible for sealing the contract documents.
FLAT WIDTH. Nominal width of rectangular HSS
EXPANSION ROCKER. Support with curved minus twice the outside corner radius. In absence of
surface on which a member bears that can tilt to knowledge of the corner radius, the flat width may be
accommodate expansion. taken as the total section width minus three times the
thickness.
EXPANSION ROLLER. Round steel bar on which a
member bears that can roll to accommodate expansion.

FLEXURAL BUCKLING. Buckling mode in which GRAVITY LOAD. Load, such as that produced by dead
a compression member deflects laterally without twist and live loads, acting in the downward direction.
or change in cross-sectional shape.
GRIP (OF BOLT). Thickness of material through which
FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING. Buckling a bolt passes.
mode in which a compression member bends and
twists simultaneously without change in cross-sectional ROOVE WELD. Weld in a groove between connection
shape. elements. See also AWS D1.1.
FORCE. Resultant of distribution of stress over a GUSSET PLATE. Plate element connecting truss
prescribed area. members or a strut or brace to a beam or column.
FORMED SECTION. See cold-formed steel structural HORIZONTAL SHEAR. Force at the interface
member. between steel and concrete surfaces in a composite
beam.
FORMED STEEL DECK. In composite construction,
steel cold formed into a decking profile used as a HSS. Square, rectangular or round hollow structural steel
permanent concrete form. section produced in accordance with a pipe or tubing
product specification.
FULLY RESTRAINED MOMENT CONNECTION.
Connection capable of transferring moment with User Note: A pipe can be designed using the same
negligible rotation between connected members. design rules for round HSS sections as long as it
conforms to ASTM A53 Class B and the appropriate
GAGE. Transverse center-to-center spacing of fasteners. parameters are used in the design.
GAP CONNECTION. HSS truss connection with a gap INELASTIC ANALYSIS. Structural analysis that takes
or space on the chord face between intersecting branch into account inelastic material behavior, including plastic
members. analysis.
GENERAL COLLAPSE. Limit state of chord IN-PLANE INSTABILITY. Limit state of a beam-
plastification of opposing sides of a round HSS chord column bent about its major axis while lateral buckling or
member at a cross-connection. lateral-torsional buckling is prevented by lateral bracing.
GEOMETRIC AXIS. Axis parallel to web, flange or INSTABILITY. Limit state reached in the loading of
angle leg. a structural component, frame or structure in which a
slight disturbance in the loads or geometry produces
GIRDER FILLER. Narrow piece of sheet steel used as a large displacements.
fill between the edge of a deck sheet and the flange of a
girder in a composite floor system constructed using a JOINT ECCENTRICITY. For HSS truss connection,
formed steel deck. perpendicular distance from chord member center of
gravity to intersection of branch member work points.
GIRDER. See Beam.
Joint†. Area where two or more ends, surfaces, or
GIRT. Horizontal structural member that supports wall edges are attached. Categorized by type of fastener or
panels and is primarily subjected to bending under weld used and method of force transfer.
horizontal loads, such as wind load.
K-CONNECTION. HSS connection in which forces
GOUGE. Relatively smooth surface groove or cavity in branch members or connecting elements transverse
resulting from plastic deformation or removal of material. to the main member are primarily equilibriated by forces
in other branch members or connecting elements on the
GRAVITY AXIS. Axis through the center of gravity of a same side of the main member.
member along its length.
LACING. Plate, angle or other steel shape, in a
GRAVITY FRAME. Portion of the framing system not lattice configuration, that connects two steel shapes
included in the lateral load resisting system. together.

LAP JOINT. Joint between two overlapping connection LOCAL CRIPPLING. Limit state of local failure of web
elements in parallel planes. plate in the immediate vicinity of a concentrated load or
reaction.
LATERAL BRACING. Diagonal bracing, shear
walls or equivalent means for providing in-plane LOCAL YIELDING. Yielding that occurs in a local area
lateral stability. of an element.
LATERAL LOAD RESISTING SYSTEM. LRFD (LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR

Structural system designed to resist lateral loads and DESIGN). Method of proportioning structural
provide stability for the structure as a whole. components such that the design strength equals or
exceeds the required strength of the component under the
LATERAL LOAD. Load, such as that produced by action of the LRFD load combinations.
wind or earthquake effects, acting in a lateral
direction. LRFD LOAD COMBINATION. Load combination in
this code intended for strength design (load and resistance
LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING. Buckling factor design).
mode of a flexural member involving deflection
normal to the plane of bending occurring simultaneously MAIN MEMBER. For HSS connections, chord
with twist about the shear center of the cross-section. member, column or other HSS member to which branch
members or other connecting elements are attached.
LEANING COLUMN. Column designed to carry
gravity loads only, with connections that are not MECHANISM. Structural system that includes a
intended to provide resistance to lateral loads. sufficient number of real hinges, plastic hinges or
both, so as to be able to articulate in one or more
LENGTH EFFECTS. Consideration of the reduction rigid body modes.
in strength of a member based on its unbraced length.
MILL SCALE. Oxide surface coating on steel formed by
LIMIT STATE. Condition in which a structure or the hot rolling process.
component becomes unfit for service and is judged either
to be no longer useful for its intended function MILLED SURFACE. Surface that has been machined
(serviceability limit state) or to have reached its ultimate flat by a mechanically guided tool to a flat, smooth
load-carrying capacity (strength limit state). condition.
LOAD. Force or other action that results from the weight MOMENT CONNECTION. Connection that
of building materials, occupants and their possessions, transmits bending moment between connected
environmental effects, differential movement, or members.
restrained dimensional changes.
MOMENT FRAME. Framing system that provides
LOAD EFFECT. Forces, stresses and deformations resistance to lateral loads and provides stability to the
produced in a structural component by structural system, primarily by shear and flexure of
the framing members and their connections.
the applied loads.
NET AREA. Gross area reduced to account for removed
LOAD FACTOR. Factor that accounts for deviations material.
of the nominal load from the actual load, for
uncertainties in the analysis that transforms the load into a NODAL BRACE. Brace that prevents lateral
load effect and for the probability that more than one movement or twist independently of other braces at
extreme load will occur simultaneously. adjacent brace points (see relative brace).
LOCAL BENDING. Limit state of large deformation NOMINAL DIMENSION. Designated or theoretical
of a flange under a concentrated tensile force. dimension, as in the tables of section properties.
LOCAL BUCKLING. Limit state of buckling of a NOMINAL LOAD. Magnitude of the load specified by
compression element within a cross section. this code.

NOMINAL RIB HEIGHT. Height of formed steel PIPE. See HSS

deck measured from the underside of the lowest point
to the top of the highest point. PITCH. Longitudinal center-to-center spacing of
fasteners. Center-to-center spacing of bolt threads along
NOMINAL STRENGTH. Strength of a structure or axis of bolt.
component (without the resistance factor or safety factor
applied) to resist load effects, as determined in PLASTIC ANALYSIS. Structural analysis based on the
accordance with this Specification. assumption of rigid-plastic behavior, in other words, that
equilibrium is satisfied throughout the structure and the
NONCOMPACT SECTION. Section that can develop stress is at or below the yield stress.
the yield stress in its compression elements before local
buckling occurs, but cannot develop a rotation capacity of PLASTIC HINGE. Yielded zone that forms in a
three. structural member when the plastic moment is attained.
The member is assumed to rotate further as if
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING. Inspection hinged, except that such rotation is restrained by the
procedure wherein no material is destroyed and plastic moment.
integrity of the material or component is not affected.
PLASTIC MOMENT. Theoretical resisting moment
NOTCH TOUGHNESS. Energy absorbed at a specified developed within a fully yielded cross section.
temperature as measured in the Charpy V-Notch test.
PLASTIC STRESS DISTRIBUTION METHOD.
NOTIONAL LOAD. Virtual load applied in a structural Method for determining the stresses in a composite
analysis to account for destabilizing effects that are not member assuming that the steel section and the concrete
otherwise accounted for in the design provisions. in the cross section are fully plastic.
OUT-OF-PLANE BUCKLING. Limit state of a PLASTIFICATION. In an HSS connection, limit state

beam-column bent about its major axis while based on an out-of-plane flexural yield line mechanism in
lateral buckling or lateral-torsional buckling is not the chord at a branch member connection.
prevented by lateral bracing.
PLATE GIRDER. Built-up beam.
OVERLAP CONNECTION. HSS truss connection
in which intersecting branch members overlap. PLUG WELD. Weld made in a circular hole in one
element of a joint fusing that element to another element.
PANEL ZONE. Web area of beam-to-column
connection delineated by the extension of beam and PONDING. Retention of water due solely to the
column flanges through the connection, transmitting deflection of flat roof framing.
moment through a shear panel.
POST-BUCKLING STRENGTH. Load or force that
PARTIAL-JOINT-PENETRATION GROOVE can be carried by an element, member, or frame after
WELD (PJP). Groove weld in which the penetration initial buckling has occurred.
is intentionally less than the complete thickness of the
connected element. PRETENSIONED JOINT. Joint with high-strength
bolts tightened to the specified minimum pretension.
PARTIALLY RESTRAINED MOMENT
CONNECTION. Connection capable of transferring PROPERLY DEVELOPED. Reinforcing bars
moment with rotation between connected members that is detailed to yield in a ductile manner before crushing
not negligible. of the concrete occurs. Bars meeting the provisions
of ACI 318 insofar as development length, spacing and
PERCENT ELONGATION. Measure of ductility, cover shall be deemed to be properly developed.
determined in a tensile test as the maximum elongation of
the gage length divided by the original gage length. PRYING ACTION. Amplification of the tension force in
a bolt caused by leverage between the point of applied
PERMANENT LOAD. Load in which variations load, the bolt and the reaction of the connected elements.
over time are rare or of small magnitude. All other
loads are variable loads. PUNCHING LOAD. Component of branch member
force perpendicular to a chord.

PURLIN. Horizontal structural member that supports roof

deck and is primarily subjected to bending under vertical ROTATION CAPACITY. Incremental angular
loads such as snow, wind or dead loads. rotation that a given shape can accept prior to
excessive load shedding, defined as the ratio of the
P -δ EFFECT. Effect of loads acting on the deflected inelastic rotation attained to the idealized elastic rotation
shape of a member between joints or nodes. at first yield.
P -Δ EFFECT. Effect of loads acting on the RUPTURE STRENGTH. In a connection, strength

displaced location of joints or nodes in a structure. In limited by tension or shear rupture.
tiered building structures, this is the effect of loads acting
on the laterally displaced location of floors and roofs. SAFETY FACTOR. Factor that accounts for
deviations of the actual strength from the nominal
QUALITY ASSURANCE. System of shop and field strength, deviations of the actual load from the nominal
activities and controls implemented by the owner or load, uncertainties in the analysis that transforms the
his/her designated representative to provide confidence load into a load effect, and for the manner and
to the owner and the building authority that quality consequences of failure.
requirements are implemented.
SECOND-ORDER ANALYSIS. Structural analysis in
QUALITY CONTROL. System of shop and field which equilibrium conditions are formulated on the
controls implemented by the fabricator and erector to deformed structure; second-order effects (both P-δ
ensure that contract and company fabrication and erection and P-Δ, unless specified otherwise) are included.
requirements are met.
SECOND-ORDER EFFECT. Effect of loads acting on
RATIONAL ENGINEERING ANALYSIS. Analysis the deformed configuration of a structure; includes P-δ
based on theory that is appropriate for the situation, effect and P-Δ effect.
relevant test data if available, and sound engineering
judgment. SEISMIC RESPONSE MODIFICATION
COEFFICIENT. Factor that reduces seismic load
REENTRANT. In a cope or weld access hole, a cut at an effects to strength level.
abrupt change in direction in which the exposed surface is
concave. SERVICE LOAD COMBINATION. Load combination
under which serviceability limit states are evaluated.
RELATIVE BRACE. Brace that controls the relative
movement of two adjacent brace points along the length SERVICE LOAD. Load under which serviceability limit
of a beam or column or the relative lateral states are evaluated.
displacement of two stories in a frame (see nodal brace).
SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE. Limiting
REQUIRED STRENGTH. Forces, stresses and condition affecting the ability of a structure to
deformations acting on the structural component, preserve its appearance, maintainability, durability or the
determined by either structural analysis, for the comfort of its occupants or function of machinery, under
LRFD or ASD load combinations, as appropriate, or as normal usage.
specified by this Specification or Standard.
SHEAR BUCKLING. Buckling mode in which a
RESISTANCE FACTOR. Factor that accounts for plate element, such as the web of a beam, deforms
unavoidable deviations of the nominal strength from under pure shear applied in the plane of the plate.
the actual strength and for the manner and consequences
of failure. SHEAR CONNECTOR. Headed stud, channel, plate or
other shape welded to a steel member and embedded in
REVERSE CURVATURE. See double curvature concrete of a composite member to transmit shear
forces at the interface between the two materials.
ROOT OF JOINT. Portion of a joint to be welded where
the members are closest to each other. SHEAR CONNECTOR STRENGTH. Limit state of
reaching the strength of a shear connector, as governed by
the connector bearing against the concrete in the slab or
by the tensile strength of the connector.

SHEAR RUPTURE. Limit state of rupture (fracture) due

to shear. SLIP-CRITICAL CONNECTION. Bolted connection
designed to resist movement by friction on the faying
SHEAR WALL. Wall that provides resistance to lateral surface of the connection under the clamping forces of the
loads in the plane of the wall and provides stability for the bolts.
structural system.
SLOT WELD. Weld made in an elongated hole fusing an
SHEAR YIELDING. Yielding that occurs due to shear. element to another element.
SHEAR YIELDING (PUNCHING). In an HSS SNUG-TIGHTENED JOINT. Joint with the

connection, limit state based on out-of-plane shear connected plies in firm contact as specified in Section
strength of the chord wall to which branch members are 510.
attached.
SPECIFIED MINIMUM TENSILE STRENGTH.
SHEET STEEL. In a composite floor system, steel used Lower limit of tensile strength specified for a
for closure plates or miscellaneous trimming in a formed material as defined by ASTM.
steel deck.
SPECIFIED MINIMUM YIELD STRESS. Lower limit
SHIM. Thin layer of material used to fill a space between of yield stress specified for a material as defined by
faying or bearing surfaces. ASTM.
SIDESWAY BUCKLING. Limit state of lateral SPLICE. Connection between two structural elements
buckling of the tension flange opposite the location of joined at their ends to form a single, longer element.
a concentrated compression force.
STABILITY. Condition reached in the loading of a
SIDEWALL CRIPPLING. Limit state of web crippling structural component, frame or structure in which a
of the sidewalls of a chord member at a HSS truss slight disturbance in the loads or geometry does not
connection. produce large displacements.
SIDEWALL CRUSHING. Limit state based on STIFFENED ELEMENT. Flat compression element
bearing strength of chord member sidewall in HSS with adjoining out-of-plane elements along both edges
truss connection. parallel to the direction of loading.
SIMPLE CONNECTION. Connection that transmits STIFFENER. Structural element, usually an angle or
negligible bending moment between connected plate, attached to a member to distribute load, transfer
members. shear or prevent buckling.
SINGLE-CONCENTRATED FORCE. Tensile or STIFFNESS. Resistance to deformation of a member or

compressive force applied normal to the flange of a structure, measured by the ratio of the applied force (or
member. moment) to the corresponding displacement (or rotation).
SINGLE CURVATURE. Deformed shape of a beam STRAIN COMPATIBILITY METHOD. Method

with no inflection point within the span. for determining the stresses in a composite member
considering the stress-strain relationships of each
SLENDER-ELEMENT SECTION. Cross section material and its location with respect to the neutral axis
possessing plate components of sufficient of the cross section.
slenderness such that local buckling in the elastic range
will occur. STRENGTH LIMIT STATE. Limiting condition
affecting the safety of the structure, in which the
SLIP. In a bolted connection, limit state of relative ultimate load-carrying capacity is reached.
motion of connected parts prior to the attainment of the
available strength of the connection. STRESS. Force per unit area caused by axial force,
moment, shear or torsion.

TIE PLATE. Plate element used to join two parallel

STRESS CONCENTRATION. Localized stress components of a built-up column, girder or strut rigidly
considerably higher than average (even in connected to the parallel components and designed to
uniformly loaded cross sections of uniform thickness) transmit shear between them.
due to abrupt changes in geometry or localized loading.
TOE OF FILLET. Junction of a fillet weld face
STRONG AXIS. Major principal centroidal axis of a and base metal. Tangent point of a rolled section
cross section. fillet.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS. Determination of load TORSIONAL BRACING. Bracing resisting twist of a

effects on members and connections based on principles beam or column.
of structural mechanics.
TORSIONAL BUCKLING. Buckling mode in which
STRUCTURAL COMPONENT. Member, connector, a compression member twists about its shear center
connecting element or assemblage. axis.
STRUCTURAL STEEL. Steel elements as defined in TORSIONAL YIELDING. Yielding that occurs due to
Section 2.1 of the AISC Code of Standard Practice for torsion.
Steel Buildings and Bridges.
TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT. Steel
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM. An assemblage of load- reinforcement in the form of closed ties or welded
carrying components that are joined together to provide wire fabric providing confinement for the concrete
interaction or interdependence. surrounding the steel shape core in an encased concrete
composite column.
T-CONNECTION. HSS connection in which the
branch member or connecting element is perpendicular TRANSVERSE STIFFENER. Web stiffener oriented
to the main member and in which forces transverse to the perpendicular to the flanges, attached to the web.
main member are primarily equilibriated by shear in the
main member. TUBING. See HSS.
TENSILE RUPTURE. Limit state of rupture (fracture) TURN-OF-NUT METHOD. Procedure whereby the
due to tension. specified pretension in high-strength bolts is controlled
by rotating the fastener component a predetermined
TENSILE STRENGTH (OF MATERIAL). amount after the bolt has been snug tightened.
Maximum tensile stress that a material is capable of
sustaining as defined by ASTM. UNBRACED LENGTH. Distance between braced points
of a member, measured between the centers of gravity of
TENSILE STRENGTH (OF MEMBER). Maximum the bracing members.
tension force that a member is capable of sustaining.
UNEVEN LOAD DISTRIBUTION. In an HSS
TENSILE YIELDING. Yielding that occurs due to connection, condition in which the load is not
tension. distributed through the cross section of connected
elements in a manner that can be readily determined.
TENSION AND SHEAR RUPTURE. In a bolt, limit
state of rupture (fracture) due to simultaneous tension and UNFRAMED END. The end of a member not
shear force. restrained against rotation by stiffeners or connection
elements.
TENSION FIELD ACTION. Behavior of a panel
under shear in which diagonal tensile forces develop UNSTIFFENED ELEMENT. Flat compression element
in the web and compressive forces develop in the with an adjoining out-of-plane element along one edge
transverse stiffeners in a manner similar to a Pratt truss. parallel to the direction of loading.
THERMALLY CUT. Cut with gas, plasma or laser. VARIABLE LOAD. Load not classified as permanent
load.

VERTICAL BRACING SYSTEM. System of shear YIELDING (PLASTIC MOMENT). Yielding

walls, braced frames or both, extending through one or throughout the cross section of a member as the
more floors of a building. bending moment reaches the plastic moment.
WEAK AXIS. Minor principal centroidal axis of a cross YIELDING (YIELD MOMENT). Yielding at the
section. extreme fiber on the gross section of a member when the
bending moment reaches the yield moment.
WEATHERING STEEL. High-strength, low-alloy steel
that, with suitable precautions, can be used in normal
atmospheric exposures (not marine) without protective
paint coating.
WEB BUCKLING. Limit state of lateral instability of a

web.
WEB COMPRESSION BUCKLING. Limit state of

out-of-plane compression buckling of the web due to a
concentrated compression force.
WEB SIDESWAY BUCKLING. Limit state of lateral

buckling of the tension flange opposite the location of a
concentrated compression force.
WELD METAL. Portion of a fusion weld that has been

completely melted during welding. Weld metal has
elements of filler metal and base metal melted in the weld
thermal cycle.
WELD ROOT. See root of joint.
Y-CONNECTION. HSS connection in which the

branch member or connecting element is not
perpendicular to the main member and in which
forces transverse to the main member are primarily
equilibriated by shear in the main member.
YIELD MOMENT. In a member subjected to

bending, the moment at which the extreme outer fiber
first attains the yield stress.
YIELD POINT. First stress in a material at which an

increase in strain occurs without an increase in stress as
defined by ASTM.
YIELD STRENGTH. Stress at which a material exhibits

a specified limiting deviation from the proportionality of
stress to strain as defined by ASTM.
YIELD STRESS. Generic term to denote either yield

point or yield strength, as appropriate for the material.
YIELDING. Limit state of inelastic deformation that

occurs after the yield stress is reached.

SECTION 501 - GENERAL Buildings (NSCP Chapter 5 Part 2), in addition to the
provisions of this Specification.
PROVISIONS
501.1.3 Nuclear Applications
501.1 Scope
The design of nuclear structures shall comply with the
This section states the scope of the Specification, requirements of the Specificationfor the Design,
summarizes referenced specification, code, and standard Fabrication, and Erection ofSteel Safety-Related Structures
documents, and provides requirements for materials and in Nuclear Facilities (ANSI/AISC N690) including
contract documents. Supplement No.2 or the Load and Resistance Factor
Design Specification for Steel Safety-Related Structures
The section is organized as follows: for Nuclear Facilities (ANSI/AISC N690L), in addition to
the provisions of this Specification.
501.1 Scope
501.2 Referenced Specifications, Codes and Standards 501.2 Referenced Specifications, Codes and Standards
501.3 Material The following specifications, codes and standards are
501.4 Structural Design Drawings and Specifications referenced in this Specification:
The User Notes interspersed throughout are not part of the ACI International (ACI)
Specification.
ACI318-08 Building Code Requirements for
User Note: User notes are intended to provide concise Structural Concrete and Commentary
and practical guidance in the application of the
provisions.
ACI 318M-08 Metric Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete and Commentary
This Specification sets forth criteria for the design,
fabrication, and erection of structural steel buildings and
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. (AISC)
other structures, where other structures are defined as
those structures designed, fabricated, and erected in a manner
AISC 3 03-05 Code of Standard Practice for Steel
similar to buildings, with building-like vertical and lateral
Buildings and Bridges
load resisting elements. Where conditions are not covered
by the Specification, designs are permitted to be based on
ANSI/AISC 341-05 Seismic Provisions for
tests or analysis, subject to the approval of the authority
Structural Steel Buildings
having jurisdiction. Alternate methods of analysis and design
shall be permitted, provided such alternate methods or
criteria are acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction. ANSI/AISCN690-1994(R2004) Specification for the
Design, Fabrication and Erection of Steel Safety-Related
Structures for Nuclear Facilities, including Supplement
User Note: For the design of structural members, other
No. 2
than hollow structural sections (HSS), that are cold-
formed to shapes, with elements not more than 25 mm
in thickness, the provisions in the AISI North American ANSI/AISC N690L-03 Load and Resistance Factor
Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Design Specification for Steel Safety-Related Structures
Structural Members are recommended. for Nuclear Facilities
501.1.1 Low-Seismic Applications American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)

When the seismic response modification coefficient, R, SEI/ASCE 7-02 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
(as specified in this code) is taken equal to or less than and Other Structures ASCE/SFPE 29-99 Standard
3, the design, fabrication, and erection of structural- Calculation Methods for Structural Fire Protection
steel-framed buildings and other structures shall comply
with this Specification. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
501.1.2 High-Seismic Applications ASME B 18.2.6-96 Fasteners for Use in Structural
When the seismic response modification coefficient, R, Applications
(as specified in this code) is taken greater than 3, the
design, fabrication and erection of structural-steel-framed ASME B46.1-95 Surface Texture, Surface Roughness,
buildings and other structures shall comply with the re- Waviness, and Lay
quirements in the Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel

ASTM International (ASTM) A500-03a Standard Specification for Cold-Formed Welded

and Seamless Carbon Steel Structural Tubing in Rounds
A6/A6M-04a Standard Specification for General and Shapes
Requirements for Rolled Structural Steel Bars, Plates,
Shapes, and Sheet Piling A501-01 Standard Specification for Hot-Formed Welded
and Seamless Carbon Steel Structural Tubing
A36/A36M-04 Standard Specification for Carbon
Structural Steel A502-03 Standard Specification for Steel Structural
Rivets
A53/A53M-02 Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel,
Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated, Welded and A5 14/A5 14M-00a Standard Specification forHigh-Yield
Seamless Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate,
Suitable for Welding
A193/A193M-04a Standard Specification for Alloy-Steel
and Stainless Steel Bolting Materials for High- A529/A529M-04 Standard Specification for High-Strength
Temperature Service Carbon-Manganese Steel of Structural Quality
A194/A194M-04 Standard Specification for Carbon and A563-04 Standard Specification for Carbon and Alloy
Alloy Steel Nuts forBolts F or H igh P r es s ur e or Steel Nuts
Hi gh- Te mpera tur e Ser v ic e, or B oth
A563M-03 Standard Specification for Carbon and Alloy
A216/A216M-93(2003) Standard Specification for Steel Steel Nuts [Metric] A568/A568M-03 Standard
Castings, Carbon, Suitable for Fusion Welding, for High Specification for Steel, Sheet, Carbon, and High-Strength,
Temperature Service Low-Alloy, Hot-Rolled and Cold-Rolled, General
Requirements for
A242/A242M-04 Standard Specification for High-Strength
Low-Alloy Structural Steel A572/A572M-04 Standard Specification for High-
Strength Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium Structural
A283/A283M-03Standard Specification for Low and Steel
Intermediate Tensile Strength Carbon Steel Plates
A588/A588M-04Standard Specification for High-
A307-03 Standard Specification for Carbon Steel Bolts Strength Low-Alloy Structural
and Studs, 60,000 PSI Tensile Strength
Steel with 345 MPa Minimum Yield Point to 100 mm
A325-04 Standard Specification for Structural Bolts, Steel, Thick
Heat Treated, 120/1 05 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength
A606-04 Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet and
A325M-04 Standard Specification for High-Strength Strip, High-Strength, Low-Alloy, Hot-Rolled and Cold-
Bolts for Structural Steel Joints (Metric) Rolled, with Improved Atmospheric Corrosion
Resistance
A354-03a Standard Specification for Quenched and
Tempered Alloy Steel Bolts, Studs, and Other Externally A618/A618M-04 Standard Specification for Hot-Formed
Threaded Fasteners Welded and Seamless High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural
Tubing
A370-03a Standard Test Methods and Definitions for
Mechanical Testing of Steel Products A673/A673M-04 Standard Specification for Sampling
Procedurefor Impact Testing of Structural Steel
A449-04 Standard Specificationfor Quenched and Tempered
SteelBolts and Studs A490-04 Standard Specification for A668/A668M-04 Standard Specification for Steel
Heat-Treated Steel Structural Bolts, 150 ksi Minimum Forgings, Carbon and Alloy, for General Industrial Use
Tensile Strength
A709/A709M-04 Standard Specification for Carbon and
A490M-04 Standard Specification forHigh-Strength Steel High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel Shapes, Plates,
Bolts, Classes 10.9 and 10.9.3, for Structural Steel Joints and Bars and Quenched-and-Tempered Alloy Structural
(Metric) Steel Plates for Bridges

A751-01 Standard Test Methods, Practices, and American Welding Society (AWS)
Terminology for Chemical Analysis of Steel Products
AWS D1. 1/D 1. 1M-2004 Structural Welding Code–Steel
A847-99a (2003) Standard Specification for Cold-Formed
Welded and Seamless High-Strength, Low-Alloy Structural AWS A5. 1-2004 Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes
Tubing with Improved Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance for Shielded MetalArc Welding
A852/A852M-03 Standard Specification for Quenched and AWS A5.5-96 Specification for Low-Alloy Steel
Tempered Low-Alloy Structural Steel Plate with 485 MPa Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Minimum Yield Strength to 100 mm Thick
AWS A5. 17/A5. 17M-97 Specification for Carbon Steel
A913/A913M-04 Standard Specification for High- Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding
Strength Low-Alloy Steel Shapes of Structural Quality,
Produced by Quenching and Self-Tempering Process AWS A5. 18:2001 Specification for Carbon Steel
(QST) Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding AWS
A5.20-95 Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for
A992/A992M-04 Standard Specification for Steel for Flux Cored Arc Welding
Structural Shapes for Use in Building Framing
AWS A5.23/A5.23M-97 Specification for Low-Alloy Steel
User Note: ASTM A992 is the most commonly Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding
referenced specification for W shapes.
AWS A5.25/A5.25M-97 Specificationfor Carbon and Low-
A101 1/A101 1M-04 Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Electroslag Welding
and Strip, Hot-Rolled, Carbon, Structural, High-Strength
Low-Alloy and High-Strength Low-Alloy with Improved AWS A5.26/A5.26M-97 Specificationfor Carbon and Low-
Formability Alloy Steel Electrodes for Electrogas Welding
C33-03 Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates AWS A5.28-96 Specification for Low-Alloy Steel
Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding
C330-04 Standard Specification for Lightweight
Aggregates for Structural Concrete AWS A5.29: 1998 Specification for Low-Alloy Steel
Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding
E1 19-00a Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of
Building Construction and Materials Research Council on Structural Connections (RCSC)
E709-01 Standard Guide for Magnetic Particle Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTMA325
Examination orA490 Bolts, 2004
F436-03 Standard Specification for Hardened Steel 501.3 Material

Washers
501.3.1 Structural Steel Materials
F959-02 Standard Specification for Compressible-Washer- Material test reports or reports of tests made by the
Type Direct Tension Indicators for Use with Structural fabricator or a testing laboratory shall constitute sufficient
Fasteners evidence of conformity with one of the above listed
ASTM standards. For hot-rolled structural shapes, plates,
F1554-99 Standard Specification forAnchor Bolts, Steel, 36, and bars, such tests shall be made in accordance with
55, and 105 ksi Yield Strength ASTM A6/A6M; for sheets, such tests shall be made in
accordance with ASTM A568/A568M; for tubing and
User Note: ASTM F1554 is the most commonly pipe, such tests shall be made in accordance with the
referenced specification for anchor rods. Grade and requirements of the applicable ASTM standards listed
weldabiity must be specified. above for those product forms. If requested, the fabricator
shall provide an affidavit stating that the structural steel
F1852-04 Standard Specificationfor “Twist-Off” Type furnished meets the requirements of the grade specified.
Tension Control Structural Bolt/Nut/WasherAssemblies,
Steel, Heat Treated, 120/1 05 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength

501.3.1a ASTM Designations 501.3.1c Rolled Heavy Shapes

Structural steel material conforming to one of the ASTM A6/A6M hot-rolled shapes with a flange thickness
following ASTM specifications is approved for use under exceeding 50 mm, used as members subject to primary
this Specification (computed) tensile forces due to tension or flexure and
spliced using complete-joint-penetration groove welds
1. Hot-rolled structural shapes
that fuse through the thickness of the member, shall be
ASTM A36 /A36M specified as follows
ASTM A529/ A529M
ASTM A572/ A572M The contract documents shall require that such shapes be
ASTM A588/ A588M supplied with Charpy V-Notch (CVN) impact test results in
ASTM A709/ A709M accordance with ASTM A6/A6M,
ASTM A913/ A913M
ASTM A992/ A992M Supplementary Requirement S30, Charpy V-Notch Impact
Test for Structural Shapes – Alternate Core Location. The
2. Structural tubing
impact test shall meet a minimum average value of 27 J
ASTM A500 absorbed energy at +21 ◦C.
ASTM A501
ASTM A618 The above requirements do not apply if the splices and
ASTM A847 connections are made by bolting. The above requirements do
not apply to hot-rolled shapes with a flange thickness
3. Pipe
exceeding 50mm that have shapes with flange or web
ASTM A53/A53M, Gr. B elements less than 50 mm thick welded with complete-joint-
penetration groove welds to the face of the shapes with
4. Plates
thicker elements.
AS TM A 36/A 36M
ASTM A242/A242M User Note: Additional requirements for joints in heavy
ASTM A283/A283M rolled members are given in Sections 510.1.5, 510.1.6,
ASTM A514/A514M 510.2.7, and 513.2.2.
ASTM A529/A529M
ASTM A572/A572M 501.3.1d Built-Up Heavy Shapes
ASTM A588/A588M Built-up cross-sections consisting of plates with a
ASTM A709/A709M thickness exceeding 50 mm, used as members subject to
ASTM A852/A852M primary (computed) tensile forces due to tension or
ASTM A1011/A1011M flexure and spliced or connected to other members using
5. Bars complete-jointpenetration groove welds that fuse through
the thickness of the plates, shall be specified as follows.
ASTM A36/A36M The contract documents shall require that the steel be
ASTM A529/A529M supplied with Charpy V-Notch impact test results in
ASTM A572/A572M accordance with ASTM A6/A6M, Supplementary
Requirement S5, Charpy V-Notch Impact Test. The
ASTM A709/A709M impact test shall be conducted in accordance with ASTM
6. Sheets A673/A673M, Frequency P, and shall meet a minimum
average value of 27 J absorbed energy at +21 ◦C.
ASTM A606
A1011/A1011M The above requirements also apply to built-up cross-
SS HSLAS sections consisting of plates exceeding 50 mm that are
welded with complete-joint-penetration groove welds to the
HSLAS-F
face of other sections.
501.3.1b Unidentified Steel User Note: Additional requirements for joints in heavy
Unidentified steel free of injurious defects is permitted to built-up members are given in Sections 510.1.5, 510.1.6,
be used for unimportant members or details, where the 510.2.7, and 513.2.2.
precise physical properties and weldabiity of the steel
would not affect the strength of the structure.

501.3.2 Steel Castings and Forgings Threads on anchor rods and threaded rods shall conform to
Cast steel shall conform to ASTM A216/A216M, Gr. the Unified Standard Series of ASME B 18.2.6 and shall
WCB with Supplementary Requirement S11. Steel have Class 2A tolerances.
forgings shall conform to ASTM A668/A668M. Test
reports produced in accordance with the above reference Manufacturer’s certification shall constitute sufficient
standards shall constitute sufficient evidence of evidence of conformity with the standards.
conformity with such standards.
501.3.5 Filler Metal and Flux for Welding
501.3.3 Bolts, Washers and Nuts Filler metals and fluxes shall conform to one of the
Bolt, washer, and nut material conforming to one of the following specifications of the American Welding
following ASTM specifications is approved for use under Society:
this Specification: AWS A5.1
1. Bolts: AWSA5.5
AWS A5.17/A5.17M
ASTM A307 AWS A5.18
ASTM A325 /A325M AWSA5.20
ASTM A449 AWS A5.23/A5.23M
ASTM A490 / A490M AWS A5.25/A5.25M
ASTM F1852 AWS A5.26/A5.26M
AWSA5.28
2. Nuts: AWSA5.29
ASTM A194/A194M AWS A5.32/A5.32M
ASTM A563/ A563M
Manufacturer’s certification shall constitute sufficient
3. Washers: evidence of conformity with the standards. Filler metals and
fluxes that are suitable for the intended application shall be
ASTM F436 /F436M selected.
4. Compressible-Washer-Type Direct Tension
Indicators: 501.3.6 Stud Shear Connectors
ASTM F959 /F959M Steel stud shear connectors shall conform to the
requirements of Structural Welding Code–Steel, AWS
Manufacturer’s certification shall constitute sufficient D1. 1.
evidence of conformity with the standards.
User Note: Studs are made from cold drawn bar, either
501.3.4 Anchor Rods and Threaded Rods semi-killed or killed aluminum or silicon deoxidized,
conforming to the requirements of ASTM A29/ A29M-04,
Anchor rod and threaded rod material conforming to one Standard Specification for Steel Bars, Carbon and Alloy,
of the following ASTM specifications is approved for use Hot-Wrought, General Requirements for.
under this Specification:
ASTM A36/A36M Manufacturer’s certification shall constitute sufficient
ASTM A193/A193M evidence of conformity with AWSD1.1.
ASTM A354
ASTM A449 501.4 Structural Design Drawings and Specifications
ASTM A572/A572M
ASTM A588/A588M The design drawings and specifications shall meet the
ASTM F1554 requirements in the Code of Standard Practice for Steel
Buildings and Bridges, except for deviations specifically
User Note: ASTM F 1554 is the preferred material identified in the design drawings and/or specifications.
specification for anchor rods.
A449 material is acceptable for high-strength anchor

rods and threaded rods of any diameter.

502.3.2 Limit States

SECTION 502 - DESIGN Design shall be based on the principle that no applicable
REQUIREMENTS strength or serviceability limit state shall be exceeded
when the structure is subjected to all appropriate load
The general requirements for the analysis and design of steel combinations.
structures that are applicable to all section of the
specification are given in this section. 502.3.3 Design for Strength Using Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD)
The section is organized as follows: Design according to the provisions for Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) satisfies the
502.1 General Provisions requirements of this Specification when the design
502.2 Loads and Load Combinations strength of each structural component equals or exceeds
502.3 Design Basis the required strength determined on the basis of the LRFD
502.4 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling load combinations. All provisions of this Specification,
502.5 Fabrication, Erection and Quality Control except for those in Section 502.3.4, shall apply.
502.6 Evaluation of Existing Structures
Design shall be performed in accordance with Equation
502.1 General Provisions 502.3- 1:
The design of members and connections shall be consistent
with the intended behavior of the framing system and the
Ru  R n (502.3-1)
assumptions made in the structural analysis. Unless where
restricted by the this code, lateral load resistance and
stability may be provided by any combination of members Ru = required strength (LRFD)
and connections. Rn = nominal strength, specified in Section 502 through
511
502.2 Loads and Load Combinations ϕ = resistancefactor, specified in Section 502 through
The loads and load combinations shall be as stipulated by this 511
ϕRn = design strength
code. In the absence of a building code, the loads and load
combinations shall be those stipulated in SEI/ASCE 7. For
design purposes, the nominal loads shall be taken as the 502.3.4 Design for Strength Using Allowable
loads stipulated by this code. Strength Design (ASD)
Design according to the provisions for Allowable
User Note: For LRFD designs, the load combinations in Strength Design (ASD) satisfies the requirements of this
SEI/ASCE 7, Section 2.3 apply. For ASD designs, the load Specification when the allowable strength of each
combinations in SEI/ASCE 7, Section 2.4 apply. structural component equals or exceeds the required
strength determined on the basis of the ASD load
502.3 Design Basis combinations. All provisions of this Specification,
except those of Section 502.3.3, shall apply.
Designs shall be made according to the provisions for
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) or to the
provisions for Allowable Strength Design (ASD). Design shall be performed in accordance with Equation
502. 3-2:
502.3.1 Required Strength Ra  Rn  (502.3-2)
The required strength of structural members and
connections shall be determined by structural analysis where
for the appropriate load combinations as stipulated in Sec-
Ra = required strength (ASD)
tion 502.2.
Rn = nominal strength, specified in Section 502
through 511
Design by elastic, inelastic or plastic analysis is permitted.
Provisions for inelastic and plastic analysis are as stipulated in Ω = safety factor, specified in Section 502
Appendix 1, Inelastic Analysis and Design. The provisions through 511
for moment redistribution in continuous beams in R n /Ω = allowable strength
Appendix A, Section A-1.3 are permitted for elastic
analysis only. 502.3.5 Design for Stability
Stability of the structure and its elements shall be
determined in accordance with Section 503.

502.3.6 Design of Connections 502.3.8 Design for Ponding

Connection elements shall be designed in accordance with The roof system shall be investigated through structural
the provisions of Sections 510 and 511. The forces and analysis to assure adequate strength and stability under
deformations used in design shall be consistent with the ponding conditions, unless the roof surface is provided
intended performance of the connection and the assumptions with a slope of 20 mm per meter or greater toward points
used in the structural analysis. of free drainage or an adequate system of drainage is
provided to prevent the accumulation of water.
User Note: Section 3.1.2 of the Code of Standard See Appendix A-2, Design for Ponding, for methods of
Practice addresses communication of necessary checking ponding.
information for the design of connections.
502.3.9 Design for Fatigue
502.3.6a Simple Connections Fatigue shall be considered in accordance with Appendix
A simple connection transmits a negligible moment A-3, Design for Fatigue, for members and their
across the connection. In the analysis of the structure, connections subject to repeated loading. Fatigue need not
simple connections may be assumed to allow unrestrained be considered for seismic effects or for the effects of wind
relative rotation between the framing elements being loading on normal building lateral load resisting systems
connected. A simple connection shall have sufficient and building enclosure components.
rotation capacity to accommodate the required rotation
determined by the analysis of the structure. Inelastic 502.3.10 Design for Fire Conditions
rotation of the connection is permitted. Two methods of design for fire conditions are
provided in Appendix A-4, Structural Design for Fire
502.3.6b Moment Connections Conditions: Qualification Testing and Engineering
A moment connection transmits moment across the Analysis. Compliance with the fire protection
connection. Two types of moment connections, FR and requirements in this code shall be deemed to satisfy the
PR, are permitted, as specified below. requirements of this section and Appendix A-4.
1. Fully-Restrained (FR) Moment Connections Nothing in this section is intended to create or imply a
A fully-restrained (FR) moment connection transfers contractual requirement for the engineer-of-record
moment with a negligible rotation between the responsible for the structural design or any other
connected members. In the analysis of the structure, member of the design team.
the connection may be assumed to allow no relative
rotation. An FR connection shall have sufficient User Note: Design by qualification testing is the
strength and stiffness to maintain the angle between prescriptive method specified in most building codes.
the connected members at the strength limit states. Traditionally, on most projects where the architect is the
prime professional, the architect has been the responsible
2. Partially-Restrained (PR) Moment Connections
party to specify and coordinate fire protection
Partially-restrained (PR) moment connections
requirements. Design by Engineering Analysis is a new
transfer moments, but the rotation between connected
engineering approach to fire protection. Designation of the
members is not negligible. In the analysis of the struc-
person(s) responsible for designing for fire conditions is a
ture, the force-deformation response characteristics of
contractual matter to be addressed on each project.
the connection shall be included. The response
characteristics of a PR connection shall be
502.3.11 Design for Corrosion Effects
documented in the technical literature or established
by analytical or experimental means. The Where corrosion may impair the strength or serviceability
component elements of a PR connection shall have of a structure, structural components shall be designed to
sufficient strength, stiffness, and deformation tolerate corrosion or shall be protected against corrosion.
capacity at the strength limit states.
502.3.12 Design Wall Thickness for HSS
502.3.7 Design for Serviceability The design wall thickness, t, shall be used in calculations
The overall structure and the individual members, involving the wall thickness of hollow structural sections
connections, and connectors shall be checked for (HSS). The design wall thickness, t, shall be taken equal
serviceability. Performance requirements for to 0.93 times the nominal wall thickness for electric-
serviceability design are given in Section 512. resistancewelded (ERW) HSS and equal to the nominal
thickness for submerged-arc-welded (SAW) HSS.

502.3.13 Gross and Net Area Determination 502.4. Unstiffened Elements

1. Gross Area For unstiffened elements supported along only one edge
parallel to the direction of the compression force, the
The gross area, Ag, of a member is the total
width shall be taken as follows:
cross-sectional area.
1. For flanges of I-shaped members and tees, the width b is
2. Net Area
one-half the full-flange width, bf.
The net area, An, of a member is the sum of the
2. For legs of angles and flanges of channels and zees,
products of the thickness and the net width of
the width b is the full nominal dimension.
each element computed as follows:
3. For plates, the width b is the distance from the free
In computing net area for tension and shear, the edge to the first row of fasteners or line of welds.
width of a bolt hole shall be taken as 2 mm greater
4. For stems of tees, d is taken as the full nominal depth
than the nominal dimension of the hole.
of the section.
For a chain of holes extending across a part in any
User Note: Refer to Table 502.4.1 for the graphic
diagonal or zigzag line, the net width of the part shall
representation of unstiffened element dimensions.
be obtained by deducting from the gross width the
sum of the diameters or slot dimensions as provided in
502.4.2 Stiffened Elements
Section 510.3.2, of all holes in the chain, and adding,
for each gage space in the chain, the quantity s 2 / 4g For stiffened elements supported along two edges parallel
to the direction of the compressionforce, the width shall
where be taken as follows:
s = longitudinal center-to-center spacing (pitch) of 1. For webs of rolled or formed sections, h is the clear
any two consecutive holes, mm. distance between flanges less the fillet or corner radius
g = transverse center-to-center spacing (gage) at each flange; hc is twice the distance from the centroid
between fastener gage lines, mm. to the inside face of the compression flange less the
fillet or corner radius.
For angles, the gage for holes in opposite adjacent legs
shall be the sum of the gages from the back of the angles 2. For webs of built-up sections, h is the distance
less the thickness. between adjacent lines of fasteners or the clear
distance between flanges when welds are used, and
For slotted HSS welded to a gusset plate, the net area, An, hc is twice the distance from the centroid to the nearest
is the gross area minus the product of the thickness and the line of fasteners at the compression flange or the
total width of material that is removed to form the slot. inside face of the compression flange when welds
In determining the net area across plug or slot welds, the are used; hp is twice the distance from the plastic
weld metal shall not be considered as adding to the net neutral axis to the nearest line of fasteners at the
area. compression flange or the inside face of the
compression flange when welds are used.
User Note: Section 510.4.1(b) limits An to a maximum 3. For flange or diaphragm plates in built-up sections, the
of 0.85Ag for splice plates with holes. width b is the distance between adjacent lines of
fasteners or lines of welds.
502.4 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling
4. For flanges of rectangular hollow structural sections
Sections are classified as compact, noncompact, or (HSS), the width b is the clear distance between webs
slender-element sections. For a section to qualify as less the inside corner radius on each side. For webs of
compact its flanges must be continuously connected to rectangular HSS, h is the clear distance between the
the web or webs and the width-thickness ratios of its flanges less the inside corner radius on each side. If
compression elements must not exceed the limiting width- the corner radius is not known, b and h shall be taken
thickness ratios λp from Table 502.4.1. If the width-thickness as the corresponding outside dimension minus three
ratio of one or more compression elements exceeds λp, but times the thickness. The thickness, t, shall be taken as
does not exceed λr from Table 502.4.1, the section is the design wall thickness, per Section 502.3.12.
noncompact. If the width-thickness ratio of any element
exceeds λr, the section is referred to as a slender-element User Note: Refer to Table 502.4.1 for the graphic
section. representation of stiffened element dimensions.

Table 502.4.1
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Compression Elements
Width Limiting Width–Thickness Ratios

Case
Description of Elements Thickness Example

Ratio λp λr
(compact) (noncompact)
Flexure in flanges of rolled I- 0.38 E F y 1 .0 E F y

1 b/t
shaped sections and channels
Flexure in flanges of doubly and [ a ],[b ]

2 singly symmetric I-shaped built-up b/t 0.38 E F y 0.95 E Fy
sections
Unstiffened Elements
Uniform compression in flanges of

rolled I-shaped sections, plates
projecting from rolled I-shaped 0.56 E F y
3 b/t NA
sections; outstanding legs of pairs
of angels in continuous contact and
flanges of channels
Uniform compression in flanges of

built-up I-shaped sections and [a]
4 b/t NA 0.64 k c E Fy
plates or angle legs projecting from
built-up I-shaped sections
Uniform compression in legs of

single angles, legs of double angles 0.45 E F y
5 b/t NA
with separators, and all other
unstiffened elements
6 Flexure in legs of single angles b/t 0.54 E F y 0.91 E F y
For tapered flanges of rolled sections, the thickness is the 502.6 Evaluation of Existing Structures
nominal value halfway between the free edge and the Provisions for the evaluation of existing structures are
corresponding face of the web. presented in Appendix A-5, Evaluation of Existing
Structures.
502.5 Fabrication, Erection and Quality Control
Shop drawings, fabrication, shop painting, erection,
and quality control shall meet the requirements
stipulated in Section 513, Fabrication, Erection, and
Quality Control.

Table 502.4.1 (cont.)

Width Limiting Width–Thickness Ratios

Case
Description of Elements Thickness Example

λp λr
Ratio
(compact) (noncompact)
1 .0 E F y
7 Flexure in flanges of tees b/t 0.38 E F y
Uniform compression in stems 0.75 E F y

8 of tees
d/t NA
Flexure in webs of doubly

9 symmetric I-shaped sections and h / tw 3.76 E F y 5.70 E F y
channels
Uniform compression in webs of

Stiffened Elements
1.49 E F y
10 doubly symmetric I-shaped h / tw NA
sections
hc E
Flexure in webs of singly- hp Fy
11 symmetric I-shaped sections
hc / tw
 r
5.70 E F y
Mp
(0.54  0.09) 2
My
Uniform compression in flanges

of rectangular box and hollow
structural sections of uniform
12 thickness subject to bending or b/t 1.12 E F y 1.40 E Fy
compression; flange cover plates
and diaphragm plates between
lines of fasteners or welds
Flexure in webs of rectangular 2.42 E F y

13 h/t 5.70 E Fy
HSS


Width Limiting Width –
Description of Thick- Thickness Ratios
Case
Example
Elements Ness λp λr
Ratio (compact) (noncompact)
Uniform compression in all other

14 b/t NA 1.49 E Fy
stiffened elements
Circular hollow sections

D/t NA 0.11 E / Fy
15 In uniform compression
In Flexure D/t 0.07 E / Fy 0.31 E / Fy
[a]
kc , but shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes. (See Cases 2 and 4)
[b]
FL = 0.7Fy for minor-axis bending, major axis bending of slender-web built-up I-shaped members, and major axis bending
of compact and noncompact web built-up I-shaped members with Sxt / Sxc ≥ 0.7 ; FL = FySxt / Sxc ≥ 0.5Fy for major-axis
bending of compact and noncompact web built-up I-shaped members with Sxt / Sxc < 0.7. (See Case 2)

SECTION 503 to control member movement at the braced points. Methods

of satisfying this requirement are provided in Appendix A-
STABILITY ANALYSIS AND 6, Stability Bracing for Columns and Beams
DESIGN 503.1.3 System Stability Design Requirements
Lateral stability shall be provided by momentframes,
This section addresses general requirements for the stability bracedframes, shear walls, and/or other equivalent lateral
analysis and design of members and frames. load resisting systems. The overturning effects of drift and
the destabilizing influence of gravity loads shall be
The section is organized as follows: considered. Force transfer and load sharing between
elements of the framing systems shall be considered.
503.1 Stability Design Requirements Braced-frame and shear-wall systems, moment frames,
503.2 Calculation of Required Strengths gravity framing systems, and combined systems shall
satisfy the following specific requirements:
503.1 Stability Design Requirements
503.1.3a Braced-Frame and Shear-Wall Systems
503.1.1 General Requirements
In structures where lateral stability is provided solely by
Stability shall be provided for the structure as a whole and diagonal bracing, shear walls, or equivalent means, the
for each of its elements. Any method that considers the effective length factor, K, for compression members shall
influence of second-order effects (including P-∆ and P-δ be taken as 1.0, unless structural analysis indicates that a
effects), flexural, shear and axial deformations, geometric smaller value is appropriate. In braced-frame systems, it is
imperfections, and member stiffness reduction due to permitted to design the columns, beams, and diagonal
residual stresses on the stability of the structure and its members as a vertically cantilevered, simply connected
elements is permitted. The methods prescribed in this truss.
section and Appendix A-7, Direct Analysis Method,
satisfy these requirements. All component and User Note: Knee-braced frames function as moment-
frame systems and should be treated as indicated in
connection deformations that contribute to the lateral Section 503.1.3b. Eccentrically braced frame systems
displacements shall be considered in the stability analysis. function as combined systems and should be treated as
indicated in Section 503.1.3d.
In structures designed by elastic analysis, individual
member stability and stability of the structure as a whole 503.1.3b Moment-Frame Systems
are provided jointly by:
In frames where lateral stability is provided by the
1. Calculation of the required strengths for flexural stiffness of connected beams and columns, the
members, connections and other elements using effective length factor K or elastic critical buckling stress,
one of the methods specified in Section 503.2.2, and Fe, for columns and beam-columns shall be determined as
specified in Section 503.2.
2. Satisfaction of the member and connection design
requirements in this specification based upon those
503.1.3c Gravity Framing Systems
required strengths.
Columns in gravity framing systems shall be designed
In structures designed by inelastic analysis, the provisions based on their actual length (K = 1.0) unless analysis
of Appendix A-1, Inelastic Analysis and Design, shall be shows that a smaller value may be used. The lateral stability
satisfied. of gravity framing systems shall be provided by moment
frames, braced frames, shear walls, and/or other equivalent
503.1.2 Member Stability Design Requirements lateral load resisting systems. P-∆ effects due to load on the
Individual member stability is provided by satisfying the gravity columns shall be transferred to the lateral load re-
provisions of sections 505, 506, 507, 508 and 509. sisting systems and shall be considered in the calculation
of the required strengths of the lateral load resisting
User Note: Local buckling of cross section components systems.
can be avoided by the use of compact sections defined in
Section 502.4. 503.1.3d Combined Systems
The analysis and design of members, connections and other
Where elements are designed to function as braces to
elements in combined systems of moment frames, braced
define the unbraced length of columns and beams, the
frames, and/or shear walls and gravity frames shall meet the
bracing system shall have sufficient stiffness and strength
requirements of their respective systems.

503.2 Calculation of Required Strengths obtained, for instance, by a first-order elastic analysis) by
Except as permitted in Section 503.2.2b, required the B2 amplifier, in other words, Mr = B2(Mnt + Mlt).
strengths shall be determined using a second-order
analysis as specified in Section 503.2.1. Design by either 1
B2  1 ( 5 03. 2 - 3)
second-order or first-order analysis shall meet the  Pnt
1
requirements specified in Section 503.2.2.  Pe 2
503.2.1 Methods of Second-Order Analysis User Note: Note that the B2 amplifier (Eq. 503.2-3) can
Second-order analysis shall conform to the requirements be estimated in preliminary design by using a maximum
in this Section. lateral drift limit corresponding to the story shear H in
Equation 503.2-6b.
503.2.1a General Second-Order Elastic Analysis
and
Any second-order elastic analysis method that considers
both P-∆ and P-δ effects may be used.   1.00LRFD   1.60 ASD
Mr = required second-order flexural strength using
The amplified First-Order Elastic Analysis Method LRFD or ASD load combinations, N-mm
defined in Section 503.2.1b is an accepted method for Mnt = first-order moment using LRFD or ASD load
second-order elastic analysis of braced, moment, and combinations, assuming there is no lateral
combined framing systems. translation of the frame, N-mm
Mlt = first-order moment using LRFD or ASD load
503.2.1b Second-Order Analysis by Amplified First- combinations caused by lateral translation of
Order Elastic Analysis the frame only, N-mm.
Pr = required second-order axial strength using
User Note: A method is provided in this section to LRFD or ASD load combinations, N.
account for second-order effects in frames by amplifying Pnt = first-order axial force using LRFD or ASD
the axial forces and moments in members and connections load combinations, assuming there is no
from a first-order analysis. lateral translation of the frame, N.
Pnt = total vertical load supported by the story using
LRFD or ASD load combinations, including
The following is an approximate second-order analysis gravity column loads, N.
procedure for calculating the required flexural and axial Plt = first-order axial force using LRFD or ASD
strengths in members of lateral load resisting systems. The load combinations caused by lateral
required second-order flexural strength, Mr, and axial translation of the frame only, N.
strength, Pr, shall be determined as follows: Cm = a coefficient assuming no lateral translation
M r  B1M nt  B2 M lt (503.2-1a) of the frame whose value shall be taken as
follows:
Pr  Pnt  B2 Plt (503.2-1b)
a. For beam-columns not subject to transverse
where loading between supports in the plane of
bending,
Cm
B1 
1   Pr Pe1
1 (503.2-2) Cm  0.6  0.4M1 M 2  (503.2-4)
For members subjected to axial compression, B1 may be where M1 and M2, calculated from a first-
calculated based on the first-order estimate P r = P nt + order analysis, are the smaller and larger
P lt. moments, respectively, at the ends of that
portion of the member unbraced in the
plane of bending under consideration.
User Note: B1 is an amplifier to account for second order M1/M2 is positive when the member is bent
effects caused by displacements between brace points in reverse curvature, negative when bent in
(P-δ) and B2 is an amplifier to account for second order single curvature.
effects caused by displacements of braced points (P-∆).
b. For beam-columns subjected to transverse
For members in which B1 ≤ 1.05, it is conservative to loading between supports, the value of Cm
amplify the sum of the non-sway and sway moments (as shall be determined either by analysis or
conservatively taken as 1.0 for all cases.

2 EI 503.2.2 Design Requirements

Pe1  (503.2-5) These requirements apply to all types of braced, moment,
K1L2 and combined framing systems. Where the ratio of second-
Pe1 = elastic critical buckling resistance of order drift to first-order drift is equal to or less than 1.5, the
themember in the plane of bending, calculated required strengths of members, connections and other
based on the assumption of zero sidesway, N. elements shall be determined by one of the methods
specified in Sections 503.2.2a or 503.2.2b, or by the Direct
ΣPe2 = elastic critical buckling resistance for the story
Analysis Method of Appendix A-7. Where the ratio of
determined by sidesway buckling analysis, N. second-order drift to first-order drift is greater than 1.5,
the required strengths shall be determined by the Direct
For moment frames, where sidesway buckling effective Analysis Method of Appendix A-7.
length factors K2 are determined for the columns, it is
permitted to calculate the elastic story sidesway buckling User Note: The ratio of second-order drift to first-order
resistance as drift can be represented by B2, as calculated using
Equation 503.2-3. Alternatively, the ratio can be
 2 EI calculated by comparing the results of a second-order
 Pe2  (503.2-6a) analysis to the results of a first-order analysis, where the
K 2 L  2 analyses are conducted either under LRFD load
combinations directly or under ASD load combinations
For all types of lateral load resisting systems, it is with a 1.6 factor applied to the ASD gravity loads.
permitted to use
For the methods specified in Sections 2.2a or 2.2b:
 HL
 Pe 2  RM (503.2-6b) 1. Analyses shall be conducted according to the design and
H
loading requirements specified in either Section
where 502.3.3 (LRFD) or Section 502.3.4 (ASD).
E = modulus of elasticity of steel = 200 000 MPa 2. The structure shall be analyzed using the nominal
RM = 1.0 for braced-frame systems; geometry and the nominal elastic stiffness for all
= 0.85 for moment-frame and combined elements.
systems, unless a larger value is justified by
analysis 503.2.2a Design by Second-Order Analysis
I = moment of inertia in the plane of bending, Where required strengths are determined by a second-order
mm4 analysis:
L = story height, mm
K1 = effective length factor in the plane of bending, 1. The provisions of Section 503.2.1 shall be satisfied.
calculated based on the assumption of no 2. For design by ASD, analyses shall be carried out under
lateral translation, set equal to 1.0 unless 1.6 times the ASD load combinations and the results
analysis indicates that a smaller value may be shall be divided by 1.6 to obtain the required
used strengths.
K2 = effective length factor in the plane of bending,
calculated based on a sidesway buckling User Note: The amplified first order analysis method of
analysis Section 503.2.1b incorporates the 1.6 multiplier directly
in the B1 and B2 amplifiers, such that no other
User Note: Methods for calculation of K2 are discussed modification is needed.
in the AISC Commentary.
3. All gravity-only load combinations shall include a
ΔH = first-order interstory drift due to lateral forces, minimum lateral load applied at each level of the
mm. Where ΔH varies over the plan area of the structure of 0.002Yi, where Yi is the design gravity
structure, ΔH shall be the average drift load applied at level i, N. This minimum lateral load
weighted in proportion to vertical load shall be considered independently in two orthogonal
or, alternatively, the maximum drift. directions.
ΣH = story shear produced by the lateral forces used
to compute, N User Note: The minimum lateral load of 0.002Yi, in
conjunction with the other design-analysis constraints
listed in this section, limits the error that would
otherwise be caused by neglecting initial out-of-plumbness

and member stiffness reduction due to residual stresses This additional lateral load shall be considered
in the analysis. independently in two orthogonal directions.
4. Where the ratio of second-order drift to first-order 3. The non-sway amplification of beam-column moments
drift is less than or equal to 1.1, members are is considered by applying the B1 amplifier of Section
permitted to be designed using K = 1.0. Otherwise, 503.2.1 to the total member moments.
columns and beam-columns in moment frames shall
be designed using a K factor or column buckling
stress, Fe, determined from a sidesway buckling
analysis of the structure. Stiffness reduction
adjustment due to column inelasticity is permitted in
the determination of the K factor. For braced frames,
K for compression members shall be taken as 1.0,
unless structural analysis indicates a smaller value
may be used.
503.2.2b Design by First-Order Analysis

Required strengths are permitted to be determined by a
first-order analysis, with all members designed using K =
1.0, provided that
1. The required compressive strengths of all members
whose flexural stiffnesses are considered to contribute
to the lateral stability of the structure satisfy the
following limitation:
 Pr  0.5 Py (503.2-7)
where
α = 1.0 (LRFD) α = 1.6 ( ASD)
Pr = required axial compressive strength under
LRFD or ASD load combinations, N.
Py = member yield strength (= AFy), N.
2. All load combinations include an additional lateral
load, Ni, applied in combination with other loads at
each level of the structure, where
Ni = 2.1(∆/L)Yi ≥ 0.0042Yi (503.2-8)
where
Yi = gravity load from the LRFD load combination
or 1.6 times the ASD load combination applied
at level i, N.
∆/L = the maximum ratio of ∆ to L for all stories in
the structure
∆ = first-order interstory drift due to the design
loads, mm. Where ∆ varies over the plan area of
the structure, ∆ shall be the average drift
weighted in proportion to vertical load or,
alternatively, the maximum drift.
L = story height, mm.
User Note: The drift ∆ is calculated under LRFD load

with a 1.6 factor applied to the ASD gravity loads.

SECTION 504 - DESIGN OF  t  0.75 (LRFD)  t  2.00(ASD)

MEMBERS FOR TENSION where
This section applies to members subject to axial tension Ae = effective net area, mm2
caused by static forces acting through the centroidal axis. Ag = gross area of member, mm2
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of
The section is organized as follows: steel being used, MPa
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the type of
504.1 Slenderness Limitations steel being used, MPa
504.2 Tensile Strength
504.3 Area Determination When members without holes are fully connected by
504.4 Built-Up Members welds, the effective net area used in Equation 504.2-2
504.5 Pin-Connected Members shall be as defined in Section 504.3. When holes are
504.6 Eyebars present in a member with welded end connections, or at
the welded connection in the case of plug or slot welds, the
User Note: For cases not included in this section the effective net area through the holes shall be used in Equation
following sections apply: 504.2-2.
 502.3.9 Members subject to fatigue 504.3 Area Determination

 508 Members subject to combined
axial tension and flexure. 504.3.1 Gross Area
 510.3 Threaded rods. The gross area, Ag, of a member is the total cross-
 510.4. 1 Connecting elements in sectional area.
tension.
 510.4.3 Block shear rupture strength at
504.3.2 Net Area
end connections of tension
The net area, An, of a member is the sum of the products of
members.
the thickness and the net width of each element computed
as follows:
504.1 Slenderness Limitations
There is no maximum slenderness limit for design of In computing net area for tension and shear, the width of a
members in tension. bolt hole shall be taken 2 mm greater than the nominal
dimension of the hole.
User Note: For members designed on the basis of tension,
the slenderness ratio L/r preferably should not exceed For a chain of holes extending across a part in any diagonal
300. This suggestion does not apply to rods or hangers in or zigzag line, the net width of the part shall be obtained by
tension. deducting from the gross width the sum of the diameters or
slot dimensions as provided in Section 510.3.2, of all holes
504.2 Tensile Strength in the chain, and adding, for each gage space in the chain,
The design tensile strength, t Pn , and the allowable tensile the quantity s2/4g
strength, Pn t of tension members, shall be the lower where

value obtained according to the limit states of tensile s = longitudinal center-to-center spacing (pitch) of
yielding in the gross section and tensile rupture in the net any two consecutive holes, mm.
section. g = transverse center-to-center spacing (gage)
between fastener gage lines, mm.
1. For tensile yielding in the gross section:
Pn  Fy Ag For angles, the gage for holes in opposite adjacent legs
(504.2-1) shall be the sum of the gages from the back of the angles
less the thickness.
 t  0.90 (LRFD) t  1.67 (ASD)
2. For tensile rupture in the net section: For slotted HSS welded to a gusset plate, the net area, An,
is the gross area minus the product of the thickness and the
Pn  Fu Ae (504.2-2)
total width of material that is removed to form the slot. In
determining the net area across plug or slot welds, the weld
metal shall not be considered as adding to the net area.

User Note: Section 510.4.1(b) limits An to a maximum of Pn  0.6 Fu Asf (504.5-2)

0.85Ag for splice plates with holes.
 sf  0.75 (LRFD)  sf  2.00 (ASD)
504.3.3 Effective Net Area
The effective area of tension members shall be where
determined as follows: A sf = 2t(a + d/2), mm2
A = shortest distance from edge of the pin hole to
Ae = AnU (504.3-1)
the edge of the member measured parallel to
the direction of the force, mm.
where U, the shear lag factor, is determined as shown in beff = 2t + 16, mm but not more than the actual
Table 504.3. 1. distance from the edge of the hole to the edge of
the part measured in the direction normal to the
Members such as single angles, double angles and WT applied force
sections shall have connections proportioned such that U is d = pin diameter, mm.
equal to or greater than 0.60. Alternatively, a lesser value of t = thickness of plate, mm.
U is permitted if these tension members are designed for
the effect of eccentricity in accordance with 508.1.2 or 3. For bearing on the projected area of the pin, see
508.2. Section 510.7.
4. For yielding on the gross section, use Equation
504.4 Built-up Members 504.2-1.
For limitations on the longitudinal spacing of connectors
between elements in continuous contact consisting of a 504.5.2 Dimensional Requirements
plate and a shape or two plates, see Section 510.3.5. The pin hole shall be located midway between the edges
of the member in the direction normal to the applied
Either perforated cover plates or tie plates without lacing force. When the pin is expected to provide for relative
are permitted to be used on the open sides of built-up movement between connected parts while under full
tension members. Tie plates shall have a length not less than load, the diameter of the pin hole shall not be more than 1
two-thirds the distance between the lines of welds or mm greater than the diameter of the pin.
fasteners connecting them to the components of the member.
The thickness of such tie plates shall not be less than one-
fiftieth of the distance between these lines. The
longitudinal spacing of intermittent welds or fasteners at
tie plates shall not exceed 150 mm.
User Note: The longitudinal spacing of connectors

between components should preferably limit the
slenderness ratio in any component between the
connectors to 300.
504.5 Pin-Connected Members
504.5.1 Tensile Strength

The design tensile strength, t Pn , and the allowable tensile
strength, Pn t of of pin-connected members, shall be
the lower value obtained according to the limit states of
tensile rupture, shear rupture, bearing, and yielding
1. For tensile rupture on the net effective area:

Pn  2tbeff Fu (504.5-1)
t  0.75 (LRFD) t  2.00 (ASD)

2. For shear rupture on the effective area:

Table 504.3.1
Shear Lag Factors for Connections to Tension Members

Case Description of Element Shear Lag Factor, U Example
All tension members where the tension load is transmitted
U = 1.0
1 directly to each of cross-sectional elements by fasteners or ___
welds. (except as in Cases 3, 4, 5 and 6)
All tension members, except plates and HSS, where the tension
load is transmitted to some but not all of the cross-sectional
2 U  1 x /l
elements by fasteners or longitudinal welds (Alternately, for
W, M, S and HP, Case 7 may be used.)
U = 1.0
All tension members where the tension load is transmitted by
and
3 transverse welds to some but not all of the cross-sectional ___
An = area of the directly
elements.
connected elements
l ≥ 2w … U = 1.0
Plates where the tension load is transmitted by longitudinal 2w > l ≥ 1.5w… U = 0.87
4
welds only. 1.5w > l ≥ w … U = 0.75

l  1.3 D...U  1.0
5 Round HSS with a single concentric gusset plate. D ≤ l<1.3 D… U  1  x / l
x  D /
l  H ...U  1  x / l
with a single concentric
gusset plate B 2  2 BH
x
4( B  H )
6 Rectangular HSS
l  H ...U  1  x / l
with two side gusset plates B2
x
4( B  H )
with flange connected with
bf ≥ 2/3d … U = 0.90
W, M, S or HP Shapes or Tees 3 or more fasteners per line ___
bf < 2/3d … U = 0.85
cut from these shapes. (If U is in direction of loading
7
calculated per Case 2, the larger with web connected with 4
value is permitted to be used) or more fasteners per line in U = 0.70 ___
direction of loading
With 4 or more fasteners per
U = 0.80 ___
Single angles (If U is calculated line in direction of loading
8 per Case 2, the larger value is With 2 or 3 fasteners per
permitted to be used line in the direction of U = 0.60 ___
loading
l = length of connection, mm. w= plate width, mm; x = connection eccentricity, mm; B = overall width of
rectangular HSS member, measured 90 degrees to the plane of the connection, mm H = overall height of rectangular
HSS member, measured in the plane of the connection, mm.

The width of the plate at the pin hole shall not be less
SECTION 505 - DESIGN OF
than 2beff + d and the minimum extension, a, beyond the
bearing end of the pin hole, parallel to the axis of the MEMBERS FOR COMPRESSION
member, shall not be less than 1.33 × beff. This section addresses members subject to axial
compression through the centroidal axis.
The corners beyond the pin hole are permitted to be cut at The section is organized as follows:
45° to the axis of the member, provided the net area
beyond the pin hole, on a plane perpendicular to the cut, 505.1 General Provisions
is not less than that required beyond the pin hole parallel to 505.2 Slenderness Limitations and Effective Length
the axis of the member. 505.3 Compressive Strength for Flexural Buckling of
Members without Slender Elements
504.6 Eyebars
User Note: For members not included in this section the
504.6.1 Tensile Strength following sections apply:
The available tensile strength of eyebars shall be
determined in accordance with Section 504.2, with Ag 508.1 – 508.3 Members subject to combined axial
taken as the cross-sectional area of the body. compression and flexure.
508.4 Members subject to axial compression
For calculation purposes, the width of the body of the and torsion.
eyebars shall not exceed eight times its thickness.
510.4.4 Compressive strength of connecting
504.6.2 Dimensional Requirements elements.
Eyebars shall be of uniform thickness, without 509.2 Composite axial members.
reinforcement at the pin holes, and have circular heads
with the periphery concentric with the pin hole. 505.1 General Provisions
The design compressive strength, c Pn, and the
The radius of transition between the circular head and the
allowable compressive strength, Pn/ c , are determined
eyebar body shall not be less than the head diameter.
as follows:
The pin diameter shall not be less than seven-eighths times
the eyebar body width, and the pin hole diameter shall not The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be the lowest
be more than 1 mm greater than the pin diameter. value obtained according to the limit states offlexural
buckling, torsional buckling andflexural-torsional buckling.
For steels having Fy greater than 485 MPa, the hole 1. For doubly symmetric and singly symmetric members
diameter shall not exceed five times the plate thickness, and the limit state of flexural buckling is applicable.
the width of the eyebar body shall be reduced accordingly.
A thickness of less than 13 mm is permissible only if 2. For singly symmetric and unsymmetric members, and
external nuts are provided to tighten pin plates and filler certain doubly symmetric members, such as cruciform
plates into snug contact. The width from the hole edge to or built-up columns, the limit states of torsional or
the plate edge perpendicular to the direction of applied flexural-torsional buckling are also applicable.
load shall be greater than two-thirds and, for the purpose c  0.90LRFD C  1.67 ASD
of calculation, not more than three-fourths times the
eyebar bodywidth.
505.2 Slenderness Limitations and Effective Length
The effective length factor, K, for calculation of column
slenderness, KL/r, shall be determined in accordance with
section 503,
where
L = laterally unbraced length of the member, mm.
r = governing radius of gyration, mm.
K = the effective length factor determined in
accordance with Section 503.2

User Note: For members designed on the basis of

compression, the slenderness ratio KL/r preferably 505.4 Compressive Strength for Torsional and
should not exceed 200. Flexural-Torsional Buckling of Members without
Slender Elements
505.3 Compressive Strength for Flexural Buckling of This section applies to singly symmetric and unsymmetric
Members Without Slender Elements members, and certain doubly symmetric members, such
This section applies to compression members with as cruciform or built-up columns with compact and
compact and noncompact sections, as defined in Section noncompact sections, as defined in Section 502.4 for
502.4, for uniformly compressed elements. uniformly compressed elements. These provisions are not
required for single angles, which are covered in Section
User Note: When the torsional unbraced length is larger 505.5.
than the lateral unbraced length, this section may control
the design of wide flange and similarly shaped columns. The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be
determined based on the limit states of flexural-torsional
The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be determined and torsional buckling, as follows:
based on the limit state of flexural buckling.
Pn = FcrAg (505.4-1)
Pn = FcrAg (505.3-1)
1. For double-angle and tee-shaped compression
The flexural buckling stress, Fcr, is determined as follows: members:
KL E  Fcry  Fcrz  4 Fcry Fcrz H 

1. when  4.71 or ( Fe  0 .44 F y ) Fcr    1  1  
r Fy  2H 
  
Fcry  Fcrz 2 

(505.4-2)
 Fy 

Fcr  0.658 Fe F where Fcry taken as Fcr from Equation 505.3-2 or
  y (505.3-2)
505.3-3, for flexural buckling about the y-axis of
  KL KL
symmetry and  , and
KL E r ry
2. when  4.71 or ( Fe  0 .44 F y )
r Fy GJ
Fcrz  (505.4-3)
Fcr  0.877Fe (505.3-3) Ag r 2
where 2. For all other cases, Fcr shall be determined according

to Equation 505.3-2 or 505.3-3, using the torsional or
Fe = elastic critical buckling stress determined flexural-torsional elastic buckling stress, Fe,
according to Equation 505.3-4, Section 505.4, or determined as follows:
the provisions of Section 503.2, as applicable,
MPa. a. For doubly symmetric members:
2 E  Fey  Fez  1
Fe  Fe    GJ (505.4-4)
 Kz L
2
 I x  I y
2
 KL 
 
 r 
b. For singly symmetric members where y is the axis of
symmetry:
User Note: The two equations for calculating the limits
and applicability of Sections 505.3(a) and 505.3(b), one
based on KL/r and one based on Fe, provide the same result.  Fey  Fez  4Fey Fez H 

Fe    1 1
 2H 
 
Fey  Fez 2  

(505.4-5)
c. For unsymmetric members, Fe is the lowest root of
the cubic equation:

xo 2 505-3 or Section 505-7, as appropriate, for axially loaded

(Fe  Fex )(Fe  Fey )(Fe  Fez )  Fe 2 (Fe  Fey )( ) members, as well as those subject to the slenderness
ro modification of Section 505-5(a) or 505-5(b), provided the
members meet the criteria imposed.
xo 2 y
 Fe 2 ( Fe  Fey )( )  Fe 2 ( Fe  Fex )( o )  0
ro ro The effects of eccentricity on single angle members are
(505.4-6) permitted to be neglected when the members are evaluated
as axially loaded compression members using one of the
where effective slenderness ratios specified below, provided that: (1)
Ag = gross area of member, mm2 members are loaded at the ends in compression through the
Cw = warping constant, mm6 same one leg; (2) members are attached by welding or by
minimum two-bolt connections; and (3) there are no
Ix  Iy intermediate transverse loads.
ro2  x o2  y o2  (505.4-
Ag 1. For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected
7) through the longer leg that are individual members or
are web members of planar trusses with adjacent web
xo2  yo2 members attached to the same side of the gusset plate
H 1 (505.4-8)
ro2 or chord:
2 E
L
Fex  a. when 0   80 :
2 rx
 KxL 
 
 r  KL L
 x  (505.4-9)  72  0.75 (505.5-1)
r rx
 2E L
Fey  (505.4-10) b. when  80:
 KyL 
2
rx
 
 ry  KL L
   32  1.25  200 (505.5-2)
  2 ECw  1 r rx
Fez    GJ  (505.4-11)
 K L 2  A r2 For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios less than 1.7
 z  go
and connected through the shorter leg, KL/r from
G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel Equations 505.5-1 and 505.5-2 shall be increased by
= 77 200 MPa. adding 4[(bl/bs)2 − 1], but KL/r of the members shall not be
I x, I y = moment of inertia about the principal axes, less than 0.95L/rz.
mm4.
2. For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected
J = torsional constant, mm4.
through the longer leg that are web members of box or
Kz = effective length factor for torsional buckling
space trusses with adjacent web members attached to
xo, yo = coordinates of shear center with respect to the
the same side of the gusset plate or chord:
centroid, mm.
ro = polar radius of gyration about the shear L
center, mm. a. when 0   75:
ry = radius of gyration about y-axis, mm. rx
User Note: For doubly symmetric I-shaped sections, KL L

 60  0.8 (505.5-3)
Cw may be taken as I y ho2 4 , where ho is the distance r rx
between flange centroids, in lieu of a more precise L
analysis. For tees and double angles, omit term with Cw b. when  75:
when computing Fez and take xo as 0. rx
KL L
505.5 Single Angle Compression Members  45   200 (505.5-4)
The nominal compressive strength, Pn, of single angle r rx
members shall be determined in accordance with Section

For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios less than 1.7  KL 
and connected through the shorter leg, KL/r from   = modified column slenderness of built-up
Equations 505.5-3 and 505.5-4 shall be increased by  r m
adding 6[(bl/bs)2 − 1], but KL/r of the member shall not be member
less than 0.82L/rz,  KL 
  = column slenderness of built-up member
where  r o
acting as a unit in the buckling
L = length of member between work points at direction being considered
truss chord centerlines, mm. a = distance between connectors, mm.
bl = longer leg of angle, mm. ri = minimum radius of gyration of individual
bs = shorter leg of angle, mm. component, mm.
rx = radius of gyration about geometric axis r
ib = radius of gyration of individual component
parallel to connected leg, mm. relative to its centroidal axis parallel to
rz = radius of gyration for the minor principal axis, member axis of buckling, mm.
mm.  = separation ratio = h/2rib
3. Single angle members with different end conditions h = distance between centroids of individual
from those described in Section 505.5(a) or (b), with components perpendicular to the member
leg length ratios greater than 1.7, or with transverse axis of buckling, mm.
loading shall be evaluated for combined axial load 2. The nominal compressive strength of built-up
and flexure using the provisions of section 508. End members composed of two or more shapes or plates
connection to different legs on each end or to with at least one open side interconnected by
bothlegs, the use of single bolts or the attachment of perforated cover plates or lacing with tie plates shall
adjacent web members to opposite sides of the gusset be determined in accordance with Sections 505.3,
plate or chord shall constitute different end conditions 505.4, or 505.7 subject to the modification given in
requiring the use of section 508 provisions. Section 505.6.1(a).
505.6 Built-up Members 505.6.2 Dimensional Requirements
Individual components of compression members composed
505.6.1 Compressive Strength
of two or more shapes shall be connected to one another at
1. The nominal compressive strength of built-up intervals, a, such that the effective slenderness ratio Ka/ri
members composed of two or more shapes that are of each of the component shapes, between the fasteners,
interconnected by bolts or welds shall be determined does not exceed three-fourths times the governing
in accordance with Sections 505.3, 505.4, or slenderness ratio of the built-up member. The least radius
505.7 subject to the following modification. In of gyration, ri, shall be used in computing the slenderness
lieu of more accurate analysis, if the buckling mode ratio of each component part. The end connection shall be
involves relative deformations that produce shear welded or pretensioned bolted with Class A or B faying
forces in the connectors between individual shapes, surfaces.
KL/r is replaced by (KL/r)m determined as follows:
a. For intermediate connectors that are snug-tight User Note: It is acceptable to design a bolted end
bolted: connection of a built-up compression member for the full
compressive load with bolts in shear and bolt values based
 KL   KL 
2
a
2 on bearing values; however, the bolts must be pretensioned.
       (505.6-1) The requirement for Class A or B faying surfaces is not
 r m  r  o  ri 
intended for the resistance of the axial force in the built-up
member, but rather to prevent relative movement between
b. For intermediate connectors that are welded or the components at the end as the built-up member takes a
pretensioned bolted: curved shape.
2
 KL   KL 
2
2  a  At the ends of built-up compression members bearing on
      0 .82  
 r m  r o 
1  2  r
 ib


base plates or milled surfaces, all components in contact
with one another shall be connected by a weld having a
(505.6-2) length not less than the maximum width of the member or
by bolts spaced longitudinally not more than four diameters
apart for a distance equal to 11/2 times the maximum width
where of the member.

Along the length of built-up compression members between Intermediate tie plates shall have a length not less than
the end connections required above, longitudinal spacing one-half of this distance. The thickness of tie plates shall
for intermittent welds or bolts shall be adequate to be not less than one-fiftieth of the distance between lines
provide for the transfer of the required forces. For of welds or fasteners connecting them to the segments of the
limitations on the longitudinal spacing of fasteners members. In welded construction, the welding on each line
between elements in continuous contact consisting of a connecting a tie plate shall total not less than one-third the
plate and a shape or two plates, see Section 510.3.5. length of the plate. In bolted construction, the spacing in
Where a component of a built-up compression member the direction of stress in tie plates shall be not more than
consists of an outside plate, the maximum spacing shall six diameters and the tie plates shall be connected to each
not exceed the thickness of the thinner outside plate segment by at least three fasteners.
times 0.75 E F y , nor 305 mm, when intermittent
Lacing, including flat bars, angles, channels, or other
welds are provided along the edges of the components shapes employed as lacing, shall be so spaced that the L/r
or when fasteners are provided on all gage lines at each ratio of the flange included between their connections
section. When fasteners are staggered, the maximum shall not exceed three-fourths times the governing
spacing on each gage line shall not exceed the thickness slenderness ratio for the member as a whole. Lacing shall
of the thinner outside plate times 1.12 E F y nor 460 be proportioned to provide a shearing strength normal to
the axis of the member equal to 2 percent of the available
mm. compressive strength of the member. The L/r ratio for
lacing bars arranged in single systems shall not exceed
Open sides of compression members built up from plates 140. For double lacing this ratio shall not exceed 200.
or shapes shall be provided with continuous cover plates Double lacing bars shall be joined at the intersections. For
perforated with a succession of access holes. The lacing bars in compression, l is permitted to be taken as the
unsupported width of such plates at access holes, as unsupported length of the lacing bar between welds or
defined in Section 502.4, is assumed to contribute to the fasteners connecting it to the components of the built-up
available strength provided the following requirements member for single lacing, and 70 percent of that distance
are met: for double lacing.
1. The width-thickness ratio shall conform to the
limitations of Section 502.4. User Note: The inclination of lacing bars to the axis of the
member shall preferably be not less than 60◦ for single
User Note: It is conservative to use the limiting lacing and 45◦ for double lacing. When the distance
width/thickness ratio for Case 14 in Table 502.4.1 between the lines of welds or fasteners in the flanges is
with the width, b, taken as the transverse distance more than 380 mm, the lacing shall preferably be
between the nearest lines of fasteners. The net area of double or be made of angles.
the plate is taken at the widest hole. In lieu of this
approach, the limiting width thickness ratio may be For additional spacing requirements, see section 510.3.5.
determined through analysis
505.7 Members with Slender Elements
2. The ratio of length (in direction of stress) to width of This section applies to compression members with slender
hole shall not exceed two. sections, as defined in Section 502.4 for uniformly
compressed elements.
3. The clear distance between holes in the direction of
stress shall be not less than the transverse distance The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be determined
between nearest lines of connecting fasteners or based on the limit states of flexural, torsional and flexural-
welds. torsional buckling.
Pn = Fcr Ag (505.7-1)
4. The periphery of the holes at all points shall have a
minimum radius of 38 mm.
KL E
As an alternative to perforated cover plates, lacing with a. when  4.71 (or Fe  0.44QFy )
r QFy
tie plates is permitted at each end and at intermediate
points if the lacing is interrupted. Tie plates shall be as
near the ends as practicable. In members providing
available strength, the end tie plates shall have a length of  QFy 

Fcr  Q 0.658 Fe F (505.7-2)
not less than the distance between the lines of fasteners or   y
welds connecting them to the components of the member.  

KL E b Ek c
b. when  4.71 (or Fe  0.44QF y ) a. when  0.64
r QFy t Fy
Fcr  0.877Fe (505.7-3) Qs  1 .0 (505.7-7)
where Ek c Ek c
b. when 0.64  b t  1.17
Fe = elastic critical buckling stress, calculated Fy Fy
using Equations 505.3-4 and 505.4-4 for
doubly symmetric members, Equations 505.3-4
 b  Fy
and 505.4-5 for singly symmetric members, Qs  1.415  0.65  (505.7-8)
and Equation 505.4-6 for unsymmetric  t  Ek c
members, except for single angles where Fe is
calculated using Equation 505.3-4. Ekc
Q = 1.0 for members with compact and c. when b t  1.17
Fy
noncompact sections, as defined in Section
502.4, for uniformly compressed elements 0.90 Ek c
= Qs Qa for members with slender-element Qs  2
(505.7-9)
b
sections, as defined in Section 502.4, for Fy  
uniformly compressed elements. t
where
User Note: For cross sections composed of only stiffened
slender elements, Q = Qs ( Qa  1.0 ). For cross sections kc 
4
and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor
composed of only stiffened slender elements, Q = Q a (Qs h tw
= 1.0). For cross sections composed of both stiffened greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes
and unstiffened slender elements, Q  Qs Qa .
3. For single angles
505.7.1 Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs
b E
The reduction factor Qs for slender unstiffened elements a. when  0.45
is defined as follows: t Fy
1. For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from rolled Qs  1.0 (505.7-10)
columns or other compression members:
b. when 0.45 E F y  b t  0.91 E F y
b E
a. whe n  0.56
t Fy
 b  Fy
Qs  1.34  0.76  (505.7-11)
Qs = 1.0 (505.7-4) t E
b. when 0.56 E Fy  b t  1.03 E Fy c. when b t  0.91 E F y
 b  Fy Qs 
0.53E
(505.7-12)
Qs  1.415  0.74  (505.7-5) 2
t E b
Fy  
t
c. when b t  1.03 E F y
w here
0.69 E b = full width of longest angle leg, mm.
Qs  2
(505.7-6)
b
Fy  
t 4. For stems of tees
2. For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from built-
up columns or other compression members:

2. For flanges of square and rectangular slender-element

a. when d  0.75 E
t Fy b E
sections of uniform thickness with  1.40 :
t f
Qs  1.0 (505.7-13)
E  0.38 E 
E E be  1.92t 1  b (505.7-18)
b. when 0.75  d t  1.03 f  b t  f 
Fy Fy
where
 d  Fy f = Pn/Aeff
Qs  1.908  1.22  (505.7-14)
t E
E User Note: In Lieu of calculating f  Pn Aeff , which

c. when d t  1.03
Fy requires iteration, f may be taken equal to F y . This will
result in a slightly conservative estimate of column
0.69 E
Qs  2
(505.7-15) capacity.
d 
Fy   3. For axially-loaded circular sections:
t 
E D E
where when 0.11   0.45
Fy t Fy
b = width of unstiffened compression element, as
defined in Section 502.4, mm. 0.038E 2
Q  Qa   (505.7-19)
d = the full nominal depth of tee, mm. F y D t  3
t = thickness of element, mm.
where
505.7.2. Slender Stiffened Elements, Qa
D = outside diameter, mm.
The reduction factor, Qa for slender stiffened elements is t = wall thickness, mm.
defined as follows:
Aeff
Qa  (505.7-16)
A
where
A = total cross-sectional area of member, mm2.
Aeff = summation of the effective areas of the cross
section based on the reduced effective
width, be, mm2.
The reduced effective width, be, is determined as follows:
1. For uniformly compressed slender elements, with

b E
 1.49 , except flanges of square and
t f
rectangular sections of uniform thickness:
E  0.34 E 
be  1.92t 1  b (505.7-17)
f  b t  f 
where
f is taken as Fcr with Fcr calculated based on Q  1.0.

SECTION 506 -DESIGN OF and the nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be determined
MEMBERS FOR FLEXURE according to Sections 506.2 through 506. 12.
This section applies to members subject to simple bending
about one principal axis. For simple bending, the member is 2. The provisions in this Section are based on the
loaded in a plane parallel to a principal axis that passes assumption that points of support for beams and girders
through the shear center or is restrained against twisting at are restrained against rotation about their longitudinal
load points and supports. axis.
The section is organized as follows: The following terms are common to the equations in this
Section except where noted:
506.1 General Provisions Cb = lateral-torsional buckling modification factor
506.2 Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members for nonuniform moment diagrams when both
and Channels Bent about Their Major Axis ends of the unsupported segment are braced
506.3 Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with
Compact Webs and Non-compact or Slender 12.5Mmax
Cb  RM  3.0 (506.1-1)
Flanges Bent about Their Major Axis 2.5Mmax 3MA  4MB  3MC
506.4 Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or
Noncompact Webs Bent about Their Major Axis where
506.5 Doubly Symmetric and Singly Symmetric I-
Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the
Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent
unbraced segment, N-mm.
about Their Major Axis
MA = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the
506.6 I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about
Their Minor Axis
MB = absolute value of moment at centerline of the
506.7 Square and Rectangular HSS and Box-Shaped
Members
MC = absolute value of moment at three-quarter
506.8 Round HSS
point of the unbraced segment, N-mm.
506.9 Tees and Double Angles Loaded in the Plane of
Rm = cross-section monosymmetry parameter
Symmetry
= 1.0, doubly symmetric members
506.10 Single Angles
= 1.0, singly symmetric members subjected to
506.11 Rectangular Bars and Rounds
single curvature bending
506.12 Unsymmetrical Shapes 2
506.13 Proportions of Beams and Girders  I yc 
= 0 . 5  2  , singly symmetric members
 Iy 
User Note: For members not included in this section the  
following sections apply: subjected to reverse curvature bending
508.1–508.3 Members subject to biaxial flexure or to Iy = moment of inertia about the principal y-axis,
combined flexure and axial force. mm4.
I
508.4 Members subject to flexure and torsion. yc = moment of inertia about y-axis referred to the
Appendix A-3 Members subject to fatigue. compression flange, or if reverse curvature
Section 507 Design provisions for shear. bending, referred to the smaller flange, mm4.
For guidance in determining the appropriate sections of this In singly symmetric members subjected to reverse
section to apply, Table User Note 506.1.1 may be used. curvature bending, the lateral-torsional buckling strength
shall be checked for both flanges.
506.1 General Provisions
The available flexural strength shall be greater than or
The design flexural strength,  b M n , and the allowable equal to the maximum required moment causing
flexural strength, M n b , shall be determined as compression within the flange under consideration Cb is
permitted to be conservatively taken as 1.0 for all cases.
follows:
For cantilevers or overhangs where the free end is
1. For all provisions in this Section unbraced, Cb = 1.0.
b  0.90 LRFD b  1.67  ASD

Table User Note 506.1.1

Selection Table for the Application of Section 506 Sections
Section
Flange Web Limit
In Cross Section
Slenderness Slenderness States
Section 506
506.2 C C Y, LTB
506.3 NC, S C LTB, FLB
506.4 C, NC, S C, NC Y, LTB, FLB, TFY
506.5 C, NC, S S Y, LTB, FLB, TFY
506.6 C, NC, S N/A Y, FLB
506.7 C, NC, S C, NC Y, FLB, WLB
506.8 N/A N/A Y, LB
506.9 C, NC, S N/A Y, LTB, FLB
506.10 N/A N/A Y, LTB, LLB
506.11 N/A N/A Y, LTB
506.12 Unsymmetrical shapes N/A N/A All limit states
Y = yielding, LTB = lateral-torsional buckling, FLB = flange local buckling, WLB = web local buckling, TFY = tension flange
yielding, LLB = leg local buckling, LB = local buckling, C = compact,
NC = noncompact, S = slender

CHAPTER 5 Steel and Metal 5-55
2
Cb  2 E Jc  Lb 
Fcr  1  0.078  
User Note: For doubly symmetric members with no 2 S x ho r 
 Lb   ts 
transverse loading between brace points, Equation 506.1-1  
r 
reduces to 2.27 for the case of equal end moments of  ts 
opposite sign and to 1.67 when one end moment equals (506.2-4)
zero. where
506.2 Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members E = modulus of elasticity of steel = 200 000 MPa.
and Channels Bent about their Major Axis J = torsional constant, mm4.
This section applies to doubly symmetric I-shaped members Sx = elastic section modulus taken about the x-axis,
and channels bent about their major axis, having compact mm3.
webs and compact flanges as defined in Section 502.4.
User Note: The square root term in Equation 506.2-4 may
User Note: All current ASTM A6 W, S, M, C and MC be conservatively taken equal to 1.0.
shapes except W21×48, W14×99, W14×90, W12×65,
W10×12, W8×31, W8×10, W6×15, W6×9, W6×8.5, and The limiting lengths L p and Lr are determined as follows:
M4×6 have compact flanges for Fy ≤345 MPa; all current
E
ASTM A6 W, S, M, HP, C and MC shapes have compact L p  1.76ry (506.2-5)
webs at F y ≤450 MPa. Fy
The nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be the lower E Jc  0.7Fy Sxho 

2
value obtained according to the limit states of yielding Lr 1.95rts 1 1 6.76 


(plastic moment) and lateral-torsional buckling. 0.7Fy Sxh0  E Jc 
506.2.1. Yielding (506.2-6)
M n= M p= F yZ x (506.2-1) where
where I yCw
r 2 ts  (506.2-7)
F y = specified minimum yield stress of the type Sx
of steel being used, MPa.
Zx = plastic section modulus about the x-axis, mm3. and
For a doubly symmetric I-shape: c = 1 (506.2-8a)
506.2.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling
1. When Lb ≤ Lp, the limit state of lateral-torsional ho Iy
buckling does not apply. For a channel: c (506.2-8b)
2 Cw
2. When L p< Lb ≤ Lr where
  Lb  Lp 

Mn  Cb M p  M p  0.7Fy Sx     M p
 Lr  Lp 
ho = distance between the flange centroids, mm.
  
(506.2-2) User Note: If the square root term in Equation 506.2-4 is
3. When L b > L r conservatively taken equal to 1, Equation 506.2-6 becomes
M n  Fcr S x  M p (506.2-3)
E
Lr  rts
where 0.7 F y
Lb = length between points that are either braced
against lateral displacement of compression Note that this approximation can be extremely
flange or braced against twist of the cross conservative.
section, mm.
For doubly symmetric I-shapes with rectangular flanges,
I y ho 2
Cw 
4 and thus Equation 506.2-7 becomes

 pf   p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange,

I y ho Table 502.4.1
r 2 ts 
2S x
rts may be approximated accurately and conservatively as  rf  r is the limiting slenderness for a non compact
flange,Table 502.4.1
the radius of gyration of the compression flanges plus one-
sixth of the web:
4
Kc  and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor
bf h tw
rts 
greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
 1 ht w 
121  
 6 bf t f  506.4 Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or
 
Noncompact Webs Bent about their Major Axis
506.3 Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with This section applies to: (a) doubly symmetric I- shaped
Compact Webs and Noncompact or Slender Flanges members bent about their major axis with non compact webs;
Bent about their Major Axis and (b) singly symmetric I-shaped members with webs
attached to the mid-width of the flanges, bent about their
This section applies to doubly symmetric I- shaped members
major axis, with compact or non compact webs, as defined
bent about their major axis having compact webs and non
in Section 502.4.
compact or slender flanges as defined in Section 502.4.
User Note: I-shaped members for which this section is
User Note: The following shapes have non compact
applicable may be designed conservatively using Section
flanges for Fy ≤ 345 MPa: W21×48, W14×99, W14×90,
506.5.
W12×65, W10×12, W8×31, W8× 10, W6× 15, W6×9,
W6 × 8.5, and M4×6. All other ASTM A6 W, S, M, and
HP shapes have compact flanges for Fy ≤ 345 MPa. The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value
obtained according to the limit states of compression flange
yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, compression flange local
The nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be the lower buckling and tension flange yielding.
value obtained according to the limit states of lateral-
torsional buckling and compression flange local buckling. 506.4.1 Compression Flange Yielding
506.3.1 Lateral-Torsional Buckling M n  R pc M yc  R pc F y S xc (506.4-1)

For lateral-torsional buckling, the provisions of Section
506.2.2 shall apply. 506.4.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling
1. When Lb ≤ Lp, the limit state of lateral-torsional
506.3.2 Compression Flange Local Buckling buckling does not apply.
For sections with non compact flanges
2. When L p <L b ≤ L r
     pf    L  Lp

M n  M p  M p  0.7Fy S x   

  
Mn CbRpcMyc  RpcMyc  FLSxc  b   R M
 Lr  Lp  pc yc
  rf pf    
(506.3-1) (506.4-2)
For sections with slender flanges 3. When Lb  L
0.9Ek c S x M n  Fcr S xc  R pc M yc (506.4-3)

Mn  2
(506.3-2)

where
bf

2t f

where Mp = Z x F y ≤ 1.6S xc F y
Sxc.Sxt = elastic section modulus referred to tension and
M yc  Fy S xc (506.4-4) compression flanges, respectively, mm3
λ = hc / tw
2
Cb  E 2
J  Lb  λpw = λp, the limiting slenderness for a compact web,
Fcr  1  0.078   (506.4-5) Table 502.4. 1
2
S x h0 r 
 Lb   t  λrw = λr, the limiting slenderness for a noncompact
 
 rt  web, Table 502.4. 1
I yc The effective radius of gyration for lateral-torsional

For  0.23 . J shall be taken as zero
Iy buckling, rt , is determined as follows:
The stress, FL, is determined as follows: 1. For I-shapes with a rectangular compression flange:
S xt b fc
For  0.7 rt  (506.4-10)
S xc  ho 1 h 2 
12  aw 
d 6 h d 
FL  0 .7 F y (506.4-6a)  o 
S xt where
For  0.7
S xc
hc t w
S aw  (506.4-11)
FLFy xt  0.5Fy (506.4-6b) b fct fc
Sxc
bfc = compression flange width, mm
The limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of
tfc = compression flange thickness, mm
yielding, L p, is
2. For I-shapes with channel caps or cover plates attached
E to the compression flange:
L p  1.1r1 (506.4-7)
Fy rt = radius of gyration of the flange components in
flexural compression plus one-third of the web
The limiting unbraced length for the limit state of inelastic area in compression due to application of major
lateral-torsional buckling, Lr, is axis bending moment alone, mm.
2 aw = the ratio of two times the web area in
E J F S h 
Lt  1.95rt 1  1  6.76 L xc 0  compression due to application of major axis
FL Sxch0 E J  bending moment alone to the area of the
(506.4-8) compression flange components
The web plastification factor, R pc , is determined as
User Note: For I-shapes with a rectangular compression
follows: r,
flange, t may be approximated accurately and
hc conservatively as the radius of gyration of the
a. For   pw compression flange plus one-third of the compression
tw
portion of the web; in other words,
Mp
R pc  (506.4-9a) b fc
M yc rt 
 1 
hc 121  aw 
b. For   pw  6 
tw
 Mp  Mp    pw  Mp 506.4.3 Compression Flange Local Buckling
Rpc    1   1. For sections with compact flanges, the limit state of
 Myc  Myc  rw   pw  Myc local buckling does not apply.
(506.4-9b) 2. For sections with non compact flanges
where

     pf  λ = hc/tw
 
Mn  RpcM yc  RpcM yc  FLSxc  
 rf   pf 
λpw = λp,the limiting slenderness for a compact web,
   defined in Table 502.4. 1
(506.4-12) λrw = λr,the limiting slenderness for a non compact
web, defined in Table 502.4.1
3. For sections with slender flanges
506.5 Doubly Symmetric and Singly Symmetric I-
0.9Ekc Sxc
Mn  (506.4-13) Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent about their
2 Major Axis
where This section applies to doubly symmetric and singly
FL = defined in Equations 506.4-6a and 506.4-6b symmetric I- shaped members with slender webs attached to
R pc = the web plastification factor, determined by the mid-width of the flanges, bent about their major axis, as
Equations 506.4-9 defined in Section 502.4
4 The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value

kc  and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor obtained according to the limit states of compression flange
h tw
yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, compression flange local
greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes buckling and tension flange yielding.
λ = (bfc / 2tfc) 506.5.1 Compression Flange Yielding

λpf = λp ,the limiting slenderness for a compact
flange, Table 502.4.1 M n  Rpg Fy S xc (506.5-1)
λrf = λr,the limiting slenderness for a noncompact
flange, Table 502.4. 1
506.4.4 Tension Flange Yielding
Mn  Rpg Fcr Sxc (506.5-2)
1. When S xt  S xc the limit state of tension flange
yielding does not apply. 1. When Lb ≤ L p, the limit state of lateral-torsional
buckling does not apply.
2. When S xt  S xc
2. When L <Lb ≤L r
Mn  Rpt M yt (506.4-14)
p
  L  L 
where Fcr  C b  F y  0.3 F y  Lrb  L p   F y
  p  
Myt=FySxt
(506.5-3)
The web plastification factor corresponding to the tension 3. When L b > L r
flange yielding limit state, R pt is determined as follows:
Cb  2 E
h Fcr  2
 Fy (506.5-4)
a. For c   pw  Lb 
tw  
 r 
 t 
Mp where
R pt  (506.4-15a)
M yt L p is defined by Equation 506.4-7
hc
b. For   pw
tw E
Lr  rt (506.5-5)
0.7 Fy
 M p  M p     pw  M p
R pt    1  
M M     pw  M yt R pg is the bending strength reduction factor:
 yt  yt  rw 
aw h 
(506.4-15b) R pg  1   c  5.7 E   1.0
where 1200  300aw  tw Fy 
 

(506.5-6) 506.6.1 Yielding

where Mn  M p  FyZy 1.6FySy (506.6-1)
aw = defined by Equation 506.4-11 but shall not
exceed 10 and 506.6.2 Flange Local Buckling
rt = the effective radius of gyration for lateral 1. For Sections with compact flanges the limit state of
buckling as defined in Section 506.4. yielding shall apply.
506.5.3 Compression Flange Local Buckling User Note: All current ASTM A6 W,S,M,C and MC shapes
except W21x48, W14x99, W14x90, W12x65, W10x12,
M n  R pg Fcr S xc (506.5-7) W8x31, W8x10, W6x15, W6x9, W6x8.5, and M4x6 have
compact flanges at Fy = 345 Mpa.
1. For sections with compact flanges, the limit state of
compression flange local buckling does not apply. 2. For sections with noncompact flanges
2. For sections with noncompact flanges    pf 

Mn Mp  (Mp  0.7FyS)   Mp
    rf  pf 
Fct   Fy  0.3Fy    pf 

(506.5-8)
(506.6-2)
  rf pf 
3. For sections with slender flange sections
M n  Fcr S y (506.6-3)
0.9 Ekc where

Fcr  2
(506.5-9)
 bf  0.69E
  Fcr 
 2t f  2 (506.6-4)
   bf 
 
where  2t f 
 
4
kc  and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor λ = b/t
h tw λpf = λp,the limiting slenderness for a compact flange,
greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes Table 502.4. 1
λ = bfc/2tfc λrf = λr,the limiting slenderness for a noncompact
λpf = λp,the limiting slenderness for a compact flange, flange,Table 502.4.1
Table 502.4.1 Sy = for a channel shall be taken as the minimum
λrf = λr,the limiting slenderness for a noncompact section modulus
flange, Table 502.4. 1
506.7 Square and Rectangular HSS and Box-shaped
506.5.4 Tension Flange Yielding Members
1. When Sxt  Sxc the limit state of tension flange This section applies to square and rectangular HSS, and
yielding does not apply. doubly symmetric box-shaped members bent about either
axis, having compact or non compact webs and compact,
2 . W h e n Sxt  Sxc non compact or slender flanges as defined in Section 502.4.
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value
M n  Fy S xt (506.5-10) obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic
moment), flange local buckling and web local buckling
under pure flexure.
506.6 I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about their
Minor Axis 506.7.1 Yielding
This section applies to I-shaped members and channels bent
about their minor axis. Mn  Mp  FyZ (506.7-1)
where
The nominal flexural strength, Mn , shall be the lower value
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic Z = plastic section modulus about the axis of
moment) and flange local buckling. bending, mm3

506.7.2 Flange Local Buckling  

 
1. For compact sections, the limit state of flange local 0.021E
buckling does not apply. Mn    Fy  S (506.8-2)
 D 
 
2. For sections with non compact flanges  t 
 b Fy  3. For sections with slender walls

Mn Mp  (Mp  FyS)3.57  4.0  Mp
 t E  M n  Fcr S (506.8-3)
 
(506.7-2) where
3. For sections with slender flanges 0.33E
Fcr  (506.8-4)
Mn  Fy Seff (506.7-3) D
S = elastic section modulus, mm3
where
S eff is the effective section modulus determined with the 506.9 Tees and Double Angles Loaded in the Plane of
Symmetry
effective width of the compression flange taken as:
This section applies to tees and double angles loaded in the
E  0.38 E  plane of symmetry.
bc  1.92t 1  b (506.7-4)
Fy  bt Fy 
  The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic
506.7.3 Web Local Buckling moment), lateral-torsional buckling and flange local
buckling.
1. For compact sections, the limit state of web local
506.9.1 Yielding
2. For sections with non compact webs
Mn  Mp (506.9-1)
 
 

Mn  M p  M p  Fy Sx  0.305
h Fy
tw E
 0.378  M p

where
 
M p  Fy Z x  1.6 M y for stems in tension (506.9-2)
(506.7-5)  M y for stems in compression (506.9-3)
506.8 Round HSS
This section applies to round HSS having D/t ratios of less
0.45 E  EI y GJ 
than M n  M cr  B  1 B2 
Fy Lb  
The nominal flexural strength, Mn , shall be the lower value (506.9-4)
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic where
moment) and local buckling.  d  Iy
B  2.3  (506.9-5)
506.8.1 Yielding  Lb  J
Mn  MP  FyZ (506.8-1) The plus sign for B applies when the stem is in tension and the
minus sign applies when the stem is in compression. If the tip
of the stem is in compression anywhere along the unbraced
506.8.2 Local Buckling length, the negative value of B shall be used.
1. For compact sections, the limit state of flange local
buckling does not apply. 506.9.3 Flange Local Buckling of Tees
2. For non compact sections MnFcrSxc (506.9-6)
S xc the elastic section modulus referred to the compression

flange. Fcr determined as follows:

1. For compact sections, the limit state of flange local  M y 

buckling does not apply. M n  1.92  1.17 M y  1.5M y
 Me 
2. For non compact sections  
 b  F  (506.10-3)
  y 
Fct  Fy 1.19  0.50
f
  E  (506.9-7) where

  2t f   Me the elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment, is
3. For slender sections determined as follows:
0.69E 1. For bending about one of the geometric axes of an equal-

Fcr  2 leg angle with no lateral- torsional buckling moment
 bf 
  a. With maximum compression at the toe
 2t f 
  (506.9-8)  2 
0.66Eb4tCb   Lt  
Me  2  1  0.78 2   1
506.10 Single Angles L  b  
 
This section applies to single angles with and without (506.10-4a)
continuous lateral restraint along their length.
b. With maximum tension at the toe
Single angles with continuous lateral-torsional restraint
along the length shall be permitted to be designed on the 0.66Eb4tCb  L  
Me  1  0.78 2t   1
basis of geometric axis (x,y) bending. Single angles without L2   b  
continuous lateral-torsional restraint along the length shall be 
designed using the provisions for principal axis bending (506.10-4b)
except where the provision for bending about a geometric
axis is permitted. M y shall be taken as 0.80 times the yield moment calculated
using the geometric section modulus.
User Note: For geometric axis design, use section
properties computed about the x- and y-axis of the angle, User Note: M n may be taken as My for single angles with
parallel and perpendicular to the legs. For principal axis their vertical leg toe in compression, and having a span-to-
design use section properties computed about the major and depth ratio less than or equal to
minor principal axes of the angle.
2
1.64E  t  Fy
  1.4
The nominal flexural strength, Mn shall be the lowest value Fy b E
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic
moment), lateral-torsional buckling and leg local buckling. 1. For bending about one of the geometric axes of an
equal-leg angle withlateral-torsional restraint at the
506.10.1 Yielding point of maximum moment only
M n = 1.5My (506.10-1)
Me shall be taken as 1.25 times Me computed using
where Equation 506.10-4a or 506.10-4b
My = yield moment about the axis of bending, N- M y shall be taken as the yield moment calculated using the
mm. geometric section modulus.
506.10.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling 2. For bending about the major principal axis of equal-leg
angles:
For single angles without continuous lateral-torsional
restraint along the length (a) When M e ≤M y 0.46Eb2t 2Cb
Me  (506.10-5)
 L
0.17Me 
Mn   0.92  Me (506.10-2) 3. For bending about the major principal axis of unequal-leg
 M y 
 angles:
when M e  M y

  506.11 Rectangular Bars and Rounds

 4.9 ElzCb    2  Lt  
2

Me       w  0 . 052    w  This section applies to rectangular bars bent about either
 L2
    rz     geometric axis and rounds.
 
(506.10-6)
The nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be the lower
where value obtained according to the limit states of yielding
(plastic moment) and lateral-torsional buckling, as required.
Cb = computed using Equation 506.1-1 with a
maximum value of 1.5. 506.11.1 Yielding
L = laterally unbraced length of a member, mm. Lb d 0.08E
Iz = minor principal axis moment of inertia, mm4. For rectangular bar with 2
 bent about their major
rz = radius of gyration for the minor principal axis, t Fy
mm. axis, rectangular bars bent about their minor axis, and rounds:
t = angle leg thickness, mm.
βw = a section property for unequal leg angles, positive Mn  M p  Fy Z 1.6M y (506.11-1)
for short legs in compression and negative for
long legs in compression. If the long leg is in 506.11.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling
compression anywhere along the unbraced length
0.08E Lb d 1.9 E
of the member, the negative value of βw shall be 1. For rectangular bars with  2  bent
used. Fy t Fy
about their major axis:
User Note: The equation for 3w and values for common
angle sizes are listed in the Commentary.   L d  Fy 
M n  Cb 1.52  0.274 b2  M y  M p
506.10.3 Leg Local Buckling   t  E 
The limit state of leg local buckling applies when the toe of (506.11-2)
the leg is in compression. Lb d 1.9E
2. For rectangular bars with 2
 bent about their
1. For compact sections, the limit state of leg local t Fy
buckling does not apply. major axis:
2. For sections with non compact legs M n  Fcr S x  M p (506.11-3)

  b  Fy 
M n  Fy Sc  2.43  1.72  (506.10-7)
  t  E 

3. For sections with slender legs
M n  Fcr Sc (506.10-8)
where
0.71E
Fcr  2
(506.10-9)
b
 
t
b = outside width of leg in compression, mm.
Sc = elastic section modulus to the toe in compression
relative to the axis of bending, mm3 . For
bending about one of the geometric axes of
an equal-leg angle with no lateral-torsional
restraint, Sc shall be 0.80 of the geometric axis
section modulus.

where 1. For Fu A fn  Yt F y A fg , the limit state of tensile rupture

1.9ECb does not apply
Fcr  (506.11-4)
Lb d
2. For Fu A fn  Yt F y A fg , the nominal flexural strength, at
t2
the location of the holes in the tension flange shall not
t = width of rectangular bar parallel to axis of be taken greater than:
bending, mm.
d = depth of rectangular bar, in. mm.
Fu Afn
Mn  Sx (506.13-1)
Lb = length between points that are either braced against Afg
lateral displacement of the compression region or
braced against twist of the cross section, in. mm. where
3. For rounds and rectangular bars bent about their minor Afg = gross tension flange area, calculated in
axis, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling need accordance with the provisions of Section
not be considered. 504.3.1, mm2.
Afn = net tension flange area, calculated in accordance
506.12 Unsymmetrical Shapes with the provisions of Section 504.3.2, mm2.
This section applies to all unsymmetrical shapes, except Yt = 1.0 for Fy/Fu ≤ 0.80
single angles. = 1.1 otherwise
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value 506.13.2 Proportioning Limits for I -Shaped Members
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (yield Singly symmetric I- shaped members shall satisfy the
moment), lateral-torsional buckling and local buckling where following limit:
M n  Fn S (506.12-1) I yc
0.1   0.9 (506.13-2)
where Iy
S = lowest elastic modulus relative to the axis of I- shaped members with slender webs shall also satisfy the
bending, mm3. following limits:
506.12.1 Yielding a
1. For  1.5
h
Fn  Fy (506.12-2)
 h  E
   11.7 (506.13-3)
t  Fy
506.12.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling  w  max
Fn  Fcr  Fy (506.12-3) a
2. For  1.5
h
where
h 0.42 E
Fcr = buckling stress for the section as determined by    (506.13-4)
analysis, MPa. t  Fy
 w  max
506.13 Proportions of Beams and Girders where

a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, mm
506.13.1 Hole Reductions
This section applies to rolled or built-up shapes, and cover- In unstiffened girders h/tw shall not exceed 260. The ratio of the
plated beams with holes, proportioned on the basis of web area to the compression flange area shall not exceed 10.
flexural strength of the gross section.
506.13.3 Cover Plates
In addition to the limit states specified in other sections of
Flanges of welded beams or girders may be varied in
this section, the nominal flexural strength, Mn shall be thickness or width by splicing a series of plates or by the
limited according to the limit state of tensile rupture of the use of cover plates.
tension flange.
The total cross-sectional area of cover plates of bolted
girders shall not exceed 70 percent of the total flange area.

High-strength bolts or welds connecting flange to web, or

cover plate to flange, shall be proportioned to resist the total 1. When there is a continuous weld equal to or larger than
horizontal shear resulting from the bending forces on the three-fourths of the plate thickness across the end of the
girder. The longitudinal distribution of these bolts or plate
intermittent welds shall be in proportion to the intensity of
the shear. However, the longitudinal spacing shall not exceed a' = w (506.13-5)
the maximum permitted for compression or tension members
where
in Section 505.6 or 504.4, respectively. Bolts or welds
connecting flange to web shall also be proportioned to w = width of cover plate, mm
transmit to the web any loads applied directly to the flange,
2. When there is a continuous weld smaller than three-
unless provision is made to transmit such loads by direct
fourths of the plate thickness across the end of the plate
bearing.
a' = 1.5w (506.13-6)
Partial-length cover plates shall be extended beyond the
theoretical cutoff point and the extended portion shall be 3. When there is no weld across the end of the plate
attached to the beam or girder by high-strength bolts in a
slip-critical connection orfillet welds. The attachment shall be a' = 2w (506.13-7)
adequate, at the applicable strength given in Sections 510.2.2,
510.3.8, or 502.3.9 to develop the cover plate’s portion of the 506.13.4. Built-Up Beams
flexural strength in the beam or girder at the theoretical cutoff Where two or more beams or channels are used side-by-side
point. to form a flexural member, they shall be connected together
in compliance with Section 505.6.2. When concentrated
For welded cover plates, the welds connecting the cover plate loads are carried from one beam to another, or distributed
termination to the beam or girder shall have continuous between the beams, diaphragms having sufficient stiffness to
welds along both edges of the cover plate in the length a', distribute the load shall be welded or bolted between the
defined below, and shall be adequate to develop the cover beams.
plate’s portion of the strength of the beam or girder at the
distance a' from the end of the cover plate.

SECTION 507 - DESIGN OF h tw  2.24 E Fy

MEMBERS FOR SHEAR
This section addresses webs of singly or doubly symmetric
v  1.00(LRFD) v  1.50( ASD)
members subject to shear in the plane of the web, single and
angles and HSS sections, and shear in the weak direction of
singly or doubly symmetric shapes. Cv  1.0 (507.2-2)
The section is organized as follows: User Note: All current ASTM A6 W, S and HP shapes except
W44×230, W40×149, W36×135, W33×118, W30×90,
507.1 General Provisions W24×55, W16×26 and W 12×14 meet the criteria stated
507.2 Members with Unstiffened or Stiffened Webs in Section 507.2.1(a) for F y ≤345 MPa.
507.3 Tension Field Action
507.4 Single Angles 2. For webs of all other doubly symmetric shapes and
507.5 Rectangular HSS and Box Members singly symmetric shapes and channels, except round
507.6 Round HSS
507.7 Weak Axis Shear in Singly and Doubly Symmetric HSS, the web shear coefficient, Cv , is determined as
Shapes follows:
507.8 Beams and Girders with Web Openings
a. For h tw  1.10 kvE Fy
User Note: For applications not included in this section,
the following sections apply:
Cv  1.0 (507.2-3)
 508.3.3 Unsymmetric sections.
 510.4.2 Shear strength of connecting elements.
 510.10.6 Web panel zone shear. b. For 1.10 kv E Fy  h tw  1.37 kv E Fy
507.1 General Provisions 1.51Ekv

Cv  (507.2-4)
Two methods of calculating shear strength are presented h tw
below. The method presented in Section 507.2 does not
utilize the post buckling strength of the member (tension
field action). The method presented in Section 507.3 utilizes c. For h tw  1.37 kv E Fy
tension field action. The design shear strength, vVn , and
1.51Ekv
the allowable shear strength, Vn v , shall be determined Cv  (507.2-5)
as follows.
h tw 2 Fy
where
For all provisions in this section except Section 507.2.1a:
Aw = the overall depth times the web thickness, mm2
v  0.90 (LRFD)  v = 1.67 (ASD)
The web plate buckling coefficient, k v , is determined as
follows:
507.2 Members with Unstiffened or Stiffened Webs
a. For unstiffened webs with h/t <260, kv  5 except for
507.2.1 Nominal Shear Strength
the stem of tee shapes where kv  1.2 .
This section applies to webs of singly or doubly symmetric
members and channels subject to shear in the plane of the b. For stiffened webs,
web. 5
kv  5 
The nominal shear strength, Vn, of unstiffened or stiffened a h2
webs, according to the limit states of shear yielding and shear 5 when a h  3.0
buckling, is
2
 260 
Vn  0.6Fy AwCv (507.2-1) or a h   
 h tw  
1. For webs of rolled I-shaped members with

where 1. end panels in all members with transverse stiffeners;

a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, mm. 2. members when a/h exceeds 3.0 or 260 h t w 2 ;
h = for rolled shapes, the clear distance between flanges
less the fillet or corner radii, mm.  
3. 2 Aw A fc  A ft  2.5; or
= for built-up welded sections, the clear distance
between flanges, mm. 4. h b fc or h b ft  6.0
= for built-up bolted sections, the distance between
fastener lines, mm. where
= for tees, the overall depth, mm.
Afc = area of compression flange, mm2
User Note: For all ASTM A6 W, S, M and HP shapes except Aft = are a of ten si on flan ge, mm 2
M12.5× 12.4, M12.5×11.6, M12× 11.8, M12× 10.8, M12×10, bfc = width of compression flange, mm
bft = width of tension flange, mm
M10×8, and M10×7.5, when F y ≤345 MPa, Cv = 1.0.
507.2.2 Transverse Stiffeners In these cases, the nominal shear strength, Vn , shall be
Transverse stiffeners are not required determined according to the provisions of Section 507.2.
where h t w  2.46 E F y , or where the required shear
507.3.2 Nominal Shear Strength with Tension Field
strength is less than or equal to the available shear strength Action
provided in accordance with Section 507.2.1 for k v  5 . When tension field action is permitted according to
Section 507.3.1, the nominal shear strength, Vn , with
Transverse stiffeners used to develop the available web shear tension field action, according to the limit state of tension
strength, as provided in Section 507.2.1, shall have a moment field yielding, shall be
of inertia about an axis in the web center for stiffener pairs or
about the face in contact with the web plate for single 1. For h t w  1.10 kv E Fy
stiffeners, which shall not be less than at w3 j, where
2.5 V n  0 .6 F y A w (507.3-1)
j  2  0.5 (507.2-6)
a h 2
2. For h t w  1.10 kv E Fy
Transverse stiffeners are permitted to be stopped short of the
tension flange, provided bearing is not needed to transmit a  
concentrated load or reaction. The weld by which transverse  1  Cv 
Vn  0.6Fy Aw  Cv  
1.15 1  a h2
stiffeners are attached to the web shall be terminated not less  
than four times nor more than six times the web thickness from  
the near toe to the web-to-flange weld. When single stiffeners (507.3-2)
are used, they shall be attached to the compression flange, if it
where
consists of a rectangular plate, to resist any uplift tendency due
to torsion in the flange. When lateral bracing is attached to a k v and C v are as defined in Section 507.2.1.
stiffener, or a pair of stiffeners, these, in turn, shall be
connected to the compression flange to transmit 1 percent of
507.3.3. Transverse Stiffeners
the total flange force, unless the flange is composed only of
angles. Transverse stiffeners subject to tension field action shall meet
Bolts connecting stiffeners to the girder web shall be spaced the requirements of Section 507.2.2 and the following
not more than 305mm on center. If intermittent fillet welds are limitations:
used, the clear distance between welds shall not be more than
E
16 times the web thickness nor more than 250 mm. 1. b t st  0.56
Fyst
507.3 Tension Field Action
Fy  Vr 2
507.3.1 Limits on the Use of Tension Field Action 2. Ast  0.15Ds htw 1  Cv   18 tw   0 (507.3-3)
Fyst  Vc 
Consideration of tension field action is permitted for flanged
members when the web plate is supported on all four sides where
by flanges or stiffeners. Consideration of tension field
action is not permitted for:
b t st = the width-thickness ratio of the stiffener

Fyst = specified minimum yield stress of the stiffener

where
material, MPa.
Cv = coefficient defined in Section 507.2.1 Fcr shall be the larger of
Ds = 1.0 for stiffeners in pairs
= 1.8for single angel stiffeners 1.6 E
= 2.4 for single plate stiffeners Fcr  5
(507.6-2a)
Vr = required shear strength at the location of the Lv  D4
stiffener, N.  
D t 
Vc = available shear strength; vVn (LRFD) or
Vn v (ASD) with V 0.78E
n as defined in Section and Fcr  3 (507.6-2b)
507.3.2, N.  D2
 
507.4 Single Angles t
The nominal shear strength, Vn , of a single angle leg shall be but shall not exceed 0.6Fy
determined using Equation (507.2-1) with Ag = gross area of section based on design wall
Cv  1.0, Aw  bt where b = width of the leg resisting the thickness, mm2.
shear force, mm and kv  1.2. D = outside diameter, mm.
Lv = the distance from maximum to zero shear force,
mm.
507.5 Rectangular HSS and Box Members t = design wall thickness, equal to 0.93 times the
The nominal shear strength, Vn , of rectangular HSS and box nominal wall thickness for ERW HSS and equal
members shall be determined using the provisions of to the nominal thickness for SAW HSS,
mm.
Section 507.2.1 with Aw = 2ht where h for the width
resisting the shear force shall be taken as the clear distance User Note: The shear buckling equations, Equations
between the flanges less the inside corner radius on each
507.6-2a and 507.6-2b, will control for D/t over 100, high
side and t w  t and k v  5. If the corner radius is not known, strength steels, and long lengths. If the shear strength for
h shall be taken as the corresponding outside dimension minus standard sections is desired, shear yielding will usually
three times the thickness. control
507.6 Round HSS 507.7 Weak Axis Shear in Singly and Doubly Symmetric
The nominal shear strength, Vn , of round HSS, according to Shapes
the limit states of shear yielding and shear buckling, is For singly and doubly symmetric shapes loaded in the weak
V ,
axis without torsion, the nominal shear strength, n for
Vn  Fcr .Ag 2 (507.6-1) each shear resisting element shall be determined using
A  bf t f
Equation 507.2-1 and Section 507.2.1(b) with w
and
kv  1.2.
User Note: For all ASTM A6 W, S, M and HP shapes, when

F y ≤345 MPa, Cv  1.0.
507.8 Beams and Girders with Web Openings

The effect of all web openings on the nominal shear
strength of steel and composite beams shall be determined.
Adequate reinforcement shall be provided when the
required strength exceeds the available strength of the
member at the opening.

SECTION 508 - DESIGN OF x = subscript relating symbol to strong axis

bending
MEMBERS FOR COMBINED y = subscript relating symbol to weak axis bending
FORCES AND TORSION
For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD)
This section addresses members subject to axial force and Pr = required axial compressive strength using LRFD
flexure about one or both axes, with or without torsion, and load combinations, N.
to members subject to torsion only. Pc = design axial compressive strength, determined in
accordance with Section 505, N.
The section is organized as follows: Mr = required flexural strength using LRFD load
combinations, N-mm.
508.1 Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members Mc = ϕbMn=design flexural strength determined in
Subject to Flexure and Axial Force accordance with Section 506, N-mm.
508.2 Unsymmetric and Other Members Subject to ϕc = resistance factor for compression = 0.90
Flexure and Axial Force ϕb = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90
508.3 Members under Torsion and Combined
Torsion, Flexure, Shear and/or Axial Force For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD)
Pr = required axial compressive strength using ASD
User Note: For composite members, see Section 509.
load combinations, N.
Pc = Pn/Ωb=allowable axial compressive strength,
508.1 Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members Subject determined in accordance with section 505, N.
to Flexure and Axial Force Mr = required flexural strength using ASD load
combinations, N-mm.
508.1.1 Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members in Mc =M n /Ω b =allowable flexural strength
Flexure and Compression determined in accordance with section 506, N-
The interaction of flexure and compression in doubly mm.
symmetric members and singly symmetric members for Ωc = safety factor for compression = 1.67
 
which 0.1  I yc I y  0.9, that are constrained to bend Ωb = safety factor for flexure = 1.67
about a geometric axis (x and/or y) shall be limited by
Equations 508.1-1a and 508.1-1b, where I yc the moment of 508.1.2 Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members in
Flexure and Tension
inertia about the y-axis referred to the compression flange,
The interaction of flexure and tension in doubly symmetric
mm4.
members and singly symmetric members constrained to bend
about a geometric axis (x and/or y) shall be limited by
User Note: Section 508.2 is permitted to be used in lieu of the
Equations 508.1-1a and 508.1-1b,
provisions of this section.
where
Pt For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD)
1. For  0.2
Pc
Pr = required tensile strength using LRFD load
combinations, N.
Pr 8  M rx M ry 
  1.0 (508.1-1a)
  Pc = ϕtPn=design tensile strength, determined in
Pc 9  M cx M cy 
 accordance with Section 504.2, N.
Mr = required flexural strength using LRFD load
P combinations, N-mm.
2. For r  0.2 Mc = ϕ b M n =design flexural strength determined in
Pc
accordance with section 506, N-mm.
Pr  M rx M ry 
  1.0 (508.1-1b) ϕt = resistance factor for tension (see Section 504.2)
 
2 Pc  M cx M cy 
 ϕb = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90
where
For doubly symmetric members, C b in section 506 may
Pr = required axial compressive strength, N.
Pc = available axial compressive strength, N. Pu
be increased by 1 for axial tension that acts
Mr = required flexural strength, N-mm. Pey
Mc = available flexural strength, N-mm.
concurrently with flexure, where

 2 EI y where
Pey  Pco = available compressive strength out of the plane
L2b of bending, N.
Mcx = available flexural-torsional strength for strong
For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD) axis flexure determined from section 506, N-
Pr = required tensile strength using ASD load mm.
combinations, N.
Pc = Pn/Ωt=allowable tensile strength, determined If bending occurs only about the weak axis, the moment
in accordance with Section 504.2, N. ratio in Equation 508.1-2 shall be neglected.
Mr = required flexural strength using ASD load
combinations, N-mm. For members with significant biaxial moments (Mr/Mc ≥ 0.05
Mc = Mn/Ωb=allowable flexural strength determined in both directions), the provisions of Section 508.1.1 shall be
in accordance with section 506, N-mm. followed.
Ωt = safety factor for tension (see Section 504.2)
Ωb = safety factor for flexure = 1.67 508.2 Unsymmetric and other Members Subject to
Flexure and Axial Force
For doubly symmetric members,
C b in section 506 may be This section addresses the interaction of flexure and axial
stress for shapes not covered in Section 508.1. It is
1.5Pa permitted to use the provisions of this Section for any shape
increased by 1 for axial tension that acts
Pey in lieu of the provisions of Section 508.1.
 2 EI y f a fbw fbz
concurrently with flexure where Pey     1.0 (508.2-1)
L2b Fa Fbw Fbz
where
A more detailed analysis of the interaction of flexure and
tension is permitted in lieu of Equations 508.1-1a and fa = required axial stress at the point of consideration,
508.1-1b. MPa.
Fa = available axial stress at the point of
508.1.3 Doubly Symmetric Members in Single Axis consideration, MPa.
Flexure and Compression fbw,fbz = required flexural stress at the point of
For doubly symmetric members in flexure and compression consideration, MPa.
with moments primarily in one plane, it is permissible to Fbw,Fbz = available flexural stress at the point of
consider the two independent limit states, in-plane instability consideration, MPa.
and out-of-plane buckling or flexural-torsional buckling, sep- w = subscript relating symbol to major principal axis
arately in lieu of the combined approach provided in bending
Section 508.1.1. z = subscript relating symbol to minor principal axis
bending
1. For the limit state of in-plane instability, Equations
508.1.1 shall be used with Pc, M r , and Mc determined For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD)
in the plane of bending. fa = required axial stress using LRFD load
2. For the limit state of out-of-plane buckling combinations, MPa.
Fa = design axial stress, determined in
2 accordance with section 505 for
Pt  M r 
   1 .0 (508.1-2) compression or Section 504.2 for
Pco  M cx 
 tension,MPa.
fbw,fbz = required flexural stress at the specific location
in the cross section using LRFD load
combinations, MPa.
F bw ,F bz = ϕbMn/S=design flexural stress determined
in accordance with section 506, MPa.
Use the section modulus for the specific
location in the cross section and consider the
sign of the stress.
ϕc = resistance factor for compression = 0.90

ϕt = resistance factor for tension (Section 504.2) 1.23 E

ϕb = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90 Fcr  5
(508.3-2a)
LD 4
For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD)  
D t 
fa = required axial stress using ASD load
and
combinations, MPa
Fa = Fcr/Ωc = allowable axial stress determined in 0.60E
accordance with section 505 for Fcr  3
(508.3-2b)
compression, or Section 504.2 for tension, D2
MPa.  
t 
fbw,fbz = required flexural stress at the specific location in
the cross section using ASD load combinations, but shall not exceed 0.6Fy,
MPa.
where
Fbw,Fbz = Mn / ΩbS = allowable flexural stress determined in
accordance with section 506, MPa. Use the section L = length of the member, mm.
modulus for the specific location in the cross D = outside diameter, mm.
section and consider the sign of the stress.
Ωc = safety factor for compression = 1.67
1. For rectangular HSS
Ωt = safey factor for tension (Section 504.2)
Ωb = safety factor for flexure = 1.67 a. For h t  2.45 E Fy
Equation 508.2-1 shall be evaluated using the principal Fcr  0.6 Fy (508.3-3)
bending axes by considering the sense of the flexural stresses
at the critical points of the cross section. The flexural terms
b. For 2.45 E Fy  h t  3.07 E Fy
are either added to or subtracted from the axial term as
appropriate. When the axial force is compression, second order
effects shall be included according to the provisions of 
Fcr  0.6 Fy 2.45 E Fy  h t  (508.3-4)
section 503.A more detailed analysis of the interaction of
flexure and tension is permitted in lieu of Equation 508.2-1. c. For 3.07 E Fy  h t  260
508.3 Members under Torsion and Combined Torsion,

Fcr  0.458 2 E h t 
2
Flexure, Shear and/or Axial Force (508.3-5)
508.3.1 Torsional Strength of Round and User Note: The torsional shear constant, C, may be
Rectangular HSS conservatively taken as:
The design torsional strength, T Tn , and the allowable D  t 2 t
C
torsional strength, Tn T , for round and rectangular HSS For a round HSS : 2
shall be determined as follows: For rectangular HSS:
C  2B  t H  t t  4.54   t 3
T  0.90 (LRFD) T  1.67 (ASD)
The nominal torsional strength, Tn , according to the limit 508.3.2 HSS Subject to Combined Torsion, Shear,
states of torsional yielding and torsional buckling is: Flexure and Axial Force
Tn  Fcr C (508.3-1) When the required torsional strength, Tr , is less than or
equal to 20 percent of the available torsional strength,
where Tc , the interaction of torsion, shear, flexure and/or axial
C is the HSS torsional constant force for HSS shall be determined by Section 508.1 and the
Fcr shall be determined as follows: torsional effects shall be neglected. When exceeds Tr , 20
1. For round HSS, Fcr shall be the larger of percent of Tc , the interaction of torsion, shear, flexure and/or
axial force shall be limited by

 Pr M r   Vr Tr 2
        1.0 (508.3-6) 508.3.3 Strength of Non-HSS Members under Torsion
 Pc M   Vc Tc  and Combined Stress
 
The design torsional strength, T Fn , and the allowable
where
torsional strength, Fn T , for non-HSS members shall be
For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD) the lowest value obtained according to the limit states of
Pr = required axial strength using LRFD load yielding under normal stress, shear yielding under shear
combinations, N. stress, or buckling, determined as follows:
Pc = ϕPn, design tensile or compressive strength in T  0.90 (LRFD) T  1.67 (ASD)
accordance with section 504 or 505, N.
Mr = required flexural strength using LRFD load 1. For the limit state of yielding under normal stress
combinations, N-mm.
Mc = ϕbMn,design flexural strength in accordance Fn  Fy (508.3-7)
with section 506, N-mm.
Vr = required shear strength using LRFD load 2. For the limit state of shear yielding under shear stress
combinations, N.
Vc = design shear strength in accordance with Fn  0.6Fy (508.3-8)
section 507, N.
Tr = required torsional strength using LRFD load 3. or the limit state of buckling
combinations, N-mm.
Tc = design torsional strength in accordance with Fn  Fcr (508.3-9)
Section 508.3.1, N-mm.
where
For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD) Fcr = buckling stress for the section as determined by
Pr = required axial strength using ASD load analysis, MPa. Some constrained local yielding
combinations, N. is permitted adjacent to areas that remain elastic.
Pc = Pn/Ω, allowable tensile or compressive strength
in accordance with section 504 or 505, N.
combinations determined in accordance with
Section 502.5, N-mm.
Mc = Mn /Ωb,allowable flexural strength in
accordance with section 506, N-mm.
Vr = required shear strength using ASD load
combinations, N.
Vc = allowable shear strength in accordance with
section 507, N.
Tr = required torsional strength using ASD load
combinations, N-mm.
Tc = Tn/ΩT allowable torsional strength in accordance
with Section 508.3.1, N-mm.

SECTION 509 - DESIGN OF mm/mm. The stress-strain relationships for steel and
concrete shall be obtained from tests or from published
COMPOSITE MEMBERS results for similar materials.
This section addresses composite columns composed of User Note: The strain compatibility method should be used
rolled or built-up structural steel shapes or HSS, and to determine nominal strength for irregular sections and
structural concrete acting together, and steel beams for cases where the steel does not exhibit elasto-plastic
supporting a reinforced concrete slab so interconnected behavior. General guidelines for the strain-compatibility
that the beams and the slab act together to resist bending. method for encased columns are given in AISC Design
Simple and continuous composite beams with shear connectors Guide 6 and ACI 318 Sections 10.2 and 10.3.
and concrete-encased beams, constructed with or without
temporary shores, are included. 509.1.2 Material Limitations
Concrete and steel reinforcing bars in composite systems
The section is organized as follows:
shall be subject to the following limitations.
509.1 General Provisions 1. For the determination of the available strength, concrete
509.2 Axial Members shall have a compressive strength f c' of not less than 21
509.3 Flexural Members MPa nor more than 70 MPa for normal weight
509.4 Combined Axial Force and Flexure concrete and not less than 21 MPa nor more than 42
509.5 Special Cases MPa for lightweight concrete.
509.1 General Provisions User Note: Higher strength concrete materials may be used
In determining load effects in members and connections of a for stiffness calculations but may not be relied upon for
structure that includes composite members, consideration strength calculations unless justified by testing or analysis.
shall be given to the effective sections at the time each
increment of load is applied. The design, detailing and 2. The specified minimum yield stress of structural
material properties related to the concrete and reinforcing steel steel and reinforcing bars used in calculating the
portions of composite construction shall comply with the strength of a composite column shall not exceed 525
reinforced concrete and reinforcing bar design MPa.
specifications stipulated by this code. In the absence of a
building code, the provisions in Chapter 4 shall apply. Higher material strengths are permitted when their use is
justified by testing or analysis.
509.1.1 Nominal Strength of Composite Sections
Two methods are provided for determining the nominal strength User Note: Additional reinforced concrete material
of composite sections: the plastic stress distribution method limitations are specified in Chapter 4.
and the strain-compatibility method.
The tensile strength of the concrete shall be neglected in the 509.1.3 Shear Connectors
determination of the nominal strength of composite Shear connectors shall be headed steel studs not less than
members. four stud diameters in length after installation, or hot-rolled
steel channels. Shear stud design values shall be taken as per
509.1.1a Plastic Stress Distribution Method Sections 509.2.1g and 509.3.2d (2). Stud connectors shall
For the plastic stress distribution method, the nominal conform to the requirements of Section 501.3.6. Channel
strength shall be computed assuming that steel components connectors shall conform to the requirements of Section
have reached a stress of F y in either tension or 501.3.1.
compression and concrete components in compression have
509.2 Axial Members
reached a stress of 0 .85 f c' For round HSS filled with
This section applies to two types of composite axial
concrete, a stress of 0 .95 f c' is permitted to be used for members: encased and filled sections.
concrete components in uniform compression to account for
the effects of concrete confinement. 509.2.1 Encased Composite Columns
509.1.1b Strain-Compatibility Method 509.2.1.1a Limitations

For the strain compatibility method, a linear distribution of To qualify as an encased composite column, the following
strains across the section shall be assumed, with the limitations shall be met:
maximum concrete compressive strain equal to 0.003
1. The cross-sectional area of the steel core shall comprise

at least 1 percent of the total composite cross section. where

2. Concrete encasement of the steel core shall be As = area of the steel section, mm2
reinforced with continuous longitudinal bars and Ac = area of concrete, mm2.
lateral ties or spirals. The minimum transverse Asr = area of continuous reinforcing bars, mm2
reinforcement shall be at least 6 mm2 per mm of tie Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
spacing.  
 0.043w1c.5 f c' .Mpa 
3. The minimum reinforcement ratio for continuous  
longitudinal reinforcing, sr , shall be 0.004, where Es = modulus of elasticity of steel = 210 MPa.
sr , is given by: f’c = specified compressive strength of concrete,
MPa.
Asr Fy = specified minimum yield stress of steel section,
sr  (509.2-1) MPa.
Ag Fyr = specified minimum yield stress of
reinforcing bars, MPa.
where Ic = moment of inertia of the concrete
As = area of continuous reinforcing bars, mm2 section, mm 4
Ag = gross area of composite member, mm2 Is = moment of inertia of steel shape, mm4
Isr = moment of inertia of reinforcing bars, mm4
509.2.1.1b Compressive Strength K = the effective length factor determined in
accordance with Section 502
The design compressive strength, c Pn , and allowable L = laterally unbraced length of the member, mm
compressive strength, Pn c , for axially loaded encased wc = weight of concrete per unit volume
composite columns shall be determined for the limit state 90  w 155lbs ft or 1500 w  2500kg m 
c
3
c
3
of flexural buckling based on column slenderness as
follows: where
c  0.75 (LRFD) c  2.00 (ASD) EIeff = effective stiffness of composite section,

N-mm2
1. When Pe ≥ 0.44 Po EIeff  Es I s  0.5Es I sr  C1 Ec I c
(509.2-6)
  P0  
  where
Pn  P0 0.658  e  
 P 
(509.2-2)
   As 
C 1  0 . 1  2    0 . 3 (509.2-7)
A
 c  A s 
2. When Pe <0.44Po
Pn  0.877Pe (509.2-3) 509.2.1.1c Tensile Strength
The design tensile strength, t Pn , and allowable tensile
where
strength, Pn  t , for encased composite columns shall be
Po  As Fy  Asr Fyr  0.85Ac f c' (509.2-4) determined for the limit state of yielding as
Pn  A s F y  A sr F yr
 
(509.2-8)
Pe   2 EIeff KL2 (509.2-5)
t  0.90 LRFD t  1.67  ASD
509.2.1.1d Shear Strength

The available shear strength shall be calculated based on
either the shear strength of the steel section alone as
specified in Section 507 plus the shear strength provided by
tie reinforcement, if present, or the shear strength of the
reinforced concrete portion alone.

User Note: The nominal shear strength of tie reinforcement encased composite column above and below the load
may be determined as Ast F yr d s  where Ast is the area transfer region. The maximum connector spacing shall be
405mm.
of tie reinforcement, d is the effective depth of the
concrete section, and s is the spacing of the tie Connectors to transfer axial load shall be placed on at least
reinforcement. The shear capacity of reinforced concrete two faces of the steel shape in a configuration symmetrical
may be determined according to ACI 318, Chapter 11. about the steel shape axes.
509.2.1.1e Load Transfer If the composite cross section is built up from two or
Loads applied to axially loaded encased composite columns more encased steel shapes, the shapes shall be
shall be transferred between the steel and concrete in interconnected with lacing, tie plates, batten plates or similar
accordance with the following requirements: components to prevent buckling of individual shapes due to
1. When the external force is applied directly to the steel loads applied prior to hardening of the concrete.
section, shear connectors shall be provided to transfer
the required shear force, V', as follows: 509.2.1.1g Strength of Stud Shear Connectors
The nominal strength of one stud shear connector embedded

V '  V 1  As Fy Po  (509.2-9) in solid concrete is:
where Qn  0.5Asc f c' Ec  Asc Fu (509.2-12)

V = required shear force introduced to column, N. where
As = area of steel cross section, mm2
Po = nominal axial compressive strength without Asc = cross-sectional area of stud shear connector, mm2
consideration of length effects, N. Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of a stud
shear connector, MPa.
2. When the external force is applied directly to the
concrete encasement, shear connectors shall be provided 509.2.2 Filled Composite Columns
to transfer the required shear force, V', as follows:

V '  V As F y Po  (509.2-10)
509.2.2a Limitations
To qualify as a filled composite column the following
3. When load is applied to the concrete of an encased limitations shall be met:
composite column by direct bearing the design bearing
strength,  B Pp , and the allowable bearing strength, The cross-sectional area of the steel HSS shall comprise at
least 1 percent of
Pp  B , of the concrete shall be:
1. The total composite cross section.
Pp = 1.7f' c AB (509.2-11) 2. The maximum b/t ratio for a rectangular HSS used as
 B  0.65 LRFD  B  2.31 ASD a composite column shall be equal to
2.26 E F y .Higher ratios are permitted when their
where
use is justified by testing or analysis.
AB = loaded area of concrete, mm2
3. The maximum D/ t ratio for a round HSS filled with
509.2.1.1f Detailing Requirements concrete shall be 0.15 E F y . Higher ratios are
At least four continuous longitudinal reinforcing bars shall permitted when their use is justified by testing or
be used in encased composite columns. Transverse analysis.
reinforcement shall be spaced at the smallest of 16
longitudinal bar diameters, 48 tie bar diameters or 0.5 509.2.2b Compressive Strength
times the least dimension of the composite section. The The design compressive strength, c Pn , and allowable
encasement shall provide at least 38 mm of clear cover
to the reinforcing steel. compressive strength, Pn  c , for axially loaded filled
composite columns shall be determined for the limit state of
Shear connectors shall be provided to transfer the flexural buckling based on Section 509.2. 1b with the
required shear force specified in Section 509.2. 1e. The following modifications:
shear connectors shall be distributed along the length of the
member at least a distance of 2.5 times the depth of the Po  As Fy  Asr Fyr  C2 Ac f c' (509.2-13)

C2 = 0.85 for rectangular sections and 0.95 for member at least a distance of 2.5 times the width of a
circular sections rectangular HSS or 2.5 times the diameter of a round HSS
both above and below the load transfer region. The maximum
EI eff  E s I s  E s I sr  C 3 E c I c (509.2-14) connector spacing shall be 405mm.
 As  509.3 Flexural Members

C3  0.6  2   0.9
 (509.2-15)
 Ac  As  509.3.1 General
509.2.2c. Tensile Strength 509.3.1a Effective Width

The design tensile strength, t Pn , and allowable tensile The effective width of the concrete slab is the sum of the
effective widths for each side of the beam centerline, each
strength, Pn  t , for filled composite columns shall be
of which shall not exceed:
determined for the limit state of yielding as:
1. one-eighth of the beam span, center-to-center of
Pn  As Fy  Asr Fyr (509.2-16) supports;
2. one-half the distance to the centerline of the adjacent
t  0.90 LRFD t  1.67  ASD beam; or
3. the distance to the edge of the slab.
509.2.2d Shear Strength
The available shear strength shall be calculated based on 509.3.1b Shear Strength
either the shear strength of the steel section alone as
specified in Section 507 or the shear strength of the The available shear strength of composite beams with shear
reinforced concrete portion alone. connectors shall be determined based upon the properties of
the steel section alone in accordance with Section 507. The
available shear strength of concrete-encased and filled
User Note: The shear strength of reinforced concrete may
composite members shall be determined based upon the
be determined by ACI 318, Chapter 11.
properties of the steel section alone in accordance with
Section 507 or based upon the properties of the concrete and
509.2.2e Load Transfer
longitudinal steel reinforcement.
Loads applied to filled composite columns shall be transferred
between the steel and concrete. When the external force is User Note: The shear strength of the reinforced concrete
applied either to the steel section or to the concrete infill, may be determined in accordance with ACI 318, Chapter
transfer of force from the steel section to the concrete core 11.
is required from direct bond interaction, shear connection or
direct bearing. The force transfer mechanism providing the 509.3.1c Strength During Construction
largest nominal strength may be used. These force transfer
mechanisms shall not be superimposed. When temporary shores are not used during construction,
the steel section alone shall have adequate strength to
support all loads applied prior to the concrete attaining 75
When load is applied to the concrete of an encased or filled
composite column by direct bearing the design bearing percent of its specified strength f c' .The available flexural
strength,  B P p , and the allowable bearing strength, strength of the steel section shall be determined according
to Section 506.
Pp  B of the concrete shall be:
509.3.2 Strength of Composite Beams with
Pp  1.7 f c' AB (509.2-17) Shear Connectors
 B  0.65 LRFD  B  2.31 ASD

509.3.2a Positive Flexural Strength
The design positive flexural strength, b M n , and the
where
allowable positive flexural strength, M n b , shall be
AB = the loaded area, mm2 determined for the limit state of yielding as follows:
509.2.2f Detailing Requirements b  0.90 LRFD b  1.67  ASD
Where required, shear connectors transferring the required
shear force shall be distributed along the length of the 1. For h t w  3 .76 E F y ,

Mn shall be determined from the plastic stress distribution with welded stud shear connectors 19 mm or less in
on the composite section for the limit state of yielding diameter (AWS D1.1). Studs shall be welded either
(plastic moment). through the deck or directly to the steel cross section. Stud
shear connectors, after installation, shall extend not less
User Note: All current ASTM A6 W, S and HP shapes than 38 mm above the top of the steel deck and there
satisfy the limit given In Section 509.3.2a(a) for F y  shall be at least 13 mm of concrete cover above the top
of the installed studs.
345 MPa.
c. The slab thickness above the steel deck shall be not less
2. For h tw  3.76 E Fy , than 50 mm.
Mn shall be determined from the superposition of elastic d. Steel deck shall be anchored to all supporting members
stresses, considering the effects of shoring, for the limit at a spacing not to exceed 460 mm. Such anchorage
state of yielding (yield moment). shall be provided by stud connectors, a combination
of stud connectors and arc spot (puddle) welds, or
509.3.2b Negative Flexural Strength other devices specified by the designer.
The design negative flexural strength, b M n , and the 2. Deck Ribs Oriented Perpendicular to Steel Beam
Concrete below the top of the steel deck shall be
allowable negative flexural strength, M n b , shall be
neglected in determining composite section properties
determined for the steel section alone, in accordance with and in calculating Ac for deck ribs oriented per-
the requirements of Section 506. pendicular to the steel beams.
Alternatively, the available negative flexural strength shall be 3. Deck Ribs Oriented Parallel to Steel Beam Concrete
determined from the plastic stress distribution on the below the top of the steel deck may be included in
composite section, for the limit state of yielding (plastic determining composite section properties and shall be
moment), with included in calculating Ac.
b  0.90 LRFD b  1.67  ASD 4. Formed steel deck ribs over supporting beams may be
split longitudinally and separated to form a concrete
provided that: haunch.
1. The steel beam is compact and is adequately braced When the nominal depth of steel deck is 38 mm or greater,
according to Section 506.
the average width, wr of the supported haunch or rib shall
2. Shear connectors connect the slab to the steel beam in be not less than 50 mm for the first stud in the transverse
the negative moment region. row plus four stud diameters for each additional stud.
3. The slab reinforcement parallel to the steel beam,
within the effective width of the slab, is properly 509.3.2d. Shear Connectors
developed. 1. Load Transfer for Positive Moment
The entire horizontal shear at the interface between the steel
beam and the concrete slab shall be assumed to be transferred
509.3.2c Strength of Composite Beams with by shear connectors, except for concrete-encased beams as
Formed Steel Deck defined in Section 509.3.3. For composite action with
concrete subject to flexural compression, the total horizontal
1. General
shear force, V ' , between the point of maximum positive
The available flexural strength of composite construction moment and the point of zero moment shall be taken as the
consisting of concrete slabs on formed steel deck lowest value according to the limit states of concrete crushing,
connected to steel beams shall be determined by the tensile yielding of the steel section, or strength of the shear
applicable portions of Section 509.3.2a and 509.3.2b, with connectors:
the following requirements:
a. Concrete crushing
a. This section is applicable to decks with nominal rib
height not greater than 75 mm. The average width of V '  0.85 f c' Ac (509.3-1a)
concrete rib or haunch, w r shall be not less than 50 b. Tensile yielding of the steel section
mm, but shall not be taken in calculations as more than
the minimum clear width near the top of the steel deck. V '  F y As (509.3-1b)
b. The concrete slab shall be connected to the steel beam c. Strength of shear connectors

V '  Qn (509.3-1c) steel deck with the deck oriented parallel to the
steel shape and the ratio of the average rib width
where to rib depth ≥ 1.5
= 0.85; (a) for two studs welded in a steel deck rib
Ac = area of concrete slab within effective width,
with the deck oriented perpendicular to the steel
mm2
shape; (b) for one stud welded through steel
As = area of steel cross section, mm2
deck with the deck oriented parallel to
ΣQn = sum of nominal strengths of shear connectors the steel shape and the ratio of the average rib
between the point of maximum positive moment width to rib depth <1.5
and the point of zero moment, N. = 0.7 for three or more studs welded in a steel deck
2. Load Transfer for Negative Moment rib with the deck oriented perpendicular to the
In continuous composite beams where longitudinal steel shape
reinforcing steel in the negative moment regions is Rp = 1.0 for studs welded directly to the steel shape
considered to act compositely with the steel beam, the total (in other words, not through steel deck or sheet)
horizontal shear force between the point of maximum and having a haunch detail with not more
negative moment and the point of zero moment shall be than 50 percent of the top flange covered
taken as the lower value according to the limit states of by deck or sheet steel closures
yielding of the steel reinforcement in the slab, or strength of = 0.75; (a) for studs welded in a composite slab with
the shear connectors: the deck oriented perpendicular to the beam
and emidht  2 in. (50 mm); (b) for studs
a. Tensile yielding of the slab reinforcement
welded through steel deck, or steel sheet
V '  Ar F yr (509.3-2a) used as girder filler material, and embedded in a
composite slab with the deck oriented parallel to
where the beam
= 0.6 for studs welded in a composite slab with
Ar = area of adequately developed longitudinal deck oriented perpendicular to the beam and
reinforcing steel within the effective width of the
e mid  ht  in. (50 mm)
concrete slab, mm2
Fyr = specified minimum yield stress of the reinforcing emid-ht = distance from the edge of stud shank to the steel
steel, MPa. deck web, mea¬ mea¬sured at mid-height of the
deck rib, and in the load bearing direction of the
a. Strength of shear connectors stud (in other words, in the direction of
maximum moment for a simply supported
V '   Qn (509.3-2b)
beam), mm.
wc = weight of concrete per unit volume (1500 ≤ wc ≤
2500kg/m³.
3. Strength of Stud Shear Connectors
The nominal strength of one stud shear connector embedded
in solid concrete or in a composite slab is
Qn  0.5 Asc f c' E c  R g R p Asc Fu (509.3-3)
where
Asc = cross-sectional area of stud shear connector,
mm2
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete =
 0 .043 w 1 .5 f ' , Mpa 
 c c 
 
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of a stud
shear connector, MPa.
Rg = 1.0 ; (a) for one stud welded in a steel deck rib with
the deck oriented perpendicular to the steel
shape; (b) for any number of studs
welded in a row directly to the steel shape; (c) for
any number of studs welded in a row through

User Note: The table below presents values for R g and horizontal shear force as determined in Sections 509.3.2d(1)
R p for several cases and 509.3.2d(2) divided by the nominal strength of one
shear connector as determined from Section 509.3.2d(3) or
Condition Rg Rp Section 509.3.2d(4).
No Decking* 1.0 1.0 7. Shear Connector Placement and Spacing
Decking oriented parallel to the Shear connectors required on each side of the point of
steel shape maximum bending moment, positive or negative, shall be
wr/hr ≥ 1.5 1.0 0.75 distributed uniformly between that point and the adjacent
wr/hr < 1.5 0.85** 0.75 points of zero moment, unless otherwise specified.
Decking oriented perpendicular However, the number of shear connectors placed between
to the steel shape any concentrated load and the nearest point of zero moment
Number of studs occupying the shall be sufficient to develop the maximum moment required
same decking rib at the concentrated load point.
1 1.0 0.6†
2 0.85 0.6† Shear connectors shall have at least 25 mm of lateral
3 or more 0.70 0.6† concrete cover, except for connectors installed in the ribs of
formed steel decks. The diameter of studs shall not be
greater than 2.5 times the thickness of the flange to which
they are welded, unless located over the web. The minimum
hr = nominal rib height, mm center-to-center spacing of stud connectors shall be six
wr = average width of concrete rib or haunch diameters along the longitudinal axis of the supporting
as defined Section 509.1.3c,mm composite beam and four diameters transverse to the lon-
*To qualify as “no decking,” stud shear gitudinal axis of the supporting composite beam, except that
connectors shall be welded directly to the within the ribs of formed steel decks oriented perpendicular
steel shape and no more than 50 percent of to the steel beam the minimum center-to-center spacing
the top flange of the steel shape maybe shall be four diameters in any direction. The maximum
covered by decking or steel sheet, such as center-to-center spacing of shear connectors shall not
girder filler material. exceed eight times the total slab thickness.
** for a single stud
† this value maybe increased to 0.75 when e mid-ht 503.3 Flexural Strength of Concrete-Encased and Filled
≥ 50 mm Members
The nominal flexural strength of concrete-encased and filled
5. Strength of Channel Shear Connectors members shall be determined using one of the following
The nominal strength of one channel shear connector methods:
embedded in a solid concrete slab is a. The superposition of elastic stresses on the composite
 
Qn  0.3 t f  0.5t w Lc f c' Ec (509.3-4)
section, considering the effects of shoring, for the limit
state of yielding (yield moment),
where where
tf = flange thickness of channel shear connector, mm. b  0.90 LRFD b  1.67  ASD
tw = web thickness of channel shear connector,
mm. b. The plastic stress distribution on the steel section alone,
Lc = length of channel shear connector, mm. for the limit state of yielding (plastic moment), where
The strength of the channel shear connector shall be developed

b  0.90 LRFD b  1.67  ASD
by welding the channel to the beam flange for a force equal c. If shear connectors are provided and the concrete
to Qn , considering eccentricity on the connector. meets the requirements of Section 509.1.2, the
nominal flexural strength shall be computed based upon
the plastic stress distribution on the composite section
or from the strain-compatibility method,
6. Required Number of Shear Connectors where
The number of shear connectors required between the section
of maximum bending moment, positive or negative, and the b  0.85 LRFD b  1.76  ASD
adjacent section of zero moment shall be equal to the

509.4 Combined Axial Force and Flexure SECTION 510 - DESIGN OF

The interaction between axial forces and flexure in
composite members shall account for stability as required
CONNECTIONS
by Section 503. The design compressive strength, c Pn , and This Section addresses connecting elements, connectors,
allowable compressive strength, Pn c , and the design and the affected elements of the connected members not
subject to fatigue loads.
flexural strength, b M n , and allowable flexural strength,
Mn b , are determined as follows: The Section is organized as follows:
c  0.75 LRFD c  2.00  ASD 510.1 General Provisions

510.2 Welds
b  0.90 LRFD b  1.67  ASD 510.3 Bolts and Threaded Parts
510.4 Affected Elements of Members and Connecting
1. The nominal strength of the cross section of a composite Elements
member subjected to combined axial compression and 510.5 Fillers
flexure shall be determined using either the plastic 510.6 Splices
stress distribution method or the strain-compatibility 510.7 Bearing Strength
method. 510.8 Column Bases and Bearing on Concrete
2. To account for the influence of length effects on the 510.9 Anchor Rods and Embedments
axial strength of the member, the nominal axial 510.10 Flanges and Webs with Concentrated Forces
strength of the member shall be determined by Section
509.2 with Po taken as the nominal axial strength of the User Note: For cases not included in this Section, the
cross section determined in Section 509.4 (1) above. following sections apply:
509.5 Special Cases  Section 511. Design of HSS and Box Member
When composite construction does not conform to the Connections
requirements of Section 509.1 through Section 509.4, the  Appendix A-3. Design for Fatigue
strength of shear connectors and details of construction shall
be established by testing. 510.1 General Provisions
510.1.1 Design Basis

The design strength, Rn , and the allowable strength
Rn  of connections shall be determined in accordance
with the provisions of this Section and the provisions of
Section 502 .
The required strength of the connections shall be determined

by structural analysis for the specified design loads,
consistent with the type of construction specified, or shall be
a proportion of the required strength of the connected
members when so specified herein.
Where the gravity axes of intersecting axially loaded

members do not intersect at one point, the effects of
eccentricity shall be considered.
510.1.2 Simple Connections

Simple connections of beams, girders, or trusses shall be
designed as flexible and are permitted to be proportioned for
the reaction shears only, except as otherwise indicated in the
design documents. Flexible beam connections shall
accommodate end rotations of simple beams. Some inelastic,
but self-limiting deformation in the connection is permitted
to accommodate the end rotation of a simple beam.

510.1.3 Moment Connections 510.1.6 Beam Copes and Weld Access Holes
End connections of restrained beams, girders, and trusses All weld access holes required to facilitate welding
shall be designed for the combined effect of forces resulting operations shall have a length from the toe of the weld
from moment and shear induced by the rigidity of the preparation not less than 11/2 times the thickness of the material
connections. Response criteria for moment connections are in which the hole is made. The height of the access hole shall be
provided in Section 502.3.6b. 11/2 times the thickness of the material with the access hole, t w ,
but not less than 25 mm nor does it need to exceed 50 mm.
User Note: See Section 503 and Appendix A-7 for analysis The access hole shall be detailed to provide room for weld
requirements to establish the required strength and stiffness backing as needed.
for design of connections.
For sections that are rolled or welded prior to cutting, the
510.1.4 Compression Members with Bearing Joints edge of the web shall be sloped or curved from the surface
1. When columns bear on bearing plates or are finished to of the flange to the reentrant surface of the access hole. In
bear at splices, there shall be sufficient connectors to hot-rolled shapes, and built-up shapes with CJP groove
hold all parts securely in place. welds that join the web-to-flange, all beam copes and weld
access holes shall be free of notches and sharp reentrant
2. When compression members other than columns are corners. No arc of the weld access hole shall have a radius
finished to bear, the splice material and its connectors less than 10 mm.
shall be arranged to hold all parts in line and shall be
proportioned for either (i) or (ii) below. It is permissible In built-up shapes with fillet or partial-joint-penetration
to use the less severe of the two conditions: groove welds that join the web-to-flange, all beam copes
a. An axial tensile force of 50 percent of the required and weld access holes shall be free of notches and sharp
compressive strength of the member; or reentrant corners. The access hole shall be permitted to
terminate perpendicular to the flange, providing the weld is
b. The moment and shear resulting from a transverse load terminated at least a distance equal to the weld size away
equal to 2 percent of the required compressive strength from the access hole.
of the member. The transverse load shall be applied at the
location of the splice exclusive of other loads that act on For heavy sections as defined in 501.3.1c and 501.3.1d, the
the member. The member shall be taken as pinned for the thermally cut surfaces of beam copes and weld access holes
determination of the shears and moments at the splice. shall be ground to bright metal and inspected by either
magnetic particle or dye penetrant methods prior to deposition
User Note: All compression joints should also be of splice welds. If the curved transition portion of weld
proportioned to resist any tension developed by the load access holes and beam copes are formed by predrilled or
combinations stipulated in Section 502.2. sawed holes, that portion of the access hole or cope need not
be ground. Weld access holes and beam copes in other shapes
510.1.5 Splices in Heavy Sections need not be ground nor inspected by dye penetrant or
When tensile forces due to applied tension or flexure are to magnetic particle methods.
be transmitted through splices in heavy sections, as defined
in Section 501.3.1c and 501.3.1d,by complete joint- 510.1.7 Placement of Welds and Bolts
penetration groove (CJP) welds, material notch-toughness Groups of welds or bolts at the ends of any member which
requirements as given in Section 501.3.1c and 501.3. 1d, transmit axial force into that member shall be sized so that
weld access hole details as given in Section 510.1.6 and the center of gravity of the group coincides with the center
thermal cut surface preparation and inspection requirements of gravity of the member, unless provision is made for the
as given in 513.2.2 shall apply. The foregoing provision is not eccentricity. The foregoing provision is not applicable to end
applicable to splices of elements of built-up shapes that are connections of statically loaded single angle, double angle,
welded prior to assembling the shape. and similar members.
510.1.8 Bolts in Combination with Welds

User Note: CJP groove welded splices of heavy sections
can exhibit detrimental effects of weld shrinkage. Members Bolts shall not be considered as sharing the load in
that are sized for compression that are also subject to tensile combination with welds, except that shear connections with
forces may be less susceptible to damage from shrinkage if any grade of bolts permitted by Section 501.3.3 installed in
they are spliced using PJP groove welds on the flanges and standard holes or short slots transverse to the direction of the
fillet-welded web plates or using bolts for some or all of load are permitted to be considered to share the load with
the splice. longitudinally loaded fillet welds. In such connections the
available strength of the bolts shall not be taken as greater than

50 percent of the available strength of bearing-type bolts in

510.2 Welds
the connection.
All provisions of AWS D1.1 apply under this Specification,
In making welded alterations to structures, existing rivets and with the exception that the provisions of the listed NSCP
high strength bolts tightened to the requirements for slip- Specification Sections apply under this Specification in lieu
critical connections are permitted to beutilized for carrying of the cited AWS provisions as follows:
loads present at the time of alteration and the welding
need only provide the additional required strength. NSCP Steel and Metals Section 510.1.6 in lieu of AWS D1.1
Section 5.17.1
510.1.9 High-Strength Bolts in Combination NSCP Steel and Metals Section 510.2.2a in lieu of AWS
with Rivets D1.1 Section 2.3.2
NSCP Steel and Metals Table 510.2.2 in lieu of AWS D1.1
In both new work and alterations, in connections designed Table 2.1
as slip-critical connections in accordance with the NSCP Steel and Metals Table 510.2.5 in lieu of AWS D1.1
provisions of Section 510.3, high-strength bolts are Table 2.3
permitted to be considered as sharing the load with existing NSCP Steel and Metals Appendix A-3, Table A-3.1 in lieu of
rivets.
AWS D1. 1 Table 2.4
NSCP Steel and Metals Section 502.3.9 and Appendix A-
510.1.10 Limitations on Bolted and Welded 3 in lieu of AWS D1.1 Section 2, Part C
Connections NSCP Steel and Metals Section 513.2 in lieu of AWS D1.1
Pretensioned joints, slip-critical joints or welds shall be Sections 5. 15.4.3 and 5.15.4.4
used for the following connections:
1. Column splices in all multi-story structures over 38 m 510.2.1 Groove Welds
in height.
510.2.1a Effective Area
2. Connections of all beams and girders to columns and The effective area of groove welds shall be considered as
any other beams and girders on which the bracing of the length of the weld times the effective throat thickness.
columns is dependent in structures over 38 m in height
3. In all structures carrying cranes of over 50 kN capacity: The effective throat thickness of a partial-joint-penetration
roof truss splices and connections of trusses to (PJP) groove weld shall be as shown in Table 510.2.1.
columns, column splices, column bracing, knee braces,
and crane supports User Note: The effective throat size of a partial-joint-
penetration groove weld is dependent on the process used
4. Connections for the support of machinery and other live
and the weld position. The contract documents should either
loads that produce impact or reversal of load
indicate the effective throat required or the weld strength
required, and the fabricator should detail the joint based on
Snug-tightened joints or joints with ASTM A307 bolts shall the weld process and position to be used to weld the joint.
be permitted except where otherwise specified.
The effective weld size for flare groove welds, when filled
flush to the surface of a round bar, a 90◦ bend in a formed
section, or rectangular HSS shall be as shown in Table
510.2.2, unless other effective throats are demonstrated by
tests. The effective size of flare groove welds filled less
than flush shall be as shown in Table 510.2.2, less the
greatest perpendicular dimension measured from a line flush
to the base metal surface to the weld surface.

Table 510.2.2
Table 510.2.1 Effective Weld Sizes of Flare Groove
Effective Throat of Partial-Joint- Welds
PenetrationGroove Welds Welding
Flare Bevel Groove[a] Flare V Groove
Process
Welding Groove
Position
Type GMAW and
F (flat), H Effective 5/8 R 3/4 R
Welding Process (AWS FCAW-G
(horiz.), Throat
D1.1,
V(vert.), Figure SMAW and
OH (overhead)
3.3) 5/16 R 5/8 R
FCAW-S
Shielded Metal Arc All SAW 5/16R ½R
(SMAW)
[a]
Gas Metal Arc J or U For Flare Bevel Groove with R< 10 mm use
(GMAW) Flux All Groove only reinforcing fillet weld on filled flush
Depth of
Cored Arc 60◦ V joint. General Note: R= radius of joint surface
Groove
(FCAW) (can be assumed to be 2t for HSS), mm
F J or U
Submerged Arc
Groove 60◦
(SAW)
Bevel or V Table 510.2.3
Gas Metal Arc Minimum Effective Throat Thickness of
(GMAW) Flux F, H 45
Cored Arc
Depth of Partial-Joint-Penetration Groove Welds
Bevel Groove
(FCAW) Material Thickness of Minimum Effective
Depth of Thinner Part Joined, mm Throat Thickness,[a] mm.
Shielded Metal Arc All 45 Groove
(SMAW) Bevel Minus 3 To 6 inclusive 3
mm Over 6 to 13 5
Over 13 to 19 6
Gas Metal Arc
(GMAW) Flux
V, OH 45 Depth of Over 19 to 38 8
Groove Over 38 to 57 10
Cored Arc Bevel Minus 3 mm Over 57 to 150 13
(FCAW)
Over 150 16
[a]
See Table 510.2.1.
Table 510.2.4
Minimum Size of Fillet Welds
Material Thickness of Minimum size of Fillet
Thinner Part Joined, mm weld,[a] mm.
To 6 inclusive 3
Over 6 to 13 5
Over 13 to 19 6
Over 19 8
[a]
Leg Dimension of fillet welds. Single pass welds must
be used.
Note: See Section 510.2.2b for maximum size of fillet
welds.

Larger effective throat thicknesses than those in Table 510.2.2 The minimum effective length of fillet welds designed on
are permitted, provided the fabricator can establish by the basis of strength shall be not less than four times the
qualification the consistent production of such larger effective nominal size, or else the size of the weld shall be considered
throat thicknesses. Qualification shall consist of sectioning not to exceed 1/4 of its effective length. If longitudinal fillet
the weld normal to its axis, at mid-length and terminal ends. welds are used alone in end connections of flat-bar tension
Such sectioning shall be made on a number of combinations members, the length of each fillet weld shall be not less than
of material sizes representative of the range to be used in the the perpendicular distance between them. For the effect of
fabrication. longitudinal fillet weld length in end connections upon the
effective area of the connected member, see Section 504.3.3.
510.2.1b Limitations
The minimum effective throat thickness of a partial-joint- For end-loaded fillet welds with a length up to 100 times the
penetration groove weld shall not be less than the size required leg dimension, it is permitted to take the effective length
to transmit calculated forces nor the size shown in Table equal to the actual length. When the length of the end-loaded
510.2.3. Minimum weld size is determined by the thinner of fillet weld exceeds 100 times the weld size, the effective
the two parts joined. length shall be determined by multiplying the actual length
by the reduction factor, β,
510.2.2 Fillet Welds
  1.2  0.002L w  1.0 (510.2-1)
510.2.2a Effective Area where
The effective area of a fillet weld shall be the effective length
L = actual length of end-loaded weld, mm.
multiplied by the effective throat. The effective throat of a
w = weld leg size, mm.
fillet weld shall be the shortest distance from the root to the
face of the diagrammatic weld. An increase in effective throat
When the length of the weld exceeds 300 times the leg size,
is permitted if consistent penetration beyond the root of the
diagrammatic weld is demonstrated by tests using the the value of β shall be taken as 0.60.
production process and procedure variables.
Intermittent fillet welds are permitted to be used to transfer
For fillet welds in holes and slots, the effective length calculated stress across a joint or faying surfaces when the
shall be the length of the centerline of the weld along the required strength is less than that developed by a continuous
center of the plane through the throat. In the case of fillet weld of the smallest permitted size, and to join
overlapping fillets, the effective area shall not exceed the components of built-up members. The effective length of any
nominal cross-sectional area of the hole or slot, in the plane segment of intermittent fillet welding shall be not less than
of the faying surface. four times the weld size, with a minimum of 38mm.
510.2.2b Limitations In lap joints, the minimum amount of lap shall be five
times the thickness of the thinner part joined, but not less
The minimum size of fillet welds shall be not less than the than 25 mm. Lap joints joining plates or bars subjected to
size required to transmit calculated forces, nor the size as axial stress that utilize transverse fillet welds only shall be
shown in Table 510.2.4. These provisions do not apply to fillet welded along the end of both lapped parts, except where
fillet weld reinforcements of partial- or complete-joint- the deflection of the lapped parts is sufficiently restrained to
penetration groove welds. prevent opening of the joint under maximum loading.
The maximum size of fillet welds of connected parts shall Fillet weld terminations are permitted to be stopped short or
be: extend to the ends or sides of parts or be boxed except as
1. Along edges of material less than 6 mm thick, not limited by the following:
greater than the thickness of the material. 1. For lap joints in which one connected part extends beyond
2. Along edges of material 6 mm or more in thickness, an edge of another connected part that is subject to
not greater than the thickness of the material minus calculated tensile stress, fillet welds shall terminate not
2 mm, unless the weld is especially designated on the less than the size of the weld from that edge.
drawings to be built out to obtain full-throat thickness. In 2. For connections where flexibility of the outstanding
the as-welded condition, the distance between the edge elements is required, when end returns are used, the
of the base metal and the toe of the weld is permitted to be length of the return shall not exceed four times the
less than 2 mm provided the weld size is clearly nominal size of the weld nor half the width of the part.
verifiable.
3. Fillet welds joining transverse stiffeners to plate girder
webs 19 mm thick or less shall end not less than four

times nor more than six times the thickness of the web The thickness of plug or slot welds in material mm or less in
from the web toe of the web-to-flange welds, except thickness shall be equal to the thickness of the material. In
where the ends of stiffeners are welded to the flange. material over 16 mm thick, the thickness of the weld shall be
at least one-half the thickness of the material but not less
4. Fillet welds that occur on opposite sides of a common
than 16 mm.
plane, shall be interrupted at the corner common to both
welds.
510.2.4 Strength
User Note: Fillet weld terminations should be located The design strength,  Rn and the allowable strength,
approximately one weld size from of the edge of the Rn  , of welds shall be the lower value of the base material
connection to minimize notches in the base metal. Fillet
welds terminated at the end of the joint, other than those and the weld metal strength determined according to the limit
connecting stiffeners to girder webs, are not a cause for states of tensile rupture, shear rupture or yielding as
correction. follows:
Fillet welds in holes or slots are permitted to be used to For the base metal
transmit shear in lap joints or to prevent the buckling or Rn  FBM ABM (510.2-2)
separation of lapped parts and to join components of built-up
members. Such fillet welds may overlap, subject to the For the weld metal
provisions of Section 510.2. Fillet welds in holes or slots are
not to be considered plug or slot welds. Rn  Fw Aw (510.2-3)
510.2.3 Plug and Slot Welds where

FBM = nominal strength of the base metal per unit area,
510.2.3a Effective Area MPa
The effective shearing area of plug and slot welds shall be Fw = nominal strength of the weld metal per unit
considered as the nominal cross-sectional area of the hole or area, MPa
slot in the plane of the faying surface. ABM = c r os s- se ct ion al are a of t he bas e me t al ,
mm 2
510.2.3b Limitations Aw = effective area of the weld, mm2
Plug or slot welds are permitted to be used to transmit shear
in lap joints or to prevent buckling of lapped parts and to join The values of , , FBM , Fw and limitations thereon are
component parts of built-up members. given in Table 510.2.5.
The diameter of the holes for a plug weld shall not be less
than the thickness of the part containing it plus 8 mm, rounded Alternatively, for fillet welds loaded in-plane the design
to the next larger mm, nor greater than the minimum diameter Rn  , of welds is
plus 3 mm or 21/4 times the thickness of the weld. strength,  Rn and the allowable strength,
permitted to be determined as follows:
The minimum center-to-center spacing of plug welds shall
be four times the diameter of the hole.   0.75 LRFD   2.00  ASD
1. For a linear weld group loaded in-plane through the
The length of slot for a slot weld shall not exceed 10 center of gravity
times the thickness of the weld. The width of the slot shall be
not less than the thickness of the part containing it plus 8 mm Rn  Fw Aw (510.2-4)
rounded to the next larger mm, nor shall it be larger than 21/4
times the thickness of the weld. The ends of the slot shall be
semicircular or shall have the corners rounded to a radius of not where
less than the thickness of the part containing it, except those
ends which extend to the edge of the part. 
Fw  0.60FEXX 1.0  0.50 sin 1.5   (510.2-5)
and
The minimum spacing of lines of slot welds in a direction
transverse to their length shall be four times the width of the FEXX = electrode classification number, MPa.
slot. The minimum center-to-center spacing in a longitudinal θ = angle of loading measured from the weld
direction on any line shall be two times the length of the slot. longitudinal axis, degrees
Aw = effective area of the weld, mm2

User Note: A linear weld group is one in which all Rwt = the total nominal strength of transversely loaded
elements are in a line or are parallel. fillet welds, as determined in accordance with
Table 510.2.5 without the alternate in Section
2. For weld elements within a weld group that are loaded
510.2.4(a), N.
in-plane and analyzed using an instantaneous center of
rotation method, the components of the nominal
510.2.5 Combination of Welds
strength, Rnx and Rny , are permitted to be determined
If two or more of the general types of welds (groove, fillet,
as follows: plug, slot) are combined in a single joint, the strength of each
Rnx   Fwix Awi shall be separately computed with reference to the axis of the
R ny   Fwiy Awi (510.2-6)
group in order to determine the strength of the combination.
where
510.2.6 Filler Metal Requirements
Awi = effective area of weld throat of any i th weld The choice of electrode for use with comlete-joint-
element, mm2 penetration groove welds subject to tension normal to the
F wi  
 0 . 60 F EXX 1 . 0  0 . 50 sin 1 .5  f  p  (510.2-7) effective area shall comply with the requirements for
f p    p 1 . 9
 0 . 9 p  0 .3
(510.2-8) matching filler metals given in AWS D1.1
Fwi = nominal stress in any ith weld element, MPa.
User Note: The following User Note Table summarizes
F wix = x component of stress, Fwi the AWS D1. 1 provisions for matching filler metals.
F wiy = y component of stress, Fwi Other restrictions exist. For a complete list of base metals
p = Δi / Δm , ratio of element i deformation to its and prequalified matching filler metals see AWS
deformation at maximum stress D1.1, Table 3.1.
w = weld leg size, mm. Base Metal Matching Filler Metal
rcrit = distance from instantaneous center of rotation to 3
A36 ≤ /4 in. thick 60 & 70 ksi Electrodes
weld element with minimum u ri ratio, mm.
Δi = deformation of weld elements at intermediate A36 >3/4 in.A572 (Gr. 50 &55) SMAW: E7015, E7016, E7018,
A913 (Gr. 50) E7028
stress levels, linearly proportioned to the A588∗ A992 Other processes: 70 ksi
critical deformation based on distance A1011 A1018 electrodes
from the instantaneous center of rotation, ri ,
A91 3 (Gr. 60 & 65) 80 ksi electrodes
mm.
 m  0 . 209   2  0 . 32 w , deformation of
∗For corrosion resistance and color similar to the base see AWS
weld element at maximum stress, in. (mm) D1 .1, Sect. 3.7.3 Notes:
Δu = 1. 087(0 + 6) −0.65 w ≤ 0. 17w , deformation of 1. Electrodes shall meet the requirements of AWS A5.1, A5.5, A5.17,
A5.18, A5.20, A5.23, A5.28 and A5.29.
weld element at ultimate stress (fracture), 2. In joints with base metals of different strengths use either a filler metal
usually in element furthest from instantaneous that matches the higher strength base metal or a filler metal that matches
the lower strength and produces a low hydrogen deposit.
center of rotation, mm.
1. For fillet weld groups concentrically loaded and

consisting of elements that are oriented both
longitudinally and transversely to the direction of
applied load, the combined strength, Rn , of the fillet
weld group shall be determined as the greater of
Rn  Rwl  Rwt (510.2-9a)

or
Rn  0.85Rwl 1.5Rwt (510.2-9b)
where
Rwl = the total nominal strength of longitudinally
loaded fillet welds, as determined in accordance
with Table 510.2.5, N.

Table 510.2.5
Available Strength of Welded Joints, N
Effective Required
Load Type and Nominal
Area Filler
Direction Pertinent
 and Ω Strength
A BM or Aw 
Relative to Metal FBM or Fw  Metal
Strength
Weld Axis mm2
N Level[a][b]
COMPLETE-JOINT-PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS
Matching filler metal shall

Tension Strength of the joint is controlled be used. For T and corner joints with
Normal to weld axis by the base metal backing left in place, notch tough filler
metal is required. See Section 510.2.6.
Filler metal with a strength
level equal to or one
Compression Strength of the joint is controlled
strength level less than
Normal to weld axis by the base metal
matching filler metal is
permitted.
Filler metal with a strength
Tension or Tension or compression in parts joined parallel
level equal to or less than
Compression to a weld need not be considered in design of
Parallel to weld axis welds joining the parts.
permitted.
Strength of the joint is controlled Matching filler metal shall
Shear
by the base metal be used.[c]
PARTIAL-JOINT-PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS INCLUDING FLARE VEE GROOVE
AND FLARE BEVEL GROOVE WELDS
  0.90 Fy See
Base 510.4
Tension   1.67
Normal to weld axis   0.80 0.60FEXX See
Weld
 1.88 510.2.1a
Compression
Column to base
Compressive stress need not be considered in
Plate and column
design of welds joining the parts.
splices designed
per 510.1.4(a)
Compression   0 . 90
See
Connections of
Base
  1.67
Fy 510.4
members designed Filler metal with a strength
to bear other   0 .80 See level equal to or less than
than columns as Weld   1.88
0.60FEXX 510.2.1a
described in 510.1.4(b)
permitted.
  0 . 90
Base
Fy See
Compression   1 . 67 510.4
Connections not
  0 .80 See
finished-to-bear Weld 0.90FEXX
  1 . 88 510.2.1a
Tension or Tension or compression in parts joined parallel
Compression to a weld need not be considered in design of
Base Governed by 510.4
Shear   0.75 0.60FEXX See

Weld
  2.00 510.2.1a


Available Strength of Welded Joints, N
Effective Required
Load Type and Area Filler
 and Ω Nominal Strength
Direction
Relative to Pertinent Fbm or Fw ABM or Aw Metal
Strength
Weld Axis Metal mm2 Level[a][b]
N
FILLET WELDS INCLUDING FILLETS IN HOLES AND SLOTS AND SKEWED T-JOINTS
Base Governed by 510.4
Shear  = 0.75 See
Weld 0 . 60F [d] Filler metal with a strength
 = 2.00 510.2.2a
EXX
level equal to or less than
Tension or Tension or compression in parts joined parallel matching filler metal is
Compression to a weld need not be considered in design of permitted.
PLUG AND SLOT WELDS
Shear Base Governed by 510.4 Filler metal with a strength

Parallel to faying level equal to or less than
surface on the = 0.75 matching filler metal is
Weld 0.60FEXX 510.2.3a
effective area  = 2.00 permitted.
(a) For matching weld metal see AWS D1 .1, Section 3.3.
(b) Filler metal with a strength level one strength level greater than matching is permitted.
(c) Filler metals with a strength level less than matching may be used for groove welds between the webs and flanges of built-up sections transferring shear loads, or in
applications where high restraint is a concern. In these applications, the weld joint shall be detailed and the weld shall be designed using the thickness of the material as the
effective throat,   0.80,   1.88 and 0.60FEXX as the nominal strength.
(d) Alternatively, the provisions of 510.2.4(a) are permitted provided the deformation compatibility of the various weld elements is considered. Alternatively, Sections 510.2.4(b) and
(c) are special applications of 510.2.4(a) that provide for deformation compatibility.
510.2.7 Mixed Weld Metal

When Charpy V-Notch toughness is specified, the process
Filler metal with a specified Charpy V-Notch (CVN) consumables for all weld metal, tack welds, root pass and
toughness of 27 J at 4◦Cshall be used in the following subsequent passes deposited in a joint shall be compatible to
joints: ensure notch-tough composite weld metal.
1. Complete-joint-penetration groove welded T and 510.3 Bolts and Threaded Parts

corner joints with steel backing left in place, subject to
tension normal to the effective area, unless the joints 510.3.1 High-Strength Bolts
are designed using the nominal strength and resistance Use of high-strength bolts shall conform to the provisions of
factor or safety factor as applicable for a PJP weld. the Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325
or A490 Bolts, hereafter referred to as the RCSC
2. Complete-joint-penetration groove welded splices Specification, as approved by the Research Council on
subject to tension normal to the effective area in heavy Structural Connections, except as otherwise provided in this
sections as defined in 501.3. 1c and A3. 1d. Specification.
The manufacturer’s Certificate of Conformance shall be

sufficient evidence of compliance.

Table 510.3.1 Table 510.3.2

Minimum Bolt Pretension, kN∗ Nominal Stress of Fasteners and Threaded Parts,
MPa
A325M
Bolt Size, mm A490M Bolts
Bolts Nominal Shear
M16 91 114 Nominal Stress in
Description of Fasteners Tensile Bearing-Type
M20 142 179
M22 176 221 Stress, Fnt , Connections, Fnv ,
M24 205 257 MPa MPa
M27 267 334 A307 bolts 310 [a][b] 165 [b] [c] [f]
M30 326 408
M36 475 595 620 [e] 330 [f]
A325 or A325M bolts, when
threads are not excluded
∗Equal to 0.70 times the minimum tensile strength of bolts, from shear planes
rounded off to nearest kN,
as specified in ASTM specifications for A325M and A490M
bolts with UNC threads.
620[e] 414[f]
threads are excluded from
shear planes
When assembled, all joint surfaces, including those adjacent
to the washers, shall be free of scale, except tight mill scale.
All ASTM A325 or A325M and A490 or A490M bolts shall 780 [e] 414 [f]
be tightened to a bolt tension not less than that given in threads are not excluded
Table 510.3.1, except as noted below. from shear planes
Except as permitted below, installation shall be assured by
any of the following methods: turn-of-nut method, a direct
tension indicator, calibrated wrench or alternative design 780 [e] 520 [f]
bolt. threads are excluded from
shear planes
Bolts are permitted to be installed to only the snug-tight
condition when used in
1. bearing-type connections. Threaded parts meeting the
0.75 Fu a d 
requirements of Section 0.40Fu
2. tension or combined shear and tension applications, for 510.3.4, when threads are not
excluded from shear planes
ASTM A325 or A325M bolts only, where loosening or
fatigue due to vibration or load fluctuations are not design
considerations.
Threaded parts meeting the
The snug-tight condition is defined as the tightness attained
0.75 Fu a d 
requirements of Section 0.50Fu
by either a few impacts of an impact wrench or the full 510.3.4, when threads are
effort of a worker with an ordinary spud wrench that brings excluded from shear planes
the connected plies into firm contact. Bolts to be tightened
only to the snug-tight condition shall be clearly identified [a]
Subject to the requirements of Appendix 3.
on the design and erection drawings. [b]
For A307 bolts the tabulated values shall be reduced by 1 percent for each 2 mm
over 5 diameters of length in the grip.
[c]
Threads permitted in shear planes.
When ASTM A490 or A490M bolts over 25 mm in diameter [d]
The nominal tensile strength of the threaded portion of an upset rod, based upon
are used in slotted or oversized holes in external plies, a the cross-sectional area at its major thread diameter, AD, which shall be larger than
single hardened washer conforming to ASTM F436, except the nominal body area of the rod before upsetting times ti Fy
with 8 mm minimum thickness, shall be used in lieu of the [e]
For A325 or A325M and A490 or A490M bolts subject to tensile fatigue loading,
standard washer. see Appendix 3.
[f]
When bearing-type connections used to splice tension members have a fastener
pattern whose length, measured parallel to the line of force, exceeds 1270 mm,
User Note: Washer requirements are provided in the RCSC tabulated values shall be reduced by 20 percent.
Specification, Section 6.

In slip-critical connections in which the direction of loading Oversized holes are permitted in any or all plies of slip-
is toward an edge of a connected part, adequate available critical connections, but they shall not be used in bearing-
bearing strength shall be provided based upon the applicable type connections. Hardened washers shall be installed over
requirements of Section 510.3.10. oversized holes in an outer ply.
Short-slotted holes are permitted in any or all plies of slip-
When bolt requirements cannot be provided by ASTM A325
critical or bearing-type connections. The slots are permitted
and A325M, F1 852, or A490 and A490M bolts because of
without regard to direction of loading in slip-critical
requirements for lengths exceeding 12 diameters or diameters
connections, but the length shall be normal to the direction
exceeding 38 mm, bolts or threaded rods conforming to
of the load in bearing-type connections. Washers shall be
ASTM A354 Gr. BC, A354 Gr. BD, or A449 are permitted
installed over short-slotted holes in an outer ply; when high-
to be used in accordance with the provisions for threaded
strength bolts are used, such washers shall be hardened.
rods in Table 510.3.2.
Long-slotted holes are permitted in only one of the
When ASTM A354 Gr. BC, A354 Gr. BD, or A449 bolts
connected parts of either a slip-critical or bearing-type
and threaded rods are used in slip-critical connections, the
connection at an individual faying surface. Long-slotted holes
bolt geometry including the head and nut(s) shall be equal
are permitted without regard to direction of loading in slip-
to or (if larger in diameter) proportional to that provided by
critical connections, but shall be normal to the direction of
ASTM A325 and A325M, or ASTM A490 and A490M
load in bearing-type connections. Where long-slotted holes
bolts. Installation shall comply with all applicable
are used in an outer ply, plate washers, or a continuous bar
requirements of the RCSC Specification with modifications as
with standard holes, having a size sufficient to completely
required for the increased diameter and/ or length to provide
cover the slot after installation, shall be provided. In high-
the design pretension.
strength bolted connections, such plate washers or continuous
bars shall be not less than 8 mm thick and shall be of structural
510.3.2. Size and Use of Holes grade material, but need not be hardened. If hardened washers
The maximum sizes of holes for bolts are given in Table are required for use of high-strength bolts, the hardened
510.3.3, except that larger holes, required for tolerance on washers shall be placed over the outer surface of the plate
location of anchor rods in concrete foundations, are permitted washer or bar.
in column base details.
510.3.3 Minimum Spacing
Table 510.3.3 The distance between centers of standard, oversized, or
slotted holes, shall not be less than 22/3 times the nominal
Nominal Hole Dimensions, mm diameter, d, of the fastener; a distance of 3d is preferred.
Hole Dimensions
Bolt
510.3.4 Minimum Edge Distance
Standard
Diameter
(Dia) Oversize Short-Slot Long-Slot The distance from the center of a standard hole to an
(Dia) (Width x Length) (Width xLength) edge of a connected part in any direction shall not be less
than either the applicable value from Table 510.3.4, or as
required in Section 510.3.10. The distance from the center
M16 18 20 8 x 22 18 x 40 of an oversized or slotted hole to an edge of a connected
M20 22 24 22 x 26 22 x 50
M22 24 28 24 x 30 24 x 55 part shall be not less than that required for a standard hole to
M24 27 30 27 x 32 27 x 60 an edge of a connected part plus the applicable increment
M27 30 35 30 x 37 30 x 67 C2 from Table 510.3.5.
M30 33 38 33 x 40 33 x 75
≥M36 d +3 d+8 (d + 3) x (d + 10) (d + 3) x 2.5 d
User Note: The edge distances in Tables 510.3.4 are
minimum edge distances based on standard fabrication
Standard holes or short-slotted holes transverse to the practices and workmanship tolerances. The appropriate
direction of the load shall be provided in accordance with provisions of Sections 510.3.10 and 510.4 must be
the provisions of this specification, unless oversized holes, satisfied.
short-slotted holes parallel to the load or long-slotted holes
are approved by the engineer-of-record. Finger shims up to
6 mm are permitted in slip-critical connections designed on
the basis of standard holes without reducing the nominal
shear strength of the fastener to that specified for slotted
holes.

510.3.5 Maximum Spacing and Edge Distance Table 510.3.5

The maximum distance from the center of any bolt or rivet Values of Edge Distance Increment C2, mm
to the nearest edge of parts in contact shall be 12 times the
thickness of the connected part under consideration, but shall Slotted Holes
not exceed 150 mm. The longitudinal spacing of fasteners
between elements in continuous contact consisting of a plate Nominal Long Axis
Long Axis Perpendicular
Diameter of Parallel to
and a shape or two plates shall be as follows: Fastener Oversized
to Edge
Edge
(mm)
Holes
Long
Short Slots
Table 510.3.4 Slots[a]
Minimum Edge Distance,[a] mm, from ≤22 2 3
Center of Standard Hole[b] to Edge of 24 3 3 0.75d 0
Connected Part ≥27 3 5
[a]
When length of slot is less than maximum allowable (see Table 510.3.3M), C2 is
At Rolled Edges of permitted to be reduced by one-half the difference between the maximum and
At Sheared Plates, actual slot lengths.
Bolt Diameter (mm) Shapes or Bars, or
Edges
Thermally Cut Edges
[c]
1. For painted members or unpainted members not subject to

16 28 22 corrosion, the spacing shall not exceed 24 times the
20 34 26 thickness of the thinner plate or 305 mm.
22 38 [d] 28
24 42 [d] 30 2. For unpainted members of weathering steel subject to
27 48 34 atmospheric corrosion, the spacing shall not exceed 14
30 52 38 times the thickness of the thinner plate or 180 mm.
36 64 46
Over 36 1.75d 1.25d
510.3.6 Tension and Shear Strength of Bolts and
Threaded Parts
The design tension or shear strength,  Rn , and the allowable
[a] Lesser edge distances are permitted to be used provided provisions of
Section 510.3.10, as appropriate, are satisfied.
[b] For oversized or slotted holes, see Table 510.3.5
tension or shear strength, Rn  of a snug-tightened or
[c] All edge distances in this column are permitted to be reduced 3 mm when pretensioned high-strength bolt or threaded part shall be
the hole is at a point
where required strength does not exceed 25 percent of the maximum strength in determined according to the limit states of tensile rupture and
the element. shear rupture as follows:
[d] These are permitted to be 32 mm at the ends of beam connection angles and
shear end plates. Rn  Fn Ab (510.3-1)
  0.75LRFD   2.00 ASD

where
Fn = nominal tensile stress Fnt , or shear
stress, Fnv from Table 510.3.2,MPa
Ab = nominal unthreaded body area of bolt or
threaded part (for upset rods, see footnote d,
Table 510.3.2), mm2
The required tensile strength shall include any tension

resulting from prying action produced by deformation of the
connected parts.

510.3.7 Combined Tension and Shear in Bearing- The design slip resistance,  Rn , and the allowable slip
Type Connections
resistance, Rn  , shall be determined for the limit state of
The available tensile strength of a bolt subjected to
combined tension and shear shall be determined according to slip as follows:
the limit states of tension and shear rupture as follows: Rn  Du hscTb N s (510.3-4)
Rn  Fnt' Ab (510.3-2)
For connections in which prevention of slip is a
  0.75LRFD   2.00 ASD serviceability limit state
where
  1.00 LRFD   1.50  ASD
Fnt'  nominal tensile stress modified to include the For connections designed to prevent slip at the required
effects of shearing stress, MPa strength level
Fnt'  1.3Fnt 
Fnt
f v  Fnt LRFD   0.85 LRFD   1.76  ASD
Fnv
Fnt where
Fnt'  1.3Fnt  f v  Fnt  ASD
Fnv μ = mean slip coefficient for Class A or B surfaces,
as applicable, or as established by tests
Fnt  nominal tensile stress from Table 510.3.2, MPa
= 0.35 for Class A surfaces (unpainted clean mill
Fnv  nominal shear stress from Table 510.3.2, MPa scale steel surfaces or surfaces with Class A
f v  the required shear stress, MPa coatings on blast-cleaned steel and hot-dipped
galvanized and roughened surfaces)
= 0.50 for Class B surfaces (unpainted blast-
The available shear stress of the fastener shall equal or exceed cleaned steel surfaces or surfaces with Class B
the required shear strength per unit area, fv. coatings on blast-cleaned steel)
Du = 1.13; a multiplier that reflects the ratio of the
User Note: Note that when the required stress, f, in either mean installed bolt pretension to the specified
shear or tension, is less than or equal to 20 percent of the minimum bolt pretension. The use of other values
corresponding available stress, the effects of combined may be approved by the engineer-of-record.
stress need not be investigated. Also note that Equations
hsc  hole factor determined as follows:
510.3-3a and 510.3-3b can be rewritten so as to find a
nominal shear stress, Fnv' , as a function of the required (a) For standard size holes hsc  1 . 00
tensile stress, ft.. (b) For oversized and
short-slotted holes hsc  0 . 85
510.3.8 High-Strength Bolts in Slip-Critical (c) For long-slotted holes hsc  0 . 70
Connections
Ns = number of slip planes
High-strength bolts in slip-critical connections are permitted Tb = minimum fastener tension given in Table
to be designed to prevent slip either as a serviceability limit 510.3.1, kN
state or at the required strength limit state. The connection
must also be checked for shear strength in accordance with User Note: There are special cases where, with oversize
Sections 510.3.6 and 510.3.7 and bearing strength in holes and slots parallel to the load, the movement possible
accordance with Sections 510.3.1 and 510.3.10. due to connection slip could cause a structural failure.
Resistance and safety factors are provided for connections
Slip-critical connections shall be designed as follows, unless where slip is prevented until the required strength load is
otherwise designated by the engineer- of- record. Connections reached.
with standard holes or slots transverse to the direction of the
load shall be designed for slip as a serviceability limit Design loads are used for either design method and all
state. Connections with oversized holes or slots parallel to connections must be checked for strength as bearing-type
the direction of the load shall be designed to prevent slip at connections.
the required strength level.

510.3.9 Combined Tension and Shear in Slip-Critical Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the
Connections connected material, MPa
When a slip-critical connection is subjected to an applied Lc = clear distance, in the direction of the force,
tension that reduces the net clamping force, the available between the edge of the hole and the edge of
slip resistance per bolt, from Section 510.3.8, shall be the adjacent hole or edge of the material,
mm
multiplied by the factor, k s , as follows:
t = thickness of connected material, mm
Tu
k s  1 LRFD (510.3-5a)
For connections, the bearing resistance shall be taken as the
Du Tb N b
sum of the bearing resistances of the individual bolts.
1.5Ta
k s  1  ASD (510.3-5b) Bearing strength shall be checked for both bearing-type
Du Tb N b and slip-critical connections. The use of oversized holes
and short- and long-slotted holes parallel to the line of
where force is restricted to slip-critical connections per Section
Nb = number of bolts carrying the applied tension 510.3.2.
Ta = tension force due to ASD load combinations,
kN. 510.3.11 Special Fasteners
Tb = minimum fastener tension given in Table The nominal strength of special fasteners other than the
510.3.1, kN. bolts presented in Table 510.3.2 shall be verified by tests.
Tu = tension force due to LRFD load combinations,
kN. 510.3.12 Tension Fasteners
When bolts or other fasteners in tension are attached to an
unstiffened box or HSS wall, the strength of the wall shall
510.3.10 Bearing Strength at Bolt Holes be determined by rational analysis.
The available bearing strength, Rn and Rn  , at bolt
holes shall be determined for the limit state of bearing as 510.4 Affected Elements of Members and Connecting
follows: Elements
  0.75 LRFD   2.00  ASD This section applies to elements of members at connections
and connecting elements, such as plates, gussets, angles,
1. For a bolt in a connection with standard, oversized, and and brackets.
short-slotted holes, independent of the direction of
loading, or a long-slotted hole with the slot parallel 510.4.1 Strength of Elements in Tension
to the direction of the bearing force: The design strength,  Rn , and the allowable strength,
a. when deformation at the bolt hole at service load is a Rn  , of affected and connecting elements loaded in
design consideration
tension shall be the lower value obtained according to the
Rn  1.2LctFu  2.4dtFu (510.3-6a) limit states of tensile yielding and tensile rupture.
1. For tensile yielding of connecting elements:
b. when deformation at the bolt hole at service load is not Rn  Fy Ag (510.4-1)
a design consideration
Rn  1.5LctFu  3.0dtFu (510.3-6b)   0.90 LRFD   1.67  ASD
c. For a bolt in a connection with long-slotted holes with 2. For tensile rupture of connecting elements:
the slot perpendicular to the direction of force:
Rn  Fu Ae (510.4-2)
Rn  1.0LctFu  2.0dtFu (510.3-6c)
  0.75 LRFD   2.00  ASD
d. For connections made using bolts that pass completely
through an unstiffened box member or HSS, see Section where
510.7 and Equation 510.7-1,
Ae = effective net area as defined in Section 504.3.3,
where mm2; for bolted splice plates,
Ae  An  0.85 A g
d = nominal bolt diameter, mm

510.4.2 Strength of Elements in Shear For KL/r > 25 the provisions of Section 505 apply.
The available shear yield strength of affected and connecting
elements in shear shall be the lower value obtained according 510.5 Fillers
to the limit states of shear yielding and shear rupture: In welded construction, any filler 6 mm or more in thickness
1. For shear yielding of the element: shall extend beyond the edges of the splice plate and shall be
welded to the part on which it is fitted with sufficient weld to
Rn  0.60Fy Ag (510.4-3) transmit the splice plate load, applied at the surface of the
filler. The welds joining the splice plate to the filler shall be
  1.00 LRFD   1.50  ASD sufficient to transmit the splice plate load and shall be long
enough to avoid overloading the filler along the toe of the
2. For shear rupture of the element: weld. Any filler less than 6 mm thick shall have its edges
made flush with the edges of the splice plate and the weld
Rn  0.6Fu Anv (510.4-4) size shall be the sum of the size necessary to carry the splice
plus the thickness of the filler plate.
  0.75 LRFD   2.00  ASD
When a bolt that carries load passes through fillers that are
where
equal to or less than 6 mm thick, the shear strength shall be
Anv = net area subject to shear, mm2. used without reduction. When a bolt that carries load passes
through fillers that are greater than 6 mm thick, one of the
510.4.3 Block Shear Strength following requirements shall apply:
The available strength for the limit state of block shear 1. For fillers that are equal to or less than 19 mm thick, the
rupture along a shear failure path or path(s) and a shear strength of the bolts shall be multiplied by the
perpendicular tension failure path shall be taken as factor [1 − 0.4(t − 0.25)] [S.I.: [1 − 0.0154(t − 6)]],
Rn 0.6Fu Anv UbsFu Ant 0.6Fy Agv UbsFu Ant where t is the total thickness of the fillers up to 19 mm
2. The fillers shall be extended beyond the joint and the
(510.4-5) filler extension shall be secured with enough bolts to
uniformly distribute the total force in the connected
  0.75 LRFD   2.00  ASD element over the combined cross section of the connected
element and the fillers;
where
A gv  gross area subject to shear, mm2 3. The size of the joint shall be increased to
accommodate a number of bolts that is equivalent to
Ant  net area subject to tension, mm2 the total number required in (2) above; or
Anv  net area subject to shear, mm2 4. The joint shall be designed to prevent slip at required
strength levels in accordance with Section 510.3.8.
Where the tension stress is uniform, Ubs  1 ; where the
510.6 Splices
tension stress is non uniform, U bs  0.5. Groove-welded splices in plate girders and beams shall
develop the nominal strength of the smaller spliced section.
User Note: The cases where Ubs must be taken equal to Other types of splices in cross sections of plate girders and
0.5. beams shall develop the strength required by the forces at the
point of the splice.
510.4.4 Strength of Elements in Compression
510.7 Bearing Strength
The available strength of connecting elements in
compression for the limit states of yielding and buckling The design bearing strength,  Rn , and the allowable
shall be determined as follows. bearing strength, Rn  , of surfaces in contact shall be
determined for the limit state of bearing (local compressive
For KL/r ≤25 yielding) as follows:
Pn  Fy Ag (510.4-6)   0.75 LRFD   2.00  ASD
  0.90 LRFD   1.67  ASD
The nominal bearing strength, Rn , is defined as follows for
the various types of bearing:

1. For milled surfaces, pins in reamed, drilled, or bored 510.9 Anchor Rods and Embedments
holes, and ends of fitted bearing stiffeners: Anchor rods shall be designed to provide the required
resistance to loads on the completed structure at the base of
Rn  1.8Fy Apb (510.7-1) columns including the net tensile components of any bending
moment that may result from load combinations stipulated in
where
Section 502.2. The anchor rods shall be designed in
Fy = specified minimum yield stress, MPa accordance with the requirements for threaded parts in
Apb = projected bearing area, mm2 Table 510.3.2.
2. For expansion rollers and rockers Larger oversized and slotted holes are permitted in base
plates when adequate bearing is provided for the nut by
a. f d ≤ 635 mm using structural or plate washers to bridge the hole.
SI : R n  1.2F y  90 ld 20  (510.7-2)
User Note: The permitted hole sizes and corresponding
washer dimensions are given in the AISC Manual of Steel
b. If d > 25 635 mm
Construction
SI : R n  30.2F y  90 ld 20  (510.7-3M)
When horizontal forces are present at column bases, these
(510.7-3) forces should, where possible, be resisted by bearing against
where concrete elements or by shear friction between the column
base plate and the foundation. When anchor rods are designed
d = diameter, mm to resist horizontal force the base plate hole size, the anchor
l = length of bearing, mm rod setting tolerance, and the horizontal movement of the
column shall be considered in the design.
510.8 Column Bases and Bearing on Concrete
Proper provision shall be made to transfer the column loads User Note: See Chapter 4 for embedment design and for
and moments to the footings and foundations. shear friction design. See OSHA for special erection
requirements for anchor rods.
In the absence of code regulations, the design bearing
strength, c Pp , and the allowable bearing strength, 510.10 Flanges and Webs with Concentrated Forces
This section applies to single-and double-
Pp  c , for the limit state of concrete crushing are
concentrated force applied normal to the flange(s) of
permitted to be taken as follows: wide flange sections and similar built-up shapes. A single-
 c  0.60 LRFD c  2.5 ASD
concentrated force can be either tensile or compressive.
Double-concentrated forces are one tensile and one
compressive and form a couple on the same side of the
The nominal bearing strength, Pp , is determined as follows: loaded member.
1. On the full area of a concrete support: When the required strength exceeds the available strength as
determined for the limit states listed in this section, stiffeners
Pp  0.85 f c' A1 (510.8-1) and/or doublers shall be provided and shall be sized for the
difference between the required strength and the available
2. On less than the full area of a concrete support: strength for the applicable limit state. Stiffeners shall also meet
the design requirements in Section 510.10.8. Doublers shall
Pp  0.85 f c' A1 A2 A1  1.7 f c' A1 (510.8-2)
also meet the design requirement in Section 510.10.9.
where
User Note: See Appendix A-6.3 for requirements for the
A1 = area of steel concentrically bearing on a ends of cantilever members.
concrete support, mm2
A2 = maximum area of the portion of the supporting Stiffeners are required at unframed ends of beams in
surface that is geometrically similar to and accordance with the requirements of Section 510.10.7.
concentric with the loaded area, mm2
510.10.1 Flange Local Bending
This section applies to tensile single-concentrated forces
and the tensile component of double-concentrated forces.

The design strength,  Rn , and the allowable strength, tw = web thickness, mm

Rn  for the limit state of flange local bending shall be When required, a pair of transverse stiffeners or a doubler
determined as follows: plate shall be provided.
R n  6.25t 2f F yf 510.10.3 Web Crippling

(510.10-1)
This section applies to compressive single-concentrated
  0.90 LRFD   1.67  ASD forces or the compressive component of double-
concentrated forces.
where
Fyf = specified minimum yield stress of the flange, The available strength for the limit state of web local
MPa crippling shall be determined as follows:
tf = thickness of the loaded flange, mm
  0.75 LRFD   2.00  ASD
If the length of loading across the member flange is less
The nominal strength, Rn , shall be determined as follows:
than 0. 15b , where b is the member flange width, Equation
f f
510.10-1 need not be checked. 1. When the concentrated compressive force to be resisted
is applied at a distance from the member end that is
When the concentrated force to be resisted is applied at a greater than or equal to d/2:
distance from the member end that is less than
10 tf , R n shall be reduced by 50 percent.  1.5 
N  t w   EFywt f
Rn  0.80t w2 1  3 
When required, a pair of transverse stiffeners shall be
  d  t f   tw
 
provided. (510.10-4)
510.10.2 Web Local Yielding 2. When the concentrated compressive force to be resisted
This section applies to single-concentrated forces and both is applied at a distance from the member end that is less
components of double-concentrated forces. than d/2:
a. For N/d ≤0.2
The available strength for the limit state of web local yielding
shall be determined as follows:  1.5 
N  t w   EFywt f
  1.50  ASD Rn  0.40t w2 1  3 
  1.00 LRFD   d  t f   tw
 
The nominal strength, Rn , shall be determined as follows: (510.10-5a)
1. When the concentrated force to be resisted is applied at

a distance from the member end that is greater than the
depth of the member d,
Rn  5k  N Fywt w (510.10-2)
2. When the concentrated force to be resisted is applied at

a distance from the member end that is less than or
equal to the depth of the member d,
Rn  2.5k  N F yw t w (510.10-3)
where
k = distance from outer face of the flange to the web
toe of the fillet, mm
Fyw = specified minimum yield stress of the web,
MPa
N = length of bearing (not less than k for end beam
reactions), mm

C r t w3 t f   h t w
3
b. For N / d > 0 . 2 
Rn  0.4   (510.10-7)
 1.5  h 2   l bf  
 4N  t  EFywt f    
Rn  0.40t w2 1   0.2 w  
  d

 t f  

tw  
b. For, h t w  l b f  1 .7 , the limit state of web sidesway
(510.10-5b)
where When the required strength of the web exceeds the available
strength, local lateral bracing shall be provided at both flanges
d = overall depth of the member, mm at the point of application of the concentrated forces.
tf = flange thickness, mm
In Equations 510.10-6 and 510.10-7, the following
When required, a transverse stiffener, or pair of transverse definitions apply:
stiffeners, or a doubler plate extending at least one-half the
depth of the web shall be provided. bf = flange width, mm.
Cr = 6.62 × 106 MPa when Mu <My (LRFD) or
510.10.4 Web Sidesway Buckling 1.5Ma <My (ASD) at the location of the force
This Section applies only to compressive single-concentrated = 3.31 × 106 MPa when Mu ≥ My (LRFD) or
forces applied to members where relative lateral movement 1.5Ma ≥ My (ASD) at the location of the force
between the loaded compression flange and the tension h = clear distance between flanges less the fillet or
flange is not restrained at the point of application of the corner radius for rolled shapes; distance between
concentrated force. adjacent lines of1asteners or the clear distance
between flanges when welds are used for built-
The available strength of the web shall be determined as up shapes, mm.
follows: l = largest laterally unbraced length along either the
  0.85 LRFD   1.76  ASD flange at the point of load, mm.
tf = flange thickness, mm.
tw = web thickness, mm.
The nominal strength, Rn , for the limit state of web
sidesway buckling shall be determined as follows: User Note: For determination of adequate restraint, refer to
Appendix A-6.
If the compression flange is restrained against rotation:
 
a. For h t w  l b f  2.3
510.10.5 Web Compression Buckling
This Section applies to a pair of compressive single-
concentrated forces or the compressive components in a pair of
Cr t w3 t f   h tw  
3
    double-concentrated forces, applied at both flanges of a
Rn  1  0.4 (510.10-6)
h2   l bf   member at the same location.
   
The available strength for the limit state of web local buckling
 
b. For h t w  l b f  2.3, the limit state of web sidesway shall be determined as follows:
24t w3 EFyw
When the required strength of the web exceeds the available Rn  (510.10-8)
h
strength, local lateral bracing shall be provided at the tension
flange or either a pair of transverse sti11eners or a doubler   0.90 LRFD   1.67  ASD
plate shall be provided.
When the pair of concentrated compressive forces to be
1. If the compression flange is not restrained against
resisted is applied at a distance from the member end that is
rotation:
less than d/2, R n shall be reduced by 50 percent.
 
a. For h t w  l b f  1.7
When required, a single transverse stiffener, a pair of
transverse stiffeners, or a doubler plate extending the full
depth of the web shall be provided.

510.10.6 Web Panel Zone Shear When required, doubler plate(s) or a pair of diagonal stiffeners
This section applies to double-concentrated forces applied shall be provided within the boundaries the rigid connection
to one or both flanges of a member at the same location. whose webs lie in a common plane.
The available strength of the web panel zone for the limit state
of shear yielding shall be determined as follows: See Section 510.10.9 for doubler plate design requirements.
  0.90 LRFD   1.67  ASD 510.10.7 Unframed Ends of Beams and Girders
At unframed ends of beams and girders not otherwise
The nominal strength, R n shall be determined as follows: restrained against rotation about their longitudinal axes, a
1. When the effect of panel-zone deformation on frame pair of transverse stiffeners, extending the full depth of the
stability is not considered in the analysis: web, shall be provided.
a. For Pr ≤ 0.4Pc 510.10.8 Additional Stiffener Requirements for

Concentrated Forces
Rn  0.60Fy dctw (510.10-9) Stiffeners required to resist tensile concentrated forces shall
be designed in accordance with the requirements of Section
b. For Pr > 0.4Pc 504 and welded to the loaded flange and the web. The welds
to the flange shall be sized for the difference between the
 P  required strength and available limit state strength. The
Rn  0.60Fy d c t w 1.4  r  (510.1-10)
Pc  stiffener to web welds shall be sized to transfer to the web

the algebraic difference in tensile force at the ends of the
1. When frame stability, including plastic panel-zone stiffener.
deformation, is considered in the analysis:
Stiffeners required to resist compressive concentrated forces
a. For Pr ≤0.75Pc shall be designed in accordance with the requirements in
Sections 505.6.2 and 510.4.4 and shall either bear on or be
 3bcf t cf2  welded to the loaded flange and welded to the web. The
Rn  0.60F y d c t w 1  
 db dctw  welds to the flange shall be sized for the difference between
  the required strength and the applicable limit state strength.
(510.10-11) The weld to the web shall be sized to transfer to the web the
algebraic difference in compression force at the ends of the
b. For Pr > 0.75Pc
stiffener. For fitted bearing stiffeners, see Section 510.7.
 3bcf t cf2 
Rn  0.60Fy dc t w 1 1.9  1.2Pr  Transverse full depth bearing stiffeners for compressive
 db d c t w  Pc  forces applied to a beam or plate girder flange(s) shall be
 
designed as axially compressed members (columns) in
(510.10-12)
accordance with the requirements of Sections 505.6.2 and
510.4.4.
In Equations 510.10-9 through 510.10-12, the following
definitions apply:
The member properties shall be determined using an
effective length of 0.75h and a cross section composed of
A = column cross-sectional area, mm2. two stiffeners and a strip of the web having a width of 25t at
bcf = width of column flange, mm. interior stiffeners and 12t at the ends of members. The weld
db = beam depth, mm. connecting full depth bearing stiffeners to the web shall be
dc = column depth, mm. sized to transmit the difference in compressive force at each
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the column of the stiffeners to the web.
web, MPa.
Pc = Py,N (LRFD)
Transverse and diagonal stiffeners shall comply with the
Pc = 0.6Py,N (ASD)
following additional criteria:
Pr = required strength, N.
Py = FyA,axial yield strength of the column, N. 1. The width of each stiffener plus one-half the thickness
tcf = thickness of the column flange, mm. of the column web shall not be less than one-third of the
tw = column web thickness, mm. width of the flange or moment connection plate
delivering the concentrated force.
2. The thickness of a stiffener shall not be less than one-
half the thickness of the flange or moment connection

plate delivering the concentrated load, and greater than or SECTION 511 - DESIGN OF HSS AND
equal to the width divided by 15.
BOX MEMBER CONNECTIONS
3. Transverse stiffeners shall extend a minimum of one-
half the depth of the member except as required in This Section covers member strength design considerations
510.10.5 and 510.10.7. pertaining to connections to HSS members and box sections
of uniform wall thickness. See also Section 510 for
510.10.9 Additional Doubler Plate for additional requirements for bolting to HSS.
Concentrated Forces
The Section is organized as follows:
Doubler plates required for compression strength shall be
designed in accordance with the requirements of Section
505. 511.1 Concentrated Forces on HSS
511.2 HSS-to-HSS Truss Connections
511.3 HSS-to-HSS Moment Connections
Doubler plates required for tensile strength shall be designed
in accordance with the requirements of Section 504.
Doubler plates required for shear strength (see Section User Note: See Section 510.3.10(c) for through-bolts.
510.10.6) shall be designed in accordance with the
provisions of Section 507. 511.1 Concentrated Forces on HSS
In addition, doubler plates shall comply with the following 511. 1.1 Definitions of Parameters
criteria: B = overall width of rectangular HSS member,
1. The thickness and extent of the doubler plate shall measured 90 degrees to the plane of the
provide the additional material necessary to equal or connection, mm
exceed the strength requirements. Bp = width of plate, measured 90 degrees to the plane
of the connection, mm
2. The doubler plate shall be welded to develop the D = outside diameter of round HSS member, mm
proportion of the total force transmitted to the doubler Fy = specified minimum yield stress of HSS
plate. member material, MPa
Fyp = specified minimum yield stress of plate, MPa
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of HSS
material, MPa
H = overall height of rectangular HSS member,
measured in the plane of the connection, mm
N = bearing length of the load, measured parallel
to the axis of the HSS member, (or measured
across the width of the HSS in the case of loaded
cap plates), mm
t = design wall thickness of HSS member, mm
tp = thickness of plate, mm
511.1.2 Limits of Applicability

The criteria herein are applicable only when the connection
configuration is within the following limits of applicability:
1. Strength: Fy ≤ 360 MPa for HSS
2. Ductility: Fy/Fu ≤ 0.8 for HSS

3. Other limits apply for specific criteria
511.1.3 Concentrated Force Distributed Transversely
511.1.3a Criterion for Round HSS

When a concentrated force is distributed transversely to the
axis of the HSS the design strength, fRn, and the allowable

strength, Rn/, for the limit state of local yielding shall be This limit state need not be checked unless the chord
determined as follows: member and branch member (connecting element) have
the same width ( = 1.0).
Rn = Fy t2[5.5/(1 − 0.81Bp/D)]Qf (511.1-1)
c.1.1 For the limit state of sidewall local yielding,
 = 0.90 (LRFD)  = 1.67 (ASD)
where Qf is given by Equation 511.2-1. Rn = 2Fy t[5k + N] (511.1-4)
Additional limits of applicability are  = 1.0 (LRFD)  = 1.50 (ASD)

1. 0.2 < Bp/D ≤ 1.0 where
2. D/t ≤ 50 for T-connections and D/t ≤ 40 for cross-
connections k = outside corner radius of the HSS, which is
permitted to be taken as 1.5t if unknown, mm
511.1.3b Criteria for Rectangular HSS
c.1.2 For the limit state of sidewall local crippling, in T-
When a concentrated force is distributed transversely to the
connections,
axis of the HSS the design strength, Rn, and the allowable
strength, Rn/, shall be the lowest value according to the Rn = 1.6t2[1 + 3N/(H − 3t)] (EFy )0.5Qf
limit states of local yielding due to uneven load distribution,
shear yielding (punching) and sidewall strength. (511.1-5)
Additional limits of applicability are  = 0.75 (LRFD)  = 2.0 (ASD)
1. 0.25 < Bp/B ≤ 1.0 where Qf is given by Equation 511.2-10.
2. B/t for the loaded HSS wall ≤ 35 c.1.3 For the limit state of sidewall local buckling in cross-
a. For the limit state of local yielding due to uneven load connections,
distribution in the loaded plate,
Rn = [48t3/(H − 3t)] (EFy )0.5Qf (511.1-6)
Rn = [10Fy t/(B/t)]Bp ≤ FyptpBp (511.1-2)
 = 0.90 (LRFD)  = 1.67 (ASD)
 = 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD) where Qf is given by Equation 511.2-10.
b. For the limit state of shear yielding (punching),
The nonuniformity of load transfer along the line of weld,

Rn = 0.6Fy t [2tp + 2Bep] (511.1-3) due to the flexibility of the HSS wall in a transverse plate-
to-HSS connection, shall be considered in proportioning
 = 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD) such welds. This requirement can be satisfied by limiting
the total effective weld length, Le, of groove and fillet welds
where to rectangular HSS as follows:
Bep = 10Bp/(B/t) ≤ Bp Le = 2[10/(B/t)] [(Fy t)/(Fyptp)]Bp ≤ 2Bp

(511.1-7)
This limit state need not be checked when Bp > (B −
2t), nor when Bp < 0.85B. where
Le = total effective weld length for welds on both
c. For the limit state of sidewall under tension loading, the sides of the transverse plate, in. (mm)
available strength shall be taken as the strength for
sidewall local yielding. For the limit state of sidewall In lieu of Equation 511.1-7, this requirement may be
under compression loading, available strength shall be satisfied by other rational approaches.
taken as the lowest value obtained according to the
limit states of sidewall local yielding, sidewall local User Note: An upper limit on weld size will be given by the
crippling and sidewall local buckling. weld that develops the available strength of the connected
element.

511.1.4 Concentrated Force Distributed the connection design will be governed by the force
Longitudinally at the Center of the HSS component perpendicular to the HSS axis (see Section
Diameter or Width, and Acting 511.1.4b).
Perpendicular to the HSS Axis
When a concentrated force is distributed longitudinally 511.1.6 Concentrated Axial Force on the End
along the axis of the HSS at the center of the HSS diameter of a Rectangular HSS with a Cap Plate.
or width, and also acts perpendicular to the axis direction of When a concentrated force acts on the end of a capped HSS,
the HSS (or has a component perpendicular to the axis and the force is in the direction of the HSS axis, the design
direction of the HSS), the design strength, Rn, and the strength, Rn, and the allowable strength, Rn/, shall be
allowable strength, Rn/, perpendicular to the HSS axis determined for the limit states of wall local yielding (due to
shall be determined for the limit state of chord plastification tensile or compressive forces) and wall local crippling (due
as follows. to compressive forces only), with consideration for shear
lag, as follows.
511.1.4a Criterion for Round HSS
An additional limit of applicability is: User Note: The procedure below presumes that the
concentrated force has a dispersion slope of 2.5:1 through
D/t ≤ 50 for T-connections and D/t ≤ 40 for cross- the cap plate (of thickness tp) and disperses into the two
connections HSS walls of dimension B.
Rn = 5.5Fy t2(1 + 0.25N/D)Qf (511.1-8) If (5tp + N) ≥ B, the available strength of the HSS is
computed by summing the contributions of all four HSS
= 0.90 (LRFD)  = 1.67 (ASD) walls.
where Qf is given by Equation 511.2-1.
If (5tp + N) < B, the available strength of the HSS is
computed by summing the contributions of the two walls
511.1.4b Criterion for Rectangular HSS
into which the load is distributed.
An additional limit of applicability is:
B/t for the loaded HSS wall ≤ 40 a. For the limit state of wall local yielding, for one wall,
Rn = [Fy t2/(1 − tp/B)] [2N/B + 4(1 − tp/B)0.5Qf]

Rn = Fy t[5tp + N] ≤ BFy t (511.1-11)
(511.1-9)
 = 1.00 (LRFD)  = 1.50 (ASD)
 = 1.00 (LRFD)  = 1.50 (ASD) b. For the limit state of wall local crippling, for one wall,
where  1 .5  0 .5
R n  0 . 8 t 2 1  6 N B   t t p    EF y t p t 
     
Qf = (1 − U2)0.5
U is given by Equation 511.2-12 (511.1-12)
= 0.75 (LRFD)  = 2.00 (ASD)
511.1.5 Concentrated Force Distributed
Longitudinally at the Center of the HSS
Width, and Acting Parallel to the HSS Axis
When a concentrated force is distributed longitudinally
along the axis of a rectangular HSS, and also acts parallel
but eccentric to the axis direction of the member, the
connection shall be verified as follows:
Fyptp ≤ Fut (511.1-10)
User Note: This provision is primarily intended for shear

tab connections. Equation 511.1-10 precludes shear yielding
(punching) of the HSS wall by requiring the plate (shear
tab) strength to be less than the HSS wall strength. For
bracing connections to HSS columns, where a load is
applied by a longitudinal plate at an angle to the HSS axis,

511.2 HSS-to-HSS Truss Connections 511.2.1 Definitions of Parameters

HSS-to-HSS truss connections are defined as connections B = overall width of rectangular HSS main member,
that consist of one or more branch members that are directly measured 90 degrees to the plane of the
welded to a continuous chord that passes through the connection, mm
connection and shall be classified as follows: Bb = overall width of rectangular HSS branch
member, measured 90 degrees to the plane of the
1. When the punching load (Pr sin) in a branch member connection, mm
is equilibrated by beam shear in the chord member, the D = outside diameter of round HSS main member,
connection shall be classified as a T-connection when mm
the branch is perpendicular to the chord and a Y- Db = outside diameter of round HSS branch member,
connection otherwise. mm
2. When the punching load (Pr sin) in a branch member E = eccentricity in a truss connection, positive being
is essentially equilibrated (within 20 percent) by loads away from the branches, mm
in other branch member(s) on the same side of the Fy = specified minimum yield stress of HSS main
connection, the connection shall be classified as a K- member material, MPa
connection. The relevant gap is between the primary Fyb = specified minimum yield stress of HSS branch
branch members whose loads equilibrate. An N- member material, MPa
connection can be considered as a type of K- Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of HSS
connection. material, MPa
g = gap between toes of branch members in a gapped
User Note: A K-connection with one branch perpendicular K-connection, neglecting the welds, mm
to the chord is often called an N-connection. H = overall height of rectangular HSS main member,
3. When the punching load (Pr sin) is transmitted Hb = overall height of rectangular HSS branch
through the chord member and is equilibrated by member, measured in the plane of the
branch member(s) on the opposite side, the connection connection, mm
shall be classified as a cross-connection. t = design wall thickness of HSS main member, mm
4. When a connection has more than two primary branch tb = design wall thickness of HSS branch member,
members or branch members in more than one plane, mm
the connection shall be classified as a general or  = the width ratio; the ratio of branch diameter to
multiplanar connection. chord diameter = Db/D for round HSS; the ratio
of overall branch width to chord width = Bb/B
When branch members transmit part of their load as K- for rectangular HSS
connections and part of their load as T-, Y-, or cross- eff = the effective width ratio; the sum of the
connections, the nominal strength shall be determined by perimeters of the two branch members in a K-
interpolation on the proportion of each in total. connection divided by eight times the chord
width
For the purposes of this Specification, the centerlines of  = the chord slenderness ratio; the ratio of one-half
branch members and chord members shall lie in a common the diameter to the wall thickness = D/2t for
plane. Rectangular HSS connections are further limited to round HSS; the ratio of one-half the width to
have all members oriented with walls parallel to the plane. wall thickness = B/2t for rectangular HSS
For trusses that are made with HSS that are connected by  = the load length parameter, applicable only to
welding branch members to chord members, eccentricities rectangular HSS; the ratio of the length of
within the limits of applicability are permitted without contact of the branch with the chord in the plane
consideration of the resulting moments for the design of the of the connection to the chord width = N/B,
connection. where N = Hb/sin
 = acute angle between the branch and chord
(degrees)
 = the gap ratio; the ratio of the gap between the
branches of a gapped K connection to the width
of the chord = g/B for rectangular HSS

511.2.2 Criteria for Round HSS 3. Tension branch wall slenderness: ratio of diameter to
The interaction of stress due to chord member forces and wall thickness less than or equal to 50
local branch connection forces shall be incorporated 4. Compression branch wall slenderness: ratio of diameter
through the chord-stress interaction parameter Qf. to wall thickness less than or equal to 0.05E/Fy
When the chord is in tension, 5. Width ratio: 0.2 < Db/D ≤ 1.0 in general, and 0.4 ≤
Db/D ≤ 1.0 for gapped K-connections
Qf = 1
6. If a gap connection: g greater than or equal to the sum
When the chord is in compression, of the branch wall thicknesses
7. If an overlap connection: 25% ≤ Ov ≤ 100%, where Ov
Qf = 1.0 − 0.3U (1 + U) (511.2-1) = (q/p)×100%. P is the projected length of the
where U is the utilization ratio given by overlapping branch on the chord; q is the overlap length
measured along the connecting face of the chord
U= |Pr /AgFc + Mr /SFc| (511.2-2) beneath the two branches. For overlap connections, the
larger (or if equal diameter, the thicker) branch is a
where
“thru member” connected directly to the chord.
Pr = required axial strength in chord, N;
8. Branch thickness ratio for overlap connections:
for K-connections, Pr is to be determined on the
thickness of overlapping branch to be less than or equal
side of the joint that has the lower compression
to the thickness of the overlapped branch
stress (lower U)
Mr = required flexural strength in chord, N-mm 9. Strength: Fy ≤ 360 MPa for chord and branches
Ag = chord gross area, mm2
10. Ductility: Fy / Fu ≤ 0.8
Fc = available stress, MPa
S = chord elastic section modulus, mm3
511.2.2b Branches with Axial Loads in T-, Y- and
For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD): Cross-Connections
For T- and Y- connections, the design strength of the branch
Pr = Pu = required axial strength in chord, using Pn, or the allowable strength of the branch, Pn/ shall be
LRFD load combinations, N the lower value obtained according to the limit states of
chord plastification and shear yielding (punching).
Mr = Mu = required flexural strength in chord, using
LRFD load combinations, N-mm 1. For the limit state of chord plastification in T- and Y-
Fc = Fy , MPa connections,
Pnsin = Fy t2[3.1 + 15.62]0.2Qf
For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD):
(511.2-3)
Pr = Pa = required axial strength in chord, using ASD
load combinations, N  = 0.90 (LRFD)  = 1.67 (ASD)
Mr = Ma = required flexural strength in chord, using 2. For the limit state of shear yielding (punching),
ASD load combinations, N-mm Pn = 0.6Fy tDb[(1 + sin)/2sin2]
Fc = 0.6 Fy , MPa
(511.2-4)
511.2.2a Limits of Applicability  = 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD)

The criteria herein are applicable only when the connection This limit state need not be checked when  > (1 − 1/).
configuration is within the following limits of applicability:
Joint eccentricity: −0.55D ≤ e ≤ 0.25D, where D is the 3. For the limit state of chord plastification in cross-
chord diameter and e is positive away from the branches connections,
Pnsin = Fy t2[5.7/(1 − 0.81)]Qf (511.2-5)
1. Branch angle:  ≥ 30
2. Chord wall slenderness: ratio of diameter to wall
thickness less than or equal to 50 for T -, Y - and K-  = 0.90 (LRFD)  = 1.67 (ASD)
connections; less than or equal to 40 for cross-
connections

511.2.2c Branches with Axial Loads in K–Connections U = |Pr /AgFc + Mr /SFc| (511.2-12)
For K-connections, the design strength of the branch, Pn, where
and the allowable strength of the branch, Pn/, shall be the
lower value obtained according to the limit states of chord Pr = required axial strength in chord, N. For gapped
plastification for gapped and overlapped connections and K-connections, Pr is to be determined on the
shear yielding (punching) for gapped connections only. side of the joint that has the higher compression
stress (higher U).
1. For the limit state of chord plastification, Mr = required flexural strength in chord, N-mm
 = 0.90 (LRFD)  = 1.67 (ASD) Fc = available stress, MPa
For the compression branch: S = chord elastic section modulus, mm3
Pnsin = Fy t2[2.0 + 11.33Db/D]QgQf For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD):

(511.2-6) Pr = Pu = required axial strength in chord, using
LRFD load combinations, N
where Db refers to the compression branch only, and
Mr = Mu = required flexural strength in chord, using
  LRFD load combinations, N-mm
 0.24 1.2  Fc = Fy , MPa
Q g   2 1   (511.2-7)
  0.5 g   For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD):
 e t 1.33   1 
   
Pr = Pa = required axial strength in chord, using
ASD load combinations, N
In gapped connections, g (measured along the crown of the Mr = Ma = required flexural strength in chord, using
chord neglecting weld dimensions) is positive. In ASD load combinations, N-mm
overlapped connections, g is negative and equals q. Fc = 0.6Fy , MPa
For the tension branch, 511.2.3a Limits of Applicability
Pnsin = (Pnsin) compression branch The criteria herein are applicable only when the connection
configuration is within the following limits:
(511.2-8)
2. For the limit state of shear yielding (punching) in 1. Joint eccentricity: −0.55H ≤ e ≤ 0.25H, where H is the
gapped K-connections, chord depth and e is positive away from the branches
Pn = 0.6Fy tDb[(1 + sin)/2sin2] (511.2-9) 2. Branch angle:  ≥ 30◦
 = 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD) 3. Chord wall slenderness: ratio of overall wall width to
thickness less than or equal to 35 for gapped K-
511.2.3 Criteria for Rectangular HSS connections and T-, Y- and cross-connections; less than
or equal to 30 for overlapped K-connections
The interaction of stress due to chord member forces and
local branch connection forces shall be incorporated 4. Tension branch wall slenderness: ratio of overall wall
through the chord-stress interaction parameter Qf. width to thickness less than or equal to 35
5. Compression branch wall slenderness: ratio of overall
1. When the chord is in tension,
wall width to thickness less than or equal to
0 .5
Qf = 1 1.25(E/Fyb) and also less than 35 for gapped K-
connections and T-, Y- and cross-connections; less than
2. When the chord is in compression in T -, Y -, and cross- 0.5
or equal to 1.1 (E/Fyb) for overlapped K-connections
connections,
6. Width ratio: ratio of overall wall width of branch to
Qf = 1.3 − 0.4U/ ≤ 1 (511.2-10) overall wall width of chord greater than or equal to 0.25
3. When the chord is in compression in gapped K- for T-, Y-, cross- and overlapped K-connections;
connectins, greater than or equal to 0.35 for gapped K-connections
Qf = 1.3 − 0.4U/eff ≤ 1 (511.2-11) 7. Aspect ratio: 0.5 ≤ ratio of depth to width ≤ 2.0
4. Where U is the utilization ratio given by

8. Overlap: 25% ≤ Ov ≤ 100%, where Ov = (q/p) × 100%. branches in compression shall be taken as the lower of the
strengths for sidewall local yielding and sidewall local
p is the projected length of the overlapping branch on
crippling. For cross-connections with a branch angle less
the chord; q is the overlap length measured along the
than 90 degrees, an additional check for chord sidewall
connecting face of the chord beneath the two branches.
shear failure must be made in accordance with Section
For overlap connections, the larger (or if equal width,
507.5.
the thicker) branch is a “thru member” connected
directly to the chord
This limit state need not be checked unless the chord
9. Branch width ratio for overlap connections: ratio of member and branch member have the same width ( = 1.0).
overall wall width of overlapping branch to overall wall
width of overlapped branch greater than or equal to For the limit state of local yielding,
0.75
Pnsin = 2Fy t[5k + N] (511.2-15)
10. Branch thickness ratio for overlap connections:
thickness of overlapping branch to be less than or equal = 1.00 (LRFD)  = 1.50 (ASD)
to the thickness of the overlapped branch where
11. Strength: Fy ≤ 360 MPa for chord and branches k = outside corner radius of the HSS, which is
permitted to be taken as 1.5t if unknown, mm
12. Ductility: Fy /Fu ≤ 0.8 N = bearing length of the load, parallel to the axis of
the HSS main member, Hb/sin, mm
13. Other limits apply for specific criteria
a. For the limit state of sidewall local crippling, in T- and
511.2.3b Branches with Axial Loads in T-, Y- Y-connections,
and Cross-Connections
Pn sin = 1.6t2[1 + 3N /(H − 3t)](EFy )0.5 Qf
For T-, Y-, and cross-connections, the design strength of the
branch, Pn, or the allowable strength of the branch, Pn/, (511.2-16)
shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit  = 0.75 (LRFD)  = 2.00 (ASD)
states of chord wall plastification, shear yielding
(punching), sidewall strength and local yielding due to b. For the limit state of sidewall local crippling in cross-
uneven load distribution. In addition to the limits of connections,
applicability in Section 511.2.3a,  shall not be less than
Pn sin = [48t3/(H − 3t)](EFy )0.5 Qf
0.25.
(511.2-17)
1. For the limit state of chord wall plastification,
 = 0.90 (LRFD)  = 1.67 (ASD)
Pnsin = Fy t2[2/(1 − ) + 4/(1 − )0.5]Qf
4. For the limit state of local yielding due to uneven load
(511.2-13) distribution,
= 1.00 (LRFD)  = 1.50 (ASD) Pn = Fybtb[2Hb + 2beoi − 4tb]
This limit state need not be checked when  > 0.85. (511.2-18)
2. For the limit state of shear yielding (punching),  = 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD)
Pnsin = 0.6Fyt B[2+ 2eop] (511.2-14) where
 = 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD) beoi = [10/(B/t)][Fy t/(Fybtb)]Bb ≤ Bb
(511.2-19)
In Equation 511.2-14, the effective outside punching This limit state need not be checked when  < 0.85.
parameter eop = 5/ shall not exceed .
511.2.3c Branches with Axial Loads in Gapped K –
This limit state need not be checked when  > (1 − 1/), nor Connections
when  < 0.85 and B/t ≥ 10. For gapped K-connections, the design strength of the
branch, Pn , or the allowable strength of the branch, Pn / ,
3. For the limit state of sidewall strength, the available shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit
strength for branches in tension shall be taken as the states of chord wall plastification, shear yielding
available strength for sidewall local yielding. For the limit (punching), shear yielding and local yielding due to uneven
state of sidewall strength, the available strength for

load distribution. In addition to the limits of applicability in (511.2-24)

Section K2.3a, the following limits shall apply:
For the overlapping branch, and for overlap 50% ≤ Ov <
1. Bb /B ≥ 0.1 +  /50
80% measured with respect to the overlapping branch,
2. eff ≥ 0.35 Pn = Fybi tbi [2Hbi − 4tbi + beoi + beov ] (511.2-25)
3. ≤ 0.5(1 − eff)
For the overlapping branch, and for overlap 80% ≤ Ov ≤
4. Gap: g greater than or equal to the sum of the branch 100% measured with respect to the overlapping branch,
wall thicknesses
Pn = Fybi tbi [2Hbi − 4tbi + Bbi + beov ] (511.2-26)
5. The smaller Bb > 0.63 times the larger Bb
where
For the limit state of chord wall plastification,
beoi is the effective width of the branch face welded to
Pn sin = Fy t2[9.8eff0.5]Qf (511.2-20) the chord,
 = 0.90 (LRFD)  = 1.67 (ASD) beoi = [10/(B/t)][(Fy t)/(Fybi tbi )]Bbi ≤ Bbi (511.2-27)
beov is the effective width of the branch face welded to
a. For the limit state of shear yielding (punching), the overlapped brace,
beov = [10/(Bbj /tbj )][(Fybj tbj )/(Fybi tbi )] Bbi ≤ Bbi
Pn sin = 0.6Fy t B[2 +  + eop ] (511.2-21)
(511.2-28)
 = 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD) Bbi = overall branch width of the overlapping branch,
mm
In the above equation, the effective outside punching
Bbj = overall branch width of the overlapped branch,
parameter eop = 5  / shall not exceed . mm
This limit state need only be checked if Bb < (B – 2t) or the Fybi = specified minimum yield stress of the
branch is not square. overlapping branch material, MPa
Fybj = specified minimum yield stress of the overlapped
a. For the limit state of shear yielding of the chord in the branch material, MPa
gap, available strength shall be checked in accordance Hbi = overall depth of the overlapping branch, mm
with Section 507.5. This limit state need only be tbi = thickness of the overlapping branch, mm
checked if the chord is not square. tbj = thickness of the overlapped branch, mm
b. For the limit state of local yielding due to uneven load
distribution, For the overlapped branch, Pn shall not exceed Pn of the
overlapping branch, calculated using Equation 511.2-24,
Pn = Fybtb[2Hb + Bb + beoi − 4tb] (511.2-22) 511.2-25, or 511.2-26, as applicable, multiplied by the
factor (Abj Fybj /Abi Fybi ),
 = 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD)
where
where
Abi = cross-sectional area of the overlapping branch
beoi = [10/(B/t)][Fy t/(Fybtb)]Bb ≤ Bb (511.2-23)
Abj = cross-sectional area of the overlapped branch
This limit state need only be checked if the branch is not
511.2.3e Welds to Branches
square or B/t <15.
The nonuniformity of load transfer along the line of weld,
511.2.3d Branches with Axial Loads in Overlapped due to differences in relative flexibility of HSS walls in
K – Connections HSS-to-HSS connections, shall be considered in
proportioning such welds. This can be considered by
For overlapped K-connections, the design strength of the
limiting the total effective weld length, Le, of groove and
branch, Pn, or the allowable strength of the branch, Pn/, fillet welds to rectangular HSS as follows:
shall be determined from the limit state of local yielding due
to uneven load distribution,
1. In T-, Y- and cross-connections, for  ≤ 50 degrees
= 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD)
2 ( H b  1 . 2t b )
Le   ( B b  1 .2t b ) (511.2-29)
For the overlapping branch, and for overlap 25% ≤ Ov ≤ sin 
50% measured with respect to the overlapping branch, for  ≥ 60 degrees
Pn = Fybi tbi [(Ov/50)(2Hbi − 4tbi ) + beoi + beov ]

2 ( H b  1 . 2t b ) Fu = ultimate strength of HSS member, MPa

Le  (511.2-30) H = overall height of rectangular HSS main member,
sin 
Linear interpolation shall be used to determine Le for values Hb = overall height of rectangular HSS branch
of  between 50 and 60 degrees. member, measured in the plane of the
connection, mm
2. In gapped K-connections, around each branch,
t = design wall thickness of HSS main member, mm
for  ≤ 50 degrees tb = design wall thickness of HSS branch member,
mm
2 ( H b  1 .2t b )  = the width ratio; the ratio of branch diameter to
Le   2 ( B b  1 . 2t b ) (511.2-31)
sin  chord diameter = Db/Dfor round HSS; the ratio
of overall branch width to chord width = Bb/B
for  ≥ 60 degrees for rectangular HSS
 = the chord slenderness ratio; the ratio of one-half
2 ( H b  1 . 2t b ) the diameter to the wall thickness = D/2t for
Le   ( B b  1 . 2t b ) (511.2-32)
sin  round HSS; the ratio of one-half the width to
wall thickness = B/2t for rectangular HSS
Linear interpolation shall be used to determine Le for values
 = the load length parameter, applicable only to
of  between 50 and 60 degrees. In lieu of the above criteria rectangular HSS; the ratio of the length of
in Equations 511.2-29 to 511.2-32, other rational criteria are contact of the branch with the chord in the plane
permitted. of the connection to the chord width = N/B,
where N = Hb/sin
511.3 HSS-to-HSS Moment Connections
 = acute angle between the branch and chord
HSS-to-HSS moment connections are defined as (degrees)
connections that consist of one or two branch members that
are directly welded to a continuous chord that passes 511.3.2 Criteria for Round HSS
through the connection, with the branch or branches loaded
The interaction of stress due to chord member forces and
by bending moments.
local branch connection forces shall be incorporated
through the chord-stress interaction parameter Qf.
A connection shall be classified
When the chord is in tension,
1. As a T-connection when there is one branch and it is
perpendicular to the chord and as a Y-connection when Qf = 1
there is one branch but not perpendicular to the chord.
When the chord is in compression,
2. As a cross-connection when there is a branch on each
(opposite) side of the chord. Qf = 1.0 − 0.3U(1 + U) (511.3-1)
For the purposes of this Specification, the centerlines of the where U is the utilization ratio given by
branch member(s) and the chord member shall lie in a
U = |Pr /AgFc + Mr /SFc| (511.3-2)
common plane.
where
511.3.1 Definitions of Parameters
Pr = required axial strength in chord, N
B = overall width of rectangular HSS main member, Mr = required flexural strength in chord, N-mm
measured 90 degrees to the plane of the Ag = chord gross area, mm2
connection, mm Fc = available stress, MPa
Bb = overall width of rectangular HSS branch S = chord elastic section modulus, mm3
member, measured 90 degrees to the plane of the
connection, mm
D = outside diameter of round HSS main member,
mm
Db = outside diameter of round HSS branch member,
mm
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of HSS main
member, MPa
Fyb = specified minimum yield stress of HSS branch
member, MPa

511.3.2c Branches with Out-of-Plane Bending

For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD): Moments in T-, Y- and Cross-Connections
Pr = Pu = required axial strength in chord, using The design strength, Mn, and the allowable strength, Mn/,
LRFD load combinations, N shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit
Mr = Mu = required flexural strength in chord, using states of chord plastification and shear yielding (punching).
LRFD load combinations, N-mm 1. For the limit state of chord plastification,
Fc = Fy , MPa
Mnsin = Fy t2Db[3.0/(1 − 0.81)]Qf
For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD):
(511.3-5)
Pr = Pa = required axial strength in chord, using
ASD load combinations, N  = 0.90 (LRFD)  = 1.67 (ASD)
Mr = Ma = required flexural strength in chord, using
2. For the limit state of shear yielding (punching),
ASD load combinations, N-mm
Fc = 0.6Fy , MPa Mn = 0.6FytDb2[(3 + sin)/4sin2]Qf (511.3-6)
511.3.2a Limits of Applicability  = 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD)

configuration is within the following limits of applicability: This limit state need not be checked when  > (1 − 1/).
1. Branch angle:  ≥ 30◦ 511.3.2d Branches with Combined Bending Moment

and Axial Force in T-, Y and Cross – Connections
2. Chord wall slenderness: ratio of diameter to wall Connections subject to branch axial load, branch in-plane
thickness less than or equal to 50 for T - and Y- bending moment, and branch out-of-plane bending moment,
connections; less than or equal to 40 for cross- or any combination of these load effects, should satisfy the
connections following.
3. Tension branch wall slenderness: ratio of diameter to
wall thickness less than or equal to 50 For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD):
4. Compression branch wall slenderness: ratio of diameter (Pr/Pn) + (Mr-ip/Mn-ip)2 + (Mr-op/Mn-op) ≤ 1.0
to wall thickness less than or equal to 0.05E/Fy (511.3-7)
5. Width ratio: 0.2 < Db/D ≤ 1.0 where
6. Strength: Fy ≤ 360 MPa for chord and branches Pr = Pu = required axial strength in branch, using
LRFD load combinations, N
7. Ductility: Fy /Fu ≤ 0.8 Pn = design strength obtained from Section 511.2.2b
Mr-ip = required in-plane flexural strength in branch,
511.3.2b Branches with In-Plane Bending Moments in using LRFD load combinations, N-mm
T-, Y- and Cross-Connections Mn-ip = design strength obtained from Section 511.3.2b
Mr-op = required out-of-plane flexural strength in
The design strength, Mn, and the allowable strength, Mn/,
branch, using LRFD load combinations, N-mm
shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit
Mn-op = design strength obtained from Section 511.3.2c
states of chord plastification and shear yielding (punching).
1. For the limit state of chord plastification, For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD):
Mnsin = 5.39Fy t   Db Qf
2 0.5
(511.3-3) (Pr /(Pn/)) + (Mr-ip/(Mn-ip/))2 + (Mr-op/(Mn-op/)) ≤ 1.0
= 0.90 (LRFD)  = 1.67 (ASD) (511.3-8)

where
2. For the limit state of shear yielding (punching),
Pr = Pa = required axial strength in branch, using
Mn = 0.6FytDb2[(1 + 3sin)/4sin2] (511.3-4)
 = 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD) Pn/Ω = allowable strength obtained from Section
511.2.2b
This limit state need not be checked when  > (1 − 1/). Mr-ip = required in-plane flexural strength in branch,
using ASD load combinations, N-mm

Mn-ip/Ω= allowable strength obtained from Section 1.25(E/Fyb)0.5 and also less than 35
511.3.2b
5. Width ratio: ratio of overall wall width of branch to
Mr-op = required out-of-plane flexural strength in branch,
overall wall width of chord greater than or equal to 0.25
Mn-op/Ω= allowable strength obtained from Section 6. Aspect ratio: 0.5 ≤ ratio of depth to width ≤ 2.0
511.3.2c
7. Strength: Fy ≤ 360 MPa for chord and branches
511.3.3 Criteria for Rectangular HSS 8. Ductility: Fy/Fu ≤ 0.8
The interaction of stress due to chord member forces and 9. Other limits apply for specific criteria
local branch connection forces shall be incorporated
through the chord-stress interaction parameter Qf. 511.3.3b Branches with In-Plane Bending Moments
When the chord is in tension, in T- and Cross-Connections
The design strength, Mn, and the allowable strength, Mn/,
Qf = 1 shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit
When the chord is in compression, states of chord wall plastification, sidewall local yielding
and local yielding due to uneven load distribution.
Qf = (1.3 − 0.4U/) ≤ 1 (511.3-9)
1. For the limit state of chord wall plastification,
where U is the utilization ratio given by
Mn = Fy t2Hb[(1/2) + 2/(1 − )0.5 + /(1 − )]Qf
U = |Pr /AgFc + Mr /SFc| (511.3-10) (511.3-11)
where  = 1.00 (LRFD)  = 1.50 (ASD)
Pr = required axial strength in chord, N This limit state need not be checked when  > 0.85.
Mr = required flexural strength in chord, N-mm
2. For the limit state of sidewall local yielding,
Fc = available stress, MPa Mn = 0.5Fy*t(Hb + 5t)2 (511.3-12)
S = chord elastic section modulus, mm3
 = 1.00 (LRFD)  = 1.50 (ASD)
For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD):
where
Pr = Pu = required axial strength in chord, using
LRFD load combinations, N Fy∗ = Fy for T-connections
Mr = Mu = required flexural strength in chord,
F∗ = 0.8Fy for cross-connections
usingLRFDload combinations, N-mm y
Fc = Fy , MPa This limit state need not be checked when  < 0.85.
For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD): 3. For the limit state of local yielding due to uneven load
distribution,
Pr = Pa = required axial strength in chord, using Mn = Fyb[Zb − (1 − beoi /Bb)BbHbtb] (511.3-13)
Mr = Ma = required flexural strength in chord, using  = 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD)
ASD load combinations, N-mm
Fc = 0.6Fy , MPa where
511.3.3a Limits of Applicability beoi = [10/(B/t)][Fy t/(Fybtb)]Bb ≤ Bb (511.3-14)

Zb = branch plastic section modulus about the axis of
bending, mm3
configuration is within the following limits:
This limit state need not be checked when β< 0.85.
1. Branch angle is approximately 90◦
2. Chord wall slenderness: ratio of overall wall width to
thickness less than or equal to 35
3. Tension branch wall slenderness: ratio of overall wall
width to thickness less than or equal to 35
4. Compression branch wall slenderness: ratio of overall
wall width to thickness less than or equal to

(Pr /Pn) + (Mr-ip/Mn-ip) + (Mr-op/Mn-op) ≤ 1.0

511.3.3c Branches with Out-of-Plane Bending
(511.3-20)
Moments in T- and Cross-Connections
The design strength, Mn, and the allowable strength, Mn/, where
shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit Pr = Pu = required axial strength in branch, using
states of chord wall plastification, sidewall local yielding, LRFD load combinations, N
local yielding due to uneven load distribution and chord Pn = design strength obtained from Section 511.2.3b
distortional failure. Mr-ip = required in-plane flexural strength in branch,
1. For the limit state of chord wall plastification, using LRFD load combinations, N-mm
Mn-ip = design strength obtained from Section 511.3.3b
Mn = Fy t2[0.5Hb(1 + )/(1−)+[2BBb(1 + )/(1−)]0.5]Qf Mr-op = required out-of-plane flexural strength in branch,
(511.3-15) using LRFD load combinations, N-mm
Mn-op = design strength obtained from Section 511.3.3c
 = 1.00 (LRFD)  = 1.50 (ASD)
This limit state need not be checked when  > 0.85. For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD)
2. For the limit state of sidewall local yielding, (Pr /(Pn/)) + (Mr-ip/(Mn-ip/)) + (Mr-op/(Mn-op/)) ≤ 1.0
*
Mn = F t(B − t)(Hb + 5t) (511.3-16) (511.3-21)
= 1.00 (LRFD)  = 1.50 (ASD) where
where Pr = Pa = required axial strength in branch, using

Fy∗ = Fy for T-connections Pn/Ω = allowable strength obtained from Section
511.2.3b
Fy∗ = 0.8Fy for cross-connections Mr-ip = required in-plane flexural strength in branch,
This limit state need not be checked when  < 0.85.
Mn-ip/Ω = allowable strength obtained from Section
3. For the limit state of local yielding due to uneven load 511.3.3b
distribution, Mr-op = required out-of-plane flexural strength in
Mn = Fyb[Zb − 0.5(1 − beoi /Bb)2Bb2tb] (511.3-17) branch, using ASD load combinations, N-mm
Mn-op/ = allowable strength obtained from Section
= 0.95 (LRFD)  = 1.58 (ASD) 511.3.3c
where
beoi = [10/(B/t)][Fy t/(Fybtb)]Bb ≤ Bb (511.3-18)

Zb = branch plastic section modulus about the axis of
bending, mm3
This limit state need not be checked when  < 0.85.
4. For the limit state of chord distortional failure,
Mn = 2Fy t[Hbt + [BHt(B + H)]0.5] (511.3-19)
 = 1.00 (LRFD)  = 1.50 (ASD)

This limit state need not be checked for cross-connections
or for T-connections if chord distortional failure is
prevented by other means.
511.3.3d Branches with Combined Bending Moment

and Axial Force in T- and Cross-Connections
Connections subject to branch axial load, branch in-plane
bending moment, and branch out-of-plane bending moment,
or any combination of these load effects, should satisfy

SECTION 512 - DESIGN FOR members, the additional deflections due to the shrinkage
and creep of the concrete should be considered.
SERVICEABILITY
This Section addresses serviceability performance design 512.4 Drift
requirements. The Section is organized as follows: Drift of a structure shall be evaluated under service loads to
provide for serviceability of the structure, including the
512.1 General Provisions integrity of interior partitions and exterior cladding. Drift
512.2 Camber under strength load combinations shall not cause collision
512.3 Deflections with adjacent structures or exceed the limiting values of
512.4 Drift such drifts that may be specified by this code.
512.5 Vibration
512.6 Wind-Induced Motion 512.5 Vibration
512.7 Expansion and Contraction The effect of vibration on the comfort of the occupants and
512.8 Connection Slip the function of the structure shall be considered. The
sources of vibration to be considered include pedestrian
512.1 General Provisions loading, vibrating machinery and others identified for the
Serviceability is a state in which the function of a building, structure.
its appearance, maintainability, durability, and comfort of
its occupants are preserved under normal usage. Limiting 512.6 Wind-Induced Motion
values of structural behavior for serviceability (for example, The effect of wind-induced motion of buildings on the
maximum deflections, accelerations) shall be chosen with comfort of occupants shall be considered.
due regard to the intended function of the structure.
Serviceability shall be evaluated using appropriate load 512.7 Expansion and Contraction
combinations for the serviceability limit states identified.
The effects of thermal expansion and contraction of a
building shall be considered. Damage to building cladding
User Note: Additional information on serviceability limit
can cause water penetration and may lead to corrosion.
states, service loads and appropriate load combinations for
serviceability requirements can be found in ASCE 7,
512.8 Connection Slip
Appendix B and its Commentary. The performance
requirements for serviceability in this Section are consistent The effects of connection slip shall be included in the
with those requirements. Service loads, as stipulated herein, design where slip at bolted connections may cause
are those that act on the structure at an arbitrary point in deformations that impair the serviceability of the structure.
time. That is, the appropriate load combinations are often Where appropriate, the connection shall be designed to
less severe than those in ASCE 7, Section 2.4, where the preclude slip. For the design of slip-critical connections see
LRFD load combinations are given. Sections 510.3.8 and 510.3.9.
512.2 Camber User Note: For more information on connection slip, refer
to the RCSC Specification for Structural Joints Using
Where camber is used to achieve proper position and
ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts.
location of the structure, the magnitude, direction and
location of camber shall be specified in the structural
drawings.
User Note: Camber recommendations are provided in the

Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges.
512.3 Deflections
Deflections in structural members and structural systems
under appropriate service load combinations shall not
impair the serviceability of the structure.
User Note: Conditions to be considered include levelness

of floors, alignment of structural members, integrity of
building finishes, and other factors that affect the normal
usage and function of the structure. For composite

requirements of Section 510.1.6. Beam copes and welds

SECTION 513 - FABRICATION, access holes in shapes that are to be galvanized shall be
ERECTION AND QUALITY ground. For shapes with a flange thickness not exceeding 50
mm the roughness of thermally cut surfaces of copes shall
CONTROL be no greater than a surface roughness value of 50 m as
This Section addresses requirements for shop drawings, defined in ASME B46.1 Surface Texture (Surface
fabrication, shop painting, erection and quality control. Roughness, Waviness, and Lay). For beam copes and weld
access holes in which the curved part of the access hole is
The Section is organized as follows: thermally cut in ASTM A6/A6M hot rolled shapes with a
flange thickness exceeding 50 mm and welded built-up
513.1 Shop and Erection Drawings shapes with material thickness greater than 50 mm, a
513.2 Fabrication preheat temperature of not less than 150 ◦F (66 ◦C) shall be
513.3 Shop Painting applied prior to thermal cutting. The thermally cut surface
513.4 Erection of access holes in ASTM A6/A6M hot-rolled shapes witha
513.5 Quality Control flange thickness exceeding 50 mm and built-up shapes with
a material thickness greater than 50 mm shall be ground
513.1 Shop and Erection Drawings and inspected for cracks using magnetic particle inspection
in accordance with ASTM E709. Any crack is unacceptable
Shop drawings shall be prepared in advance of fabrication
regardless of size or location.
and give complete information necessary for the fabrication
of the component parts of the structure, including the
location, type and size of welds and bolts. Erection User Note: The AWS Surface Roughness Guide for
drawings shall be prepared in advance of erection and give Oxygen Cutting (AWS C4.1-77) sample 3 may be used as a
information necessary for erection of the structure. Shop guide for evaluating the surface roughness of copes in
and erection drawings shall clearly distinguish between shapes with flanges not exceeding 50 mm thick.
shop and field welds and bolts and shall clearly identify
pretensioned and slip-critical high-strength bolted 513.2.3 Planing of Edges
connections. Shop and erection drawings shall be made with Planing or finishing of sheared or thermally cut edges of
due regard to speed and economy in fabrication and plates or shapes is not required unless specifically called for
erection. in the contract documents or included in a stipulated edge
preparation for welding.
513.2 Fabrication
513.2.4 Welded Construction
513.2.1 Cambering, Curving and Straightening The technique of welding, the workmanship, appearance
Local application of heat or mechanical means is permitted and quality of welds, and the methods used in correcting
to be used to introduce or correct camber, curvature and nonconforming work shall be in accordance with AWS
straightness. The temperature of heated areas, as measured D1.1 except as modified in Section 510.2.
by approved methods, shall not exceed 1,100 ◦F (593 ◦C)
513.2.5 Bolted Construction
for A514/A514M and A852/A852M steel nor 1,200 ◦F Parts of bolted members shall be pinned or bolted and
(649 ◦C) for other steels. rigidly held together during assembly. Use of a drift pin in
bolt holes during assembly shall not distort the metal or
enlarge the holes. Poor matching of holes shall be cause for
513.2.2 Thermal Cutting
rejection.
Thermally cut edges shall meet the requirements of AWS
D1.1, Sections 5.15.1.2, 5.15.4.3 and 5.15.4.4 with the Bolt holes shall comply with the provisions of the RCSC
exception that thermally cut free edges that will be subject Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or
to calculated static tensile stress shall be free of round- A490 Bolts, Section 3.3 except that thermally cut holes
bottom gouges greater than 5 mm deep and sharp V-shaped shall be permitted with a surface roughness profile not
notches. Gouges deeper than 5 mm and notches shall be exceeding 25 m as defined in ASME B46.1. Gouges shall
removed by grinding or repaired by welding. not exceed a depth of 2 mm.
Reentrant corners, except reentrant corners of beam copes Fully inserted finger shims, with a total thickness of not
and weld access holes, shall meet the requirements of AWS more than 6 mm within a joint, are permitted in joints
D1.1, Section A5.16. If another specified contour is without changing the strength (based upon hole type) for the
required it must be shown on the contract documents. Beam design of connections. The orientation of such shims is
copes and weld access holes shall meet the geometrical

independent of the direction of application of the load. The User Note: See The Design of Products to be Hot-Dip
use of high-strength bolts shall conform to the requirements Galvanized after Fabrication, American Galvanizer’s
of the RCSC Specification for Structural Joints Using Association, and ASTM A123, A153, A384 and A780 for
ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts, except as modified in Section useful information on design and detailing of galvanized
510.3.513.2.6 Compression Joints members.
Compression joints that depend on contact bearing as part 513.3 Shop Painting
of the splice strength shall have the bearing surfaces of
individual fabricated pieces prepared by milling, sawing, or 513.3.1 General Requirements
other suitable means. Shop painting and surface preparation shall be in
accordance with the provisions of the AISC Code of
513.2.7 Dimensional Tolerances Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges. Shop
Dimensional tolerances shall be in accordance with the paint is not required unless specified by the contract
AISC Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and documents.
Bridges.
513.3.2 Inaccessible Surfaces
513.2.8 Finish of Column Bases Except for contact surfaces, surfaces inaccessible after shop
Column bases and base plates shall be finished in assembly shall be cleaned and painted prior to assembly, if
accordance with the following requirements: required by the design documents.
1. Steel bearing plates 50 mm or less in thickness are
513.3.3 Contact Surfaces
permitted without milling, provided a satisfactory
contact bearing is obtained. Steel bearing plates over 50 Paint is permitted in bearing-type connections. For slip-
mm but not over 100 mm in thickness are permitted to critical connections, the faying surface requirements shall
be straightened by pressing or, if presses are not be in accordance with the RCSC Specification for Structural
available, by milling for bearing surfaces (except as Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts, Section 3.2.2(b).
noted in subparagraphs 2 and 3 of this section), to
obtain a satisfactory contact bearing. Steel bearing 513.3.4 Finished Surfaces
plates over 100 mm in thickness shall be milled for Machine-finished surfaces shall be protected against
bearing surfaces (except as noted in subparagraphs 2 corrosion by a rust inhibitive coating that can be removed
and 3 of this section). prior to erection, or which has characteristics that make
removal prior to erection unnecessary.
2. Bottom surfaces of bearing plates and column bases
that are grouted to ensure full bearing contact on
foundations need not be milled. 513.3. 5 Surfaces Adjacent to Field Welds
Unless otherwise specified in the design documents,
3. Top surfaces of bearing plates need not be milled when surfaces within 50 mm of any field weld location shall be
complete-joint penetration groove welds are provided free of materials that would prevent proper welding or
between the column and the bearing plate. produce objectionable fumes during welding.
513.2.9 Holes for Anchor Rods
Holes for anchor rods shall be permitted to be thermally cut
in accordance with the provisions of Section 513.2.2.
513.2.10 Drain Holes

When water can collect inside HSS or box members, either
during construction or during service, the member shall be
sealed, provided with a drain hole at the base, or protected
by other suitable means.
513.2.11 Requirements for Galvanized Members

Members and parts to be galvanized shall be designed,
detailed and fabricated to provide for flow and drainage of
pickling fluids and zinc and to prevent pressure build-up in
enclosed parts.

513.5 Quality Control

513.4 Erection The fabricator shall provide quality control procedures to
the extent that the fabricator deems necessary to assure that
513.4.1 Alignment of Column Bases the work is performed in accordance with this Specification.
Column bases shall be set level and to correct elevation with In addition to the fabricator’s quality control procedures,
full bearing on concrete or masonry. material and workmanship at all times may be subject to
inspection by qualified inspectors representing the
513.4.2 Bracing purchaser. If such inspection by representatives of the
The frame of steel skeleton buildings shall be carried up purchaser will be required, it shall be so stated in the design
true and plumb within the limits defined in the AISC Code documents.
of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges.
Temporary bracing shall be provided, in accordance with 513.5.1 Cooperation
the requirements of the Code of Standard Practice for Steel As far as possible, the inspection by representatives of the
Buildings and Bridges, wherever necessary to support the purchaser shall be made at the fabricator’s plant. The
loads to which the structure may be subjected, including fabricator shall cooperate with the inspector, permitting
equipment and the operation of same. Such bracing shall be access for inspection to all places where work is being done.
left in place as long as required for safety. The purchaser’s inspector shall schedule this work for
minimum interruption to the work of the fabricator.
513.4.3 Alignment
No permanent bolting or welding shall be performed until 513.5.2 Rejections
the adjacent affected portions of the structure have been Material or workmanship not in conformance with the
properly aligned. provisions of this Specification may be rejected at any time
during the progress of the work. The fabricator shall receive
513.4.4 Fit of Column Compression Joints and copies of all reports furnished to the purchaser by the
Base Plates inspection agency.
Lack of contact bearing not exceeding a gap of 2 mm,
regardless of the type of splice used ( partial-joint- 513.5.3 Inspection of Welding
penetration groove welded or bolted), is permitted. If the The inspection of welding shall be performed in accordance
gap exceeds 2 mm, but is less than 6 mm, and if an with the provisions of AWS D1.1 except as modified in
engineering investigation shows that sufficient contact area Section 510.2. When visual inspection is required to be
does not exist, the gap shall be packed out with nontapered performed by AWS certified welding inspectors, it shall be
steel shims. Shims need not be other than mild steel, so specified in the design documents. When nondestructive
regardless of the grade of the main material. testing is required, the process, extent and standards of
acceptance shall be clearly defined in the design documents.
513.4.5 Field Welding
Shop paint on surfaces adjacent to joints to be field welded 513.5.4 Inspection of Slip-Critical High-Strength
shall be wire brushed if necessary to assure weld quality. Bolted Connections.
Field welding of attachments to installed embedments in The inspection of slip-critical high-strength bolted
contact with concrete shall be done in such a manner as to connections shall be in accordance with the provisions of
avoid excessive thermal expansion of the embedment which the RCSC Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM
could result in spalling or cracking of the concrete or A325 or A490 Bolts.
excessive stress in the embedment anchors.
513.5.5 Identification of Steel
513.4.6 Field Painting The fabricator shall be able to demonstrate by a written
Responsibility for touch-up painting, cleaning and field procedure and by actual practice a method of material
painting shall be allocated in accordance with accepted local identification, visible at least through the “fit-up” operation,
practices, and this allocation shall be set forth explicitly in for the main structural elements of each shipping piece.
the design documents.
513.4.7 Field Connections

As erection progresses, the structure shall be securely bolted
or welded to support the dead, wind and erection loads.

APPENDIX A-1 - INELASTIC where

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN Ag = gross area of member, mm2
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the
Design by inelastic analysis is subject to the supplementary compression flange, MPa
provisions of this appendix. c = resistance factor for compression = 0.90
c = safety factor for compression = 1.67
The appendix is organized as follows:
A-1.4 Local Buckling
A-1.1 General Provisions
Flanges and webs of members subject to plastic hinging in
A-1.2 Materials
combined flexure and axial compression shall be compact
A-1.3 Moment Redistribution
with width-thickness ratios less than or equal to the limiting
A-1.4 Local Buckling
λp defined in Table 502.4.1 or as modified as follows:
A-1.5 Stability and Second-Order Effects
A-1.5a Braced Frames 1. For webs of doubly symmetric wide flange members
A-1.8b Moment Frames and rectangular HSS in combined flexure and
A-1.6 Columns and Other Compression compression
Members
A-1.7 Beams and Other Flexural Members a. For Pu/bPy ≤ 0.125
A-1.8 Members under Combined Forces
A-1.9 Connections E 2.75Pu
h / t w  3.76 (1  ) (A-1-1)
Fy  b Py
Inelastic analysis is permitted for design according to the b. For Pu/bPy > 0.125
provisions of Section 502.3.3 (LRFD). Inelastic analysis is
not permitted for design according to the provisions of E P E
h / t w  1.12 (2.33  u )  1.49 (A-1-2)
Section 502.3.4 (ASD) except as provided in Section A-1.3. Fy  b Py Fy
A-1.2 Materials where

Members undergoing plastic hinging shall have a specified E = modulus of elasticity of steel = 200,000 MPa
minimum yield stress not exceeding 450 MPa. Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of
steel being used, MPa
A-1.3 Moment Redistribution h = as defined in Section 502.4.2, mm
Beams and girders composed of compact sections as Pu = required axial strength in compression, N
defined in Section 502.4 and satisfying the unbraced length Py = member yield strength, N
requirements of Section A-1.7, including composite tw = web thickness, mm
members, may be proportioned for nine-tenths of the b = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90
negative moments at points of support, produced by the
2. For flanges of rectangular box and hollow structural
gravity loading computed by an elastic analysis, provided
sections of uniform thickness subject to bending or
that the maximum positive moment is increased by one-
compression, flange cover plates, and diaphragm plates
tenth of the average negative moments. This reduction is not
between lines of fasteners or welds
permitted for moments produced by loading on cantilevers
and for design according to Sections A-1.4 through A-1.8 of (A-1-3)
this appendix.
where
If the negative moment is resisted by a column rigidly b = as defined in Section 502.4.2, mm
framed to the beam or girder, the one-tenth reduction may t = as defined in Section 502.4.2, mm
be used in proportioning the column for combined axial
force and flexure, provided that the axial force does not 3. For circular hollow sections in flexure
exceed 0.15fcFy Ag for LRFD or 0.15Fy Ag/c for ASD,
D/t ≤ 0.045E/Fy (A-1-4)

where A-1.7 Beams and Other Flexural Members

D = outside diameter of round HSS member, mm The required moment strength, Mu, of beams designed on
the basis of inelastic analysis shall not exceed the design
A-1.5 Stability and Second-Order Effects strength, Mn, where
Continuous beams not subjected to axial loads and that do Mn = Mp = Fy Z < 1.6Fy S (A-1-6)
not contribute to lateral stability of framed structures may
be designed based on a first-order inelastic analysis or a  = 0.90 (LRFD)
plastic mechanism analysis. Braced frames and moment
frames may be designed based on a first-order inelastic
analysis or a plastic mechanism analysis provided that Design by inelastic analysis is permitted for members that
stability and second-order effects are taken into account. are compact as defined in Section 502.4 and as modified in
Section A-1.4.
Structures may be designed on the basis of a second-order
inelastic analysis. For beam-columns, connections and The laterally unbraced length, Lb, of the compression flange
connected members, the required strengths shall be adjacent to plastic hinge locations shall not exceed Lpd ,
determined from a second-order inelastic analysis, where determined as follows.
equilibrium is satisfied on the deformed geometry, taking
into account the change in stiffness due to yielding. 1. For doubly symmetric and singly symmetric I-shaped
members with the compression flange equal to or larger
A-1.5a Braced Frames than the tension flange loaded in the plane of the web:
In braced frames designed on the basis of inelastic analysis, M1 E
L pd  [0.12  0.076 ( )] ( ) r y (A-1-7)
braces shall be designed to remain elastic under the design M2 Fy
loads. The required axial strength for columns and
compression braces shall not exceed c (0.85Fy Ag), where
where M1 = smaller moment at end of unbraced length of
beam, N-mm
c = 0.90 (LRFD) M2 = larger moment at end of unbraced length of
beam, N-mm
A-1.5b Moment Frames ry = radius of gyration about minor axis, mm(M1/M2)
In moment frames designed on the basis of inelastic is positive when moments cause reverse
analysis, the required axial strength of columns shall not curvature and negative for single curvature.
exceed c(0.75Fy Ag),
2. For solid rectangular bars and symmetric box beams:
where
M1 E E
L pd  [0.17  0.10( )]( )r y  0.10( ) r y
c = 0.90 (LRFD) M 2 Fy Fy
(A-1-8)
A-1.6 Columns and Other Compression Members
In addition to the limits set in Sections A-1.5.a and A-1.5.b, There is no limit on Lb for members with circular or square
the required axial strength of columns designed on the basis cross sections or for any beam bent about its minor axis.
of inelastic analysis shall not exceed the design strength,
cPn, determined according to the provisions of Section A-1.8 Members under Combined Forces
505.3. When inelastic analysis is used for symmetric members
subject to bending and axial force, the provisions in Section
Design by inelastic analysis is permitted if the column 508.1 apply. Inelastic analysis is not permitted for members
slenderness ratio, L/r, does not exceed 4.71 , subject to torsion and combined torsion, flexure, shear
and/or axial force.
where
L = laterally unbraced length of a member, mm A-1.9 Connections
r = governing radius of gyration, mm Connections adjacent to plastic hinging regions of
connected members shall be designed with sufficient
User Note: A well-proportioned member will not be strength and ductility to sustain the forces and deformations
expected to reach this limit. imposed under the required loads.

APPENDIX A-2 - DESIGN FOR

PONDING
This appendix provides methods for determining whether a
roof system has adequate strength and stiffness to resist
ponding.
A-2.1 Simplified Design for Ponding

A-2.2 Improved Design for Ponding
A-2.1 Simplified Design for Ponding

The roof system shall be considered stable for ponding and
no further investigation is needed if both of the following
two conditions are met:
Cp + 0.9Cs ≤ 0.25 (A-2-1)
4
Id ≥ 3940 S (A- 2-2)
where
504Ls L p 4
Cs  Fig. A-2-1. Limiting flexibility coefficient for the primary
Id systems.
504 SLs 4 For secondary members, the stress index shall be

Cs 
Is
0 .8 F y  f o
Us  ( ) (A-2-4)
Lp = column spacing in direction of girder (length of fo
primary members), m
Ls = column spacing perpendicular to direction of where
girder (length of secondary members), m
fo = stress due to the load combination (D + R)
S = spacing of secondary members, m
D = nominal dead load
Ip = moment of inertia of primary members, mm4
R = nominal load due to rainwater or snow, exclusive
Is = moment of inertia of secondary members, mm4
of the ponding contribution, MPa
Id = moment of inertia of the steel deck supported on
secondary members, mm4 per m
For roof framing consisting of primary and secondary
members, the combined stiffness shall be evaluated as
For trusses and steel joists, the moment of inertia Is shall be
follows: enter Figure A-2-1 at the level of the computed
decreased 15 percent when used in the above equation. A
stress index Up determined for the primary beam; move
steel deck shall be considered a secondary member when it
horizontally to the computed Csvalue of the secondary
is directly supported by the primary members.
beams and then downward to the abscissa scale. The
combined stiffness of the primary and secondary framing is
A-2.2 Improved Design for Ponding
sufficient to prevent ponding if the flexibility constant read
The provisions given below are permitted to be used when a from this latter scale is more than the value of Cp computed
more exact determination of framing stiffness is needed for the given primary member; if not, a stiffer primary or
than that given in Section A-2.1. secondary beam, or combination of both, is required.
For primary members, the stress index shall be

0.8 Fy  f o
Up ( ) (A-2-3)
fo

A similar procedure must be followed using Figure A-2-2. APPENDIX A-3 - DESIGN FOR
FATIGUE
This appendix applies to members and connections subject
to high cycle loading within the elastic range of stresses of
frequency and magnitude sufficient to initiate cracking and
progressive failure, which defines the limit state of fatigue.
A-3.1 General
A-3.2 Calculation of Maximum Stresses and
Stress Ranges
A-3.3 Design Stress Range
A-3.4 Bolts and Threaded Parts
A-3.5 Special Fabrication and Erection
Requirements
A-3.1 General
The provisions of this Appendix apply to stresses calculated
on the basis of service loads. The maximum permitted stress
due to unfactored loads is 0.66Fy .
Stress range is defined as the magnitude of the change in

Fig. A-2-2. Limiting flexibility coefficient for the secondary stress due to the application or removal of the service live
systems. load. In the case of a stress reversal, the stress range shall be
computed as the numerical sum of maximum repeated
For roof framing consisting of a series of equally spaced tensile and compressive stresses or the numerical sum of
wall-bearing beams, the stiffness shall be evaluated as maximum shearing stresses of opposite direction at the
follows. The beams are considered as secondary members point of probable crack initiation.
supported on an infinitely stiff primary member. For this
case, enter Figure A-2-2 with the computed stress index Us . In the case of complete-joint-penetration butt welds, the
The limiting value of Cs is determined by the intercept of a maximum design stress range calculated by Equation A-3-1
horizontal line representing the Us value and the curve for applies only to welds with internal soundness meeting the
Cp = 0. acceptance requirements of Section 6.12.2 or 6.13.2 of
AWS D1.1.
User Note: The ponding deflection contributed by a metal
deck is usually such a small part of the total ponding No evaluation of fatigue resistance is required if the live
deflection of a roof panel that it is sufficient merely to limit load stress range is less than the threshold stress range, FTH.
its moment of inertia per meter of width normal to its span See Table A-3-1.
to 3940l4 mm4/m.
No evaluation of fatigue resistance is required if the number
For roof framing consisting of metal deck spanning between of cycles of application of live load is less than 20,000.
beams supported on columns, the stiffness shall be
evaluated as follows. Employ Figure A-2-1 or A-2-2 using The cyclic load resistance determined by the provisions of
as Cs the flexibility constant for a 1 m width of the roof deck this Appendix is applicable to structures with suitable
(S = 1.0). corrosion protection or subject only to mildly corrosive
atmospheres, such as normal atmospheric conditions.
The cyclic load resistance determined by the provisions of
this Appendix is applicable only to structures subject to
temperatures not exceeding 300°F (150°C).

Cf 11X 10 4 0.167
The engineer-of-record shall provide either complete details FSR  ( )  FTH (A-3-2)
including weld sizes or shall specify the planned cycle life N
and the maximum range of moments, shears and reactions 3. For tension-loaded plate elements connected at their
for the connections. end by cruciform, T, or corner details with complete-
joint-penetration (CJP) groove welds or partial joint-
A-3.2 Calculation of Maximum Stresses and Stress penetration (PJP) groove welds, fillet welds, or
Ranges combinations of the preceding, transverse to the
Calculated stresses shall be based upon elastic analysis. direction of stress, the design stress range on the cross
Stresses shall not be amplified by stress concentration section of the tension-loaded plate element at the toe of
factors for geometrical discontinuities. the weld shall be determined as follows:
a. Based upon crack initiation from the toe of the weld on
For bolts and threaded rods subject to axial tension, the the tension loaded plate element the design stress range,
calculated stresses shall include the effects of prying action, FSR, shall be determined by Equation A-3-3, for stress
if any. In the case of axial stress combined with bending, category C which is equal to
the maximum stresses, of each kind, shall be those
determined for concurrent arrangements of the applied load. 14.4 X 1011 0.333
FSR  ( )  68.9 (S.I.) (A-3-3)
N
For members having symmetric cross sections, the fasteners
and welds shall be arranged symmetrically about the axis of b. Based upon crack initiation from the root of the weld
the member, or the total stresses including those due to the design stress range, FSR, on the tension loaded plate
eccentricity shall be included in the calculation of the stress element using transverse PJP groove welds, with or
range. without reinforcing or contouring fillet welds, the
design stress range on the cross section at the toe of the
For axially loaded angle members where the center of weld shall be determined by Equation A-3-4, stress
gravity of the connecting welds lies between the line of the category C_ as follows:
center of gravity of the angle cross section and the center of
the connected leg, the effects of eccentricity shall be 14.4 X 1011 0.333
FSR  R PJP ( ) (S.I.) (A-3-4)
ignored. If the center of gravity of the connecting welds lies N
outside this zone, the total stresses, including those due to
joint eccentricity, shall be included in the calculation of where
stress range. RPJP is the reduction factor for reinforced or
nonreinforced transverse PJP groove welds
A-3.3 Design Stress Range determined as follows:
The range of stress at service loads shall not exceed the
0.333
design stress range computed as follows.     
 1.12  101 2a   1.24 w  
1. For stress categories A, B, B_, C, D, E and E_ the   tp   tp  
RPJP       10 (S.I.)
design stress range, FSR, shall be determined by  0.167

tp
Equation A-3-1.  
 
Cf X 329 0.333  
FSR  ( )  FTH (A-3-1)
N
If RPJP = 1.0, use stress category C.
where
2a = the length of the nonwelded root face in the
FSR = design stress range, MPa direction of the thickness of the tension-loaded
Cf = constant from Table A-3-1 for the category plate, mm
N = number of stress range fluctuations in design life
w = the leg size of the reinforcing or contouring
= number of stress range fluctuations per day ×
365 × years of design life fillet, if any, in the direction of the thickness of
FTH = threshold fatigue stress range, maximum stress the tension-loaded plate, mm
range for indefinite design life from Table A-3- tp = thickness of tension loaded plate, mm
1, MPa
c. Based upon crack initiation from the roots of a pair of
2. For stress category F, the design stress range, FSR, shall transverse fillet welds on opposite sides of the tension
be determined by Equation A-3-2. loaded plate element the design stress range, FSR, on the

cross section at the toe of the welds shall be determined the tensile stress range in the pretensioned bolts due to the
by Equation A-3-5, stress category C as follows: total service live load and moment plus effects of any
prying action. Alternatively, the stress range in the bolts
14.4 X 1011 0.333 shall be assumed to be equal to the stress on the net tensile
FSR  RFIL ( ) (S.I.) (A-3-5)
N area due to 20 percent of the absolute value of the service
load axial load and moment from dead, live and other loads.
where
RFIL is the reduction factor for joints using a pair of A-3.5 Special Fabrication and Erection Requirements
transverse fillet welds only. Longitudinal backing bars are permitted to remain in place,
RFIL 

 0.10  1.24 w t p  
  1.0
and if used, shall be continuous. If splicing is necessary for
long joints, the bar shall be joined with complete
 tp 0.167  penetration butt joints and the reinforcement ground prior to
 
assembly in the joint.
If RFIL = 1.0, use stress category C.
In transverse joints subject to tension, backing bars, if used,
A-3.4 Bolts and Threaded Parts shall be removed and the joint back gouged and welded.
The range of stress at service loads shall not exceed the
stress range computed as follows. In transverse complete-joint-penetration T and corner joints,
a reinforcing fillet weld, not less than 6 mm in size shall be
1. For mechanically fastened connections loaded in shear, added at re-entrant corners.
the maximum range of stress in the connected material
at service loads shall not exceed the design stress range The surface roughness of flame cut edges subject to
computed using Equation A-3-1 where C f and FTH are significant cyclic tensile stress ranges shall not exceed 25
taken from Section 2 of Table A-3.1. m, where ASME B46.1 is the reference standard.
2. For high-strength bolts, common bolts, and threaded
anchor rods with cut, ground or rolled threads, the Reentrant corners at cuts, copes and weld access holes shall
maximum range of tensile stress on the net tensile area form a radius of not less than 10 mm by predrilling or
from applied axial load and moment plus load due to subpunching and reaming a hole, or by thermal cutting to
prying action shall not exceed the design stress range form the radius of the cut. If the radius portion is formed by
computed using Equation A-3-1. thermal cutting, the cut surface shall be ground to a bright
metal surface.
The factor Cf shall be taken as 3.9 × 108 (as for stress
category E’). The threshold stress, FTH shall be taken as For transverse butt joints in regions of high tensile stress,
48 MPa (as for stress category D). The net tensile area run-off tabs shall be used to provide for cascading the weld
is given by Equation A-3-6. termination outside the finished joint. End dams shall not be
used. Run-off tabs shall be removed and the end of the weld

At  d b  93822 (S.I.) (A-3-6) finished flush with the edge of the member.
4
See Section 510.2.2b for requirements for end returns on
where
certain fillet welds subject to cyclic service loading.
P = pitch, mm per thread
Db = the nominal diameter (body or shank diameter),
mm
n = threads per mm
For joints in which the material within the grip is not

limited to steel or joints which are not tensioned to the
requirements of Table 510.3.1, all axial load and moment
applied to the joint plus effects of any prying action shall be
assumed to be carried exclusively by the bolts or rods.
For joints in which the material within the grip is limited to

steel and which are tensioned to the requirements of Table
510.3.1, an analysis of the relative stiffness of the connected
parts and bolts shall be permitted to be used to determine

APPENDIX A-4 - STRUCTURAL

DESIGN FOR FIRE CONDITIONS
This appendix provides criteria for the design and
evaluation of structural steel components, systems and
frames for fire conditions. These criteria provide for the
determination of the heat input, thermal expansion and
degradation in mechanical properties of materials at
elevated temperatures that cause progressive decrease in
strength and stiffness of structural components and systems
at elevated temperatures.

A-4.2 Structural Design for Fire Conditions by
Analysis
A-4.3 Design by Qualification Testing

The methods contained in this appendix provide regulatory
evidence of compliance in accordance with the design
applications outlined in this section.
The appendix uses the following terms in addition to the

terms in the Glossary.
ACTIVE FIRE PROTECTION: Building materials and

systems that are activated by a fire to mitigate adverse
effects or to notify people to take some action mitigate
adverse effects.
COMPARTMENTATION: The enclosure of a building

space with elements that have a specific fire endurance.
CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER: The transfer of

thermal energy from a point of higher temperature to a point
of lower temperature through the motion of an intervening
medium.
DESIGN-BASIS FIRE: Aset of conditions that define the

development of a fire and the spread of combustion
products throughout a building or portion thereof.
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES: Heating conditions

experienced by building elements or structures as a result of
fire, which are in excess of the anticipated ambient
conditions.
FIRE: Destructive burning, as manifested by any or all of

the following: light, flame, heat, or smoke.

Table A-3.1
Fatigue Design Parameters
Threshold
Stress Constant Potential Crack
Description FTH
Category Cf Initiation Point
MPa
SECTION 1 – PLAIN MATERIAL AWAY FROM ANY WELDING

1.1 Base metal, except non-coated
weathering steel, with rolled or
cleaned surface. Flame-cut edges Away from all welds or
A 250 x 108 165
with surface roughness value of 25 structural connections
μm or less but without reentrant
corners.
1.2 Non-coated weathering steel
base metal with rolled or cleaned
surface. Flame-cut edges with Away from all welds or
B 120 x 108 110
surface roughness value of 25 μm structural connections
or less, but without reentrant
corners.
1.3 Member with drilled or
reamed holes. Member with
reentrant corners at copes, cuts,
At any external edge or at
block-outs or other geometrical B 120 x 108 110
hole perimeter
discontinuities made to
requirements of Appendix 3.5,
except weld access holes.
1.4 Rolled cross sections with
weld access holes made to
requirements of Section 510.1.6
At reentrant corner of weld
and Appendix A-3.5. Members
access hole or at any small
with drilled or reamed holes C 44 x 108 69
hole (may contain bolt for
containing bolts for attachment of
minor connections)
light bracing where there is a
small longitudinal component of
brace force.
SECTION 2 – CONNECTED MATERIAL IN MECHANICALLY FASTENED JOINTS
2.1 Gross area of base metal in lap
joints connected by high-strength
Through gross section near
bolts in joints satisfying all B 120 x 108 110
hole
requirements for slip-critical
connections.
2.2 Base metal at net section of
high-strength bolted joints,
designed on the basis of bearing In net section originating at
B 120 x 108 110
resistance, but fabricated and side of hole
installed to all requirements for
slip-critical connections.
2.3 Base metal at the net section
of other mechanically fastened In net section originating at
D 22 x 108 48
joints except eye bars and pin side of hole
plates
2.4 Base metal at net section of In net section originating at

E 11 x 108 31
eyebar head or pin plate. side of hole

Table A-3.1 (cont.)

Illustrative Typical Examples
SECTION 1 – PLAIN MATERIAL AWAY FROM ANY WELDING
1.1 and 1.2
1.3
1.4
SECTION 2 – CONNECTED MATERIAL IN MECHANICALLY FASTENED JOINTS
2.1
2.2
2.3
2. 4

Table A-3.1 (cont.)

Threshold
Description FTH
MPa
SECTION 3 – WELDED JOINTS JOINING COMPONENTS OF BUILT-UP MEMBERS
3.1 Base metal and weld metal in
members without attachments built-
up of plates or shapes connected by From surface or internal
continuous longitudinal complete- B 120 x 108 110 discontinuities in weld away
joint-penetration groove welds, back from end of weld
gouged and welded from second
side, or by continuous fillet welds.
members without attachments built-
up of plates or shapes, connected by From surface or internal
continuous longitudinal complete- 8 discontinuities in weld,
B’ 61 x 10 83
joint-penetration groove welds with including weld attaching
backing bars not removed, or by backing bars
continuous partial-joint-penetration
groove welds.
3.3 Base metal and weld metal
termination of longitudinal welds at From the weld termination
D 22 x 108 48
weld access holes in connected into the web or flange
built-up members.
3.4 Base metal at ends of In connected material at start
longitudinal intermittent fillet weld E 11 x 108 31 and stop locations of any weld
segments. deposit
3.5 Base metal at ends of partial

length welded coverplates narrower
than the flange having square or
In flange at toe of end weld or
tapered ends, with or without welds
in flange at termination of
across the ends of coverplates wider 31
E 11 x 108 longitudinal weld or in edge of
than the flange with welds across
flange with wide coverplates
the ends. 18
E’ 3.9 x 108
Flange thickness ≤ 20 mm
Flange thickness > 20 mm
3.6 Base metal at ends of the partial
length welded coverplates wider In edge of flange at end of
than the flange without welds across E’ 3.9 x 108 18 coverplate weld
the ends.
SECTION 4 – LONGITUDINAL FILLET WELDED END CONNECTIONS
4.1 Base metal at junction of axially
loaded members with longitudinally
welded end connections. Welds
shall be on each side of the axis of
the member to balance weld
stresses.
31 Initiating from end of any
E 11 x 108
t ≤ 20 mm weld termination extending
18 into the base metal
E’ 3.9 x 108
t > 20 mm

Table A-3.1 (cont.)

SECTION 3 – WELDED JOINTS JOINING COMPONENTS OF BUILT-UP MEMBERS
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
SECTION 4 – LONGITUDINAL FILLET WELDED END CONNECTIONS
4.1

Table A-3.1 (cont.)

Threshold
Description FTH
MPa
SECTION 5 – WELDED JOINTS TRANSVERSE TO DIRECTION OF STRESS
adjacent to complete-joint-
From internal discontinuities
penetration groove welded splices in
B 120 x 108 110 in filler metal or along the
rolled or welded cross sections with
fusion boundary
welds ground essentially parallel to
the direction of stress.
5.2 Base metal and weld metal in or
adjacent to complete-joint-
penetration groove welded splices
with welds ground essentially
parallel to the direction of stress at
transitions in thickness or width
From internal discontinuities
made on a slope no greater than 8 to 110
B 120 x 108 in filler metal or along fusion
20%.
boundary or at start of
Fy < 620 MPa 83
B’ 61 x 108 transition when Fy ≥ 620 MPa
Fy ≥ 620 MPa
5.3 Base metal with Fy equal to or
greater than 620 MPa and weld
metal in or adjacent to complete-
joint-penetration groove welded From internal discontinuities
splices with welds ground 8 in filler metal or
B 120 x 10 110
essentially parallel to the direction discontinuities along the
of stress at transitions in width made fusion boundary
on a radius of not less than 600mm
with the point of tangency at the end
of the groove weld.
5.4 Base metal and weld metal in or
adjacent to the toe of complete-
From surface discontinuity at
joint-penetration T or corner joints
toe of weld extending into
or splices, with or without
C 44 x 108 69 base metal or along fusion
transitions in thickness having
boundary.
slopes no greater than 8 to 20%,
when weld reinforcement is not
removed.
5.5 Base metal and weld metal at
transverse end connections of
tension-loaded plate elements using
partial-joint- penetration butt or T or
Initiating from geometrical
corner joints, with reinforcing or
discontinuity at toe of weld
contouring fillets, FSR shall be the
extending into base metal or,
smaller of the toe crack or root
initiating at weld root subject
crack stress range.
44 x 108 69 to tension extending up and
Crack initiating from C
then out through weld
weld toe:
Eqn. None provided
Crack initiating from C’
A-3-4
Weld root:

Table A-3.1 (cont.)

SECTION 5 – WELDED JOINTS TRANSVERSE TO DIRECTION OF STRESS
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

Table A-3.1 (cont.)

Threshold
Description FTH
MPa
SECTION 5 – WELDED JOINTS TRANSVERSE TO DIRECTION OF STRESS (cont’d)
5.6 Base metal and filler metal at
transverse end connections of
tension-loaded plate elements using
a pair of fillet welds on opposite
sides of the plate FSR shall be the
smaller of the toe crack or root
Initiating from geometrical
crack stress range.
44 x 108 69 discontinuity at toe of weld
Crack initiating from C
extending into base metal or,
weld toe:
Eqn. None provided initiating at weld root subject
Crack initiating from C”
A-3-5 to tension extending up and
weld root:
then out through weld
5.7 Base metal of tension loaded

plate elements and on girders and
From geometrical
rolled beam webs or flanges at toe
C 44 x 108 69 discontinuity at toe of fillet
of transverse fillet welds adjacent to
extending into base metal
welded transverse stiffeners.
SECTION 6 – BASE METAL AT WELDED TRANSVERSE MEMBER CONNECTIONS

6.1 Base metal at details attached by
complete-joint penetration groove
welds subject to longitudinal
loading only when the detail
embodies a transition radius R with
the weld termination ground
smooth.
120 x 108 110
B Near point of tangency of
R ≥ 600mm 8 radius at edge of member
44 x10 69
C
600mm > R ≥ 150mm
22 x 108 48
D
150mm > R ≥ 50mm
11 x 108 31
E
50mm > R

Table A-3.1 (cont.)

SECTION 5 – WELDED JOINTS TRANSVERSE TO DIRECTION OF STRESS (cont’d)

5.6
5.7
SECTION 6 – BASE METAL AT WELDED TRANSVERSE MEMBER CONNECTIONS

6.1

Table A-3.1 (cont.)

Threshold
Description FTH
MPa
SECTION 6 – BASE METAL AT WELDED TRANSVERSE MEMBER CONNECTIONS (cont’d)
6.2 Base metal at details of equal
thickness attached by complete-
joint-penetration groove welds
subject to transverse loading with or
without longitudinal loading when
the detail embodies a transition
radius R with the weld termination
ground smooth:
When weld reinforcement is not
removed:
R ≥ 600mm B 120 x 108 110
Near points of tangency of
600mm > R ≥ 150mm C 44 x 108 69 radius or in the weld or at
fusion boundary or member or
150mm > R ≥ 50mm D 22 x 108 48 attachment
50mm > R E 11 x 108 31

removed:
R ≥ 600mm At toe of the weld either along
C 44 x 108 69 edge of member or the
600mm > R ≥ 150mm attachment
C 44 x 108 69
150mm > R ≥ 50mm
D 22 x 108 48
50mm > R
E 11 x 108 31
6.3 Base metal at details of unequal

thickness attached by complete-
joint- penetration groove welds
subject to transverse loading with or
without longitudinal loading when
the detail embodies a transition
radius R with the weld termination
ground smooth.
At toe of weld along edge of
When weld reinforcement is D 22 x108 48 thinner material in weld
removed: termination in small radius
R > 50mm E 11 x 108 31
R ≥ 50mm At toe of weld along edge of

thinner material
removed: E 11 x 108 31
Any radius

Table A-3.1 (cont.)


6.2
6.3

Table A-3.1 (cont.)

Threshold
Description FTH
MPa
6.4 Base metal subject to
longitudinal stress at transverse
members, with or without transverse
stress, attached by fillet or partial
penetration groove welds parallel to
direction of stress when the detail
In weld termination or from
embodies a transition radius, R, with
the toe of the weld extending
the weld termination ground
into member
smooth:
D 22 x 108 48
R > 50mm
E 11 x 108 31
R ≥ 50mm
SECTION 7 – BASE METAL AT SHORT ATTACHMENTS1

longitudinal loading at details
attached by fillet welds parallel or
transverse to the direction of stress
where the detail embodies no
transition radius and with detail
length in direction of stress, a, and
attachment height normal to the
surface of the member, b:
a < 50mm 69
In the member at the end of
C 44 x 108
the weld
50mm ≤ a ≤ 12b or 48
100mm D 22 x 108
a > 12b or 100mm 31

when b is ≤ 25mm E 11 x 108
a > 12b or 100mm 18

when b is > 25mm E’ 3.9 x 108

longitudinal stress at details
attached by fillet or partial-joint-
penetration groove welds, with or
without transverse load on detail,
when the detail embodies a
In weld termination extending
transition, R, with weld termination
into member
ground smooth:
D 2 x 108 48
R > 50mm
E 11 x 108 31
R ≤ 50mm
1
“ Attachments” as used herein, is defined as any steel detail welded to a member which, by its mere presence and independent of its
loading, causes a discontinuity in the stress flow in the member and thus reduces the fatigue resistance.

Table A-3.1 (cont.)


6.4
SECTION 7 – BASE METAL AT SHORT ATTACHMENTS

7.1
7.2

Table A-3.1 (cont.)

Threshold
Description FTH
MPa
SECTION 8 - MISCELLANEOUS
44 x 108
8.1 Base metal at stud-type shear
connectors attached by fillet or C 69 At toe of weld in base metal
electric stud welding.
55
150 x1010
8.2 Shear on throat of continuous or
F (Eqn
intermittent longitudinal or In throat of weld
A-3-2)
transverse fillet welds.
8.3 Base metal at plug or slot welds. 11 x 108

E 31 At end of weld in base metal
10
150 x10
8.4 Shear on plug or slot welds. (Eqn 55 At faying surface
F
A-3-2)
8.5 Not fully tightened high-
strength bolts, common bolts,
threaded anchor rods and hanger
At the root of the threads
rods with cut, ground or rolled
E’ 3.9 x 108 48 extending into the tensile
threads. Stress range on tensile
stress area.
stress area due to live load plus
prying action when applicable.

Table A-3.1 (cont.)

SECTION 8 - MISCELLANEOUS
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5

FIRE BARRIER: Element of construction formed of fire- A-4.1.1 Performance Objective

resisting materials and tested in accordance with ASTM Structural components, members and building frame
Standard E119, or other approved standard fire resistance systems shall be designed so as to maintain their load-
test, to demonstrate compliance with the Building Code. bearing function during the design-basis fire and to satisfy
other performance requirements specified for the building
FIRE ENDURANCE: A measure of the elapsed time occupancy.
during which a material or assembly continues to exhibit
fire resistance. Deformation criteria shall be applied where the means of
providing structural fire resistance, or the design criteria for
FIRE RESISTANCE: That property of assemblies that fire barriers, requires consideration of the deformation of
prevents or retards the passage of excessive heat, hot gases the load-carrying structure.
or flames under conditions of use and enables them to
continue to perform a stipulated function. Within the compartment of fire origin, forces and
deformations from the design basis fire shall not cause a
FIRE RESISTANCE RATING: The period of time a breach of horizontal or vertical compartmentation.
building element, component or assembly maintains the
ability to contain a fire, continues to perform a given A-4.1.2 Design by Engineering Analysis
structural function, or both, as determined by test or
The analysis methods in Section A-4.2 are permitted to be
methods based on tests.
used to document the anticipated performance of steel
framing when subjected to design-basis fire scenarios.
FLASHOVER: The rapid transition to a state of total
Methods in Section A-4.2 provide evidence of compliance
surface involvement in a fire of combustible materials
with performance objectives established in Section A-4.1.1.
within an enclosure.
The analysis methods in Section A-4.2 are permitted to be
HEAT FLUX: Radiant energy per unit surface area.
used to demonstrate an equivalency for an alternative
material or method, as permitted by the building code.
HEAT RELEASE RATE: The rate at which thermal
energy is generated by a burning material.
A-4.1.3 Design by Qualification Testing
PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION: Building materials and The qualification testing methods in Section A-4.3 are
systems whose ability to resist the effects of fire does not permitted to be used to document the fire resistance of steel
rely on any outside activating condition or mechanism. framing subject to the standardized fire testing protocols
required by building codes.
PERFORMANCE-BASED DESIGN: Anengineering
approach to structural design that is based on agreed-upon A-4.1.4 Load Combinations and Required
performance goals and objectives, engineering analysis and Strength
quantitative assessment of alternatives against those design The required strength of the structure and its elements shall
goals and objectives using accepted engineering tools, be determined from the following gravity load combination:
methodologies and performance criteria.
[0.9 or 1.2]D + T + 0.5L + 0.2S (A-4-1)
PRESCRIPTIVE DESIGN: A design method that
where
documents compliance with general criteria established in a
building code. D = nominal dead load
L = nominal occupancy live load
RESTRAINED CONSTRUCTION: Floor and roof S = nominal snow load
assemblies and individual beams in buildings where the T = nominal forces and deformations due to the
surrounding or supporting structure is capable of resisting design-basis fire defined in Section A-4.2.1
substantial thermal expansion throughout the range of
anticipated elevated temperatures. A lateral notional load, Ni =0.002Yi, as defined in Appendix
A-7.2, where Ni = notional lateral load applied at framing
UNRESTRAINED CONSTRUCTION: Floor and roof
assemblies and individual beams in buildings that are level i and Yi = gravity load from combination A-4-1 acting
assumed to be free to rotate and expand throughout the on framing level i, shall be applied in combination with the
range of anticipated elevated temperatures. loads stipulated in Equation A-4-1. Unless otherwise
stipulated by the authority having jurisdiction, D, L and S
shall be the nominal loads specified in ASCE 7.

A-4.2 Structural Design for Fire Conditions by Analysis

It is permitted to design structural members, components A-4.2.1.2 Post-Flashover Compartment Fires
and building frames for elevated temperatures in accordance Where the heat release rate from the fire is sufficient to
with the requirements of this section. cause flashover, a post-flashover compartment fire shall be
assumed. The determination of the temperature versus time
A-4.2.1 Design-Basis Fire profile resulting from the fire shall include fuel load,
A design-basis fire shall be identified to describe the ventilation characteristics to the space (natural and
heating conditions for the structure. These heating mechanical), compartment dimensions and thermal
conditions shall relate to the fuel commodities and characteristics of the compartment boundary.
compartment characteristics present in the assumed fire
area. The fuel load density based on the occupancy of the A-4.2.1.3 Exterior Fires
space shall be considered when determining the total fuel The exposure of exterior structure to flames projecting from
load. Heating conditions shall be specified either in terms of windows or other wall openings as a result of a post-
a heat flux or temperature of the upper gas layer created by flashover compartment fire shall be considered along with
the fire. The variation of the heating conditions with time the radiation from the interior fire through the opening. The
shall be determined for the duration of the fire. shape and length of the flame projection shall be used along
with the distance between the flame and the exterior
When the analysis methods in Section A-4.2 are used to steelwork to determine the heat flux to the steel. The
demonstrate an equivalency as an alternative material or method identified in Section A-4.2.1.2 shall be used for
method as permitted by a building code, the design-basis describing the characteristics of the interior compartment
fire shall be determined in accordance with ASTM E119. fire.
Table A-4.2.1 A-4.2.1.4 Fire Duration

Properties of Steel at Elevated Temperatures The fire duration in a particular area shall be determined by
Steel Temperature
(°F) [°C]
kE = Em/ E ky = Fym / Fy ku = Fum / Fy considering the total combustible mass, in other words, fuel
[20] * * * load available in the space. In the case of either a localized
[93] 1.00 * * fire or a post-flashover compartment fire, the time duration
[204] 0.90 * * shall be determined as the total combustible mass divided
[316] 0.78 * *
[399] 0.70 1.00 1.00
by the mass loss rate, except where determined from
[427] 0.67 0.94 0.94 Section A-4.2.1.2.
[538] 0.49 0.66 0.66
[649] 0.22 0.35 0.35 A-4.2.1.5 Active Fire Protection Systems
[760] 0.11 0.16 0.16
[871] 0.07 0.07 0.07
The effects of active fire protection systems shall be
[982] 0.05 0.04 0.04 considered when describing the design-basis fire.
[1093] 0.02 0.02 0.02
[1204] 0.00 0.00 0.00 Where automatic smoke and heat vents are installed in non-
* Use ambient properties. sprinklered spaces, the resulting smoke temperature shall be
determined from calculation.
A-4.2.1.1 Localized Fire
Where the heat release rate from the fire is insufficient to A-4.2.2 Temperatures in Structural Systems nder
cause flashover, a localized fire exposure shall be assumed. Fire Conditions
In such cases, the fuel composition, arrangement of the fuel Temperatures within structural members, components and
array and floor area occupied by the fuel shall be used to frames due to the heating conditions posed by the design-
determine the radiant heat flux from the flame and smoke basis fire shall be determined by a heat transfer analysis.
plume to the structure.

Table A-4.2.2 A-4.2.4 Structural Design Requirements

Properties of Concrete at Elevated Temperatures
Concrete kc = f’cm / f’c εcu (%)
A-4.2.4.1 General Structural Integrity
Temperature Ecm /Ec The structural frame shall be capable of providing adequate
(°F) [°C] NWC LWC LWC
[20] 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.25
strength and deformation capacity to withstand, as a system,
[93] 0.95 1.00 0.93 0.34 the structural actions developed during the fire within the
[204] 0.90 1.00 0.75 0.46 prescribed limits of deformation. The structural system shall
[288] 0.86 1.00 0.61 0.58 be designed to sustain local damage with the structural
[316] 0.83 0.98 0.57 0.62 system as a whole remaining stable.
[427] 0.71 0.85 0.38 0.80
[538] 0.54 0.71 0.20 1.06 Continuous load paths shall be provided to transfer all
[649] 0.38 0.58 0.092 1.32 forces from the exposed region to the final point of
[760] 0.21 0.45 0.073 1.43 resistance. The foundation shall be designed to resist the
[871] 0.10 0.31 0.055 1.49 forces and to accommodate the deformations developed
[982] 0.05 0.18 0.036 1.50 during the design-basis fire.
[1093] 0.01 0.05 0.018 1.50
[1204] 0.00 0.00 0.00 - A-4.2.4.2 Strength Requirements and Deformation
Limits
A-4.2.3 Material Strengths at Elevated Temperatures Conformance of the structural system to these requirements
Material properties at elevated temperatures shall be shall be demonstrated by constructing a mathematical
determined from test data. In the absence of such data, it is model of the structure based on principles of structural
permitted to use the material properties stipulated in this mechanics and evaluating this model for the internal forces
section. These relationships do not apply for steels with a and deformations in the members of the structure developed
yield strength in excess of 448MPa or concretes with by the temperatures from the design-basis fire.
specified compression strength in excess of 55 MPa.
Individual members shall be provided with adequate
Thermal expansion of structural and reinforcing steels: For strength to resist the shears, axial forces and moments
calculations at temperatures above 65 °C, the coefficient of determined in accordance with these provisions.
thermal expansion shall be 1.4 × 10-5/°C. Thermal
Connections shall develop the strength of the connected
expansion of normal weight concrete: For calculations at
members or the forces indicated above. Where the means of
temperatures above 65°C, the coefficient of thermal
providing fire resistance requires the consideration of
expansion shall be 1.8 ×10-5/°C. deformation criteria, the deformation of the structural
system, or members thereof, under the design-basis fire
Thermal expansion of lightweight concrete: For calculations shall not exceed the prescribed limits.
at temperatures above 65°C, the coefficient of thermal
expansion shall be 7.9 × 10-6/°C. A-4.2.4.3 Methods of Analysis
A-4.2.4.3a Advanced Methods of Analysis

A-4.2.3.2 Mechanical Properties at Elevated
Temperatures The methods of analysis in this section are permitted for the
design of all steel building structures for fire conditions.
The deterioration in strength and stiffness of structural
The design-basis fire exposure shall be that determined in
members, components, and systems shall be taken into
Section A-4.2.1. The analysis shall include both a thermal
account in the structural analysis of the frame.
response and the mechanical response to the design-basis
fire.
The values Fym, Fum, Em, f _ cm, Ecm and cu at elevated
temperature to be used in structural analysis, expressed as The thermal response shall produce a temperature field in
the ratio with respect to the property at ambient, assumed to each structural element as a result of the design-basis fire
be 68°F (20°C), shall be defined as in Tables A-4.2.1 and and shall incorporate temperature dependent thermal
A-4.2.2. It is permitted to interpolate between these values. properties of the structural elements and fire-resistive
materials as per Section A-4.2.2.
For lightweight concrete (LWC), values of cu shall be
obtained from tests. The mechanical response results in forces and deflections in
the structural system subjected to the thermal response
calculated from the design-basis fire. The mechanical

response shall take into account explicitly the deterioration dimensional heat transfer equation to calculate bottom
in strength and stiffness with increasing temperature, the flange temperature. That temperature shall be taken as
effects of thermal expansions and large deformations. constant between the bottom flange and mid-depth of the
Boundary conditions and connection fixity must represent web and shall decrease linearly by no more than 25 percent
the proposed structural design. Material properties shall be from the mid-depth of the web to the top flange of the
defined as per Section A-4.2.3. beam.
The design strength of a composite flexural member shall
The resulting analysis shall consider all relevant limit states,
be determined using the provisions of Section 509, with
such as excessive deflections, connection fractures, and
reduced yield stresses in the steel consistent with the
overall or local buckling.
temperature variation described under thermal response.
A-4.2.4.3b Simple Methods of Analysis
A-4.2.4.4 Design Strength
The methods of analysis in this section are applicable for
The design strength shall be determined as in Section
the evaluation of the performance of individual members at
502.3.3. The nominal strength, Rn, shall be calculated using
elevated temperatures during exposure to fire.
material properties, as stipulated in Section A-4.2.3, at the
temperature developed by the design-basis fire.
The support and restraint conditions (forces, moments and
boundary conditions) applicable at normal temperatures
A-4.3 Design by Qualification Testing
may be assumed to remain unchanged throughout the fire
exposure.
A-4.3.1 Qualification Standards
1. Tension members Structural members and components in steel buildings shall
It is permitted to model the thermal response of a tension be qualified for the rating period in conformance with
element using a one-dimensional heat transfer equation with ASTM E119. It shall be permitted to demonstrate
heat input as directed by the design-basis fire defined in compliance with these requirements using the procedures
Section A-4.2.1. specified for steel construction in Section 5 of ASCE/SFPE
29.
The design strength of a tension member shall be
determined using the provisions of Section 504, with steel A-4.3.2 Restrained Construction
properties as stipulated in Section A-4.2.3 and assuming a
For floor and roof assemblies and individual beams in
uniform temperature over the cross section using the
buildings, a restrained condition exists when the
temperature equal to the maximum steel temperature.
surrounding or supporting structure is capable of resisting
2. Compression members actions caused by thermal expansion throughout the range
of anticipated elevated temperatures.
It is permitted to model the thermal response of a
compression element using a one-dimensional heat transfer
Steel beams, girders and frames supporting concrete slabs
equation with heat input as directed by the design-basis fire
that are welded or bolted to integral framing members (in
defined in Section A-4.2.1.
other words, columns, girders) shall be considered
The design strength of a compression member shall be restrained construction.
determined using the provisions of Section 505 with steel
properties as stipulated in Section A-4.2.3. A-4.3.3 Unrestrained Construction
3. Flexural members Steel beams, girders and frames that do not support a
concrete slab shall be considered unrestrained unless the
It is permitted to model the thermal response of flexural members are bolted or welded to surrounding construction
elements using a one-dimensional heat transfer equation to that has been specifically designed and detailed to resist
calculate bottom flange temperature and to assume that this actions caused by thermal expansion.
bottom flange temperature is constant over the depth of the
member.
The design strength of a flexural member shall be
determined using the provisions of Section 506 with steel A steel member bearing on a wall in a single span or at the
properties as stipulated in Section A-4.2.3. end span of multiple spans shall be considered unrestrained
unless the wall has been designed and detailed to resist
4. Composite floor members effects of thermal expansion.
It is permitted to model the thermal response of flexural
elements supporting a concrete slab using a one-

APPENDIX A-5 – EVALUATION OF A-5.2.2 Tensile Properties

Tensile properties of members shall be considered in
EXISTING STRUCTURES evaluation by structural analysis (Section A-5.3) or load
tests (Section A-5.4). Such properties shall include the yield
This appendix applies to the evaluation of the strength and stress, tensile strength and percent elongation. Where
stiffness under static vertical (gravity) loads of existing available, certified mill test reports or certified reports of
structures by structural analysis, by load tests, or by a tests made by the fabricator or a testing laboratory in
combination of structural analysis and load tests when accordance with ASTM A6/A6M or A568/A568M, as
specified by the engineer-of-record or in the contract applicable, shall be permitted for this purpose. Otherwise,
documents. For such evaluation, the steel grades are not tensile tests shall be conducted in accordance with
limited to those listed in Section 501.3.1. This appendix ASTMA370 from samples cut from components of the
does not address load testing for the effects of seismic loads structure.
or moving loads (vibrations).
A-5.2.3 Chemical Composition
The Appendix is organized as follows:
Where welding is anticipated for repair or modification of
A-5.1 General Provisions existing structures, the chemical composition of the steel
A-5.2 Material Properties shall be determined for use in preparing a welding
A-5.2.1 Determination of Required Test procedure specification (WPS). Where available, results
A-5.2.2 Tensile Properties from certified mill test reports or certified reports of tests
A-5.2.3 Chemical Composition made by the fabricator or a testing laboratory in accordance
A-5.2.4 Base Metal Notch Toughness with ASTM procedures shall be permitted for this purpose.
A-5.2.5 Weld Metal Otherwise, analyses shall be conducted in accordance with
A-5.2.6 Bolts and Rivets ASTM A751 from the samples used to determine tensile
A-5.3 Evaluation by Structural Analysis properties, or from samples taken from the same locations.
A-5.3.1 Dimensional Data
A-5.3.2 Strength Evaluation A-5.2.4 Base Metal Notch Toughness
A-5.3.3 Serviceability Evaluation Where welded tension splices in heavy shapes and plates as
A-5.4 Evaluation by Load Tests defined in Section 501.3.1d are critical to the performance
A-5.4.1 Determination of Load Rating by of the structure, the Charpy V-Notch toughness shall be
Testing determined in accordance with the provisions of Section
A-5.4.2 Serviceability Evaluation 501.3.1d. If the notch toughness so determined does not
A-5.5 Evaluation Report meet the provisions of Section 501.3.1d, the engineer-of-
record shall determine if remedial actions are required.
These provisions shall be applicable when the evaluation of A-5.2.5 Weld Metal
an existing steel structure is specified for (a) verification of Where structural performance is dependent on existing
a specific set of design loadings or (b) determination of the welded connections, representative samples of weld metal
available strength of a load resisting member or system. The shall be obtained. Chemical analysis and mechanical tests
evaluation shall be performed by structural analysis shall be made to characterize the weld metal. A
(Section A-5.3), by load tests (Section A-5.4), or by a determination shall be made of the magnitude and
combination of structural analysis and load tests, as consequences of imperfections. If the requirements of AWS
specified in the contract documents. Where load tests are D1.1 are not met, the engineer-of-record shall determine if
used, the engineer-of-record shall first analyze the structure, remedial actions are required.
prepare a testing plan, and develop a written procedure to
prevent excessive permanent deformation or catastrophic A-5.2.6 Bolts and Rivets
collapse during testing. Representative samples of bolts shall be inspected to
determine markings and classifications. Where bolts cannot
A-5.2 Material Properties be properly identified visually, representative samples shall
be removed and tested to determine tensile strength in
A-5.2.1 Determination of Required Tests accordance with ASTM F606 or ASTM F606M and the bolt
The engineer-of-record shall determine the specific tests classified accordingly. Alternatively, the assumption that
that are required from Section A-5.2.2 through A-5.2.6 and the bolts are ASTM A307 shall be permitted. Rivets shall be
specify the locations where they are required. Where assumed to be ASTM A502, Grade 1, unless a higher grade
available, the use of applicable project records shall be is established through documentation or testing.
permitted to reduce or eliminate the need for testing.

A-5.3 Evaluation by Structural Analysis maximum test load for one hour that the deformation of the
structure does not increase by more than 10 percent above
A-5.3.1 Dimensional Data that at the beginning of the holding period. It is permissible
All dimensions used in the evaluation, such as spans, to repeat the sequence if necessary to demonstrate
column heights, member spacings, bracing locations, cross compliance.
section dimensions, thicknesses and connection details,
shall be determined from a field survey. Alternatively, when Deformations of the structure shall also be recorded 24
available, it shall be permitted to determine such hours after the test loading is removed to determine the
dimensions from applicable project design or shop drawings amount of permanent set. Because the amount of acceptable
with field verification of critical values. permanent deformation depends on the specific structure, no
limit is specified for permanent deformation at maximum
A-5.3.2 Strength Evaluation loading. Where it is not feasible to load test the entire
structure, a segment or zone of not less than one complete
Forces (load effects) in members and connections shall be bay, representative of the most critical conditions, shall be
determined by structural analysis applicable to the type of selected.
structure evaluated. The load effects shall be determined for
the loads and factored load combinations stipulated in
A-5.4.2 Serviceability Evaluation
Section 502.2. The available strength of members and
connections shall be determined from applicable provisions When load tests are prescribed, the structure shall be loaded
of Sections 502 through 511 of this Specification. incrementally to the service load level. Deformations shall
be monitored for a period of one hour. The structure shall
A-5.3.3 Serviceability Evaluation then be unloaded and the deformation recorded.
Where required, the deformations at service loads shall be
A-5.5 Evaluation Report
calculated and reported.
After the evaluation of an existing structure has been
A-5.4 Evaluation by Load Tests completed, the engineer-of-record shall prepare a report
documenting the evaluation. The report shall indicate
A-5.4.1 Determination of Load Rating by Testing whether the evaluation was performed by structural
analysis, by load testing or by a combination of structural
To determine the load rating of an existing floor or roof analysis and load testing. Furthermore, when testing is
structure by testing, a test load shall be applied performed, the report shall include the loads and load
incrementally in accordance with the engineer of record’s combination used and the load-deformation and time-
plan. The structure shall be visually inspected for signs of deformation relationships observed. All relevant
distress or imminent failure at each load level. Appropriate information obtained from design drawings, mill test reports
measures shall be taken if these or any other unusual and auxiliary material testing shall also be reported. Finally,
conditions are encountered. the report shall indicate whether the structure, including all
members and connections, is adequate to withstand the load
The tested strength of the structure shall be taken as the effects.
maximum applied test load plus the in-situ dead load. The
live load rating of a floor structure shall be determined by
setting the tested strength equal to 1.2D + 1.6L, where D is
the nominal dead load and L is the nominal live load rating
for the structure.
The nominal live load rating of the floor structure shall not
exceed that which can be calculated using applicable
provisions of the specification. For roof structures, Lr , S, or
R as defined in the Symbols, shall be substituted for L.
More severe load combinations shall be used where
required by this code. Periodic unloading shall be
considered once the service load level is attained and after
the onset of inelastic structural behavior is identified to
document the amount of permanent set and the magnitude
of the inelastic deformations. Deformations of the structure,
such as member deflections, shall be monitored at critical
locations during the test, referenced to the initial position
before loading. It shall be demonstrated, while maintaining

The required brace stiffness is

APPENDIX A-6 - STABILITY 1  2P   2P 
 br   r  (LRFD)  br    r  (ASD)
BRACING FOR COLUMNS AND   Lb   Lb


BEAMS (A-6-2)
where
This appendix addresses the minimum brace strength and
stiffness necessary to provide member strengths based on  = 0.75 (LRFD)  = 2.00 (ASD)
the unbraced length between braces with an effective length
factor, K, equal to 1.0.
Lb = distance between braces, in. (mm)
A-6.1 General Provisions Pr = required axial compressive strength using LRFD
A-6.2 Columns load combinations, N
A-6.3 Beams
For design according to Section 5023.4 (ASD)
User Note: The requirements for the stability of braced-
Pr = required axial compressive strength using ASD
frame systems are provided in Section 503. The provisions
load combinations, N
in this appendix apply to bracing, intended to stabilize
individual members.
A-6.3.2 Nodal Bracing
A-6.1 General Provisions The required brace strength is
Bracing is assumed to be perpendicular to the members to Pbr = 0.01Pr (A-6-3)
be braced; for inclined or diagonal bracing, the brace
strength (force or moment) and stiffness (force per unit The required brace stiffness is
displacement or moment per unit rotation) shall be adjusted 1  8 Pr   8P 
for the angle of inclination. The evaluation of the stiffness  br    (LRFD)  br    r  (ASD)
  Lb 

 L
 b


furnished by a brace shall include its member and geometric
properties, as well as the effects of connections and (A-6-4)
anchoring details.
 = 0.75 (LRFD)  = 2.00 (ASD)
Two general types of bracing systems are considered,
relative and nodal. A relative brace controls the movement For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD)
of the brace point with respect to adjacent braced points. A Pr = required axial compressive strength using LRFD
nodal brace controls the movement at the braced point load combinations, N
without direct interaction with adjacent braced points. The
available strength and stiffness of the bracing shall equal or
For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD)
exceed the required limits unless analysis indicates that
smaller values are justified by analysis. Pr = required axial compressive strength using ASD
load combinations, N
A second-order analysis that includes an initial out-of-
straightness of the member to obtain brace strength and
When Lb is less than Lq , where Lq is the maximum unbraced
stiffness is permitted in lieu of the requirements of this
length for the required column force with K equal to 1.0,
appendix.
then Lb in Equation A-6-4 is permitted to be taken equal to
Lq .
A-6.2 Columns
It is permitted to brace an individual column at end and A-6.3 Beams
intermediate points along its length by either relative or
At points of support for beams, girders and trusses, restraint
nodal bracing systems. It is assumed that nodal braces are
against rotation about their longitudinal axis shall be
equally spaced along the column.
provided. Beam bracing shall prevent the relative
displacement of the top and bottom flanges, in other words,
A-6.2.1 Relative Bracing twist of the section. Lateral stability of beams shall be
The required brace strength is provided by lateral bracing, torsional bracing or a
combination of the two. In members subjected to double
Pbr = 0.004Pr (A-6-1)

curvature bending, the inflection point shall not be Mr = required flexural strength using LRFD load
considered a brace point. combinations, N-mm
A-6.3.1 Lateral Bracing For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD)

Bracing shall be attached near the compression flange, Mr = required flexural strength using ASD load
except for a cantilevered member, where an end brace shall combinations, N-mm
be attached near the top (tension) flange. Lateral bracing
shall be attached to both flanges at the brace point nearest When Lb is less than Lq , the maximum unbraced length for
the inflection point for beams subjected to double curvature Mr , then Lb in
bending along the length to be braced.
Equation A-6-8 shall be permitted to be taken equal to Lq .
A-6.3.1.1a Relative Bracing
The required brace strength is A-6.3.2 Torsional Bracing
It is permitted to provide either nodal or continuous
Pbr = 0.008MrCd/ho (A-6-5)
torsional bracing along the beam length. It is permitted to
The required brace stiffness is attach the bracing at any cross-sectional location and it need
not be attached near the compression flange. The
1  4M r Cd   4M r Cd  connection between a torsional brace and the beam shall be
 br    (LRFD)  br     (ASD)
  Lb ho 

 L h
 b o

 able to support the required moment given below.
(A-6-6)
A-6.3.2.2a Nodal Bracing
where The required bracing moment is
 = 0.75 (LRFD)  = 2.00 (ASD) 0.024M r Lr
M br  (A-6-
nCb Lb
ho = distance between flange centroids, mm
9)
Cd = 1.0 for bending in single curvature; 2.0 for
double curvature; Cd = 2.0 only applies to the
The required cross-frame or diaphragm bracing stiffness is
brace closest to the inflection point
Lb = laterally unbraced length, mm T
 TB  (A-6-10)
  
For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD) 1  T 
  sec 
combinations, N-mm where
For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD) 

1 2.4LM r 
2  
2.4 LM r  2 
T   (LRFD) T    (ASD)
Mr = required flexural strength using ASD load   nEI y Cb 2   nEI C 2 
  y b  
combinations, N-mm
(A-6-11)
A-6.3.1.1b Nodal Bracing
3.3E  1.5ho t w t b3
3
The required brace strength is  sec   s s  (A-6-12)
ho  12 12 
Pbr = 0.02MrCd/ho (A-6-7)
where
The required brace stiffness is
 = 0.75 (LRFD)  = 3.00 (ASD)
1  10 M r C d   10 M r C d 
 br    (LRFD)  br     (ASD)
  Lb ho 

 L h
 b o

 User Note:  = 1.52/ = 3.00 in Equation A-6-11 because
the moment term is squared.
(A-6-8)
where L = span length, mm
n = number of nodal braced points within the span
 = 0.75 (LRFD)  = 2.00 (ASD)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel = 200 000 MPa
Iy = out-of-plane moment of inertia, mm4
For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD) Cb = modification factor defined in Section 506

tw = beam web thickness, mm APPENDIX A-7 - DIRECT ANALYSIS

ts = web stiffener thickness, mm
bs = stiffener width for one-sided stiffeners (use twice METHOD
the individual stiffener width for pairs of
stiffeners), mm This appendix addresses the direct analysis method for
T = brace stiffness excluding web distortion, structural systems comprised of moment frames, braced
N-mm/radian frames, shear walls, or combinations thereof.
sec = web distortional stiffness, including the effect of
web transverse stiffeners, if any, N-mm/radian The appendix is organized as follows:
For design according to Section 502.3.3 (LRFD) A-7.1 General Requirements

A-7.2 Notional Loads
A-7.3 Design-Analysis Constraints
combinations, N-mm
A-7.1 General Requirements
For design according to Section 502.3.4 (ASD) Members shall satisfy the provisions of Section 508.1 with
the nominal column strengths, Pn, determined using K =
combinations, N-mm 1.0. The required strengths for members, connections and
other structural elements shall be determined using a second
If sec < T , Equation A-6-10 is negative, which indicates order elastic analysis with the constraints presented in
that torsional beam bracing will not be effective due to Section A-7.3.
inadequate web distortional stiffness.
All component and connection deformations that contribute
When required, the web stiffener shall extend the full depth to the lateral displacement of the structure shall be
of the braced member and shall be attached to the flange if considered in the analysis.
the torsional brace is also attached to the flange.
Alternatively, it shall be permissible to stop the stiffener A-7.2 Notional Loads
short by a distance equal to 4tw from any beam flange that is Notional loads shall be applied to the lateral framing system
not directly attached to the torsional brace. When Lb is less to account for the effects of geometric imperfections,
than Lq , then Lb in Equation A-6-9 shall be permitted to be inelasticity, or both. Notional loads are lateral loads that are
taken equal to Lq . applied at each framing level and specified in terms of the
gravity loads applied at that level. The gravity load used to
determine the notional load shall be equal to or greater than
A-6.3.1.2b Continuous Torsional Bracing the gravity load associated with the load combination being
For continuous bracing, use Equations A-6-9, A-6-10 and evaluated. Notional loads shall be applied in the direction
A-6-13 with L/n taken as 1.0 and Lb taken as Lq ; the bracing that adds to the destabilizing effects under the specified load
moment and stiffness are given per unit span length. The combination.
distortional stiffness for an unstiffened web is
A-7.3 Design-Analysis Constraints
3.3Et w 3 1. The second-order analysis shall consider both P- and
 sec  (A-6-13)
12ho P- effects. It is permitted to perform the analysis
using any general second-order analysis method, or by
the amplified first-order analysis method of Section
503.2, provided that the B1 and B2 factors are based on
the reduced stiffnesses defined in Equations A-7-2 and
A-7-3. Analyses shall be conducted according to the
design and loading requirements specified in either
Section 502.3.3 (LRFD) or Section 502.3.4 (ASD). For
ASD, the second-order analysis shall be carried out
under 1.6 times the ASD load combinations and the
results shall be divided by 1.6 to obtain the required
strengths.
Methods of analysis that neglect the effects of P-δ on

the lateral displacement of the structure are permitted

where the axial loads in all members whose flexural shall be used for all members whose flexural stiffness is
stiffnesses are considered to contribute to the lateral considered to contribute to the lateral stability of the
stability of the structure satisfy the following limit: structure,
Pr < 0.15PeL (A-7-1) where
where I = moment of inertia about the axis of bending,
mm4
Pr = required axial compressive strength under LRFD
b = 1.0 for Pr /Py ≤ 0.5
or ASD load combinations, N
= 4[Pr /Py (1−Pr /Py )] for Pr /Py > 0.5
PeL = 2EI/L2, evaluated in the plane of bending
Pr = required axial compressive strength under LRFD
and or ASD load combinations, N
Py = AFy , member yield strength, N
 = 1.0 (LRFD)  = 1.6 (ASD)
and
2. A notional load, Ni = 0.002Yi , applied independently in
 = 1.0 (LRFD)  = 1.6 (ASD)
two orthogonal directions, shall be applied as a lateral
load in all load combinations. This load shall be in In lieu of using b < 1.0 where Pr /Py > 0.5, b = 1.0 may
addition to other lateral loads, if any,
be used for all members, provided that an additive notional
where load of 0.001Yi is added to the notional load required in (2).
Ni = notional lateral load applied at level i , N
4. A reduced axial stiffness, EA*,
Yi = gravity load from the LRFD load combination or
1.6 times the ASD load combination applied at EA* = 0.8EA (A-7-3)
level i , N
shall be used for members whose axial stiffness is
The notional load coefficient of 0.002 is based on an considered to contribute to the lateral stability of the
assumed initial story out-of-plumbness ratio of 1/500. structure, where A is the cross-sectional member area.
Where a smaller assumed out-of-plumbness is justified, the
notional load coefficient may be adjusted proportionally.
For frames where the ratio of second-order drift to first-

order drift is equal to or less than 1.5, it is permissible to
apply the notional load, Ni, as a minimum lateral load for
the gravity-only load combinations and not in combination
with other lateral loads.
For all cases, it is permissible to use the assumed out-of-

plumbness geometry in the analysis of the structure in lieu
of applying a notional load or a minimum lateral load as
defined above.
User Note: The unreduced stiffnesses (EI and AE) are used
in the above calculations. The ratio of second-order drift to
first-order drift can be represented by B2, as calculated
using Equation 503.2-3. Alternatively, the ratio can be
calculated by comparing the results of a second-order
analysis to the results of a first-order analysis, where the
analyses are conducted either under LRFD load
with a 1.6 factor applied to the ASD gravity loads.
3. A reduced flexural stiffness, EI*,

EI* = 0.8b EI (A-7-2)

PART 2A - SEISMIC PROVISION Ic Moment of inertia of a vertical boundary element

(VBE) taken perpendicular to the direction of the
FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL web plate line, mm4
BUILDINGS K Effective length factor for prismatic member
L Live load due to occupancy and moveable
equipment, kN
SYMBOLS L Span length of the truss, mm
L Distance between VBE centerlines, mm
Lb Length between points which are either braced
Ab Cross-sectional area of a horizontal boundary against lateral displacement of compression flange
element (HBE), mm2 or braced against twist of the cross section, mm
Ac Cross-sectional area of a vertical boundary element Lb Link length, mm
(VBE), mm2 Lcf Clear distance between VBE flanges, mm
Af Flange area, mm2 Lh Distance between plastic hinge locations, mm
Ag Gross area, mm2 Lp Limiting laterally unbraced length for full plastic
As Cross-sectional area of the structural steel core, flexural strength, uniform moment case, mm
mm2 Lpd Limiting laterally unbraced length for plastic
Asc Area of the yielding segment of steel core, mm2 analysis, mm
Ash Minimum area of tie reinforcement, mm2 Ls Length of the special segment, mm
Asp Horizontal area of the steel plate in composite Ma Required flexural strength, using ASD load
shear wall, mm2 combinations, N-mm
Ast Area of link stiffener, mm2 Mav Additional moment due to shear amplification
Aw Link web area, mm2 from the location of the plastic hinge to the column
Ca Ratio of required strength to available strength. centerline based on ASD load combinations, N-
Cd Coefficient relating relative brace stiffness and mm
curvature Mn Nominal flexural strength, N-mm
Cd Deflection amplification Mnc Nominal flexural strength of the chord member
Cr Parameter used for determining the approximate of the special segment, N-mm
fundamental period Mp Nominal plastic flexural strength, N-mm
D Dead load due to the weight of the structural Mpa Nominal plastic flexural strength modified by axial
elements and permanent features on the building, load, N-mm
D Outside diameter of round HSS, mm Mpb Nominal plastic flexural strength of the beam, N-
E Earthquake load mm
E Effect of horizontal and vertical earthquake- Mp,exp Expected plastic moment, N-mm
induced loads Mpc Nominal plastic flexural strength of the column,
E Modulus of elasticity of steel, 200,000 MPa N-mm
EI Flexural elastic stiffness of the chord members of Mr Expected flexural strength, N-mm
the special segment, N-mm2 Muv Additional moment due to shear amplification
Fy Specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel from the location of the plastic hinge to the column
to be used, MPa. As used in the Specification, centerline based on LRFD load combinations, N-
“yield stress” denotes either the minimum mm
specified yield point (for those steels that have a Mu Required flexural strength, using LRFD load
yield point) or the specified yield strength (for combinations, N-mm
those steels that do not have a yield point) Mu,exp Expected required flexural strength, N-mm
Fyb Fy of a beam, MPa Pa Required axial strength of a column using ASD l
Fyc Fy of a column, MPa oad combinations, N
Fyh Specified minimum yield stress of the ties, MPa Pac Required compressive strength using ASD load
Fysc Specified minimum yield stress of the steel core, or combinations, N
actual yield stress of the steel core as determined Pb Required strength of lateral brace at ends of the
from a coupon test, MPa link, N
Fu Specified minimum tensile strength, MPa Pc Available axial strength of a column, N
H Height of story, which may be taken as the Pn Nominal axial strength of a column, N
distance between the centerline of floor framing at
each of the levels above and below, or the distance Pn Nominal compressive strength of the composite
between the top of floor slabs at each of the levels column calculated in accordance with the
above and below, mm Specification, N
I Moment of inertia, mm4

Pnc Nominal axial compressive strength of diagonal a Angle that diagonal members make with the
members of the special segment, N horizontal
Pnt Nominal axial tensile strength of diagonal b Width of compression element as defined in
members of the special segment, N Specification Section502.4.1, mm
Po Nominal axial strength of a composite column at bcf Width of column flange, mm
zero eccentricity, N bf Flange width, mm
Pr Required compressive strength, N bw Width of the concrete cross-section minus the
Prc Required compressive strength using ASD or width of the structural shape measured
LRFD load combinations, N perpendicular to the direction of shear, mm
Pu Required axial strength of a column or a link using d Nominal fastener diameter, mm
LRFD load combinations, N d Overall beam depth, mm
Pu Required axial strength of a composite column, dc Overall column depth, mm
N dz Overall panel zone depth between continuity
Puc Required compressive strength using LRFD load plates, mm
combinations, N e EBF link length, mm
Py Nominal axial yield strength of a member, equal to f′ c Specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
Fy Ag, N h Clear distance between flanges less the fillet or
Pysc Axial yield strength of steel core, N corner radius for rolled shapes; and for built-up
Qb Maximum unbalanced vertical load effect applied sections, the distance between adjacent lines of
to a beam by the braces, N fasteners or the clear distance between flanges
Q1 Axial forces and moments generated by at least when welds are used; for tees, the overall depth;
1.25 times the expected nominal shear strength of and for rectangular HSS, the clear distance
the link between the flanges less the inside corner radius
R Seismic response modification coefficient on each side, mm
Rn Nominal strength, N h Distance between horizontal boundary element
Rt Ratio of the expected tensile strength to the centerlines, mm
specified minimum tensile strength Fu, as related hcc Cross-sectional dimension of the confined core
to overstrength in material yield stress Ry region in composite columns measured center-
Ru Required strength to-center of the transverse reinforcement, mm
Rv Panel zone nominal shear strength ho Distance between flange centroids, mm
Ry Ratio of the expected yield stress to the specified l Unbraced length between stitches of built-up
minimum yield stress, Fy bracing members, mm
Va Required shear strength using ASD load l Unbraced length of compression or bracing
combinations, N member, mm
Vn Nominal shear strength of a member, N r Governing radius of gyration, mm
Vne Expected vertical shear strength of the special ry Radius of gyration about y-axis, mm
segment, N s Spacing of transverse reinforcement measured
Vns Nominal shear strength of the steel plate in a along the longitudinal axis of the structural
composite plate shear wall, N composite member, mm
Vp Nominal shear strength of an active link, N t Thickness of connected part, mm
Vpa Nominal shear strength of an active link modified t Thickness of element, mm
by the axial load magnitude, N
Vu Required shear strength using LRFD load t Thickness of column web or doubler plate, mm
combinations, N tbf Thickness of beam flange, mm
Ycon Distance from top of steel beam to top of concrete tcf Thickness of column flange, mm
slab or encasement, mm tf Thickness of flange, mm
YPNA Maximum distance from the maximum concrete tmin Minimum wall thickness of concrete-filled
compression fiber to the plastic neutral axis, mm rectangular HSS, mm
Z Plastic section modulus of a member, mm3 tp Thickness of panel zone including doubler plates,
Zb Plastic section modulus of the beam, mm3 mm
Zc Plastic section modulus of the column, mm3 tw Thickness of web, mm
Zx Plastic section modulus x-axis, mm3 wz Width of panel zone between column flanges,
mm
ZRBS Minimum plastic section modulus at the reduced
beam section, mm3 x Parameter used for determining the approximate
fundamental period (I-R2)

zb Minimum plastic section modulus at the reduced DEFINITIONS

beam section,mm3
ΣMpc Moment at beam and column centerline
ADJUSTED BRACE STRENGTH. Strength of a brace
determined by projecting the sum of the nominal
in a buckling-restrained braced frame at deformations
column plastic moment strength, reduced by the
corresponding to 2.0 times the design story drift.
axial stress Puc/Ag, from the top and bottom of
the beam moment connection
ALLOWABLE STRENGTH. Nominal strength divided
ΣMpb Moment at the intersection of the beam and
by the safety factor, Rn / Ω.
column centerlines determined by projecting the
beam maximum developed moments from the
NSCP CODE. Building code under which the structure is
column face. Maximum developed moments
designed. NSCP 6th Edition.
shall be determined from test results.
β Compression strength adjustment factor
Δ Design story drift AMPLIFIED SEISMIC LOAD. Horizontal component
Δb Deformation quantity used to control loading of of earthquake load E multiplied by Ωo, where E and the
test specimen (total brace end rotation for the horizontal component of E are specified in the NSCP code.
subassemblage test specimen; total brace axial
Deformation for the brace test specimen) AUTHORITY HAVING JURISDICTION (AHJ).
Δbm Value of deformation quantity, Organization, political subdivision, office or individual
Δb, corresponding to the design story drift charged with the responsibility of administering and
Δby Value of deformation quantity, Δb, at first enforcing the provisions of this standard.
significant yield of test specimen
Ω Safety factor AVAILABLE STRENGTH. Design strength or
Ωb Safety factor for flexure = 1.67 allowable strength, as appropriate.
Ωc Safety factor for compression = 1.67
Ωo Horizontal seismic overstrength factor ASD (ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN). Method
Ωv Safety factor for shear strength of panel zone of of proportioning structural components such that the
beam-to-column connections allowable strength equals or exceeds the required strength
α Angle of diagonal members with the of the component under the action of the ASD load
horizontal combinations.
α Angle of web yielding in radians, as
measured relative tothe vertical ASD LOAD COMBINATION. Load combination in the
δ Deformation quantity used to control NSCP code intended for allowable strength design
loading of test specimen (allowable stress design).
δy Value of deformation quantity δ at first
significant yield of test specimen BUCKLING-RESTRAINED BRACED FRAME
ρ′ Ratio of required axial force Pu to required shear (BRBF). Diagonally braced frame safisfying the
strength Vu of a link requirements of Section 529 in which all members of the
λp, λps Limiting slenderness parameter for compact bracing system are subjected primarily to axial forces and in
element which the limit state of compression buckling of braces is
φ Resistance factor precluded at forces and deformations corresponding to 2.0
φb Resistance factor for flexure times the design story drift.
φc Resistance factor for compression
φv Resistance factor for shear strength of panel zone BUCKLING-RESTRAINING SYSTEM. System of
of beam-to-column con nec tions restraints that limits buckling of the steel core in BRBF.
φv Resistance factor for shear This system includes the casing on the steel core and
φv Resistance factor for the shear strength of a structural elements adjoining its connections. The buckling-
composite column restraining system is intended to permit the transverse
θ Interstory drift angle, radians expansion and longitudinal contraction of the steel core for
γtotal Link rotation angle deformations corresponding to 2.0 times the design story
ω Strain hardening adjustment factor drift.
CASING. Element that resists forces transverse to the axis

of the brace thereby restraining buckling of the core. The
casing requires a means of delivering this force to the
remainder of the buckling-restraining system. The casing
resists little or no force in the axis of the brace.

COLUMN BASE. Assemblage of plates, connectors, EXPECTED YIELD STRENGTH. Yield strength in
bolts, and rods at the base of a column used to transmit tension of a member, equal to the expected yield stress
forces between the steel superstructure and the foundation. multiplied by Ag.
CONTINUITY PLATES. Column stiffeners at the top EXPECTED TENSILE STRENGTH. Tensile strength of
and bottom of the panel zone; also known as transverse a member, equal to the specified minimum tensile strength,
stiffeners. Fu, multiplied by Rt.
CONTRACTOR. Fabricator or erector, as applicable. EXPECTED YIELD STRESS. Yield stress of the
material, equal to the specified minimum yield stress, Fy,
DEMAND CRITICAL WELD. Weld so designated by multiplied by Ry .
these Provisions.
INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAME (IMF). Moment
DESIGN EARTHQUAKE. The earthquake represented by frame system that meets the re quirements of Section 523.
the design response spectrum as specified in the NSCP
code. INTERSTORY DRIFT ANGLE. Interstory displacement
divided by story height, radians.
DESIGN STORY DRIFT. Amplified story drift (drift
under the design earthquake, including the effects of INVERTED-V-BRACED FRAME. See V-braced frame.
inelastic action), determined as specified in the NSCP code.
K-AREA. The k-area is the region of the web that extends
DESIGN STRENGTH. Resistance factor multiplied by the from the tangent point of the web and the flange-web fillet
nominal strength, φRn. (AISC “k” dimension) a distance of 38 mm into the web
beyond the “k” dimension.
DIAGONAL BRACING. Inclined structural members
carrying primarily axial load that are employed to enable a K-BRACED FRAME. A bracing configuration in which
structural frame to act as a truss to resist lateral loads. braces connect to a column at a location with no diaphragm
or other out-of-plane support.
DUAL SYSTEM. Structural system with the following
features: (1) an essentially complete space frame that LATERAL BRACING MEMBER. Member that is
provides support for gravity loads; (2) resistance to lateral designed to inhibit lateral buckling or lateral-tor sional
load provided by moment frames (SMF, IMF or OMF) that buckling of primary framing members.
are capable of resisting at least 25 percent of the base shear,
and concrete or steel shear walls, or steel braced frames LINK. In EBF, the segment of a beam that is located
(EBF, SCBF or OCBF); and (3) each system designed to between the ends of two diagonal braces or between the end
resist the total lateral load in proportion to its relative of a diag onal brace and a column. The length of the link is
rigidity. defined as the clear dist ance between the ends of two diag
onal braces or between the diagonal brace and the column
DUCTILE LIMIT STATE. Ductile limit states include face.
member and connection yielding, bearing deformation at
bolt holes, as well as buckling of members that conform to LINK INTERMEDIATE WEB STIFFENERS. Vertical
the width-thickness limitations of Table 521-1. Fracture of a web stiffeners placed within the link in EBF.
member or of a connection, or buckling of a connection
element, is not a ductile limit state. LINK ROTATION ANGLE. Inelastic angle between the
link and the beam outside of the link when the total story
ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME (EBF). drift is equal to the design story drift.
Diagonally braced frame meeting the requirements of
Section 15 that has at least one end of each bracing member LINK SHEAR DESIGN STRENGTH. Lesser of the
connected to a beam a short distance from another beam-to- available shear strength of the link developed from the
brace connection or a beam-to-column connection. moment or shear strength of the link.
EXEMPTED COLUMN. Column not meeting the LOWEST ANTICIPATED SERVICE

requirements of Equation 522-3 for SMF. TEMPERATURE (LAST). The lowest 1-hour average
temperature with a 100-year mean recurrence interval.

LRFD (LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR REDUCED BEAM SECTION. Reduction in cross section
DESIGN). Method of proportioning structural components over a discrete length that promotes a zone of inelasticity in
such that the design strength equals or exceeds the required the member.
strength of the component under the action of the LRFD
load combinations. REQUIRED STRENGTH. Forces, stresses, and
deformations produced in a structural component,
LRFD LOAD COMBINATION. Load combination in the determined by either structural analysis, for the LRFD or
NSCP code intended for strength design (load and ASD load combinations, as appropriate, or as specified by
resistance factor design). the Specification and these Provisions.
MEASURED FLEXURAL RESISTANCE. Bending RESISTANCE FACTOR, Φ. Factor that accounts for
moment measured in a beam at the face of the column, for a unavoidable deviations of the nominal strength from the
beam-to-column test specimen tested in accordance with actual strength and for the manner and consequences of
Section B-4. failure.
NOMINAL LOAD. Magnitude of the load specified by SAFETY FACTOR, Ω. Factor that accounts for
the NSCP code. deviations of the actual strength from the nominal strength,
deviations of the actual load from the nominal load,
NOMINAL STRENGTH. Strength of a structure or uncertainties in the analysis that transforms the load into a
component (without the resistance factor or safety factor load effect and for the manner and consequences of failure.
applied) to resist the load effects, as determined in
accordance with this Specification. SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY. Classification assigned
to a building by the NSCP code based upon its seismic use
ORDINARY CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME group and the design spectral response acceleration
(OCBF). Diagonally braced frame meeting the coefficients.
requirements of Section 527 in which all members of the
bracing system are subjected primarily to axial forces. SEISMIC LOAD RESISTING SYSTEM (SLRS).
Assembly of structural elements in the building that resists
ORDINARY MOMENT FRAME (OMF). Moment frame seismic loads, including struts, collectors, chords,
system that meets the re quirements of Section 524. diaphragms and trusses. Seismic response modification
coefficient, R. Factor that reduces seismic load effects to
OVERSTRENGTH FACTOR, ΩO. Factor specified by strength level as specified by the NSCP code.
the NSCP code in order to determine the amplified seismic
load, where required by these Provisions. SEISMIC USE GROUP. Classification assigned to a
structure based on its use as specified by the NSCP code.
PREQUALIFIED CONNECTION. Connection that
complies with the requirements of Section B-1. SPECIAL CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME
(SCBF). Diagonally braced frame meeting the requirements
PROTECTED ZONE. Area of members in which of Section 13 in which all members of the bracing system
limitations apply to fabrication and attachments. See are subjected primarily to axial forces.
Section 520.4.
SPECIAL MOMENT FRAME (SMF). Moment frame
PROTOTYPE. The connection or brace design that is to system that meets the requirements of Section 522.
be used in the building (SMF, IMF, EBF, and BRBF).
SPECIAL PLATE SHEAR WALL (SPSW). Plate shear
PROVISIONS. Refers to this document, and in reference wall system that meets the requirements of Section 530.
to the AISC Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel
Buildings (ANSI/AISC 341). SPECIAL TRUSS MOMENT FRAME (STMF). Truss
moment frame system that meets the requi rements of
QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN. Written description of Section 525.
qualifications, procedures, quality inspections, resources,
and records to be used to provide assurance that the SPECIFICATION. Refers to the AISC Specification for
structure complies with the engineer’s quality requirements, Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360).
specifications and contract documents.

STATIC YIELD STRENGTH. Strength of a structural PART 2A - SECTION 514

member or connection determined on the basis of testing
conducted under slow monotonic loading until failure. STRUCTURAL STEEL BUILDING
PROVISIONS
STEEL CORE. Axial-force-resisting element of braces in
BRBF. The steel core contains a yielding segment and 514. Scope
connections to transfer its axial force to adjoining elements;
The Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings,
it may also contain projections beyond the casing and
hereinafter referred to as these Provisions, shall govern the
transition segments between the projections and yielding
design, fabrication and erection of structural steel members
segment.
and connections in the seismic load resisting systems
(SLRS) and splices in columns that are not part of the
TESTED CONNECTION. Connection that complies with SLRS, in buildings and other structures, where other
the requirements of Section B-4. structures are defined as those structures designed,
fabricated and erected in a manner similar to buildings, with
V-BRACED FRAME. Concentrically braced frame building-like vertical and lateral load-resisting-elements.
(SCBF, OCBF or BRBF) in which a pair of diagonal braces These Provisions shall apply when the seismic response
located either above or below a beam is conn ected to a modification coefficient, R, (as specified in the NSCP code)
single point within the clear beam span. Where the diag is taken greater than 3, regardless of the seismic design
onal braces are below the beam, the system is also referred category. When the seismic response modification
to as an inverted-V-braced frame. coefficient, R, is taken as 3 or less, the structure is not
required to satisfy these Provisions, unless specifically
X-BRACED FRAME. Concentrically braced frame required by the NSCP code.
(OCBF or SCBF) in which a pair of diagonal braces crosses
near the mid-length of the braces. These Provisions shall be applied in conjunction with
Chapter 5 Steel and Metal, hereinafter referred to as the
Y-BRACED FRAME. Eccentrically braced frame (EBF) Specification. Members and connections of the SLRS shall
in which the stem of the Y is the link of the EBF system. satisfy the requirements of the NSCP code, the
Specification, and these Provisions.
Wherever these provisions refer to the NSCP code and there

is no local building code, the loads, load combinations,
system limitations and general design requirements shall be
those in SEI/ASCE 7.
User Note: The NSCP code generally restricts buildings

designed with an R factor of 3 or less to seismic design
categories (SDC) A, B or C; however, some systems such as
cantilever columns that have R factors less than 3 are
permitted in SDC D and above and these Provisions apply.
See the NSCP code for specific system limitations.
Part 2A includes a Glossary that is specifically applicable to

this Part, and Section B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4, B-5, B-6 and B-7

SECTION 515 - REFERENCED SECTION 516 - GENERAL SEISMIC

SPECIFICATIONS, CODES, AND DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
STANDARDS
The required strength and other seismic provisions for
The documents referenced in these Provisions shall include seismic Zones 2 and 4 including limitations on height and
those listed in Specification Section 501.2 with the irregularity shall be as specified in the NSCP code.
following additions and modifications:
The design story drift shall be determined as required in the
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) NSCP code.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, ANSI/AISC

360-05 Prequalified Connections for Special and
Intermediate Steel Moment Frames for Seismic
Applications, ANSI/AISC 358-05
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)
Recommended Practice for the Training and Testing of

Nondestructive Testing Personnel, ASNT SNT TC-1a-2001
Standard for the Qualification and Certification of

Nondestructive Testing Personnel, ANSI/ASNT CP-189-
2001
American Welding Society (AWS)
Standard Methods for Determination of the Diffusible

Hydrogen Content of Martensitic, Bainitic, and Ferritic
Steel Weld Metal Produced by Arc Welding, AWS A4.3-
93R
Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of Welds-U.S.

Customary, ANSI/ AWS B4.0-98
Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of Welds–Metric

Only, ANSI/AWS B4.0M:2000
Standard for the Qualification of Welding Inspectors, AWS

B5.1:2003
Describing Oxygen-Cut Surfaces, AWS C4.1
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
Recommended Seismic Design Criteria for New Steel

Moment-Frame Buildings, FEMA 350, July 2000

SECTION 517 - LOADS, LOAD COMB SECTION 518 - STRUCTURAL

INATIONS, AND NOMINAL DESIGN DRAWINGS AND
STRENGTHS SPECIFICATIONS, SHOP
DRAWINGS, AND ERECTION
517.1 Loads and Load Combinations
The loads and load combinations shall be as stipulated by
DRAWINGS
the NSCP code. Where amplified seismic loads are required
518.1 Structural Design Drawings and Specifications
by these Provisions, the horizontal portion of the earthquake
load E (as defined in the NSCP code) shall be multiplied by Structural design drawings and specifications shall show the
the overstrength factor, Ωo, prescribed by the NSCP code. work to be performed, and include items required by the
Specification and the following, as applicable:
517.2 Nominal Strength 1. Designation of the seismic load resisting system
The nominal strength of systems, members and connections (SLRS)
shall comply with the Specification, except as modified
2. Designation of the members and connections that are
throughout these Provisions.
part of the SLRS
3. Configuration of the connections
4. Connection material specifications and sizes
5. Locations of demand critical welds
6. Lowest anticipated service temperature (LAST) of the
steel structure, if the structure is not enclosed and
maintained at a temperature of 10 °C or higher
7. Locations and dimensions of protected zones
8. Locations where gusset plates are to be detailed to
accommodate inelastic rotation
9. Welding requirements as specified in Section B-6,
Section B-6.2.
User Note: These Provisions should be consistent with the

Code of Standard Practice, as designated in Section 501.4 of
the Specification. There may be specific connections and
applications for which details are not specifically addressed
by the Provisions. If such a condition exists, the contract
documents should include appropriate requirements for
those applications. These may include nondestructive
testing requirements beyond those in Section B-2, bolt hole
fabrication requirements beyond those permitted by the
Specification, bolting requirements other than those in the
Research Council on Structural Connections (RCSC)
Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or
A490 Bolts, or welding requirements other than those in
Section B-6.
518.2 Shop Drawings

Shop drawings shall include items required by the
Specification and the following, as applicable:
1. Designation of the members and connections that are
part of the SLRS
2. Connection material specifications

3. Locations of demand critical shop welds SECTION 519 - MATERIALS

4. Locations and dimensions of protected zones
519.1 Material Specifications
5. Gusset plates drawn to scale when they are detailed to
accommodate inelastic rotation Structural steel used in the seismic load resisting system
(SLRS) shall meet the requirements of Specification Section
6. Welding requirements as specified in Section B-6, 501.3.1a, except as modified in these Provisions. The
Section B-2.2. specified minimum yield stress of steel to be used for
members in which inelastic behavior is expected shall not
User Note: There may be specific connections and exceed 345 MPa for systems defined in Sections 522, 523,
applications for which details are not specifically addressed 525, 526, 528, 529, and 530 nor 380 MPa for systems
by the Provisions. If such a condition exists, the shop defined in Sections 524and 527, unless the suitability of the
drawings should include appropriate requirements for that material is determined by testing or other rational criteria.
application. These may include bolt hole fabrication This limitation does not apply to columns for which the
requirements beyond those permitted by the Specification, only expected inelastic behavior is yielding at the column
bolting requirements other than those in the RCSC base.
Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or
A490 Bolts, and welding requirements other than those in The structural steel used in the SLRS described in Sections
Section B-6. See Section 513 of the Specification for 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529 and 530 shall meet
additional provisions on shop drawings. one of the follow ing ASTM Specifica tions: A36/ A36M,
A53/A53M, A500 (Grade B or C), A501, A529/A529M,
518.3 Erection Drawings A572/A572M [Grade 42 (290 Mpa), 50 (345 Mpa) or 55
Erection drawings shall include items required by the (380 Mpa)], A588/A588M, A913/A913M [Grade 50 (345
Specification and the following, as applicable: Mpa), 60 (415 Mpa) or 65 (450 Mpa)], A992/A992M, or
A1011 HSLAS Grade 55 (380 Mpa). The structural steel
1. Designation of the members and connections that are used for column base plates shall meet one of the preceding
part of the SLRS ASTM specifications or ASTM A283/A283M Grade D.
2. Field connection material specifications and sizes
Other steels and non-steel materials in buckling-restrained
3. Locations of demand critical field welds braced frames are permitted to be used subject to the
4. Locations and dimensions of protected zones requirements of Section 529 and Section B-5.
5. Locations of pretensioned bolts User Note: This section only covers material properties for
6. Field welding requirements as specified in Section B-6, structural steel used in the SLRS and included in the
Section B-2.3 definition of structural steel given in Section 2.1 of the
AISC Code of Standard Practice. Other steel, such as cables
User Note: There may be specific connections and for permanent bracing, is not included.
applications for which details are not specifically addressed
by the Provisions. If such a condition exists, the erection 519.2 Material Properties for Determination of
drawings should include appropriate requirements for that Required Strength of Members and Connections
application. These may include bolting requirements other When required in these Provisions, the required strength of
than those in the RCSC Specification for Structural Joints an element (a member or a connection) shall be determined
Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts, and welding from the expected yield stress, Ry Fy, of an adjoining
requirements other than those in Section B-6. See Section member, where Fy is the specified minimum yield stress of
M1 of the Specification for additional provisions on the grade of steel to be used in the adjoining members and
erection drawings. Ry is the ratio of the expected yield stress to the specified
minimum yield stress, Fy, of that material.

Table 519-1 519.3 Heavy Section CVN Requirements

Ry and Rt Values for Different Member Types For structural steel in the SLRS, in addition to the
Application Ry Rt requirements of Specification Section 501.3.1c, hot rolled
Hot-rolled structural shapes and bars: shapes with flanges 38 mm thick and thicker shall have a
 ASTM A36/36M 1.5 1.2 minimum Charpy V-Notch toughness of 20 ft-lb (27 J) at 70
 ASTM A572/572M Grade 290 1.3 1.1 °F (21 °C), tested in the alternate core location as described
 ASTM A572/572M Grade 345 1.1 1.1 in ASTM A6 Supplementary Requirement S30. Plates 50
or 380 mm thick and thicker shall have a minimum Charpy V-
ASTM A913/A913M Grade 345 Notch toughness of 20 ft-lb (27 J) at 70 °F (21 °C),
, 415, 450 measured at any location permitted by ASTM A673, where
ASTM A588/A588M the plate is used in the following:
ASTM A992/A992M, A1011
1. Members built-up from plate
HSLAS Grade 380
 ASTM A529 Grade 345 1.2 1.2 2. Connection plates where inelastic strain under seismic
 ASTM A529 Grade 380 1.1 1.2 loading is expected
Hollow structural sections (HSS) 3. At the steel core of buckling-restrained braces
 ASTM A500 (Grade B or C), 1.4 1.3
ASTM A501 User Note: Examples of connection plates where inelastic
Pipe behavior is expected include, but are not limited to, gusset
 ASTM A53/A53M 1.6 1.2 plates intended to function as a hinge and allow out-of-
Plates plane buckling of braces, some bolted flange plates for
 ASTM A36/A36M 1.3 1.2 moment connections, some end plates for bolted moment
 ASTM A572/A572M Grade 345 1.1 1.2 connections, and some column base plates designed as a pin
ASTM A588/A588M
The available strength of the element, φRn for LRFD and Rn/
Ω for ASD, shall be equal to or greater than the required
strength, where Rn is the nominal strength of the connection.
The expected tensile strength, RtFu, and the expected yield
stress, Ry Fy, are permitted to be used in lieu of Fu and Fy,
respectively, in determining the nominal strength, Rn, of
rupture and yielding limit states within the same member
for which the required strength is determined.
User Note: In several instances a member, or a connection

limit state within that member, is required to be designed
for forces corresponding to the expected strength of the
member itself. Such cases include brace fracture limit states
(block shear rupture and net section fracture in the brace in
SCBF), the design of the beam outside of the link in EBF,
etc. In such cases it is permitted to use the expected material
strength in the determination of available member strength.
For connecting elements and for other members, specified
material strength should be used.
The values of Ry and Rt for various steels are given in Table

519-1. Other values of Ry and Rt shall be permitted if the
values are determined by testing of specimens similar in
size and source conducted in accordance with the
requirements for the specified grade of steel.

SECTION 520 - CONNECTIONS, bolted web transmits shear, is not considered to be sharing
the force.
JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
520.3 Welded Joints
520.1. Scope
Welding shall be performed in accordance with Section B-
Connections, joints and fasteners that are part of the seismic 6. Welding shall be performed in accordance with a welding
load resisting system (SLRS) shall comply with procedure specification (WPS) as required in AWS D1.1
Specification Section 510, and with the additional and approved by the engineer-of-record. The WPS variables
requirements of this Section. shall be within the parameters established by the filler metal
manufacturer.
The design of connections for a member that is a part of the
SLRS shall be configured such that a ductile limit state in 520.3.1 General Requirements
either the connection or the member controls the design.
All welds used in members and connections in the SLRS
shall be made with a filler metal that can produce welds that
User Note: An example of a ductile limit state is tension have a minimum Charpy V-Notch toughness of 20 ft-lb (27
yielding. It is unacceptable to design connections for J) at 0 °F (minus 18 °C), as determined by the appropriate
members that are a part of the SLRS such that the strength AWS A5 classification test method or manufacturer
limit state is governed by nonductile or brittle limit states, certification. This requirement for notch toughness shall
such as fracture, in either the connection or the member. also apply in other cases as required in these Provisions.
520.2 Bolted Joints 520.3.2 Demand Critical Welds
All bolts shall be pretensioned high strength bolts and shall Where welds are designated as demand critical, they shall
meet the requirements for slip-critical faying surfaces in be made with a filler metal capable of providing a minimum
accordance with Specification Section 510.1.8 with a Class Charpy V-Notch (CVN) toughness of 27 J at 29 °C as
A surface. Bolts shall be installed in standard holes or in determined by the appropriate AWS classification test
short-slotted holes perpendicular to the applied load. For method or manufacturer certification, and 54 J at 21 °C as
brace diagonals, oversized holes shall be permitted when determined by Section B-7 or other approved method, when
the connection is designed as a slip-critical joint, and the the steel frame is normally enclosed and maintained at a
oversized hole is in one ply only. Alternative hole types are temperature of 10 °C or higher. For structures with service
permitted if designated in the Prequalified Connections for temperatures lower than 10 °C, the qualification
Special and Intermediate Moment Frames for Seismic temperature for Section B-7 shall be 11 °C above the lowest
Applications (ANSI/AISC 358), or if otherwise determined anticipated service temperature, or at a lower temperature.
in a connection prequalification in accordance with Section
B-1, or if determined in a program of qualification testing in
SMAW electrodes classified in AWS A5.1 as E7018 or
accordance with Section B-4 or B-5. The available shear
E7018-X, SMAW electrodes classified in AWS A5.5 as
strength of bolted joints using standard holes shall be
E7018-C3L or E8018-C3, and GMAW solid electrodes are
calculated as that for bearing-type joints in accordance with
exempted from production lot testing when the CVN
Specification Sections 510.1.3 and 510.1.10, except that the
toughness of the electrode equals or exceeds 27 J at a
nominal bearing strength at bolt holes shall not be taken
temperature not exceeding 29 °C as determined by AWS
greater than 2.4dtFu.
classification test methods. The manufacturer’s certificate
Exception: of compliance shall be considered sufficient evidence of
meeting this requirement.
The faying surfaces for end plate moment connections are
permitted to be coated with coatings not tested for slip
User Note: Welds designated demand critical are
resistance or with coatings with a slip coefficient less than
specifically identified in the Provisions in the section
that of a Class A faying surface.
applicable to the designated SLRS.
Bolts and welds shall not be designed to share force in a
There may be specific welds similar to those designated as
joint or the same force component in a connection.
demand critical by these Provisions that have not been
specifically identified as demand critical by these
User Note: A member force, such as a brace axial force, Provisions that warrant such designation. Consideration of
must be resisted at the connection entirely by one type of the demand critical designation for such welds should be
joint (in other words, either entirely by bolts or entirely by based upon the inelastic strain demand and the consequence
welds). A connection in which bolts resist a force that is of failure. Complete-joint-penetration (CJP) groove welds
normal to the force resisted by welds, such as a moment between columns and base plates should be considered
connection in which welded flanges transmit flexure and a

demand critical similar to column splice welds, when CJP

groove welds used for column splices in the designated
SLRS have been designated demand critical.
For special and intermediate moment frames, typical

examples of demand critical welds include the following
CJP groove welds:
1. Welds of beam flanges to columns
2. Welds of single plate shear connections to columns
3. Welds of beam webs to columns
4. Column splice welds, including column bases
For ordinary moment frames, typical examples include CJP

groove welds in items 1, 2, and 3 above.

Table 521-1
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for
Compression Elements
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios
Description of Element Width – Thickbness Ratio λps
Seismically Compact
Flexure in flanges of rolled or built-up I-shaped sections
b/t 0.30
[a],[c],[e],[g],[h]
Unstiffened Elements
Uniform compression in flanges of rolled or built-up I-

b/t 0.30
shaped sections [b],[h]
Uniform compression in flanges of rolled or built-up I-
b/t 0.38
shaped sections [d]
Uniform compression in flanges of channels, outstanding
legs of pairs of angles in continuous contact, and braces b/t 0.30
[c],[g]
Uniform compression in flanges of H-pile sections b/t 0.45
Flat Bars [f] b/t 2.5
Uniform compression in legs of single angles, legs of
double angle members with seperators, or flanges of tees b/t 0.30
[g]
Uniform compression in stems of tees [g] d/t 0.30
Webs in flexural compression in beams in SMF, Section
h/tw 2.45
522,unless noted otherwise
Webs in flexural compression or combined flexure and For Ca ≤ 0.125 [k]
axial compression [a],[c],[g],[h],[i],[j]
h/tw
3.14 (1-1.54 Ca)
Stiffened Elements
For Ca > 0.125 [k]
1.12 (2.33-Ca) ≥
h/tw 1.49
Round HSS in axial and/or flexural compression [c],[g] D/t 0.044 (E/Fy)
Rectangular HSS in axial and/or flexural compression
b/t or h/tw 0.64
[c],[g]
Webs of H-Pile sections h/tw 0.94√(E/Fy)
[a] Required for beams in SMF Section 522 and SPSW Section 530
[b] Required for columns in SMF Section 522, unless the ratios from Eq.522-3 are greater than 2.0 where it is permitted to use λp in specification Table 502.4.1
[c] Required for braces and columns in SCBF Section 526 and braces in OCBF Section 527
[d] It is permitted to use λp in Specification Table 502.4.1 for columns in STMF Section 522 and columns in EBF Section 528
[e] Required for link in EBF Section 528 except iti is permitted to use λp in Table 502.4.1 of the specification for flanges of links of length 1.6 Mp/Vp are defined in Section 528
[f] Diagonal web mebers within the special segment of STMF Section 525
[g] Chord members of STMF Section 525
[h] Required for beams and columns in BRBF Section 529
[i] Required for columns in SPSW Section 530
[j] For columns in STMF Section 522 columns in SMF, if the ratios from Eq. 522-3 are greater than 2.0; for columns in EBF Section 528; or EBF webs of links of length 1.6
Mp/Vp or less, it is permitted to use the following for λp
For Ca ≤ 0.125, λp = 3.76 (1-2.75 Ca)
For Ca > 0.125, λp = 3.76 (2.33- Ca) ≥ 1.49
[k] for LRFD, Ca = (Pu / ϕbPy)
for ASD, Ca = (Ωb Pa/Py)

where
Pa = required compressive strength (ASD), N
Pu = required compressive strength (LRFD), N
Py = axial yield strength, N
ϕb = 0.90
Ωb = 1.67

For eccentrically braced frames (EBF), typical examples of weld. If a curved clip is used, it shall have a minimum
demand critical welds include CJP groove welds between radius of 12 mm.
link beams and columns. Other welds, such as those joining
the web plate to flange plates in built-up EBF link beams, At the end of the weld adjacent to the column web/flange
and column splice welds when made using CJP groove juncture, weld tabs for continuity plates shall not be used,
welds, should be considered for designation as demand except when permitted by the engineer-of-record. Unless
critical welds. specified by the engineer-of-record that they be removed,
weld tabs shall not be removed when used in this location.
520.3.3 Recommended Joint
The use of Type I welded joints is not allowed in seismic
Zone 4. Type II joints are recommended as in the use of
Proprietary Welded Joint.
520.4 Protected Zone

Where a protected zone is designated by these Provisions or
ANSI/AISC 358, it shall comply with the following:
1. Within the protected zone, discontinuities created by
fabrication or erection operations, such as tack welds,
erection aids; air-arc gouging and thermal cutting shall
be repaired as required by the engineer-of-record.
2. Welded shear studs and decking attachments that
penetrate the beam flange shall not be placed on beam
flanges within the protected zone. Decking arc spot
welds as required to secure decking shall be permitted.
3. Welded, bolted, screwed or shot-in attachments for
perimeter edge angles, exterior facades, partitions, duct
work, piping or other construction shall not be placed
within the protected zone.
Exception:
Welded shear studs and other connections shall be
permitted when designated in the Prequalified Connections
for Special and Intermediate Moment Frames for Seismic
Applications (ANSI/AISC 358), or as otherwise determined
in accordance with a connection prequalification in
accordance with Section B-1, or as determined in a
program of qualification testing in accordance with Section
B-4 .
Outside the protected zone, calculations based upon the

expected moment shall be made to demonstrate the
adequacy of the member net section when connectors that
penetrate the member are used.
520.5 Continuity Plates and Stiffeners

Corners of continuity plates and stiffeners placed in the
webs of rolled shapes shall be clipped as described below.
Along the web, the clip shall be detailed so that the clip
extends a distance of at least 38 mm beyond the published k
detail dimension for the rolled shape. Along the flange, the
clip shall be detailed so that the clip does not exceed a
distance of 12 mm beyond the published k1 detail
dimension. The clip shall be detailed to facilitate suitable
weld terminations for both the flange weld and the web

SECTION 521 - MEMBERS 521.4 Column Splices
521.1 Scope 521.4.1 General

Members in the seismic load resisting system (SLRS) shall The required strength of column splices in the seismic load
comply with the Specification and Section 521. For resisting system (SLRS) shall equal the required strength of
columns that are not part of the SLRS, see Section 521.1.2. the columns, including that determined from Sections 521.3,
522.9, 523.9, 524.9, 526.5 and 529.5.2.
521.2 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling
In addition, welded column splices that are subject to a
calculated net tensile load effect determined using the load
521.2.1 Compact
combinations stipulated by the NSCP code including the
When required by these Provisions, members of the SLRS amplified seismic load, shall satisfy both of the following
shall have flanges continuously connected to the web or requirements:
webs and the width-thickness ratios of its compression
elements shall not exceed the limiting width-thickness 1. The available strength of partial-joint-penetration (PJP)
ratios, λp, from Specification Table 502.4.1. groove welded joints, if used, shall be at least equal to
200 percent of the required strength.
521.2.2 Seismically Compact 2. The available strength for each flange splice shall be at
When required by these Provisions, members of the SLRS least equal to 0.5 RyFyAf (LRFD) or (0.5/1.5) RyFyAf
must have flanges continuously connected to the web or (ASD), as appropriate, where RyFy is the expected yield
webs and the width-thickness ratios of its compression stress of the column material and Af is the flange area of
elements shall not exceed the limiting width-thickness the smaller column connected.
ratios, λps, from Provisions Table 521-1.
Beveled transitions are not required when changes in
521.3 Column Strength thickness and width of flanges and webs occur in column
When Pu /ϕPn (LRFD) > 0.4 or ΩcPa/Pn (ASD) > 0.4, as splices where PJP groove welded joints are used.
appropriate, without consideration of the amplified seismic
load, Column web splices shall be either bolted or welded, or
welded to one column and bolted to the other. In moment
where frames using bolted splices, plates or channels shall be used
ϕc = 0.90 (LRFD) Ωc = 1.67 (ASD) on both sides of the column web.
Pa = required axial strength of a column using ASD The centerline of column splices made with fillet welds or
Load combinations, N partial-joint-penetration groove welds shall be located 1.2 m
Pn = nominal axial strength of a column, N or more away from the beam-to column connections. When
Pu = required axial strength of a column using LRFD the column clear height between beam-to-column
load combinations, N connections is less than 2.4 m, splices shall be at half the
clear height.
The following requirement shall be met:
1. The required axial compressive and tensile strength, 521.4.2 Columns Not Part of the Seismic Load
considered in the absence of any applied moment, shall Resisting System
be determined using the load combinations stipulated Splices of columns that are not a part of the SLRS shall
by the NSCP code including the amplified seismic load satisfy the following:
2. The required axial compressive and tensile strength 1. Splices shall be located 1.2 m or more away from the
shall not exceed either of the following: beam-to column connections. When the column clear
height between beam-to column connections is less
a. The maximum load transferred to the column
than 2.4 m, splices shall be at half the clear height.
considering 1.1Ry (LRFD) or (1.1/1.5) Ry (ASD), as
appropriate, times the nominal strengths of the 2. The required shear strength of column splices with
connecting beam or brace elements of the building. respect to both orthogonal axes of the column shall be
Mpc /H (LRFD) or Mpc /1.5H (ASD), as appropriate,
b. The limit as determined from the resistance of the
where Mpc is the lesser nominal plastic flexural
foundation to overturning uplift.
strength of the column sections for the direction in
question, and H is the story height.

521.5 Column Bases where

The required strength of column bases shall be calculated in H = height of story, which may be taken as the
accordance with Sections 521.5.1, 521.5.2, and 521.5.3. The distance between the centerline of floor framing
available strength of anchor rods shall be determined in at each of the levels above and below, or the
accordance with Specification Section 510.3. distance between the top of floor slabs at each of
the levels above and below, mm
The available strength of concrete elements at the column
base, including anchor rod embedment and reinforcing b. The shear calculated using the load combinations of the
steel, shall be in accordance with ACI 318, Appendix D. NSCP code, including the amplified seismic load.
User Note: When using concrete reinforcing steel as part of Section 521.5.2. Required Flexural Strength. The required
the anchorage embedment design, it is important to flexural strength of column bases, including their
understand the anchor failure modes and provide attachment to the foundation, shall be the summation of the
reinforcement that is developed on both sides of the required strengths of the steel elements that are connected to
expected failure surface. See ACI 318, Appendix D, Figure the column base as follows:
RD.4.1 and Section D.4.2.1, including Commentary for 1. For diagonal bracing, the required flexural strength
additional information. shall be at least equal to the required strength of
Exception: bracing connections for the SLRS.
The special requirements in ACI 318, Appendix D, for 2. For columns, the required flexural strength shall be at
“regions of moderate or high seismic risk, or for structures least equal to the lesser of the following:
assigned to intermediate or high seismic performance or a. 1.1 RyFyZ (LRFD) or (1.1/1.5) RyFyZ (ASD), as
design categories” need not be applied. appropriate, of the column or
521.5.1 Required Axial Strength b. the moment calculated using the load combinations of
the NSCP code, including the amplified seismic load.
The required axial strength of column bases, including their
attachment to the foundation, shall be the summation of the
521.6 H-Piles
vertical components of the required strengths of the steel
elements that are connected to the column base.
521.6.1 Design of H-Piles
521.5.2 Required Shear Strength Design of H-piles shall comply with the provisions of the
Specification regarding design of members subjected to
The required shear strength of column bases, including their
combined loads. H-piles shall meet the requirements of
attachments to the foundations, shall be the summation of
Section 521.2.2.
the horizontal component of the required strengths of the
steel elements that are connected to the column base as
follows: 521.6.2 Battered H-Piles
If battered (sloped) and vertical piles are used in a pile
1. For diagonal bracing, the horizontal component shall be group, the vertical piles shall be designed to support the
determined from the required strength of bracing combined effects of the dead and live loads without the
connections for the seismic load resisting system participation of the battered piles.
(SLRS).
2. For columns, the horizontal component shall be at least 521.6.3 Tension in H-Pile
equal to the lesser of the following: Tension in each pile shall be transferred to the pile cap by
a. 2Ry Fy Zx /H (LRFD) or (2/1.5) Ry Fy Zx /H (ASD), as mechanical means such as shear keys, reinforcing bars or
studs welded to the embedded portion of the pile. Directly
appropriate, of the column
below the bottom of the pile cap, each pile shall be free of
attachments and welds for a length at least equal to the
depth of the pile cross section.

SECTION 522 - SPECIAL MOMENT 2. Use of a connection prequalified for SMF in

accordance with Section B-1.
FRAMES (SMF)
3. Provision of qualifying cyclic test results in accordance
522.1 Scope with Section B-4. Results of at least two cyclic
connection tests shall be provided and are permitted to
Special moment frames (SMF) are expected to withstand be based on one of the following:
significant inelastic deformations when subjected to the
forces resulting from the motions of the design earthquake. a. Tests reported in the research literature or documented
SMF shall satisfy the requirements in this Section. tests performed for other projects that represent the
project conditions, within the limits specified in Section
522.2 Beam-to-Column Connections B-4.
b. Tests that are conducted specifically for the project and
522.2.1 Requirements are representative of project member sizes, material
Beam-to-column connections used in the seismic load strengths, connection configurations, and matching
resisting system (SLRS) shall satisfy the following three connection processes, within the limits specified in
requirements: Section B-4.
1. The connection shall be capable of sustaining an
interstory drift angle of at least 0.04 radians. 522.2.3 Welds
Unless otherwise designated by ANSI/AISC 358, or
2. The measured flexural resistance of the connection, otherwise determined in a connection prequalification in
determined at the column face, shall equal at least accordance with Section B-1, or as determined in a program
0.80Mp of the connected beam at an interstory drift of qualification testing in accordance with Section B-4,
angle of 0.04 radians. complete-joint-penetration groove welds of beam flanges,
3. The required shear strength of the connection shall be shear plates, and beam webs to columns shall be demand
determined using the following quantity for the critical welds as described in Section 520.3.2.
earthquake load effect E:
User Note: For the designation of demand critical welds,
E = 2[1.1Ry Mp] / Lh (Eq. 522-1) standards such as ANSI/AISC 358 and tests addressing
where specific connections and joints should be used in lieu of the
more general terms of these Provisions. Where these
Ry = ratio of the expected yield stress to the specified Provisions indicate that a particular weld is designated
minimum yield stress, Fy demand critical, but the more specific standard or test does
Mp = nominal plastic flexural strength, N-mm not make such a designation, the more specific standard or
Lh = distance between plastic hinge locations, mm test should govern. Likewise, these standards and tests may
designate welds as demand critical that are not identified as
When E as defined in (Eq. 522-1) is used in ASD load such by these Provisions.
combinations that are additive with other transient loads and
that are based on SEI/ASCE 7, the 0.75 combination factor 522.2.4 Protected Zones
for transient loads shall not be applied to E.
The region at each end of the beam subject to inelastic
straining shall be designated as a protected zone, and shall
Connections that accommodate the required interstory drift
meet the requirements of Section 520.4. The extent of the
angle within the connection elements and provide the
protected zone shall be as designated in ANSI/AISC 358, or
measured flexural resistance and shear strengths specified
as otherwise determined in a connection prequalification in
above are permitted. In addition to satisfying the
accordance with Section B-1, or as determined in a program
requirements noted above, the design shall demonstrate that
of qualification testing in accordance with Section B-4.
any additional drift due to connection deformation can be
accommodated by the structure. The design shall include
analysis for stability effects of the overall frame, including User Note: The plastic hinging zones at the ends of SMF
second-order effects. beams should be treated as protected zones. The plastic
hinging zones should be established as part of a
prequalification or qualification program for the connection,
522.2.2 Conformance Demonstration
per Section 522.2.2. In general, for unreinforced
Beam-to-column connections used in the SLRS shall satisfy connections, the protected zone will extend from the face of
the requirements of Section 522.2 by one of the following: the column to one half of the beam depth beyond the plastic
1. Use of SMF connections designed in accordance with hinge point.
ANSI/AISC 358.

522.3 Panel Zone of Beam-to-Column Connections 522.4.1 Width-Thickness Limitations

(Beam Web Parallel to Column Web) Beam and column members shall meet the requirements of
Section 521.2.2, unless otherwise qualified by tests.
522.3.1. Shear Strength
The required thickness of the panel zone shall be 522.4.2 Beam Flanges
determined in accordance with the method used in Abrupt changes in beam flange area are not permitted in
proportioning the panel zone of the tested or prequalified plastic hinge regions. The drilling of flange holes or
connection. As a minimum, the required shear strength of trimming of beam flange width is permitted if testing or
the panel zone shall be determined from the summation of qualification demonstrates that the resulting configuration
the moments at the column faces as determined by can develop stable plastic hinges. The configuration shall be
projecting the expected moments at the plastic hinge points consistent with a prequalified connection designated in
to the column faces. ANSI/AISC 358, or as otherwise determined in a
connection prequalification in accordance with Section B-1,
The design shear strength shall be φvRv and the allowable or in a program of qualification testing in accordance with
shear strength shall be Rv/Ωv where Section B-4.
φv = 1.0 (LRFD) Ωv = 1.50 (ASD)
522.5 Continuity Plates
and the nominal shear strength, Rv, according to the limit Continuity plates shall be consistent with the prequalified
state of shear yielding, is determined as specified in connection designated in ANSI/AISC 358, or as otherwise
Specification Section 510.10.6. determined in a connection prequalification in accordance
with Section B-1, or as determined in a program of
522.3.2 Panel Zone Thickness qualification testing in accordance with Section B-4.
The individual thicknesses, t, of column webs and doubler
plates, if used, shall conform to the following requirement: 522.6 Column-Beam Moment Ratio
The following relationship shall be satisfied at beam-to-
t ≥ (dz+wz) / 90 (Eq. 522-2) column connections:
where
  M pc 
t = thickness of column web or doubler plate, mm.   > 1.0 (Eq. 522-3)
  M pb 
dz = panel zone depth between continuity plates, mm.  
wz = panel zone width between column flanges, mm.
where
Alternatively, when local buckling of the column web and ΣMpc = the sum of the moments in the column above and
doubler plate is prevented by using plug welds joining them, below the joint at the intersection of the beam
the total panel zone thickness shall satisfy (Eq. 522-2). and column centerlines. ΣMpc is determined by
summing the projections of the nominal flexural
522.3.3 Panel Zone Doubler Plates strengths of the columns (including haunches
Doubler plates shall be welded to the column flanges using where used) above and below the joint to the
either a complete joint-penetration groove-welded or fillet- beam centerline with a reduction for the axial
welded joint that develops the available shear strength of force in the column. It is permitted to take ΣMpc
the full doubler plate thickness. When doubler plates are =ΣZc(Fyc -Puc /Ag) (LRFD) or ΣZc[(Fyc/1.5) Pac
placed against the column web, they shall be welded across /Ag)] (ASD), as appropriate. When the
the top and bottom edges to develop the proportion of the centerlines of opposing beams in the same joint
total force that is transmitted to the doubler plate. When do not coincide, the mid-line between centerlines
doubler plates are placed away from the column web, they shall be used.
shall be placed symmetrically in pairs and welded to ΣMpb = the sum of the moments in the beams at the
continuity plates to develop the proportion of the total force intersection of the beam and column centerlines.
that is transmitted to the doubler plate. ΣMpb is determined by summing the projections
of the expected flexural strengths of the beams at
522.4 Beam and Column Limitations the plastic hinge locations to the column
centerline. It is permitted to take
The requirements of Section 521 shall be satisfied, in ΣMpb=(1.1RyFybZb+ Muv) (LRFD) or
addition to the following. Σ[(1.1/1.5)Ry FybZb + Mav ] (ASD), as
appropriate. Alternatively, it is permitted to
determine ΣMpb consistent with a prequalified
connection design as designated in ANSI/AISC

358, or as otherwise determined in a connection Prc = Puc, required compressive strength, using LRFD
prequalification in accordance with Section B-1, load combinations, N.
or in a program of qualification testing in
accordance with Section B-4. When connections For design according to Specification Section 502.3.4
with reduced beam sections are used, it is (ASD),
permitted to take ΣMpb=Σ(1.1RyFyb
ZRBS+Muv)(LRFD) or Σ[(1.1/1.5)RyFyb ZRBS Pc = Fyc Ag /1.5, N
Prc = Pac, required compressive strength, using ASD
+ Mav ] (ASD), as appropriate.
Ag = gross area of column, mm2 load combinations, N
Fyc = specified minimum yield stress of column, MPa 2. Columns in any story that has a ratio of available shear
Mav = the additional moment due to shear amplification strength to required shear strength that is 50 percent
from the location of the plastic hinge to the greater than the story above.
column centerline, based on ASD load
combinations, N-mm. 522.7 Lateral Bracing at Beam-to-Column Connections
Muv = the additional moment due to shear amplification
from the location of the plastic hinge to the 522.7.1 Braced Connections
column centerline, based on LRFD load Column flanges at beam-to-column connections require
combinations, N-mm. lateral bracing only at the level of the top flanges of the
Pac = required compressive strength using ASD load beams, when the webs of the beams and column are co-
combinations, (a positive number) N planar, and a column is shown to remain elastic outside of
Puc = required compressive strength using LRFD load the panel zone. It shall be permitted to assume that the
combinations, (a positive number) N column remains elastic when the ratio calculated using (Eq.
Zb = plastic section modulus of the beam, mm3
522-3) is greater than 2.0.
Zc = plastic section modulus of the column, mm3
ZRBS = minimum plastic section modulus at the reduced
When a column cannot be shown to remain elastic outside
beam section, mm3.
of the panel zone, the following requirements shall apply:
Exception:
The column flanges shall be laterally braced at the levels of
This requirement does not apply if either of the following
both the top and bottom beam flanges. Lateral bracing shall
two conditions is satisfied:
be either direct or indirect.
1. Columns with Prc < 0.3Pc for all load combinations
other than those determined using the amplified seismic User Note: Direct lateral support (bracing) of the column
load that satisfy either of the following: flange is achieved through use of braces or other members,
deck and slab, attached to the column flange at or near the
a. Columns used in a one-story building or the top story
desired bracing point to resist lateral buckling. Indirect
of a multistory building.
lateral support refers to bracing that is achieved through the
b. Columns where: (1) the sum of the available shear stiffness of members and connections that are not directly
strengths of all exempted columns in the story is less attached to the column flanges, but rather act through the
than 20 percent of the sum of the available shear column web or stiffener plates.
strengths of all moment frame columns in the story
acting in the same direction; and (2) the sum of the
available shear strengths of all exempted columns on 1. Each column-flange lateral brace shall be designed for
each moment frame column line within that story is less a required strength that is equal to 2 percent of the
than 33 percent of the available shear strength of all available beam flange strength Fybf tbf (LRFD) or Fybf tbf
moment frame columns on that column line. For the /1.5 (ASD), as appropriate.
purpose of this exception, a column line is defined as a
single line of columns or parallel lines of columns 522.7.2 Unbraced Connections
located within 10 percent of the plan dimension A column containing a beam-to-column connection with no
perpendicular to the line of columns. lateral bracing transverse to the seismic frame at the
where connection shall be designed using the distance between
adjacent lateral braces as the column height for buckling
For design according to Specification Section 502.3.3 transverse to the seismic frame and shall conform to
(LRFD), Specification 508, except that:
Pc = Fyc Ag, N 1. The required column strength shall be determined from
the appropriate load combinations in the NSCP code,

except that E shall be taken as the lesser of: The required strength of the column splice considering
appropriate stress concentration factors or fracture
a. The amplified seismic load.
mechanics stress intensity factors need not exceed that
b. 125 percent of the frame available strength based upon determined by inelastic analyses.
either the beam available flexural strength or panel
zone available shear strength.
2. The slenderness L/r for the column shall not exceed 60.
3. The column required flexural strength transverse to the
seismic frame shall include that moment caused by the
application of the beam flange force specified in
Section 522.7.2 in addition to the second-order moment
due to the resulting column flange displacement.
522.8 Lateral Bracing of Beams

Both flanges of beams shall be laterally braced, with a
maximum spacing of Lb = 0.086ryE/Fy. Braces shall meet
the provisions of Equations A-1-7 and A-1-8 of Appendix
A-1.6 of the Specification, where Mr = Mu = RyZFy (LRFD)
or Mr = Mu = RyZFy /1.5 (ASD), as appropriate, of the beam
and Cd = 1.0.
In addition, lateral braces shall be placed near concentrated

forces, changes in cross-section, and other locations where
analysis indicates that a plastic hinge will form during
inelastic deformations of the SMF. The placement of lateral
bracing shall be consistent with that documented for a
prequalified connection designated in ANSI/AISC 358, or
as otherwise determined in a connection prequalification in
accordance with Section B-1, or in a program of
qualification testing in accordance with Section B-4.
The required strength of lateral bracing provided adjacent to

plastic hinges shall be Pu = 0.06 Mu /ho (LRFD) or Pa =
0.06Ma /ho (ASD), as appropriate, where ho is the distance
between flange centroids; and the required stiffness shall
meet the provisions of Equation A-1-8 of Appendix A-1.6
of the Specification.
522.9 Column Splices

Column splices shall comply with the requirements of
Section 521.4.1. Where groove welds are used to make the
splice, they shall be complete-joint-penetration groove
welds that meet the requirements of Section 520.3.2. Weld
tabs shall be removed. When column splices are not made
with groove welds, they shall have a required flexural
strength that is at least equal to RyFyZx (LRFD) or RyFyZx /
1.5 (ASD), as appropriate, of the smaller column. The
required shear strength of column web splices shall be at
least equal to ΣMpc /H (LRFD) or ΣMpc /1.5H (ASD), as
appropriate, where ΣMpc is the sum of the nominal plastic
flexural strengths of the columns above and below the
splice.
Exception:

designate welds as demand critical that are not identified as

SECTION 523 - INTERMEDIATE such by these Provisions.
MOMENT FRAMES (IMF)
523.2.4 Protected Zone
523.1 Scope The region at each end of the beam subject to inelastic
Intermediate moment frames (IMF) are expected to straining shall be treated as a protected zone, and shall meet
withstand limited inelastic deformations in their members the requirements of Section 520.4. The extent of the
and connections when subjected to the forces resulting from protected zone shall be as designated in ANSI/AISC 358, or
the motions of the design earthquake. IMF shall meet the as otherwise determined in a connection prequalification in
requirements in this Section. accordance with Section B-1, or as determined in a program
of qualification testing in accordance with Section B-4.
523.2 Beam-to-Column Connections
User Note: The plastic hinging zones at the ends of IMF
523.2.1 Requirements beams should be treated as protected zones. The plastic
hinging zones should be established as part of a
Beam-to-column connections used in the seismic load prequalification or qualification program for the connection.
resisting system (SLRS) shall satisfy the requirements of In general, for unreinforced connections, the protected zone
Section 522.2, with the following exceptions: will extend from the face of the column to one half of the
1. The required interstory drift angle shall be a minimum beam depth beyond the plastic hinge point.
of 0.02 radian.
523.3 Panel Zone of Beam-to-Column Connections
2. The required strength in shear shall be determined as (Beam Web Parallel to Column Web)
specified in Section 522.2.1, except that a lesser value
of Vu or Va, as appropriate, is permitted if justified by No additional requirements beyond the Specification.
analysis. The required shear strength need not exceed
the shear resulting from the application of appropriate 523.4 Beam and Column Limitations.
load combinations in the NSCP code using the The requirements of Section 521.1 shall be satisfied, in
amplified seismic load. addition to the following.
523.2.2 Conformance Demonstration 523.4.1 Width-Thickness Limitations

Conformance demonstration shall be as described in Section Beam and column members shall meet the requirements of
522.2.2 to satisfy the requirements of Section 523.2.1 for Section 521.2.1, unless otherwise qualified by tests.
IMF, except that a connection prequalified for IMF in
accordance with ANSI/AISC 358, or as otherwise 523.4.2 Beam Flanges
determined in a connection prequalification in accordance Abrupt changes in beam flange area are not permitted in
with Section B-1, or as determined in a program of plastic hinge regions. Drilling of flange holes or trimming
qualification testing in accordance with Section B-4. of beam flange width is permitted if testing or qualification
demonstrates that the resulting configuration can develop
523.2.3 Welds stable plastic hinges. The configuration shall be consistent
Unless otherwise designated by ANSI/AISC 358, or with a prequalified connection designated in ANSI/AISC
otherwise determined in a connection prequalification in 358, or as otherwise determined in a connection
accordance with Section B-1, or as determined in a program prequalification in accordance with Section B-1, or in a
of qualification testing in accordance with Section B-4, program of qualification testing in accordance with Section
complete joint-penetration groove welds of beam flanges, B-4.
shear plates, and beam webs to columns shall be demand
critical welds as described in Section 520.3.2. 523.5 Continuity Plates
Continuity plates shall be provided to be consistent with the
User Note: For the designation of demand critical welds, prequalified connections designated in ANSI/AISC 358, or
standards such as ANSI/AISC 358 and tests addressing as otherwise determined in a connection prequalification in
specific connections and joints should be used in lieu of the accordance with Section B-1, or as determined in a program
more general terms of these Provisions. Where these of qualification testing in accordance with Section B-4.
Provisions indicate that a particular weld is designated
demand critical, but the more specific standard or test does 523.6 Column-Beam Moment Ratio
not make such a designation, the more specific standard or
No additional requirements beyond the Specification.
test should govern. Likewise, these standards and tests may
Lateral Bracing at Beam-to-Column Connections No

additional requirements beyond the Specification. Lateral

Bracing of Beams Both flanges shall be laterally braced SECTION 524 - ORDINARY
directly or indirectly. The unbraced length between lateral MOMENT FRAMES (OMF)
braces shall not exceed 0.17 Ry E/Fy. Braces shall meet the
provisions of Equations A-1-7 and A-1-8 of Appendix A- 524.1 Scope
1.6 of the Specification, where Mr=Mu=RyZFy (LRFD) or
Mr=Mu=RyZFy /1.5 (ASD), as appropriate, of the beam, and Ordinary moment frames (OMF) are expected to withstand
Cd = 1.0. minimal inelastic deformations in their members and
connections when subjected to the forces resulting from the
In addi tion, lateral braces shall be placed near concentrated motions of the design earthquake. OMF shall meet the
loads, changes in cross-section and other locations where requirements of this Section. Connections in conformance
analysis indicates that a plastic hinge will form during with Sections 522.2.2 and 522.5 or Sections 523.2.2 and
inelastic deformations of the IMF. Where the design is 523.5 shall be permitted for use in OMF without meeting
based upon assemblies tested in accordance with Section B- the requirements of Sections 524.2.1, 524.2.1, and 524.5.
4, the placement of lateral bracing for the beams shall be
consistent with that used in the tests or as required for User Note: While these provisions for OMF were primarily
prequalification in Section B-1. The required strength of developed for use with wide flange shapes, with judgment,
lateral bracing provided adjacent to plastic hinges shall be they may also be applied to other shapes such as channels,
Pu=0.06 Mu /ho (LRFD) or Pa = 0.06Ma / ho (ASD), as built-up sections, and hollow structural sections (HSS).
appropriate, where ho = distance between flange centroids;
and the required stiffness shall meet the provisions of 524.2 Beam-to-Column
Equation A-1-8 of Appendix A-1.6 of the Specification. Connections Beam-to-column connections shall be made
Column Splices Column splices shall comply with the with welds and/or high-strength bolts. Connections are
requirements of Section 521.4.1. Where groove welds are permitted to be fully restrained (FR) or partially restrained
used to make the splice, they shall be complete-joint- (PR) moment connections as follows.
penetration groove welds that meet the requirements of
Section 520.3.2. 524.2. Requirements for FR Moment Connections
FR moment connections that are part of the seismic load
resisting system (SLRS) shall be designed for a required
flexural strength that is equal to 1.1 Ry Mp (LRFD) or
(1.1/1.5) Ry Mp (ASD), as appropriate, of the beam or
girder, or the maximum moment that can be developed by
the system, whichever is less.
FR connections shall meet the following requirements.

1. Where steel backing is used in connections with
complete-joint-penetration (CJP) beam flange groove
welds, steel backing and tabs shall be removed, except
that top-flange backing attached to the column by a
continuous fillet weld on the edge below the CJP
groove weld need not be removed. Removal of steel
backing and tabs shall be as follows:
a. Following the removal of backing, the root pass shall
be back gouged to sound weld metal and back welded
with a reinforcing fillet. The reinforcing fillet shall
have a minimum leg size of 8 mm.
b. Weld tab removal shall extend to within 3 mm of the
base metal surface, except at continuity plates where
removal to within 6 mm of the plate edge is acceptable.
Edges of the weld tab shall be finished to a surface
roughness value of 13 μm or better. Grinding to a flush
condition is not required. Gouges and notches are not
permitted. The transitional slope of any area where
gouges and notches have been removed shall not
exceed 1:5. Material removed by grinding that extends

more than 2 mm below the surface of the base metal

shall be filled with weld metal. The contour of the weld
at the ends shall provide a smooth transition, free of
notches and sharp corners.
2. Where weld access holes are provided, they shall be as
shown in Figure 524-1. The weld access hole shall have
a surface roughness value not to exceed 13 μm, and
shall be free of notches and gouges. Notches and
gouges shall be repaired as required by the engineer-of-
record. Weld access holes are prohibited in the beam
web adjacent to the end-plate in bolted moment end-
plate connections.
3. The required strength of double-sided partial-joint-
penetration groove welds and double-sided fillet welds
that resist tensile forces in connections shall be
1.1RyFyAg (LRFD) or (1.1/1.5) RyFyAg (ASD), as
appropriate, of the connected element or part. Single-
sided partial-joint-penetration groove welds and single-
sided fillet welds shall not be used to resist tensile
forces in the connections.
4. For FR moment connections, the required shear
strength, Vu or Va, as appropriate, of the connection Fig. 524-1 Weld-Access hole detail (from FEMA 350,
shall be determined using the following quantity for the “Recommended Seismic Design Criteria for New Steel
earthquake load effect E: Moment-Frame Buildings”)
E = 2[1.1Ry Mp] / Lh (Eq. 524-1)
524.2.2 Requirements for PR Moment Connections
Where this E is used in ASD load combinations that are PR moment connections are permitted when the following
additive with other transient loads and that are based on requirements are met:
SEI/ASCE 7, the 0.75 combination factor for transient loads
shall not be applied to E. 1. Such connections shall be designed for the required
strength as specified in Section 524.2.1above.
Alternatively, a lesser value of Vu or Va is permitted if 2. The nominal flexural strength of the connection, Mn,
justified by analysis. The required shear strength need not shall be no less than 50 percent of Mp of the connected
exceed the shear resulting from the application of beam or column, whichever is less.
appropriate load combinations in the NSCP code using the
amplified seismic load. 3. The stiffness and strength of the PR moment
connections shall be considered in the design, including
the effect on overall frame stability.
4. For PR moment connections, Vu or Va, as appropriate,
shall be determined from the load combination above
plus the shear resulting from the maximum end
moment that the connection is capable of resisting.
524.2.3 Welds
Complete-joint-penetration groove welds of beam flanges,
shear plates, and beam webs to columns shall be demand
critical welds as described in Section 520.3.2.
524.3 Panel Zone of Beam-to-Column Connections

(Beam Web Parallel To Column Web)

524.4 Beam and Column Limitations 524.9 Column Splices

No requirements beyond Section 521.1. Column splices shall comply with the requirements of
Section 521.4.1.
524.5 Continuity Plates
When FR moment connections are made by means of welds
of beam flanges or beam-flange connection plates directly
to column flanges, continuity plates shall be provided in
accordance with Section 510 of the Specification.
Continuity plates shall also be required when:
tcf < 0.54 b f t bf Fyb / Fyc
or when
tcf ˂ bf / 6
Where continuity plates are required, the thickness of the
plates shall be determined as follows:
1. For one-sided connections, continuity plate thickness
shall be at least one half of the thickness of the beam
flange.
2. For two-sided connections the continuity plates shall be
at least equal in thickness to the thicker of the beam
flanges.
The welded joints of the continuity plates to the column

flanges shall be made with either complete-joint-penetration
groove welds, two-sided partial-joint penetration groove
welds combined with reinforcing fillet welds, or two-sided
fillet welds. The required strength of these joints shall not
be less than the available strength of the contact area of the
plate with the column flange. The required strength of the
welded joints of the continuity plates to the column web
shall be the least of the following:
a. The sum of the available strengths at the connections of
the continuity plate to the column flanges.
The available shear strength of the contact area of the
plate with the column web.
b. The weld available strength that develops the available
shear strength of the column panel zone.
c. The actual force transmitted by the stiffener.
524.6 Column-Beam Moment Ratio

No additional requirements beyond the specification
524.7 Lateral Bracing at Beam-to-Column Connections

524.8 Lateral Bracing of Beams


SECTION 525 - SPECIAL TRUSS the available compressive strength of the diagonal members,
when they are used. The top and bottom chord members in
MOMENT FRAMES (STMF) the special segment shall be made of identical sections and
shall provide at least 25 percent of the required vertical
525.1 Scope shear strength. The required axial strength in the chord
Special truss moment frames (STMF) are expected to members, determined according to the limit state of tensile
withstand significant inelastic deformation within a yielding, shall not exceed 0.45 times φPn (LRFD) or Pn / Ω
specially designed segment of the truss when subjected to (ASD), as appropriate,
the forces from the motions of the design earthquake. STMF φ = 0.90 (LRFD) Ω = 1.67 (ASD)
shall be limited to span lengths between columns not to
exceed 20 m and overall depth not to exceed 1.8 m. The where
columns and truss segments outside of the special segments
Pn = Fy Ag
shall be designed to remain elastic under the forces that can
be generated by the fully yielded and strain-hardened
The end connection of diagonal web members in the special
special segment. STMF shall meet the requirements in this
segment shall have a required strength that is at least equal
Section.
to the expected yield strength, in tension, of the web
member, RyFyAg (LRFD) or RyFyAg / 1.5 (ASD), as
525.2 Special Segment
appropriate.
Each horizontal truss that is part of the seismic load
resisting system (SLRS) shall have a special segment that is 525.4 Strength of Non-Special Segment rs.
located between the quarter points of the span of the truss.
Members and connections of STMF, except those in the
The length of the special segment shall be between 0.1 and
special segment specified in Section 525.2, shall have a
0.5 times the truss span length. The length-to-depth ratio of
required strength based on the appropriate load
any panel in the special segment shall neither exceed 1.5
combinations in the NSCP code, replacing the earthquake
nor be less than 0.67.
load term E with the lateral loads necessary to develop the
expected vertical shear strength of the special segment Vne
Panels within a special segment shall either be all
(LRFD) or Vne /1.5 (ASD), as appropriate, at mid-length,
Vierendeel panels or all X-braced panels; neither a
given as:
combination thereof nor the use of other truss diagonal
configurations is permitted. Where diagonal members are
Vne 
3.75 R y M nc
 0.075 EI
L - L y   R P  0.3P sin a
used in the special segment, they shall be arranged in an X Ls 3 y nt nc
Lc
pattern separated by vertical members. Such diagonal
members shall be interconnected at points where they cross. (Eq. 525-1)
The interconnection shall have a required strength equal to where
0.25 times the nominal tensile strength of the diagonal
member. Bolted connections shall not be used for web Mnc = nominal flexural strength of a chord member of
members within the special segment. Diagonal web the special segment, N-mm.
members within the special segment shall be made of flat EI = flexural elastic segment of a chord member of
bars of identical sections. the special segment, N-mm2
L = span length of the truss, mm.
Splicing of chord members is not permitted within the Ls = length of the special segment, in. (mm)
special segment, nor within one-half the panel length from Pnt = nominal tensile strength of a diagonal member of
the ends of the special segment. The required axial strength the special segment, kips (N)
of the diagonal web members in the special segment due to Pnc = nominal compressive strength of a diagonal
dead and live loads within the special segment shall not member of the special segment, kips (N)
exceed 0.03FyAg (LRFD) or (0.03/1.5) FyAg (ASD), as α = angle of diagonal members with the horizontal
appropriate.
The special segment shall be a protected zone meeting the 525.5 Width-Thickness Limitations
requirements of Section 520.4. Chord members and diagonal web members within the
special segment shall meet the requirements of Section
525.3 Strength of Special Segment Members 521.2.2.
The available shear strength of the special segment shall be
calculated as the sum of the available shear strength of the 525.6 Lateral Bracing
chord members through flexure, and the shear strength The top and bottom chords of the trusses shall be laterally
corresponding to the available tensile strength and 0.3 times braced at the ends of the special segment, and at intervals

not to exceed Lp according to Specification Section 506, SECTION 526 - SPECIAL

along the entire length of the truss. The required strength of
each lateral brace at the ends of and within the special CONCENTRICALLY BRACED
segment shall be FRAMES (SCBF)
Pu = 0.06 Ry Pnc (LRFD) or
526.1 Scope
Pa = (0.06/1.5) Ry Pnc (ASD), as appropriate,
Special concentrically braced frames (SCBF) are expected
where to withstand significant inelastic deformations when
subjected to the forces resulting from the motions of the
Pnc = is the nominal compressive strength of the design earthquake. SCBF shall meet the requirements in this
special segment chord member. Section.
Lateral braces outside of the special segment shall have a User Note: Section 527 (OCBF) should be used for the
required strength of design of tension-only bracing.
Pu = 0.02 Ry Pnc (LRFD) or
526.2 Members
Pa = (0.02/1.5) Ry Pnc (ASD), as appropriate.
526.2.1 Slenderness
The required brace stiffness shall meet the provisions of
Equation A-1-4 of Appendix A-1.6 of the Specification, Bracing members shall have Kl/r ≤ 4
where
Pr = Pu = Ry Pnc (LRFD) or Exception:
Pr = Pa = Ry Pnc /1.5 (ASD), as appropriate. Braces with 4 < Kl/r ≤ 200 are permitted in frames
in which the available strength of the column is at least
equal to the maximum load transferred to the column con
sidering Ry (LRFD) or (1/1.5) Ry (ASD), as appropriate,
times the nominal strengths of the connecting brace
elements of the building. Column forces need not exceed
those determined by inelastic analysis, nor the maximum
load effects that can be developed by the system.

Where the effective net area of bracing members is less than
the gross area, the required tensile strength of the brace
based upon the limit state of fracture in the net section shall
be greater than the lesser of the following:
1. The expected yield strength, in tension, of the bracing

member, determined as RyFyAg (LRFD) or RyFyAg/1.5
(ASD), as appropriate.
2. The maximum load effect, indicated by analysis that

can be transferred to the brace by the system.
User Note: This provision applies to bracing members

where the section is reduced. A typical case is a slotted HSS
brace at the gusset plate connection.
526.2.3 Lateral Force Distribution

Along any line of bracing, braces shall be deployed in
alternate directions such that, for either direction of force
parallel to the bracing, at least 30 percent but no more than
70 percent of the total horizontal force along that line is

resisted by braces in tension, unless the available strength of Exception:

each brace in compression is larger than the required
Brace connections that meet the requirements of Section
strength resulting from the application of the appropriate
526.3.1 and can accommodate the inelastic rotations
load combinations stipulated by the NSCP code including
associated with brace post-buckling deformations need not
the amplified seismic load. For the purposes of this
meet this requirement.
provision, a line of bracing is defined as a single line or
parallel lines with a plan offset of 10 percent or less of the
User Note: Accommodation of inelastic rotation is typically
building dimension per pendicular to the line of bracing.
accomplished by means of a single gusset plate with the
brace terminating before the line of restraint. The detailing
526.2.4 Width-Thickness Limitations
requirements for such a connection are described in the
Column and brace members shall meet the requirements of AISC commentary.
Section 521.2.2.
526.3.3 Required Compressive Strength
User Note: HSS walls may be stiffened to comply with this
Bracing connections shall be designed for a required
requirement.
compressive strength based on buckling limit states that is
at least equal to 1.1RyPn (LRFD) or (1.1/1.5) RyPn (ASD), as
526.2.5 Built-up Members
appropriate, where Pn is the nominal compressive strength
The spacing of stitches shall be such that the slenderness of the brace.
ratio l/r of individual elements between the stitches does not
exceed 0.4 times the governing slenderness ratio of the 526.4 Special Bracing Configuration Requirements
built-up member.
526.4.1 V-Type and Inverted-V-Type Bracing.
The sum of the available shear strengths of the stitches shall
V-type and inverted V-type SCBF shall meet the following
equal or exceed the available tensile strength of each
requirements:
element. The spacing of stitches shall be uniform. Not less
than two stitches shall be used in a built-up member. Bolted 1. The required strength of beams intersected by braces,
stitches shall not be located within the middle one-fourth of their connections, and supporting members shall be
the clear brace length. determined based on the load combinations of the
NSCP code assuming that the braces provide no
Exception:
support for dead and live loads. For load combinations
Where the buckling of braces about their critical bucking that include earthquake effects, the earthquake effect,
axis does not cause shear in the stitches, the spacing of the E, on the beam shall be determined as follows:
stitches shall be such that the slenderness ratio l/r of the
a. The forces in all braces in tension shall be assumed to
individual elements between the stitches does not exceed
be equal to RyFyAg.
0.75 times the governing slenderness ratio of the built-up
member. b. The forces in all adjoining braces in compression shall
be assumed to be equal to 0.3Pn.
526.3 Required Strength of Bracing Connections
2. Beams shall be continuous between columns. Both
flanges of beams shall be laterally braced, with a
526.3.1 Required Tensile Strength
maximum spacing of Lb=Lpd, as specified by Equation
The required tensile strength of bracing connections A-1.1-7 and A-1.1-8 of Appendix A-1of the
(including beam- to-column connections if part of the Specification. Lateral braces shall meet the provisions
bracing system) shall be the lesser of the following: of Equations A-1.6-7 and A-1.6-8 of Appendix A-1.6of
1. The expected yield strength, in tension, of the bracing the Specification, where Mr=Mu=RyZFy (LRFD) or
member, determined as RyFyAg (LRFD) or RyFyAg/1.5 Mr=Mu=RyZFy /1.5 (ASD), as appropriate, of the beam
(ASD), as appropriate. and Cd = 1.0.
As a minimum, one set of lateral braces is required at the

2. The maximum load effect, indicated by analysis that point of intersection of the V-type (or inverted V-type)
can be transferred to the brace by the system. bracing, unless the beam has sufficient out-of¬plane
strength and stiffness to ensure stability between adjacent
526.3.2 Required Flexural Strength brace points.
The required flexural strength of bracing connections shall User Note: One method of demonstrating sufficient out-of-
be equal to 1.1Ry Mp (LRFD) or (1.1/1.5) Ry Mp (ASD), as plane strength and stiffness of the beam is to apply the
appropriate, of the brace about the critical buckling axis.

bracing force defined in Equation A-1.6-7 of Appendix A-

1.6 of the Specification to each flange so as to form a SECTION 527 - ORDINARY
torsional couple; this loading should be in conjunction with CONCENTRICALLY BRACED
the flexural forces defined in item (1) above. The stiffness
of the beam (and its restraints) with respect to this torsional FRAMES (OCBF)
loading should be sufficient to satisfy Equation A-1.6-8.
527.1 Scope
526.4.2 K-Type Ordinary concentrically braced frames (OCBF) are expected
Bracing K-type braced frames are not permitted for SCBF. to withstand limited inelastic deformations in their members
and connections when subjected to the forces resulting from
526.5 Column Splices the motions of the design earthquake. OCBF shall meet the
requirements in this Section. OCBF above the isolation
In addition to meeting the requirements in Section 521.4, system in seismically isolated structures shall meet the
column splices in SCBF shall be designed to develop 50 requirements of Sections 527.4and 527.5and need not meet
percent of the lesser available flexural strength of the the requirements of Sections 527.2and 527.3.
connected members. The required shear strength shall be
ΣMpc /H (LRFD) or ΣMpc /1.5H (ASD), as appropriate,
527.2 Bracing Members
where ΣMpc is the sum of the nominal plastic flexural
strengths of the columns above and below the splice. Bracing members shall meet the requirements of Section
521.2.2.
526.6 Protected Zone Exception:
The protected zone of bracing members in SCBF shall
HSS braces that are filled with concrete need not comply
include the center one-quarter of the brace length, and a
with this provision.
zone adjacent to each connection equal to the brace depth in
the plane of buckling. The protected zone of SCBF shall Bracing members in K, V, or inverted-V configurations
include elements that connect braces to beams and columns shall have Kl / r  4 E F y
and shall satisfy the requirements of Section 520.4.
User Note: Bracing members that are designed as tension

only (that is, neglecting their strength in compression) are
not appropriate for K, V, and inverted V configurations.
Such braces may be used in other configurations and are not
required to satisfy this provision. Such members may
include slender angles, plate, or cable bracing, which are not
excluded by Section 519.1.
527.3 Special Bracing Configuration

Requirements Beams in V-type and inverted V-type OCBF
and columns in K-type OCBF shall be continuous at bracing
connections away from the beam-column connection and
shall meet the following requirements:
1. The required strength shall be determined based on the
load combinations of the NSCP code assuming that the
braces provide no support of dead and live loads. For
load combinations that include earthquake effects, the
earthquake effect, E, on the member shall be
determined as follows:
a. The forces in braces in tension shall be assumed to be
equal to RyFyAg. For V-type and inverted V-type
OCBF, the forces in braces in tension need not exceed
the maximum force that can be developed by the
system.
b. The forces in braces in compression shall be assumed
to be equal to 0.3Pn.

2. Both flanges shall be laterally braced, with a maximum SECTION 528 - ECCENTRICALLY
spacing of Lb = Lpd, as specified by Equations A-1.7-7
and A-1.8-8 of Appendix A-1 of the Specification. BRACED FRAMES (EBF)
Lateral braces shall meet the provisions of Equations
A-1.6-7 and A-1.6-8 of Appendix A-1.6 of the 528.1 Scope
Specification, where Mr=Mu=RyZFy (LRFD) or Mr= Eccentrically braced frames (EBFs) are expected to
Mu=RyZFy /1.5 (ASD), as appropriate, of the beam and withstand significant inelastic deformations in the links
Cd=1.0. As a minimum, one set of lateral braces is when subjected to the forces resulting from the motions of
required at the point of intersection of the bracing, the design earthquake. The diagonal braces, columns, and
unless the member has sufficient out-of-plane strength beam segments outside of the links shall be designed to
and stiffness to ensure stability between adjacent brace remain essentially elastic under the maximum forces that
points. can be generated by the fully yielded and strain-hardened
links, except where permitted in this Section. In buildings
User Note: See User Note in Section 526.4for a method of exceeding five stories in height, the upper story of an EBF
establishing sufficient out-of-plane strength and stiffness of system is permitted to be designed as an OCBF or a SCBF
the beam. and still be considered to be part of an EBF system for the
purposes of determining system factors in the NSCP code.
527.4 Bracing Connections EBF shall meet the requirements in this Section.
The required strength of bracing connections shall be
determined as follows. 528.2 Links
1. For the limit state of bolt slip, the required strength of 528.2.1 Limitations
bracing connections shall be that determined using the
load combinations stipulated by the NSCP code, not Links shall meet the requirements of Section 521.2.2.
including the amplified seismic load.
The web of a link shall be single thickness. Doubler-plate
2. For other limit states, the required strength of bracing reinforcement and web penetrations are not permitted.
connections is the expected yield strength, in tension,
of the brace, determined as RyFyAg (LRFD) or RyFyAg 528.2.2. Shear Strength
/1.5 (ASD), as appropriate. Except as limited below, the link design shear strength,
Exception: φvVn, and the allowable shear strength, Vn/Ωv, according to
the limit state of shear yielding shall be determined as
The required strength of the brace connection need not follows:
exceed either of the following:
Vn = nominal shear stre ngth of the link, equal to the
1. The maximum force that can be developed by the lesser of Vp or 2Mp /e, N.
system
2. A load effect based upon using the amplified seismic φv = 0.90 (LRFD) Ωv = 1.67 (ASD)
load
where
Mp = Fy Z, N-mm
527.5 OCBF above Seismic Isolation Systems Vp = 0.6Fy Aw, N
e = link length, mm
527.5.1 Bracing Members Aw = (d-2tf)tw
Bracing members shall meet the requirements of Section
521.2.2 and shall have The effect of axial force on the link available shear strength
need not be considered if
Kl / r  4 E F y Pu ≤ 0.15Py (LRFD) or
Pa ≤ (0.15/1.5)Py (ASD), as appropriate.
527.5.2 K-Type Bracing
where
K-type braced frames are not permitted.
Pu = required axial strength using LRFD load
27.5.3 V-Type and Inverted-V-Type Bracing. combinations, N
Beams in V-type and inverted V-type bracing shall be Pa = required axial strength using ASD load
continuous between columns. combinations, N

Py = nominal axial yield strength = Fy Ag, N 528.3 Link Stiffeners

Full-depth web stiffeners shall be provided on both sides of
If Pu > 0.15Py (LRFD) or the link web at the diagonal brace ends of the link. These
Pa > (0.15/1.5) Py (ASD), as appropriate, stiffeners shall have a combined width not less than (bf -
2tw) and a thickness not less than 0.75tw or 10 mm,
the following additional requirements shall be met:
Whichever is larger, where bf and tw are the link flange
1. The available shear strength of the link shall be the width and link web thickness respectively.
lesser of φvVpa and 2φvMpa /e (LRFD) or
Vpa / Ωv and 2 (Mpa /e)/Ωv (ASD), as appropriate, Links shall be provided with intermediate web stiffeners as
where fol lows:
φv = 0.90 (LRFD) Ωv = 1.67 (ASD) 1. Links of lengths 1.6Mp /Vp or less shall be provided
with interm ediate web stiffeners spaced at intervals not
Vpa = Vp (Eq. 528-1) exceed ing (30tw –d/5) for a link rotation angle of 0.08
Mpa = 1.18 Mp (Eq. 528-2) radian or (52 tw –d/5) for link rotation angles of 0.02
radian or less. Linear interpolation shall be used for
Pr = Pu (LRFD) or values bet ween 0.08 and 0.02 radian.
Pa (ASD), as appropriate 2. Links of length greater than 2.6Mp /Vp and less than
Pc = Py (LRFD) or Py /1.5 (ASD), as appropriate 5Mp /Vp shall be prov ided with inte rmed iate web stif
fen ers placed at a dist ance of 1.5 times bf from each
2. The length of the link shall not exceed: end of the link.
a. [1.15 - 0.5ρ′(Aw /Ag)] 1.6Mp /Vp 3. Links of length between 1.6Mp /Vp and 2.6Mp /Vp
when ρ′ (Aw /Ag) ≥ 0.3 (Eq. 528-3) shall be provided with intermediate web stiffeners
meeting the re quirements of (a) and (b) above.
nor
4. Intermediate web stiffeners are not required in links of
b. 1.6Mp /Vp lengths greater than 5Mp /Vp.
when ρ′( Aw /Ag) < 0.3 (Eq.528-4) 5. Intermediate web stiffeners shall be full depth. For
where links that are less than 635 mm in depth, stiffeners are
required on only one side of the link web. The
Aw= (d - 2tf)tw thickness of one-sided stiffeners shall not be less than
ρ′ = Pr /Vr tw or 10 mm, whichever is larger, and the width shall
and be not less than (bf /2)- tw. For links that are 635 mm
in depth or greater, similar intermediate stiffeners are
where required on both sides of the web.
Vr = Vu (LRFD) or Va (ASD), as appropriate
Vu = required shear strength based on LRFD load The required strength of fillet welds connecting a link
stiffener to the link web is AstFy (LRFD) or AstFy / 1.5
combinations, N
(ASD), as appropriate, where Ast is the area of the stiffener.
Va = required shear strength based on ASD load
combinations, N The required strength of fillet welds connecting the stiffener
to the link flanges is AstFy /4 (LRFD) or AstFy /4(1.5) (ASD).
528.2.3 Link Rotation Angle
528.4 Link-to-Column Connections
The link rotation angle is the inelastic angle between the
link and the beam outside of the link when the total story Link-to-column connections must be capable of sustaining
drift is equal to the design story drift, Δ. The link rotation the maximum link rotation angle based on the length of the
angle shall not exceed the following values: link, as specified in Section 528.2.3. The strength of the
connection measured at the column face shall equal at least
1. 0.08 radians for links of length 1.6Mp /Vp or less. the nominal shear strength of the link, Vn, as specified in
Section 528.2.2 at the maximum link rotation angle. Link-
2. 0.02 radians for links of length 2.6Mp /Vp or greater.
to-column connections shall satisfy the above requirements
3. The value determined by linear interpolation between by one of the following:
the above values for links of length between 1.6Mp /Vp
1. Use a connection prequalified for EBF in accordance
and 2.6Mp /Vp.
with Section B-1.

2. Provide qualifying cyclic test results in accordance with is as defined in Section 528.2.2. The available strength of
Section B-4. Results of at least two cyclic connection the diagonal brace shall comply with Specification Section
tests shall be provided and are permitted to be based on 508.
one of the following:
Brace members shall meet the requirements of Section
a. Tests reported in research literature or documented tests
521.2.1.
performed for other projects that are representative of
project conditions, within the limits specified in Section
B-4. 528.6.2 Beam Outside Link
The required combined axial and flexural strength of the
b. Tests that are conducted specifically for the project and beam outside of the link shall be determined based on load
are representative of project member sizes, material combinations stipulated by the NSCP code. For load
strengths, connection configurations, and matching combinations including seismic effects, a load Q1 shall be
connection processes, within the limits specified in substituted for the term E where Q1 is defined as the forces
Section B-4. generated by at least 1.1 times the expected nominal shear
Exception: strength of the link, RyVn, where Vn is as defined in Section
528.2.2. The available strength of the beam outside of the
Where reinforcement at the beam-to-column connection at link shall be determined by the Specification, multiplied by
the link end precludes yielding of the beam over the Ry.
reinforced length, the link is permitted to be the beam
segment from the end of the reinforcement to the brace User Note: The diagonal brace and beam segment outside
connection. Where such links are used and the link length of the link are intended to remain essentially elastic under
does not exceed 1.6Mp /Vp, cyclic testing of the reinforced the forces generated by the fully yielded and strain hardened
connection is not required if the available strength of the link. Both the diagonal brace and beam segment outside of
reinforced section and the connection equals or exceeds the the link are typically subject to a combination of large axial
required strength calculated based upon the strain- force and bending moment, and therefore should be treated
hardened link as described in Section 528.8. Full depth as beam-columns in design, where the available strength is
stiffeners as required in Section 528.2.3shall be placed at defined by Section 508 of the Specification.
the link-to-reinforcement interface.
At the connection between the diagonal brace and the beam
528.5 Lateral Bracing of Link at the link end of the brace, the intersection of the brace and
Lateral bracing shall be provided at both the top and bottom beam centerlines shall be at the end of the link or in the link.
link flanges at the ends of the link. The required strength of
each lateral brace at the ends of the link shall be Pb = 0.06 528.6.3 Bracing Connections
Mr /ho, where ho is the distance between flange centroids in The required strength of the diagonal brace connections, at
mm. both ends of the brace, shall be at least equal to the required
For design according to Specification Section 502.3.3 strength of the diagonal brace, as defined in Section
(LRFD) 528.6.1. The diagonal brace connections shall also satisfy
Mr = Mu,exp = RyZFy the requirements of Section 526.3.3.
For design according to Specification Section B3.4 (ASD) No part of the diagonal brace connection at the link end of
Mr = Mu,exp /1.5 the brace shall extend over the link length. If the brace is
designed to resist a portion of the link end moment, then the
The required brace stiffness shall meet the provisions of diagonal brace connection at the link end of the brace shall
Equation A-1.6-8 of the Specification, where Mr is defined be designed as a fully-restrained moment connection.
above, Cd = 1, and Lb is the link length.
528.7 Beam-to-Column Connections
528.6 Diagonal Brace and Beam Outside of Link
If the EBF system factors in the NSCP code require moment
resisting connections away from the link, then the beam-to-
528.6.1 Diagonal Brace
column connections away from the link shall meet the
The required combined axial and flexural strength of the requirements for beam-to-column connections for OMF
diagonal brace shall be determined based on load specified in Sections 11.2 and 11.5.
combinations stipulated by the NSCP code. For load
combinations including seismic effects, a load Q1 shall be If the EBF system factors in the NSCP code do not require
substituted for the term E, where Q1 is defined as the axial moment resisting connections away from the link, then the
forces and moments generated by at least 1.25 times the
expected nominal shear strength of the link RyVn, where Vn

beam-to-column connections away from the link are

permitted to be designed as pinned in the plane of the web. SECTION 529 - BUCKLING-
RESTRAINED BRACED FRAMES
528.8 Required Strength of Columns
(BRBF)
In addition to the requirements in Section 521.3, the
required strength of columns shall be determined from load
529.1 Scope
combinations as stipulated by the NSCP code, except that
the seismic load E shall be the forces generated by 1.1 times Buckling-restrained braced frames (BRBF) are expected to
the expected nominal shear strength of all links above the withstand significant inelastic deformations when subjected
level under consideration. The expected nominal shear to the forces resulting from the motions of the design
strength of a link is RyVn, where Vn is as defined in Section earthquake. BRBF shall meet the requirements in this
528.2.2. Section. Where the NSCP code does not contain design
coefficients for BRBF, the provisions of Section B-3 shall
Column members shall meet the requirements of Section apply.
521.2.2.
529.2 Bracing Members
528.9 Protected Zone Bracing members shall be composed of a structural steel
Links in EBFs are a protected zone, and shall satisfy the core and a system that restrains the steel core from
requirements of Section 520.4. Welding on links is buckling.
permitted for attachment of link stiffeners, as required in
Section 528.3. 529.2.1 Steel Core
The steel core shall be designed to resist the entire axial
528.10 Demand Critical Welds force in the brace.
Complete-joint-penetration groove welds attaching the link
flanges and the link web to the column are demand critical The brace design axial strength, φPysc (LRFD), and the
welds, and shall satisfy the requirements of Section 520.3.2. brace allowable axial strength, Pysc /Ω (ASD), in tension and
compression, according to the limit state of yielding, shall
be determined as follows:
Pysc = Fysc Asc (Eq. 529-1)
φ = 0.90 (LRFD) Ω = 1.67 (ASD)
where
Fysc = specified minimum yield stress of the steel core,
or actual yield stress of the steel core as
determined from a coupon test, MPa.
Asc = net area of steel core, mm2.
Plates used in the steel core that are 50 mm thick or greater

shall satisfy the minimum notch toughness requirements of
Section 519.3.
Splices in the steel core are not permitted.
529.2.2 Buckling-Restraining System

The buckling-restraining system shall consist of the casing
for the steel core. In stability calculations, beams, columns,
and gussets connecting the core shall be considered parts of
this system.
The buckling-restraining system shall limit local and overall

buckling of the steel core for deformations corresponding to
2.0 times the design story drift. The buckling-restraining
system shall not be permitted to buckle within deformations
corresponding to 2.0 times the design story drift.

User Note: Conformance to this provision is demonstrated corresponding to 2.0 times the design story drift) to Fysc of
by means of testing as described in Section 529.2.3. the test specimen. The larger value of ω from the two
required qualification tests shall be used. Where the tested
529.2.3 Testing steel core material does not match that of the prototype, ω
The design of braces shall be based upon results from shall be based on coupon testing of the prototype material.
qualifying cyclic tests in accordance with the procedures 529.3. Bracing Connections.
and acceptance criteria of Section B-5. Qualifying test
results shall consist of at least two successful cyclic tests: 529.3.1 Required Strength
one is required to be a test of a brace subassemblage that The required strength of bracing connections in tension and
includes brace connection rotational demands complying compression (including beam-to-column connections if part
with Section B-5, Section B-5.4 and the other shall be either of the bracing system) shall be 1.1 times the adjusted brace
a uniaxial or a subassemblage test complying with Section strength in compression (LRFD) or 1.1/1.5 times the
B-5, Section B-5.5. Both test types are permitted to be adjusted brace strength in compression (ASD).
based upon one of the following:
529.3.2 Gusset Plates
1. Tests reported in research or documented tests
performed for other projects. The design of connections shall include considerations of
local and overall buckling. Bracing consistent with that used
2. Tests that are conducted specifically for the project. in the tests upon which the design is based is required.
Interpolation or extrapolation of test results for different
member sizes shall be justified by rational analysis that User Note: This provision may be met by designing the
demonstrates stress distributions and magnitudes of internal gusset plate for a transverse force consistent with transverse
strains consistent with or less severe than the tested bracing forces determined from testing, by adding a
assemblies and that considers the adverse effects of stiffener to it to resist this force, or by providing a brace to
variations in material properties. Extrapolation of test the gusset plate or to the brace itself. Where the supporting
results shall be based upon similar combinations of steel tests did not include transverse bracing, no such bracing is
core and buckling-restraining system sizes. Tests shall be required. Any attachment of bracing to the steel core must
permitted to qualify a design when the provisions of Section be included in the qualification testing.
B-5 are met.
529.4 Special Requirements
529.2.4 Adjusted Brace Strength Related to Bracing Configuration. V-type and inverted-V-
Where required by these Provisions, bracing connections type braced frames shall meet the following requirements:
and adjoining members shall be designed to resist forces 1. The required strength of beams intersected by braces,
calculated based on the adjusted brace strength. their connections, and supporting members shall be
determined based on the load combinations of the
The adjusted brace strength in compression shall be NSCP code assuming that the braces provide no
βωRyPysc. The adjusted brace strength in tension shall be support for dead and live loads. For load combinations
ωRyPysc. that include earthquake effects, the vertical and
Exception: horizontal earthquake effect, E, on the beam shall be
determined from the adjusted brace strengths in tension
The factor Ry need not be applied if Pysc is established using and compression.
yield stress determined from a coupon test.
2. Beams shall be continuous between columns. Both
The compression strength adjustment factor, β, shall be flanges of beams shall be laterally braced. Lateral
calculated as the ratio of the maximum compression force to braces shall meet the provisions of Equations A-1.6-7
the maximum tension force of the test specimen measured and A-1.6-8 of Appendix A-1.6 of the Specification,
from the qualification tests specified in Section B-5, Section where Mr = Mu = Ry ZFy (LRFD) or Mr = Mu = Ry ZFy
B-5.6.3for the range of deformations corresponding to 2.0 /1.5 (ASD), as appropriate, of the beam and Cd = 1.0.
times the design story drift. The larger value of β from the As a minimum, one set of lateral braces is required at
two required brace qualification tests shall be used. In no the point of intersection of the V-type (or inverted V-
case shall β be taken as less than 1.0. type) bracing, unless the beam has sufficient out-of-
plane strength and stiffness to ensure stability between
The strain hardening adjustment factor, ω, shall be adjacent brace points.
calculated as the ratio of the maximum tension force
measured from the qualification tests specified in Section B- User Note: The beam has sufficient out-of-plane strength
5, Section B-5.6.3 (for the range of deformations and stiffness if the beam bent in the horizontal plane meets

the required brace strength and required brace stiffness for

column nodal bracing as prescribed in the Specification. Pu 529.6 Protected Zone
may be taken as the required compressive strength of the The protected zone shall include the steel core of bracing
brace. members and elements that connect the steel core to beams
and columns, and shall satisfy the requirements of Section
For purposes of brace design and testing, the calculated 520.4.
maximum deformation of braces shall be increased by
including the effect of the vertical deflection of the beam
under the loading defined in Section 529.4.
K-type braced frames are not permitted for BRBF.
529.5 Beams and Columns

Beams and columns in BRBF shall meet the following
requirements.
529.5.1 Width-Thickness Limitations

Beam and column members shall meet the requirements of
Section 521.2.2.

The required strength of beams and columns in BRBF shall
be determined from load combinations as stipulated in the
NSCP code. For load combinations that include earthquake
effects, the earthquake effect, E, shall be determined from
the adjusted brace strengths in tension and compression.
The required strength of beams and columns need not

exceed the maximum force that can be developed by the
system.
User Note: Load effects calculated based on adjusted brace

strengths should not be amplified by the overstrength factor,
Ωo.
529.5.3 Splices
In addition to meeting the requirements in Section 521.4,
column splices in BRBF shall be designed to develop 50
percent of the lesser available flexural strength of the
connected members, determined based on the limit state of
yielding. The required shear strength shall be ΣMpc /H
(LRFD) or ΣMpc /1.5H (ASD), as appropriate, where ΣMpc
is the sum of the nominal plastic flexural strengths of the
columns above and below the splice.

SECTION 530 - SPECIAL PLATE respectively, unless otherwise justified by testing and
analysis.
SHEAR WALLS (SPSW)
530.3 Connections of Webs to Boundary Elements
530.1 Scope
The required strength of web connections to the surrounding
Special plate shear walls (SPSW) are expected to withstand HBE and VBE shall equal the expected yield strength, in
significant inelastic deformations in the webs when tension, of the web calculated at an angle α, defined by
subjected to the forces resulting from the motions of the Eq.530-2.
design earthquake. The horizontal boundary elements
(HBEs) and vertical boundary elements (VBEs) adjacent to 530.4 Horizontal and Vertical Boundary Elements
the webs shall be designed to remain essentially elastic
under the maximum forces that can be generated by the 530.4.1 Required Strength
fully yielded webs, except that plastic hinging at the ends of
In addition to the requirements of Section 521.3, the
HBEs is permitted. SPSW shall meet the requirements of
required strength of VBE shall be based upon the forces
this Section. Where the NSCP code does not contain design
corresponding to the expected yield strength, in tension, of
coefficients for SPSW, the provisions of Section B-3 shall
the web calculated at an angle α.
apply.
The required strength of HBE shall be the greater of the
530.2 Webs
forces corresponding to the expected yield strength, in
tension, of the web calculated at an angle α or that
530.2.1 Shear Strength
determined from the load combinations in the NSCP code
The panel design shear strength, φVn (LRFD), and the assuming the web provides no support for gravity loads.
allowable shear strength, Vn/Ω (ASD), according to the limit
state of shear yielding, shall be determined as follows: The beam-column moment ratio provisions in Section 522.6
Vn = 0.42 Fy tw Lcf sin2α (Eq.530-1) shall be met for all HBE/VBE intersections without
consideration of the effects of the webs.
φ = 0.90 (LRFD) Ω = 1.67 (ASD)
where 530.4.2 HBE-to-VBE Connections
HBE-to-VBE connections shall satisfy the requirements of
tw = thickness of the web, mm.
Section 524.2. The required shear strength, Vu, of a HBE-to-
Lcf = clear distance between VBE flanges, mm.
VBE connection shall be determined in accordance with the
provisions of Section 524.2, except that the required shear
α is the angle of web yielding in radians, as measured
strength shall not be less than the shear corresponding to
relative to the vertical, and it is given by:
moments at each end equal to 1.1RyMp (LRFD) or (1.1/1.5)
tw L RyMp (ASD), as appropriate, together with the shear
1 resulting from the expected yield strength in tension of the
2 Ac
tan 4  webs yielding at an angle α.
 1 h 3 
1  t w h   
 Ab 360I c L  530.4.3 Width-Thickness Limitations
(Eq.530-2) HBE and VBE members shall meet the requirements of
Section 521.2.2.
h = distance between HBE centerlines, mm.
Ab = cross-sectional area of a HBE, mm2. 530.4.4 Lateral Bracing
Ac = cross-sectional area of a VBE, mm2.
HBE shall be laterally braced at all intersections with VBE
Ic = moment of inertia of a VBE taken perpendicular
and at a spacing not to exceed 0.086 RyE/Fy. Both flanges of
to the direction of the web plate line, mm4.
HBE shall be braced either directly or indirectly. The
L = distance between VBE centerlines, mm.
required strength of lateral bracing shall be at least 2 percent
of the HBE flange nominal strength, Fy bf tf. The required
530.2.2 Panel Aspect Ratio
stiffness of all lateral bracing shall be determined in
The ratio of panel length to height, L/h, shall be limited to accordance with Equation A-1.6-8 of Appendix A-1.6 of the
0.8 < L/h ≤ 2.5. Specification. In these equations, Mr shall be computed as
RyZFy (LRFD) or Mr shall be computed as RyZFy /1.5
530.2.3 Openings in Webs (ASD), as appropriate, and Cd = 1.0.530.4.5. VBE Splices.
Openings in webs shall be bounded on all sides by HBE and VBE splices shall comply with the requirements of Section
VBE extending the full width and height of the panel, 521.4.

530.4.6 Panel Zones

The VBE panel zone next to the top and base HBE of the SECTION 531 - QUALITY
SPSW shall comply with the requirements in Section 522.3. ASSURANCE PLAN
530.4.7 Stiffness of Vertical Boundary Elements 531.1 Scope
The VBE shall have moments of inertia about an axis taken When required by the NSCP code or the engineer-of-record,
perpendicular to the plane of the web, Ic, not less than a quality assurance plan shall be provided. The quality
0.00307 tw h4/L. assurance plan shall include the requirements of Section B-
2.
User Note: The quality assurance plan in Section B-2 is

considered adequate and effective for most seismic load
resisting systems and is strongly encouraged for use without
modification. While the NSCP code requires use of a
quality assurance plan based on the seismic design category,
use of the quality assurance plan for any seismic load
resisting system with an R greater than 3 is strongly
encouraged independent of the seismic design category. Use
of a response modification factor of 3 or more indicates an
assumption of system, element, and connection ductility to
reduce design forces. The quality assurance plan is intended
to ensure that the seismic load resisting system is
significantly free of defects that would greatly reduce the
ductility of the system. There may be cases (for example,
non-redundant major transfer members, or where work is
performed in a location that is difficult to access) where
supplemental testing might be advisable. Additionally,
where the contractor’s quality control program has
demonstrated the capability to perform some tasks this plan
has assigned to quality assurance, modification of the plan
could be considered.

The CPRP shall also provide the same information when

PART B - APPENDICES limits are to be changed the connection has the ability and
reliability to undergo the required interstory drift angle for
B-1. PREQUALIFICATION OF SMF and IMF and the required link rotation angle for EBF,
BEAM-COLUMN AND LINK-TO- where the link is adjacent to columns. The limits on
member sizes for prequalification shall not exceed the limits
COLUMN CONNECTIONS specified in Section B-4, Section B-2.5.2.
B-1.1 Scope B-1.4 Prequalification Variables
This appendix contains minimum requirements for In order to be prequalified, the effect of the following
prequalification of beam to-column moment connections in variables on connection performance shall be considered.
special moment frames (SMF), intermediate moment frames Limits on the permissible values for each variable shall be
(IMF), and link-to-column connections in eccentrically established by the CPRP for the prequalified connection.
braced frames (EBF). Prequalified connections are
permitted to be used, within the applicable limits of 1. Beam or link parameters:
prequalification, without the need for further qualifying
cyclic tests. When the limits of prequalification or design a. Cross-section shape: wide flange, box, or other
requirements for prequalified connections conflict with the
b. Cross-section fabrication method: rolled shape, welded
requirements of these Provisions, the limits of
shape, or other
prequalification and design requirements for prequalified
connections shall govern. c. Depth
d. Weight per foot
B-1.2 General Requirements
e. Flange thickness
B-1.2.1 Basis for Prequalification f. Material specification
Connections shall be prequalified based on test data
satisfying Section B-1.3, supported by analytical studies and g. Span-to-depth ratio (for SMF or IMF), or link length
design models. The combined body of evidence for (for EBF)
prequalification must be sufficient to assure that the h. Width thickness ratio of cross-section elements
connection can supply the required interstory drift angle for
SMF and IMF systems, or the required link rotation angle i. Lateral bracing
for EBF, on a consistent and reliable basis within the j. Other parameters pertinent to the specific connection
specified limits of prequalification. All applicable limit under consideration
states for the connection that affect the stiffness, strength
and deformation capacity of the connection and the seismic 2. Column parameters:
load resisting system (SLRS) must be identified. These
include fracture related limit states, stability related limit a. Cross-section shape: wide flange, box, or other
states, and all other limit states pertinent for the connection b. Cross-section fabrication method: rolled shape, welded
under consideration. The effect of design variables listed in shape, or other
Section B-1.4 shall be addressed for connection
prequalification. c. Column orientation with respect to beam or link: beam
or link is connected to column flange, beam or link is
B-1.2.2 Authority for Prequalification connected to column web, beams or links are connected
Prequalification of a connection and the associated limits of to both the column flange and web, or other
prequalification shall be established by a connection d. Depth
prequalification review panel (CPRP) approved by the
authority having jurisdiction. e. Weight per foot
f. Flange thickness
Section B-1.3 Testing Requirements
g. Material specification
Data used to support connection prequalification shall be
based on tests conducted in accordance with Section B-4. h. Width-thickness ratio of cross-section elements
The CPRP shall determine the number of tests and the i. Lateral bracing
variables considered by the tests for connection
prequalification. j. Other parameters pertinent to the specific connection
under consideration

3. Beam (or link) column relations: the specific connection under consideration, as
established by the CPRP
a. Panel zone strength
b. Doubler plate attachment details B-1.5. Design Procedure
c. Column-beam (or link) moment ratio A comprehensive design procedure must be available for a
prequalified connection. The design procedure must address
4. Continuity plates: all applicable limit states within the limits of
prequalification.
a. Identification of conditions under which continuity
plates are required B-1.6. Prequalification Record
b. Thickness, width and depth A prequalified connection shall be provided with a written
prequalification record with the following information:
c. Attachment details
1. General description of the prequalified connection and
5. Welds: drawings that clearly identify key features and
components of the connection
a. Location, extent (including returns), type (CJP, PJP,
fillet, etc.) and any reinforcement or contouring 2. Description of the expected behavior of the connection
required in the elastic and inelastic ranges of behavior, intended
location(s) of inelastic action, and a description of limit
b. Filler metal classification strength and notch toughness states controlling the strength and deformation capacity
c. Details and treatment of weld backing and weld tabs of the connection
d. Weld access holes: size, geometry and finish 3. Listing of systems for which connection is prequalified:
SMF, IMF, or EBF
e. Welding quality control and quality assurance beyond
that described in Section 18, including the 4. Listing of limits for all prequalification variables listed
nondestructive testing (NDT) method, inspec¬tion in Section B-1.4.
frequency, acceptance criteria and documentation 5. Listing of demand critical welds
requirements
6. Definition of the region of the connection that
6. Bolts: comprises the protected zone
a. Bolt diameter 7. Detailed description of the design procedure for the
connection, as required in Section B-1.5.
b. Bolt grade: ASTM A325, A490, or other
8. List of references of test reports, research reports and
c. Installation requirements: pretensioned, snug-tight, or other publications that provided the basis for
other prequalification
d. Hole type: standard, oversize, short-slot, long-slot, or 9. Summary of quality control and quality assurance
other procedures
e. Hole fabrication method: drilling, punching, sub-
punching and reaming, or other
f. Other parameters pertinent to the specific connection
under consideration
7. Workmanship: All workmanship parameters that

exceed AISC, RCSC and AWS requirements, pertinent
to the specific connection under consideration, such as:
a. Surface roughness of thermal cut or ground edges
b. Cutting tolerances
c. Weld reinforcement or contouring
d. Presence of holes, fasteners or welds for attachments
8. Additional connection details: All variables pertinent to

B-2. QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN 1. Material test reports for structural steel, bolts, shear
connectors, and welding materials
B-2.1 Scope 2. Inspection procedures
Quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) shall be 3. Nonconformance procedure
provided as specified in this Section.
4. Material control procedure
B-2.2 Inspection and Nondestructive Testing Personnel 5. Bolt installation procedure
Visual welding inspection and nondestructive testing (NDT)
shall be conducted in accordance with a written practice by 6. Welder performance qualification records (WPQR),
personnel qualified in accordance with Section B-6. including any supplemental testing requirements
7. QC Inspector qualifications
User Note: Section B-6, Section B-6.3 contains items to be
considered in determining the qualification requirements for B-2.4 Quality Assurance Agency Documents
welding inspectors and NDT technicians. The agency responsible for quality assurance shall submit
the following documents to the authority having
Bolting inspection shall be conducted in accordance with a jurisdiction, the engineer-of-record, and the owner or
written practice by qualified personnel. owner’s designee:
B-2.3. Contractor Documents 1. QA agency’s written practices for the monitoring and
control of the agency’s operations. The written practice
The following documents shall be submitted for review by
shall include:
the engineer-of-record or designee, prior to fabrication or
erection, as applicable: a. The agency’s procedures for the selection and
administration of inspection personnel, describing the
1. Shop drawings
training, experience and examination requirements for
2. Erection drawings qualification and certification of inspection personnel,
and
3. Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS), which shall
specify all applicable essential variables of AWS D1.1 b. The agency’s inspection procedures, including general
and the following, as applicable inspection, material controls, and visual welding
inspection
a. power source (constant current or constant voltage)
2. Qualifications of management and QA personnel
b. for demand critical welds, electrode manufacturer and
designated for the project
trade name
3. Qualification records for Inspectors and NDT
4. Copies of the manufacturer’s typical certificate of
technicians designated for the project
conformance for all electrodes, fluxes and shielding
gasses to be used. Certificates of conformance shall 4. NDT procedures and equipment calibration records for
satisfy the applicable AWS A5 requirements. NDT to be performed and equipment to be used for the
project
5. For demand critical welds, applicable manufacturer’s
certifications that the filler metal meets the 5. Daily or weekly inspection reports
supplemental notch toughness requirements, as
6. Nonconformance reports
applicable. Should the filler metal manufacturer not
supply such supplemental certifications, the contractor
shall have the necessary testing performed and provide B-2.5 Inspection Points and Frequencies
the applicable test reports. Inspection points and frequencies of quality control (QC)
and quality assurance (QA) tasks and documentation for the
6. Manufacturer’s product data sheets or catalog data for seismic load resisting system (SLRS) shall be as provided in
SMAW, FCAW and GMAW composite (cored) filler the following tables.
metals to be used. The data sheets shall describe the
product, limitations of use, recommended or typical The following entries are used in the tables:
welding parameters, and storage and exposure
requirements, including baking, if applicable. Observe (O) - The inspector shall observe these functions
The following documents shall be available for review by on a random, daily basis. Welding operations need not be
the engineer-of-record or designee prior to fabrication or delayed pending observations.
erection, as applicable, unless specified to be submitted:

Perform (P) - These inspections shall be performed prior to c. Base Metal NDT for Lamellar Tearing and Laminations
the final acceptance of the item. Where a task is noted to be
After joint completion, base metal thicker than 38 mm
performed by both QC and QA, it shall be permitted to
loaded in tension in the through thickness direction in tee
coordinate the inspection function between QC and QA so
and corner joints, where the connected material is greater
that the inspection functions need be performed by only one
than 19 mm and contains CJP groove welds, shall be
party. Where QA is to rely upon inspection functions
ultrasonically tested for discontinuities behind and adjacent
performed by QC, the approval of the engineer-of-record
to the fusion line of such welds. Any base metal
and the authority having jurisdiction is required.
discontinuities found within t/4 of the steel surface shall be
accepted or rejected on the basis of criteria of AWS D1.1
Document (D) - The inspector shall prepare reports
Table 6.2, where t is the thickness of the part subjected to
indicating that the work has been performed in accordance
the through-thickness strain.
with the contract documents. The report need not provide
detailed measurements for joint fit-up, WPS settings, d. Beam Cope and Access Hole NDT
completed welds, or other individual items listed in the
At welded splices and connections, thermally cut surfaces
Tables in Sections B-2.5.1, B-2.5.3, or B-2.5.4. For shop
of beam copes and access holes shall be tested using
fabrication, the report shall indicate the piece mark of the
magnetic particle testing or penetrant testing, when the
piece inspected. For field work, the report shall indicate the
flange thickness exceeds 38 mm for rolled shapes, or when
reference grid lines and floor or elevation inspected. Work
the web thickness exceeds 38 mm for built-up shapes.
not in compliance with the contract documents and whether
the noncompliance has been satisfactorily repaired shall be e. Reduced Beam Section Repair NDT
noted in the inspection report.
Magnetic particle testing shall be performed on any weld
and adjacent area of the reduced beam section (RBS) plastic
B-2.5.1 Visual Welding Inspection
hinge region that has been repaired by welding, or on the
Visual inspection of welding shall be the primary method base metal of the RBS plastic hinge region if a sharp notch
used to confirm that the procedures, materials, and has been removed by grinding.
workmanship incorporated in construction are those that
have been specified and approved for the project. As a f. Weld Tab Removal Sites
minimum, tasks shall be as follows: Magnetic particle testing shall be performed on the end of
welds from which the weld tabs have been removed, except
B-2.5.2 Nondestructive Testing (NDT) of Welds for continuity plate weld tabs.
Nondestructive testing of welds shall be performed by
quality assurance personnel. g. Reduction of Percentage of Ultrasonic Testing
1. Procedures The amount of ultrasonic testing is permitted to be reduced
if approved by the engineer-of-record and the authority
Ultrasonic testing shall be performed by QA according to having jurisdiction. The nondestructive testing rate for an
the procedures prescribed in Section B-6, Section B-6.1. individual welder or welding operator may be reduced to 25
Magnetic particle testing shall be performed by QA percent, provided the reject rate is demonstrated to be 5
according to the procedures prescribed in Section B-6, percent or less of the welds tested for the welder or welding
Section B-6.2. operator. A sampling of at least 40 completed welds for a
job shall be made for such reduction evaluation. Reject rate
2. Required NDT is the number of welds containing rejectable defects divided
a. k-Area NDT by the number of welds completed. For evaluating the reject
rate of continuous welds over 1 m in length where the
When welding of doubler plates, continuity plates, or effective throat thickness is 25 mm or less, each 300 mm
stiffeners has been performed in the k-area, the web shall be increment or fraction thereof shall be considered as one
tested for cracks using magnetic particle testing (MT). The weld. For evaluating the reject rate on continuous welds
MT inspection area shall include the k-area base metal over 1 m in length where the effective throat thickness is
within 75 mm of the weld. greater than 25 mm, each 150 mm of length or fraction
thereof shall be considered one weld.
b. CJP Groove Weld NDT
Ultrasonic testing shall be performed on 100 percent of CJP h. Reduction of Percentage of Magnetic Particle Testing
groove welds in materials 8 mm thick or greater. Ultrasonic The amount of MT on CJP groove welds is permitted to be
testing in materials less than 8 mm thick is not required. reduced if approved by the engineer-of-record and the
Magnetic particle testing shall be performed on 25 percent authority having jurisdiction. The MT rate for an individual
of all beam-to-column CJP groove welds. welder or welding operator may be reduced to 10 percent,

provided the reject rate is demonstrated to be 5 percent or

less of the welds tested for the welder or welding operator. Visual Inspection Task QC QA
A sampling of at least 20 completed welds for a job shall be During Welding Task Doc. Task Doc.
made for such reduction evaluation. Reject rate is the WPS followed
number of welds containing rejectable defects divided by - Setting on welding
the number of welds completed. This reduction is not equipment
permitted on welds in the k-area, at repair sites, weld tab - Travel speed
and backing removal sites and access holes. - Selected welding
materials
Visual Inspection Task QC QA - Shielding gas type/flow
Before Welding Task Doc. Task Doc. rate O - O -
Material identification O - O - - Preheat applied
(Type/Grade) - Interpass temperature
Fit-up of Groove Welds maintained (min./max.)
(including joint geometry) - Proper position (F, V,H,
- Joint preparation OH)
- Dimensions (alignment, - Intermix of filler metals
root opening, root face, P/O** - O - avoided unless approved
bevel) Use of qualified welders O - O -
- Cleanliness (condition of Control and handling of
steel surfaces) welding consumables
- Tacking (tack weld O - O -
quality and location) - Packaging
- Backing type and fit (if P/O** - O - - Exposure control
applicable) Environmental conditions
Configuration and finish of O - O - - Wind speed within limits O - O -
access holes - Precipitation and
Fit-up of Fillet Welds temperature
- Dimensions 9alignment, Welding techniques
gaps at root) - Interpass and final O - O -
- Cleanliness 9condition of P/O** - O - cleaning
steel surfaces) - Each pass within profile
- Tacking (tack weld lmitations
O - O -
quality and location) - Each pass meets quality
**Following performance of this inspection task for ten requirements
welds to be made by a given welder, with the welder No welding over cracked
O - O -
demonstrating adequate understanding of requirements and tacks
possession of skills and tools to verify these items, the
Perform designation of this task shall be reduce to Observe,
and the welder shall perform this task, the task shall be
returned to Perform until such time as the Inspector has
reestablished adequate assurance that the welder will
perform the inspection tasks listed.

Visual Inspection Task QC QA Inspection Task During QC QA

After Welding Task Doc. Task Doc. Bolting Task Doc. Task Doc.
Welds cleaned O - O - Fastener assemblies placed
Welder identification in all holes and washers (if O - O -
O - O - required) are properly
legible
Verify size, length, and positioned
O - O - Joint brought to the snug
location of welds
Visually inspect welds to tight condition prior to thw O - O -
acceptance criteria pretensioning operation
- Crack porhibition Fastener components not
- Weld/base-metal fusion returnes by the wrench O - O -
- Crater cross-section P D P D prevented from rotating
- Weld profiles Bolts are pretensioned
- Weld size progress systematically O - O -
- Undercut from most rigid point
toward free edges
- Porosity
Placement of reinforcement
P D P D Inspection Task After QC QA
fillets
Bolting Task Doc. Task Doc.
Backing bars removed and
weld tabs removed and Document accepted and P D P D
P D P D rejected connections
finished (if required)
Repair activities P - P D 3. Documentation
Inspection Task Prior to QC QA All NDT performed shall be documented. For shop
Bolting fabrication, the NDT report shall identify the tested weld by
Task Doc. Task Doc.
piece mark and location in the piece. For field work, the
Proper bolts selected for O - O - NDT report shall identify the tested weld by location in the
the joint detail
structure, piece mark, and location in the piece.
Proper bolting procedure O - O -
selected for joint detail
B-2.5.3 Inspection of Bolting
Connecting elements are
fabricated properly, Observation of bolting operations shall be the primary
including the appropriate method used to confirm that the procedures, materials, and
faying surface condition O - O - workmanship incorporated in construction are those that
and hole preparation, if have been specified and approved for the project. As a
specified, meets applicable minimum, the tasks shall be as follows:
requirements
B-2.5.4 Other Inspections
Pre-installation verification Where applicable, the following inspection shall be
testing conducted for P D O D performed:
fastener assemblies and
method used Other Inspection Task QC QA
Proper storage provided for Task Doc. Task Doc.
bolts, nuts, washers, and O - O - Reduce beam section
other fastener components (RBS) requirements, if
applicable P D P D
- contour and finish
- dimensional tolerances
Protected zone-no holes
and unapproved P D P D
attachments made by
contractor

B-3. SEISMIC DESIGN -

COEFFICIENTS AND
APPROXIMATE PERIOD
PARAMETERS
B-3.1 Scope
This appendix contains design coefficients, system
limitations and design parameters for seismic load resisting
systems (SLRS) that are included in these Provisions but
not yet defined in this code for buckling-restrained braced
frames (BRBF) and special plate shear walls (SPSW). The
values presented in Tables B-3-1 and B-3-2 in this appendix
shall only be used where neither the NSCP code nor
SEI/ASCE 7 contain such values.
User Note: The design coefficients and parameters

presented in this appendix are taken from the 2003 NEHRP
Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New
Buildings and Other Structures. This appendix will be
deleted from these Provisions once SEI/ASCE 7 and this
codes add the BRBF and SPSW to their list of acceptable
structural systems. It is expected that such parameters will
be included in an appendix to SEI/ ASCE 7 which is
expected to be published in mid to late 2005.
B-3.2 Symbols
The following symbols are used in this appendix.
Cd Deflection amplification factor

Cr, x Parameters used for determining the
approximate fundamental period
Ωo System overstrength factor
R Response modification coefficient

Table R3-1
Design Coefficients and Factors for Basic Seismic
Load Resisting Systems
Height Limit (ft)
Seismic Design Category
Response System Deflection
Basic Seismic
Modification Overstrength Amplification
Load Resisting
Coefficient Factor Factor B&C E F
System D
R Ωο Cd (Zone 2) (Zone 4) (Zone 4)
Building Frame Systems

Bucking-Restrained
Braced Frames, non-
7 2 5 1/2 160 160
moment-resisting beam- NL 160
column connections
Special Plate Shear Walls 7 2 6 NL 160 160 100
Buckling-Restrained
Braced Frames, moment-
8 2 1/2 5 NL 160 160 100
resisting beam-column
connections
Dual Systems with Special Moment Frames Capable of Resisting at Least 25%
of the Prescribed Seismic Forces
Bucking-Restrained
8 2 1/2 5 NL NL NL NL
Braced Frame
Special Plate Shear Walls 8 2 1/2 6 1/2 NL NL NL NL
(NL=Not Limited)
Design Coefficients and Factors for basic Seismic Load Resisting Systems From (AISC)

members and connection elements. For beam-to-column

B-4. QUALIFYING CYCLIC TESTS moment connections in special and intermediate moment
OF BEAM-TO-COLUMN AND LINK- frames, inelastic rotation is computed based upon the
assumption that inelastic action is concentrated at a single
TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS point located at the intersection of the centerline of the
beam with the centerline of the column. For link-to-column
B-4.1 Scope connections in eccentrically braced frames, inelastic
This appendix includes requirements for qualifying cyclic rotation shall be computed based upon the assumption that
tests of beam-to-column moment connections in special and inelastic action is concentrated at a single point located at
intermediate moment frames and link-to-column the intersection of the centerline of the link with the face of
connections in eccentrically braced frames, when required the column.
in these Provisions. The purpose of the testing described in
this appendix is to provide evidence that a beam-to-column Prototype. The connections, member sizes, steel properties,
connection or a link-to-column connection satisfies the and other design, detailing, and construction features to be
requirements for strength and interstory drift angle or link used in the actual building frame.
rotation angle in these Provisions. Alternative testing
requirements are permitted when approved by the engineer- Test specimen. A portion of a frame used for laboratory
of-record and the authority having jurisdiction. testing, intended to model the prototype.
This appendix provides minimum recommendations for Test setup. The supporting fixtures, loading equipment, and
simplified test conditions. lateral bracing used to support and load the test specimen.
Table R4-1 Test subassemblage. The combination of the test specimen

Values of Approximate Period Parameters Cr and x and pertinent portions of the test setup.
Structure Type Cr x
Buckling-Restrained Braced Frames 0.03 0.75 Total link rotation angle. The relative displacement of one
Special Plate Shear Walls 0.02 0.75 end of the link with respect to the other end (measured
transverse to the longitudinal axis of the undeformed link),
Values of Approximate Period Parameters from (AISC ) divided by the link length. The total link rotation angle shall
include both elastic and inelastic components of
User Note: The values in this table are intended to be used deformation of the link and the members attached to the link
in the same ways as those in Table 9.5.2.2 of SEI/ASCE 7. ends.
B-4.2 Symbols B-4.4 Test Subassemblage Requirements
The numbers in parentheses after the definition of a symbol The test subassemblage shall replicate as closely as is
refers to the Section number in which the symbol is first practical the conditions that will occur in the prototype
used. during earthquake loading. The test subassemblage shall
θ Interstory drift angle (Section B-4.6) include the following features:
γ total Total link rotation angle (Section B-4.6) 1. The test specimen shall consist of at least a single
column with beams or links attached to one or both
B-4.3 Definitions sides of the column.
Complete loading cycle. A cycle of rotation taken from 2. Points of inflection in the test assemblage shall
zero force to zero force, including one positive and one coincide approximately with the anticipated points of
negative peak. inflection in the Prototype under earthquake loading.
3. Lateral bracing of the test subassemblage is permitted
Interstory drift angle. Interstory displacement divided by
near load application or reaction points as needed to
story height, radians.
provide lateral stability of the test subassemblage.
Additional lateral bracing of the test subassemblage is
Inelastic rotation. The permanent or plastic portion of the
not permitted, unless it replicates lateral bracing to be
rotation angle between a beam and the column or between a
used in the prototype.
link and the column of the test specimen, measured in
radians. The inelastic rotation shall be computed based on
B-4.5 Essential Test Variables
an analysis of test specimen deformations. Sources of
inelastic rotation include yielding of members, yielding of The test specimen shall replicate as closely as is practical
connection elements and connectors, and slip between the pertinent design, detailing, construction features, and

material properties of the prototype. The following variables 1. The yield stress shall be determined by material tests on
shall be replicated in the test specimen. the actual materials used for the test specimen, as
specified in Section B-4.8. The use of yield stress
B-4.5.1 Sources of Inelastic Rotation values that are reported on certified mill test reports are
Inelastic rotation shall be developed in the test specimen by not permitted to be used for purposes of this Section.
inelastic action in the same members and connection 2. The yield stress of the beam shall not be more than 15
elements as anticipated in the prototype (in other words, in percent below RyFy for the grade of steel to be used for
the beam or link, in the column panel zone, in the column the corresponding elements of the prototype. Columns
outside of the panel zone, or in connection elements) within and connection elements with a tested yield stress shall
the limits described below. The percentage of the total not be more than 15 percent above or below RyFy for
inelastic rotation in the test specimen that is developed in the grade of steel to be used for the corresponding
each member or connection element shall be within 25 elements of the prototype. RyFy shall be determined in
percent of the anticipated percentage of the total inelastic accordance with Section 519.2.
rotation in the prototype that is developed in the
corresponding member or connection element. B-4.5.6 Welds
Welds on the test specimen shall satisfy the following
B-4.5.2 Size of Members
requirements:
The size of the beam or link used in the test specimen shall
be within the following limits: 1. Welding shall be performed in strict conformance with
Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) as required in
1. The depth of the test beam or link shall be no less than AWS D1.1. The WPS essential variables shall meet the
90 percent of the depth of the prototype beam or link. requirements in AWS D1.1 and shall be within the
2. The weight per foot of the test beam or link shall be no parameters established by the filler-metal manufacturer.
less than 75 percent of the weight per foot of the The tensile strength of the welds used in the tested
prototype beam or link. assembly and the Charpy V-Notch (CVN) toughness
used in the tested assembly shall be determined by
The size of the column used in the test specimen shall material tests as specified in Section B-4.8.3. The use
properly represent the inelastic action in the column, as per of tensile strength and CVN toughness values that are
the requirements in Section B-4.5.1. In addition, the depth reported on the manufacturer’s typical certificate of
of the test column shall be no less than 90 percent of the conformance is not permitted to be used for purposes of
depth of the prototype column. this section, unless the report includes results specific
to Section B-7 requirements.
Extrapolation beyond the limitations stated in this Section 2. The specified minimum tensile strength of the filler
shall be permitted subject to qualified peer review and metal used for the test specimen shall be the same as
approval by the authority having jurisdiction. that to be used for the corresponding prototype welds.
The tested tensile strength of the test specimen weld
B-4.5.3 Connection Details shall not be more than 125 MPa above the tensile
The connection details used in the test specimen shall strength classification of the filler metal specification
represent the prototype connection details as closely as specified for the prototype.
possible. The connection elements used in the test specimen 3. The specified minimum CVN toughness of the filler
shall be a full-scale representation of the connection metal used for the test specimen shall not exceed the
elements used in the prototype, for the member sizes being specified minimum CVN toughness of the filler metal
tested. to be used for the corresponding prototype welds. The
tested CVN toughness of the test specimen weld shall
B-4.5.4 Continuity Plates not be more than 50 percent, nor 34 kJ, whichever is
The size and connection details of continuity plates used in greater, above the minimum CVN toughness that will
the test specimen shall be proportioned to match the size be specified for the prototype.
and connection details of continuity plates used in the
4. The welding positions used to make the welds on the
prototype connection as closely as possible.
test specimen shall be the same as those to be used for
the prototype welds.
B-4.5.5 Material Strength
The following additional requirements shall be satisfied for 5. Details of weld backing, weld tabs, access holes, and
each member or connection element of the test specimen similar items used for the test specimen welds shall be
that supplies inelastic rotation by yielding: the same as those to be used for the corresponding
prototype welds. Weld backing and weld tabs shall not

be removed from the test specimen welds unless the shall be conducted by controlling the interstory drift angle,
corresponding weld back-ing and weld tabs are θ, imposed on the test specimen, as specified below:
removed from the prototype welds.
1. 6 cycles at θ = 0.00375 rad
6. Methods of inspection and nondestructive testing and
standards of acceptance used for test specimen welds
shall be the same as those to be used for the prototype 3. 6 cycles at θ =0.0075 rad
welds.
B-4.5.7 Bolts 5. 2 cycles at θ = 0.015 rad
The bolted portions of the test specimen shall replicate the 6. 2 cycles at θ = 0.02 rad
bolted portions of the prototype connection as closely as
possible. Additionally, bolted portions of the test specimen 7. 2 cycles at θ = 0.03 rad
shall satisfy the following requirements: 8. 2 cycles at θ = 0.04 rad
1. The bolt grade (for example, ASTM A325, A325M,
ASTM A490, A490M, ASTM F1852) used in the test Continue loading at increments of θ = 0.01 radian, with two
specimen shall be the same as that to be used for the cycles of loading at each step.
prototype, except that ASTM A325 bolts may be
substituted for ASTM F1852 bolts, and vice versa. B-4.6.3 Loading Sequence for Link-to-Column
Connections
2. The type and orientation of bolt holes (standard,
oversize, short slot, long slot, or other) used in the test Qualifying cyclic tests of link-to-column moment
specimen shall be the same as those to be used for the connections in eccentrically braced frames shall be
corresponding bolt holes in the prototype. conducted by controlling the total link rotation angle, γtotal,
imposed on the test specimen, as follows:
3. When inelastic rotation is to be developed either by
yielding or by slip within a bolted portion of the 1. 6 cycles at γtotal = 0.00375 rad
connection, the method used to make the bolt holes 2. 6 cycles at γtotal = 0.005 rad
(drilling, sub-punching and reaming, or other) in the
test specimen shall be the same as that to be used in the 3. 6 cycles at γtotal = 0.0075 rad
corresponding bolt holes in the prototype. 4. 6 cycles at γtotal = 0.01 rad
4. Bolts in the test specimen shall have the same 5. 4 cycles at γtotal = 0.015 rad
installation (pretensioned or other) and faying surface
preparation (no specified slip resistance, Class A or B 6. 4 cycles at γtotal = 0.02 rad
slip resistance, or other) as that to be used for the 7. 2 cycles at γtotal = 0.03 rad
corresponding bolts in the prototype.
8. 1 cycle at γtotal = 0.04 rad
B-4.6 Loading History 9. 1 cycle at γtotal = 0.05 rad
B-4.6.1 General Requirements 10. 1 cycle at γtotal = 0.07 rad

The test specimen shall be subjected to cyclic loads 11. 1 cycle at γtotal = 0.09 rad
according to the requirements prescribed in Section Section
B-4.2 for beam-to-column moment connections in special Continue loading at increments of γtotal = 0.02 radian, with
and intermediate moment frames, and according to the one cycle of loading at each step.
requirements prescribed in Section Section B-4.3 for link-
to-column connections in eccentrically braced frames. B-4.7 Instrumentation
Sufficient instrumentation shall be provided on the test
Loading sequences other than those specified in Sections specimen to permit measurement or calculation of the
Section B-4.2 and Section B-4.3 may be used when they are quantities listed in Section B-4.9.
demonstrated to be of equivalent or greater severity.
B-4.8 Materials Testing Requirements
B-4.6.2 Loading Sequence for Beam-to-Column
Moment Connections
B-4.8.1 Tension Testing Requirements for Structural
Qualifying cyclic tests of beam-to-column moment Steel
connections in special and intermediate moment frames Tension testing shall be conducted on samples of steel taken
from the material adjacent to each test specimen. Tension-

test results from certified mill test reports shall be reported 2. A drawing of the connection detail showing member
but are not permitted to be used in place of specimen testing sizes, grades of steel, the sizes of all connection
for the purposes of this Section. Tension-test results shall be elements, welding details including filler metal, the size
based upon testing that is conducted in accordance with and location of bolt holes, the size and grade of bolts,
Section B-4.8.2. and all other pertinent details of the connection.
3. A listing of all other essential variables for the test
Tension testing shall be conducted and reported for the
specimen, as listed in Section B-4.
following portions of the test specimen:
4. A listing or plot showing the applied load or
1. Flange(s) and web(s) of beams and columns at standard
displacement history of the test specimen.
locations
5. A listing of all demand critical welds.
2. Any element of the connection that supplies inelastic
rotation by yielding 6. Definition of the region of the connection that
comprises the protected zones.
B-4.8.2 Methods of Tension Testing for Structural
7. A plot of the applied load versus the displacement of
Steel
the test specimen. The displacement reported in this
Tension testing shall be conducted in accordance with plot shall be measured at or near the point of load
ASTM A6/A6M, ASTM A370, and ASTM E8, with the application. The locations on the test specimen where
following exceptions: the loads and displacements were measured shall be
1. The yield stress, Fy, that is reported from the test shall clearly indicated.
be based upon the yield strength definition in ASTM 8. A plot of beam moment versus interstory drift angle for
A370, using the offset method at 0.002 strain. beam-to-column moment connections; or a plot of link
2. The loading rate for the tension test shall replicate, as shear force versus link rotation angle for link-to-
closely as practical, the loading rate to be used for the column connections. For beam-to-column connections,
test specimen. the beam moment and the interstory drift angle shall be
computed with respect to the centerline of the column.
B-4.8.3 Weld Metal Testing Requirements 9. The interstory drift angle and the total inelastic rotation
The tensile strength of the welds used in the tested assembly developed by the test specimen. The components of the
and the CVN toughness used in the tested assembly shall be test specimen contributing to the total inelastic rotation
determined by material tests as specified in Section B-7. due to yielding or slip shall be identified. The portion
The use of tensile strength and CVN toughness values that of the total inelastic rotation contributed by each
are reported on the manufacturer’s typical certificate of component of the test specimen shall be reported. The
conformance is not permitted to be used for purposes of this method used to compute inelastic rotations shall be
section, unless that report includes results specific to clearly shown.
Section B-7 requirements. 10. A chronological listing of significant test observations,
including observations of yielding, slip, instability, and
A single test plate may be used if the WPS for the test fracture of any portion of the test specimen as
specimen welds is within plus/minus 0.8 kJ/mm of the WPS applicable.
for the test plate.
11. The controlling failure mode for the test specimen. If
Tensile specimens and CVN specimens shall be prepared in the test is terminated prior to failure, the reason for
accordance with ANSI/AWS B4.0 Standard Methods for terminating the test shall be clearly indicated.
Mechanical Testing of Welds. 12. The results of the material tests specified in Section B-
4.8.
B-4.9 Test Reporting Requirements
For each test specimen, a written test report meeting the 13. The Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) and
requirements of the authority having jurisdiction and the welding inspection reports.
requirements of this Section shall be prepared. The report
shall thoroughly document all key features and results of the Additional drawings, data, and discussion of the test
test. The report shall include the following information: specimen or test results are permitted to be included in the
report.
1. A drawing or clear description of the test
subassemblage, including key dimensions, boundary
conditions at loading and reaction points, and location
of lateral braces.

B-4.10 Acceptance Criteria

The test specimen must satisfy the strength and interstory B-5. QUALIFYING CYCLIC TESTS
drift angle or link rotation angle requirements of these OF BUCKLING-RESTRAINED
Provisions for the special moment frame, intermediate BRACES
moment frame, or eccentrically braced frame connection, as
applicable. The test specimen must sustain the required
B-5.1 Scope
interstory drift angle or link rotation angle for at least one
complete loading cycle. This appendix includes requirements for qualifying cyclic
tests of individual buckling-restrained braces and buckling-
restrained brace subassemblages, when required in these
provisions. The purpose of the testing of individual braces is
to provide evidence that a buckling-restrained brace
satisfies the requirements for strength and inelastic
deformation by these provisions; it also permits the
determination of maximum brace forces for design of
adjoining elements. The purpose of testing of the brace
subassemblage is to provide evidence that the brace-design
can satisfactorily accommodate the deformation and
rotational demands associated with the design. Further, the
subassemblage test is intended to demonstrate that the
hysteretic behavior of the brace in the subassemblage is
consistent with that of the individual brace elements tested
uniaxially.
Alternative testing requirements are permitted when

approved by the engineer-of-record and the authority having
jurisdiction.
This appendix provides only minimum recommendations

for simplified test conditions.
B-5.2 Symbols
The numbers in parentheses after the definition of a symbol
refers to the Section number in which the symbol is first
used.
Δb Deformation quantity used to control loading of
the test specimen (total brace end rotation for the
subassemblage test specimen; total brace axial
deformation for the brace test specimen) (Section
B-5.6).
Δbm Value of deformation quantity, Δb, corresponding

to the design story drift (Section B-5.6).
Δby Value of deformation quantity, Δb, at first

significant yield of test specimen (Section
B-5.6).

5. The calculated margins of safety for the prototype

B-5.3 Definitions connection design, steel core projection stability,
overall buckling and other relevant subassemblage test
BRACE TEST SPECIMEN. A single buckling-restrained specimen brace construction details, excluding the
brace element used for laboratory testing intended to model gusset plate, for the prototype, shall equal or exceed
the brace in the Prototype. those of the subassemblage test specimen construction.
6. Lateral bracing of the subassemblage test specimen
DESIGN METHODOLOGY. A set of step-by-step shall replicate the lateral bracing in the prototype.
procedures, based on calculation or experiment, used to
determine sizes, lengths, and details in the design of 7. The brace test specimen and the prototype shall be
buckling-restrained braces and their connections. manufactured in accordance with the same quality
control and assurance processes and procedures.
INELASTIC DEFORMATION. The permanent or plastic
portion of the axial displacement in a buckling-restrained Extrapolation beyond the limitations stated in this section
brace. shall be permitted subject to qualified peer review and
approval by the authority having jurisdiction.
PROTOTYPE. The brace, connections, members, steel
properties, and other design, detailing, and construction B-5.5 Brace Test Specimen
features to be used in the actual building frame. The brace test specimen shall replicate as closely as is
practical the pertinent design, detailing, construction
SUBASSEMBLAGE TEST SPECIMEN. The features, and material properties of the prototype.
combination of the brace, the connections and testing
apparatus that replicate as closely as practical the axial and B-5.5.1 Design of Brace Test Specimen
flexural deformations of the brace in the prototype. The same documented design methodology shall be used for
the brace test specimen and the prototype. The design
TEST SPECIMEN. Brace test specimen or subassemblage calculations shall demonstrate, at a minimum, the following
test specimen. requirements:
B-5.4 Subassemblage Test Specimen 1. The calculated margin of safety for stability against
The subassemblage test specimen shall satisfy the following overall buckling for the prototype shall equal or exceed
requirements: that of the brace test specimen.
1. The mechanism for accommodating inelastic rotation in 2. The calculated margins of safety for the brace test
the subassemblage test specimen brace shall be the specimen and the prototype shall account for
same as that of the prototype. The rotational differences in material properties, including yield and
deformation demands on the subassemblage test ultimate stress, ultimate elongation, and toughness.
specimen brace shall be equal to or greater than those
of the prototype. B-5.5.2 Manufacture of Brace Test Specimen
2. The axial yield strength of the steel core, Pysc, of the The brace test specimen and the prototype shall be
brace in the subassemblage test specimen shall not be manufactured in accordance with the same quality control
less than that of the prototype where both strengths are and assurance processes and procedures.
based on the core area, Asc, multiplied by the yield
strength as determined from a coupon test. B-5.5.3 Similarity of Brace Test Specimen and
Prototype
3. The cross-sectional shape and orientation of the steel
core projection of the subassemblage test specimen The brace test specimen shall meet the following
brace shall be the same as that of the brace in the requirements:
prototype. 1. The cross-sectional shape and orientation of the steel
4. The same documented design methodology shall be core shall be the same as that of the prototype.
used for design of the subassemblage as used for the 2. The axial yield strength of the steel core, Pysc, of the
prototype, to allow comparison of the rotational brace test specimen shall not vary by more than 50
deformation demands on the subassemblage brace to percent from that of the prototype where both strengths
the prototype. In stability calculations, beams, columns, are based on the core area, Asc, multiplied by the yield
and gussets connecting the core shall be considered strength as determined from a coupon test.
parts of this system.

3. The material for, and method of, separation between be applied and maintained as the protocol is followed for
the steel core and the buckling restraining mechanism axial deformation.
in the brace test specimen shall be the same as that in
the prototype. B-5.6.3 Loading Sequence
Loads shall be applied to the test specimen to produce the
Extrapolation beyond the limitations stated in this section following deformations, where the deformation is the steel
shall be permitted subject to qualified peer review and core axial deformation for the test specimen and the
approval by the authority having jurisdiction. rotational deformation demand for the subassemblage test
specimen brace:
B-5.5.4 Connection Details
1. 2 cycles of loading at the deformation corresponding to
The connection details used in the brace test specimen shall
Δb = Δby
represent the prototype connection details as closely as
practical. 2. 2 cycles of loading at the deformation corresponding to
Δb = 0.50Δbm
B-5.5.5 Materials
1. Steel core: The following requirements shall be Δb = 1Δbm
satisfied for the steel core of the brace test specimen:
a. The specified minimum yield stress of the brace test Δb = 1.5Δbm
specimen steel core shall be the same as that of the
prototype.
Δb = 2.0Δbm
b. The measured yield stress of the material of the steel
6. Additional complete cycles of loading at the
core in the brace test specimen shall be at least 90
deformation corresponding to Δb = 1.5Δbm as required
percent of that of the prototype as determined from
for the brace test specimen to achieve a cumulative
coupon tests.
inelastic axial deformation of at least 200 times the
c. The specified minimum ultimate stress and strain of the yield deformation (not required for the subassemblage
brace test specimen steel core shall not exceed those of test specimen).
the prototype.
The design story drift shall not be taken as less than 0.01
2. Buckling-restraining mechanism
times the story height for the purposes of calculating Δbm.
Materials used in the buckling-restraining mechanism Other loading sequences are permitted to be used to qualify
of the brace test specimen shall be the same as those the test specimen when they are demonstrated to be of equal
used in the prototype. or greater severity in terms of maximum and cumulative
inelastic deformation.
B-5.5.6 Connections
The welded, bolted, and pinned joints on the test specimen B-5.7 Instrumentation
shall replicate those on the prototype as close as practical. Sufficient instrumentation shall be provided on the test
specimen to permit measurement or calculation of the
B-5.6 Loading History quantities listed in Section B-5.9.
B-5.6.1 General Requirements B-5.8 Materials Testing Requirements

The test specimen shall be subjected to cyclic loads
according to the requirements prescribed in Sections B- B-5.8.1 Tension Testing Requirements
5.6.2 and B-5.6.3. Additional increments of loading beyond Tension testing shall be conducted on samples of steel taken
those described in Section B-56.3 are permitted. Each cycle from the same material as that used to manufacture the steel
shall include a full tension and full compression excursion core. Tension test results from certified mill test reports
to the prescribed deformation. shall be reported but are not permitted to be used in place of
specimen testing for the purposes of this Section. Tension-
test results shall be based upon testing that is conducted in
B-5.6.2 Test Control accordance with Section B-5.8.2.
The test shall be conducted by controlling the level of axial
or rotational deformation, Δb, imposed on the test specimen.
As an alternate, the maximum rotational deformation may

B-5.8.2 Methods of Tension Testing Additional drawings, data, and discussion of the test
Tension testing shall be conducted in accordance with specimen or test results are permitted to be included in the
ASTM A6, ASTM A370, and ASTM E8, with the following report.
exceptions:
1. The yield stress that is reported from the test shall be
At least one subassemblage test that satisfies the
based upon the yield strength definition in ASTM
requirements of Section B-5.4 shall be performed. At least
A370, using the offset method of 0.002 strain.
one brace test that satisfies the requirements of Section B-
2. The loading rate for the tension test shall replicate, as 4.5 shall be performed. Within the required protocol range
closely as is practical, the loading rate used for the test all tests shall satisfy the following requirements:
specimen.
1. The plot showing the applied load vs. displacement
3. The coupon shall be machined so that its longitudinal history shall exhibit stable, repeatable behavior with
axis is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the steel core. positive incremental stiffness.
2. There shall be no fracture, brace instability or brace end
B-5.9 Test Reporting Requirements
connection failure.
For each test specimen, a written test report meeting the
requirements of this Section shall be prepared. The report 3. For brace tests, each cycle to a deformation greater than
shall thoroughly document all key features and results of the Δby the maximum tension and compression forces shall
test. The report shall include the following information: not be less than the nominal strength of the core.
1. A drawing or clear description of the test specimen, 4. For brace tests, each cycle to a deformation greater than
including key dimensions, boundary conditions at Δby the ratio of the maximum compression force to the
loading and reaction points, and location of lateral maximum tension force shall not exceed 1.3.
bracing, if any.
Other acceptance criteria may be adopted for the brace test
2. A drawing of the connection details showing member specimen or subassemblage test specimen subject to
sizes, grades of steel, the sizes of all connection qualified peer review and approval by the authority having
elements, welding details including filler metal, the size jurisdiction.
and location of bolt or pin holes, the size and grade of
connectors, and all other pertinent details of the
connections.
3. A listing of all other essential variables as listed in
Section B-5.4 or B-5.5, as appropriate.
4. A listing or plot showing the applied load or
displacement history.
5. A plot of the applied load versus the deformation, Δb.
The method used to determine the deformations shall
be clearly shown. The locations on the test specimen
where the loads and deformations were measured shall
be clearly identified.
6. A chronological listing of significant test observations,
including observations of yielding, slip, instability,
transverse displacement along the test specimen and
fracture of any portion of the test specimen and
connections, as applicable.
7. The results of the material tests specified in Section B-
5.8.
8. The manufacturing quality control and quality
assurance plans used for the fabrication of the test
specimen. These shall be included with the welding
procedure specifications and welding inspection
reports.

B-6.2.3 Erection Drawings

B-6. WELDING PROVISIONS Erection drawings shall include, as a minimum, the
following information:
B-6.1 Scope
1. Locations where backing bars to be removed
This appendix provides additional details regarding welding
and welding inspection, and is included on an interim basis 2. Locations where supplemental fillets are required when
pending adoption of such criteria by AWS or other backing is permitted to remain
accredited organization.
3. Locations where weld tabs are to be removed
B-6.2 Structural Design Drawings and Specifications, 4. Those joints or groups of joints in which a specific
Shop Drawings, and Erection Drawings assembly order, welding sequence, welding technique
or other special precautions are required
B-6.2.1 Structural Design Drawings and
Specifications B-6.3 Personnel
Structural design drawings and specifications shall include,
as a minimum, the following information: B-6.3.1 QC Welding Inspectors
1. Locations where backup bars are required to be QC welding inspection personnel shall be associate welding
removed inspectors (AWI) or higher, as defined in AWS B5.1
Standard for the Qualification of Welding Inspectors, or
2. Locations where supplemental fillet welds are required otherwise qualified under the provisions of AWS D1.1
when backing is permitted to remain Section 6.1.4 and to the satisfaction of the contractor’s QC
plan by the fabricator/erector.
3. Locations where fillet welds are used to reinforce
groove welds or to improve connection geometry
B-6.3.2 QA Welding Inspectors
4. Locations where weld tabs are required to be removed QA welding inspectors shall be welding inspectors (WI), or
5. Splice locations where tapered transitions are required senior welding inspectors (SWI), as defined in AWS B5.1,
except AWIs may be used under the direct supervision of
User Note: Butt splices subject to tension greater than 33 WIs, on site and available when weld inspection is being
percent of the expected yield strength under any load conducted.
combination should have tapered transitions. The stress
concentration at a nontapered transition, based upon a 90° B-6.3.3 Nondestructive Testing Technicians
corner, could cause local yielding when the tensile stress NDT technicians shall be qualified as follows:
exceeds 33 percent of yield. Lower levels of stress would be
acceptable with the stress concentration from a nontapered 1. In accordance with their employer’s written practice
transition. which shall meet or exceed the criteria of the American
Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. SNT TC-1A
6. The shape of weld access holes, if a special shape is Recommended Practice for the Training and Testing of
required Nondestructive Personnel, or of ANSI/ASNT CP-189,
Standard for the Qualification and Certification of
7. Joints or groups of joints in which a specific assembly
Nondestructive Testing Personnel.
order, welding sequence, welding technique or other
special precautions are required 2. Ultrasonic testing for QA may be performed only by
UT technicians certified as ASNT Level III through
B-6.2.2 Shop Drawings examination by the ASNT, or certified as Level II by
Shop drawings shall include, as a minimum, the following their employer for flaw detection. If the engineer-of-
information: record approves the use of flaw sizing techniques, UT
technicians shall also be qualified and certified by their
1. Access hole dimensions, surface profile and finish employer for flaw sizing.
requirements
3. Magnetic particle testing (MT) and dye penetrant
2. Locations where backing bars are to be removed testing (PT) for QA may be performed only by
3. Locations where weld tabs are to be removed technicians certified as Level II by their employer, or
certified as ASNT Level III through examination by the
4. NDT to be performed by the fabricator, if any ASNT and certified by their employer.

B-6.4 Nondestructive Testing Procedures III. The steel used for the qualification testing shall be of the
same type and grade as will be used in production.
B-6.4.1 Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing shall be performed according to the The maximum heat input to be used in production shall be
procedures prescribed in AWS D1.1 Section 6, Part F used in the qualification testing. The qualified maximum
following a written procedure containing the elements interpass temperature shall be the lowest interpass
prescribed in paragraph K3 of Annex K. Section 6, Part F temperature used for any pass during qualification testing.
procedures shall be qualified using weld mock-ups having Both weld metal and HAZ shall be tested. The weld metal
1.5 mm-diameter side drilled holes similar to Annex K, shall meet all the mechanical properties required by Section
Figure K-3. 520.3.1, or those for demand critical welds of Section
520.3.2, as applicable. The heat affected zone CVN
B-6.4.2 Magnetic Particle toughness shall meet a minimum requirement of 27 J at 21
°C with specimens taken at both 1 and 5 mm from the
Testing Magnetic particle testing shall be performed fusion line.
according to procedures prescribed in AWS D1.1, following
a written procedure utilizing the Yoke Method that
B-6.5.5 Weld Tabs
conforms to ASTM E709.
Where practicable, weld tabs shall extend beyond the edge
B-6.5 Additional Welding Provisions of the joint a minimum of one inch or the thickness of the
part, whichever is greater. Extensions need not exceed 50
B-6.5.1 Intermixed Filler Metals mm.
When FCAW-S filler metals are used in combination with
Where used, weld tabs shall be removed to within 3 mm of
filler metals of other processes, including FCAW-G, a test the base metal surface, except at continuity plates where
specimen shall be prepared and mechanical testing shall be removal to within 6 mmof the plate edge is acceptable, and
conducted to verify that the notch toughness of the the end of the weld finished. Removal shall be by air carbon
combined materials in the intermixed region of the weld arc cutting (CAC-A), grinding, chipping, or thermal cutting.
meets the notch toughness requirements of Section 520.3.1 The process shall be controlled to minimize errant gouging.
and, if required, the notch toughness requirements for The edges where weld tabs have been removed shall be
demand critical welds of Section 520.3.2. finished to a surface roughness of 13 μm or better. Grinding
to a flush condition is not required. The contour of the weld
B-6.5.2 Filler Metal Diffusible Hydrogen end shall provide a smooth transition, free of notches and
Welding electrodes and electrode-flux combinations shall sharp corners. At T-joints, a minimum radius in the corner
meet the requirements for H16 (16 mL maximum diffusible need not be provided. The weld end shall be free of gouges
hydrogen per 100 grams deposited weld metal) as tested in and notches. Weld defects not greater than 2 mm deep shall
accordance with AWS A4.3 Standard Methods for be faired to a slope not greater than 1:5. Other weld defects
Determination of the Diffusible Hydrogen Content of shall be excavated and repaired by welding in accordance
Martensitic, Bainitic, and Ferritic Steel Weld Metal with an applicable WPS.
Produced by Arc Welding. (Exception: GMAW solid
electrodes.) The manufacturer’s typical certificate of B-6.5.6 Bottom Flange Welding Sequence
conformance shall be considered adequate proof that the
When using weld access holes to facilitate CJP groove
supplied electrode or electrode-flux combination meets this welds of beam bottom flanges to column flanges or
requirement. No testing of filler metal samples or of continuity plates, the groove weld shall be sequenced as
production welds shall be required.
follows:
B-6.5.3 Gas-Shielded Welding Processes 1. As far as is practicable, starts and stops shall not be
GMAW and FCAW-G shall not be performed in winds placed directly under the beam web.
exceeding 5 km/hr. Windscreens or other shelters may be 2. Each layer shall be completed across the full width of
used to shield the welding operation from excessive wind. the flange before beginning the next layer.
3. For each layer, the weld starts and stops shall be on the
B-6.5.4 Maximum Interpass Temperatures opposite side of the beam web, as compared to the
previous layer.
Maximum interpass temperatures shall not exceed 290 oC,
measured at a distance not exceeding 75 mm from the start
of the weld pass. The maximum interpass temperature may
be increased by qualification testing that includes weld
metal and base metal CVN testing using AWS D1.1 Annex

B-6.6 Additional Welding Provisions for Demand

Critical Welds Only B-7 WELD METAL/WELDING
PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION
B-6.6.1 Welding Processes
NOTCH TOUGHNESS
SMAW, GMAW (except short circuit transfer), FCAW and
SAW may be used to fabricate and erect members governed VERIFICATION TEST
by this specification. Other processes may be used, provided
that one or more of the following criteria is met: This appendix provides a procedure for qualifying the weld
metal toughness and is included on an interim basis pending
1. The process is part of the prequalified connection adoption of such a procedure by the American Welding
details, as listed in Section B-1, Society (AWS) or other accredited organization.
2. The process was used to perform a connection
qualification test in accordance with Section B-4, or B-7.1 Scope
3. The process is approved by the engineer-of-record. This appendix provides a standard method for qualification
testing of weld filler metals required to have specified notch
toughness for service in joints designated as demand
B-6.6.2 Filler Metal Packaging
critical.
Electrodes shall be provided in packaging that limits the
ability of the electrode to absorb moisture. Electrode from Testing of weld metal to be used in production shall be
packaging that has been punctured or torn shall be dried in performed by filler metal manufacturer’s production lot, as
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations, or defined in AWS A5.01, Filler Metal Procurement
shall not be used for demand critical welds. Guidelines, as follows:
Modification or lubrication of the electrode after 1. Class C3 for SMAW electrodes,
manufacture is prohibited, except that drying is permitted as 2. Class S2 for GMAW-S and SAW electrodes,
recommended by the manufacturer.
3. Class T4 for FCAW and GMAW-C, or
B-6.6.3 Exposure Limitations on FCAW Electrodes 4. Class F2 for SAW fluxes.
After removal from protective packaging, the permissible
atmospheric exposure time of FCAW electrodes shall be Filler metals produced by manufacturers audited and
limited as follows: approved by one or more of the following agencies shall be
1. Exposure shall not exceed the electrode manufacturer’s exempt from these production lot testing requirements,
guidelines. provided a minimum of 3 production lots of material, as
defined above, are tested in accordance with the provisions
2. In the absence of manufacturer’s recommendations, the of this appendix:
total accumulated exposure time for FCAW electrodes
shall not exceed 72 hours. When the electrodes are not 1. American Bureau of Shipping (ABS),
in use, they may be stored in protective packaging or a 2. Lloyds Register of Shipping,
cabinet. Storage time shall not be included in the
accumulated exposure time. Electrodes that have been 3. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
exposed to the atmosphere for periods exceeding the 4. ISO 9000,
above time limits shall be dried in accordance with the
electrode anufacturer’s recommendations, or shall not 5. US Department of Defense, or
be used for demand critical welds. The electrode 6. A quality assurance program acceptable to the
manufacturer’s recommendations shall include time, engineer-of-record.
temperature, and number of drying cycles permitted.
Under this exemption from production lot testing, the filler
B-6.6.4 Tack Welds metal manufacturer shall repeat the testing prescribed in this
Tack welds attaching backing bars and weld tabs shall be appendix at least every three years on a random production
placed where they will be incorporated into a final weld. lot.

indicating crayons or surface temperature thermometers one

B-7.2 Test Conditions inch from the center of the groove at the location shown in
Tests shall be conducted at the range of heat inputs for the figures cited above. Welding shall continue until the
which the weld filler metal will be qualified under the assembly has reached the interpass temperature prescribed
welding procedure specification (WPS). It is recommended in Table B-7.2-1. The interpass temperature shall be
that tests be conducted at the low heat input level and high maintained for the remainder of the weld. Should it be
heat input level indicated in Table B-7.2-1. necessary to interrupt welding, the assembly shall be
allowed to cool in air. The assembly shall then be heated to
Table I-X-1 WPS the prescribed interpass temperature before welding is
Toughness Verification Test resumed.
Welding and Preheat Conditions
Cooling Preheat °F Interpass °F No thermal treatment of weldment or test specimens is
Heat Input permitted, except that machined tensile test specimens may
Rate (°C) (°C)
be aged at 200 °F (93 °C) to 220 °F (104 °C) for up to 48
Low heat 30 kJ/in. 200 50 hours, then cooled to room temperature before testing.
70 25
input test (1.2kJ/mm) (21 14)
(21 14)
High heat 80 kJ/in. 300 25 500 50
input test (1.2kJ/mm) (149 14) (260 28) The lowest and highest Charpy V-Notch (CVN) toughness
values obtained from the five specimens from a single test
Alternatively, the filler metal manufacturer or contractor plate shall be disregarded. Two of the remaining three
may elect to test a wider or narrower range of heat inputs values shall equal, or exceed, the specified toughness of 54
and interpass temperatures. The range of heat inputs and J energy level at the testing temperature. One of the three
interpass temperatures tested shall be clearly stated on the may be lower, but not lower than 41 J, and the average of
test reports and user data sheets. Regardless of the method the three shall not be less than the required 54 J energy
of selecting test heat input, the WPS, as used by the level. All test samples shall meet the notch toughness
contractor, shall fall within the range of heat inputs and requirements for the electrodes as provided in Section
interpass temperatures tested. 520.3.2.
B-7.3 Test Specimens For filler metals classified as E70, materials shall provide a
minimum yield stress of 58 ksi, a minimum tensile strength
Two test plates, one for each heat input, shall be welded of 70 ksi, and a minimum elongation of 22 percent. For
following Table B-7.2-1. Five CVN specimens and one filler metals classified as E80, materials shall provide a
tensile specimen shall be prepared per plate. Each plate minimum yield stress of 68 ksi, a minimum tensile strength
shall be steel, of any AISC-listed structural grade. The test of 80 ksi, and a minimum elongation of 19 percent.
plate shall be 19 mm thick with a 13 mm root opening and
45° included groove angle. The test plate and specimens
shall be as shown in Figure 2A in AWS A5.20, or as in
Figure 5 in AWS A5.29. Except for the root pass, a
minimum of two passes per layer shall be used to fill the
width.
All test specimens shall be taken from near the centerline of

the weld at the mid-thickness location, in order to minimize
dilution effects. CVN and tensile specimens shall be
prepared in accordance with AWS B4.0, Standard Methods
for Mechanical Testing of Welds. The test assembly shall be
restrained during welding, or preset at approximately 5° to
prevent warpage in excess of 5°. A welded test assembly
that has warped more than 5° shall be discarded. Welded
test assemblies shall not be straightened.
The test assembly shall be tack welded and heated to the

specified preheat temperature, measured by temperature

COMPOSITE SLAB. Concrete slab supported on and

PART 2B - COMPOSITE bonded to a formed steel deck that acts as a diaphragm to
STRUCTURAL STEEL AND transfer load to and between elements of the seismic load
resisting system.
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BUILDINGS COMPOSITE SPECIAL CONCENTRICALLY
BRACED FRAME (C-CBF). Composite braced frame
meeting the requirements of Section 543.
DEFINITIONS
COMPOSITE SPECIAL MOMENT FRAME (C-SMF).
BOUNDARY MEMBER. Portion along wall and Composite moment frame meeting the requirements of
diaphragm edge strengthened with structural steel sections Section 540.
and/or longitudinal steel reinforcement and transverse
reinforcement. COMPOSITE STEEL PLATE SHEAR WALL (C-
SPW). Wall consisting of steel plate with reinforced
COLLECTOR ELEMENT. Member that serves to concrete encasement on one or both sides that provides out-
transfer loads between floor diaphragms and the members of-plane stiffening to prevent buckling of the steel plate and
of the seismic load resisting system. meeting the requirements of Section 548.
COMPOSITE BEAM. Structural steel beam in contact COUPLING BEAM. Structural steel or composite beam
with and acting compositely with reinforced concrete via connecting adjacent reinforced concrete wall elements so
bond or shear connectors. that they act together to resist lateral loads.
COMPOSITE BRACE. Reinforced-concrete-encased ENCASED COMPOSITE BEAM. Composite beam

structural steel section (rolled or built-up) or concrete-filled completely enclosed in reinforced concrete.
steel section used as a brace.
ENCASED COMPOSITE COLUMN. Structural steel
COMPOSITE COLUMN. Reinforced-concrete-encased column (rolled or built-up) completely encased in
structural steel section (rolled or built-up) or concrete-filled reinforced concrete.
steel section used as a column.
FACE BEARING PLATES. Stiffeners attached to
COMPOSITE ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME structural steel beams that are embedded in reinforced
(C-EBF). Composite braced frame meeting the concrete walls or columns. The plates are located at the face
requirements of Section 545. of the reinforced concrete to provide confinement and to
transfer loads to the concrete through direct bearing.
COMPOSITE INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAME
(C-IMF). Composite moment frame meeting the FILLED COMPOSITE COLUMN. Round or rectangular
requirements of Section 541. structural steel section filled with concrete.
COMPOSITE ORDINARY BRACED FRAME (C- FULLY COMPOSITE BEAM. Composite beam that has
OBF). Composite braced frame meeting the requirements of a sufficient number of shear connectors to develop the
Section 544. nominal plastic flexural strength of the composite section.
COMPOSITE ORDINARY MOMENT FRAME (C- INTERMEDIATE SEISMIC SYSTEMS. Seismic

OMF). Composite moment frame meeting the requirements systems designed assuming moderate inelastic action occurs
of Section 545. in some members under the design earthquake.
COMPOSITE PARTIALLY RESTRAINED LOAD-CARRYING REINFORCEMENT.

MOMENT FRAME (C-PRMF). Composite moment Reinforcement in composite members designed and detailed
frame meeting the requirements of Section 539. to resist the required loads.
COMPOSITE SHEAR WALL. Reinforced concrete wall ORDINARY REINFORCED CONCRETE SHEAR
that has unencased or reinforced-concrete¬encased WALL WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL ELEMENTS (C-
structural steel sections as boundary members. ORCW). Composite shear walls meeting the requirements
of Section 546.

ORDINARY SEISMIC SYSTEMS. Seismic systems SECTION 532 - SCOPE

designed assuming limited inelastic action occurs in some
members under the design earthquake.
These Provisions shall govern the design, fabrication, and
erection of composite structural steel and reinforced
PARTIALLY COMPOSITE BEAM. Unencased concrete members and connections in the seismic load
composite beam with a nominal flexural strength controlled resisting systems (SLRS) in buildings and other structures,
by the strength of the shear stud connectors. where other structures are defined as those designed,
fabricated, and erected in a manner similar to buildings,
PARTIALLY RESTRAINED COMPOSITE with building-like vertical and lateral load-resisting
CONNECTION. Partially restrained (PR) connections as systems. These provisions shall apply when the seismic
defined in the Specification that connect partially or fully response modification coefficient, R, (as specified in the
composite beams to steel columns with flexural resistance NSCP code) is taken greater than 3.
provided by a force couple achieved with steel
reinforcement in the slab and a steel seat angle or similar When the seismic response modification coefficient, R, is
connection at the bottom flange. taken as 3 or less, the structure is not required to satisfy
these provisions unless required by the NSCP code.
REINFORCED-CONCRETE-ENCASED SHAPES.
Structural steel sections encased in reinforced concrete. The requirements of Part 2B modify and supplement the
requirements of Part 2A and form these Provisions. They
RESTRAINING BARS. Steel reinforcement in composite shall be applied in conjunc tion with the AISC Specification
members that is not designed to carry required loads, but is for Structural Steel Buildings, ANSI/AISC 360, hereinafter
provided to facilitate the erection of other steel referred to as the Specification. The applicable requirements
reinforcement and to provide anchorage for stirrups or ties. of the Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
Generally, such reinforcement is not spliced to be and Commentary, ACI 318, as modified in these Provisions
continuous. shall be used for the design of reinforced concrete
components in composite SLRS.
SPECIAL REINFORCED CONCRETE SHEAR
WALLS COMPOSITE WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL For seismic load resisting systems incorporating reinforced
ELEMENTS (C-SRCW). Composite shear walls meeting concrete components designed according to ACI 318, the
the requirements of Section 547. requirements for load and resistance factor design as
specified in Section 502.3 of the Specification shall be used.
SPECIAL SEISMIC SYSTEMS. Seismic systems
designed assuming significant inelastic action occurs in When the design is based upon elastic analysis, the stiffness
some members under the design earthquake. properties of the component members of composite systems
shall reflect their condition at the onset of significant
UNENCASED COMPOSITE BEAM. Composite beam yielding of the structure.
wherein the steel section is not completely enclosed in
reinforced concrete and relies on mechanical connectors for Wherever these Provisions refer to the NSCP code and there
composite action with a reinforced slab or slab on metal is no local building code, the loads, load combinations,
deck. system limitations and general design requirements shall be
those in SEI/ASCE 7.
Part 2B includes a Glossary which is specifically applicable

to this Part. The Part 2A Glossary is also applicable to Part
2B.

SECTION 533 - REFERENCED SECTION 534 - GENERAL SEISMIC

SPECIFICATIONS, CODES, AND DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
STANDARDS
The required strength and other provisions for seismic
The documents referenced in these provisions shall include design categories (SDCs) and seismic use groups and the
those listed in Part 2A Section 515 with the following limitations on height and irregularity shall be as specified in
additions: the NSCP code.
American Society of Civil Engineers Standard for the The design story drift and story drift limits shall be
Structural Design of Composite Slabs, ASCE 3-91 determined as required in the NSCP code.
American Welding Society Structural Welding Code-

Reinforcing Steel, AWS D1.4-98

SECTION 535 - LOADS, LOAD SECTION 536 - MATERIALS

COMBINATIONS, AND NOMINAL
536.1 Structural Steel
STRENGTHS. Structural steel members and connections used in composite
seismic load resisting systems (SLRS) shall meet the
535.1 Loads and Load Combinations
requirements of Specification Section 501.3. Structural steel
Where amplified seismic loads are required by these used in the composite SLRS described in Sections 539, 540,
Provisions, the horizontal portion of the earthquake load E 543, 545, 547 and 548 shall also meet the requirements in
(as defined in the NSCP code) shall be multiplied by the Part 2A Sections 519 and 520.
overstrength factor Ωo prescribed by the NSCP code.
536.2 Concrete and Steel Reinforcement
For the seismic load resisting system (SLRS) incorporating
Concrete and steel reinforcement used in composite
reinforced concrete components designed according to ACI
components in composite SLRS shall meet the requirements
318, the requirements of Section 502.3 of the Specification
of ACI 318, Sections 21.2.4 through 21.2.8.
shall be used.
Exception:
User Note: When not defined in the NSCP code, Ωo should
Concrete and steel reinforcement used in the composite
be taken from SEI/ASCE 7.
ordinary seismic systems described in Sections 542, 544,
and 546 shall meet the requirements of Section 509 and ACI
535.2 Nominal Strength 318, excluding Chapter 21.
The nominal strength of systems, members, and connections
shall be determined in accordance with the requirements of
the Specification, except as modified throughout these
Provisions.

537.4.2.
SECTION 537 - COMPOSITE
2. The contribution of the reinforced-concrete-encased
MEMBERS shape to the strength of the column as provided in ACI
318.
537.1 Scope
3. The seismic requirements for reinforced concrete
The design of composite members in the SLRS described in columns as specified in the description of the
Sections 539 through 548 shall meet the requirements of composite seismic systems in Sections 539 through
this Section and the material requirements of Section 536. 548.
537.2 Composite Floor and Roof Slabs 537.4.1 Ordinary Seismic System Requirements
The design of composite floor and roof slabs shall meet the The following requirements for encased composite columns
requirements of ASCE 3. Composite slab diaphragms shall are applicable to all composite systems, including ordinary
meet the requirements in this Section. seismic systems:
537.2.1 Load Transfer 1. The available shear strength of the column shall be
Details shall be designed so as to transfer loads between the determined in accordance with Specification Section
diaphragm and boundary members, collector elements, and 509.2.1.1d. The nominal shear strength of the tie
elements of the horizontal framing system. reinforcement shall be determined in accordance with
ACI 318 Sections 11.5.6.2 through 11.5.6.9. In ACI
537.2.2 Nominal Shear Strength 318 Sections 11.5.6.5 and 11.5.6.9, the dimension bw
shall equal the width of the concrete cross-section
The nominal shear strength of composite diaphragms and minus the width of the structural shape measured
concrete-filled steel deck diaphragms shall be taken as the perpendicular to the direction of shear.
nominal shear strength of the reinforced concrete above the
top of the steel deck ribs in accordance with ACI 318 2. Composite columns designed to share the applied loads
excluding Chapter 22. Alternatively, the composite between the structural steel section and the reinforced
diaphragm nominal shear strength shall be determined by concrete encasement shall have shear connectors that
in-plane shear tests of concrete-filled diaphragms. meet the requirements of Specification Section 509.2.1.
3. The maximum spacing of transverse ties shall meet the
requirements of Specification Section 509.2.1.
537.3 Composite Beams
Composite beams shall meet the requirements of Section Transverse ties shall be located vertically within one-half of
509. Composite beams that are part of composite-special the tie spacing above the top of the footing or lowest beam
moment frames (C-SMF) shall also meet the requirements or slab in any story and shall be spaced as provided herein
of Section 540.3. within one-half of the tie spacing below the lowest beam or
slab framing into the column.
537.4 Encased Composite Columns
This section is applicable to columns that Transverse bars shall have a diameter that is not less than
one-fiftieth of the greatest side dimension of the composite
1. consist of reinforced-concrete encased shapes with a member, except that ties shall not be smaller than Diam
structural steel area that comprises at least 1 percent of 10mm bars and need not be larger than Diam 16 mm bars.
the total composite column cross section; and Alternatively, welded wire fabric of equivalent area is
2. meet the additional limitations of Specification Section permitted as transverse reinforcement except when
509.2.1. Such columns shall meet the requirements of prohibited for intermediate and special seismic systems.
Specification Section 509, except as modified in this 4. Load-carrying reinforcement shall meet the detailing
Section. Additional requirements, as specified for and splice requirements of ACI 318 Sections 7.8.1 and
intermediate and special seismic systems in Sections 12.17. Load-carrying reinforcement shall be provided
537.4.2 and 537.4.3shall apply as required in the at every corner of a rectangular cross-section. The
descriptions of the composite seismic systems in maximum spacing of other load carrying or restraining
Sections 539 through 548. longitudinal reinforcement shall be one-half of the least
side dimensions of the composite member.
Columns that consist of reinforced-concrete-encased shapes
shall meet the requirements for reinforced concrete columns 5. Splices and end bearing details for encased composite
of ACI 318 except as modified for columns in ordinary seismic systems shall meet the
requirements of the Specification and ACI 318 Section
1. The structural steel section shear connectors in Section

7.8.2. The design shall comply with ACI 318 Sections  Fy As  f 'c 
21.2.6, 21.2.7 and 21.10. The design shall consider any Ash  0.09hcc s1    (Eq. 537-1)
Pn  F 
adverse behavioral effects due to abrupt changes in   yh 
either the member stiffness or the nominal tensile
where
strength. Such locations shall include transitions to
reinforced concrete sections without embedded hcc = cross-dectional dimension of the confined core
structural steel members, transitions to bare structural measured center-to-senter of the tie
steel sections, and column bases. reinforcement, mm.
s = spacing of transverse reinforcement measured
537.4.2 Intermediate Seismic System Requirements along the longitudinal axis of the structural
Encased composite columns in intermediate seismic member, mm.
systems shall meet the following requirements in addition to Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the structural
those of Section 537.4.1: steel core, MPa.
As = cross-sectional area of the structural core, mm2
1. The maximum spacing of transverse bars at the top and Pn = nominal compressive strength of the composite
bottom shall be the least of the following: column calculated in accordance with the
a. one-half the least dimension of the section Specification, N.
f′c = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa.
b. 8 longitudinal bar diameters Fyh = specified minimum yield stress of the ties, MPa.
c. 24 tie bar diameters
Equation 537-1 need not be satisfied if the nominal strength
d. 300 mm of the reinforced-concrete-encased structural steel section
alone is greater than the load effect from a load combination
These spacings shall be maintained over a vertical distance of 1.0 D + 0.5L.
equal to the greatest of the following lengths, measured
from each joint face and on both sides of any section where b. The maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement
flexural yielding is expected to occur: along the length of the column shall be the lesser of six
longitudinal load-carrying bar diameters or 150 mm.
a. one-sixth the vertical clear height of the column
c. When specified in Sections 537.4.3(4), 537.4.3 (5) or
b. the maximum cross-sectional dimension 537.4.3 (6), the maximum spacing of transverse
c. 450 mm reinforcement shall be the lesser of one-fourth the least
member dimension or 100 mm. For this reinforcement,
2. Tie spacing over the remaining column length shall not cross ties, legs of overlapping hoops, and other
exceed twice the spacing defined above. confining reinforcement shall be spaced not more than
3. Welded wire fabric is not permitted as transverse 350 mm on center in the transverse direction.
reinforcement in intermediate seismic systems. 4. Encased composite columns in braced frames with
nominal compressive loads that are larger than 0.2
537.4.3 Special Seismic System Requirements times Pn shall have transverse reinforcement as
Encased composite columns in special seismic systems shall specified in Section 537.4.3 (3)(iii) over the total
meet the following requirements in addition to those of element length. This requirement need not be satisfied
Sections 537.4.1and 537.4.2: if the nominal strength of the reinforced-concrete-
encased steel section alone is greater than the load
1. The required axial strength for encased composite effect from a load combination of 1.0D + 0.5L.
columns and splice details shall meet the requirements
in Part 2A Section 521.3. 5. Composite columns supporting reactions from
discontinued stiff members, such as walls or braced
2. Longitudinal load-carrying reinforcement shall meet frames, shall have transverse reinforcement as specified
the requirements of ACI 318 Section 21.4.3. in Section 537.4.3 (3)(iii) over the full length beneath
3. Transverse reinforcement shall be hoop reinforcement the level at which the discontinuity occurs if the
as defined in ACI 318 Chapter 21 and shall meet the nominal compressive load exceeds 0.1 times Pn.
following requirements: Transverse reinforcement shall extend into the
discontinued member for at least the length required to
a. The minimum area of tie reinforcement Ash shall meet develop full yielding in the reinforced-concrete-encased
the following: shape and longitudinal reinforcement. This requirement
need not be satisfied if the nominal strength of the
reinforced-concrete encased structural steel section

alone is greater than the load effect from a load

combination of 1.0D + 0.5L.
c. The minimum wall thickness of concrete-filled
6. Encased composite columns used in a C-SMF shall rectangular HSS shall be
meet the following requirements:
t min  F y 2 E (Eq. 537 – 2)
a. Transverse reinforcement shall meet the requirements
in Section 537.4.3 (3)(c) at the top and bottom of the
column over the region specified in Section 537.4.2. for the flat width b of each face, where b is as defined in
Specification Table 502.4.1.
b. The strong-column/weak-beam design requirements in
Section 540.5shall be satisfied. Column bases shall be
detailed to sustain inelastic flexural hinging.
c. The required shear strength of the column shall meet
the requirements of ACI 318 Section 21.4.5.1.
7. When the column terminates on a footing or mat
foundation, the transverse reinforcement as specified in
this section shall extend into the footing or mat at least
300 mm. When the column terminates on a wall, the
transverse reinforcement shall extend into the wall for
at least the length required to develop full yielding in
the reinforced-concrete-encased shape and longitudinal
reinforcement.
8. Welded wire fabric is not permitted as transverse
reinforcement for special seismic systems.
537.5 Filled Composite Columns

This Section is applicable to columns that meet the
limitations of Specification Section 509.2.2. Such columns
shall be designed to meet the requirements of Specification
Section 509, except as modified in this Section.
1. The nominal shear strength of the composite column
shall be the nominal shear strength of the structural
steel section alone, based on its effective shear area.
The concrete shear capacity may be used in conjunction
with the shear strength from the steel shape provided
the design includes an appropriate load transferring
mechanism.
2. In addition to the requirements of Section 537.5(1), in
the special seismic systems described in Sections 540,
543 and 545, the design loads and column splices for
filled composite columns shall also meet the
requirements of Part 2a Section 521.
3. Filled composite columns used in C-SMF shall meet
the following requirements in addition to those of
Sections 6.5(1) and 6.5(2):
a. The minimum required shear strength of the column
shall meet the requirements in ACI 318 Section
21.4.5.1.
b. The strong-column/weak-beam design requirements in
Section 521.5 shall be met. Column bases shall be
designed to sustain inelastic flexural hinging.

The nominal bearing and shear-friction strengths shall

SECTION 538 - COMPOSITE meet the require-ments of ACI 318 Chapters 10 and
CONNECTIONS 11. Unless a higher strength is substantiated by cyclic
testing, the nominal bearing and shear-friction strengths
538.1 Scope shall be reduced by 25 percent for the composite
seismic systems described in Sections 540, 543, 545,
This Section is applicable to connections in buildings that 547, and 548.
utilize composite or dual steel and concrete systems wherein
seismic load is transferred between structural steel and 2. The available strength of structural steel components in
reinforced concrete components. composite connections shall be determined in
accordance with Part 2A and the Specification.
Composite connections shall be demonstrated to have Structural steel elements that are encased in confined
strength, ductility and toughness comparable to that reinforced concrete are permitted to be considered to be
exhibited by similar structural steel or reinforced concrete braced against out-of-plane buckling. Face bearing
connections that meet the requirements of Part 2A and ACI plates consisting of stiffeners between the flanges of
318, respectively. Methods for calculating the connection steel beams are required when beams are embedded in
strength shall meet the requirements in this Section. reinforced concrete columns or walls.
3. The nominal shear strength of reinforced-concrete-
538.2 General Requirements encased steel panel-zones in beam-to-column
Connections shall have adequate deformation capacity to connections shall be calculated as the sum of the
resist the required strength at the design story drift. nominal strengths of the structural steel and confined
Additionally, connections that are required for the lateral reinforced concrete shear elements as determined in
stability of the building under seismic loads shall meet the Part 2A Section 540.3 and ACI 318 Section 21.5,
requirements in Sections 539 through 548 based upon the respectively.
specific system in which the connection is used. When the
available strength of the connected members is based upon 4. Reinforcement shall be provided to resist all tensile
nominal material strengths and nominal dimensions, the forces in reinforced concrete components of the
determination of the available strength of the connection connections. Additionally, the concrete shall be
shall account for any effects that result from the increase in confined with transverse reinforcement. All
the actual nominal strength of the connected member. reinforcement shall be fully developed in tension or
compression, as appropriate, beyond the point at which
it is no longer required to resist the forces.
538.3 Nominal Strength of Connections
Development lengths shall be determined in accordance
The nominal strength of connections in composite structural with ACI 318 Chapter 12. Additionally, development
systems shall be determined on the basis of rational models lengths for the systems described in Sections 540, 543,
that satisfy both equilibrium of internal forces and the 545, 547, and 548 shall meet the requirements of ACI
strength limitation of component materials and elements 318 Section 21.5.4.
based upon potential limit states. Unless the connection
strength is determined by analysis and testing, the models 5. Connections shall meet the following additional
used for analysis of connections shall meet the requirements requirements:
of Sections 538.3(1) through 538.3(5). a. When the slab transfers horizontal diaphragm forces,
1. When required, force shall be transferred between the slab reinforcement shall be designed and anchored
structural steel and reinforced concrete through (a) to carry the in-plane tensile forces at all critical sections
direct bearing of headed shear studs or suitable in the slab, including connections to collector beams,
alternative devices; (b)by other mechanical means; (c) columns, braces, and walls.
by shear friction with the necessary clamping force b. For connections between structural steel or composite
provided by reinforcement normal to the plane of shear beams and reinforced concrete or encased composite
transfer; or (d) by a combination of these means. Any columns, transverse hoop reinforcement shall be
potential bond strength between structural steel and provided in the connection region of the column to
reinforced concrete shall be ignored for the purpose of meet the requirements of ACI 318 Section 21.5, except
the connection force transfer mechanism. The for the following modifications:
contribution of different mechanisms can be combined b.1 Structural steel sections framing into the
only if the stiffness and deformation capacity of the connections are considered to provide confinement
mechanisms are compatible. over a width equal to that of face bearing plates
welded to the beams between the flanges.

b.2 Lap splices are permitted for perimeter ties when SECTION 539 - COMPOSITE
confinement of the splice is provided by face
bearing plates or other means that prevents spalling PARTIALLY RESTRAINED (PR)
of the concrete cover in the systems described in MOMENT FRAMES (C-PRMF)
Sections 541, 542, 543 and 546.
b.3 The longitudinal bar sizes and layout in reinforced 539.1 Scope
concrete and composite columns shall be detailed This section is applicable to frames that consist of structural
to minimize slippage of the bars through the beam- steel columns and composite beams that are connected with
to-column connection due to high force transfer oartially restrained (PR) moment connections that meet the
associated with the change in column moments requirements in Specification Section 502.3.6b(b).
over the height of the connection. Composite partially restrained moment frames (C-PRMF)
shall be designed so that under earthquake loading yielding
occurs in the ductile components of the composite PR
beam-to-column moment connections. Limited yielding is
permitted at other locations, such as column base
connections. Connection flexibility and composite beam
action shall be accounted for in determining the dynamic
characteristics, strength and drift of C-PRMF.
539.2 Columns
Structural steel columns shall meet the requirements of
Section 519 and 521 and the specification.
539.3 Composite Beams

Composite beams shall be unencased, fully composite and
shall meet the requirements of Specification Section 509.
For purpose of analysis, the stiffness of the beams shall be
determined with an effective moment of inertia of the
composite section.
539.4 Moment Connections

The required strength of the beam-to-column PR moment
connections shall be determined considering the effects of
connection flexibility and second-order moments. In
addition, composite connections shall have a nominal
strength that is at least equal to 50 percent of Mp, where Mp
is the nominal plastic flexural strength of the connected
structural steel beam ignoring composite action.
Connections shall meet the requirements of Section 520 and
shall have a total interstorey drift angle of 0.04 radians that
is substantiated by cyclic testing as described in Section
522.2b.


SECTION 540 - COMPOSITE The required strength of beam-to-column moment
SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES (C- connections shall be determined from the shear and flexure
SMF) associated with the expected flexural strength, RyMn
(LRFD) or RyMn /1.5 (ASD), as appropriate, of the beams
framing into the connection. The nominal strength of the
540.1 Scope
connection shall meet the requirements in Section 538. In
This section is applicable to moment frames that consist of addition, the connections shall be capable of sustaining a
either composite or reinforced concrete columns and either total interstory drift angle of 0.04 radian. When beam
structural steel or composite beams. Composite special flanges are interrupted at the connection, the connections
moment frames (C-SMF) shall be designed assuming that shall demonstrate an interstory drift angle of at least 0.04
significant inelastic deformations will occur under the radian in cyclic tests that is substantiated by cyclic testing as
design earthquake, primarily in the beams, but with limited described in Part 2ASection 540.2.(b). For connections to
inelastic deformations in the column and/or connections reinforced concrete columns with a beam that is continuous
through the column so that welded joints are not required in
540.2 Columns the flanges and the connection is not otherwise susceptible
Composite columns shall meet the requirements for special to premature fractures, the inelastic rotation capacity shall
seismic systems of Sections 537.4 or 537.5, as appropriate. be demonstrated by testing or other substantiating data.
Reinforced concrete columns shall meet the requirements of
ACI 318 Chapter 21, excluding Section 21.10. 540.5 Column-Beam Moment Ratio
The design of reinforced concrete columns shall meet the
540.3 Beams requirements of ACI 318 Section 21.4.2. The column-to-
Composite beams that are part of C-SMF shall also meet the beam moment ratio of composite columns shall meet the
following requirements: requirements of Part 2A Section 522.6 with the following
modifications:
1. The distance from the maximum concrete compression
fiber to the plastic neutral axis shall not exceed 1. The available flexural strength of the composite column
shall meet the requirements of Specification Section
Ycon  d b 509 with consideration of the required axial strength,
YPNA  (Eq.540-1)
 1700Fy  Prc .
1   

 E  2. The force limit for Exception (a) in Part 2A Section
522.6 shall be Prc < 0.1Pc .
where
3. Composite columns exempted by the minimum flexural
Ycon = distance from the top of the steel beam to the top strength requirement in Part 2A Section 522.6(a) shall
of concrete, mm. have transverse reinforcement that meets the
db = depth of the steel beam, mm. requirements in Section 537.4.3(3).
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the steel
beam, MPa
E = elastic modulus of the steel beam, MPa
2. Beam flanges shall meet the requirements of Part 2A
Section 540.4, except when reinforced-concrete-
encased compression elements have a reinforced
concrete cover of at least 50 mm and confinement is
provided by hoop reinforcement in regions where
plastic hinges are expected to occur under seismic
deformations. Hoop reinforcement shall meet the
requirements of ACI 318 Section 21.3.3.
Neither structural steel nor composite trusses are
permitted as flexural members to resist seismic loads in
C-SMF unless it is demonstrated by testing and
analysis that the particular system provides adequate
ductility and energy dissipation capacity.

SECTION 541 - COMPOSITE SECTION 542 - COMPOSITE

INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAMES ORDINARY MOMENT FRAMES (C-
(C-IMF) OMF)
541.1 Scope 542.1 Scope
This Section is applicable to moment frames that consist of This Section is applicable to moment frames that consist of
either composite or reinforced concrete columns and either either composite or reinforced concrete columns and
structural steel or composite beams. Composite intermediate structural steel or composite beams. Composite ordinary
moment frames (C-IMF) shall be designed assuming that moment frames (C-OMF) shall be designed assuming that
inelastic deformation under the design earthquake will limited inelastic action will occur under the design
occur primarily in the beams, but with moderate inelastic earthquake in the beams, columns and/or connections.
deformation in the columns and/or connections.
542.2 Columns.
541.2 Columns Composite columns shall meet the requirements for
Composite columns shall meet the requirements for ordinary seismic systems in Section 537.4 or 537.5, as
intermediate seismic systems of Section 537.4or 537.5. appropriate. Reinforced concrete columns shall meet the
Reinforced concrete columns shall meet the requirements of requirements of ACI 318, excluding Chapter 21.
ACI 318 Section 21.12.
542.3 Beams
541.3 Beams Structural steel and composite beams shall meet the
Structural steel and composite beams shall meet the requirements of the Specification.
requirements of the Specification.
541.4 Moment Connections Connections shall be designed for the load combinations in
The nominal strength of the connections shall meet the accordance with Specification Sections 502.3.3and 502.3.4,
requirements of Section 538. The required strength of and the available strength of the connections shall meet the
beam-to-column connections shall meet one of the requirements in Section 520 and Section 524.2 of Part 2A.
following requirements:
1. The required strength of the connection shall be based
on the forces associated with plastic hinging of the
beams adjacent to the connection.
2. Connections shall meet the requirements of Section 538
and shall demonstrate a total interstory drift angle of at
least 0.03 radian in cyclic tests.

SECTION 543 - COMPOSITE SECTION 544 - COMPOSITE

SPECIAL CONCENTRICALLY ORDINARY BRACED FRAMES
BRACED FRAMES (C-CBF) (C-OBF)
543.1 Scope 544.1 Scope
This Section is applicable to braced frames that consist of This Section is applicable to concentrically braced frame
concentrically connected members. Minor eccentricities are systems that consist of composite or reinforced concrete
permitted if they are accounted for in the design. Columns columns, structural steel or composite beams, and structural
shall be structural steel, composite structural steel, or steel or composite braces. Composite ordinary braced
reinforced concrete. Beams and braces shall be either frames (C-OBF) shall be designed assuming that limited
structural steel or composite structural steel. Composite inelastic action under the design earthquake will occur in
special concentrically braced frames (C-CBF) shall be the beams, columns, braces, and/or connections.
designed assuming that inelastic action under the design
earthquake will occur primarily through tension yielding 544.2 Columns
and/or buckling of braces. Encased composite columns shall meet the requirements for
ordinary seismic systems of Sections 537.4. Filled
543.2 Columns composite columns shall meet the requirements of Section
Structural steel columns shall meet the requirements of Part 537.5 for ordinary seismic systems. Reinforced concrete
2A Sections 537 and 539. Composite columns shall meet columns shall meet the requirements of ACI 318 excluding
the requirements for special seismic systems of Section Chapter 21.
537.4 or 537.5. Reinforced concrete columns shall meet the
requirements for structural truss elements of ACI 318 544.3 Beams
Chapter 21. Structural steel and composite beams shall meet the
requirements of the Specification.
543.3 Beams
Structural steel beams shall meet the requirements for 544.4 Braces
special concentrically braced frames (SCBF) of Part 2A Structural steel braces shall meet the requirements of the
Section 526. Composite beams shall meet the requirements Specification. Composite braces shall meet the requirements
of the Specification Section 509 and the requirements for for composite columns of Sections 537.4a, 537.5, and
special concentrically braced frames (SCBF) of Part 2A 544.2.
Section 526.
544.5 Connections
543.4 Braces
Connections shall be designed for the load combinations in
Structural steel braces shall meet the requirements for SCBF accordance with Specification Sections 502.3.3 and 502.3.4,
of Part 2A Section 526. Composite braces shall meet the and the available strength of the connections shall meet the
requirements for composite columns of Section 543.2. requirements in Section 538.
543.5. Connections
Bracing connections shall meet the requirements of Section
538 and Part 2A Section 526.

SECTION 545 - COMPOSITE 545.4 Braces

ECCENTRICALLY BRACED Structural steel braces shall meet the requirements for EBF
FRAMES (C-EBF) of Part 2A Section 528.
545.1 Scope 545.5 Connections

This Section is applicable to braced frames for which one In addition to the requirements for EBF of Part 2A Section
end of each brace intersects a beam at an eccentricity from 528, connections shall meet the requirements of Section
the intersection of the centerlines of the beam and column, 520.
or intersects a beam at an eccentricity from the intersection
of the centerlines of the beam and an adjacent brace.
Composite eccentrically braced frames (C-EBF) shall be
designed so that inelastic deformations under the design
earthquake will occur only as shear yielding in the links.
Diagonal braces, columns, and beam segm ents outside of

the link shall be designed to remain essentially elastic under
the maximum forces that can be generated by the fully
yielded and strain-hardened link. Columns shall be either
composite or reinforced concrete. Braces shall be structural
steel. Links shall be structural steel as described in this
Section. The available strength of members shall meet the
requirements in the Specification, except as modified in this
Section. C-EBF shall meet the requirements of Part 2A
Section 528, except as modified in this Section.
545.2 Columns
Reinforced concrete columns shall meet the requirements
for structural truss elements of ACI 318 Chapter 21.
Composite columns shall meet the require-ments for special
seismic systems of Sections 537.4 or 537.5. Additionally,
where a link is adjacent to a reinforced concrete column or
encased composite column, transverse column
reinforcement meeting the requirements of ACI 318 Section
21.4.4 (or Section 537.4c(6)a for composite columns) shall
be provided above and below the link connection. All
columns shall meet the requirements of Part 2A Section
528.10.
545.3 Links
Links shall be unencased structural steel and shall meet the
requirement for eccentrically braced frame (EBF) links in
Part 2A Section 528. It is permitted to encase the portion of
the beam outside of the link in reinforced concrete. Beams
containing the link are permitted to act compositely with the
floor slab using shear connectors along all or any portion of
the beam if the composite action is considered when
determining the nominal strength of the link.

546.3 Steel Coupling Beams

SECTION 546 - ORDINARY Structural steel coupling beams that are used between two
REINFORCED CONCRETE SHEAR adjacent reinforced concrete walls shall meet the
WALLS COMPOSITE WITH requirements of the Specification and this Section:
STRUCTURAL STEEL ELEMENTS 1. Coupling beams shall have an embedment length into
the reinforced concrete wall that is sufficient to develop
(C-ORCW) the maximum possible combination of moment and
shear that can be generated by the nominal bending and
546.1 Scope shear strength of the coupling beam. The embedment
The requirements in this Section apply when reinforced length shall be considered to begin inside the first layer
concrete walls are composite with structural steel elements, of confining reinforcement in the wall boundary
either as infill panels, such as reinforced concrete walls in member. Connection strength for the transfer of loads
structural steel frames with unencased or reinforced- between the coupling beam and the wall shall meet the
concrete¬encased structural steel sections that act as requirements of Section 538.
boundary members, or as structural steel coupling beams
2. Vertical wall reinforcement with nominal axial strength
that connect two adjacent reinforced concrete walls.
equal to the nominal shear strength of the coupling
Reinforced concrete walls shall meet the requirements of
beam shall be placed over the embedment length of the
ACI 318 excluding Chapter 21.
beam with two-thirds of the steel located over the first
half of the embedment length. This wall reinforcement
546.2 Boundary Members shall extend a distance of at least one tension
Boundary members shall meet the requirements of this development length above and below the flanges of the
Section: coupling beam. It is permitted to use vertical
1. When unencased structural steel sections function as reinforcement placed for other purposes, such as for
boundary members in reinforced concrete infill panels, vertical boundary members, as part of the required
the structural steel sections shall meet the requirements vertical reinforcement.
of the Specification. The required axial strength of the
boundary member shall be determined assuming that 546.4 Encased Composite Coupling Beams
the shear forces are carried by the reinforced concrete Encased composite sections serving as coupling beams shall
wall and the entire gravity and overturning forces are meet the requirements of Section 546.3 as modified in this
carried by the boundary members in conjunction with Section:
the shear wall. The reinforced concrete wall shall meet
1. Coupling beams shall have an embedment length into
the requirements of ACI 318 excluding Chapter 21.
the reinforced concrete wall that is sufficient to develop
2. When reinforced-concrete-encased shapes function as the maximum possible combination of moment and
boundary members in reinforced concrete infill panels, shear capacities of the encased composite steel
the analysis shall be based upon a transformed concrete coupling beam.
section using elastic material properties. The wall shall
2. The nominal shear capacity of the encased composite
meet the requirements of ACI 318 excluding Chapter
steel coupling beam shall be used to meet the
21. When the reinforced-concrete-encased structural
requirement in Section 546.3(1).
steel boundary member qualifies as a composite
column as defined in Specification Section509, it shall 3. The stiffness of the encased composite steel coupling
be designed to meet the ordinary seismic system beams shall be used for calculating the required
requirements of Section 537.4a. Otherwise, it shall be strength of the shear wall and coupling beam.
designed as a composite column to meet the
4.
requirements of ACI 318 Section 10.16 and Section
509 of the Specification.
3. Headed shear studs or welded reinforcement anchors
shall be provided to transfer vertical shear forces
between the structural steel and reinforced concrete.
Headed shear studs, if used, shall meet the
requirements of Specification Section509. Welded
reinforcement anchors, if used, shall meet the
requirements of AWS D1.4.

SECTION 547 - SPECIAL requirements for boundary members of ACI 318 Section
21.7.6.
REINFORCED CONCRETE SHEAR
WALLS COMPOSITE WITH 547.4 Encased Composite Coupling Beams
STRUCTURAL STEEL ELEMENTS Encased composite sections serving as coupling beams shall
meet the requirements of Section 546.3, except the
(C-SRCW) requirements of Part 2A Section 528.3 need not be met.
547.1 Scope
Special reinforced concrete shear walls composite with
structural steel elements (C-SRCW) systems shall meet the
requirements of Section 15 for C-ORCW and the shear-wall
requirement of ACI 318 including Chapter 21, except as
modified in this Section.
547.2 Boundary Members

In addition to the requirements of Section 547.2(1),
unencased structural steel columns shall meet the
requirements of Part 2A Sections 519 and 521.
In addition to the requirements of Section 15.2(2), the

requirements in this Section shall apply to walls with
reinforced-concrete-encased structural steel boundary
members. The wall shall meet the requirements of ACI 318
including Chapter 21. Reinforced-concrete-encased
structural steel boundary members that qualify as composite
columns in Specification Section 509 shall meet the special
seismic system requirements of Section 537.4. Otherwise,
such members shall be designed as composite compression
members to meet the requirements of ACI 318 Section
10.16 including the special seismic requirements for
boundary members in ACI 318 Section 21.7.6. Transverse
reinforcement for confinement of the composite boundary
member shall extend a distance of 2h into the wall, where h
is the overall depth of the boundary member in the plane of
the wall. Headed shear studs or welded reinforcing bar
anchors shall be provided as specified in Section 546.2(3).
For connection to unencased structural steel sections, the
nominal strength of welded reinforcing bar anchors shall be
reduced by 25 percent from their static yield strength.
547.3 Steel Coupling Beams

In addition to the requirements of Section 546.3, structural
steel coupling beams shall meet the requirements of Part 2A
Sections 528.2 and 528.3. When required in Part 2A Section
528.3, the coupling rotation shall be assumed as 0.08 radian
unless a smaller value is justified by rational analysis of the
inelastic deformations that are expected under the design
earthquake. Face bearing plates shall be provided on both
sides of the coupling beams at the face of the reinforced
concrete wall. These stiffeners shall meet the detailing
requirements of Part 2A Section 528.3.
Vertical wall reinforcement as specified in Section 528.3(2)

shall be confined by transverse reinforcement that meets the

SECTION 548 - COMPOSITE STEEL bolts to develop the nominal shear strength of the plate.
The design of welded and bolted connectors shall meet
PLATE SHEAR WALLS (C-SPW) the additional requirements of Part 2ASection 520.
Section 548.1 Scope 548.3 Boundary Members

This Section is applicable to structural walls consisting of Structural steel and composite boundary members shall be
steel plates with reinforced concrete encasement on one or designed to resist the shear capacity of plate and any
both sides of the plate and structural steel or composite reinforced concrete portions of the wall active at the design
boundary members. story drift. Composite and reinforced concrete boundary
members shall also meet the requirements of Section 547.2.
548.2 Wall Elements Steel boundary members shall also meet the requirements of
The available shear strength shall be φVns (LRFD) or Vns / Ω Part 2A, Section 530.
(ASD), as appropriate, according to the limit state of shear
yielding of composite steel plate shear walls (C-SPW) with 548.4 Openings
a stiffened plate conforming to Section 530.2(1) shall be Boundary members shall be provided around openings as
Vns = 0.6AspFy (Eq.548-1) required by analysis.
φ = 0.90 (LRFD) Ω = 1.67 (ASD)

Vns = nominal shear strength of the steel plate, N
Asp = horizontal area of stiffened steel plate, mm2.
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the plate,
MPa.
The available shear strength of C-SPW with a plate that

does not meet the stiffening requirements in Section
530.2(1) shall be based upon the strength of the plate,
excluding the strength of the reinforced concrete, and meet
the requirements of the Specification Sections 507.2 and
507.3.
1. The steel plate shall be adequately stiffened by

encasement or attachment to the reinforced concrete if
it can be demonstrated with an elastic plate buckling
analysis that the composite wall can resist a nominal
shear force equal to Vns . The concrete thickness shall
be a minimum of 100 mm on each side when concrete
is provided on both sides of the steel plate and 200 mm
when concrete is provided on one side of the steel plate.
Headed shear stud connectors or other mechanical
connectors shall be provided to prevent local buckling
and separation of the plate and reinforced concrete.
Horizontal and vertical reinforcement shall be provided
in the concrete encasement to meet or exceed the
detailing requirements in ACI 318 Section 14.3. The
reinforcement ratio in both directions shall not be less
than 0.0025; the maximum spacing between bars shall
not exceed 450 mm.
Seismic forces acting perpendicular to the plane of the wall

as specified by this code shall be considered in the design of
the composite wall system.
2. The steel plate shall be continuously connected on all

edges to structural steel framing and boundary
members with welds and/or slip-critical high-strength

SECTION 549 - STRUCTURAL SECTION 550 - QUALITY

DESIGN DRAWINGS AND ASSURANCE PLAN
SPECIFICATIONS, SHOP When required by this code or the engineer-of-record, a
DRAWINGS, AND ERECTION quality assurance plan shall be provided. For the steel
portion of the construction, the provisions of Part 2A,
DRAWINGS Section 531 apply.
Structural design drawings and specifications, shop User Note: For the reinforced concrete portion, the
drawings, and erection drawings for composite steel and provisions of ACI 121R¬98 (Quality Management Systems
steel building construction shall meet the requirements of for Concrete Construction), ACI 309.3R¬97 (Guide to
Part 2A Section 518. Consolidation of Concrete in Congested Areas and Difficult
Placing Conditions), ACI 311.1R-01 (ACI Manual of
For reinforced concrete and composite steel building Concrete Inspection) and ACI 311.4R-00 (Guide for
construction, the contract documents, shop drawings, and Concrete Inspection) may apply.
erection drawings shall also indicate the following:
1. Bar placement, cutoffs, lap and mechanical splices,
hooks and mechanical anchorages.
2. Tolerance for placement of ties and other transverse
reinforcement.
3. Provisions for dimensional changes resulting from
temperature changes, creep and shrinkage.
4. Location, magnitude, and sequencing of any
prestresssing or post-tensioning present.
5. If concrete floor slabs or slabs on grade serve as
diaphragms, connection details between the diaphragm
and the main lateral-load resisting system shall be
clearly identified.
User Note: For reinforced concrete and composite steel

building construction, the provisions of the following
documents may also apply: ACI 315-04 (Details and
Detailing of Concrete Reinforcement), ACI 315R-94
(Manual of Engineering and Placing Drawings for
Reinforced Concrete Structures), and ACI SP-66 (ACI
Detailing Manual), including modifications required by
Chapter 21 of ACI 318-02 and ACI 352 (Monolithic Joints
in Concrete Structures).

PART 3 - DESIGN OF COLD- bo Total flat width of edge stiffened element

bp Largest sub-element flat width
FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL b1,b2 Effective widths
MEMBERS b1,b2 Effective widths of bearing stiffeners
C For compression members, ratio of total corner

SYMBOLS cross-sectional area to total cross-sectional area of
full section; for flexural members, ratio of total
corner cross-sectional area of controlling flange to
A Full unreduced cross-sectional area of member full cross-sectional area of controlling flange
C Coefficient
A Area of directly connected elements or gross area C Bearing factor
Ab b1t + As, for bearing stiffener at interior support Cb Bending coefficient dependent on moment gradient
and or under concentrated load, and b2t + Asr for Cf Constant from Table 557.1
bearing stiffeners at end support Ch Web slenderness coefficient
Ab Gross cross-sectional area of bolt Cm End moment coefficient in interaction formula
Ac 18t2 + As1, for bearing stiffener at interior support Cmx End moment coefficient in interaction formula
2
or under concentrated load, and 10t + As1, for Cmy End moment coefficient in interaction formula
bearing stiffeners at end support CN Bearing length coefficient
Ae Effective area at stress Fn Cp Correction factor
CR Inside bend radius coefficient
Ae Effective net area Cs Coefficient for lateral-torsional buckling
Af Cross-sectional area of compression flange plus CTF End moment coefficient in interaction formula
edge stiffener Cv Shear stiffener coefficient
Ag Gross area of element including stiffeners Cw Torsional warping constant of cross-section
Ag Gross area of section Cwf Torsional warping constant of flange
Cy Compression strain factor
Agv Gross area subject to shear C1,C2, Axial buckling coefficients
Ant Net area subject to tension C3
Anv Net area subject to shear C1 to Coefficients tabulated in Tables 554-3 to 554-5
An Net area of cross-section C6
Ad Reduced area due to local buckling Cϕ Calibration coefficient
Ap Gross-sectional area of roof panel per unit width
As Cross-sectional area of bearing stiffener c Strip of flat width adjacent to hole
As Gross area of stiffener c Distance
Ast Gross area of shear stiffener cf Amount of curling displacement
At Net tensile area ci Horizontal distance from edge of element to
Aw Area of web centerline of stiffener
Awn Net web area D Outside diameter of cylindrical tube
a Shear panel length of unreinforced web element, or D Overall depth of lip
distance between shear stiffeners of reinforced web
elements D Shear stiffener coefficient
a Internediate fastener or spot weld spacing D Dead load
a Fastener distance from or outside web edge D2,D3 Lip dimension
a Length of bracing interval
d Depth of section
Bc Term for determining tensile yield point of corners
d Nominal screw diameter
b Effective design width of compression element
b Flange width d Flat depth of lip defined in Figure 552-9
bd Effective width for deflection calculation d Width of arc seam weld
be Effective width of elements, located at centroid of d Visible diameter of outer surface of arc spot weld
element including stiffeners
be Effective width d Diameter of bolt
be Effective width determined either by section 552.4 da Average diameter of arc spot weld at mid-
or Section 552.5.1 depending on stiffness of stiffeners thickness of t
bo Total flat width of stiffened element

da Average width of seam weld Fsy Yield stress as specified in Section 551.2.1,
db Nominal diameter (body or shank diameter) 551.2.2, 551.2.3
de Effective diameter of fused area Ft Nominal tensile stress in flat sheet
de Effective width of arc seam weld at fused surfaces Fu Tensile strength as specified in Section 551.1.1,
dh Diameter of hole 551.2.2, or 551.2.3.
dh Depth of hole
dh Diameter of standard hole Fuv Tensile strength of virgin steel specified by Section
dpi,j Distance along roof slope between the ith purlin 551.2 or established in accordance with Section
line and the jth anchorage device 556.3.3
ds Reduced effective width of stiffener Fwy Lower value of Fy for beam web or Fys for bearing
ds Depth of stiffener stiffeners
d’s Effective width of stiffener calculated according to Fxx Tensile strength of electrode classification
Section 552.3
dwx Screw head or washer diameter Fu1 Tensile strength of members in contact with screw
dw Larger value of screw head or washer diameter head
Fu2 Tensile strength of member not in contact with
E Modulus of elasticity of steel, 203,000 Mpa, or screw head
2,070,000 kg/cm2 Fv Nominal shear stress
Fy Yield stress used for design, not to exceed
E Live load due to earthquake specified yield stress or stablished in accordance
Twist of stud from initial, ideal, unbuckled shape with Section 556, or as increased for cold work of
E* Reduced modulus of elasticity for flexural and formatting in Section 551.7.2 or as reduced for low
axial stiffness in second-order analysis ductility steels in Section.
e Distance measured in line of force from center of a Fya Average yield stress of section
standard hole to nearest edge of an adjacent hole or Fyc Tensile yield stress of corners
to end of connected part toward which the force is Fyf Weighted average tensile yield stress of flat
directed portions
e Distance measured in line of force from center of a Fys Yield stress of stiffener steel
standard hole to nearest end of connected part Fyv Tensile yield stress of virgin steel specified by
emin Minimum allowable distance measured in line of Section 551.2 or established in accordance with
force from centerline of a weld to nearest edge of Section 556.3.3
an adjacent weld or to end of connected part
toward which the force is directed f Stress in compression element computed on basis
of effective design width
esx,esy Eccentricities of load components measured from fav Average computed stress in full unreduced flange
the shear center and in the x and y directions, width
respectively fc Stress at service load in cover plate or sheet
ey Yield strain = Fy/E fbending Normal stress due to bending alone at the
maximum normal on the cross section
F Fabrication factor due to combined bending and torsion
FSR Design stress range Ftorsion Normal stress due to torsion alone at the
FTH Threshold fatigue stress range maximum normal stress on the cross
Fc Critical buckling stress section due to combined bending and
Fcr Plate elastic buckling stress torsion.
Fd Elastic distortional buckling stress fd Computed compressive stress in element
Fe Elastic distortional buckling stress being considered. Calculations are based
Fe Elastic buckling stress on effective section at load for which
serviceability is determined.
Fm Mean value of fabrication factor Fd1,fd2 Computed stresses f1 and f2 in unstiffened
Fn Nominal buckling stress element, as defined in Figures 552-5 to
Fn Nominal strength of bolts 552.8. Calculations are based on
Fnt Nominal tensile strength of bolts effective section at load for which
Fnv Nominal shear strength of bolts serviceability is determined.
F’nt Nominal tensile strength for bolts subject to fv Required shear stress on a bolt
combination of shear and tension f1,f2 Stresses on unstiffened element defined

by Figures 552-6 to 552-8 of section about centroidal axis of entire

f1,f2 Stresses at the opposite ends of web section parallel to web using unreduced
section
G Shear modulus of steel, Iyf y-axis moment of inertia of flange
78,000 Mpa or 795,000 kg/cm2
i Index of stiffener
g Vertical distance between two rows of i Index of each purlin line
connections nearest to top and bottom
flanges J Saint-Venant torsion constant
g Transverse center-to-center spacing Jf Saint-Venant torsion constant of
between fastener gage lines compression flang plus edge stiffener
g Gauge, spacing of fastener perpendicular about an x-y axis located at the centroid
to force of the flange
H A permanent load due to lateral earth j Section property for torsional-flexural

pressure, including groundwater buckling
j Index for each anchorage device
h Depth of flat portion of web measured
along plane of web K Effective length factor
K’ A constant
h Width of elements adjoining stiffened Ka Lateral stiffness of anchorage device
element Kaf Parameter for determining axial strength
h Lip height as defined in Figures 555-15 to of Z-Section member having one flange
555-18 fastened to sheating
ho Overall depth of unstiffened C-section Keffi,j Effective lateral stiffness of jth anchorage
member as defined in Figure 552-8 device with respect to ith purlin
hs Depth of soil supported by the structure Kreq Required stiffness
hwc Coped flat web depth Ksys Lateral stiffness of roof system,
hx x distance from the centroid of flange to neglecting anchorage devices
the flange / web junction Kt Effective length factor for torsion
Ktotali Effective lateral stiffness of all elements
IE Importance factor for earthquake resisting force
Kx Effective length factor for buckling about
IW Importance factor for wind x-axis
Ia Adequate moment of inertial of stiffener, Ky Effective length factor for buckling about
so that each component element will y-axis
behave as a stiffened element k Plate buckling coefficient
Ieff Effective moment of inertia Kd Plate buckling coefficient for distortional buckling
Ig Gross moment of inertia
Is Actual moment of inertia of full stiffener Kloc Plate buckling coefficient for local sub-element
about its own centroidal axis parallel to buckling
element to be stiffened Kv Shear buckling coefficient
Ismin Minimum moment of inertia of shear Kϕ Rotational stiffness
stiffener(s) with respect to an axis in plane kϕfe Elastic rotational stiffness provided by the flange
of web to the flange/web juncture
Isp Moment of inertia of stiffener about k Geometric rotational stiffness demanded by the
fg
centerline of flat portion of element
Ix,Iy Moment of inertia of full unreduced flange from the flange /web juncture
section about principal axis kϕwe Elastic rotational stiffness provided by the web to
Ixf x-axis moment of inertia of the flange the flange/web juncture
Ixy Product of inertia of full unreduced k wg Geometric rotational stiffness demanded by the
section about major and minor centroidal web from the flange/web juncture
axes
Ixyf Product of inertia of flange about major L Full span for simple beams, distance between
and minor centroidal axes inflection point for continous beams, twice
Iyc Moment of inertia of compression portion member length for cantilever beams

L Span length Mnl Nominal flexural strength for local buckling

L Length of weld Mnx, Nominal flexural strengths about Section 553
L Length of longitudinal welds Mnxo, Nominal flexural strengths [resistance] about
L Length of seam weld not including circular ends Mnyo Centroidal axes determined in accordance with
L Length of connection Section 553.1 excluding provisions of Section
L Unbraced length of member 553.1.1.b
L Overall length Mnxt, Nominal flexural strength about centroidal axes
L Live load Mnyt determined using gross, unreduced cross-section
L Minimum of Lcr and Lm properties
Lb Distance between braces on one compression
member Mx, Required allowable flexural strength with respect
Lbr Unsupported length between brace points or other to centroidal axes for ASD
restraints which restrict distortional buckling of My
element
Lc Summation of critical path lengths of each segment Mu Required flexural strength with respect to
Lcr Critical unbraced length of distortional buckling Muy Centroidal axes for LRFD
Lgv Gross failure path length parallel to force My moment causing maximum strain ey
Lh Length of hole My Yield moment (= SfFy)
Lm Distance between discrete restraints that restrict M1 Smaller end moment in an unbraced segment
distortional buckling M2 Larger and moment in an unbraced segment
Lnv Net failure path length parallel to force M Required flexural strength
Lo Overhang length measured from the edge of Mx Required flexural strength
bearing to the end of member
Ls Net failure path length inclined to force My
Lst Length of bearing stiffener Mz Torsional moment of required load P about shear
Lt Unbraced length of compression member for center
torsion
Lt Net failure path length normal to force due to m Degrees of freedom
direct tension m Term fro determining tensile yield point of corners
Lu Limit of unbraced length below which lateral- m Distance from shear center of one C-section to
torsional buckling is not considered mid-plane of web.
Lx Unbraced length of compression member for mf Modification factor for type of bearing connection
bending about x-axis
Ly Unbraced length of compression member for N Actual length of bearing
bending about y-axis N Number of stress range fluctuations in design life
Lo Length at which local buckling stress equals Na Number of anchorage devices along a line of
flexural buckling stress anchorage
l Dsitance from concentrated load to a brace Ni Notional lateral load applied at level i
Np Number of purlin lines on roof slope
M Required allowable flexural strength, ASD n Coefficient
M Bending moment n Number of stiffeners
Mcrd Distortional buckling moment n Number of holes
Mcre Overall buckling moment n Number of tests
Mcrl Local buckling moment n Number of equally spaced intermediate brace
Md Nominal moment with consideration of deflection locations
Mf Factored moment n Number of anchors in test assembly with same
Mfx, Moments due to factored loads with respect to tributary area (for anchor failure), or number of
Mfy centroidal axes panels with identical spans and loeading to failed
Mm Mean value of material factor span (for non-anchord failure)
Mmax, Absolute value of moments in unbraced segment, n Number of threads per inch
MA,MB, used for determining Cb nb Number of bolt holes
MC nc Number of compression flange stiffeners
Mn Nominal flexural strength nw Number of web stiffeners and/or folds
nt Number of tension flange stiffeners
Mnd Nominal flexural strength for distortional buckling
Mne Nominal flexural strength for overall buckling P Required allowable strength for concentrated load

reaction in presence of bending moment for ASD Pwc Nominal web crippling strength for C-
P Required allowable strength (nominal force) Section flexural member
transmitted by weld for ASD Px Py Components of required load P parallel to x and y
P Required allowable compressive axial strength for axis, respectively
ASD Py Member yield strength
P Professional factor
P Required concentrated loead within a distance of P Required strength for concentrated load or
0.3a on each side of a brace, plus 1.4 (1-l/a) times reaction concentrated load reaction due to
each required concentrated load located farther factored loads in presence of bending moment
than 0.3a but not farther than 1.0a from the brace P Required compressive axial strength
P Required nominal brace strength for a single p Pitch (mm per thread for SI units and cm per
compression member thread for MKS units)
PEx ' Elastic buckling strengths
Q Required allowable shear strength of connection
PE y
Q Required shear strength ofconnection
PL1, PL2 Lateral bracing forces
PLj Lateral force to be resisted by the jth anchorage Qi Load effect
device q Design loead in plane of web
Pcrd Distortional buckling load qs Reduction factor
Pcrl Local buckling load
Pf Axial force due to factored loads R Required allowable strength for ASD
Pf Concentrated load or reaction due to factored loads R Modification factor
Pi Lateral force introduced into the system at the ith R Reduction factor
purlin R Reduction factor
Pm Mean value of the tested-to-predicted load ratios R Reduction factor determined from uplift tests in
Pn Nominal web crippling strength accordance with AISI S908
Pn Nominal axial strength of member R Coefficient
Pn Nominal axial strength of bearing stiffener R Inside bend radius
Pn Nominal strength of connection component R Radius of outside bend surface
Pn Nominal bearing strength RI Is / Ia
Pn Nominal tensile strength of welded member Ra Allowable design strength
Pn Nominal bolt strength Rb Reduction factor
Pnc Nominal web crippling strength of C- or Z-Section Rc Reduction factor
with overhang(s) Rf effect of factored loads
Pnd Nominal axial strength for distortional buckling Rn Nominal strength
Pne Nominal axial strength for overall buckling Rn Nominal block shear rupture strength
Pnl Nominal axial strength for local buckling Rn Average value of all test results
Pno Nominal axial strength of member determined in Rr Reduction factor
accordance with Section 553.3.4 with Fn=Fy Ru Required strength for LRFD
Pnot Nominal pull-out strength per screw r Correction factor
Pnov Nominal pull-over strength per screw r Least radius of gyration of full unreduced cross-
Pns Nominal shear strength per screw section Centerline bend radius
Pnt Nominal tension strength per screw ri Minimum radius of gyration of full unreduced
Pr Required axial compressive strength cross-section
Ps Concentrated load or reaction ro Polar radius of gyration of cross-section about
Pss Nominal shear strength of screw as reported by shear center
manufacturer or determined by independent rx ry Radius of gyration of cross-section about
laboratory testing centroidal principal axis
Pts Nominal tension strength [resistance] of screw as
reported by manufacturer or determined by S 1.28 E f
independent laboratory testing S Variable load due to snow, including ice and
Pu Required axial strength for LRFD associated rain or rain
Pu Factored force transmitted by weld, for Sc Elastic section modulus of effective section
LRFD calculated relastive to extreme compression fiber at
Pu Required strength for concentrated load reaction Fc
in presence of bending moment for LRFD Se Elastic section modulus of effective section

calculated relative to extreme compression or VQ Coefficient of variation of load effect

tension fiber at Fy Vu Required shear strength for LRFD
Sf Elastic section section modulus of full unreduced Vu Required shear strength of connection for LRFD
section relative to extreme compression fiber
Sfy Elastics section modulus of full unreduced section V Required shear strength
relative to extreme fiber in first yield
Sn In-plane diaphragm nominal shear strength W Wind load, a variable load due to wind
s Center-to-center hole spacing W Required strength from critical load combinations
s Spacing in line of stress of welds, rivets, or bolts for ASD, LRFD, or LSD
connecting a compression cover plate or sheet to a Wpi Total required vertical load supported by ith purlin
non-integral stiffener or other element in a single bay
s Sheet width divided by number of bolt holes in Wx, Wy Components of required strength W
cross-section being analyzed w Flat width of element exclusive of radii
s Weld spacing w Flat width of beam flange which contacts bearing
s Pitch, spacing of fastener parallel to force plate
s’ Longitudinal center-to-center spacing of any w Flat width of narrowest unstiffened compression
consecutive holes element tributary to connections
send Clear distance from the hole at ends of member wf Width of flange projection beyond web for I-
Smax Maximum permissible longitudinal spacing of beams and similar sections; or half distance
welds or other connectors joining two C-sections between webs for box-or U-type sections
to form an I-section wi Required distributed gravity load supported by the
ith purlin per unit length
T Required allowable tensile axial strength for ASD wo Out-to-out width
T Required allowable tension strength of connection w1 Leg of weld
T Load due to contraction or expansion caused by w2 Leg of weld
temperature changes x Non-dimensional fastener location
Tn Nominal tensile strength x Nearest distance between web hole and edge of
Ts Design strength connection in tension bearing
Tu Required tensile axial strength for LRFD xo Distance from shear center to centroid along
Tu Required tension strength of connection for LRFD principal x-axis
xo Distance from centroid of flange to shear center of
T Required tensile axial strength
flange
T Required tension strength of connection Distance from shear plane to centroid of cross-
x
t Base stell thickness of any element or section
section
t Thickness of coped web
t Total thickness of two welded sheets
Y Yield point of web steel divided by yield point of
t Thickness of thinnest connected part
stiffener steel
tc Lesser of depth of penetration and t2
Yi Gravity load from the LRFD or 1.6 times the ASD
te Effective throat dimension of groove weld
load combinations applied at level i
ti Thickness of incompressed glass fiber blanket
yo y distance from centroid of flange to shear center
insulation
of flange
ts Thickness of stiffener
tw effective throat of weld
a Coefficient for purlin directions
t1 , t2 Based thickness connected with fillet weld
a Coefficient for conversion of units
t1 Thickness of member in contact with screw head
a Load factor
t2 Thickness of member not in contact with screw
a Coefficient for strength increase due to
head
overhang
U Reduction coefficient
a Coefficient accounts for the benefit of an unbraced
length, Lm, shorter than Lcr
V Required allowable strength for ASD
VF Coefficient of variation of fabrication factor
l / ax Magnification factors
Vf Shear force due to factored loads for LSD
l / ay
Vf factored shear force of connection for LSD
VM Coefficient of variation of material factor
ß Coefficient
Vn Nominal shear strength
ß A value accounting for moment gradient
Vp Coefficient of variation of tested-to-predicted load
ßbr,1 Required brace stiffness for a single compression
ratios
member

ßo Target reliability index DEFINITIONS

Δtf Lateral displacement of purlin top flange at the line
restraint General Terms
δ, δi Coefficient
ϒ, ϒi APPLICABLE BUILDING CODE. Building Code under
ω, ωi which the structure is designed (i.e NSCP 6th Edition).
ξweb Stress gradient in web
ϒi Load factor BEARING. In a connection, the ultimate shear forces
θ Angle between web and bearing surface > 45° but transmitted by the mechanical fastener to the connection
no more than 90° elements.
θ Angle between vertical and plane of web of Z-
section, degrees BEARING (LOCAL COMPRESSIVE YIELDING).
θ2, θ3 Angle of segment of complex lip Local compressive yielding due to the action of a member
bearing against another member or surface.
λ, λc Slenderness factors
λ1, λ2, Parameters used in determining compression strain BLOCK SHEAR RUPTURE. In a connection, tension
λ3, λ4 Factor ruptures along one path and shears yielding or shear rupture
Slenderness factor along another path.
λd Slenderness factor
BRACED FRAME. Essentially vertical truss system that
μ Poisson’s ration for steel=0.30 provides resistance to lateral loads and provides stability for
Reduction factor the structural system.
σex (π2E) / (KxLx / rx)2
(π2E) / (Lx / rx)2 BUCKLING. Sudden change in the geometry of a structure
σey (π2E) / (KyLy / ry)2 or any of its elements under critical loading condition.
(π2E) / (L / ry)2
σt Torsional buckling stress BUCKLING STRENGTH. Nominal strength for
instability limits states.
ϕ Reistance factor
ϕb Resistance factor bending COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBER.
ϕc Resistance factor for concentrically loaded Shape manufactured by press-braking blanks sheared from
compression strength sheets, cut lengths of coils or plates, or by roll forming cold-
ϕd Resistance factor for diaphragms or- hot rolled coils or sheets; both forming operations being
ϕt Resistance factor for tensile strength performed at ambient room temperature, that is, without
ϕu Resistance factor for fracture on net section manifest addition of heat such as would be required for hot
ϕv Resistance factor for shear strength forming.
ϕw Resistance factor for web crippling strength
CONFIRMATORY TEST. Test made, when desired, on
ψ | f2/f1| members, connections, and assemblies designed in
accordance with the provisions of Section 551 through
Parameter for reduced stiffness using second-order Section 557, Appendices 1 and 2, and Section C-3 of this
analysis Specification or its specific references, in order to compare
actual to calculated performance.
Ω Safety factor
Ωb Safety factof for bending strength CONNECTION. Combination of structural elements and
Ωc Safety factor for concentrically loaded joints used to transmit forces between two or more
compression strength members.
Ωd Safety factor for diaphragms
Ωt Safety factor for tension strength CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA: EFFECTIVE AREA.
Ωv Safety factor for shear strength Effective area, Ae, calculated using the effective widths of
Ωw Safety factor for web crippling strength component elements in accordance with Section 552. If the
effective widths of all component elements, determined in
accordance with Section 552, are equal to the actual flat
widths, it equals the gross or net area, as applicable.
FULL, UNREDUCED AREA. Full, unreduced area, A,

calculated without considering local buckling in the FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING. Buckling

component elements, which equals either the gross area or mode in which a compression member bends and twists
net area, as applicable. simultaneously without change in cross- sectional shape.
Gross Area. Gross area, Ag, without deductions for holes, GIRT. Horizontal structural member that supports wall
openings and cutouts. panels and is primarily subjected to bending under
horizontal loads, such as wind load.
NET AREA. Net area, An, equal to gross area less the area
of holes, openings, and cutouts. IN-PLANE INSTABILITY. Buckling involving in the
plane of the frame or the member.
CURTAIN WALL STUD. A member in the steel framed
exterior wall system that transfers transverse (out-of-plane) INSTABILITY. Ultimate loading of a structural
loads and is limited to a superimposed axial load, exclusive component, frame, or structure in which a slight disturbance
of sheathing materials , of not more than 1460 N/m, or in the loads or geometry produces large displacements.
superimposed axial load of not more that 890 N per stud.
JOINT. Area where two or more ends, surfaces, or edges
DIAPHRAGM. Roof, floor, or other membrane or bracing are attached. Categorized by type of fastener or weld used
system that transfers in -plane forces to the lateral force and the method of force transfer.
resisting system.
LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING. Buckling mode
DIRECT STRENGTH METHOD. An alternative design of a flexural member involving deflection out of the plane
method detailed in Section C-1 that provides predictions of of bending occurring simultaneously with twist about the
member strengths without the use of effective widths. shear center of the cross –section.
DISTORTIONAL BUCKLING. A mode of buckling LOAD. Force or other action that results from the weight of
involving change in cross-sectional shape, excluding local building materials, occupants and their possessions,
buckling. environmental effects, differential movement, or restrained
dimensional changes.
DOUBLY-SYMMETRIC SECTION. A section
symmetric about two orthogonal axes through its centroid. LOAD EFFECT. Forces, stresses, and deformations
produced in a structural component by applied loads.
EFFECTIVE DESIGN WIDTH (EFFECTIVE
WIDTH). Flat width of an element reduced for design Load Factor. Factor that accounts for deviation of the
purposes, also known simply as the effective width. nominal load from the actual load, for uncertainties in the
analysis that transforms the load into a load effect and for
FACTORED LOAD. Product of a load factor and the the probability that more than one extreme load will occur
nominal load. simultaneously.
FATIGUE. Crack initiation and growth resulting from LOCAL BENDING. Ultimate state of large deformation
repeated application of live loads. of a flange under a concentrated transverse force.
FLANGE OF A SECTION IN BENDING (FLANGE). LOCAL BUCKLING. Buckling of a compression element

Flat width of flange including any intermediate stiffeners where the line junctions between elements remain straight
plus adjoining corners. and angles between elements do not change.
FLAT WIDTH. Width of an element exclusive of corners LOCAL YIELDING. Yielding that occurs in a local area
measured along its plane. of an element.
FLAT-WIDTH-TO THICKNESS RATIO (FLAT MASTER COIL. One continuous, weld-free coil as
WIDTH RATIO) . Flat width of an element measured produced by a hot mill, cold mill, metallic coating line or
along its plane, divided by its thickness. paint line and identifiable by a unique coil number. In some
cases, this coil is cut into smaller coils or slit into narrower
FLEXURAL BUCKLING. Buckling mode in which a coils; however, all of these smaller and /or narrower
compression members deflects laterally without a twist or finished coils are said to have come from the same master
change in cross-sectional shape. coil if they are traceable to the original master coil number.

MOMENT FRAME. Framing system that provides RESISTANCE FACTOR, ϕ. Factor that accounts for
resistance to lateral loads and provides stability to the unavoidable deviations of the nominal strength from the
structural system primarily by shear and flexure of the actual strength and for the manner and consequences of
framing members and their connections. failure.
MULTIPLE-STIFFENED ELEMENT. Element stiffened RUPTURE STRENGTH. Strength limited by breaking or

between webs, or between a web and a stiffened edge, by tearing of members or connecting elements.
means of intermediate stiffeners parallel to the direction of
stress. SECOND-ORDER ANALYSIS. Structural analysis in
which equilibrium conditions are formulated on the
NOTIONAL LOAD. Virtual load applied in a structural deformed structure; second-order effects (both P-δ and P-∆,
analysis to account for destabilizing effects that are not unless specified otherwise) are included.
otherwise accounted for in the design provisions.
SECOND-ORDER EFFECT. Effect of loads acting on the
OUT-OF–PLANE BUCKLING. Ultimate state of a beam, deformed configuration of a structure; includes P-δ effect
column or beam-column involving lateral or lateral- and P-∆ effect.
torsional buckling.
SHEAR BUCKLING. Buckling mode in which a plate
PERFORMANCE TEST. Test made on structural element, such as the web of a beam, deforms under pure
members, connections, and assemblies whose performance shear applied in the plane of the plate.
cannot be determined in accordance with Section 551 to
Section 557 of this specification or its specific references. SHEAR WALL. Wall that provides resistance to lateral
loads in the plane of the wall and provides stability for the
PERMANENT LOAD. Load in which variations over time structural system.
are rare or of small magnitude. All other loads are variable
loads. SINGLY-SYMMETRIC SECTION. Section symmetric
about only one axis through its centroid.
POINT-SYMMETRIC SECTION. Section symmetrical
about a point (centroid) such as a Z-section having equal SPECIFIED MINIMUM YIELD STRESSES. Lower
flanges. limit of yield stresses specified for a material as defined as
ASTM.
PUBLISHED SPECIFICATION. Requirements for a steel
listed by a manufacturer, processor, producer, purchaser, or STIFFENED OR PARTIALLY STIFFENED
other body, which (1) are generally available in the public COMPRESSION ELEMENTS. Flat compression
domain or are available to the public upon request, (2) are elements (i.e., a plane compression flange of a flexural
established before the steel is ordered, and (3) as a member or a plane web or flange of compression member)
minimum, specify minimum mechanical properties, of which both edges parallel to the direction of stresses are
chemical composition limits, and, if coated sheet, coating stiffened either by a web, flange, stiffening lip, intermediate
properties. stiffener, or the like.
PURLIN. Horizontal structural member that supports roof SS (STRUCTURAL STEEL). ASTM designation for
deck and is primarily subjected to bending under vertical certain steels intended for structural applications.
loads such as live, wind, or dead loads.
Stress. Stress as used in this Specification means force per
P-∆ EFFECT. Effect of loads acting on the deflected shape unit area.
of a member between joints or nodes.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS. Determination of load
P-∆ EFFECT. Effect of loads acting on the displaced effects on members and connections based on principles of
location of joints or nodes in a structure. In tiered building structural mechanics.
structures, this is the effect of loads acting on the laterally
displaced location of floors and roofs. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS. See the definition of Cold-
Formed Structural Steel Structural Members
RATIONAL ENGINEERING ANALYSIS. Analysis
based on theory that is appropriate for the situation, any STRUCTURAL COMPONENT. Member, connector,
relevant test data, if available, and sound engineering connecting element, or assemblage.
judgment.

SUB-ELEMENT OF A MULTIPLE STIFFENED YIELD STRESS. Generic term to denote either yield
ELEMENT. Portion of a multiple stiffened element strength, as appropriate for the material.
between adjacent intermediate stiffeners, between web and
intermediate stiffener , or between edge and intermediate YIELDING. Limit state of inelastic deformation that
stiffener . occurs when the yield stress is reached.
TENSILE STRENGTH (OF MATERIAL). Maximum YIELDING (PLASTIC MOMENT). Yielding throughout
tensile stress that a material is capable of sustaining as the cross section of a member as the bending moment
defined by ASTM. reaches the plastic moment.
TENSION AND SHEAR RUPTURE. In a bolt or other YIELDING (YIELD MOMENT). Yielding at the extreme
type of a mechanical fastener , limit state of rupture due to fiber on the cross section of a member when the bending
simultaneous tension and shear force. moment reaches the yield moment.
THICKNESS. The thickness, t. of any element or section ASD and LRFD Terms
is the base steel thickness, exclusive of coatings.
ASD (ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN). Method of
TORSIONAL BUCKLING. Buckling mode which a proportioning structural components such as that the
compression member twists about its shear center axis. allowable strength equals or exceeds the required strength
of the component under the action of the ASD load
UNSTIFFENED COMPRESSION ELEMENTS. Flat combinations.
compression element stiffened at only one edge parallel to
the direction of stress. ASD LOAD COMBINATION. Load combination in the
applicable building code intended for allowable strength
UNSYMMETRIC SECTION. Section not symmetric design (allowable stress design).
either about an axis or a point. Allowable Strength. Nominal Strength divided by the
safety factor, Rn/Ω.
VARIABLE LOAD. Load not classified as permanent
load. AVAILABLE STRENGTH. Design Strength or allowable
strength as appropriate.
VIRGIN STEEL. Steel as received from the steel producer
or warehouse before being cold worked as a result of DESIGN LOAD. Applied load determined in accordance
fabricating operations. with either LRFD load combinations or ASD load
combinations whichever is applicable.
VIRGIN STEEL PROPERTIES. Mechanical properties
of virgin steel such as yield stress, tensile strength, and DESIGN STRENGTH. Resistance factor multiplied by
elongation. the nominal strength , ϕRn.
WEB. In a member subjected to flexure, the portion of the LRFD (LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR
section that is joined to two flanges, or that is joined to only DESIGN). Method of proportioning structural components
one flange provided it crosses the neutral axis. such that the design strength equals or exceeds the required
strength of the component under the action of the LRFD
WEB CRIPPLING. Local failure of web plate in the load combinations.
immediate vicinity of a concentrated load or reaction.
LRFD LOAD COMBINATION. Load combination in the
YIELD MOMENT. In a member subjected to bending, the applicable building code intended for strength design (Load
moment at which the extreme outer fiber first attains the and Resistance Factor Design).
yield stress.
NOMINAL LOAD. The magnitudes of the loads specified
YIELD POINT. First stress in a material at which an by the applicable building code.
increase in strain occurs without an increase in stress as
defined by ASTM. NOMINAL STRENGTH. Strength of a structure or
component (without the resistance factor or safety factor
YIELD STRENGTH. Stress at which a materials exhibits applied) to resist the load effects, as determined in
a specified limiting deviation from the proportionality of accordance with this Specification.
stress to strain as defined by ASTM.

REQUIRED STRENGTH. Forces, stresses, and SECTION 551 - GENERAL

deformations acting on a structural component, determined
by either structural analysis, for the LRFD or ASD load PROVISIONS
combinations , as appropriate , or as specified by this
Specification. This section states the scope of the Specification,
summarizes referenced specification, code, and standard
RESISTANCE. See the definition of Nominal Strength. documents, and provides requirements for materials and
contract documents.
SAFETY FACTOR, Ω. Factor that accounts for
deviations of the actual strength , deviations of the actual The section is organized as follows:
loads from the nominal loads, uncertainties in the analysis
that transforms the load into a load effect , and for the 551 General Provision
manner and consequences of failure. 552 Elements
553 Members
SERVICE LOAD. Load under which serviceability limit 554 Structural Assemblies and Systems
states are evaluated. 555 Connections and Joints
556 Test for Special Cases
STRENGTH LIMIT STATE. Limiting condition, in 557 Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural members
which the maximum strength of a structure or its and Connections for Cyclic Loading (Fatigue)
components is reached.
551.1 Scope, Applicability and Definitions
551.1.1 Scope
This specification applies to the design of structural
members cold-formed to shape from carbon or low-alloy
steel sheet, strip, plate, or bar not more than 25 mm in
thickness and used for load-carrying purposes in
1. Buildings; and
2. Structures other than buildings provided allowances are
made for dynamic effects.
551.1.2 Applicability
This Specification includes Symbols and Definitions,
Section 551 through Section 557, Section C-1, to Section C-
3 that shall apply as follows:
Section C-1 Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural

Members Using Direct Design Strength
Method
Section C-2 Second-Order analysis.
Section C-3 Additional Provisions
This Specification includes design provisions for
1. Allowable Strength Design (ASD), and

2. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD).
The nominal strength and stiffness of cold-formed steel

elements, members, assemblies, connections, and details
shall be determined in accordance with the provisions in
Section 552 to Section 557, Section C-1 to Section C-3 of
the Specification.
Where the composition or configuration of such

components is such that calculation of strength and/or ASTM A572/A572M, Standard Specification for High-
stiffness cannot be made in accordance with those Strength Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium Structural Steel
provisions, structural performance shall be established from
either of the following: ASTM A588/A588M, Standard Specification for High-
Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel with 345 MPa
1. Available strength or stiffness by tests, undertaken and
Minimum Yield Point to 100mm thick
evaluated in accordance with Section 556,
2. Available strength or stiffness by rational engineering ASTM A606, Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet and
analysis based on appropriate theory, related testing if Strip, High-Strength, Low- Alloy, Hot-Rolled and Cold-
data is available, and engineering judgment. Rolled, with Improved Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance
Specifically, the available strength is determined from
the calculated nominal strength by applying the ASTM A 653M/A653M (SS 230 MPa, 25 MPa, 275 MPa,
following safety factors or resistance factors: 340 MPa Class 1, Class 3 and Class 4, and 380 MPa;
For Members HSLAS and HSLAS-F, 275 MPa, 340 MPa, 380 MPa Class
1 and 2, 410 MPa , & 480 MPa and 550 MPa , Standard
Ω = 2.00 (ASD) ϕ = 0.80 (LRFD) Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) or
Zinc –Iron Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip
For Connections
Process
Ω = 2.50 (ASD) ϕ = 0.65 (LRFD)
ASTM A792/A792M. (230 MPa, 255 MPa, 275 MPa, and
551.1.3 Definitions 340 MPa Class 1 and Class 4), Standard Specification for
In this Specification, “shall” is used to express a mandatory Steel Sheet, 55% Aluminum-Zinc Alloy-Coated by the Hot-
requirement, i.e., a provisions that the user is obliged to Dip Process.
satisfy in order to comply with the Specification; and “shall
be permitted “ is used it express an option or that which is ASTM A847/A847M, Standard Specification for Cold-
permissible within the limits of the Specification. Formed Welded and Seamless High Strength, Low Alloy
Structural Tubing with Improved Atmospheric Corrosion
551.1.4 Units of Symbols and Terms Resistance
The unit systems considered in those sections is SI units.
ASTM A875/A875M (SS 230 MPa, 255 MPa, 275 MPa,
and 340 MPa Class 1 and 3; HSLAS and HSLAS-F, 340
551.2 Material
MPa, 410 MPa, 480 MPa, and 550 MPa), Standard
Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-5% Aluminum Alloy-
551.2.1 Applicable Steels Coated by the Hot –Dip Process
This Specification requires the use of steels intended for
structural applications as defined in general by the ASTM A1003/A1003M (ST 340 MPa H, 275 MPa H, 255
specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials MPa H, 230 MPa H), Standard Specification for Steel
listed in this section. The term SS shall designate sheet Sheet, Carbon, Metallic- and Nonmetallic-Coated for Cold-
material and the terms HSLAS and HSLAS-F shall Formed Framing Members
designate high- strength low-alloy steels.
ASTM A1008/A1008M (SS 170 MPa, 205 MPa, 230 MPa
ASTM A36/A36M, Standard Specification for Carbon Types 1 and 2, and 275 MPa Types 1 and 2; HSLAS
Structural Steel Classes 1 and 2, 310 MPa, 340 MPa, 380 MPa, 410 MPa,
450 MPa, and 480 MPa; HSLAS-F 340 MPa, 410 MPa, 480
ASTM A242/A242M, Standard Specification for High- MPa, and 550 MPa), Standard Specification for Steel,
Strength Low- Alloy Structural Steel Sheet, Cold-Rolled, Carbon, Structural, High-Strength Low-
Alloy, High-Strength Low-Alloy with Improved
ASTM A283/A283M, Standard Specification for Low and Formability, Solution Hardened, and Bake Hardenable
Intermediate Tensile Strength Carbon Steel Plates
ASTM A1011/A1011M (SS 205 MPa, 230 MPa, 250 MPa
ASTM A500, Standard Specification for Cold-Formed Types 1 and 2, 275 MPa, 310 MPa, 340 MPa, and 380 MPa
Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel Structural Tubing in ; HSLAS Classes 1 and 2, 310 MPa, 340 MPa, 380 MPa,
Rounds and Shapes 410 MPa, 450 MPa, and 480 MPa ;HSLAS-F 340MPa, 410
MPa, 480 MPa, and 550MPa), Standard Specification for
ASTM A529/A529M, Standard Specification for High – Steel, Sheet and Strip, Hot-Rolled, Carbon, Structural,
Strength Carbon- Manganese Steel of Structural Quality High-Strength Low-Alloy and High-Strength Low- Alloy

with Improved Formability strength in Sections 551 to Section is taken as 75

percent of the specified minimum yield stress or 410
ASTM A1039/A1039M (SS 275 MPa, 340 MPa, 380MPa, MPa, whichever is less, and
410 MPa, 480 MPa, and 550 MPa), Standard Specification
2. The tensile strength, Fu, used for determining nominal
for Steel, Sheet, Hot-Rolled, Carbon, Commercial and
strength in Section 555 is taken as 75 percent of the
Structural, Produced by the Twin-Roll Casting Process.
specified minimum tensile strength or 427 MPa,
Thicknesses of 380 MPa and higher that do not meet the
whichever is less.
minimum 10% elongation requirement are limited per
Section 551.2.3.2.
Alternatively, the suitability of such steels for any multi-
web configuration shall be demonstrated by loads tests in
551.2.2 Other Steels
accordance with the provisions of Section 556. Available
See Section 551.2.2 of Section C-3 strengths based on these tests shall not exceed the available
strengths calculated in accordance with Section 552 through
551.2.3 Ductility Section 557, Section C-1 to Section C-3, using the specified
Steels not listed in Section 551.2.1 and used for structural minimum yield stress, Fsy, and the specified minimum
members and connections in accordance with Section tensile strength, Fu.
551.2.2 shall comply with ductility requirements in either
Exception 1:
Section 551.2.3.1 or Section 551.2.3.2:
For multiple-web configurations, a reduced specified
551.2.3.1 General minimum yield stress, RbFSY, shall be permitted for
The ratio of tensile strength to yield stress shall not be less determining the nominal flexural strength in Section
than 1.08, and the total elongation shall not be less than 10 553.3.1a, for which the reduction factor, Rb, shall be
percent for a 50 mm gauge length or 7 percent for a 200mm determined in accordance with (a) or (b):
gauge length standard specimen tested in accordance with a. For stiffened and partially stiffened compression
ASTM A370. If these requirements cannot be met, the flanges
following criteria shall be satisfied:
For w/t ≤ 0.067E / Fsy
1. Local elongation in a 12.7 mm gauge length across the (Eq. 551.2-1)
fracture shall not be less than 20 percent, and
Rb = 1.0
2. Uniform elongation outside the fracture shall not be
less than 3 percent. When material ductility is For 0.067 E / Fsy < w/t < 0.974 E / Fsy
determined on the basis of the local and uniform Rb= 1-0.26 [( w FSy / (tE))-0.067]0.4
elongation criteria, the use of such material shall be
restricted to the design of purlins, girts, and curtain wall For 0.974 E / Fsy ≤ w/t ≤ 500
studs in accordance with Sections 553.3.1 (a), Section Rb= 0.75
553.3.2, Section 554.6.1, Section 554.6.2, Section
554.6.2a, and requirements given in Section C-3.2.1 of b. For unstiffened compression flanges
the Section C-3. For purlins, girts, and curtain wall For w/t ≤ 0.0173 E / Fsy
studs subject to combined axial load and bending (Eq. 551.2-2)
moment (Section 553.3.5) ΩcP/Pn shall not exceed 0.15
for ASD, Pu/ ϕcPn shall not exceed 0.15 for LRFD.
Rb = 1.0
551.2.3.2 Steels For 0.0173 E / Fsy < w/t ≤ 60
Steels conforming to ASTM A653/A653M SS (550 MPa),
wFSY
A1008/ A1008M SS (550 Mpa), A792/A792M (550 Mpa), Rb  1.079  0.6
A875/ A875M SS (550 Mpa), thicknesses of ASTM A1039 tE 
Grades (380Mpa), (410 MPa) , (480 MPa), and (550MPa )
that do not meet the minimum 10 percent elongation
requirement in Section 551.2.3.1, and other steels that do
not meet the provisions of Section 551.2.3.1 shall be
permitted for concentrically loaded closed box section
compression members as given in Exception 2 below and
for multiple-web configurations such as roofing, siding, and
floor decking as given in Exception 1 provided that:
1. The yield stress, Fy, used for determining nominal

where
551.4 Allowable Strength Design
w = Flat width of compression flange
t = Thickness of section 551.4.1 Design Basis
E = Modulus of elasticity of steel Design under this section of the Specification shall be based
Fsy = Specified minimum yield stress determined in on Specifications shall be based on Allowable Strength
accordance with Section 551.6 ≤ 550 MPa. Design (ASD) principles. All provisions of this
Specification shall apply, except for those in Sections 551.5
The above Exception shall not apply to the use of steel deck and in Section 553 and Section 556 designated for LRFD.
for composite slabs, for which the steel deck acts as the
tensile reinforcement of slab. 551.4.1a ASD Requirements
Exception 2: A design satisfies the requirements of this Specification
when the allowable strength of each structural component
For concentrically loaded compression members with a
equals or exceeds the required strength, determined on the
closed box section, a reduced yield stress, 0.9Fsy, shall be
basis of the nominal loads, for all applicable load
permitted to be used in place of Fy in Eqs. 553.4.2, 553.4.3,
combinations.
and 553.4.4 for determining the axial strength in Section
553.4. A reduced radius of gyration (Rr)(r) shall be used in
Eq. 553.4.1 when the value of the effective length KL is less The design shall be performed in accordance with
than 1.1 Lo is given by Eq. 551-3, and Rr is given by Eq. Eq. 551.4.1-1:
551-4.
R ≤ Rn / Ω (Eq. 551.4 -1)
E where
Lo   r (Eq. 551.2-3)
Fcr
R = Required strength
0.35KL  Rn = Nominal Strength specified in Section 552
Rr  0.65  (Eq. 551.2-4) through Section 557 and section C-1.
1.1 Lo
Ω = Safety factor specified in Section 552 through
Section 557 and section C-1.
where Rn/Ω = Allowable strength
Lo = Length at which local buckling stress equals 551.4.1b Load Combinations for ASD
flexural buckling stress Load combination for ASD shall be as stipulated by Section
R = Radius gyration of full unreduced cross section C-3.3.1.1a of Section C-3.
Fcr = Minimum critical buckling stress for section
calculated by Eq. 552.2 551.5 Load and Resistance Factor Design
Rr = Reduction factor
KL = Effective length 551.5.1 Design Basis
Design under this section of the Specification shall be based
551.2.4 Delivered Minimum Thickness on Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) principles.
The uncoated minimum steel thickness of the cold-formed All provisions of this Specification shall apply except for
steel product as delivered to the job site shall not at any those in Sections 551.4 and in Chapters 553 and 556
location be less than 95 percent of the thickness ,t, used in designated for ASD and LRFD.
its design; however, lesser thicknesses shall be permitted at
bends , such as corners, due to cold-forming effects. 551.5.1.1 LRFD Requirements
A design satisfies the requirements of this Specification
551.3 Loads when the design strength of each structural component
Loads and load combinations shall be as stipulated by the equals or exceeds the required strength determined on the
applicable provisions in Section C-3.3 of Section C-3. basis of the nominal loads, multiplied by the applicable load
factors, for all applicable load combinations.
The design shall be performed in accordance with the

Equation 551.5-1:
Ru ≤ ϕ Rn (Eq. 551.5-1)
where

Ru = Required strength flange to full cross- sectional area of controlling

ϕ = Resistance factor specified in Section 552 flange
through 557 and Appendix C-1
Fyc =BcFyv / (R/t)ᵐ, tensile yield stress of corners.
Rn = Nominal strength specified in Section 552
through 557 and Appendix C-1 (Eq. 551.7-2)
ϕ Rn = Design strength
Eq. 551.7-2 applies only when
551.5.1b Load Factors and Load Combinations for Fuv/ Fyv ≥ 1.2, R/t ≤ 7, and the included
LRFD
angle ≤ 120̊ .
Load factors and load combinations for LRFD shall be
stipulated by Section C-3.3.1.1b of Section C-3. where
Bͨc = 3.69 (Fuv/Fyv)-0.819 (Fuv/Fyv)2 -1.79
551.7 Yield Stress and Strength Increase from Cold (Eq. 551.7-3)
Work of Forming Fyv = Tensile yield stress of virgin steel specified by
Section 551.2 or established in accordance with
551.7.1 Yield Stress Setion 556.3.3.
The yield stress used in design, Fy, shall not exceed the R = Inside bend radius
specified minimum yield stress of steels as listed in Section t = Thickness of section
551.2.2.1 or 5512.3.2, as established in accordance with m = 0.192 (Fuv/Fyv) – 0.068 (Eq. 551.7-4)
Section 556, or as increased for cold work of forming in Fuv = Tensile strength of virgin steel specified by
Section 551.7.2. Section 551.2 or established in accordance with
Section 556.3.3.
551.7.2 Strength Increase from Cold Work of Fyf = Weighted average tensile yield stress of flat
Forming. portions established in accordance with Section
Strength increase from cold work of forming shall be 556.3.2 or virgin steel yield stress if tests are not
permitted by substituting Fya for Fy, where Fya is the average made
yield stress of the full section. Such increase shall be limited 2. For axially loaded tension members, the yield stress of
to Sections 553.2, 553.3.1 (excluding Section 553.3.1.1(b)), the steel shall be determined by either method (1) or
553.3.4, 553.3.5, 554.4, and 554.6.1. The limits and method (3) prescribed in paragraph (a) of this section.
methods for determining Fya shall be in accordance with (a),
(b) and (c). 3. The effect of any welding on mechanical properties of a
member shall be determined on the basis of tests of full
1. For axially loaded compression members and flexural section specimens containing, within the gauge length,
members whose proportions are such that the quantity ρ such welding as the manufacturer intends to use. Any
for strength determination is unity as determined in necessary allowance for such effect shall be made in
accordance with Section 552.2 for each of the the structural use of the member.
component elements of the section, the design yield
stresses, Fya, of the steel shall be determined on the 551.8 Serviceability
basis of one of the following methods:
A structure shall be designed to perform its required
a. Full section tensile tests [see paragraph (a) of Section functions during its expected life. Serviceability limit states
556.3.1], shall be chosen based on the intended function of the
structure and shall be evaluated using realistic loads and
b. Stub column tests [see paragraph (b) of Section
load combinations.
556.3.1],
c. Computed in accordance with Eq. 551.7-1. 551.9 Referenced Documents
Fya = CFyc + (1 –C) Fyf ≤ Fuv (551.7-1) The following documents or portions thereof are referenced
in this Specification and shall be considered part of the
where requirements of this Specification.
Fya = Average yield stress of full unreduced section of 1. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), 1140
compression members or full flange sections of Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20036:
flexural members
C = For compression members, ratio of total corner AISI S200-07, North American Standard for Cold-
cross- sectional area to total cross-sectional area Formed Steel Framing – General Provisions
of full section; for flexural members, ratio of AISI S210-07, North American Standard for Cold-
total corner cross-sectional area of controlling Formed – Floor and Roof System Design

AISI S211-07, North American Standard for Cold- Use.

Formed Steel Framing - Wall Stud Design
ASTM A490-06, Standard Specification for Structural
AISI S212-07, North American for Cold-Formed Steel Bolts, Alloy Steel, Heat Treated, 150 ksi Minimum
Framing – Header Design Tensile Strength
AISI S214-07, North American Standard for Cold- ASTM A490M-04a, Standard Specification for High
Formed Steel Framing- Truss Design Strength Steel Bolts, Classes 10.9 and 10.9.3, for
Structural Steel Joints [Metric]
AISI S901-02*, Rotational Lateral Stiffness Test
Method for Beam-to- Panel Assemblies ASTM A500-03a, Standard Specification for Cold
Formed Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel Structural
AISI S902-02, Stub-Column Test Method for Effective
Tubing in Rounds and Shapes
Area of Cold-Formed Steel Columns
ASTM A529/A529M-05, Standard Specification for
AISI S906-04, Standard Procedures for Panel and
High Strength Carbon-Manganese Steel of Structural
Anchor Structural Tests
Quality
Note:* AISI test procedures previously designated as ASTM A563-04, Standard Specification for Carbon
AISI TSn-xx are re-designated to AISI S9n-xx, where and Alloy Steel Nuts
“n” is the test procedure sequence number and “xx” is
ASTM A563M-04, Standard Specification for Carbon
the year the standard was developed or updated.
and Alloy Steel Nuts [Metric]
2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
1828 L Strret, NW, Washington, Dc 20036:
High -Strength Low Alloy Columbium-Vanadium
ASME B46.1-2000, Surface Texture, Surface Structural Steel
Roughness, Waviness, and Lay
ASTM A588 / A588M-05, Standard Specification for
3. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), High- Strength Low Alloy Structural Steel with 50 ksi
100 Barr Harbour Drive, West Conshohocken, [345 MPa] Minimun Yield Point to 4-in. [100mm]
Pennsylvania 19428-2959: Thick
ASTM A36/ A36m-05, Standard Specification for ASTM A606-04, standard Specification for Steel, Sheet
Carbon Structural Steel and Strip, High-Strength , Low alloy, Hot- Rolled and
Cold- Rolled, with Improved Atmospheric Corrosion
Resistance
Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts for Bolts for High-
Pressure and High-Temperature Service, or Both ASTM A653/ A653M-06, Standard Specification for
Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) or Zinc-Iron
ASTM A242/ A242 M-04e1, Standard Specification for Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process
High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel
ASTM A847 / A847M-05, Standard Specification for
ASTM A307-04, Standard Specification for Carbon Cold Formed Welded and Seamless High Strength,
Steel Bolts and Studs, 60,000 PSI Tensile Strength Low alloy Structural Tubing with Improved
ASTM A325-06, Standard Specification for Structural Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance
Bolts, Steel, Heat Treated, 120/105 ksi Minimum ASTM A875 / A875M-05, Standard Specification for
Tensile Strength Steel Sheet, Zinc-5% Aluminum Alloy- Coated by the
ASTM A325M-05, Standard Specification for Hot-Dip Process
Structural Bolts, Steel, Heat Treated, 830 MPa
ASTM A1003/ A1003M-05, Standard Specification for
Minimum Tensile Strength [Metric] Steel Sheet, Carbon, Metallic-and Non Metallic-
ASTM A354-04, Standard Specification For Quenched Coated for Cold Formed Framing Members
and Tempered Alloy Steel Bolts, Studs, and Other ASTM A1008/ A1008M-05b, Standard Specification
Externaslly Threaded Fasteners for Steel, Sheet, Cold- Rolled, Carbon, Structural,
ASTM A370-05, Standard Specifications for Standard High- Strength Low Alloy, High- Strength Low Alloy
Test Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing with Improved Formability, Solution Hardened, and
of Steel Products Bake Hardenable
ASTM A449-04b, Standard Specification for Hex Cap ASTM A1011/A1011M-05a, Standard Specification for
Screws, Bolts, and Studs, Steel, Heat Treated, Steel, Sheet and Strip, Hot-Rolled, Carbon, Structural,
120/105/90 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength, General High-Strength Low Alloy and High Strength Low alloy

with Improved Formability SECTION 552 - ELEMENTS

ASTM A1039/ A1039M-04, Standard Specification for
Steel, Sheet, Hot-Rolled, Carbon, Commercial and 552.1 Dimensional Limits and Considerations
Structural, Produced by the Twin-Roll-Casting Process
552.1.1-Flange-Flat-Width-to-Thickness
ASTM E1592-01, Standard Test Method for Structural
Considerations
Performance of Sheet Metal Roof and Siding System
by Uniform Static Air Pressure Difference 1. Maximum Flat-Width-to-Thickness ratios, Maximum
allowable overall flat-width-to-thickness ratios w/t,
ASTM F436-04, standard Specification for Hardened
disregarding intermediate stiffeners and taking t as the
Steel Washers
actual thickness of the element, shall be determined in
ASTM F436M-04, Standard Specification for accordance with this section as follows:
Hardened Steel Washer [Metric]
a. Stiffened compression element having one longitudinal
ASTM F844-04, Standard Specification for Washers, edge connected to a web or flange element, the other
Steel, Plain (Flat), Unhardened for General Use stiffened by:
ASTM F959-05a, Standard Specification for Simple lip, w/t, ≤ 60
Compressible Washer-Type Direct Tension Indicators
Any other kind of stiffener
for Use with Structural Fasteners
(i) when IS < Ia, w/t ≤ 60
ASTM F959M-04, Standard Specification for
Compressible Washer-Type Direct Tension Indicators (ii) when IS ≥ Ia, w/t ≤ 90
for Use with Structural Fasteners [Metric]
where
4. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers:CEGS-07416, Guide
IS = Actual moment of inertia of full stiffener about
Specification for Military Construction, Structural
its own centroidal axis parallel to element to be
Standing Seam Metal Roof (SSSMR) System, 1995
stiffened
5. Factory Mutual, Corporate Offices, 1301 Atwood Ia = adequate moment of inertia of stiffener, so
Avenue, P.O. Box 7500,Johnston, RI 02919: FM 4471, that each component element will behave as a
Approval Standard for Class 1 Metal Roofs,1995 stiffened element
b. Stiffened compression element with both longitudinal
edges connected to other stiffened elements, w/t ≤ 500
c. Unstiffened compression element, w/t ≤ 60
It shall be noted that unstiffened compression elements that

have w/t ratios exceeding approximately 30 and stiffened
compression elements that have w/t ratios exceeding
approximately 250 are likely to develop noticeable
deformation at the full available strength,without affecting
the ability of the member to develop the required strength.
Stiffened elements having w/t ratios greater than 500

provide adequate available strength to sustain the required
loads; however, substantial deformations of such elements
usually will invalidate the design equations of this
Specification.
2. Flange Curling. Where the flange of a flexural member
is usually wide and it is desired to limit the maximum
amount of curling or movement of the flange toward
the neutral axis, Eq. 552.1-1 shall be permitted to be
applied to compression and tension flange, either
stiffened or unstiffened as follows:

2. For webs which are provided with bearing stiffeners

 0.061tdE  100C f 
wf    4 satisfying the requirements of Section 553.3.7a:
 f av  d 
   a. Where using bearing stiffeners only, (h/t)max = 260
(Eq.522.1-1)
b. Where using bearing stiffeners and intermediate
where stiffeners, (h/t)max = 300
wf = width of flange projecting beyond web; or where
half of distance between webs for box-or U-type
h = depth of flat portion of web measured along
beams
plane of web
t = flange thickness
t = web thickness. Where a web consists of two or
d = depth of beam
more sheets, the h/t ratio is computed for the
fav = average stress in full unreduced flange
individual sheets
width. (Where members are design by the
effective design width procedure, the average
stress equals the maximum stress multiplied by 552.2 Effective Widths of Stiffened Elements
the ratio of the effective design width to the
actual width). 552.2.1 Uniformly Compressed Stiffened Elements
cf = amount of curling displacement 1. Strength Determination.
3. Shear Lag Effects – Short Spans Supporting The effective width, b, shall be calculated from either
Concentrated Loads. Where the beam has a span of 552.2-1 or Eq. 552.2-2 as follows:
less than 30wf (wf as defined below) and it carries one
concentrated load, or several loads spaced farther apart bd = w when λ ≤ 0.673 (Eq. 522.2-1)
than 2wf , the effective design width of any flange, bd = pw when λ > 0.673 (Eq. 522.2-2)
whether in tension or compression, shall be limited by
the values in Table 552-1. where
Table 552-1 w = flat width as shown in Figure 522-1

Short Span, Wide Flanges – Maximum Allowable Ratio of p = reduction factor
Effective Design Width (b) to Actual Width (w) = (1-0.22 / λ) / λ (Eq. 522.2-3)
λ = slenderness factor
L/wf Ratio b/w L/wf Ratio b/w f
30 1.00 14 0.82 = (Eq. 522.2-4)
Fcr
25 0.96 12 0.78
20 0.91 10 0.73
18 0.89 8 0.67
16 0.86 6 0.55
where
L = full Span for simple beams; or the distance
between inflection points for continuous beams;
wf = width of flange projection beyond web for I-
beam and similar sections; or half the distance
between webs for box-or U-type sections
For flanges of I-beams and similar sections stiffened by lips

at the outer edges, wf shall be taken as the sum of flange
projection beyond the web plus the depth of the lip.
Figure 552-1 Stiffened Elements
552.1.2 Maximum Web nDepth-To-Thickness Ratios where
The ratio, h/t, of the webs of flexural members shall not f = stress in compression element computed as
exceed the following limits: follows:
For flexural members:

a. If Procedure I of Section 553.1.1 is used:
1. For unreinforced webs: (h/t)max = 200

 When initial yielding is in compression in the longitudinal edge, an improved estimate of the
element considered, f = Fy effective width is obtained by calculating ρ as
follows:
 When the initial yielding is in tension, the
compressive stress f in the element considered ρ = 1 when λ ≤ 0.673
is determined on the basis of effective section ρ = (1.358 – 0.461 / λ) /λ when 0.673 < λ < λc
at My (moment causing initial yield)
(Eq. 552.2-8)
b. If Procedure II of Section 553.1.1 is used, f is
the stress in the elements considered at Mn ρ = (0.41 = 0.59√ (Fy / f d) – 0.22 / λ ) / λ when
determined on the basis of the effective
λ ≥ λc (Eq. 552.2-9)
section.
ρ ≤ 1 for all cases.
c. If Section 553.1.2.1 is used, f is the stress Fc as
described in that Section in determining where
effective section modulus Sc
λ = a value as defined by Eq. 552.2-4, except
For compression members, f is taken equal to that f
Fn as determined in accordance with Section
λ = 0.256 + 0.328 (w / t) √ (Fy / E)
533.4
 2E  t 
2 (Eq.552.2-10)
Fcr  k (Eq. 552.2-5)
  
12 1   2  w 
552.2.2 Uniformly Compressed Stiffened with
where Circular or Non- Circular Holes
k = plate buckling coefficient 1. Strength Determination
= 4 for stiffened elements supported by a
web on each longitudinal edge For circular holes:
Values for different types of elements
are given in the applicable sections. The effective width, b, shall be calculated by either Eq.
E = Modulus of Elasticity of steel 552.2-11 or Eq.552.2-12 as follows:
t = thickness of uniformly compressed
stiffened elements dh w
μ = Poisson’s ratio of steel For 0.50   0, and  70, and
w w
2. Serviceability Determination the distance between centers of holes ≥ 0.50w and ≥ 3dh
b= w-dh when λ ≤ o.673 (Eq. 552.2-11)
The effective width bd used in determining
serviceability shall be calculated from either as follows:  0.22 0.8d h 0.085d h 
w1    
bd = w when λ ≤ 0.673 (Eq. 552.2-6)  w w 
b 
bd = ρw when λ > 0.673 (Eq. 552.2-7) 
where when λ > 0.673 (Eq. 552.2-12)
w = flat width In all cases, b ≤ w – dh

ρ = Reduction factor determined by either of the where
following two procedures:
w = flat width
a. Procedure I: t = thickness of element
A conservative estimate of the effective width is dh = diameter of holes
obtained from Eqs. 552.2-3 and 552.2-4 by λ = a value as defined in Section 552.2.1
substituting fd for f, where fd is the computed For non-circular holes:
compressive stress in the element being
considered. A uniformly compressed stiffened element with non-
circular holes shall be assumed to consist of two unstiffened
strips of flat width, c, adjacent to the holes (see Figure 552-
b. Procedure II: 2). The effective width, b, of each unstiffened strip adjacent
to the hole shall be determined in accordance with 552.2.1
For stiffened elements supported by a web on each (a), except that plate buckling coefficient, k ,shall be taken

as 0.43 and was c. These provisions shall be applicable a. For webs under stress gradient (f1 in compression and f2
within the following limits: in tension as shown in Figure 552-3 (a), the effective
widths and plate buckling coefficient shall be
a. Center to center hole spacing, s ≥ 600 mm
calculated as follows:
b. Clear distance from the hole at ends, send ≥ 250 mm,
k = 4 + 2(1+ψ)3 + 2(1 + ψ) (Eq. 552.2-13)
c. Depth of hole, dh ≤ 65 mm,
For ho / bo ≤ 4
d. Length of hole, Lh ≤ 115 mm,and
b1 = be / (3 + ψ ) (Eq. 552.2-14)
e. Ratio of the depth of hole, dh, to the out-to-out width,
b2 = be / 2 when ψ > 0.236 (Eq. 552.2-15)
wo, dh / wo ≤ 0.5.
b2 = be – b1 when ψ ≤ 0.236 (Eq. 552.2-16)
Fig. 552-2 Uniformly Compressed Stiffened Elements

with Non-Circular Holes
Alternatively, the effective width, b, shall be permitted to be

determined by stub-column tests in accordance with the test
procedure,AISI S902.
2. Serviceability Determination
The effective width, bd, used in determining serviceability
shall be equal to b calculated in accordance with Procedure
I of Section 552.2.1(b), except that fd is substituted for f,
where fd is the computed compressive stress in the element
being considered.
552.2.3 Webs and Other Stiffened Elements Under

Stress Gradient
The following notation shall apply in this section:
b1 = effective width, dimension defined in Figure
Fig. 552-3 Webs and Other Stiffened Elements under Stress
552-3
Gradient
b2 = Effective width, dimension defined in Figure
552-3 In addition, b1 + b2shall not exceed the compression portion
be = Effective width, b , determined in accordance of the web calculated on the basis of effective section.
with section 552.2.1.1, with f1 substituted for f
For ho / bo > 4
and with k determined as given in this section
bo = out-to-out width of the compression flange as b1 = be / (3 + ψ) (Eq. 552.2-17)
defined in Figure 552-4
f1, f2 = stresses shown in Figure 552-3 calculated on the b2 = be / (1 +ψ) – b1 (Eq. 552.2-18)
basis of effective section. Where f1 and f2 are b. For other stiffened elements under stress gradient (f1
both compression, f1 ≥ f2 and f2 in compression as shown in Figure 522-3 (b))
ho = Out-to-out depth of web as defined in Figure
552-4 k = 4 + 2( 1 – ψ)3 + 2(1 –ψ) (Eq. 552.2-19)
k = plate buckling coefficient b1 = be/ (3 – ψ) (Eq. 552.2-20)
ψ = │f2 / f1 │ (absolute value)
b2 = be - b1 (Eq. 552.2-21)
1. Strength Determination 2. Serviceability Determination

The effective widths used in determining serviceability shall The effective widths shall be determined in accordance with
be calculated in accordance with Section 552.3(a) except Section 552.2.3b by assuming no hole exists in the web.
that fd1 and fd2 are substituted for f1 and f2, where fd1 and fd2
are the computed stresses f1 and f2 based on the effective
section at the load for which serviceability is determined. 552.3 Effective Widths of Unstiffened Elements
552.3.1 Uniformly Compressed Unstiffened Elements

1. Strength Determination
The effective width, b, shall be determined in accordance
with Section 552.2.1a, except that plate buckling
coefficient, k, shall be taken as 0.43 and w as defined in
Figure 552-5.
Figure 552-4 Out-to-Out Dimensions of Webs and Stiffened

Elements under stress Gradient
522.2.4 C-Section Webs with Holes under Stress

Gradient
The provisions of Section 552.2.4 shall apply within the
following limits: Figure 552-5 Unstiffened Element with Uniform
Compression
1. dh / h ≤ 0.7,
2. H / t ≤ 200,
3. Holes centered at mid-dept of web, shall be calculated in accordance with Procedure I of
4. Clear distance between holes ≥ 450mm , Section 552.2.1 (b), except that fd is substituted for f and k =
0.43.
5. Non-circular holes, corner radii ≥ 2t,
6. Non-circular holes, dh ≤ 65mm and Lh ≤ 115mm, 522.3.2 Unstiffened and Edge Stiffeners with Stress
Gradient
7. Circular holes, diameter ≤ 150mm,and
The Following notation shall apply in this section:
8. dh > 15mm.
b = effective width measured from the supported
where edge, determined in accordance with Section
552.2.1a, with f equal to f1 and with k and ρ
dh = depth of web hole
being determined in a accordance with this
h = depth of flat portion of web measured
section.
along plane of web
bo = overall width of unstiffened element of
t = thickness of web
unstiffened C-section member as defined in
Lh = length of web hole
Figure 552-8
b1 b2 = effective widths defined by Figure 522-3
f1,f2 = stresses shown in Figures 552-6,552-7, and 552-
Effective Widths of Unstiffened Elements
8 calculated on the basis of the gross section.
1. Strength Determination Where f1 and f2 are both compression, f1 ≥ f2
ho = overall depth of unstiffened C-section member
a. When dh/h < 0.38, the effective widths b1 and b2 shall
as defined in Figure 552-8.
be determined in accordance with Section 552.2.3a by
k = plate buckling coefficient defined in this section
assuming no holes exist in the web.
or, otherwise, as defined in Section 552.2.1a
b. When dh/h ≥ 0.38, the effective width shall be t = thickness of element
determined in accordance with Section 552.3.1a, w = flat width of unstiffened element, where w /t
assuming the compression portion of the web consists ≤ 60
of an unstiffened element adjacent to the hole with f=f1 ψ = │f2 / f1 │ (absolute value) ( Eq.552.3-1)
as shown in Figure 522-3. λ = slenderness factor defined in section 552.2.1
a with f = f1

ρ = reduction factor defined in this section or, accordance with either Eq. 552.3-2 or Eq. 552.3-3 as
otherwise, as defined in Section 552.2.1 a follows:
If the stress decreases toward the unsupported edge (Figure
552-6):
0.578
k (Eq. 552.3-2)
  0.34
If the stress increases toward the unsupported edge (Figure
Be.2-1 (b)):
k  0.57  0.21  0.07 2 (Eq. 552.3-3)

b. When f1 is in compression and f2 intension (Figure 552-
7), the reduction factor and plate buckling coefficient
shall be calculated as follows:
Figure 552-6 Unstiffened Element under Stress Gradient
Both Longidutinal Edges in Compression c. If the unsupported edge is in compression Figure 552-
7(a)):
ρ = 1 when λ ≤ 0.673(1+ψ)
 1    
1  
  
  1   

when λ > 0.673(1+ψ) (Eq. 552.3-4)
k  0.57  0.21  0.07 2 (Eq. 552.3-5)

d. If the supported edge is in compression Figure 552-
8(b):
Figure 552-7. Unstiffened Elements under Stress Gradient
One Longitudinal Edge in Compression and the Other For ψ <1
Logitudinal Edge in Tension
ρ=1 when λ ≤ 0.673
 0.22 
1  
 
  1     

when λ > 0.673 (Eq.522.3-6)
k  1.70  5  17.1 2 (Eq. 552.3-7)
For ψ ≥1, ρ= 1
Figure 552-8. Unstiffened Elements of C Section under The effective width, b, of the unstiffened elements of an
Stress Gradient for Alternative Methods unstiffened C- section member shall be permitted to be
determined using the following alternative methods as
applicable:
The effective width, b, of an unstiffened element under
a. Alternative 1 for Unstiffened C-section:
stress gradient shall be determined in accordance with
When the unsupported edge is in compression and the
Section 552.2.1a with f equal to f1 and the plate buckling
supported edge is in tension (Figure 552-8 (a)):
coefficient, k, determined in accordance with this section,
unless otherwise noted. For the cases where f1 is in b=w when λ ≤ 0.856 (Eq. 552.3-8)
compression and f2 is in tension, ρ in Section 552.2.1a shall
b = ρw when λ > 0.856 (Eq. 552.3-9)
be determined in accordance with this section.
where
a. When both f1 and f2 are in compression (Figure 552-6),
the plate buckling coefficient shall be calculated in

0.925 element
 (Eq. 552.3-10)
 w w w t   5
3
  
 399 t 4   0.328  t 4 115 
k = 0.145(bo / ho) + 1.256 (Eq. 552.3-11)  s   s 
0.1≤ bo / ho ≤ 1.0 (Eq. 552.4-8)
b. Alternative 2 for Unstiffened C-sections: b = effective design width

When the supported edge is in compression and the b1, b2 = Portions of effective design width as defined in
unsupported edge in tension (Figure 552-8(b)), the Figure 552-9
effective width is determined in accordance with ds = Reduced effective width of stiffener as defined
Section 552.2.3. in Figure 552-9, and used in computing overall
effective section properties
In calculating the effective section modulus Se in section d’s = Effective width of stiffener calculated in
553.3.1.a or Sc in Section 553.3.1.b.1, accordance with Section 552.3.2 (Figure 552-9)
The extreme compression fiber in Figures 552-6 (b), and (RI) = IS / Ia ≤ 1
B3.2-3(a0 shall be taken as the edge of the effective section where
closer to the unsupported edge. In calculating the effective
section modulus Se in Section 553.3.1.a, the extreme tension Is = Moment of inertia of full section of stiffener
fiber in Figures 552-7(b) and 552-8(b) shall be taken as the about parallel to element to be stiffened. For
edge of the effective section closer to the unsupported edge. edge stiffeners, the round corner between
stiffener and element to be stiffened is not
2. Serviceability Determination considered as a part of the stiffener.
The effective width bd used in determining serviceability = (d3t sin2θ) / 12 (Eq. 552.4-10)
shall be calculated in accordance with Section 552.3.2(a), See Figure 552-9 for definitions of other dimensional
except that fd2 are substituted for f1 and f2, respectively, variables.
where fd1 and fd2 are the computed stresses f1 and f2 as
shown in Figures 552-6, 552-7, and 552-8, respectively,
based on the gross section at the load for which
serviceability is determined.
552.4 Effective Width of Uniformly Compressed

Elements with a Simple Lip Edge Stiffener
The effective widths of uniformly compressed elements
with a simple edge stiffener shall be calculated in
accordance with (a) for strength determination and (b) for
serviceability determination.
For w / t ≤ 0.328S:
Ia= 0 (no edge stiffener needed)
b= w (Eq. 552.4-1)
b1= b2=w / 2 (see Figure 552-9) (Eq. 552.4-2)
ds= d’s (Eq. 552.4-3)
For w / t > 0.328S
b1= (b / 2) (RI) (see Figure 552-9) (Eq. 552.4-4) Figure 552-9 Elements with Simple Lip Edge Stiffener
b2= b-b1 (see Figure 552-9) (Eq. 552.4-5)
ds= d’s (RI) (Eq. 552.4-6)
where
S  1.28 E f (Eq. 552.4-7)

w = flat dimension defined in Figure 552-9
t = thickness of section
Ia = adequate moment of inertia of stiffener, so that
each component element will behave a stiffened

centerline of flat portion of element

The effective width,b, in Eq.552.4-4and Eq.552.4-5 shall be The radii that connect the stiffener to the flat
calculated in accordance with Section 552.2.1 with the plate can be included
buckling coefficient, k, as given in Table 552-2 below: k = Plate buckling coefficient of element
kd = Plate buckling coefficient for distortional
Table 552-2 buckling
Determination of Plate Buckling Coefficient k kloc = Plate buckling coefficient for local
Simple Lip Edge Stiffener (140° ≥ θ ≥ 40°) sub-element buckling
D/w ≤ 0.25 0.25 < D/w ≤ 0.8 Lbr = Unsupported length between brace points or
3.57(RI)n + 0.43 ≤ 4 (4.82-(5D/w)(RI)n +0.43 ≤4 Other restraints which restrict distortional
Buckling of element
where R = Modification factor for distortional plate
Buckling coefficient
  w n = Number of stiffeners in element
   t = Element thickness
t
n   0.582      1 3
 (Eq. 552.4-11) i = Index for stiffener “i”
4S
  λ = slenderness factor
  ρ = Reduction factor
The effective width bd, used in determining serviceability
shall be calculated as in Section 552.4 except that fd is
substituted for f, where fd is computed compressive stress in
the effective section at the load for which serviceability is
determined.
522.5 Effective widths of Stiffened Elements with Single

Figure 552-10 Plate Widths and Stiffener Locations
or Multiple Intermediate Stiffeners or Edge Stiffened
Elements with Intermediate Stiffener(s)
522.5.1 Effective Widths of Uniformly Compressed

Stiffened Elements with Single or Multiple
Intermediate Stiffeners
The following notation shall apply as used in this section
Ag = Gross area of element including stiffeners Figure 552-11 Effective Width Locations
As = Gross area of stiffener
be = Effective width of element, located at The effective width shall be calculated in accordance with
centroid of element including stiffeners; Eq. 552.5-1 as follows:
Figure 552-11
bo = Total flat width of stiffened element; see  Ag 
Figure 552-10 be    

(Eq. 552.5-1)
 t 
bp = Largest sub-element flat width; see Figure
552-10 where
ci = Horizontal distance from edge of element to
centerline(s) of stiffener(s); see Figure 552-10 ρ=1 when λ ≤ 0.673
Fcr = Plate elastic buckling stress ρ = (1- 0.22 / λ ) / λ when λ > 0.673 (Eq. 552.5-2)
f = Uniform compressive stress acting on flat where
element
h = Width of elements adjoining stiffened f
 (Eq. 552.5-3)
element (e.g., depth of web in hat section Fcr
with multiple intermediate stiffeners in
compression flange is equal to h; if adjoining
elements have different widths, use smallest
one)
ISP = Moment of inertia of stiffener about

where 552.5.1.b General Cases: Arbitrary Stiffener Size,

2
Location, and Number
  2E  t  For uniformly compressed stiffened elements with
Fcr  k   

 12 1  
2
 b
 o 
(Eq. 552.5-4)
stiffeners of arbitrary size, location and number, the plate
buckling coefficients and effective widths shall be
The plate buckling coefficient, k, shall be determined from calculated as follows:
the minimum of Rkd and kloc, as determined in accordance
with Section 552.5.1.1 or 552.5.1.2, as applicable. 1. Strength Determination
2
K = the minimum of Rkd and kloc (Eq. 552.5-5) b 
R = 2 when bo / h < 1 k loc  4 o  (Eq. 552.5-12)
 bp 
 
 b 
 11  o 
h   1 when b / h ≥ 1
R 
 5  2
o (Eq. 552.5-6) 
 2
 1   2  2
n
i 1

 ii 




 kd   
(Eq. 552.5-13)
 2 n 
  1  2  ii  
  i  1
552.5.1.a Specific Cases: Single orn Identical Stiffeners,   
Equally Spaced
where
For uniformly compressed elements with single, or multiple
identical and equally spaced stiffeners, the plate buckling  n
14

coefficients and effective widths shall be calculated as    2  ii  1 (Eq. 552.5-14)
follows:  i 1 
1. Strength Determination where
Kloc = 4(n+ 1) 2
(Eq. 552.5-7) 10 .92 I sp  i
i  (Eq. 552.5-15)
 
 1   2 2   1  n 
kd    (Eq. 552.5-8)
bo t 3
  2 1   n  1   ci 
   i  sin 2   
 (Eq. 552.5-16)
 bo 
where
β = (1 + γ(n +1)) ¼ (Eq. 552.5-9)
 As i
i  (Eq. 552.5-17)
bo t
where
If Lbr < βbo, /Lbr / bo shall be permitted to be substituted for
 10.92 I sp  β to account for increased capacity due to bracing.
   3


(Eq. 552.5-10)
 bo t  2. Serviceability Determination
A  The effective width bd used in determining serviceability
   s  (Eq. 552.5-11) shall be calculated as in Section 552.5.1.2a, except that fd is
 bo t 
substituted for f, where fd is the computed compressive
If Lbr < βbo, Lbr / bo shall be permitted to be substituted for β stress in the element being considered based on the effective
to account for increased capacity due to bracing. section at the load for which serviceability is determined.
2. Serviceability Determination 552.5.2 Edge Stiffened Elements with Intermediate
The effective width, bd, used in determining serviceability Stiffener(s)
shall be calculated as in Section 552.5.1.a, except that fd is 1. Strength Determination
substituted for f, where fd is the computed compressive
stress in the element being considered based on the effective For edge stiffened elements with intermediate stiffener(s),
section at the load for which serviceability is determined. the effective width, be shall be determined as follows:
a. If bo / t ≤ 0.328S, the element is fully effective and no
local buckling required.
b. If bo / t > 0.328S, then the plate buckling coefficient, k,
is determined in accordance with Section 552.4, but
with bo replacing w in all expressions:

If k calculated from Section 552.4 is less than 4.0 (k < 4),

the intermediate stiffener(s) is ignore and the provisions of SECTION 553 - MEMBERS
Section 522.4 are followed for calculation of the effective
width. 553.1 Properties of Sections
If k calculates from Section 552.4 is equal to 4.0 (k = 4), the Properties of sections (cross-sectional area, moment of
effective width of the edge stiffened element is calculated inertia, section modulus, radius of gyration, etc.) shall be
from the provisions of Section 552.5.1, with the following determined in accordance with conventional methods of
exception: structural design. Properties shall be based on the full cross-
section of the members (or net sections where the use of net
R calculated in accordance with Section 552.5.1 is less than section is applicable) except where the use of a reduced
or equal to 1. cross-section, or effective design width, is required.
where
553.2 Tension Members
bo = total flat width of edge stiffened element
See Section 553.3.5 of Section 553.3.
see Sections 552.4 and 522.5.1 for definitions of
other variables
553.3 Flexural Members
553.3.1 Bending
shall be calculated as in Section 552.5.b, except that fd is The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the smallest of
substituted for f, where fd is the computed compressive the values calculated in accordance with sections 553.3.1.1,
stress in the element being considered based on the effective 553.3.1.2, 553.3.1.3, 553.3.1.4, 554.6.1.1, 554.6.1.2, and
section at the load for which serviceability is determined. 554.6.2.1, where applicable.
See Section 553.3.6, as applicable for laterally unrestrained

flexural members subjected to both bending and torsional
loading, such as loads that do not pass through the shear
center of the cross-section, a condition which is not
considered in the provision of this section.
553.3.1.a Nominal Section Strength

The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be calculated either
on the basis of initiation of yielding of the effective section
(Procedure I) or on the basis of the inelastic reserve capacity
(Procedure II), as applicable. The applicable safety factors
and the resistance factors given in this section shall be used
to determine the allowable strength or design strength in
accordance with the applicable design method in Section
551.4, or 551.5.
For sections with stiffened or partially compression

Flange:
Ωb = 1.67 (ASD) ϕb = 0.95 (LRFD)
For sections with unstiffened compression flanges:
Ωb = 1.67 (ASD) ϕb = 0.90 (LRFD)

1. Procedure I –Based on Initiation of Yielding
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, for the effective yield
moment shall be calculated in accordance with Eq. 553.3-1
as follows:
Mn = Se Fy (Eq. 553.3-1)
where

Se = Elastic section modulus of effective section where

calculated relative to extreme compression or
1.11
tension fiber at Fy 1  (Eq. 553.3-3)
Fy = Design yield stress determined in accordance Fy
with Section 551.7.1 E
2. Procedure II – Based on Inelastic Reserve Capacity where
The inelastic flexural reserve capacity shall be permitted to 1.28
be used when the following conditions are met: 1  (Eq. 553.3-4)
Fy
a. The member is not subject to twisting or to lateral,
E
torsional, or flexural-torsional buckling.
(ii) Unstiffened compression elements
The effect of cold work of forming is not included in
determining the yield stress Fy. For unstiffened compression elements, Cy shall be
b. The ratio of the depth of the compressed portion of
the web to its thickness does not exceed λ1. (ii-1) Unstiffened compression elements under
stress gradient causing compression at one
c. The shear force does not exceed 0.35Fy for ASD,
and 0.6 Fy for LRFD times the web area (ht for longitudinal edge and tension at the other
longitudinal edge:
stiffened elements or wt for unstiffened elements).
Cy = 3.0 when λ ≤ λ3
d. The angle between any web and the vertical does
not exceed 30. Cy = 3 -2 [ (λ – λ3) / (λ4 – λ3)] (Eq. 553.3-5)
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall not exceed either when λ3 < λ < λ4
1.25 SeFy, as determined in accordance with Procedure I of Cy = 1 when λ ≥ λ4
Section 553.3.3.a or that causing a maximum compression
strain of Cyey (no limit is placed on the maximum tensile where
strain). λ3 = 0.43
where λ4 = 0.673(1+ ψ) (Eq. 553.3-6)
h = flat depth of web ψ = a value defined in Section 552.3.2
t = base steel thickness of element
ey = yield strain (ii-2) Unstiffened compression elements under
= Fy / E stress gradient causing compression at both
w = elements flat width longitudinal edges:
E = modulus of elasticity Cy = 1
Cy = compression strain factor calculated as follows:
(ii-3) Unstiffened compression elements under
(i) Stiffened compression elements without uniform compression:
intermediate stiffeners
Cy = 1
For compression elements without intermediate
stiffeners, Cy shall be calculated as follows: (iii) Multiple-stiffened compression elements
and compression elements with edge stiffeners
Cy = 3 when w / t ≤ λ1
For multiple-stiffened compression elements and
 w  compression elements with edge stiffeners, Cy
    1  shall be taken as follows:
  t  
C y  3  2 when λi w/t < λ2
2  1  Cy = 1
 
  When applicable, effective design widths shall be
used in calculating section properties. Mn shall be
(Eq. 553.3-2)
calculated considering equilibrium of stresses,
assuming an ideally elastic-plastic stress-strain
curve, which is the same in tension as in
compression, assuming small deformation, and
assuming that plane sections remain plane during
bending. Combined bending and web crippling

shall be checked by the provisions of Section Fc = Fe (Eq. 553.3-9)

533.3.3.5. where
Fy = design yield stress as determined in accordance
553.3.1b Lateral-Torsional Buckling Strength
with Section 551.7.1
The provisions of this section shall apply to members with Fe = elastic critical lateral-torsional buckling stress
either an open cross-section as specified in Section calculated in accordance with (a) or (b)
553.3.1b.1 or closed box sections as specified in Section
553.3.1b.2. a. For singly-, doubly-, and point-symmetric sections:
(i) For bending about the symmetry axis:
Unless otherwise indicated, the following safety factor and
resistance factors and the nominal strengths calculated in Cb ro A
Fe   ey  t (Eq. 553.3-10)
accordance with Sections 553.3.1b.1 and 553.3.1b.2 shall be Sf
used to determine the allowable flexural strength or design
flexural strength in accordance with the applicable design for singly-and doubly-symmetric sections
method in Section 551.4, or 551.5.
Cb ro A
Ωb = 1.67 (ASD) ϕb = 0.90 (LRFD) Fe   ey  t
2S f
553.3.3.1b.1 Lateral- Torsional Buckling Strength of For point-symmetric sections (Eq. 553.3-11)
Open Cross-Section Members
where
The provisions of this section shall apply to I-, Z-, C-, and
other singly-symmetric section flexural members (not 12.5M max
including multiple-web deck, U- and closed box-type Cb 
2.5M max  3M A  4  M B  3M C
members, and curved or arch members) subject to lateral-
torsional buckling. The provisions of this section shall not (Eq. 553.3-12)
apply to laterally unbraced compression flanges of
otherwise laterally stable sections. See Section 554.6.1a for where
C- and Z-purlins in which the tension flange is attached to Mmax = Absolute value of maximum moment in
sheathing. unbraced segment
For laterally unbraced segments of singly-, doubly-, and MA = Absolute value of moment at quarter point of
point-symmetric sections subject to lateral-torsional Unbraced segment
buckling, the nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be MB = Absolute value of moment at centerline of
calculated in accordance with Eq. 553.3-7) unbraced segment
MC = Absolute value of moment at three-quarter point
of unbraced segment Cb shall be permitted to be
conservatively taken as unity for all cases. For
Mn = Sc Fc (Eq. 553.3-7) cantilevers or overhangs where the free end is
where unbraced, Cb shall be taken as unity.
ro = Polar radius of gyration of cross-section about
Sc = Elastic section modulus of effective section shear center
calculated relative to extreme compression fiber
at Fc  rx 2  ry 2  x o 2 (Eq. 553.3-13)
1. Fc shall be determined as follows: where
For Fe ≥ 2.78Fy rx, ry = Radii of gyration of cross-section about centroid

The member segment is not subject to lateral-torsional principal axes
buckling at bending moments less than or equal to My. The xo = Distance from shear center to centroid along
available flexural strength shall be determined in principal x-axis, taken as negative
accordance with Section 553.3.1a. A = Full unreduced cross-sectional area
Sf = Elastic section modulus of full unreduced section
2. For 2.78Fy > Fe > 0.56Fy relatively to extreme compression fiber
10  10 F y   2E
Fc  F y 1  

(Eq. 553.3-8)  ey  (Eq. 553.3-14)
9  36 Fe  2
 K y Ly 
 
3. For Fe ≤ 0.56Fy  ry 
 

where in the plane of bending; M1 and M2, the ratio of

end moments, is positive when M1 and M2 have
E = modulus of elasticity of steel
the same sign (reverse curvature bending) and
Ky = effective length factors for bending about y-axis
negative when they are of opposite sign (single
Ly = unbraced lengthof member for bending about y-
curvature bending). When the bending moment
axis
at any point within an unbraced length is larger
1   2 EC w  than that at the both ends of this length, CTF
t  GJ   (Eq. 553.3-15) shall be taken as unity.
Aro 2   K t Lt 2 

where 1  3 2 
j   x dA   xy dA   x o
G = Shear modulus 2I y  A A 
J = Saint-Venant torsion constant of cross-section
Cw = Torsional warping constant of cross-section (Eq. 553.3-19)
Kt = Effective length factors for twisting b. For I- sections. Singly-symmetric C-sections, or Z-
Lt = Unbraced length of member for twisting sections bent about the centroidal axis perpendicular to
the web (axis), the following equations shall be
For singly-symmetric sections, x-axis of symmetry oriented permitted to be used in lieu of (a) to calculate Fe:
such that the shear center has a negative x-coordinate.
Cb 2 Ed I yc
Fe  (Eq. 553.3-20)
For point-symmetric sections, such as Z-sections, x-axis
shall be the centroidal axis perpendicular to the web. 
S f K y Ly 2
For doubly-symmetric I-sections and singly-symmetric C-
Alternatively, Fe shall be permitted to be calculated using
sections
the equation given in (b0 for doubly-symmetric I-sections,
singly-symmetric C-sections, or point-symmetric Z- Cb 2 Ed I yc
sections. Fe  (Eq. 553.3-21)

2S f K y L y 2
(ii) For singly-symmetric sections bending about
the centroidal axis perpendicular to the axis of For point symmetric Z- sections
symmetry:
where
C A     d = Depth of section
Fe  s ex  j  C s j 2  ro 2  t  
CTF S f  
  ex  
Iyc = Moment of inertia of compression portion of
 section about centroidal axis of entire section
(Eq. 553.3-16) parallel to web, using full unreduced section
where see (a) for definition of other variables
Cs = + 1 for moment causing compression on shear 533.3.1b.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling Strength of

center of side of centroid Closed Box Members
= -1 for moment causing tension on shear center For closed box members, the nominal flexural strength, Mn,
side of centroid shall be determined in accordance with this section.
 2E If the laterally unbraced length of the member is less than or

 ex  (Eq. 553.3-17)
 K x Lx  equal to Lu, the nominal flexural strength shall be
  determined in accordance with Section 553.3.1.1. Lu shall
 rx  be calculated as follows:
where
0.36Cb
Kx = Effective length factors for bending about x- axis Lu  E G J Iy (Eq. 553.3-22)
Lx = Unbraced length of member for bending about Fy S y
x-axis
See Section 553.3.1b.1 for definition of variables.
CTF = 0.6 -0.4 (M1/M2) (Eq. 553.3-18)
where If the laterally unbraced length of a member is larger than
Lu , as calculated in Eq. 553.1-22, the nominal flexural
M1,M2 = the smaller and the larger bending moment,
strength shall be determined in accordance with Section
respectively, at the ends of the unbraced length

553.3.1.2.1, where the critical lateral-torsional buckling used to determine the allowable flexural strength or design
stress, Fe, is calculated as follows: flexural strength in accordance with the applicable design
Cb  method in Section 551.4, or 551.5.
Fe  E G J Iy (Eq. 553.3-23)
K y Ly S f ϕb = 0.90 (LRFD) Ωb = 1.67 (ASD)
where For λd ≤ 0.673
J = torsional constant of box section Mn = My (Eq. 553.3-28)

Iy = moment of inertia of full unreduced section
about centroidal axis parallel to web For λd > 0.673
See Section 553.3.1b.1 for definition of other variables.  0.5  0.5
 M    M crd 
M n  1  0.22 crd 
 M
 My
553.3.1.3 Flexural Strength of Closed Cylindrical   My   
   
y 
Tubular Members
For closed cylindrical tubular members having a ratio of (Eq. 553.3-29)
outside diameter to wall thickness, D / t, not greater than
where
0.441 E / Fy, the nominal flexural strength [moment
resistance], Mn, shall be calculated in accordance with Eq. My
553.3-24.the safety factor and resistance factors given in d  (Eq. 553.3-30)
this section shall be used to determine the allowable flexural M crd
strength or design flexural strength [factored moment
resistance] in accordance with the applicable design method My= SfyFy (Eq. 553.3-31)
in Section 551.4, or 551.5. where
Mn= FcSf (Eq. 553.3-24) Sfy = Elastic section modulus of full unreduced section
ϕb = 0.95 ( LRFD) Ωb = 1.67 (ASD) relative to extreme compression fiber
Fd = Elastic distorsional buckling stresscalculated in
For D / t ≤ 0.0714 E / Fy accordance with either Section 553.3.1d (a), (b),
or (c)
Fc = 1.25 Fy (Eq. 553.3-25)
1. Simplified Provisions for Unrestrained C- and Z-
For 0.01714 E / Fy < D / t ≤ 0.318 E/Fy
Sections with Simple Lip Stiffeners
  E Fy 
Fc 0.970  0.020  Fy
 (Eq. 553.3-26) For C- and Z- sections that have no rotational restraint of
  Dt  the compression flange and are within the dimensional
limits provided in this section, Eq. 553.3-32 shall be
For 0.318 E /Fy < D / t ≤ 0.441 E / Fy
permitted to be used to calculate a conservative prediction
Fc = 0.328 E / ( D/t) (Eq. 553.3-27) of the distortional buckling stress, Fd. See section
553.3.1d(b) or 553.3.1d(c) for alternative provisions and for
where
members outside the dimensional limits of this section.
D = outside diameter of cylindrical tube
t = thickness The following dimensional limits shall apply:
Fc = critical flexural buckling stress
a. 50 ≤ ho / t ≤ 200,
Sf = elastic section modulus of full unreduced cross
section relative to extreme compression fiber b. 25 ≤ bo / t ≤ 100,
See Section 553.3.1b.1 for definitions of other variables. c. 6.25< D / t ≤ 50,
d. 45° ≤ Ɵ < 90°,
553.3.1.4 Distortional Buckling Strength
The provisions of this section shall apply to I-, Z-, C-, and e. 2 ≤ ho / bo ≤ 8, and
other open cross- section members that employ compression f. 0.04 ≤ D sinƟ / bo ≤ 0.5.
flanges with edge stiffeners, with the exception of members
that meet the criteria of Section 554.6.1.1, 554.6.1.2 when where
the R factor of Eq. 554.6.1.2-1 is employed, or 554.6.2.1. ho = Out-to-out web depth as defined in Figure 552-4
The nominal flexural strength shall be calculated in t = Base steel thickness
accordance with Eq. 553.1-28 or Eq. 553.3-29. The safety bo = Out-to –out flange width as defined in Figure
factor and resistance factors given in this section shall be

552-4 kfe  Fwe  k

D = Out-to-out lip dimension as defined in Figure Fd   (Eq. 553.3-36)
kfg  kwg
552-9
Ɵ = Lip angle as defined in Figure 552-9 where
The distorsional buckling stress, Fd, shall be calculated as β = A value accounting for moment gradient, which
follows: is permitted to be a conservatively taken as 1.0
2 = 1.0 ≤ 1+ 0.4 (L/Lm )0.7 (1 –M1 / M2)0.7 ≤ 1.3
 2E  t  (Eq. 553.3-37)
Fd  k d  

12 1   2  b
 o


(Eq. 553.3-32)
where
where L = Minimum of Lcr and Lm
β = A value accounting for moment gradient, which where
is permitted to be a conservatively taken as 1.0
 
14
 4 4h 12  I 2 4 4
= 1.0 ≤ 1 + 0.4 (L /Lm )0.7 (1 – M1 / M2 )0.7 ≤ 1.3 Lcr   o  Ixf xo hx2 Cwf  xyf xo hx2    ho 
 t 3  Iyf 720 
(Eq. 553.3-33)   
where (Eq. 553.3-38)
L = Minimum of Lcr and Lm where
where ho = Out-to-out web depth as defined in Figure 552-4
0.6
µ = Piosson’s ratio
 b D sin   t = Base steel thickness
Lcr  1.2ho  o 
  10ho (Eq. 553.3-34)
 ho t 
Ixf = x-axis moment of inertia of the flange
xo = x distance from the centroid of the flange to the
shear center of the flange
hx = x distance from the centroid of the flange to the
where flange /web junction
Lm = Distance between disrete restraints that restrict Cwf = Waping torsion constant of the flange
distorsional buckling (for continuously Ixyf = Product of the moment of inertia of the flange
restrained members Lm = Lcr ) Iyf = y-axis moment of inertia of the flange
M1,M2 = The smaller and the larger end moment ,
respectively, in the unbraced segment (Lm) of the In the above, Ixf, Iyf, Ixyf, Cwf, xo, and hx are properties of the
beam; M1 / M2 is negative when the moments compression flange plus stiffener about an x-y axis system
cause reverse curvature and positive when bent located at the centroid of the flange, with the x-axis
in single curvature measured positive to the right from the centroid, and the y-
axis positive down from the centroid.
0.7
 b D sin  
k d  0.5  0.6 o 
  8.0 (Eq. 553.3-35) Lm = Distance between discrete restraints that restricts
 ho t  distortional buckling (for continuously restrained
where members Lm = Lcr)
M1, M2 = The smaller and the larger end moments,
E = Modulus of Elasticity respectively, in the unbraced segment (Lm) of the
μ = Poisson’s ratio beam; M1 / M2 is negative when the moments
2. For C- and Z- Sections or any Open Section with a cause reverse curvature and positive when bent
Stiffened Compression Flange Extending to One Side in single curvature
of the Web where the Stiffener is either a Simple Lip or kϕfe = Elastic rotational stiffness provided by the
a Complex Edge Stiffener flange to the flange / web juncture
=
The provisions of this section shall be permitted to apply to  I 2 
any open section with a single web and single edge stiffened  L4  EIxf xo  hx 2  ECwf  E xyf xo  hx 2    L2 GJ f
I yf
compression flange; including those meeting the geometric  
limits of Section 553.3.1d (a). The distortional buckling (Eq. 553.3-39)
stress, Fd, shall be calculated in accordance with Eq. 553.3-
36) as follows: where

E = Modulus of elasticity of steel  

G = Shear modulus  
Jf = St. Venant torsion constant of the compression h t  2
k11  k12  k13 
= o  
flange, plus edge Stiffener about an x-y ais 13440  2 4

 L  L 
located at the centroid of the flange, with the x-   4  28 2    420 
 
 h 
axis measured positive to the right from the   o  ho  
centroid, and the y-axis positive down from the
centroid (Eq. 553.3-42)
kϕwe = Elastic rotational stiffness provided by the web where
to the flange /web juncture
ξweb = (f1 – f2 ) / f1, stress gradient in the web, where f1
= Et 3  3    2 19 ho 3  ho 3  and f2 are the stresses at the opposite ends of the
   ( )4

12 1   2   ho  L  60 L 240  web, f1 < f2, compression is positive, tension is
 negative, and the stresses are calculated on the
(Eq. 553.3-40) basis of the gross section, (e.g., pure
symmetrical bending, f1 = f2, ξweb= 2)
kϕ = Rotational stiffness provided by a restraining
element (brace, panel, sheathing) to the flange / 3. Rational Elastic Buckling Analysis
web juncture of a member (zero if the A rational elastic buckling analysis that considers
compression flange is unrestrained) distorsional buckling shall be permitted to be used in lieu of
ǩϕfg = Geometric rotational stiffness ( divided by the the expressions given in Section 553.3.1d shall apply. The
stress Fd ) demanded by the flange from the safety and resistance factors in section 553.3.1d.
flange / web juncture
553.3.2 Shear
=
2  2  
    
2 I xyf
 I 
  hx 2  yo 2   I xf  I yf 
553.3.2a Shear Strength of Webs without Holes
   Af  xo  hx     2 yo xo  hx  xyf
  I yf  
 L    I yf      The nominal shear strength, Vn, shall be calculated
in
   
accordance with Eq. 553.3-43. The safety factor and
(Eq. 553.3-41) resistance factors given in this section shall be used to
determine the allowable shear strength or design shear
where strength in accordance with the applicable design method in
Section A4, A5, or A6.
Af = Cross- sectional area of the compression flange
plus edge stiffener about an x- y axis located at
the centroid of the flange, with the x-axis
measured positive to the right from the centroid, Vn = AwFv (Eq. 553.3-43)
and the y-axis positive down from the centroid ϕv=0.95 (LRFD) Ωv=1.60(ASD)
yo = y distance from the centroid of the flange to the
shear center of the flange Ek v
ǩϕwg = Geometric rotational stiffness ( divided by the 1. For h t
stress Fd ) demanded by the web from the flange Fy
/ web juncture
Fv =0.60Fy (Eq. 553.3-44)
  L 
2
k11  45360 1   web   62160 


  ho  
2. For Ek v < h/t  1.51 Ekv
 
Fy Fy
k12  448 2
2 Ek v
h  0.60
k13   o  53  31   web  4 Fy
 L  Fv  (Eq. 553.3-45)
h
 
t
Ek v
3. For h/t > 1.51
Fy

 2 Ekv 4. Clear distance between holes ≥ 457 mm

Fv  (Eq. 553.3-46)
 
2 5. Non-circular holes, corner raddi ≥ 2t,
h
12 1   2  
t 6. Non-circular holes, dn ≤ 65 mm and Lh ≤ 115 mm ,
where 7. Circular holes, diameter ≤ 150 mm, and
Vn = Nominal shear strength [resistance] 8. Dh < 15 mm.
Aw = Area of web element where
= ht (Eq. 553.3-47)
dh = depth of web hole
where h = Depth of flat portion of web measured along
h = Depth of flat portion of web measured along plane of web
plane of web t = Web thickness
t = Web thickness Lh = Length of web hole
Fv = Nominal shear stress For C-Section webs with holes, the shear strength shall be
E = Modulus of elasticity of steel calculated in accordance with Section 553.3.2.1, multiplied
Kv = Shear buckling coefficient calculated in by the reduction factor, qs, as defined in this section.
accordance with (1) or (2) as follows:
(1) For unreinforced webs, kv = 5.34 when c /t ≥ 54 qs = 1.0
(2) For webs with transverse stiffeners when 5 ≤ c / t < 54 qs = c / (54t) (Eq. 553.3-50)
satisfying the requirements of Section 553.3.7
where
when a / h ≤ 1.0
c = h / 2 – dn/ 2.83 for circular holes (Eq. 553.3-51)
5.34 = h / 2 – dn/ 2 for non-circular holes (Eq. 553.3-52)
k v  4.00  2
(Eq. 553.3-48)
a
 
h
553.3.3 Combined Bending and Shear
when a / h > 1.0 553.3.3a ASD Method

4.00 For beams subjected to combined bending and shear, the
k v  5.34  2
(Eq. 553.3-49) required flexural strength, M, and required shear strength, V
a shall not exceed Mn/Ωv, respectively.
 
h
For beams with unreinforced webs, the required flexural
where
strength, M, and required shear strength, V, shall also satisfy
a = Shear panel length of unreinforced web the following interaction equation:
element
2
= Clear distance between transverse  b M    vV 
stiffenersof reinforced web elements     1.0 (Eq. 553.3-53)
M   V 
Fy = Design yield stress as determined in  nxo   n 
accordance with Section 551.7.1
µ = Poisson’s ratio For beams with transverse web stiffeners, when ΩbM / Mnxo
= 0.3 > 0.5 and ΩvV / Vn > 0.7, M and V shall also satisfy the
following interaction equation:
For a web consisting of two or more sheets, each sheet shall
be considered as a separate element carrying its share of the
shear force.  M    vV 
0.60 b 
  V
  1.30
 (Eq. 553.3-54)
 M nxo   n 
553.3.2b Shear Strength of C-section Webs with Holes
where
The provisions of this section shall apply within the
following limits: Mn = Nominal flexural strength when bending
alone is considered
1. Dh / h ≤ 0.7,
Ωb = Safety factor for bending (see Section
2. h /t ≤ 200 553.3.1a)
Mnxo = Nominal flexural strength about centroidal
3. Holes centered at mid-depth of web,

x-axis determined in accordance with  R  N  

Section 553.3.1a Pn  Ct 2 F y sin  1  C R 1  CN 1  C h h 
 t  t  t 
Ωv = Safety factor for shear (see Section 553.3.2)  
Vn = Nominal shear strength when shear alone
(Eq. 553.3-57)
is considered
where
553.3.3b LRFD Method
Pn = Nominal web crippling strength [resistance]
For beams subjected to combined bending and shear, the C = Coefficient from Table 553.3-4a.1 to 553.3-4a.5
required flexural strength M , and the required shear t = Web thickness
strength V , shall not exceed ϕbMn and, and respectively. Fy = Design yield stress as determined in
accordance with Section 551.7.1
For beams with unreinforced webs, the required flexural θ = Angle between plane of web and plane of
strength, ,and the required shear strength, , shall also bearing surface, 45˚ ≤ θ ≤ 90˚
satisfy the following interaction equation: CR = Inside bend radius coefficient from Table
553.3-4a.1 to 553.3-4a.5
2 2 R = Inside bend radius
 M   V 
   v   1.0 (Eq. 553.3-55) CN = Bearing length coefficient from Table
 M   V 
 b nxo   n  553.3-4a.1 to 553.3-4a.5
N = Bearing length 19mm minimum
For beams with transverse web stiffeners, when Ch = Web slenderness coefficient from Table
M b M nxo  > 0.5 and V bVn  > 0.7, M and V shall also 553.3-4a.1 to 553.3-4a.5
h = Flat dimension of web measured in plane of
satisfy the following interaction equation:
web

Alternatively, for an end-one-flange loading condition on a
 M   V  C- or Z-section, the nominalweb crippling strength, Pnc shall
0.60 
 
  1.30 (Eq. 553.3-56)

  b M nxo    vVn  not be larger than the interior-one-flange loading condition:
where: Pnc = αPn (Eq. 553.3-58)
Mn = Nominal flexural strength when bending alone is where

considered Pnc = Nominal web crippling strength of C and Z-
M = Required flexural strength sections with overhang(s)
= Mu (LRFD) 0.26
 Lo 
ϕb = Resistance factor for bending (see Section 1.34 
553.3.1a) a  h  (Eq. 553.3-59)
Mnxo = Nominal flexural strength [moment h
0.009   0.3
resistance]about centroidal x-axis t
determined in accordance with Section
5533.1a where
V = Required shear strength
Lo = Overhang length measured from edge of
= Vu (LRFD)
bearing to the end of the member
ϕv = Resistance factor for shear (see Section
Pn = Nominal web crippling strength with end one-
553.3.2)
flange loading as calculated by 553.3-57 and
Vn = Nominal shear strength when shear alone is
Tables 553-2 and 553-3 Eq. 553.3-58 and shall
considered
be limited to 0.5 ≤ Lo / h ≤ 1.5 and h / t ≤ 154.
For Lo /h or h /t outside these limits, α=1.
553.3.4 Web Crippling
Webs of members in bending for which h / t is greater than
553.3.4a Web Crippling Strength of Webs without Holes 200 shall be provided with means of transmitting
The nominal web crippling strength, Pn, shall be determined concentrated loads or reactions directly into the web(s).
in accordance with Eq. 553.3-57 OR Eq. 553.3-58, as
applicable. The safety factors and resistance factors in Pn and Pnc shall represent the nominal strengths for load or
Tables 553-1 to 553-5 shall be used to determine the reaction for one solid web connecting top and bottom
allowable strength or design strength in accordance with the flanges. For webs consisting of two or more such sheets, Pn
applicable design method in Section 551.4, or 551.5. and Pnc shall be calculated for each individual sheet and the

results added to obtain the nominal strength for the full shall be extended at least 1.5h.
section.
Table 553-4 shall apply to single hat section members
One-flange loading or reaction shall be defined as the where h / t ≤ 200, N / t ≤200, N/ h ≤2, and θ = 90˚.
condition where the clear distance between the bearing
edges of adjacent opposite concentrated loads or reactions is Table 553-5 shall apply to multi-web section members
equal to or greater than 1.5h. where h / t ≤ 200, N / t ≤ 210, N / h ≤ 3, and 45˚ ≤ θ ≤ 90˚.
Two-flange loading or reaction shall be defined as the 553.3.4b Web Crippling Strength of C-Section
condition where the clear distance between the bearing Webs with Holes
edges of adjacent opposite concentrated loads or reactions is Where a web hole is within the bearing length, a bearing
less than 1.5h. stiffener shall be used. For beam webs with holes, the
available web crippling strength shall be calculated in
Table 553-1 shall apply to I-beams made from two channels accordance with Section 553.3.4a, multiplied by the
connected back-to-back where h / t ≤ 200, N / t ≤ 210, N / h reduction factor, Rc, given in this section.
≤ 1.0 and θ = 90˚. See Section 553.3.4.1 of commentary for
further explanation. The provisions of this section shall apply within the
following limits:
Table 553-2 shall apply to single web channel and C-
Sections members where h / t ≤ 200, N / t ≤ 210, N / h ≤ 2.0, 1. dh/h ≤ 0.7,
and θ = 90˚. In Table 553-2, for interior two- flange loading 2. h/t ≤ 200,
or reaction of members having flanges fastened to the
support, the distance from the edge of bearing to the end of 3. Hole centered at mid-depth of web,
the member shall be extended at least 2.5h. For unfastened 4. Clear distance between holes ≥ 450 mm,
cases, the distance from the edge of bearing to the end of
the member shall be extended at least 1.5h. 5. between end of member and edge of hole ≥ d,
6. Non-circular holes, corner radii ≥ 2t,
Table 553-3 shall apply to single web Z-section members
where h / t ≤ 200, N / t ≤ 210, N / h ≤ 2.0, and θ = 90˚. In 7. Non-circular holes, dh ≤ 65 mm and Lh ≤ 115 mm,
Table 553-3, for interior two-flange loading or reaction of 8. Circular holes, dh ≤ 150 mm, and
members having flanges fastened to the support, the
distance from the edge of bearing to the end of the member 9. dh > 15 mm.
shall be extended at least 2.5h; for unfastened cases, the
distance from the edge of bearing to the end of the member

Table 553-1
Safety Factors, Resistance Factors and Coefficients for Built-Up Sections
Support and
ASD LRFD
Flange Load Cases C CR CN Ch Limits
Ωw фw
Conditions
One-
Stiffened or End 10 0.14 0.28 0.001 2.00 0.75 R/t≤5
Flange
Fastened to Partially
Loading
Support Stiffened
or Interior 20.5 0.17 0.11 0.001 1.75 0.85 R/t≤5
Flanges
Reaction
One-
Flange End 10 0.14 0.28 0.001 2.00 0.75 R/t≤5
Loading
Stiffened or or Interior 20.5 0.17 0.11 0.001 1.75 0.85 R/t≤3
Partially Reaction
Stiffened Two-
Flanges Flange End 15.5 0.09 0.08 2.00 2.00 0.75 R/t≤3
Unfastened Loading
or Interior 36 0.14 0.08 2.00 2.00 0.75 R/t≤3
Reaction
One-
Flange End 10 0.14 0.28 2.00 2.00 0.75 R/t≤5
Unstiffened
Loading
Flanges
or Interior 20.5 0.17 0.11 0.001 1.75 0.85 R/t≤3
Reaction
Table 553-2
Safety Factors, Resistance Factors and Coefficients for Single Web Channel and C-Sections
ASD LRFD
Support and Flange Conditions Load Cases C CR CN Ch Limits
Ωw фw
One-Flange
End 4 0.14 0.35 0.02 1.75 0.85 R/t≤9
Loading or
Stiffened or
Reaction
Fastened to Partially Interior 13 0.23 0.14 0.01 1.65 0.90 R/t≤5
Support Stiffened
Two-Flange
Flanges End 7.5 0.08 0.12 0.048 1.75 0.85 R/t≤12
Loading or
Reaction Interior 20 0.10 0.08 0.031 1.75 0.85 R/t≤12
One-Flange
End 4 0.14 0.35 0.02 1.85 0.80
Loading or R/t≤5
Stiffened or Reaction Interior 13 0.23 0.14 0.01 1.65 0.90
Partially
Unfastened
Stiffened End 13 0.32 0.05 0.04 1.65 0.90
Two-Flange
Flanges Loading or R/t≤3
Reaction
Interior 24 0.52 0.15 0.001 1.9 0.80
End 4 0.40 0.60 0.03 1.8 0.85 R/t≤2

One-Flange
Loading or
Reaction
Interior 13 0.32 0.10 0.01 1.8 0.85 R/t≤1
Unstiffened
Unfastened
Flanges
End 2 0.11 0.37 0.01 2.00 0.75
Two-Flange
Loading or R/t≤1
Reaction
Interior 13 0.47 0.25 0.04 1.90 0.80

Table 553-3
Safety Factors, Resistance Factors and Coefficients for Single Web Z-Sections
Support and Flange ASD LRFD

Load Cases C CR CN Ch Limits
Conditions Ωw фw
One-
Flange End 4 0.14 0.35 0.02 1.75 0.85 R/t≤9
Loading
Stiffened or or Interior 9 0.05 0.16 0.052 1.75 0.85 R/t≤5.5
Fastened to Partially Reaction
Support Stiffened Two-
Flanges Flange End 24 0.07 0.07 0.04 1.85 0.80 R/t≤12
Loading
or Interior 20 0.10 0.08 0.031 1.80 0.85 R/t≤12
Reaction
One-
Flange End 4 0.14 0.35 0.02 1.85 0.80
Loading R/t≤5
Stiffened or or Interior 13 0.23 0.14 0.01 1.65 0.90
Partially Reaction
Stiffened Two-
Flanges Flange End 13 0.32 0.05 0.04 1.65 0.90
Loading R/t≤3
or Interior 24 0.52 0.15 0.001 1.90 0.80
Reaction
Unfastened
One-
Flange End 4 0.40 0.60 0.03 1.80 0.85 R/t≤2
Loading
or Interior 13 0.32 0.10 0.01 1.80 0.85 R/t≤1
Unstiffened Reaction
Flanges Two-
Flange End 2 0.11 0.37 0.01 2.00 0.75
Loading R/t≤1
or Interior 13 0.47 0.25 0.04 1.90 0.80
Reaction

Table 553-4
Safety Factors, Resistance Factors and Coefficients for Single Hat Sections
Support and
ASD LRFD
Ωw фw
Conditions
One-Flange End 4 0.25 0.68 0.04 2.00 0.75 R/t≤5
Loading or
Fastened to Reaction Interior 9 0.05 0.16 0.052 1.75 0.85 R/t≤10
Support Two-Flange End 9 0.10 0.07 0.03 1.85 0.80
Loading or R/t≤10
Reaction Interior 10 0.14 0.22 0.02 1.80 0.85
One-Flange End 4 0.25 0.68 0.04 2.00 0.75 R/t≤4
Unfastened Loading or
Reaction Interior 17 0.13 0.13 0.04 1.80 0.85 R/t≤4
Table 553-5
Safety Factors, Resistance Factors and Coefficients for Single Hat Sections
Support and
ASD LRFD
Ωw фw
Conditions
One-Flange End 4 0.04 0.25 0.25 1.70 0.90 R/t≤9
Loading or
Fastened to Reaction Interior 8 0.10 0.17 0.004 1.75 0.85 R/t≤5.5
Support Two-Flange End 9 0.12 0.14 0.040 1.80 0.85
Loading or R/t≤10
One-Flange End 3 0.04 0.29 0.028 2.45 0.60
Loading or R/t≤20
Unfastened
Two-Flange End 6 0.16 0.15 0.050 1.65 0.90
Loading or R/t≤5

where  P   M  1.46
0.88 
 M

 (Eq. 553.3-61)
 Pn   nxo  
dh = Depth of web hole
h = Depth of flat portion of web measured along 3. For the support point of two nested Z-shapes, Eq.
plane of web 553.3-62 shall be satisfied as follows:
t = Web thickness
d = Depth of cross-section
Lh =Length of web hole  P   M  1.65
0.86 
 M

 (Eq. 553.3-62)
 Pn   nxo  
For end-one flange reaction (Equation C3.4.1-1 with Table
553.3-4a.2) where a web hole is not within the bearing Eq. 553.3-62 shall apply to shapes that meet the following
length, the reduction factor, Rc, shall be calculated as limits:
follows: h/t ≤ 150,
Rc = 1.01 – 0.325dh/h + 0.083x/h ≤ 1.0 N/t ≤ 140,
(Eq. 553.3-59)
Fy ≤ 480 MPa, and
N ≥ 75 mm
R/t ≤ 5.5
where
The following conditions shall also be satisfied:
x = Nearest distance between web hole and edge
of bearing a. The ends of each section are connected to the other
N = Bearing length section by a minimum of two 12 mm diameter A307
bolts through the web.
553.3.5 Combined Bending and Web Crippling b. The combined section is connected to the support by a
minimum of two 12 mm diameter A307 bolts through
553.3.5.1 ASD Method the flanges.
Unreinforced flat web of shapes subjected to a combination
of bending and concentrated load or reaction shall be c. The webs of the two sections are in contact.
designed such that the moment, M, and the concentrated d. The ratio of the thicker to the thinner part does not
load or reaction, P, satisfy M ≤ Mnxo/Ωb1 and P ≤ Pn/Ωw. in exceed 1.3.
addition, the following requirements in (a), (b) and (c), as
applicable, shall be satisfied. The following conditions shall be satisfied;
1. For shapes having single unreinforced webs, Eq. 553.3- M = Required flexural strength at, or immediately
60 shall be satisfied as follows: adjacent to, the point of application of the
concentrated load or reaction, P
 P   M  1.33 P = Required strength for concentrated load or
0.91 
 M

 (Eq. 553.3-60) reaction in the presence of bending moment
 Pn   nxo  
Mnxo = Nominal flexural strength about centroidal x-
Exception: axis determined in accordance with Section
553.3.1.1
At the interior supports of continuous spans, Eq. 553.3-60 Ωb = Safety factor for bending (See Section 553.3.1.1)
shall not apply to deck or beams with two or more singles Pn = Nominal strength for concentrated load or
webs, provided the compression edges of adjacent webs are reaction in absence of bending moment
laterally supported in the negative moment region by determined in accordance with Section 553.3.4
continuous or intermittently connected flange elements, Ωw = Safety factor for web crippling (See Section
rigid cladding, or lateral bracing, and the spacing between 553.3.4)
adjacent webs does not exceed 250 mm, Ω = safety factor for combined bending and web
2. For shapes having multiple unreinforced webs such as crippling.
1-sections made of two C-sections connected back-to- = 1.70
back, or similar sections that provide a high degree of
restraint against rotation of the web (such as 1-sections
made by welding two angles to a C-section), Eq. 553.3-
61 shall be satisfied as follows:

R/t ≤ 5.5
553.3.5b LRFD Methods
The following conditions shall also be satisfied:
Unreinforced flat webs of shapes subjected to a combination
of bending and concentrated load or reaction shall be a. The ends of each section are connected to the other
designed such that the moment, M, and the concentrated section by a minimum of two 12mm diameter a 307
load or reaction, P, satisfy M ≤ ϕbMnxo and P ≤ϕwPn. In bolts through the web.
addition, the following requirements in (a), (b), (c),, as b. The combined section is connected to the support by a
applicable, shall be satisfied. minimum of two 12 mm diameter A307 bolts through
1. For shapes having single unreinforced webs, Eq. 553.3- flanges.
63 shall be satisfied as follows: c. The webs of the two sections are in contact.
 P   M  d. The ration of the thicker to the thinner part does not
0.91 
 M
  1.33
 (Eq. 553.3-63) exceed 1.3.
 Pn   nxo 
The following notation shall apply in this section:
where M = required flexural strength at, or immediately
ϕ = 0.90 (LRFD) adjacent to, the point of application of the
concentrated load or reaction P.
Exception: = Mu (LRFD)
At the interior supports of continuous spans, Eq. 553.3-62 P = required strength for concentrated load or
shall to deck or beams with two or more single webs , reaction [factored concentrated load or reation0
provided the compression edges of adjacent webs are in presence to bending moment
laterally supported in the negative moment region by = Pu (LRFD)
continuous or intermittently connected flange elements, ϕb = resistance factor for bending (See Section
rigid cladding, or lateral bring , and the spacing between 553.3.1.1)
adjacent webs does not exceed 250mm. Mnxo = Nominal flexural strength about centroidal x-
axis determine in accordance with Section
2. For having multiple unreinforced webs such as I- 553.3.1.1)
Sections made of two C-sections connected back-to- ϕw = Resistance factor for web crippling (See Section
back, or similar sections that provide a high degree of 553.3.4)
restraint against rotation of the wb (such as I-sections Pn = nominal strength for concentrated load or
made by welding two angles to a C- section), Eq. reaction in absence of bending moment
553.3-63a shall be satisfied as follows: determined in accordance with Section 553.3.4.
 P   M 
0.88    1.46 (Eq. 553.3-63a) 553.3.6 Combined Bending and Torsional Loading
 M 
 Pn   nxo  For laterally unrestrained flexural members subjected to
both bending and torsional loading, the available flexural
where
strength [factored moment resistance] calculated in
ϕ = 0.90 (LRFD) accordance with Section 553.3.1a (a) shall be reduced by
multiplying it by a reduction factor, R.
3. For two nested Z-shapes, Eq. 553.3-64 shall be satisfied
as follows:
As specified in Equation 553.3-65, the reduction factor, R,
 P   M  shall be equal to the ratio of the normal stresses due to
0.88 
 M
  1.65
 (Eq. 553.3-64) bending alone divided by the combined stresses due to both
 Pn   nxo  bending and torsional warping at the point of maximum
where combined stress on the cross-section.
ϕ = 0.90 (LRFD) f bending

R 1 (Eq. 553.3-65)
Eq. 553.3-64 shall apply to shapes that meet the following f bending  f torsion
limits:
Stresses shall be calculated using full section properties for
h /t ≤ 150,
the torsional stresses and effective section properties for the
N /t ≤ 140, bending stresses. For C-sections with edge stiffened flanges,
if the maximum combined compressive stresses occur at the
Fy ≤ 480 MPa, and
junction of the web and flange, the R factor shall be

permitted to be increased by 15 percent. But the R factor where

shall not be greater than 1.0
Lst = Length of being stiffener
The provisions of this section shall not be applied when the
The w/ts ration for the stiffened and unstiffened elements of
provisions of Section shall not be applied when the
provisions of Section 554.6.1a and 554.6.1b are used. the bearing stiffener shall not exceed 1.28 E Fys
553.3.7 Stiffeners and 0.42 E Fys , respectively, where Fys is the yield stress,
and ts is the thickness of the stiffener steel.
553.3.7a Bearing Stiffeners
Bearing Stiffeners attached to beam webs at points of 553.3.7b Bearing Stiffeners in C-Section Flexural
concentrated loads or reactions shall be designed as Members
compression members. Concentrated loads or reactions For two-flange loading of C-section flexural members with
shall be applied directly into the stiffeners or each stiffener bearing stiffeners that do not meet the requirements of
shall be fitted accurately to the flat portion of the flange to Section 553.3.7a, the nominal strength [resistance], Pn, shall
provide direct load bearing into the end of the stiffener. be calculated in accordance with Eq. 553.3-73. The safety
Means for shear transfer between the stiffener and the web factor and resistance factors in this section shall be used to
shall be provided in accordance with Section 555. For determine the allowable strength or design strength in
concentrated loads or reactions, the nominal strength, Pn, accordance with the applicable design method in Section
shall be the smaller value calculated by (a) and (b) of this 551.4, or 551.6.
section. The safety factor and resistance factors provided in
this section shall be used to determine the allowable Pn = 0.7 (Pwc + AeFy) ≥ Pwc (Eq. 553.3-73)
strength or design strength [factored resistance] in a ϕ = 0.90 (LRFD) Ω = 1.70 (ASD)
551.4, or 551.5. where
ϕc = 0.85 (LRFD) Ωc = 2.00 (ASD) Pwc = Nominal web crippling strength [resistance] for
C-section flexural member calculated in
1. Pn = Fwy Ac (Eq. 553.3-66) accordance with Eq. 553.3-57 for single web
2. Pn = Nominal axial strength [resistance] evaluated in members, at end or interior locations
accordance with Section 553.4.1 (a), with Ae Ae = Effective area of bearing stiffener subjected to
replaced by Ab uniform compressive stress, calculated at yield
stress Fy = Yield stress of bearing stiffener steel
where Eq. 553.3-73 shall apply within the following
Fwy = Lower value of fy for beam web, or Fys for limits:
stiffener section 1. Full bearing of the stiffener is required. If the bearing
Ac = 18t2 + As for bearing stiffener at interior support width is narrower than the stiffener such that one of the
or under concentrated load (Eq. 553.3-67) stiffener flanges is unsupported, Pn is reduced by 50
= 10t2 + As for bearing stiffener at end support percent.
(Eq. 553.3-68)
2. Stiffeners are C-section stud or track members with
where minimum web depth of 90 mm and a minimum base
t = Base steel thickness of beam web steel thickness 0f 0.85 mm.
As = Cross-sectional area of bearing stiffener 3. The stiffener is attached to the flexural member web
Ab = b1t + As, for bearing stiffener at interior support with at least three fasteners (screw or bolts).
or under concentrated load (Eq. 553.3-69)
= b2t + As, for bearing stiffener at end support 4. The distance from the flexural member flanges to the
(Eq. 553.3-70) first fastener (s) is not less than d / 8, where d is the
overall depth of the flexural member.
where
5. The length of the stiffener is not less than the depth of
b1 = 25t [0.0024(Lst/t) + 0.72] ≤ 25t (Eq. 553.3-71) the flexural member minus 10 mm.
b2 = 12t [0.0044(Lst/t) + 0.83] ≤ 12t (Eq. 553.3-72) 6. The bearing width is not less than 40 mm.

553.3.7c Shear Stiffener 553.3.7d Non-Conforming Stiffeners

Where shear stiffeners are required, the spacing shall be The available strength of members with stiffeners that do
besed on the nominal shear strength, Vn, permitted by not meet the requirements of Section 553.3.7.1, 553.3.7.2,
Section 553.3.2, and the ratio a / h shall not exceed [ 260 / or 553.3.7.3, such as stamped or rolled-in stiffeners, shall be
(h/t)] 2 nor 3.0. determined by tests in accordance with Section 556 or
rational engineering analysis in accordance with Section
The actual moment of inertia, Is, of a pair of attached shear 551.1.2 (b).
stiffeners, or of a single shear stiffener, with reference to an
axis in the plane of the web, shall have a minimum value 553.4 Concentrically Loaded Compression
calculated in accordance with Equation 553.3-73 as follows: Members
Ismin = 5ht3[h/a-0.7(a / h)] ≥ (h / 50)4 The available axial strength shall be the smaller of the
values calculated in accordance with Sections 553.4.1,
(Eq. 553.3-73) 553.4.2, 554.1.2, 554.1.2, 554.6.1.3 and 554.6.1.4, where
where applicable.
h and t = Values as defined in Section 552.1.2 553.4.1 Nominal Strength for Yielding, Flexural-
a = Distance between shear stiffeners. Torsional and Torsional Buckling
The gross area of shear stiffeners shall not be less than: This section shall apply to members in which the resultant
of all loads acting on the member is an axial load passing
 2  through the centroid of the effective section calculated at
 a 
  the stress, Fn, defined in this section.
1  C v  a   h 
Ast     YDht
2  h  2 1. The nominal axial strength, Pn, shall be calculated in
a a 
    1    accordance with Eq. 553.4-1. The safety factor and
 h  h   resistance factors in this section shall be used to
(Eq. 553.3-74) determine the allowable axial strength or design axial
strength in accordance with the applicable design
where
method in Section 551.4, 551.5.
1.53Ek v Pn = AeFn (Eq. 553.4-1)
Cv  2
when Cv ≤ 0.80
h
Fy   ϕc = 0.85 (LRFD) Ω = 1.80 (ASD)
t
where
1.11 Ek v
 when Cv ≤ 0.80 (Eq. 553.3-75) Ae = Effective area calculated at stress Fn. For
 h  Fy
  sections with circular holes. Ae is determined
t from the effective width in accordance with
where Section 552.2.2 (a), subject to the limitations of
that section. If the number of holes in the
5.34 effective length region times the whole diameter
k v  4.00  when a / h ≤ 1.0 (Eq. 553.3-76)
a
2 divided by the effective length does not exceed
  0.015, it is permitted to determine Ae by ignoring
h the holes. For closed cylindrical tubular
4.00 members, Ae is provided in Section 553.4.1.5.
k v  5.34  when a / h ≤ 1.0 (Eq. 553.3-77)
a
2 a. Fn shall be calculated as follows:
 
h For λc ≤ 1.5
Fn   0.658 c 
2
where (Eq. 553.4-2)

 
Yield stress of web steel For λc > 1.5
Y =
Yield stress of stiffenersteel  0.877 
D = 1.0 for stiffeners furnished in pairs Fn   2
 Fy (Eq. 553.4-3)
= 1.8 for single-angle stiffeners   c 
= 2.4 for single-plate stiffeners

where 1     
Fe   ex t  ex   t 2  4 ew t 
2 
Fy
c  (Eq. 553.4-4) (Eq. 553.4-6)
Fe
Alternatively, a conservative estimate of Fe shall be
Fe = The least of the applicable elastic flexural,
permitted to be calculated as follows:
torsional and flexural-torsional buckling stress
determined in accordance with Sections  t  ex
553.4.1.1 through 553.4.1.5 Fe  (Eq. 553.4-7)
 t   ex
2. Concentrically loaded angle sections shall be design for
an additional bending moment as specified in the where
definitions of Mx and My (ASD) or Mx and My (LRFD β = 1 – (xo/ro)2 (Eq.553.4-8)
or LSD) in Section 553.5.2.
σt and σex = Values as defined in Section 553.3.1b.1
553.4.1a Sections Not Subject to Torsional or For singly-symmetric sections, the x-axis shall be selected
Flexural-Torsional Buckling as the axis of symmetry.
For doubly-symmetric sections, closed cross-sections, and For doubly-symmetric sections subject to torsional
any other sections that can be shown not to be subjected to buckling, Fe shall be taken as the smaller of Fe calculated in
torsional or flexural-torsional buckling, the elastic flexural accordance with Section 553.4.1.1 and Fe = σt, where σt is
buckling stress, Fe, shall be calculated as follows: defined in Section 553.3.1b.1.
 2E
Fe  2
(Eq. 553.4-5) For singly-symmetric unstiffened angle sections for which
 KL  the effective area (Ae) at stress Fy is equal to the full
 
 r  unreduced cross-sectional area (A), Fe shall be computed
using Eq.553.4-5 where is the least radius of gyration.
where
E = Modulus of elasticity of steel 553.4.1c Point-Symmetric Sections
K = Effective length factor For point-symmetric sections, Fe shall be taken as the lesser
L = Laterally unbraced length of member of σt as defined in Section 553.3.1b.1 and Fe as calculated in
r = Radius of gyration of full unreduced cross Section 553.4.1.1 using the minor principal axis of the
section about axis of buckling section.
In frames where lateral stability is provided by diagonal 553.4.1d Nonsymmetric Sections

bracing, shear walls, attachment to an adjacent structure For shapes whose cross-sections do not have any symmetry,
having adequate lateral stability, or floor slabs or roof deck either about an axis or about a point, Fe shall be determine
secured horizontally by walls or bracing systems parallel to by rational analysis. Alternatively, compression members
the plane of the frame, and in trusses, the effective length composed of such shapes shall be permitted to be tested in
factor, K, for compression members that do not depend accordance with Section 556.
upon their own bending stiffness for lateral stability of the
frame or truss shall be taken as unity, unless analysis shows 553.4.1e Closed Cylindrical Tubular Sections
that a smaller value is suitable. In a frame that depends upon
its own bending stiffness for lateral stability, the effective For closed cylindrical tubular members having a ratio of
length, KL, of the compression members shall be outside diameter to wall thickness, D/t, not greater than
determined by a rational method and shall not be less than 0.441 E/Fy and in which the resultant of all loads and
the actual unbraced length. moments acting on the member is equivalent to a single
force in the direction of the member axis passing through
the centroid of the section, the elastic flexural buckling
553.4.1b Doubly or Singly-symmetric Sections
tress, Fe shall be calculated in accordance with Section
Subject to Torsional or Flexural-Torsional
553.4.1a, and the effective area, Ae, shall be calculated as
Buckling
follows:
For singly-symmetric sections subject to flexural-torsional
buckling, Fe shall be taken as the smaller of Fe calculated in Ae = Ao + R(A-Ao) (Eq. 553.4-9)
accordance with Section 553.4.1.d and Fe calculated as
follows:

where where
  Fd = Elastic distortional buckling stress calculated
 0.037  in accordance with either Section 553.4.2(a),
Ao    0.667 A  A (b), or (c)
 D Fy 
 t E  1. Simplified Provision for Unrestrained C- and Z-
Sections with simple Lip Stiffeners
For D/t ≤ 0.441 E/Fy (Eq. 553.4-10)
For C- and Z-Sections that have no rotational restraint of the
where
flange and that are within the dimensional limits provided in
D = Outside diameter of cylindrical tube this Section 553 shall be permitted to be used to calculate a
Fy = Yield stress conservative prediction of distortional buckling stress, Fd.
t = Thickness See Section 553.4.2(b) or 553.4.2(c) for alternative options
E = Modulus of elasticity of steel for members outside the dimensional limits.
A = Area of full unreduced cross-section
R = Fy (2Fe) ≤ 1.0 (Eq. 553.4-11) The following dimensional limits shall apply:
a. 50 ≤ ho / t ≤ 200,
553.4.2 Distortional Buckling Strength
The provisions of this section shall apply to I-, Z-, C-, Hat, b. 25 ≤ bo / t ≤ 100,
and other open cross section members that employ flanges c. 6.25< D / t ≤ 50,
with edge stiffeners, with the exception of members that are
designed in accordance with Section 554.6.1.2. The nominal d. 45˚ ≤ θ ≤ 90˚,
axial strength shall be calculated in accordance with Eqs. e. 2 ≤ ho / bo ≤ 8, and
C4.2-1 and C4.2-2. The safety factor and resistance factors
In this section shall be used to determine the allowable f. 0.04 ≤ D sinθ / bo ≤ 0.5.
compressive strength or design compressive strength in where
551.4, or 551.5. ho = Out-to-out web depth as defined in Figure 552-4
bo = Out-to-out flange width as defined in
ϕb = 0.85 (LRFD) Ωb = 1.80 (ASD) Figure 552-4
For λd ≤ 0.561 D = Out-to-out lip dimension as defined in
Figure 552-9
Pn = Py (Eq. 553.4-12) t = Base steel thickness
θ = Lip angle as defined in Figure 552-9
For λd > 0.561 The distortional buckling stress, Fd, shall be calculated in
 0.6  0.6 accordance with Eq.C4.2-6:
 P   Pcrd 
Pn  1  0.25 crd 
 P
 Py 2
  Py   y   2E  t 
   Fd  ak d  
 
(Eq. 553.4-13)

12 1   2  b
 o


(Eq. 553.4-17)
where where
α = A value that accounts for the benefit of an
Py unbraced length, Lm, shorter than Lcr, but can be
d  (Eq. 553.4-14)
Pcrd conservatively taken as 1.0
= 1.0 for Lm ≥ Lcr
Pn = Nominal axial strength = (Lm / Lcr)1n(Lm / Lcr) for Lm < Lcr (Eq. 553.4-18)
Py = AgFy (Eq. 553.4-15) where
where Lm = Distance between discrete restraints that restrict
Ag = Gross area of the cross-section Distortional buckling (for continuously
Fy = Yield stress restrained Members Lm= Lcr but the restraint
can be included as a rotational spring, kϕ, in
Pcrd = AgFd (Eq. 553.4-16) accordance with the provisions in 553.4.2(b) or
(c)

  I
0.6 14
 b D sin    6 4 h 1   2 I xyf 2 
Lcr  1.2ho  o 
  10ho (Eq. 553.4-19) Lcr   o
 xo  hx 
2
 C wf  2 
 xo  h x 
 ho t   t3  xf
I yf 
  
 b D sin  
1.4 (Eq. 553.4-24)
k d  0.05  0.1 o 
  8.0 (Eq. 553.4-20)
 ho t 
Lm = Distance between discrete restraints that restrict
E = Modulus of elasticity of steel distortional buckling (for continuously restrained
µ = Poisson’s ratio members Lm = Lcr)
See Section 553.3.1.4 (b) for definition of variables in Eq.
2. For C- and Z-Sections or Hat Sections or any Open
553.4-24.
Section with Stiffened Flanges of Equal Dimension
where the Stiffener is either a Simple Lip or a Complex 3. Rational Elastic Buckling Analysis
Edge Stiffener
A rational elastic buckling analysis that considers
distortional buckling shall be permitted be used in lieu of
The provisions of this section shall apply to any open
the expressions given in Section 553.4.2(a) or (b) the safety
section with stiffened flanges of equal dimension, including
and resistance factors in Section 553.4.2 shall apply.
those meeting the geometric limits of 553.4.2a.
kfe  kwe  k 553.5 Combined Axial Load and Bending
Fd  (Eq. 553.4-21)
kfg  kwg
553.5.1 Combined Tensile Axial Load and
where Bending
kϕfe = Elastic rotational stiffness provided by the flange 553.5.1a ASD Method
to the flange / web juncture, in accordance with
The required strengths T, Mx, and My shall satisfy the
Eq. 553.3-39
following interaction equations:
kϕwe = Elastic rotational stiffness provided by the web
to the flange / web juncture b M x b M y tT
   1 .0 (Eq. 553.5-1)
Et 3 M nxt M nyt Tn
=

6ho 1   2  (Eq. 553.4-22)
and
kϕ = Rotational stiffness provided by restraining b M x b M y tT
elements (brace, panel, sheathing) to the flange /    1 .0 (Eq. 553.5-2)
M nx M ny Tn
web juncture of a member (zero if the flange is
unrestrained). If rotational stiffness provided to where
the two flanges is dissimilar, the smaller
rotational stiffness is used. Ωb = 1.67
Kϕfg = Geometric rotational stiffness (divided by the Mx, My = Required flexural strengths with respect to
stress Fd) demanded by the flange from the centroidal axes of section
flange/web juncture, in accordance with Eq. Mnxt, Mnyt = SftFy (Eq. 553.5-3)
553.3-41
Kϕwg = Geometric rotational stiffness (divided by the where
stress Fd ) demanded by the web flange/web Sft = Section modulus of full unreduced section
juncture relative to extreme tension fiber about
 th 3  appropriate axis.
=  L 2  o  (Eq. 553.4-23) Fy = Design yield stress determined in accordance
 60  with Section 551.7.1
 
Ωt = 1.67
where T = Required tensile axial strength
L = Minimum of Lcr and Lm Tn = Nominal tensile axial strength determined in
Mnx, Mny= Nominal flexural strengths about centroidal axes
where determined in accordance with Section 553.3.1
553.5.1b LRFD Method

The required strengths T, Mx, and My shally satisfy the the effective area (Ae) at stress Fy is less than the full
following interaction equations: unreduced cross-sectional area (A), My shall be taken either
as the required flexural strength or the required flexural
Mx My T strength plus PL/ 1000, which results in a lower permissible
   1.0 (Eq. 553.5-4)
b M nxt b M nyt t Tn value of P.
My  c P  b C mx M x  b C my M y
Mx T    1.0 (Eq. 553.5-7)
   1.0 (Eq. 553.5-5) Pn M nx a x M ny a y
b M nx b M ny t Tn
where c P b M x b M y
   1.0 (Eq. 553.5-8)
Pno M nx M ny
Mx, My = Required flexural strengths [factored
moments] with respect to centroidal axes When ΩcP/Pn ≤ 0.15, the following equation shall be
Mx = Mux, My = Muy (LRFD) permitted to be used in lieu of the above two equations:
ϕb = For flexural strength (Section 553.3.1.1), ϕb =
0.90 or 0.95 (LRFD) c P b M x b M y
   1.0 (Eq. 553.5-9)
For laterally unbraced beams (Section Pn M nx M ny
553.3.1.2), ϕb = 0.90 (LRFD)
For closed cylindrical tubular members (Section where
553.3.1.3), ϕb = 0.95 (LRFD)
Ωc = 1.80
Mnxt, Mnyt = SftFy (Eq. 553.5-6) P = Required compressive axial strength
Pn = Nominal axial strength determined in accordance
where
with Section 553.4
Sft = Section modulus of full unreduced section Ωb = 1.67
relative to extreme tension fiber about Mx , My = Required flexural strengths with respect to
appropriate axis centroidal axes of effective section determined
Fy = Design yield stress determined in accordance for required compressive axial strength alone.
with Section 551.7.1 Mnx , Mny= Nominal flexural strengths about centroidal axes
T = Required tensile axial strength determined in accordance with Section 553.3.1
= Tu (LRFD)
ϕt = 0.95 (LRFD) c P
ax  1  >0 (Eq. 553.5-10)
Tn = Nominal tensile axial strength determined in PEx
Mnx, Mny = Nominal flexural strengths about centroidal c P
ay  1 >0 (Eq. 553.5-11)
axes determined in accordance with Section PEy
553.3.1
where
553.5.2 Combined Compressive Axial Load and
Bending  2E Ix
PEx  (Eq. 553.5-12)
K x Lx H 2
553.5.2a ASD Method
The required strengths P, Mx, and My shall be determined  2E I y
PEy  (Eq. 553.5-13)
using first order elastic analysis and shall satisfy the K y L y H 2
following interaction equations. Alternatively, the required
strengths P, Mx, and My shall be determined in accordance where
with Section C-2 and shall satisfy the following interaction
equations using the values for Kx, Ky, αx, αy, Cmx, and Cmy Ix = Moment of inertia of full unreduced cross-
specified in Section C-2. In addition, each individual ratio section about x-axis
in Eqs. 553.5-4 to 553.5-6 shall not exceed unity. Kx = Effective length factor for buckling about x-axis
Lx = Unbraced length for bending about x-axis
Iy = Moment of inertia of full unreduced cross-
section about y-axis
Ky = Effective Length factor for buckling about y-axis
For singly-symmetric unstiffened angle sections with
Ly = Unbraced length for bending about y-axis
unreduced effective area, My shall be permitted to be taken
Pno = Nominal axial strength determined in accordance
as the required flexural strength only. For other angle
with Section 553.4, with Fn = Fy
sections of singly-symmetric unstiffened angles for which

Cmx, Cmy = Coefficients whose values are determined in P Mx My

accordance with (a), (b), or (c) as follows:    1.0 (Eq. 553.5-16)
c Pno b M nx b M ny
a. For compression members in frames subject to joint
translation (sidesway) When P/ ϕcPn ≤ 0.15, the following equation shall be
permitted to be used in lieu of the above two equations:
Cm = 0.85
P Mx My
b. For restrained compression members in frames braced    1. 0 (Eq. 553.5-17)
against joint translation and not subject to transverse c Pn b M nx b M ny
loading between their supports in the plane of bending
where
Cm = 0.6 – 0.4 (M1/M2) (Eq. 553.5-14)
P = Required compressive axial strength
where = Pu (LRFD)
M1/M2 = Ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at the ϕc = 0.85 (LRFD)
ends of that portion of the member under Pn = Nominal axial strength [resistance] determined
consideration which is unbraced in the plane of in accordance with Section 553.4
bending. M1/M2 is positive when the member is Mx, My = Required flexural strengths with respect to
bent in reverse curvature and negative when it is centroidal axes of effective section determined
bent in single curvature. for required compressive axial strength alone.
Mx= Mux, My = Muy (LRFD)
c. For compression members in frames braced against ϕb = For flexural strength (Section 553.3.1.1), ϕb =
joint translation in the plane of loading and subject to 0.90 or 0.95 (LRFD)
transverse loading between their supports, the value of For closed cylindrical tubular member (Section
Cm is to be determined by rational analysis. However, 553.3.1.3), ϕb = 0.95 (LRFD) and 0.90 (LSD)
in lieu of such analysis, the following values are Mnx,Mny = Nominal flexural strengths about centroidal axes
permitted to be used: determined in accordance with Section 553.3.1
(1) For members whose ends are restrained, P
Cm = 0.85, and ax  1  >0 (Eq. 553.5-18)
(2) For members whose ends are unrestrained, PEx
Cm= 1.0.
P
ay  1 >0 (Eq. 553.5-19)
553.5.2b LRFD Method PEy
The required strengths P, Mx, and My shall be determined where
using first order elastic analysis and shall satisfy the
following interaction equations. Alternatively, the required  2E Ix
strengths P, Mx, and My shall be determined in accordance PEx  (Eq. 553.5-20)
with Section C-2 and shall satisfy the following interaction
K x Lx 2
equations using the values for Kx, Ky, αx, αy, Cmx, and Cmy
specified in Section C-2. In addition, each individual ratio  2 E Iy
Py  (Eq. 553.5-21)
in Eqs. 553.5-7 to 553.5-9 shall not exceed unity. K y L y 2
For singly-symmetric unstiffened angle sections with where
unreduced effective area, My shall be permitted to be taken Ix = Moment of inertia of full unreduced cross-
as the required flexural strength [factored moment] only. section about x-axis
For other angle sections or singly-symmetric unstiffened Kx = Effective length factor for buckling about x-axis
angles for which the effective area (Ae) at stress Fy is less Lx = Unbraced length for bending about x-axis
than the full unreduced cross-sectional area (A), My shall be Iy = Moment of inertia of full unreduced cross-
taken either as the required flexural strength or the required section about y-axis
flexural strength plus (P)L/1000, whichever results in a Ky = Effective Length factor for buckling about y-axis
lower permissible value of P. Ly = Unbraced length for bending about y-axis
C my M y Pno = Nominal axial strength determined in accordance
 c P C mx M x
   1. 0 (Eq. 553.5-15) with Section 553.4, with Fn = Fy
c Pn b M nx a x b M ny a y Cmx, Cmy= Coefficients whose values are determined in
accordance with (a), (b), or (c) as follows:
a. For compression members in frames subject to joint

translation (sidesway) SECTION 554 - STRUCTURAL

Cm = 0.85 ASSEMBLIESAND SYSTEMS
b. For restrained compression members in frames braced
against joint translation and not subject to transverse 554.1 Built-Up Sections
loading between their supports in the plane of bending
554.1.1 Flexural Members Composed of Two Back-to-
Cm = 0.6 – 0.4 (M1/M2) (Eq. 553.5-22) Back C-Sections
where The maximum longitudinal spacing of weld or other
connectors, smax, joining two C-sections to form an I-section
M1/M2 = Ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at the
shall be:
ends of that portion of the member under consideration
which is unbraced in the plane of bending. M1/M2 is L 2 gTs
positive when the member is bent in reverse curvature and s max   (Eq. 554.1-1)
6 mq
negative when it is bent in single curvature.
where
c. For compression members in frames braced against
joint translation in the plane of loading and subject to L = Span of beam
transverse loading between their supports, the value of G = Vertical distance between two rows of
Cm is to be determined by rational analysis. However, connections nearest to top and bottom flanges
in lieu of such analysis, the following values are Ts = Available strength of connection in tension
permitted to be used: (Section 555)
m = Distance from shear center of one C-section to
(i) For members whose ends are restrained,
mid-plane of web
Cm = 0.85, and q = Design load on beam for spacing of connectors
(See below for methods of determination.)
(ii) For members whose ends are unrestrained,
Cm = 1.0. The load, q, shall be obtained by dividing the concentrated
loads or reactions by the length of bearing. For beams
designed for a uniformly distributed load, q shall be taken
as equal to three times the uniformly distributed load, based
on the critical load combinations for ASD, LRFD, and LSD.
If the length of bearing of a concentrated load or reaction is
smaller than the weld spacing, s, the available strength of
the welds or connections closes to the load or reaction shall
be calculated as follows:
Ps m
Ts  (Eq. 554.1-2)
2g
where
Ps = Concentrated load [factored load] or reaction
based on critical load combinations for ASD,
and LRFD.
The allowable maximum spacing of connections, smax,

shall depend upon the intensity of the load directly at the
connection. Therefore, if uniform spacing of connections is
used over the whole length of the beam, it shall be
determined at the point of maximum local load intensity. In
cases where this procedure would result in uneconomically
close spacing, either one of the following methods shall be
permitted to be adopted:
1. the connection spacing varies along the beam according
to the variation of the load intensity, or
2. reinforcing cover plates welded to the flanges at points

where concentrated loads occur. The available shear available strength [factored resistance] per
strength of the connections joining these plates to the connection specified elsewhere herein;
flanges is then used for Ts, and g is taken as the depth
of the beam. E
b. 1.16t  
 fc 
554.1.2 Compression Members Composed of Two
Sections in Contact where
For compression members composed of two sections in t = Thickness of the cover plate or sheet
contact, the available axial strength shall be determined in fc = Compressive stress at nominal load in the cover
accordance with Section 553.4.1 (a) subject to the following plate or sheet
modification. If the buckling mode involves relative
deformations that produce shear forces in the connectors c. three times the flat width, w, of the narrowest
between individual shapes, KL/r is replaced by (KL/r)m unstiffened compression element tributary to the
calculated as follows: E
connections, but need not be less than 1.11 t
2 2 Fy
 KL   KL   a 
       (Eq. 554.1-3)
 r m  r  o  ri   E 
if w/t < 0.50   , or 1.33t E if w/t ≥
where  Fy  Fy
 
(KL/r)o = Overall slenderness ratio of entire section about  E 
built-up member axis 0.50   , unless closer spacing is required by
a = Intermediate fastener or spot weld spacing  Fy 
 
ri = Minimum radius of gyration of full unreduced (a) or (b) above.
cross-sectional area of an individual shape in a
built-up member In the case of intermittent fillet welds parallel to the
direction of stress, the spacing shall be taken as the clear
See Section 553.4.1a for definition of other symbols. distance between welds, plus 12 mm. In all other cases, the
spacing shall be taken as the center-to-center distance
In addition, the fastener strength and spacing shall satisfy between connections.
the following:
Exception:
1. The intermediate faster or spot weld spacing, a, is
limited such that a/ri does not exceed one-half the The requirements of this section do not apply to cover
governing slenderness ratio of the built-up member. sheets that act only as sheathing material and are not
considered load-carrying elements.
2. The ends of a built-up compression member are
connected by a weld having a length not less than the 554.2 Mixed Systems
maximum width of the member or by connectors
The design of members in mixed systems using cold-formed
spaced longitudinally not more than 4 diameters apart
steel components in conjunction with other materials shall
for a distance equal to 1.5 times the maximum width of
conform to this Specification and the applicable
the member.
specification of the other material.
3. The intermediate fastener(s) or weld(s) at any
longitudinal member tie location are capable of 554.3 Lateral and Stability Bracing
transmitting a force in any direction of 2.5 percent of Braces shall be designed to restrain lateral bending or
the nominal axial strength of the built-up member. twisting of a loaded beam or column, and to avoid local
crippling at the points of attachment.
554.1.3 Spacing of Connections in Cover Plated
Sections 554.3.1 Symmetrical Beams and Columns
The spacing, s, in the line of stress, of welds, rivets, or bolts Braces and bracing systems, including connections, shall be
connecting a cover plate, sheet, or a non-integral stiffener in designed considering strength and stiffness requirements.
compression to another element shall not exceed (a), (b),
and (c) as follows: 554.3.2 C-Section and Z-Section Beams
a. that which is required to transmit the shear The following provisions for bracing to restrain twisting of
between the connected parts on the basis of the C-sections and Z-sections used as beams loaded in the plane
of the web shall apply only when neither flarge is connected

to deck or sheathing material in such a manner as to Mz = -Wxesy + Wyesy, torsional moment of W about
effectively restrain lateral deflection of the connected shear center
flange. When only the top flange is so connected, see
where
Section 554.6.3.1.
esx, esy = Eccentricities of load components measured
Where both flanges are so connected, no further bracing is from the shear center and in the x- and y-
required. directions, respectively
d = Depth of section
554.3.2a Neither Flange Connected to Sheathing that m = Distance from shear center to mid-plane of web
contributes to the Strength and Stability of the C- or of C-section
Z- section
Each intermediate brace at the top and bottom flanges of C-
or Z-section members shall be designed with resistance of
PL1 and PL2, where PL1 is the brace force required on the
flange in the quadrant with both x and y axes positive, and
PL2 is the brace force on the other flange. The x-axis shall
be designated as the centroidal axis parallel to the web. The
x and y coordinates shall be oriented such that one of the
flanges is located in the quadrant with both positive x and y
axes. See Figure 554.3-1 for illustrations of coordinate
systems and positive force directions.
Figure 554.4-1 Coordinate Systems and Positive Force
1. For uniform loads Directions
2. For concentrated loads
PL1 = 1.5 {Wy K’ – (Wx /2) + (Mz /d)} (Eq. 554.3-1)
PL1 = Py K’ – (Px /2) + (Mz/d)} (Eq. 554.3-5)
PL1 = 1.5 {WyK’ – (Wx/2) - (Mz/d)} (Eq. 554.3-2)
PL2 = Py K’ – (Px /2) - (Mz/d)} (Eq. 554.3-6)
When the uniform load, W, acts through the plane of the
web, i.e., Wy = W: When a design load [factored load] acts through the plane of
the web, i.e., Py = P:
PL1 = - PL2 = 1.5 (m/d) W for C section (Eq. 554.3-3)
PL1 = - PL2 = (m/d) P for C-sections (Eq. 554.3-7)
PL1 = PL2 = 1.5 (Ixy / 2Ix) W for Z Section (Eq. 554.3-4)
PL1 = PL2 = (Ixy / 2 Ix) P for Z-sections (Eq. 554.3-8)
where
where
Wx, Wy = Components of design load W parallel to the x-
and y- axis, respectively. Wx and Wy are positive Px, Py = Components of design load P parallel to the x-
if pointing to the positive x- and y- direction, and y- axis, respectively. Px and Py are positive
respectively if pointing to the positive x- and y direction,
respectively
where
Mz = -Pxesy + Pyesy, torsional moment of P about shear
W = Design load (applied load determined in center
accordance with the most critical load P = Design concentrated load within a distance of
combinations for ASD or LRFD, whichever is 0.3a on each side of the brace, plus 1.4(1-l/a)
applicable) within a distance of 0.5a each side of times each design concentrated load located
the brace. father than 0.3 but not farther than 1.0a from the
brace. The design concentrated load is the
where
applied load determined in accordance with the
a = Longitudinal distance between centerline of most critical load combinations for ASD, LRFD,
braces whichever is applicable
Kʹ = 0 for C-sections
= Ixy /(2Ix) for Z-sections
where where
Ixy = Product of inertia of full unreduced section l = Distance from concentrated load to the brace
Ix = Moment of inertia of full unreduced section
about x-axis See Section 554.3.2.1(a) for definitions of other variables.

The bracing force, PL1 or PL2, is positive where restraint is

required to prevent the movement of the corresponding 554.4 Cold-Formed Steel Light-Frame Construction
flange in the negative x-direction. The design and installation of structural members and non-
structural members utilized in cold-formed steel repetitive
Where braces are provided, they shall be attached in such a framing applications where the specified minimum base
manner to effectively restrain the section against lateral steel thickness is between 0.455 mm and 2.997 mm shall be
deflection of both flanges at the ends and at any in accordance with the AISI S200 and the following, as
intermediate brace points. applicable:
When all loads and reactions on a beam are transmitted 1. Headers, including box and back-to-back headers, and
through members that frame into the section in such a double and single L-headers, shall be designed in
manner as to effectively restrain the section against accordance with AISI S212 or solely in accordance
torsional rotation and lateral displacement, no additional with this Specification.
braces shall be required except those required for strength in 2. Trusses shall be designed in accordance with AISI
accordance with Section 553.3.1b.1. S214.
554.3.3 Bracing of Axially Loaded Compression 3. Wall studs shall be designed in accordance with AISI
Members S211, or solely in accordance with this Specification
either on the basis of an all-steel system in accordance
The required brace strength to restrain lateral translation at a
with Section 554.4.1 or on the basis of sheathing braced
brace point for an individual compression member shall be
design in accordance with an appropriate theory, tests,
or rational engineering analysis. Both solid and
Pbr,1 = 0.01 Pn (Eq. 554.3-9) perforated webs shall be permitted. Both ends of the
stud shall be connected to restrain rotation about the
The required brace stiffness to restrain lateral translation at longitudinal stud axis and horizontal displacement
a brace point for an individual compression member shall perpendicular to the stud axis.
be calculated as follows: 4. Framing for floor and roof systems in buildings shall be
designed in accordance with AISI S210 or solely in
  2  accordance with this Specification.
2 4     Pn
 n 
 br ,1   (Eq. 554.3-10) See Section 553-3 for additional requirements.
Lb
554.4.1 All-Steel Design of Wall Stud Assemblies
where
Wall stud assemblies using an all-steel design shall be
Pbr,1 = Required nominal brace strength for a single designed neglecting the structural contribution of the
compression member attached sheathings and shall comply with the requirements
Pn = Nominal axial compression strength of a single of Section 553. For compression members with circular or
compression member non-circular web perforations, the effective section
βbr,1 = Required brace stiffness for a single compression properties shall be determined in accordance with Section
member 552.2.2.
n = Number of equally spaced intermediate brace
locations 554.5 Floor, Roof, or Wall Steel Diaphragm
i = Distance between braces on one compression Construction
member
The in-plane diaphragm nominal shear strength, Sn, shall be
established by calculation or test. The safety factors and
resistance factors for diaphragms given in Table 554.5-1
shall apply to both methods. If the nominal shear strength is
only established by test without defining all limit state
thresholds, the safety factors and resistance factors shall be
limited by the values given in Table 554-1 for connection
types and connection-related failure modes. The more
severe factored limit state shall control the design. Where
fastener combinations are used within a diaphragm system,
the more severe factors shall be used.
Ωd = As specified in Table 554-1 (ASD)

ϕd = As specified in Table 554-1 (LRFD) with Eq. 554.6-1. The safety factor and resistance factors
given in this section shall be used to determine the
Table 554-1
allowable flexural strength or design flexural strength in
Safety Factors and Resistance Factors for Diaphragms
Load Type Limit State 551.4, 551.5.
or Connec- Connection Panel Buckling*
Combina- tion Mn= RSeFy (Eq. 554.6-1)
Ωd Φd Ωd Φd
tions Type
(ASD) (LRFD) (ASD) (LRFD) Ωb= 1.67 (ASD)
Including
Welds 3.00 0.55
Earthquake
Screws 2.50 0.65
ϕb= 0.90 (LRFD)
Welds where
Wind 2.35 0.70 2.00 0.80
Screws
Welds 2.65 0.60 R is obtained from Table 554.6.1.1-1 for simple span C- or
All Others
Screws 2.5 0.65 Z-sections, and
Note:
R = 0.60 for continuous span C-sections
*Panel buckling is out-of-plane and not local buckling at fastners. = 0.70 for continuous span Z-sections
For mechanical fasteners other than screws: Se and Fy = Values as defined in Section 553.3.1.1
1. Ωd shall not be less than the Table 554-1 values for The reduction factor, R, shall be limited to roof and wall
screws, and systems meeting the following conditions:
2. ϕd shall not be greater than the Table 554-1 values for 1. Member depth ≤ 295 mm,
screws.
2. Member flanges with edge stiffeners
In addition, the value of Ωd and ϕd using mechanical 3. 60 ≤ depth/ thickness ≤ 170
fasteners other than screws shall be limited by the Ω and ϕ
values established through calibration of the individual 4. 2.8 ≤ depth/ flange width ≤ 4.5
fastener shear strength, unless sufficient date exist to 5. 16 ≤ flat width/ thickness of flange is ≤ 43,
establish a diaphragm system effect in accordance with
Section 556.1.1. Fastener shear strength calibration shall 6. For continuous span systems, the lap length at each
include the diaphragm material type. Calibration of interior support in each direction (distance from center
individual fastener shear strengths shall be in accordance of support to end of lap) is not less than 1.5d,
with Section 556.1.1. The test assembly shall be such that 7. Member span length is not greater than 10 m
the tested failure mode is representative of the design. The
impact of the thickness of the supporting material on the 8. Both flanges are prevented from moving laterally at the
failure mode shall be considered. supports,
9. Roof or wall panels are steel sheets with 340 MPa
554.6 Metal Roof and Wall System minimum yield stress, and a minimum of 0.45 mm base
The provisions of Section 554.6.1 through 554.6.3 shall metal thickness, having a minimum rib depth of 30
apply to metal roof and wall systems that include cold- mm, spaced a maximum of 300 mm on centers and
formed steel purlins, girts, through-fastened wall/roof and attached in a manner effectively inhibit relative
wall panels, or standing seam roof panels, as applicable. movement between the panel and purlin flange,
10. Insulation is glass fiber blanket 0 to 150 mm thick
554.6.1 Purlins, Girts and Other Members
compressed between the member and panel in a manner
consistent with the fastener being used,
554.6.1a Flexural Members Having One Flange
Through-Fastened to Deck or Sheathing 11. Fastener type is, at minimum, No.12 self-drilling or
self-tapping sheet metal screws or 5 mm rivets, having
This section shall apply to a continuous beam for the region washers 12 mm diameter,
between inflection points adjacent to a support or to a 12. Fasteners is not standoff type screws,
cantilever beam.
13. Fasteners are spaced not greater than 300 mm on
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, of a C- or Z-section centers and placed near the center of the beam flange,
loaded in a plane parallel to the web, with the tension flange and adjacent to the panel high rib, and
attached to deck or sheathing and with the compression 14. The design yield stress of the member does not exceed
flange laterally unbraced, shall be calculated in accordance

410 MPa. Ω= 1.30 (ASD) ϕ= 0.85 (LRFD)

where
If variables fall outside any of the above stated limits, the
user shall perform full-scale tests in accordance with C1 = (0.79 + 0.54) (Eq. 554.6-3)
Section 556.1 of this Specification or apply a rational C2 = (1.17αt + 0.93) (Eq. 554.6-4)
engineering analysis procedure. For continuous purlin C3 = α(2.5 – 1.63d) + 22.8 (Eq. 554.6-5)
systems in which adjacent bay span lengths vary by more
where
than 20 percent, the R values for the adjacent bays shall be
taken from Table 554-2. The user shall be permitted to x = For Z-sections, the fastener distance from the
perform tests in accordance with Section 556.1 as an outside web edge divided by the flange width, as
alternate to the procedure described in this section. shown in Figure 554.6.1.3
= For C-sections, the flange width minus the
Table 554-2
fastener distance from the outside web edge
Simple Spam C or Z Section R Values
divided by the flange width, as shown in Figure
Depth range 554.6.1.3.
Profile R
(mm) α = Coefficient for conversion of units
d≤165 C or Z 0.70 = 0.0394 when t, b, and d are in mm
165<d≤215 C or Z 0.65 t = C- or Z-section thickness
215<d≤295 Z 0.50 b = C- or Z-section flange width
215<d≤295 C 0.40 d = C- or Z-section depth
A = Full unreduced cross-sectional area of C- or Z-
For simple span members, R shall be reduced for the effects section
of compressed insulation between the sheeting and the E = Modulus of elasticity of steel
member. The reduction shall be calculated by multiplying = 203,000 MPa for SI units
R from Table 554-2 by the following correction factor, r:
Eq. 554.6.1.3-1 shall be limited to roof and wall system
r = 1.00 – 0.0004 ti ¬when ti is in millimeters meeting the following conditions:
(Eq. 554.6.1.1-3)
a. t ≤ 3 mm,
where
b. 150 mm ≤ d ≤ 300 mm,
ti = Thickness of uncompressed glass fiber blanket
insulation c. Flanges are edge stiffened compression elements,
d. 70 ≤ d/ t ≤170,
554.6.1b Flexural Members Having One Flange
Fastened to a Standing Seam Roof System e. 2.8 ≤ d/ b ≤ 5,
See Section 554.6.1b of Section 553-3 or B for the f. 16 ≤ flange flat width / t ≤ 50
g. Both flanges are prevented from moving laterally at the
supports,
554.6.1c Compression Members Having One Flange
Through-Fastened to Deck or Sheathing h. Steel roof or steel wall panels with fasteners spaced 300
The provisions shall apply to C- or Z-sections mm on center or less and having a minimum rotational
concentrically loaded along their longitudinal axis, with lateral stiffness of 10,300 N/ m/ m (fastener at mid-
only one flange attached to deck or sheathing with through flange width for stiffness determination) determined in
fasteners. accordance with AISI S901,
i. C- and Z-sections having a minimum yield stress of
The nominal axial strength of simple span or continuous C- 230 MPa, and
or Z-sections shall be calculated in accordance with (a) and
(b). j. Span length not exceeding 10 m.
1. The weak axis nominal strength shall be calculated in

accordance with Eq. 554.6-2. The safety factor and
resistance factors given in this section shall be used to
determine the allowable axial strength or design axial
strength in accordance with the applicable design
method in Section 551.4, or 551.5.
Pn= C1C2C3AE/29500 (Eq. 554.6-2)

= 1.0
Mm = Mean value of the material factor
2. The strong axis available strength shall be determined = 1.1
in accordance with Sections 553.4.1 and 553.4.1.1. VM = Coefficient of variation of the material factor
= 0.08 for anchor failure mode
= 0.10 for other failure modes
VF = Coefficient of variation of the fabrication factor
= 0.05
VQ = Coefficient of variation of the load effect
= 0.21
VP = Actual calculated coefficient of variation of the
test results, without limit
n = Number of anchors in the test assembly with the
Figure 554.6.1.3 Definition of x same tributary area (for anchor failure) or
number of panels with identical spans and
For Z section, x = a/b (Eq. 554.6-6)
loading to the failed span (for non-anchor
For C section, x = (b-a)/b (Eq. 554.6-7) failures)
554.6.2 Standing Seam Roof Panel Systems The safety factor, Ω, shall not be less than 1.67, and the
resistance factor, ϕ, shall not be greater than 0.9 (LRFD)
554.6.2a Strength of Standing Seam Roof Panel
Systems When the number of physical test assemblies is less than 3,
Under gravity loading, the nominal strength of standing a safety factor, Ω, of 2.0 and a resistance factor, ϕ, of 0.8
seam roof panels shall be determined in accordance with (LRFD) shall be used.
Section 552 and 553 of this Specification or shall be tested
in accordance with AISI S906. Under uplift loading, the 554.6.3 Roof System Bracing and Anchorage
nominal strength of standing seam roof panel systems shall
be determined in accordance with AISI S906. Tests shall be 554.6.3a Anchorage of Bracing for Purlin Roof
performed in accordance with AISI S906 with the following Systems Under Gravity Load with Top Flange
exceptions: Connected to Metal Sheathing
Anchorage, in the form of a device capable of transferring
1. The Uplift Pressure Test Procedure for Class 1 Panel
force from the roof diaphragm to a support, shall be
roofs in FM 4471 shall be permitted.
provided for roof systems with C-sections or Z-sections,
2. Existing tests conducted in accordance with CEGS designed in accordance with Sections 553.3.1 and 554.6.1,
07416 uplift test procedure prior to the adoption of having through-fastened or standing seam sheathing
these provisions shall be permitted. attached to the top flanges. Each anchorage device shall be
designed to resist the force, PL, determined by Eq. 554.6-8
The open-open end configuration, although not prescribed and shall satisfy the minimum stiffness requirement of Eq.
by the ASTM E1592 test procedure, shall be permitted 554.6-14. In addition, purlins shall be restrained laterally
provided the tested end conditions represent the installed by the sheathing so that the maximum top flange lateral
condition, and the test follows the requirements given in displacements between lines of lateral anchorage at nominal
AISI S906. All test results shall be evaluated in accordance loads do not exceed the span length divided by 360.
with this section.
Anchorage devices shall be located in each purlin bay and
For load combinations that include wind uplift, additional shall connect to the purlin at or near the purlin top flange. If
provisions are provided Section 554.6.2.1a of Section 553- anchorage devices are not directly connected to all purlin
3. lines of each purlin bay, provision shall be made to transmit
the forces from other purlin lines to the anchorage devices.
When the number of physical tests assemblies is 3 or more, It shall be demonstrated that the required force, PL, can be
safety factors and resistance factors shall be determined in transferred to the anchorage device through the roof
accordance with the procedures of Section 554.1.1 (b) with sheathing and its fastening system. The lateral stiffness of
the following definitions for the variables: the anchorage device shall be determined by analysis or
βo = Target reliability index testing. This analysis or testing shall account for the
= 2.0 for panel flexural limits flexibility of the purlin web above the attachment of the
= 2.5 for anchor limits anchorage device connection.
Fm = Mean value of the fabrication factor

Np  K effi , j  where
PLj    Pi  (Eq. 554.6-8)
 K total
i 1 
 dPi,j = Distance along roof slope between the ith purlin
i  line and the jth anchorage device
where Ka = Lateral stiffness of the anchorage device
C6 = Coefficient tabulated in Tables 554.6.3.1-1 to
PLj = Lateral force to be resisted by the jth anchorage 554.6.3.1-3
device (positive when restraint is required to Ap = Gross cross-sectional area of roof panel per unit
prevent purlins from translating in the upward width
roof slope direction) E = Modulus of elasticity of steel
Np = Number of purlin lines on roof slope Ktotali = Effective lateral stiffness of all elements
i = Index for each purlin line (i =1, 2…, Np) resisting force Pi
j = Index for each anchorage device (j= 1, 2, …, Na)
 K effi, j   K sys
Na
where = (Eq. 554.6-12)
j 1
Na = Number of anchorage devices along a line of
anchorage where
Pi = Lateral force introduced into the system at the
Ksys = Lateral stiffness of the roof system, neglecting
purlin
anchorage devices
 C2  I xy L
= C1Wpi   C3
m  0.25bt a cos  C4sin  ELt 2

 1000 I x d d2




 C5 
=  Np   (Eq. 554.6-13)
 1000  d2
(Eq. 554.6-9)
where For multi-span systems, force Pi, calculated in accordance
with Eq. 554.6-9 and coefficients C1 to C4 from Tables
C1, C2,C3, and C4 = Coefficients tabulated in Tables 554-3 to 554-5 for the “Exterior Frame Line”, “End Bay”,
554.6.3.1-1 to 554.6.3.1-3 or “End Bay Exterior Anchor” cases, shall not be taken as
WPi = Total required vertical load supported by the ith less than 80 percent of the force determined using the
purlin in a single bay coefficients C2 to C4 for the corresponding “All Other
= wiL (Eq. 554.6-10) Locations” case.
where
For systems with multiple spans and anchorage devices at
wi = Required distributed gravity load supported by supports (support restraints), where the two adjacent bays
the ith purlin per unit length (determined from have different section properties or span lengths, the
the critical load combination for ASD, or LRFD) following procedures shall be used. The values for Pi in Eq.
Ixy = Product of inertia of full unreduced section about 554.6-8 and Eq. 554.6-14 to 15 shall be taken as the average
centroidal axes parallel and perpendicular to the of the values found from Eq. 554.6-9 evaluated separately
purlin web (Ixy = 0 for C-sections) for each of the two bays. The values of Ksys and Keffi,j in Eq.
L = Purlin span length 554.6-8 and Eq. 554.6-12 shall be calculated using Eq.
m = Distance from shear center to mid-plane of web 554.6-11 and Eq. 554.6-13, with L, t, and d taken as the
(m = 0 for Z-sections) average values of the two bays.
b = Top flange width of purlin
t = Purlin thickness For systems with multiple spans and anchorage devices at
Ix = Moment of inertia of full unreduced section either 1/3 points or mid-points, where the adjacent bays
about centroidal axis perpendicular to the purlin have different section properties or span lengths than the
web bay under consideration, the following procedures shall be
d = depth of purlin used to account for the influence of the adjacent bays. The
α = +1 for top flange facing in the up-slope direction value of Ksys in Eq. 554.6-12 shall be calculated using Eq.
= -1 for top flange facing in the down slope 554.6-13, with L, t, and d taken as the average of the values
direction from the three bays. The values of Keffi,j shall be calculated
θ = Angle between vertical and plane of purlin web using Eq. 554.6-11, with L taken as the span length of the
Keffi,j = Effective lateral stiffness of the jth anchorage bay under consideration. At an end bay, when computing
device with respect to the ith purlin the average values for Pi or averaging the properties for
 1 d pi , j  computing Ksys, the averages shall be found by adding the
   (Eq. 554.6-11) value from the first interior bay and two times the value
 K a C 6 LA p E  from the end bay and then dividing the sum by the three.

The total effective stiffness at each purlin shall satisfy the

following equation: 554.6.3b Alternate Lateral and Stability Bracing for
Purlin Roof System
K totali  K req (Eq. 554.6-14)
Torsional bracing that prevents twist about the longitudinal
where axis of a member in combination with lateral that resist
lateral displacement of the top flange at the frame line shall
20  iN1p Pi be permitted in lieu of the requirements of Section
K req   (ASD) (Eq. 554.6-15) 554.6.3.1. A torsional brace shall prevent torsional rotation
d of the cross-section at a discrete location along the span of
the member. Connection of braces shall be made at or near
Np both flanges of ordinary open sections, including C- and Z-
 1  20  i 1 Pi sections. The effectiveness of torsional braces in preventing
K req    (LRFD) torsional rotation at the cross-section and the required
  d
strength of lateral restraints at the frame line shall be
(Eq. 554.6-16)
determined by rational engineering analysis or testing. The
lateral displacement of the top flange of the C- or Z-section
Ω= 2.00 (ASD) ϕ= 0.75 (LRFD)
at the frame line shall be limited to d/(20Ω) for ASD
calculated at nominal load [specified load] levels or ϕd/ 20
In lieu of the Eqs. 554.6-8 through 554.6-13, lateral restraint for LRFD calculated at factored load levels, where d is the
forces shall be permitted to be determined from alternate depth of the C- or Z-section member, Ω is the safety factor
analysis. Alternate analysis shall include the first or second for ASD, and ϕ is the resistance factor for LRFD. Lateral
order effect and account for the effects of roof slope, torsion displacement between frame lines, calculated at nominal
resulting from applied loads eccentric to shear center, load levels, shall be limited to L/180, where L is the span
torsion resulting from the lateral resistance provided by the length of the member. For pairs of adjacent purlins that
sheathing, and load applied oblique to the principal axes. provide bracing against twist to each other, external
Alternate analysis shall also include the effects of the lateral anchorage of torsional brace forces shall not be required.
and rotational restraint provided by sheathing attached to
the top flange. Stiffness of the anchorage device shall be where
considered and shall account for flexibility of the purlin
Ω= 2.0 (ASD) ϕ= 0.75 (LRFD)
web above the attachment of the anchorage device
connection.
When lateral restraint forces are determined from rational

analysis, the maximum top flange lateral displacement of
the purlin between lines of lateral bracing at nominal loads
shall not exceed the span length divided by 360. The lateral
displacement of the purlin top flange at the line of restraint,
∆tf , shall be calculated at factored load levels for LRFD and
nominal load levels for ASD and shall be limited to:
 1  1 
 tf     (ASD) (Eq. 554.6-17)
   20 
 d 
 tf     (LRFD) (Eq. 554.6-18)
 20 

Table 554-3
Coefficients for One Third Point Restraints
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
Simple
Through Fastened (TF) 0.5 7.8 42 0.98 0.39 0.40
Span
Standing Seam (SS) 0.5 7.3 21 0.73 0.19 0.18
End Bay Exterior Anchor 0.5 15 17 0.98 0.72 0.043
End Bay Interior Anchor and 1st Interior Bay 0.5
TF 2.4 50 0.96 0.82 0.20
Exterior Anchor
Multiple
All Other Location 0.5 6.1 41 0.96 0.69 0.12
Span
End Bay Exterior Anchor 0.5 13 13 0.72 0.59 0.035
End Bay Interior Anchor and 1st Interior Bay 0.5
SS 0.84 56 0.64 0.20 0.14
Exterior Anchor
Table 554-4
Coefficients for Mid Point Restraints
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
Simple
Span
Standing Seam (SS) 1.0 7.5 15 0.62 0.35 0.18
End Bay 1.0 8.3 47 0.95 3.1 0.33
TF First Interior Bay 1.0 3.6 53 0.92 3.9 0.36
Multiple
Span
End Bay 1.0 7.9 19 0.54 2.0 0.080
SS First Interior Bay 1.0 2.5 41 0.47 2.6 0.13
Table 554-5
Coefficients for Support Restraints
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
Simple
Span
Standing Seam (SS) 0.5 8.3 28 0.61 0.29 0.051
End Exterior Frame Line 0.5 14 6.9 0.94 0.073 0.085
TF First Interioir Frame Line 1.0 4.2 18 0.99 2.5 0.43
Multiple
Span
End Exterior Frame Line 0.5 13 11 0.35 2.4 0.25
SS First Interioir Frame Line 1.0 1.7 69 0.77 1.6 0.13

SECTION 555 - CONNECTIONS AND where

JOINTS Pn = Nominal strength [resistance] of groove weld
L = Length of weld
555.1 General Provisions te = Effective throat dimension of groove weld
Fy = Yield stress of lowest strength base steel
Connections shall be designed to transmit the required Fxx = Tensile strength of electrode classification
strength acting on the connected members with
consideration of eccentricity where applicable.
555.2.2 Arc Spot Welds
555.2 Welded Connections Arc spot welds, where permitted by this Specification, shall
be for welding sheet steel to thicker supporting members or
The following design criteria shall apply to welded sheet-to-sheet in the flat position. Arc spot welds (puddle
connections used for cold-formed steel structural members welds) shall not be made on steel where the thinnest
in which the thickness of the thinnest connected part is 5 connected part exceeds 4 mm in thickness, nor through a
mm or less. For the design of welded connections in which combination of steel sheets having a total thickness over 4
the thickness of the thinnest connected part is greater than 5 mm.
mm, refer to the specifications or standards stipulated in the
corresponding Section 555.2a of Section 553-3 or 552.
Weld washers, as shown in Figures 555-1 and 555-2, shall
be used where the thickness of the sheet is less than 0.7 mm.
Welds shall follow the requirements of the weld standards Weld washers shall have a thickness between 1.25 mm and
also stipulated in Section 555.2a of Section 553-3 or 552. 2.0 mm with a minimum pre-punched hole of 9.50 mm
For diaphragm applications, Section 555.5 shall apply. diameter. Sheet-to-sheet welds shall not require weld
washers.
555.2.1 Groove Welds in Butt Joints
The nominal strength, Pn, of a groove weld in a butt joint, Arc spot welds shall be specified by minimum effective
welded from one or both sides, shall be determined in diameter of fused area, de. The minimum allowable
accordance with (a) or (b), as applicable. The effective diameter shall be 9.5 mm.
corresponding safety factor and resistance factors shall be
used to determine the allowable strength or design strength
in accordance with the applicable design method in Section
551.4, or 551.5.
1. For tension or compression normal to the effective area
or parallel to the axis of the weld, the nominal strength,
Pn , shall be calculated in accordance with Eq. 555.2-1:
Pn = LteFy (Eq. 555.2-1) Figure 555-1 Typical Weld Washer
ϕ = 0.90 (LRFD) Ω = 1.70 (ASD)
2. For shear on the effective area, the nominal strength,
Pn, shall be the smaller value calculated in accordance
with Eq. 555.2-2 and 555.2-3:
Pn = Lte 0.6 Fxx (Eq. 555.2-2)
ϕ = 0.80 (LRFD) Ω = 1.90 (ASD)
Lt e Fy
Pn  (Eq. 555.2-3)
3
Figure 555-2 Arc Spot Weld Using Washer
ϕ = 0.90 (LRFD) Ω = 1.70 (ASD)

555.2.2a Shear
555.2.2a.1 Minimum Edge Distance

The distance measured in the line of force form the
centerline of a weld to the nearest edge of an adjacent weld
or to the end of the connected part toward which the force is
directed shall not be less than the value of emin determined
in accordance with Eq. 555.2-4 or Eq. 555.2-5, as
applicable. See Figures 555-3 and 555-4 for edge distance
of arc welds. The corresponding safety factors and Figure 555-3 Edge Distance for Arc Spot Welds – Single
resistance factors shall be used to determine the allowable Sheet
strength or design strength in accordance with the
applicable design method in Section 551.4, or 551.5.
 P 
e min   
 (Eq. 555.2-4)
 Fu t 
 P 
emin   
 (Eq. 555.2-5)
 Fu t 
when
Fu /Fsy ≥1.08
Ω= 2.20 (ASD) ϕ= 0.70 (LRFD) Figure 555-4 Edge Distance for Arc Spot Welds – Double
Sheet
Fu /Fsy ≥1.08
Ω= 2.55 (ASD) ϕ= 0.60 (LRFD) 555.2.2a.2 Shear Strength for Sheet(s) Welded to a
Thicker Supporting Member
where
The nominal shear strength, Pn, of each arc spot weld
P = Required shear strength (nominal force) between the sheet or sheets and a thicker supporting
transmitted by weld (ASD) member shall be determined by using the smaller of either
Fu = Tensile strength as determined in accordance (a) or (b). the corresponding safety factor and resistance
with 551.2.1, 551.2.2, or 551.2.3.2 factors shall be used to determine the allowable strength or
t = Total combined base steel thickness (exclusive design strength [factored resistance] in accordance with the
of coatings) of sheet(s) involved in shear transfer applicable design method in Section 551.4, or 551.5.
above plane maximum shear transfer
P = Required shear strength transmitted by weld  d e2 
= Pu (LRFD) 1. Pn    0 . 75 F xx

Fsy = Yield stress as determined in accordance with  4 
Section 551.2.1, 551.2.2, or 551.2.3.2 (Eq. 555.2-6)
Ω= 2.55 (ASD) ϕ= 0.60 (LRFD)
In addition, the distance from the centerline of any weld to E
the end or boundary of the connected member shall not be 2. For (da/t)  0.815
Fu
less than 1.5d. in no case shall the clear distance between
welds and the end of member be less than 1.0d. Pn= 2.20 t da Fu (Eq. 555.2-7)
Ω= 2.20 (ASD) ϕ= 0.70 (LRFD)
E E
3. For 0.815 < (da/t) < 1.397
Fu Fu

 E  555.2.2a.3 Shear Strength [Resistance] for Sheet-to-

  Sheet Connections
Fu
Pn  0.2801 _ 5.59 td F
 a u (Eq. 555.2-8) The nominal shear strength [resistance] for each weld
da between two sheets of equal thickness shall be determined
 
 t  in accordance with Eq. 555.2-10. The safety factor and
resistance factors in this section shall be used to determine
Ω= 2.80 (ASD) ϕ= 0.55 (LRFD) the allowable strength or design strength in accordance with
the applicable design method in Section 551.4, or 551.5.
E
4. For (da/t ) ≥ 1.397 Pn= 1.65 t da Fu (Eq. 555.2-10)
Fu
Ω= 2.20 (ASD) ϕ= 0.70 (LRFD)
Pn= 1.40 t da Fu (Eq. 555.2-9)
where
where
Pn = Nominal shear strength [resistance] of sheet-to-
Pn = Nominal shear strength of arc spot weld sheet connection
de = Effective diameter of fused area at plane of t = Total combined base steel thickness (exclusive
maximum shear transfer of coatings) of sheets involved in shear transfer
= 0.7d = 1.15t ≤ 0.55d above plane of maximum shear transfer
where da = Average diameter of arc spot weld at mid-
thickness of t. See Figure 555-7 for diameter
d = Visible diameter of outer surface of arc spot definitions
weld = (d – t)
t = Total combined base steel thickness (exclusive
of coatings) of sheets involved in shear transfer where
above plane of maximum shear transfer d = Visible diameter of the outer surface of arc spot
Fxx = Tensile strength of electrode classification weld
da = Average diameter of arc spot weld at mid- de = Effective diameter of fused area at plane of
thickness of t where da =(d –t) for single sheet or maximum shear transfer
multiple sheets not more than four lapped sheets = 0.7d – 1.5t ≤ 0.55d (Eq. 555.2-11)
over a supporting member. See Figures 555-5 Fu = Tensile strength of sheet as determined in
and 555-6 for diameter definitions. accordance with Section 551.2.1 or 551.2.2
E = Modulus of elasticity of steel
Fu = Tensile strength as determined in accordance In addition, the following limits shall apply:
with Section 551.2.1, 551.2.2, or 551.2.3.2 Fu ≤ 407 MPa,
Fxx > Fu, and
0.70 mm ≤ t ≤ 1.60 mm.
Figure 555-5 Arc Spot Weld – Single Thickness of Sheet
Figure 555.7 Arc Spot Weld – Sheet-to-Sheet
555.2.2.2 Tension
The uplift nominal tensile strength, Pn, of each
concentrically loaded arc spot weld connecting sheets and
supporting member shall be computed as the smaller of
Figure 555-6 Arc Spot Weld – Double Thickness of Sheet either Eq. 555.2-12 or Eq. 555.2-13 as follows. The safety

factor and resistance factors shall be used to determine the strength or design strength in accordance with the
allowable strength or design strength in accordance with the applicable design method in Section 551.4, 551.5.
applicable design method in Section 551.4, 551.5.
 d 2 
d 2 Pn   e  Ld e  0.75 Fxx (Eq. 555.2-14)
Pn  e Fxx (Eq. 555.2-12)
4  4 
Pn = 0.8 (Fu/Fy) 2 t da Fu (Eq. 555.2-13)
Pn = 2.5tFu (0.25 + 0.96da) (Eq. 555.2-15)
For panel and deck applications: ϕ = 0.60 (LRFD) Ω = 2.55 (ASD)
Ω= 2.50 (ASD) ϕ= 0.60 (LRFD) where
For all other applications: Pn = Nominal shear strength [resistance] of arc seam
weld
Ω= 3.00 (ASD) ϕ= 0.50 (LRFD) de = Effective width of seam weld at fused surfaces
= 0.7d – 1.5t (Eq. 555.2-16)
The following limits shall apply:
where
1. tdaFu ≤ 13.5 kN,
d = Width of arc seam weld
2. emin ≥ d,
L = Length of seam weld not including circular ends
3. Fxx ≥ 410 MPa (For computation purposes, L shall not exceed
3d)
4. Fu ≤ 656 MPa (of connecting sheets), and
da = Average width of seam weld
5. Fxx > Fu = (d –t) for single or double sheets (Eq. 555.2-17)
Fu , Fxx, and t = Values as defined in Section 555.2.2.1
See Section 555.2.2.1 for definitions of variables.
The minimum edge distance shall be as determined for the
For eccentrically loaded arc spot welds subjected to an arc spot weld in accordance with Section 555.2.2.1. See
uplift tension load, the nominal tensile strength shall be Figure 555.9 for details.
taken as 50 percent of the above value.
For connections having multiple sheets, the strength shall be

determined by using the sum of the sheet thickness as given
by Eq. 555.2.2b-2.
At the side lap connection within a deck system, the

nominal tensile strength of the weld connection shall be 70
percent of the above values.
Where it is shown by measurement that a given weld Figure 555-8 Arc Seam Welds – Sheet to Supporting
procedure consistently gives a larger effective diameter, de, Member in Flat Position
or average diameter, da, as applicable, this larger diameter
shall be permitted to be used provided the particular
welding procedure used for making those welds is followed.
555.2.3 Arc Seam Welds

Arc seam welds (See Figure E2.3-1) covered by this
Specification shall apply on to the following joints:
1. Sheet to thicker supporting member in the flat position,
and
2. Sheet to sheet in the horizontal or flat position.
The nominal shear strength, Pn, of arc seam welds shall be
determined by using the smaller of either Eq. 555.2-14 or Figure 555-9 Edge Distances for Arc Seam Welds
Eq. 555.2-15. The safety factor and resistance factors in
this section shall be used to determine the allowable

555.2.4 Fillets Welds in accordance with (1) and (2) shall not exceed the
Fillet welds covered by this Specification shall apply to the following value of Pn:
welding of joints in any position, either sheet to sheet, or Pn= 0.75 tw Fxx (Eq. 555.2-21)
sheet to thicker steel member.
ϕ = 0.60 (LRFD) Ω = 2.55 (ASD)
The nominal shear strength, Pn, of a fillet weld shall be where
determined in accordance with this section. The
corresponding safety factors and resistance factors given in Pn = Nominal strength of fillet weld
this section shall be used to determine the allowable L = Length of fillet weld
strength or design strength in accordance with the Fu and Fxx = Values as defined in Section 555.2.2.1.
applicable design method in Section 551.4, or 551.5. tw = Effective throat
= 0.707 w1 or 0.7097 w2, whichever is smaller. A
1. For longitudinal loading: larger effective throat is permitted if
measurement shows that the welding procedure
 0.01L  to be used consistently yields a larger value of tw.
Pn  1   LtFu (Eq. 555.2-18)
 t  where
ϕ = 0.60 (LRFD) Ω = 2.55 (ASD) w1 and w2 = leg of weld (see Figures 555-10 and 555-11)
For L/t ≥25 and w1 ≤ t1 in lap joints
Pn= 0.75 t L Fu (Eq. 555.2-19) 555.2.5 Flare Groove Welds

2. For transverse loading: Flare groove welds covered by this Specification shall apply
to welding of joints in any position, either sheet to sheet for
Pn= t L Fu (Eq. 555.2-20)
flare-V groove welds, sheet to sheet for flare-bevel groove
ϕ = 0.65 (LRFD) Ω = 2.35 (ASD) welds or sheet to thicker steel member for flare-bevel
groove welds.
where
t = Least value of t1 or t2, as shown in Figures The nominal shear strength, Pn, of a flare groove weld shall
555.10 and 555.11) be determined in accordance with this section. The
corresponding safety factors and resistance factors given in
this section shall be used to determine the allowable
strength or design strength in accordance with the
1. For flare-bevel groove welds, transverse loading (see
Figure 555-12)
Pn= 0.833 t L Fu (Eq. 555.2-22)
ϕ = 0.60 (LRFD) Ω = 2.55 (ASD)
Figure555-10 Fillet Welds – Lap Joint
Figure 555-12 Flare-Bevel Groove Weld

2. For flare groove welds, longitudinal loading (see
Figure 555-11 Fillet Welds – T Joint Figures 555-13 through 555-18):
a. For t ≤ tw < 2t or if the lip height, h, is less than weld
In addition, t > 2.50 mm, the nominal strength determined
length, L:

Pn= 0.75 t L Fu (Eq. 555.2-23)

ϕ = 0.55 (LRFD) Ω = 2.80 (ASD)
b. For tw ≥ 2t with the lip height, h, equal to or greater
than weld length, L:
Pn= 1.50 t L Fu (Eq. 555.2-24)
ϕ = 0.60 (LRFD) Ω = 2.55 (ASD)
In addition, for t > 2.50 mm, the nominal strength
determined in accordance with (a) and (b) shall not exceed
the value of Pn calculated in accordance with Eq. 555.2-25) Figure 555-15 Flare Bevel Groove Weld (Filled flush to
Pn = 0.75 twLFxx (Eq. 555.2-25) surface, w1 = R )
ϕ = 0.60 (LRFD) Ω = 2.55 (ASD)
where
Pn = Nominal strength of flare groove weld
t = Thickness of welded member as defined in
Figures 555-12 to 555-18
Figure 555-16 Flare Bevel Groove Weld (Filled flush to

surface, w1 = R)
Figure 555-13 Shear in Flare Bevel Groove Weld
Figure 555-17 Flare Bevel Groove Weld (Not filled flush to

surface, w1 = R )
Figure 555-14 Shear in Flare V-Groove Weld
Figure 555-18 Flare Bevel Groove Weld (Not filled flush to

surface, w1 = R )
L = Length of weld
Fu and Fxx = Values as defined in Section 555.2.2.1

h = Height of lip ϕ = 0.60 (LRFD) Ω = 2.50 (ASD)

tw = Effective throat of flare groove weld filled
where
flush to surface (See Figure 555-15 and 555-
16): Fu = Tensile strength of the connected part as
= (5/16)R for flare bevel groove weld determined in accordance with Section 551.2.1
= (1/2)R when R ≤ 1/2 in. (12.77mm) for flare or 551.2.3.2.
V-groove weld Ae =AU, effective net area with U defined as follows:
= (3/8)R when R > 1/2 in. (12.77mm) for flare
V-groove weld When the load is transmitted only by transverse welds:
= Effective throat of flare groove weld not filled A = Area of directly connected elements
flush to surface: U = 1.0
= 0.707w1 or 0.707w2, whichever is smaller (see
Figures 555-17 and 555-18) When the load is transmitted only by longitudinal welds or
= A larger effective throat than those above is by longitudinal welds in combination with transverse welds:
permitted if measurement shows that the A = Gross area of member, Ag
welding procedure to be used consistently U =1.0 for members when load is transmitted directly
yields a larger value of tw to all of the cross-sectional elements
where Otherwise the reduction coefficient U shall be determined in
R = Radius of outside bend surface accordance with (a) or (b):
w1 and w2 = Leg of weld (see Figures 555-17 and 555-18) For angle members
555.2.6 Resistance Welds U= 1.0 – 1.20 x/L < 0.9 (Eq. 555.2-29)
The nominal shear strength, Pn , of spot welds shall be but U ≥ 0.4
determined in accordance with this section. The safety For channel members
factor and resistance factors given in this section shall be
used to determine the allowable strength or design strength U = 1.0 – 0.36 x/L < 0.9 (Eq. 555.2-30)
in accordance with the applicable design method in Section but U ≥ 0.5
551.4, or 551.5.
where
ϕ = 0.65 (LRFD) Ω = 2.35 (ASD)
x = Distance from shear plane to centroid of cross-
1. When t is in millimeters and Pn is in kN:
section
For 0.25 mm ≤ t ≤ 3.56 mm L = Length of longitudinal weld
1.47
Pn = 5.51t (Eq. 555.2-26)
555.3 Bolted Connection
For 3.56 mm ≤ t ≤ 4.57 mm The following design criteria and the requirements
Pn = 7.6t + 8.57 (Eq. 555.2-27) stipulated in Section 555.3a of Section C-1 and C-2 shall
apply to bolted connections used for cold-formed steel
where structural members in which the thickness of the thinnest
Pn = Nominal strength [resistance] of resistance weld connected part is less than 5 mm. For bolted connection in
t = Thickness of thinnest outside sheet which the thickness of the thinnest connected part is equal
to or greater than 5 mm, the specifications and standards
stipulated in Section 555.3a of Section 553-3 or 552 shall
555.2.7 Rupture in Net Section of Members other than
apply.
Flat Sheets (Shear Lag)
The nominal tensile strength of a welded member shall be Bolts, nuts, and washers conforming to one of the following
determined in accordance with Section 553.2. For rupture ASTM specification shall be approved for use under this
and/ or yielding in the effective net section of the connected Specification:
part, the nominal tensile strength, Pn , shall be determined in
accordance with Eq. 555.2-28. The safety factor and ASTM A184/ A154M, Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts for
resistance factors given in this section shall be used to Bolts for High-Pressure and High-Temperature Service
determine the allowable strength or design strength in
551.4, or 551.5.
Pn = AeFu (Eq. 555.2-28)

555.3.3 Bearing
ASTM A307 (Type A), Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs, The nominal bearing strength of bolted connections shall be
60,000 PSI Tensile Strength determined in accordance with Sections 555.3.3.1 and
555.3.3.2. For conditions not shown, the available bearing
ASTM A325, Structural Bolts, Steel, Heat Treated, 120/105 strength of bolted connections shall be determined by tests.
ksi Minimum Tensile Strength
555.3.3a Strength without Consideration of Bolt Hole
ASTM A325M, High Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Deformation
Joints [Metric]
When deformation around the bolt holes is not a design
consideration, the nominal bearing strength, Pn, of the
ASTM A354 (Grade BD), Quenched and Tempered Alloy connected sheet for each loaded bolt shall be determined in
Steel Bolts, Studs, and Other Externally Threaded Fasteners accordance with Eq. 555.3-1. The safety factor and
(for diameter of bolt smaller than 12 mm.) resistance factors given in this section shall be used to
determine the allowable strength or design strength in
ASTM A449, Quenched and Tempered Steel Bolts and accordance with the applicable design method in Section
Studs (for diameter of bolt smaller than 12 mm) 551.4, or 551.5.
ASTM A490, Heat-Treated Steel Structural Bolts, 150 ksi Pn= CmfdtFu (Eq. 555.3-1)
Minimum Tensile Strength ϕ = 0.60 (LRFD) Ω = 2.50 (ASD)
ASTM a490M, High Strength Steel Bolts, Classes 10.9 and where
10.9.3, for Structural Steel Joints [Metric] C = Bearing factor, determined in accordance with
Table 555.3-1
ASTM A563, Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts mf = Modification factor for type of bearing
connection, which shall be determined according
ASTM A563M, Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts [Metric] to Table 555.3-2
d = Nominal bolt diameter
ASTM F436, Hardened Steel Washers t = Uncoated sheet thickness
Fu = Tensile strength of sheet as defined in Section
ASTM F36N, Hardened Steel Washers [Metric] 551.2.1 or 551.2.2
ASTM F844, Washers, Steel, Plain (Flat), Unhardened for Table 555.3-1
General Use Bearing Factor, C
Ratio of Fastener
ASTM F959, Compressible Washer-type Direct Tension Thickness of
Diameter to
Indicators for Use with Structural Fasteners Connected Part 1, C
Member
mm
Thickness, d/t
ASTM F959M, Compressible Washer-Type Direct Tension d/t < 10 3.0
Indicators for Use with Structural Fasteners [Metric] 0.60 ≤ t < 5.0 10 ≤ d/t ≤ 22 4-0.1 (d/t)
d/t > 22 1.8
When other than the above are used, drawings shall indicate
clearly the type and size of fasteners to be employed and the
nominal strength assumed in design.
Bolts shall be installed and tightened to achieve satisfactory

performance of the connections.
555.3.1 Shear, Spacing, and Edge Distance

See Section 555.3.1 of the Section 553-3 or B for the
provisions of this section
555.3.2 Rupture in Net Section (Shear Lag)

See Section 555.3.2 of the Section 553-3 or 552 for the

Table 555.3-2 allowable strength or design strength in accordance with the

Modification Factor, mf, for Type of Bearing Connection
ϕ =0.50 (LRFD) Ω = 3.00 (ASD)
Type of Bearing Connection mf
Single Shear and Outside Sheets of 1.00 Alternatively, design values for a particular application shall
Double Shear Connection with Washers be permitted to be based on tests, with the safety factor, Ω,
under Both Bolt Head and Nut and the resistance factor, ϕ, determined according to Section
556.
Single Shear and Outside Sheets of 0.75
Double Shear Connection without The following notation shall apply to Section 555.4:
Washers under Both Bolt Head and
Nut, or with only One Washer d = Nominal screw diameter
dh = Screw head diameter or hex washer head integral
Inside Sheet of Double Shear 1.33 washer diameter
Connection with or without Washers dw = Steel washer diameter
dʹw = Effective pull-over resistance diameter
555.3.3b Strength with Consideration of Bolt Hole Pns = Nominal shear strength per screw
Deformation Pss = Nominal shear strength of screw as reported by
When deformation around a bolt hole is a design manufacturer of determined by independent
consideration, the nominal bearing strength, Pn, shall be laboratory testing
calculated in accordance with Eq. 555.3-2. The safety Pnot = Nominal pull-out strength per screw
factor and resistance factors given in this section shall be Pnov = Nominal pull-over strength per screw
used to determine the available strength factored in Pts = Nominal tension strength of screw as reported by
accordance with the applicable design method in Section manufacturer or determined by independent
551.4, 551.5. In addition, the available strength shall not laboratory testing
exceed the available strength obtained in accordance with t1 = Thickness of member in contact with screw head
Section 555.3.3.1. or washer
t2 = Thickness of member not in contact with screw
Pn = (4.64αt + 1.53)dtFu (Eq. 555.3-2)
head or washer
ϕ = 0.65 (LRFD) Ω = 2.22 (ASD) tc = Lesser of depth of penetration and thickness t2
Fu1 = Tensile strength of member in contact with screw
where
head or washer
α = Coefficient for conversion of units
Fu 2 = Tensile strength of member not in contact with
= 0.0394 for SI units (with t in mm)
screw head or washer
See Section 555.3.3.1 for definitions of other variables
555.4.1 Minimum Spacing
555.3.4 Shear and Tension in Bolts The distance between the centers of fasteners shall not be
See Section 555.3.4 of the Section 553-3 or 552 for less than 3d.
provisions provided in this section.
555.4.2 Minimum Edge and End Distances
555.4 Screw Connections The distance from the center of a fastener to the edge of any
All Section 555.4 requirements shall apply to screws with part shall not be less than 1.5d. If the end distance is
2.0 mm) ≤ d ≤ 6.5 mm. The screws shall be thread-forming parallel to the force on the fastener, the nominal shear
or thread-cutting, with or without a self-drilling point. strength per screw, Pns, shall be limited by Section
Screws shall be installed and tightened in accordance with 555.4.3.2.
the manufacturer’s recommendations.
The nominal screw connection strengths shall also be

limited by Section 553.2.
For diaphragm applications, Section 554.5 shall be used.
Except where otherwise indicated, the following safety

factor or resistance factor shall be used to determine the

where
555.4.3 Shear
dʹw = Effective pull-over diameter determined in
accordance with (a), (b), or (c) as follows:
555.4.3a Connection Shear Limited by Tilting and
Bearing 1. For a round head, a hex head (Figure 555-19), or hex
The nominal shear strength per screw, Pns, shall be washer head (Figure 555-19 (2)) screw with an
determined in accordance with this section. independent and solid steel washer beneath the screw
head.
1. For t2/t1 ≤ 1.0, Pns shall be taken as the smallest of
 
Pns  4.2 t 23 d
12
Fu2 (Eq. 555.4-1)
Pns  2.7t1dFu1 (Eq. 555.4-2)
Pns  2.7t 2 dFu2 (Eq. 555.4-3)
2. For t2/t1 ≥ 2.5, Pns shall be taken as the smaller of

Pns  2.7t1dFu1 (Eq. 555.4-4)
Pns  2.7t 2 dFu2 (Eq. 555.4-5) (1) Flat Steel Washer beneath Hex Head Screw Head
3. For 1.0 < t2/t1 < 2.5, Pns shall be calculated by linear
interpolation between the above two cases.
555.4.3b Connection Shear Limited by End Distance

See Section 555.4.3.2 of the Section 553-3 or 552 for
555.4.3a Shear in Screws

The nominal shear strength of the screw shall be taken as
Pss.
In lieu of the value provided Section 555.4, the safety factor
or the resistance factor shall be permitted to be determined (2) Flat Steel Washer beneath Hex Washer Screw Head
in accordance with Section 556.1 and shall be taken as (HWH has Integral Solid Washer)
1.25Ω ≤ 3.0 (ASD), or ϕ / 1.25 ≥ 0.5 (LRFD).
555.4.4 Tension
For screws that carry tension, the head of the screw or
washer, if a washer is provided, shall have a diameter dh or
dw not less than 8 mm. Washers shall be at least 1.3 mm
thick.
555.4.4a Pull-Out
The nominal pull-out strength, Pnot, shall be calculated as (3) Domed Washer (Non-Solid) beneath Screw Head
follows:
Pnov  0.85t c dFu2 (Eq. 555.4-6) Figure 555.19 Screw Pull-Over with Washer
dʹw= dh + 2tw + t1 ≤ dw (Eq. 555.4-8)
555.4.4b Pull-Over where
The nominal pull-over strength [resistance], Pnov, shall be
calculated as follows: dh = Screw head diameter or hex washer head integral
washer diameter
Pnov  1.5t1d ' wFu1 (Eq. 555.4-7) tw = Steel washer thickness
dw = Steel washer diameter

2. For a round head, a hex head, or hex washer head screw washers,
without an independent washer beneath the screw head:
3. dw ≤ 0.75 in. (19.1 mm),
dʹw = dh but not larger than 12 mm
4. Fu1 ≤ 483 MPa, and
3. For a domed (non-solid and independent) washer
beneath the screw head (Figure 555-19(3)), it is 5. t2/t1 ≥ 2.5.
permissible to use dʹw as calculated in Eq. 555.4-8,
with dh, tw, and t1 as defined in Figure 555.19(3). In the For eccentrically loaded connections that produce a non-
equation, dʹw cannot exceed 16 mm. Alternatively, uniform pull-over force on the fastener, the nominal pull-
pull-over design values for domed washers, including over strength shall be taken as 50 percent of Pnov.
the safety factor, Ω, and the resistance factor, ϕ, shall
be permitted to be determined by test in accordance 555.4.5b LRFD Method
with Section 556. For screw connections subjected to a combination of shear
and tension forces, the following requirements shall be met:
555.4.4c Tension in Screws
The nominal tension strength of the screw shall be taken as Q T
 0.71  1.10 (Eq. 555.4-12)
Pts. Pns Pnov
In lieu of the value provided in Section 555.4, the safety In addition, Q and T shall not exceed the corresponding
factor or the resistance factor shall be permitted to be design strength [factored resistance] determined in
determined in accordance with Section 556.1 and shall be accordance with Section 555.4.3 and 555.4.4, respectively.
taken as 1.25Ω ≤ 3.0 (ASD), or ϕ/1.25 ≥ 0.5 (LRFD).
where
555.4.5 Combined Shear and Pull-Over Q = Required shear strength of connection
= Vu for LRFD
555..4.5a ASD Method T = Required tension strength of connection
For screw connection subjected to a combination of shear = Tu for LRFD
and tension forces, the following requirement shall be met: Pns = Nominal shear strength of connection
Q T 1.10 = 2.7t1dFu1 (Eq. 555.4-13)
 0.71  (Eq. 555.4-9)
Pns Pnov  Pnov = Nominal pull-over strength [resistance] of
connection
In addition, Q and T shall not exceed the corresponding = 1.5t1d w Fu1 (Eq. 555.4-14)
allowable strength determined by Section 555.4.3 and
555.4.4, respectively. where
where dw = Larger of screw head diameter or washer
diameter
Q = Required allowable shear strength of connection
ϕ = 0.65 (LRFD)
T = Required allowable tension strength of
connection
Pns = Nominal shear strength of connection Eq. 555.4-12 shall be valid connections that meet the
following limits:
= 2.7t1dFu1 (Eq. 555.4-10)
Pnov = Nominal pull-over strength of connection 1. 0.75 mm ≤ t1 ≤ 1.15 mm,
= 1.5t1d w Fu1 (Eq. 555.4-11) 2. No. 12 and No. 14 self drilling screw with or without
washers,
where
3. dw ≤ 19 mm,
dw = Larger of screw head diameter or washer
diameter 4. Fu1 ≤ 483 MPa, and
Ω = 2.35
5. t2/t1 ≥ 2.5.
Eq. 555.4-9 shall be valid for connections that meet the
following limits: For eccentrically loaded connections that produce a non-
uniform pull-over force on the fastener, the nominal pull-
1. 0.0285 in. (0.724 mm) ≤ t1 ≤ 0.0445 in. (1.130 mm), over strength shall be taken as 50 percent of Pnov.
2. No. 12 and No. 14 self-drilling screw with or without

555.5 Rupture
See Section 555.5 of Section 553-3 or 552 for the SECTION 556 - TESTS FOR SPECIAL
provisions of this section. CASES
555.6 Connecting to Other Materials Tests shall be made by an independent testing laboratory or
by a testing laboratory of a manufacturer.
555.6.1 Bearing
Provisions shall be made to transfer bearing forces from The provisions of Section 556 shall not apply to cold-
steel components covered by this Specification to adjacent formed steel diaphragms. Refer to Section 554.5.
structural components made of other materials.
556.1 Tests for Determining Structural Performance
555.6.2 Tension
The pull-over shear/ tension forces in the steel sheet around 556.1.1 Load and Resistance Factor Design and Limit
the head of the fastener shall be considered, as well as the States Design
pull-out force resulting from axial loads and bending Any structural performance that is required to be established
moments transmitted onto the fastener from various by tests shall be evaluated in accordance with the following
adjacent structural components in the assembly. performance procedure:
1. Evaluation of the test results shall be made on the basis
The nominal tensile strength of the fastener and the nominal of the average value of test data resulting from tests of
embedment strength of the adjacent structural component not fewer than three identical specimens, provided the
shall be determined by applicable product code approvals, deviation of any individual test result from the average
product specifications, product literature, or combination value obtained from all tests does not exceed ±15
thereof. percent. If such deviation from the average value
exceeds 15 percent, more tests of the same kind shall be
555.6.3 Shear made until the deviation of any individual test result
Provisions shall be made to transfer shearing forces from from the average value obtained from all tests does not
steel components covered by this Specification to adjacent exceed ±15 percent or until at least three additional
structural components made of other materials. The tests have been made. No test result shall be eliminated
required shear and/or bearing strength on the steel unless a rationale for its exclusion is given. The
components shall not exceed that allowed by this average value of all tests made shall then be regarded
Specification. The available shear strength on the fasteners as the nominal strength, R¬n, for the series of the tests.
and other material shall not be exceeded. Embedment Rn and the coefficient of variation VP of the test results
requirements shall be met. Provisions shall also be made shall be determined by statistical analysis.
for shearing forces in combination with other forces.
2. The strength of the tested elements, assemblies,
connections, or members shall satisfy Eq. 556.1-1 or
Eq. 556.1-2 as applicable.
ΣγiQi ≤ ϕRn for LRFD (Eq. 556.1-1)
where
ΣγiQi = Required strength [factored loads] based on the
most critical load combination determined in
accordance with Section 551.5.1.2 for LRFD.
γi and Qi are load factors and load effects,
respectively.
ϕ = Resistance factor
= C M m Fm Pm e o VM 2  VF 2  C pVP 2  VQ 2
(Eq. 556.1-2)
where
Cϕ = Calibration coefficient
= 1.52 for LRFD
= 1.6 for LRFD for beams having tension flange

through-fastened to deck or sheathing and with 3. The mechanical properties of the steel sheet shall be
compression flange laterally unbraced determined based on representative samples of the
Mm = Mean value of material factor, M, listed in Table material taken from the test specimen or the flat sheet
556-1 for type of component involved used to form the test specimen. Mechanical properties
Fm = Mean value of fabrication factor, F, listed in reported by the steel supplier shall not be used in the
Table 556-1 for type of component involved evaluation of the test results. If the yield stress of the
Pm = Mean value of professional factor, P, for tested steel from which the tested sections are formed is larger
component than the specified value, the test results shall be
= 1.0 adjusted down to the specified minimum yield stress of
e = Natural logarithmic base the steel that the manufacturer intends to use. The test
= 2.718 results shall not be adjusted upward if the yield stress
βo = Target reliability index of the test specimen is less than the minimum specified
= 2.5 for structural members and 3.5 for yield stress. Similar adjustments shall be made on the
connections for LRFD basis of tensile strength instead of yield stress where
= 1.5 for LRFD for beams having tension flange tensile strength is the critical factor.
through-fastened to deck or sheathing and with
Consideration shall also be given to any variation or
compression flange laterally unbraced
differences between the design thickness and the thickness
VM = Coefficient of variation of material factor listed
of the specimens used in the tests.
in Table 556-1 for type of component involved
VF = Coefficient of variation of fabrication factor Table 556-1
listed in Table 556-1 for type of component Statistical Data for the Determination of Resistance Factor
involved
CP = Correction factor
= (1+1/ n) m/ (m-2) for n ≥ 4 Type of Component Mm Vm Fm Vf
= 5.7 for n = 3 Transverse Stiffeners 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
Shear Stiffeners 1.00 0.06 1.00 0.05
where Tension Members 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
n = Number of tests Flexural members 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
m = Degrees of freedom  Bending Strength 1.00 0.06 1.00 0.05
= n-1  Lateral Torsional
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
VP = Coefficient of variation of test results, but not Buckling Strength
less than 6.5 percent  One Flange Through
1.10
VQ = Coefficient of variation of load effect Fastened to Deck or 0.10 1.00 0.05
= 0.21 for LRFD Sheathing
= 0.43 for LRFD for beams having tension flange  Shear Strength 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
through-fastened to deck or sheathing and with  Combined Bending
compression flange laterally unbraced 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
and Shear
Rn = Average result of all test results  Web Crippling
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
Strength
The listing in Table 556-1 shall not exclude the use of other
 Combined Bending
documented statistical data if they are established from 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
and Web Crippling
sufficient results on material properties and fabrication.
Concentrically Loaded
Compression 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
For steels not listed in Section 551.2.1, values of Mm and Members
VM shall be determined by the statistical analysis for the
Combined Axial and
materials used. 1.05 0.10 1.00 0.05
Bending
Cylindrical Tubular
When distortions interfere with the proper functioning of 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
Members
the specimen in actual use, the load effects based on the
critical load combination at the occurrence of the acceptable  Bending Strength 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
distortion shall also satisfy Eq. 556.1-1a or Eq. 556.1-2, as  Axial Compression 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
applicable, except that the resistance factor ϕ shall be taken Wall Studs and Wall
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
as unity and the load factor for dead load shall be taken as Studs Assemblies
1.0.  Wall Studs in
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05
Compression
 Wall Studs in 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.05

Bending 556.1.2 Allowable Strength Design

 Wall Studs with Where the composition or configuration of elements,
Combined Axial and 1.05 0.10 1.00 0.05 assemblies, connections, or details of cold-formed steel
Bending structural members are such that calculation of their
Structural Members not strength cannot be made in accordance with the provisions
1.00 0.10 1.00 0.05
listed above of this Specification, their structural performance shall be
Welded Connections established from tests and evaluated in accordance with
Arc Spot Welds Section 556.1.1, except as modified in this section for
 Shear Strength of allowable strength design.
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10
Welds
 Tensile Strength of The allowable strength shall be calculated as follows:
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10
Weld R =Rn/Ω (Eq. 556.1-3)
 Plate Failure 1.10 0.08 1.00 0.15
Arc Seam Welds where
 Shear Strength of the Rn = Average value of all test results
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10
Welds Ω = Safety factor
 Plate Tearing 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10 1 .6
= (Eq. 556.1-4)
Fillet Welds 
 Shear Strength of where
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10
Welds ϕ = A value evaluated in accordance with Section
 Plate Failure 1.10 0.80 1.00 0.15 556.1.1
Flare Groove Welds
The required strength shall be determined from nominal
 Shear Strength of
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10 loads and load combinations as described in Section 551.4.
Welds
 Plate Failure 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10
556.2 Tests for Confirming Structural Performance
Resistance Welds 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10
Bolted Connections For structural members, connections, and assemblies for
which the nominal strength is computed in accordance with
 Shear Strength of
1.10 0.08 1.00 0.05 this Specification or its specific references, confirmatory
Bolts
tests shall be permitted to be made to demonstrate the
 Tensile Strength of strength is not less than the nominal strength, Rn, specified
1.10 0.08 1.00 0.05
Bolts in this Specification or its specific references for the type of
 Minimum Spacing behavior involved.
1.10 0.08 1.00 0.05
and Edge Distance
 Tension Strength on 556.3 Tests for Determining Mechanical Properties
1.10 0.08 1.00 0.05
Net Section
 Bearing Strength 1.10 0.08 1.00 0.05 556.3.1 Full Section
Screw Connections Tests for determination of mechanical properties of full
Shear Strength of Screw 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10 sections to be used in Section 551.7.2 shall be conducted in
Tensile Strength of accordance with this section.
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10
Screw
Minimum spacing and 1. Tensile testing procedures shall agree with ASTM
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10 A370.
Edge Distance
Tension Strength on Net 2. Compressive yield stress determinations shall be made
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10
Section by means of compression tests of short specimens of
Tilting and Bearing the section. See AISI S902.
1.10 0.08 1.00 0.05
Strength
Pull-Out 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10 The compressive yield stress shall be taken as the smaller
Pull-Over 1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10 value of either the maximum compressive strength of the
Combined Shear and sections divided by the cross-sectional area or the stress
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.10 defined by one of the following methods:
Pull-Over
Connections Not Listed a. For sharp yielding steel, the yield stress is determined
1.10 0.10 1.00 0.15
Above by the autographic diagram method or by the total
strain under load method.

b. For gradual yielding steel, the yield stress is determined

by the strain under load method or by the 0.2 percent 556.3.3 Virgin Steel
offset method. The following provisions shall apply to steel produced to
When the total strain under load method is used, there shall other than the ASTM Specifications listed in Section
be evidence that the yield stress so determined agrees within 551.2.1 when used in sections for which the increased yield
5 percent with the yield stress that would be determined by stress of the steel after cold forming is computed from the
the 0.2 percent offset method. virgin steel properties in accordance with Section 551.7.2.
For acceptance and control purposes, at least four tensile
c. Where the principal effect of the loading to which the specimens shall be taken from each master coil for the
member will be subjected in service will be to produce establishment of the representative values of the virgin
bending stresses, the yield stress shall be determined tensile yield stress and tensile strength. Specimens shall be
for the flanges only. In determining such yield stress, taken longitudinally from the quarter points of the width
each specimen shall consist of one complete flange plus near the outer end of the coil.
a portion of the web of such flat width ration that the
value of ρ for the specimen is unity.
d. For acceptance and control purposes, one full section
test shall be made from each master coil.
e. At the option of the manufacturer, either tension or
compression tests shall be permitted to be used for
routine acceptance and control purposes, provided the
manufacturer demonstrates that such tests reliably
indicate the yield stress of the section when subjected
to the kind of stress under which the member is to be
used.
556.3.2 Flat Elements of Formed Sections

Tests for determining mechanical properties of flat elements
of formed sections and representative mechanical properties
of virgin steel to be used in Section 551.7.2 shall be made in
accordance with this section.
The yield stress of flats, Fyf, shall be established by means

of a weighted average of the yield stresses of standard
tensile coupons taken longitudinally from the flat portions
of a representative cold-formed member. The weighted
average shall be the sum of the products of the average
yield stress for each flat portion times its cross-sectional
area, divided by the total area of flats in the cross-section.
Although the exact number of such coupons will depend on
the shape of the member, i.e., on the number of flats in the
cross-section, at least one tensile coupon shall be taken from
the middle of each flat. If the actual virgin yield stress
exceeds the specified minimum yield stress, the yield stress
of the flats, Fyf , shall be adjusted by multiplying the test
values by the ratio of the specified minimum yield stress to
the actual virgin yield stress.

SECTION 557 - DESIGN OF COLD- Table 557-1

Fatigue Design parameters for Cold-Formed Steel
FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL Structures
MEMBERS AND CONNECTIONS
Ref Figure
FTH (Mpa)
FOR CYCLIC LOADING (FATIGUE)
Threshold
Category
Constant
Stress
Description
Cf
This design procedure shall apply to cold-formed steel
structural members and connections subject to cyclic
loading within the elastic range of stresses of frequency and As-received base metal
and components with as-
magnitude sufficient to initiate cracking and progressive rolled surfaces, including I 3.2x1010 172 557-1
failure (fatigue). sheard edges and cold
formed corners
557.1 General As-received base metal
and weld metal in
When cyclic loading is a design consideration, the members connected by II 1.0x1010 103 557-2
provisions of this chapter shall apply to stresses calculated continuous longitudinal
on the basis of unfactored loads. The maximum permitted welds
Welded attachments to a
tensile stress due to unfactored loads shall be 0.6 Fy. plate or a beam,
transverse fillet welds,
Stress range shall be defined as the magnitude of the change and continuous
557.1-3
in stress due to the application or removal of the unfactored longitudinal fillet welds III 3.2x109 110
557.1-4
less than or equal to
live load. In the case of a stress reversal, the stress range 50mm, bolt and screw
shall be computed as the sum of the absolute values of connections and spot
maximum repeated tensile and compressive stresses or the welds
sum of the absolute values of maximum shearing stresses of Longitudinal fillet
weldsed attachments
opposite direction at the point of probable crack initiation. greater than 50mm
parallel to the direction of
IV 1.0x109 62 557.1-4
Since the occurrence of full design wind or earthquake the applied stress, and
loads is too infrequent to warrant consideration in fatigue intermittent welds parallel
to the direction of the
design, the evaluation of fatigue resistance shall not be applied force.
required for wind load applications in buildings. If the live
load stress range is less than the threshold stress range, FTH,
given in Table 557.1, evaluation of fatigue strength shall
also not be required.
Figure 557-1 Typical Detail for Stress Category I
Figure 557-2 Typical Detail for Stress Category

For members having symmetric cross-sections, the fasteners

and weld shall be arranged symmetrically about the axis of
the member, or the total stresses including those due to
eccentricity shall be included in the calculation of the stress
range.
For axially stressed angle members, where the center of

gravity of the connecting welds lies between the line of the
center of gravity of the angle cross-section and the center of
the connected leg, the effects of eccentricity shall be
ignored. If the center of gravity of the connecting welds lies
Figure 557-3 Typical Attachments for Stress Categories III outside this zone, the total stresses, including those due to
and IV joint eccentric, shall be included in the calculation of stress
range.
Evaluation of fatigue strength shall not be required if the
number of cycles of application of live load is less than 557.3 Design Stress Range
20,000.
The range of stress at service loads [specified] shall not
The fatigue strength determined by the provisions of this exceed the design stress range computed using Equation
chapter shall be applicable to structures with corrosion 557-1 for all stress categories as follows:
protection or subject only to non-aggressive atmospheres. FSR= (αCf/N) 0.333 ≥ FTH (Eq. 557.3-1)
The fatigue strength determined by the provisions of this where

chapter shall be applicable only to structures subject to FSR = Design stress range
temperatures not exceeding 300˚F (149˚C). α = Coefficient for conversion of units
= 327 for SI units
The contract documents shall either provide complete Cf = Constant from Table 557-1
details including weld sizes, or specify the planned cycle N = Number of stress range fluctuations in design
life and the maximum range of moments, shear, and life
reactions for the connections. = Number of stress range fluctuations per day x
365 x years of design life
FTH = Threshold fatigue stress range, maximum stress
range for indefinite design life from Table 557-1
557.4 Bolts and Threaded Parts

For mechanically fastened connections loaded in shear, the
maximum range of stress in connected material at service
loads shall not exceed the design stress range computed
using Eq. 557.3-1. The factor Cf shall be taken as 22 x 108.
Figure 557-4 Typical Attachments for Stress Category III The threshold stress, FTH, shall be taken as 48 MPa.
557.2 Calculation of Maximum Stresses and Stress For not-fully-tightened high-strength bolts, and threaded
Ranges anchor rods with cut, ground, or rolled threads, the
maximum range of tensile stress on the net tensile area from
Calculated stresses shall be based upon elastic analysis. applied axial load and moment plus load due to prying
Stresses shall not be amplified by stress concentration action shall not exceed the design stress range computed
factors for geometrical discontinuities. using Eq. 557.3-1. The factor Cf shall be taken as 3.9x108.
The threshold stress, FTH, shall be taken as 48 MPa. The
For bolts and threaded rods subject to axial tension, the net tensile area shall be calculated by Eqs. 557.4-1.
calculated stresses shall include the effects of prying action,
if applicable.
In the case of axial stress combined with bending, the

maximum stresses of each kind shall be those determined
for concurrent arrangements of applied load.
At = (π/4) [db – (0.9382p)]2 for SI units

(Eq. 557.4-1) SECTION C-1 - DESIGN OF COLD-

where FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL
At = Net tensile area MEMBERS USING THE DIRECT
db = Nominal diameter (body or shrank diameter)
p = Pitch (mm per thread for SI units)
STRENGTH METHOD
C-1 Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
557.5 Special Fabrication Requirements
Using the Direct Strength Method
Backing bars in welded connections that are parallel to the
stress field shall be permitted to remain in place, and if C-1.1. General Provisions
used, shall be continuous.
C-1.1.1 Applicability
Backing bars that are perpendicular to the stress field, if
used, shall be removed and the joint back gouged and The provisions of this Section shall be permitted to be used
welded. to determine the nominal axial (Pn) and flexural (Mn)
strengths of cold-formed steel members. Sections C.1.2.1
and C.1.2.2 present a method applicable to all cold-formed
Flame cut edges subject to cyclic stress ranges shall have a
steel columns and beams. Those members meeting the
surface roughness not to exceed 25 μm in accordance with
geometric and material limitations of Section C.1.1.1.1 for
ASME B46.1.
columns and Section C.1.1.1.2 for beams have been
prequalified for use, and the calibrated safety factor, Ω, and
Re-entrant corners at cuts, copes, and weld access holes
resistance factor, ϕ, given in C.1.2.1 and C.1.2.2 shall be
shall form a radius of not less than 10 mm by pre-drilling or
permitted to apply. The use of the provisions of Section
sub-punching and reaming a hole, or by thermal cutting to
C.1.2.1 and C.1.2.2 for other columns and beams shall be
form the radius of the cut. If the radius portion is formed is
permitted, but the standard Ω and ϕ factors for rational
formed by thermal cutting, the cut surface shall be ground
engineering analysis (Section A1.2 (b) of the main
to a bright metal contour to provide a radiused transition,
Specification) apply. The main American Specification for
free of notches, with a surface roughness not to exceed not
the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members.
to exceed 25 μm in accordance with ASME B46.1 or
another equivalent approved standards.
Currently, the Direct Strength Method provides no explicit
provisions for members in tension, shear, combined bending
For transverse butt joints in regions of high tensile stress,
and shear, web crippling, combined bending and web
weld tabs shall be used to provide for cascading the weld
crippling, or combined axial load and bending (beam-
termination outside the finished joint. End dams shall not
columns). Further, no provisions are given for structural
be used. Weld tabs shall be removed and the end of the
assemblies or connections and joints. As detailed in main
weld finished flush with the edge of the member.
Specification, Section 551.1.2, the provisions of the main
Exception Specification, when applicable, shall be used for all cases
listed above.
Weld tabs shall not be required for sheet material if the
welding procedures used result in smooth, flush edges.
It shall be permitted to substitute the nominal strength,
resistance factors, and safety factors from this Appendix for
the corresponding values in Sections 553.3.1, 553.4.1.1,
553.4.1.2, 553.4.1.3, 553.4.1.4, 554.6.1.1, and 554.6.1.2 of
the main Specification.
For members of situations to which the main Specification

is not applicable, the Direct Strength Method of this
Appendix shall be permitted to be used, as applicable. The
usage of the engineering analysis procedure, as detailed in
Section 5511.2 (b) of the main Specification:

1. applicable provisions of the main Specification shall be

C.1.2 Members
followed when they exist, and
2. increased safety factors, Ω, and reduced resistance C.1.2.1 Column Design
factors, ϕ, shall be employed for strength when rational The nominal axial strength [resistance], Pn, shall be the
engineering analysis is conducted. minimum of Pne, Pnℓ, and Pnd as given in Sections C.1.2.1.1
to C.1.2.1.3. For columns meeting the geometric and
C.1.1.1a Pre-qualified Columns material criteria of Section C.1.1.1a, Ωc and ϕc shall be as
Unperforated columns that fall within the geometric and follows:
material limitations given in Table C-1 shall be permitted to
Ωc = 1.80 (ASD) ϕc = 0.85 (LRFD)
be designed using the safety factor, Ω, and resistance factor,
ϕ, defined in Section C.1.2.1.
For all other columns, Ω and ϕ of the main Specification,
Section 551.1.2(b), shall apply. The available strength shall
C.1.1.1b Pre-qualified Beams
be determined in accordance with applicable method in
Unperforated beams that fall within the geometric and Section 551.4, or 551.5 of the main Specification.
material limitations given in Table C-2 shall be permitted to
be designed using the safety factor, Ω, and resistance factor, C.1.2.1a Flexural, Torsional, or Flexural-Torsional
ϕ, defined in Section C.1.2.2. Buckling
The nominal axial strength, Pne, for flexural, torsional, or
C.1.1.2 Elastic Buckling
flexural-torsional buckling shall be calculated in accordance
Analysis shall be used for the determination of the elastic with the following:
buckling loads and/or moments used in this Appendix. For
columns, this includes the local, distortional, and overall (a) For λc ≤ 1.5
buckling loads (Pcrℓ, Pcrd, and Pcre of Section C.1.2.1). For
Pne   0.658 c  Py
2
beams, this includes the local, distortional, and overall (Eq. C.1-2)
 
buckling moments (Mcrℓ, Mcrd, and Mcre of Section C.1.2.2).
In some cases, for a given column or beam, all three modes (b) For λc ≤ 1.5
do not exist. In such cases, the non-existent mode shall be
ignored in the calculations of Sections C.1.2.1 and C.1.2.2.  0.877 
Pne   2  Py (Eq. C.1-3)
The commentary to this Appendix provides guidance on   
 c 
appropriate analysis procedures for elastic buckling
determination. where
C.1.1.3 Serviceability Determination Py

c  (Eq. C.1-4)
The bending deflection at any moment, M, due to nominal Pcre
loads shall be permitted to be determined by reducing the
gross moment of inertia, Ig, to an effective moment of where
inertia for deflection, as given in Eq. C.1-1: Py = AgFy (Eq. C.1-5)
Ieff = Ig(Md/M) ≤ Ig (Eq. C.1-1) Pcre = Minimum of the critical elastic column buckling
load in flexural, torsional, or flexural-torsional
where buckling determined by analysis in accordance
Md = Nominal flexural strength, Mn, defined in with Section C.1.1.2.
Section C.1.2.2, but with My replaced by M in
all equations of Section C.1.2.2 C.1.1.1b Local Buckling
M = Moment due to nominal loads on member to be The nominal axial strength, Pnℓ, for local buckling shall be
considered (M ≤ My) calculated in accordance with the following:
1. For λl ≤ 0.776
Pnℓ = Pne (Eq. C.1-6)
2. For λl > 0.776

 P 
0.4 
P 
0.4
Pnl  1  0.15 crl   crl  Pne (Eq. C.1-7)
  Pne   Pne 
 

where 2. For 2.78My ≥ Mcre ≥ 0.56My
Pne 10  10 M y 
l  (Eq. C.1-8) M ne  M y 1  
 (Eq. C.1-13)
Pcrl 9  36M cre 
Pne = A value as defined in Section C.1.2.1.1 3. For Mcre > 2.78 My
Pcrℓ = Critical elastic local column buckling load
Mne = My (Eq. C.1-14)
determined by analysis in accordance with
Section C.1.1.2 where
Mcre = Critical elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment
C.1.2.1c Distortional Buckling
The nominal axial strength, Pnd, for distortional buckling Section C.1.1.2
shall be calculated in accordance with the following:
My = Sf Fy (Eq. C.1-15)
1. For λd ≤ 0.561
where
Pnd = Py (Eq. C.1-9)
Sf = Gross section modulus referenced to the extreme
2. For λd > 0.561 fiber in first yield
 P 
0.6 
 
0.6
Pnd  1  0.25 crd   Pcrd  Py (Eq. C.1-10)

C.1.2.2b Local Buckling
  Py   Py  The nominal flexural strength, Mnℓ, for local buckling shall
    
be calculated in accordance with the following:
where 1. For λℓ ≤ 0.776
Py Mnℓ = Mne (Eq. C.1-16)
d  (Eq. C.1-11)
Pcrd 2. For λℓ > 0.776
where  M 
0.4  0.4
M nl  1  0.15 crl    M crl 
 M ne
Py = A value as given in Eq. C.1-5    M 
  M ne    ne 
Pcrd = Critical elastic distortional column buckling load
determined by analysis in accordance with (Eq. C.1-17)
Section C.1.1.2.
where
C.1.2.2 Beam Design
M ne
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the minimum of 1  (Eq. C.1-18)
M crl
Mne, Mnℓ, and Mnd as given in Sections C.1.2.2.1 to
C.1.2.2.3. For beams meeting the geometric and material Mne = A value as defined in Section C.1.2.2.1
criteria of Section C.1.1.1.2, Ωb and ϕb shall be as follows: Mcrℓ = Critical elastic local buckling moment
Ωb=1.67 (ASD) ϕb= 0.90 (LRFD) determined by analysis in accordance with
Section C.1.1.2
For all other beams, Ω and ϕ of the main Specification,
Section 551.1.2.(b), shall apply. The available strength C.1.2.2c Distortional Buckling
[factored resistance] shall be determined in accordance with
applicable method in Section 551.4, or 551.5 of the main The nominal flexural strength, Mnd, for distortional buckling
Specification. shall be calculated in accordance with the following:
1. For λd ≤ 0.673
Mnd = My (Eq. C.1-19)
C.1.2.2a Lateral-Torsional Buckling
The nominal flexural strength, Mne, for lateral-torsional 2. For λd > 0.673
buckling shall be calculated in accordance with the
 M 
0.5  0.5
following:    M crd 
M nd  1  0.22 crd 
 M
 My
  My   
1. For Mcre < 0.56My    
y 
Mne = Mcre (Eq. C.1-12)
(Eq. C.1-20)

where
My
d  (Eq. C.1-21)
M crd
My = A value as given in Eq. C.1.2.2-4

Mcrd = Critical elastic distortional buckling moment
Section C.1.1.2

Table C-1

Table C-2


Pr = Required axial compressive strength [factored

SECTION C-2 - SECOND-ORDER axial compressive force], (N)
ANALYSIS Py = Member yield strength (=AFy, where A is the full
unreduced cross-sectional area), (N)
This Section C.2 addresses second-order analysis for α = 1.6 (ASD)
structural systems comprised of moment frames, braced = 1.0 (LRFD)
frames, shear walls, or combinations thereof.
In cases where flexibility of other structural components
C.2.1 General Requirements such as connections, flexible column base details, or
Members shall satisfy the provisions of Section 553.5 with horizontal trusses acting as diaphragms is modeled
the nominal column strengths [nominal axial resistance], explicitly in the analysis, the stiffnesses of the other
Pn, determined using Kx and Ky = 1.0, as well as αx= 1.0, structural components shall be reduced by a factor of 0.8.
αy= 1.0, Cmx= 1.0, and Cmy= 1.0. The required strengths
[factored forces and moments] for members, connections, If notional loads are used, in lieu of using τb < 1.0 where
and other structural elements shall be determined using a αPr/Py > 0.5, τb = 1.0 shall be permitted to be used for all
second-order analysis as specified in this Section. All members, provided that an additional notional load of
component and connection deformations that contribute to 0.001Yi is added to the notional load required in Section
the lateral displacement of the structure shall be considered C.2.2.4.
in the analysis.
C.2.2.4 Notional loads
C.2.2 Design and Analysis Constraints Notional loads shall be applied to the lateral framing system
to account for the effects of geometric imperfections.
C.2.2.1 General Notional loads are lateral loads that are applied at each
The second-order analysis shall consider both the effect of framing level and specified in terms of the gravity loads
loads acting on the deflected shape of a member between applied at that level. The gravity load used to determine the
joints or nodes (P-δ effects) and the effect of loads acting on notional load shall be equal to or greater than the gravity
the displaced location of joints or nodes in a structure (P-∆ load associated with the load combination being evaluated.
effects). It shall be permitted to perform the analysis using Notional loads shall be applied in the direction that adds to
any general second-order analysis method. Analyses shall the destabilizing effects under the specified load
be conducted according to the design and loading combination.
requirements specified in Section 551. For the ASD, the
second-order analysis shall be carried out under 1.6 times A notional load, Ni = (1/240) Yi, shall be applied
the ASD load combinations and the results shall be divided independently in two orthogonal directions as a lateral load
by 1.6 to obtain the required strengths at allowable load in all load combinations. This load shall be in addition to
levels. other lateral loads, if any.
Ni = Notional lateral load applied at level I, kips (N)
C2.2.2 Types of Analysis Yi = Gravity load from the LRFD load combination
It shall be permissible to carry out the second-order analysis or 1.6 times the ASD load combination applied
either on the out-of-plumb geometry without notional loads at level I, N
or on the plumb geometry by applying notional loads or
minimum lateral loads as defined in Section C.2.2.4. The notional load coefficient of 1/240 is based on an
assumed initial story out-of-plumbness ratio of 1/240.
For second-order elastic analysis, axial and flexural stiffness Where a different assumed out-of-plumbness is justified, the
shall be reduced as specified in Section C.2.2.3. notional load coefficient shall be permitted to be adjusted
proportionally to a value not less than 1/500.
C.2.2.3 Reduced Axial and Flexural Stiffnesses
Flexural and axial stiffness shall be reduced by using E* in
place of E as follows for all members whose flexural and
axial stiffnesses are considered to contribute to the lateral
stability of the structure:
E* = 0.8τbE (Eq. C.2-1)
where
τb = 1.0 for αPr/Py ≤ 0.5
= 4[αPr/Py(1 – αPr/Py)] for αPr/Py > 0.5

SECTION C3 – ADDITIONAL
C.3.2.1 Ductility
PROVISIONS In seismic design category D, E or F (as defined by
ASCE/SEI 7), when material ductility is determined on the
This Section provides design provisions or supplements to
basis of the local and uniform elongation criteria of Section
Section 551 through 557.
C.3.3.1, curtain wall studs shall be limited to the dead load
of the curtain wall assembly divided by its surface area, but
C.3.1 Scope no greater than 0.75kN/m2 .
Designs shall be made in accordance with the provisions for
Load and Resistance Factor Design, or with the provisions C.3.3 Loads
for Allowable Strength Design.
C.3.3.1 Nominal Loads
C.3.2 Other Steels
The nominal loads shall be as stipulated by the applicable
The listing in Section C.3.1 shall not exclude the use of building code under which the structure is designed or as
steel up to and including 25 mm in thickness, ordered or dictated by the conditions involved. In the absence of a
produced to other than the listed specifications, provided the building code, the nominal loads shall be those stipulated in
following requirements are met: the ASCE/SEI 7.
1. The steel shall conform to the chemical and mechanical
requirements of one of the listed specifications or other C.3.3.1.1a Load Combinations for ASD
published specification. The structure and its components shall be designed so that
the allowable strengths equal or exceed the effects of the
2. The chemical and mechanical properties shall be
nominal loads and load combinations as stipulated by the
determined by the producer, the supplier, or the
applicable building code under which the structure is
purchaser, in accordance with the following
designed or, in the absence of an applicable building code,
specifications. For coated sheets, ASTM A924/
as stipulated in the ASCE/SEI 7.
A924M; for hot-rolled or cold-rolled sheet and strip,
ASTM A568/ A568M; for plate and bar, ASTM A6/
C.3.3.1.1b Load Factors and Load Combinations for
A6M; for hollow structural sections, such tests shall be
LRFD
made in accordance with the requirements of A500 (for
carbon steel) or A847 (for HSLA steel). The structure and its components shall be designed so that
design strengths equal or exceed the effects of the factored
3. The coating properties of coated sheet shall be loads and load combinations stipulated by the applicable
determined by the producer, the supplier, or the building code under which the structure is designed or, in
purchaser, in accordance with ASTM A924/ A924M. the absence of an applicable building code, as stipulated in
4. The steel shall meet the requirements of Section C.3.3. the ASCE/SEI 7.
5. If the steel is to be welded, its suitability for the C.3.4 Referenced Documents
intended welding process shall be established by the
The following documents are referenced in Section C-3:
producer, the supplier, or the purchaser in accordance
with AWS D1.1 or D1.3 as applicable. 1. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), One
East Wacker Drive, Suite 700, Chicago, Illinois 60601-
If the identification and documentation of the production of 1802: ANSI/ AISC 360-05, Specification for Structural
the steel have not been established, then in addition to Steel Buildings
requirements (1) through (5), the manufacturer of the cold-
2. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), 1140
formed steel product shall establish that the yield stress and
Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20036:
tensile strength of the master coil are at least 10 percent
greater than specified in the referenced published AISI S213-07, North American Standard for Cold-
specification. Formed Steel Framing – Lateral Design AISI S908-04,
Base Test Method for Purlins Supporting a standing
Seam Roof System
3. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 1801
Alexander Bell Drive, Reston VA, 20191: ASCE/SEI
7-05, Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other
Structures

4. American Welding Society (AWS), 550 N.W. LeJeune discrete point bracing and the provisions of Section
Road, Miami, Florida 33135:AWS D1.3-98, Structural 553.3.1.2.1, or shall be calculated in accordance with this
Welding Code-Sheet Steel AWS C1.1/C1.1M-2000, section. The safety factor and the resistance factor provided
Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding in this section shall be applied to the nominal strength, Mn,
calculated by Eq. 554.6.1.2-1 to determine the available
C.3.5 Tension Members strengths in accordance with the applicable method in
For axially loaded tension members, the nominal tensile Section 551.4 or 551.5.
strength, Tn, shall be the smallest value obtained in Mn = RSeFy (Eq. C.3-3)
accordance with the limit states of (a), (b) and (c). Unless
otherwise specified, the corresponding safety factor and the Ωb=1.67 (ASD) ϕb= 0.90 (LRFD)
resistance factor provided in this section shall be used to where
determine the available strengths in accordance with the
applicable method in Section 551.4 or 551.5. R = Reduction factor determined in accordance with
AISI S908
1. For yielding in gross section
Tn = AgFy (Eq. C.3-1) See Section 553.3.1.1 for definitions of Se and Fy.
Ωt= 1.67 (ASD) ϕ= 0.90 (LRFD) C.3.6.2 Compression of Z-Section Members Having One
where Flange Fastened to a Standing Seam Roof
These provisions shall apply to Z-sections concentrically
Tn = Nominal strength of member when loaded in
loaded along their longitudinal axis, with only one flange
tension
attached to standing seam roof panels. Alternatively, design
Ag = Gross area of cross section
values for a particular system shall be permitted to be based
Fy = Design yield stress as determined in accordance
on discrete point bracing locations, or on tests in accordance
with Section 551.7.1
with Section 556.
2. For rupture in net section away from connection
The nominal axial strength of simple span or continuous Z-
Tn = AnFu (Eq. C.3-2)
sections shall be calculated in accordance with (a) and (b).
Ωt= 2.00 (ASD) ϕt= 0.75 (LRFD) Unless otherwise specified, the safety factor and the
resistance factor provided in this section shall be used to
where
An = Net area of cross section applicable method in Section 551.4 or 551.5.
Fu = Tensile strength as specified in either Section
1. For weak axis available strength
551.2.1 or 551.2.3.2
Pn = kaf R Fy A (Eq. C.3-4)
3. For rupture in net section at connection
Ω= 1.80 (ASD) ϕ= 0.85(LRFD)
The available tensile strength shall also be limited by
Sections 555.2.7, 555.3, and 555.5 for tension members where
using welded connections, bolted connections, and screw
a. For d/t ≤ 90
connections.
kaf = 0.36
C.3.6 Light-Frame Steel Construction
b. For 90 < d/t ≤ 130
In addition to the cold-formed steel framing standards listed
in Section 554.4, the following standard shall be followed, d
as applicable: k af  0.72  (Eq. C.3-5)
250t
1. Light-framed shear walls, diagonal strap bracing (that
c. For d/t > 130
is part of a structural wall) and diaphragms to resist
wind, seismic and other in-plane lateral loads shall be kaf= 0.20
designed in accordance with AISI S213.
R = Reduction factor determined from uplift tests
performed using AISI S908
C.3.6.1 Flexural Members Having One Flange Fastened
A = Full unreduced cross-sectional area of Z-section.
to a Standing Seam Roof System
d = Z-section depth
The available flexural strength of a C- or Z-section, loaded t = Z-section thickness.
in a plane parallel to the web with the top flange supporting
a standing seam roof system shall be determined using See Section 553.3.1.1 for definition of Fy.

Eq. 554.6.1-4-1 shall be limited to roof systems meeting the C.3.7 Welded Connections
following conditions: Welded connections in which the thickness of the thinnest
a. Purlin thickness, 1.37 mm ≤ t ≤ 3.22 mm connected part is greater than 5 mm shall be in accordance
with ANSI/AISC-360.
b. 150 mm ≤ d ≤ 300 mm
c. Flanges are edge stiffened compression elements Except as modified herein, arc elds on steel where at least
one of the the connected parts is 5 mm or less in thickness
d. 70 ≤ d / t ≤ 170 shall be made in accordance with AWS D1.3. Welders and
e. 2.8 ≤ d / b < 5, where b=Z section flange width. welding procedures shall e qualified as specified in AWS
D1.3. These provisions are intended to cover the welding
flange flat width positions as listed in Table C.3.1.
f. 16 ≤ < 50
t
Resistance welds shall be made in conformance with the
g. Both flanges are prevented from moving laterally at the procedures given in AWS C1.1 or AWS C1.3.
supports
Table C.3-1
h. Yield stress, Fy ≤ 483 MPa Welding Position Covered
2. The available strength about the strong axis shall be
Welding Position
determined in accordance with Section 553.4.1 and Square Fillet
553.4.1.1. Arc Arc Flare Flare V
Groove Weld,
Connection Spot Seam Bevel Groove
Butt Lap
Weld Weld Groove Weld
C.3.6.3 Strength of Standing Seam Roof Panel Systems Weld or T
Sheet F - F F F F
In addition to the provisions provided in Section 554.6.2.1,
to H - H H H H
for load combinations that include wind uplift, the nominal
sheet V - - V V V
wind load shall be permitted to be multiplied by 0.67
OH - - OH OH OH
provided the tested system and wind load evaluation Sheet to - F F F F -
satisfies the following conditions: Support - - - H H -
1. The roof system is tested in accordance with AISI ing - - - V V -
Member
S906. - - - OH OH -
( F = flat, H = horizontal, V = vertical, OH = over head)
2. The wind load is calculated using ASCE/SEI 7 for
components and cladding, Method 1 (Simplified C.3.8 Bolted Connections
Procedure) or Method 2 (Analytical Procedure).
In addition to the design criteria given in Section C3.8 of
3. The area of the roof being evaluated is in Zone 2 (edge this Specification, the following design requirements shall
zone) or Zone 3 (corner zone), as defined in ASCE/SEI also be followed for bolted connections used for cold-
7, i.e. the 0.67 factor does not apply to the field of the formed steel structural members in which the thickness of
roof (Zone 1). the thinnest connected part is less than 4.76 mm. Bolted
connections in which the thickness of the thinnest connected
4. The base metal thickness of the standing seam roof
part is equal to or greater than 4.76 mm shall be in
panel is greater than or equal to 0.60 mm and less than
accordance with ANSI /AISC-360.
or equal to 0.80 mm.
5. For trapezoidal profile standing seam roof panels, the The holes for bolts shall not exceed the sizes specified in
distance between sidelaps is no greater than 600 mm. Table C.3-2, except that larger holes are permitted to be
used in column base details or structural systems connected
6. For vertical rib profile standing seam roof panels, the
to concrete walls.
distance between sidelaps is no greater than 450 mm.
7. The observed failure mode of the tested system is one Standard holes shall be used in bolted connections, except
of the following: that oversized and slotted holes shall be permitted to be
used as approved by the designer. The length of slotted
(i) The standing seam roof clip mechanically fails
holes shall be normal to the direction of the shear load.
by separating from the panel sidelap
Washers or backup plates shall be installed over oversized
(ii)The standing seam roof clip mechanically fails or slotted holes in an outer ply unless suitable performance
by the sliding tab separating from the stationary base. is demonstrated by tests in accordance with Section 556. In
the situation where the holes occurs within the lap of lapped
and nested zee members, the above requirements regarding
the direction of the slot and the use of washers shall be

permitted not to apply , subject to the following limits:

In addition, the minimum distance between centers of bolt
1. 12.7 mm diameter bolts only,
holes shall provide sufficient clearance for bolt heads, nuts,
2. Maximum slot size is 14.3 mm x 22.2 mm slotted washers and the wrench but shall not be less than 3 times
vertically, the nominal bolt diameter, d. also, the distance from the
center of any standard hole to the end or other boundary of
3. Maximum oversize hole is 16 mm diameter,
the connecting member shall not be less than 1½ d.
4. Minimum member thickness is 1.52 mm nominal,
For oversized and slotted holes, the distance between edges
5. Maximum member yield stress 410 MPa,
of two adjacent holes and the distance measured from the
6. Minimum lap length measured from center of frame to edge of the hole to the end or other boundary of the
end of lap is 1.5 times the member depth. connecting member in the line of stress shall not be less
than the value of e-(dh/2), in which e is the required
Table C.3-2 distance used in Eq. C.3-6, and dh is the diameter of a
Maximize Size of Bolt Holes , millimeters standard hole defined in Table C.3-2. In no case shall the
Nominal Standard Oversized Short Long clear distance between edges of two adjacent holes be less
Bolt Hole Hole Slotted Slotted than 2d and the distance between the edge of the hole and
Diameter, Diameter Diameter, Hole Hole the end of the member be less than d.
d dh dh Dimensions Dimensions
mm mm
mm mm mm C.3.8.2 Rupture in Net Section (Shear Lag)
The nominal tensile strength of a bolted member shall be
< 12.7 d+0.8 d+1.6 (d+0.8) by (d+0.8) by determined in accordance with Section 553. For rupture in
(d+6.4) (21/2 d) the effective net section of the connected part, the nominal
(d+1.6) by (d+1.6) by tensile strength, Pn shall be determined in accordance with
≥ 12.7 d+1.6 d+3.2 this section. Unless otherwise specified, the corresponding
(d+6.4) (21/2d)
safety factor and the resistance factor provided in this
section shall be used to determine the available strengths in
C.3.8.1 Shear, Spacing and Edge Distance accordance with the applicable method in Section 551.4 or
The nominal shear strength, Pn, of the connected part as 551.5.
affected by spacing and edge distance in the direction of (a) For flat sheet connections not having staggered hole
applied force shall be calculated in accordance with Eq.C3- patterns
6. The corresponding safety factor and the resistance factor
provided in this section shall be used to determine the Pn = An Ft (Eq. C.3-7)
available strength in accordance with the applicable method (1) When washers are provided under both the bolt head
in Section 551.4 or 551.5. and the nut
Pn = teFu (Eq. C3-6) For single bolt, or a single row of bolts perpendicular to the
(a) When Fu/ Fsy ≥ 1.08 force
Ω = 2.00 (ASD) ϕ = 0.70 (LRFD) Ft  0.1  3 d s Fu  Fu (Eq. C.3-8)

(b) When Fu / Fsy , 1.08 For multiple bolts in the line parallel to the force
Ω = 2.22 (ASD) ϕ = 0.60 (LRFD) Ft = Fu (Eq. C.3-9)
where For double shear:
Pn = Nominal strength per bolt Ω = 2.00 (ASD) ϕ = 0.65 (LRFD)
e = Distance measured in line of force from center of
For single shear:
a standard hole to nearest edge of a adjacent hole
or to end of connected part. Ω = 2.22 (ASD) ϕ = 0.55 (LRFD)
t = Thickness of thinnest connected part
Fu = Tensile strength of connected part as specified in (2) When either washers are not provided under the bolt
Section 551.2.1,551.2.2 or 551.2.3. head and the nut, or only one washer is provided under
Fsy = Yield stress of connected part as specified in either the bolt head or the nut
Section 551.2.1,551.2.2 or 551.2.3.

For single bolt, or a single row of bolts perpendicular to the (2) For channel members having two or more bolts in the
force line of force
Ft  2.5  d s Fu  Fu (Eq. C.3-10) U = 1.0 – 0.36 x/L < 0.9 (Eq. C.3-16) but U ≥ 0.5.
For multiple bolts in the line parallel to the force where
Ft = Fu (Eq. C.3-11) x = Distance from shear plane to centroid of the

cross
Ω = 2.22 (ASD) ϕ = 0.65 (LRFD) L = Length of connection
where
C.3.8.3 Shear and Tension in Bolts
An = Net Area of connected part
Ft = Nominal Tensile stress in flat sheet The nominal bolt strength, Pn, resulting from shear, tension
d = Nominal bolt diameter or of combination of shear and tension shall be calculated in
s = Sheet width divided by number of bolt holes in accordance with this section. The corresponding safety
cross section being analyzed (when evaluating factor and the resistance factor provided in Table C.3-3
Ft) shall be used to determine the available strengths in
Fu = Tensile strength of connected part as specified in accordance with the applicable method in Section 551.4 or
Section 551.2.1, 551.2.2 or 551.2.3. 551.5.
(b) For flat sheet connections having staggered hole Pn = AbFn (Eq.C.3-17)
patterns where
Pn = AnFt (Eq. C.3-12) Ab = Gross cross-sectional area of bolt
Ω = 2.22 (ASD) ϕ = 0.65 (LRFD) Fn = Nominal strength ksi (MPa) is determined in
accordance with (a) or (b) as follows:
where
(a) When bolts are subjected to shear only or tension only
Ft = determined in accordance with Eqs. E3.2-2 to Fn shall be given by Fnv or Fnt in Table C.3-3.
E3.2-5.
An = 0.90 [Ag – nbdht + (Ʃs’2/4g)t] Eq. C.3-13) Corresponding safety and resistance factor, Ω and ϕ,
Ag = Gross area of member shall be accordance with Table C.3-3.
s’ = Longitudinal center-to-center spacing of any two The pullover strength of the connected sheet at the bolt
consecutive holes head, nut or washer shall be considered where bolt
g = Transverse center-to-center spacing between tension is involved. See Section 555.6.
fastener gauge lines
nb = Number of bolt holes in the cross section being (b) When bolts are subjected to a combination of shear and
analyzed tension, Fn , isgiven by F’nt in Eq.C.3-18 or C.3-19 as
db = Diameter of a standard hole follows
See Section C.3.8.1 for the definition of t. For ASD
(c) For other than flat sheet F’nt = 1.3 Fnt – ΩFnt fv ≤ Fnt
Pn = AeFu (Eq. C.3-14) Fnv (Eq. C.3-18)
Ω = 2.22 (ASD) ϕ = 0.65 (LRFD) For LRFD
where Fnt
Ae = AnU, effective net area with U defined as F’nt = 1.3 Fnt - fv ≤ Fnt (Eq. C.3-19)
follows: ϕFnv
U = 1.0 for members when the load is transmitted
directly to all of the cross-sectional elements.
Otherwise, the reduction coefficient U is
determined as follows:
(1) For Angle members having two or more bolts in the
line of force
U = 1.0 – 1.20 x/L < 0.9 (Eq. C.3-15) but U ≥ 0.4

where
F’nt = Nominal tensile stress modified to include the
effects of required shear stress, MPa
Fnt = Nominal tensile stress from Table C.3-3
Fnv = Nominal shear stress from Table C.3-3
Fv = Required shear stress, MPa
Ω = Safety factor for shear from Table C.3-3
ϕ = Resistance factor for shear from Table C.3-3
In addition, the required shear stress, fv, shall not exceed the
allowable shear stress, Fnv / Ω (ASD) or the design shear
stress, ϕ Fnv (LRFD), of the fastener.
Table C.3-3
Nominal Tensile and Shear Strengths for Bolts
Tensile Strength Shear Strength
Safety Resistance Nominal Safety Resistance Nominal
Factor Factor Stress Fnt Factor Factor Stress Fnv
Bolts
Ω Φ Mpa Ω Φ Mpa
(ASD) (LRFD) (ASD) (LRFD)
A307 Bolts Grade A
6.4 mm ≤ d 2.25 279 165
< 12.7 mm
A307 Bolts Grade A
2.25 310 186
d ≥ 12.7 mm
A325 Bolts, when threads are not
621 372
excluded from shear planes
A325 Bolts, when threads are excluded
621 496
from shear planes
A354 Grade BD Bolts
6.4 mm ≤ d < 12.7 mm, when threads 696 407
are not excluded from shear planes
A354 Grade BD Bolts
6.4 mm ≤ d < 12.7 mm, when threads 0.75 696 2.4 0.65 621
are excluded from shear planes
A449 Bolts
2.00
are not excluded from shear planes
A449 Bolts
are excluded from shear planes
A490 Bolts
when threads are not excluded from 776 465
shear planes
A490 Bolts
when threads are not excluded from 776 621
shear planes
In Table C.3-3, the shear strength shall apply to bolts in C.3.8.3.1a Connection Shear Limited by End Distance
holes as limited by Table C.3-2. Washers or back-up plates
The nominal shear strength per screw, Pns shall not exceed
shall be installed over long-slotted holes and the capacity of
that calculated in accordance with Eq. C.3-20 where the
connections using long-slotted holes shall be determined by
distance to an end of the connected part is parallel to the
load tests in accordance with Section 556.
line of the applied force. The safety factor and the resistance
factor provided in this section shall be used to determine the
available strengths in accordance with the applicable
method in Section 551.4 or 551.5.

Pns = teFu (Eq.C.3-20) method in Section 551.4 or 551.5.

Ω = 3.00 (ASD) ϕ = 0.50 (LRFD) Rn = 0.6FyAgv + FuAnt (Eq. C.3-22)
where Rn = 0.6Fu Anv + FuAnt (Eq. C.3-23)
t = Thickness of part in which end distance is
For bolted connections
measured
e = Distance measured in line of force from center of Ω = 2.22 (ASD) ϕ = 0.65 (LRFD)
a standard hole to nearest end of connected part.
Fu = Tensile strength of part in which end distance is For welded connections
measured.
Ω = 2.50 (ASD) ϕ = 0.60 (LRFD)
C.3.9 Rupture where
Agv = Gross area subject to shear
C.3.9.1 Shear Rupture
Anv = Net area subject to shear
At beam-end connections, where one or more flanges are Ant = Net area subject to tension
coped and failure might occur along a plane through the
fasteners, the nominal shear strength, Vn , shall be calculated
in accordance with Eq. C.3-21. The safety factor and the
resistance factor provided in this section shall be used to
applicable method in Section 551.4 or 551.5.
Vn = 0.6 FuAwn (Eq.C.3-21)
Ω = 2.00 (ASD) ϕ = 0.75 (LRFD)

where
Awn = (hwc – ndh)t
hwc = Coped flat web depth
n = Number of holes in critical plane
dh = Hole diameter
Fu = Tensile strength of connected part as specified in
Section 551.2.1 or 551.2.2
t = Thickness of coped web
C.3.9.2 Tension Rupture

The available tensile strength along a path in the affected
elements of connected members shall be determined by
Section 555.2.7 or 555.3.2 for welded or bolted
connections, respectively.
C.3.9.3 Block Shear Rupture

When the thickness of the thinnest connected part is less
than 4.76mm, the block shear rupture nominal strength , Rn,
shall be determined in accordance with this section.
Connections in which the thickness of the thinnest
connected part is equal to or greater than 4.76 mm shall be
in accordance with ANSI/ AISC-360.
The nominal block shear rupture strength, Rn, shall be

determined as the lesser of Eqs. C.3-22 and C.3-23. The
corresponding safety factor and the resistance factor
provided in this section shall be used to determine the
available strengths in accordance with the applicable

NSCP C101-10
Chapter 6
WOOD

VOLUME I
SIXTH EDITION

Tel. No : (+632) 410-0483

Fax No.: (+632) 411-8606
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CHAPTER 6 - Wood 6-1
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 6 - WOOD .............................................................................................................................................................. 4
SECTION 601 - GENERAL ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
601.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
601.2 Design Method .................................................................................................................................................................. 4
SECTION 602 - DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................................................... 4
602.1 Definitions ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
SECTION 603 - MINIMUM QUALITY ................................................................................................................................. 5
603.1 Quality and Identification .................................................................................................................................................. 5
603.2 Minimum Capacity or Grade ............................................................................................................................................. 5
603.3 Timber Connectors and Fasteners...................................................................................................................................... 5
603.4 Fabrication, Installation and Manufacture ......................................................................................................................... 6
SECTION 604 - DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................. 7
604.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Part I – Requirements Applicable to All Design Methods ............................................................................................ 7
SECTION 605 – DECAY AND TERMITE PROTECTION ................................................................................................. 7
605.1 Preparation of Building Site .............................................................................................................................................. 7
605.2 Wood Support Embedded in Ground................................................................................................................................. 7
605.3 Under-Floor Clearance ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
605.4 Plates, Sills and Sleepers ................................................................................................................................................... 8
605.5 Columns and Posts............................................................................................................................................................. 8
605.6 Girders Entering Masonry or Concrete Walls.................................................................................................................... 8
605.7 Under-Floor Ventilation .................................................................................................................................................... 8
605.8 Wood and Earth Separation ............................................................................................................................................... 8
605.9 Wood Supporting Roofs and Floors .................................................................................................................................. 8
605.10 Moisture Content of Treated Wood ................................................................................................................................. 8
605.11 Retaining Walls ............................................................................................................................................................... 8
605.12 Weather Exposure............................................................................................................................................................ 8
605.13 Water Splash .................................................................................................................................................................... 9
SECTION 606 -WOOD SUPPORTING MASONRY OR CONCRETE ............................................................................. 9
606.1 Dead Load.......................................................................................................................................................................... 9
606.2 Horizontal Force ................................................................................................................................................................ 9
SECTION 607 - WALL FRAMING ........................................................................................................................................ 9
SECTION 608 - FLOOR FRAMING .................................................................................................................................... 10
SECTION 609 - EXTERIOR WALL COVERINGS............................................................................................................ 12
609.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 12
609.2 Siding ............................................................................................................................................................................... 12
609.3 Plywood ........................................................................................................................................................................... 12
609.4 Shingles or Shakes ........................................................................................................................................................... 12
609.5 Particleboard .................................................................................................................................................................... 12
609.6 Hardboard ........................................................................................................................................................................ 12
609.7 Nailing ............................................................................................................................................................................. 13
SECTION 610 - INTERIOR PANELING ............................................................................................................................. 13
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume 1, 6 Edition
6-2 CHAPTER 6 - Wood
SECTION 611 - SHEATHING ............................................................................................................................................... 14

611.1 Structural Floor Sheathing ............................................................................................................................................... 14
611.2 Structural Roof Sheathing ................................................................................................................................................ 14
SECTION 612 – MECHANICALLY-LAMINATED FLOORS AND DECKS ................................................................. 14
SECTION 613 - POST–BEAM CONNECTIONS ................................................................................................................ 14
SECTION 614 - WOOD SHEAR WALLS AND DIAPHRAGMS ...................................................................................... 15
614.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 15
614.2 Wood Members Resisting Horizontal Forces Contributed by Masonry and Concrete ......................................... 16
614.3 Wood Diaphragms ........................................................................................................................................................... 16
614.4 Particleboard Diaphragms ................................................................................................................................................ 17
614.5 Wood Shear Walls and Diaphragms in Seismic Zone 4................................................................................................ 17
614.6 Fiberboard Sheathing Diaphragms ................................................................................................................................... 18
SECTION 615 - STRESSES ................................................................................................................................................... 18
615.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 18
615.1.1 Repetitive Member System .......................................................................................................................................... 18
615.2 Stresses in Piles Used as Structural Members .................................................................................................................. 18
615.3 Adjustment of Stresses ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
SECTION 616 - HORIZONTAL MEMBER DESIGN ................................................................................................... 22
616.1 Beam Span ....................................................................................................................................................................... 22
616.2 Flexure ............................................................................................................................................................................. 22
616.3 Horizontal Shear .............................................................................................................................................................. 22
616.4 Horizontal Shear in Notched Beams ................................................................................................................................ 22
616.5 Design of Joints in Shear ................................................................................................................................................. 22
616.6 Compression Perpendicular to Grain ............................................................................................................................... 23
616.7 Lateral Support................................................................................................................................................................. 23
616.8 Lateral Support of Arches, Compression Chords of Trusses and Studs ................................................................ 24
SECTION 617 - COLUMN DESIGN ..................................................................................................................................... 24
617.1 Column Classifications .................................................................................................................................................... 24
617.2 Limitation on l/d Ratio ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
617.3 Simple Solid-Column Design .......................................................................................................................................... 24
617.4 Tapered Columns ............................................................................................................................................................. 25
SECTION 618 - FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADING COMBINED ........................................................................... 25
618.1 Flexure and Axial Tension ............................................................................................................................................... 26
618.2 Flexure and Axial Compression ....................................................................................................................................... 26
618.3 Spaced Columns............................................................................................................................................................... 26
618.4 Truss Compression Chords .............................................................................................................................................. 26
618.5 Compression at Angle to Grain ........................................................................................................................................ 27
SECTION 619 - TIMBER CONNECTORS AND FASTENERS ........................................................................................ 27
619.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
619.2 Bolts ................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
619.3 Nails and Spikes ............................................................................................................................................................... 27
619.4 Joist Hangers and Framing Anchors ................................................................................................................................ 28
619.5 Miscellaneous Fasteners .................................................................................................................................................. 28
619.5.2 Spike Grids ................................................................................................................................................................... 28
SECTION 620 – CONVENTIONAL LIGHT-FRAME CONSTRUCTION DESIGN PROVISIONS ............................ 28
620.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 29
620.2 Design of Portions............................................................................................................................................................ 29
620.3 Additional Requirements for Conventional Construction in High-wind Areas ......................................................... 29
620.4 Additional Requirements for Conventional Construction in Seismic Zone 2 ............................................................ 29
620.5 Additional Requirements for Conventional Construction in Seismic Zone 4 ............................................................... 29
620.6 Girders ............................................................................................................................................................................. 30
620.7 Floor Joists....................................................................................................................................................................... 30
620.8 Subflooring ...................................................................................................................................................................... 31
620.9 Particleboard Underlayment ............................................................................................................................................ 31
620.10 Wall Framing ................................................................................................................................................................. 31
SECTION 621 - METAL PLATE CONNECTED WOOD TRUSS DESIGN .................................................................... 34
621.1 Design and Fabrication .................................................................................................................................................... 34
621.2 Performance ..................................................................................................................................................................... 34
621.3 In-Plant Inspection ........................................................................................................................................................... 34
621.4 Marking ........................................................................................................................................................................... 34
SECTION 622 – USE OF MACHINE GRADED LUMBER (MGL).................................................................................. 35
622.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 35
622.2 Design Properties for Machine Graded Lumber .............................................................................................................. 35
622.3 Design Using Machine Graded Lumber .......................................................................................................................... 35
622.4 Preservative Treatment .................................................................................................................................................... 35
622.5 Moisture Content ............................................................................................................................................................. 35
622.6 Markings .......................................................................................................................................................................... 35
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CHAPTER 6
FIBERBOARD is a fibrous-felted, homogeneous panel
WOOD made from lignocellulosic fibers (usually wood or sugar
cane bagasse) and having a density of less than 497 kg/m3
but more than 160 kg/m3.
SECTION 601
GENERAL FOREST PRODUCTS RESEARCH AND DEVELOP-
MENT INSTITUTE (FPRDI) is the Department of
601.1 Scope Science and Technology’s (DOST) research and
The quality and design of wood members and their development arm on forest products utilization. It is
fastenings shall conform to the provisions of this chapter. mandated to conduct basic and applied research to help the
wood-using industries disseminate information and
technologies on forest products to end users.
601.2 Design Method
Design shall be based on one of the following methods: GLUED BUILT-UP MEMBERS are structural elements,
the sections of which are composed of built-up lumber,
601.2.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD). wood structural panels or wood structural panels in
combination with lumber, all parts bonded together with
Design using allowable stress design methods shall resist
adhesive.
the different load combinations in accordance with the
applicable requirements of Section 604.
GRADE (Lumber), the classification of lumber in regard
to strength and utility in accordance with the grading rules
601.2.2 Conventional Light-Frame Construction. of an approved lumber grading agency.
The design and construction of conventional light-frame
wood structures shall be in accordance with the applicable HARDBOARD is a fibrous-felted, homogeneous panel
requirements of Section 604 and the NSCP Volume 3 on made from lignocellulosic fibers consolidated under heat
Housing. and pressure in a hot press to a density not less than 497
kg/m3.
SECTION 602 MACHINE GRADED LUMBER (MGL) is a lumber

evaluated by a machine using a non-destructive test and
DEFINITIONS sorted into different stress grades.
602.1 Definitions MOISTURE CONTENT (MC) is the amount of moisture

The following terms used in this chapter shall have the in wood, usually measured as the percentage of water to the
meanings indicated in this section: oven dry weight of the wood.
BLOCKED DIAPHRAGM is a diaphragm in which all NOMINAL SIZE (Lumber) refers to the commercial size
sheathing edges not occurring on framing members are designation of width and depth, in standard sawn lumber
supported on and connected to blocking. grades; somewhat larger than the standard net size of
dressed lumber.
BRACED WALL LINE is a series of braced wall panels
in a single story that meets the requirements of Section NORMAL LOADING, a design load that stressed a
620.10.3. member or fastening to the full allowable stress tabulated in
this chapter. This loading may be applied for approximately
CONVENTIONAL LIGHT-FRAME 10 years, either continuously or cumulatively, and 90
CONSTRUCTION is a type of construction in which the percent of this load may be applied for the remainder of the
primary structural elements are formed by a system of life of the member or fastening.
repetitive wood-framing members.
PARTICLEBOARD is a manufactured panel product
DIAPHRAGM is a horizontal or nearly horizontal system consisting of particles of wood or combinations of wood
acting to transmit lateral forces to the vertical resisting particles and wood fibers bonded together with synthetic
elements. When the term “diaphragm is used, it includes resins or other suitable bonding system by a bonding
horizontal bracing systems. process, in accordance with approved nationally recognized
standard.

PLYWOOD is a panel of laminated veneers conforming to

Philippine National Standards (PNS 196) “Plywood
Specifications”. SECTION 603
MINIMUM QUALITY
ROTATION is the torsional movement of a diaphragm
about a vertical axis. 603.1 Quality and Identification
STRUCTURAL GLUED-LAMINATED TIMBER is All lumber, wood structural panels, particleboard, timber,
any member comprising an assembly of laminations of end-jointed lumber, fiberboard sheathing (when used
lumber in which the grain of all laminations is structurally), hardboard siding (when used structurally),
approximately parallel longitudinally, in which the piles and poles regulated by this chapter shall conform to
laminations are bonded with adhesives. the applicable standards or grading rules specified in this
code and shall be so identified by the grade mark or a
certificate of inspection issued by an approved agency.
SUBDIAPHRAGM is a portion of a larger wood
diaphragm designed to anchor and transfer local forces to
primary diaphragm struts and the main diaphragm. 603.2 Minimum Capacity or Grade
Minimum capacity of structural framing members may be
TREATED WOOD is wood treated with an approved established by performance tests. When the tests are not
preservative under treating and quality control procedures. made, capacity shall be based on allowable stresses and
design criteria specified in this code.
WOOD OF NATURAL RESISTANCE TO DECAY OR
TERMITES is the heartwood of the species set forth Studs, joists, rafters, foundation plates or sills, planking 50
below. Corner sapwood is permitted on 5 percent of the mm or more in depth, beams, stringers, posts, structural
pieces provided 90 percent or more of the width of each sheathing and similar load-bearing members shall be of at
side on which it occurs is heartwood. Recognized species least the minimum grades set forth in Table Nos. 6.1 or
are: Table 6.2 or Table 6.35.
Decay resistant: Narra, Kamagong, Dao, Tangile. Approved end-jointed lumber may be used interchangeably
Termite resistant: Narra, Kamagong. with solid-sawn members of the same species and grade.
Such use shall include, but not be limited to, light-framing
WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL is a structural panel joists, planks and decking.
product composed primarily of wood and meeting the UBC
Standard 23-2 and 23-3 or equivalent requirements of Wood structural panels shall be of grades specified in
Philippine National Standards (PNS). Wood structural accordance with Philippine National Standards (PNS).
panels include all-veneer plywood, composite panels
containing a combination of veneer and wood-based 603.3 Timber Connectors and Fasteners
material, and mat-formed panel such as oriented stranded Safe loads and design practices for types of connectors and
board and waferboard. fasteners not mentioned or fully covered in Section 619,
may be determined in a manner approved by the building
official.
The number and size of nails connecting wood members

shall not be less than that set forth in Tables 6.3 and 6.4.
Other connections shall be fastened to provide equivalent
strength. End and edge distances and nail penetrations shall
be in accordance with the applicable provisions of Section
619.
Fasteners for pressure-preservative treated and fire-

retardant treated wood shall be of hot-dipped zinc coated
galvanized, stainless steel, silicon bronze or copper.
Fasteners required to be corrosion resistant shall be either
zinc-coated fasteners, aluminum alloy wire fasteners or
stainless steel fasteners
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Connections depending on joist hangers or framing anchors, 603.4.7 Shrinkage

ties, and other mechanical fastenings not otherwise covered Consideration shall be given in the design to the possible
may be used where approved by the Building Official. effect of cross-grain dimensional changes considered
vertically which may occur in lumber fabricated in a given
603.4 Fabrication, Installation and Manufacture condition.
Fabrication, installation, and manufacture of wood elements
shall be in accordance with the following guidelines: 603.4.8 Rejection
The building official may deny permission for the use of a
603.4.1 General wood member where permissible grade characteristics or
Preparation, fabrication and installation of wood members defects are present in such a combination that they affect
and their fastenings shall conform to accepted engineering detrimentally the serviceability of the member.
practices and to the requirements of this code. All members
shall be framed, anchored, tied and braced to develop the
strength and rigidity necessary for the purposes for which
they are used.
603.4.2 Timber Connectors and Fasteners.

The installation of timber connectors and fasteners shall be
in accordance with the provisions set forth in Section 619.
603.4.3 Metal-Plate-Connected Wood Trusses

Metal-plate-connected wood trusses shall conform to the
provisions of Section 618. Each manufacturer of trusses
using metal plate connectors shall retain an approved
agency having no financial interest in the plant being
inspected to make nonscheduled inspections of truss
fabrication, delivery, and operations. The inspection shall
cover all phases of truss operation, including lumber
storage, handling, cutting, fixtures, presses or rollers,
fabrication, bundling and banding, handling and delivery.
603.4.4 Structural Glued-Laminated Timber

The manufacture and fabrication of structural glued-
laminated timber shall be under the supervision of qualified
personnel.
603.4.5 Dried Fire-Retardant-Treated Wood

Fire-retardant treated wood shall have been dried, following
treatment, up to maximum moisture content (MC) as
follows:
19% - for solid sawn lumber up to 50mm thick

15% - for plywood
603.4.6 Size of Structural Members

Sizes of lumber referred to in this code are nominal sizes.
Computations to determine the required sizes of members
shall be based on the net dimensions (actual size) and not
the nominal sizes. The rough size lumber shall not be less
than the nominal size and the reduction in face dimensions
of dressed lumber shall not be more than 6 mm of the
nominal size.

SECTION 604 PART I

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS APPLICABLE TO
REQUIREMENTS ALL DESIGN METHODS
604.1 General
The following design requirements apply. SECTION 605
DECAY AND TERMITE
604.1.1 All wood structures shall be designed and PROTECTION
constructed in accordance with the requirements of Section
601 up to Section 613. 605.1 Preparation of Building Site
All stumps and roots shall be removed from the soil to a
604.1.2 Wind and earthquake load-resisting systems for all depth of at least 300 mm below the surface of the ground in
engineered wood structures shall be designed and the area to be occupied by the building.
constructed in accordance with the requirements of Section
614. All wood forms which have been used in placing concrete,
if within the ground or between foundation sills and the
User Note: Alternatively, lateral load-resisting systems for ground, shall be removed before a building is occupied or
single family dwellings may be proportioned according to used for any purpose. Before completion, loose or casual
the provisions of NSCP Volume 3 on Housing. wood shall be removed from direct contact with the ground
under the building.
604.1.3 The design and construction of wood structures
using allowable stress design (ASD) methods shall be in 605.2 Wood Support Embedded in Ground
accordance with Section 615 and Section 618. Wood embedded in the ground or in direct contact with the
earth and used for the support of permanent structures shall
be treated wood unless continuously submerged in fresh
604.1.4 The design and construction of conventional light- water. Round or rectangular posts, poles and sawn timber
frame wood structures shall be in accordance with Section columns supporting permanent structures which are
620. embedded in concrete or masonry in direct contact with the
earth or embedded in concrete or masonry exposed to the
604.1.5 The design and installation of timber connectors and weather shall be treated wood. The wood shall be treated
fasteners shall be in accordance with Section 619. for ground contact.
604.1.6 Metal-plate-connected wood trusses shall conform 605.3 Under-Floor Clearance

to the provisions of Section 621. When wood joists or the bottom of wood structural floors
without joists are located closer than 450 mm or wood
girders are located closer than 300 mm to exposed ground
in crawl spaces or unexcavated areas located within the
periphery of the building foundation, the floor assembly
including posts, girders, joists and subfloor, shall be
approved wood of natural resistance to decay as listed in
Section 605.4 or treated wood.
When the above under-floor clearances are required, the

under-floor area shall be accessible. Accessible under-floor
areas shall be provided with a minimum 450 mm by 600
mm opening unobstructed by pipes, ducts and similar
construction. All under-floor access openings shall be
effectively screened or covered. Pipes, ducts and other
construction shall not interfere with the accessibility to or
within under-floor areas.
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605.4 Plates, Sills and Sleepers and located nearer than 150 mm to earth shall be treated
All foundation plates or sills and sleepers on a concrete or wood or wood of natural resistance to decay. Where located
masonry slab, which is in direct contact with earth, and sills on concrete slabs placed on earth, wood shall be treated
that rest on concrete or masonry foundations, shall be wood or wood of natural resistance to decay. Where not
treated wood, all marked or branded by an approved subject to water splash or to exterior moisture and located
agency. Foundation wood marked or branded by an on concrete having a minimum thickness of 75 mm with an
approved agency may be used for sills in localities subject impervious membrane installed between concrete and earth,
to moderate hazard, where termite damage is not frequent the wood may be untreated and of any species.
and when specifically approved by the building official. In
localities where hazard of termite is slight, any species of Where planter boxes are installed adjacent to wood frame
wood permitted by this chapter may be used for sills when walls a 50 mm air space shall at least be provided between
specifically approved by the building official. the planter and the wall. Flashing shall be installed when
the air space is less than 150 mm in width. Where flashing
605.5 Columns and Posts is used, provisions shall be made to permit circulation of
the air in the air space. The wood frame shall be provided
Columns and posts located on concrete or masonry floors or
with an exterior wall covering conforming to the provisions
decks exposed to the weather or to water splash or in
of Section 609.
basements and which support permanent structures shall be
supported by concrete piers or metal pedestals projecting
605.9 Wood Supporting Roofs and Floors
above floors unless approved wood of natural resistance to
decay or treated wood is used. The pedestal shall project at Wood structural members supporting concrete or masonry
least 200 mm above exposed earth or at least 25 mm above slabs which are permeable to moisture and are exposed to
finish floor level of such floors. the weather shall be approved wood of natural resistance to
decay or treated wood unless separated from such floors or
Individual concrete or masonry piers shall project at least roofs by an impervious moisture barrier.
200 mm above exposed ground unless the supported
columns or posts are treated wood or of approved wood 605.10 Moisture Content of Treated Wood
with natural resistance to decay. When wood which has been pressure-treated with a water-
born preservative is used in enclosed locations where
605.6 Girders Entering Masonry or Concrete Walls drying in service cannot readily occur, such wood must
Ends of wood girder entering masonry or concrete walls have a moisture content of 19 percent or less before being
shall be provided with a 13 mm air space on tops, sides and covered with insulation, interior wall finish floor covering
ends unless approved wood of natural resistance to decay or or other materials.
treated wood is used.
605.11 Retaining Walls
605.7 Under-Floor Ventilation All wood used as permanent parts of retaining or crib walls
Under-floor areas shall be ventilated by an approved shall be treated wood.
mechanical means or by openings in exterior foundation
walls. Such openings shall have a net area of not less than 605.12 Weather Exposure
0.067 m2 for each 10 m2 of under-floor area. Openings shall Those portions of glued-laminated timbers that form the
be located as close to corners as practical and shall provide structural supports of a building or other structure and
cross ventilation. The required area of such openings shall which are exposed to weather and not properly protected by
be approximately equally distributed along the length of at a roof or eave overhangs of similar covering, shall be
least two opposite sides. They shall be covered with pressure-treated with an approved preservative or be
corrosion-resistant wire mesh with mesh openings of 6 mm manufactured from wood of natural resistance to decay.
dimension. Where moisture due to climate and groundwater
conditions is not considered excessive, the building official All wood structural panels, when designed to be exposed in
may allow operable louvers and may allow the required net outdoor application, shall be of exterior type, except as
area of vent opening to be reduced to 10 percent of the provided in Section 605.2
above, provided the under-floor ground surface area is
covered with an approved vapor barrier. In geographical areas where experience has demonstrated a
specific need, approved wood of natural resistance to decay
605.8 Wood and Earth Separation or treated wood shall be used for those structural
Protection of wood against deterioration as set forth in the components of buildings or similar permanent building
previous sections for specified applications is required. In appurtenances when such members are exposed to the
addition, wood used in construction of permanent structures weather and are without adequate protection provided by a

roof, eave, overhang or other covering against moisture or

water accumulation on the surface or at joints between
members. Such members may include: horizontal members SECTION 606
such as girders, joists and decking; or vertical members WOOD SUPPORTING MASONRY OR
such as posts, poles and columns; or both horizontal and
vertical members. CONCRETE
605.13 Water Splash 606.1 Dead Load
Where wood-frame walls and partitions are covered on the Wood members shall not be used to permanently support
interior with plaster, tile or similar materials and are subject dead load of any masonry or concrete except in cases listed
to water splash, the framing shall be protected with below or allowed by relevant sections of NSCP Volume 3
approved waterproofing. on Housing.
Exceptions:
1. Masonry or concrete non-structural floor or roof
surfacing not more than 100 mm thick may be
supported by wood members.
2. Any structure may rest upon wood piles constructed in
accordance with the requirements of Chapter 3 on
“Excavations and Foundations”
3. Veneer of brick or concrete stone may be supported by
approved treated wood foundations when the maximum
height of veneer does not exceed 9.0 m above the
foundations. Such veneer used as an interior wall finish
may also be supported on wood floors which are
designed to support the additional load, and be
designed to limit the deflection and shrinkage to 1/600
of the span of the supporting members.
4. Wood may be used to support glass block masonry
having an installed weight of 98 kg/m2 or less. When
glass block is supported on wood floors, the floors
shall be designed to limit deflection and shrinkage to
1/600 of the span of the supporting members and the
allowable stresses for the framing members shall be
reduced in accordance with Section 615.3.4.
606.2 Horizontal Force

Wood members shall not be used to resist horizontal forces
contributed by masonry or concrete construction in
buildings over one story in height except where allowed by
provisions of Section 614.2 of this code.
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WALL FRAMING FLOOR FRAMING
The framing of exterior and interior walls shall be in Wood-joisted floors shall be framed and constructed and
accordance with provisions specified in Section 620 unless anchored to supporting wood stud or masonry walls.
a specific design is furnished.
Fire block and draft stops shall be in accordance with the
Wood studs walls and bearing partitions shall not support following provision:
more than two floors and a roof unless an analysis
1. In combustible construction, fire blocks and draft
satisfactory to the building official shows that shrinkage of
regulators shall be installed to cut off all concealed
wood framing will not have adverse effect upon the
draft openings (both vertical and horizontal) and shall
structure nor any plumbing, electrical, mechanical systems
form an effective barrier between floors, between a top
nor other equipment installed therein due to the excessive
story and a roof or attic space, and shall subdivide attic
shrinkage or differential movements caused by shrinkage.
spaces, concealed roof spaces and floor-ceiling
The analysis shall also show that the roof drainage system
assemblies. The integrity of all fire and draft stops shall
and the foregoing systems or equipment will not be
be maintained.
adversely affected or, as an alternate, such systems shall be
designed to accommodate the differential shrinkage or 2. Fire blocks shall be provided in the following
movements. locations:
2.1 In concealed spaces of stud walls and partitions,
including furred spaces, at the ceiling and floor levels,
and at 250 mm intervals along the length of the wall.
Exception:
Fire blocks may be omitted at floor and ceiling levels when
approved smoke-actuated fire dampers are installed at
these levels.
2.2 At all interconnections between concealed vertical and
horizontal spaces such as those that occur at soffits,
drop ceilings, and covered ceilings.
2.3 In concealed spaces between stair stringers, at the top
and bottom of the run, and between studs along and in
line with the run of the stairs if the walls under the
stairs are unfinished.
In openings around vents, pipes, ducts, chimneys,
fireplaces, and similar openings which afford a passage for
the fire at ceiling and floor levels, with noncombustible
materials.
3. Fire blocks shall consist of 50 mm nominal lumber or
one thickness of 18 mm plywood with joints backed by
18 mm plywood or one thickness of 19 mm Type 2-M
particleboard. Fire stops may also be of gypsum board,
mineral fiber, glass fiber or other approved materials
securely fastened in place. Walls having parallel or
staggered studs for sound-transmission control shall
have stops of mineral fiber or glass fiber or other
approved non-rigid materials.

the greatest horizontal dimension does not exceed

4. Draft stops shall be provided in the following
18.0 m.
locations:
Exception:
4.1 Floor-Ceiling Assemblies.
Where approved automatic sprinklers are installed, the
4.1.1 Single-family dwellings. As recommended in NSCP area between the draft stops may be 800 m2 and the
Volume 3 on Housing or when there is usable space greatest horizontal dimension may be 30 m.
above and below the concealed space of a floor-
ceiling assembly in a single-family dwelling, draft 4.2.4 Draft stopping materials shall be not less than 12 mm
stops shall be installed so that the area of the gypsum board, 9 mm plywood, 9 mm Type M-2
concealed space does not exceed 90 m2. Draft stops particleboard or other approved materials adequately
shall divide the concealed space into approximately supported. Openings in the partitions shall be
equal areas. protected by self-closing doors with automatic
latches constructed as required for the partitions.
4.1.2 Two or more dwelling units and hotels. Draft stops
shall be installed in floor-ceiling assemblies of
building having more than one dwelling unit and in
hotels. Such draft stops shall be in line with walls
separating tenants from each other and separating
tenants from other areas.
4.1.3 Other uses. Draft stops shall be installed in floor-
ceiling assemblies of buildings or portions of
buildings used for other than dwelling or hotel
occupancies so that the area of concealed space does
not exceed 90 m2. and so that the horizontal
dimension between stops does not exceed 18.30 m.
Exception:
Where approved automatic sprinklers are installed within
the concealed space, the area between draft stops may be
270 m2. and the horizontal dimension may be 30 m.
4.2 Attics.
4.2.1 Single-family dwellings. Refer to NSCP Volume 3 on
Housing.
4.2.2 Two or more dwelling unit and hotels. Drafts stops
shall be installed in the attics, mansards, overhangs,
false fronts set out from walls and similar concealed
spaces of buildings containing more than one
dwelling unit and hotels. Such drafts stop shall be
above and in line with walls separating tenants from
each other and from other uses.
Exceptions:
Draft stops may be omitted along one of the corridor walls,
provided draft stops at tenant separation walls extend to the
remaining corridor draft stop.
Where approved sprinklers are installed, draftstopping may
be as specified in the exception below.
4.2.3 Other uses. Draft stops shall be installed in attics,
mansards, over-hangs, false fronts set out from walls
and similar concealed spaces of buildings having
uses other than dwellings or hotels so that the area
between draft stops does not exceed 270 m2 and
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shiplaps or joints shall be lapped horizontally or otherwise

made waterproof.
SECTION 609
EXTERIOR WALL COVERINGS 609.4 Shingles or Shakes
Wood shingles or shakes may be used for exterior wall
609.1 General covering, provided the frame of the structure is covered
Exterior wood stud walls shall be covered on the outside with building paper. All shingles or shakes attached to
with the materials and in the manner specified in this sheathing other than wood sheathing shall be secured with
section or elsewhere in this code. Studs or sheathing shall approved corrosion-resistant fasteners or on furring strips
be covered on the outside face with a weather-resistive attached to the studs. Wood shingles or shakes may be
barrier when required. Exterior wall coverings of the applied over fiberboard shingle backer and sheathing with
minimum thickness specified in this section are based upon annular grooved nails. The thickness of wood shingles or
a maximum stud spacing of 400 mm unless otherwise shakes between wood nailing boards shall not be less than 9
specified. mm. Wood shingles or shakes or siding may be nailed
directly to approved fiberboard nailbase sheathing not less
609.2 Siding than 13 mm nominal thickness with annular grooved nails.
Solid wood siding shall have an average thickness of 9 mm The weather exposure of wood shingle or shake siding used
unless placed over sheathing permitted by this code. on exterior walls shall not exceed maximum set forth in
Table 6.6.
Siding patterns known as rustic, drop siding or shiplap shall
have an average thickness in place of not less than 15 mm 609.5 Particleboard
and shall have a minimum thickness measured not less than
9 mm. Bevel siding shall have a minimum thickness When particleboard is used for covering the exterior of
measured at the butt section of not less than 11 mm and a outside walls, it shall be of the M-1, M-S and M-2 Exterior
tip thickness of not less than 5 mm. Siding of lesser Glue grades. Particleboard panel siding shall be installed in
dimensions may be used, provided such wall covering is accordance with Table 6.3 and 6.7. Panel shall be gapped 3
placed over sheathing which conforms to the provisions mm and nails shall be spaced not less than 9 mm from
specified elsewhere in this code. edges and ends of sheathing. Unless applied over 16 mm
net wood sheathing or 13 mm plywood sheathing or 13 mm
All weatherboarding or siding shall be securely nailed to particleboard sheathing, joints shall occur over framing
each stud with not less than one nail, or to solid 25 mm members and shall be covered with a continuous wood batt;
nominal wood sheathing or 12 mm plywood sheathing or or joints shall be lapped horizontally or otherwise made
13 mm particleboard sheathing with not less than one line waterproof to the satisfaction of the building official.
of nails spaced not more than 600 mm on center in each Particleboard shall be sealed and protected with exterior
piece of the weatherboarding or siding. quality finishes.
Wood board siding applied horizontally, diagonally or 609.6 Hardboard

vertically shall be nailed to studs, nailing strips or blocking When hardboard siding is used for covering the outside of
set maximum 600 mm on center. Fasteners shall be nails or exterior walls, it shall conform to Table 6.8. Lap siding
screws with a penetration of not less than 40 mm into studs, shall be installed horizontally and applied to sheathed or
studs and wood sheathing combined, or blocking. Distance unsheathed walls. Corner bracing shall be installed in
between such fastenings shall not exceed 600 mm for conformance with Section 620.6. A weather-resistive
horizontally or vertically applied sidings and 800 mm for barrier shall be installed under the lap siding.
diagonally applied sidings.
Square-edged, non-grooved panels and shiplap grooved or
609.3 Plywood non-grooved siding shall be applied vertically to sheathed
Where plywood is used for covering the exterior of outside or unsheathed walls. Siding that is grooved shall not be less
walls, it shall be of the exterior type not less than 9 mm than 6 mm thick in the groove.
thick. Plywood panel siding shall be installed in accordance
with Table 6.5. Unless applied over 25 mm wood sheathing Nail size and spacing shall follow Table 6.8 and shall
or 12 mm wood structural panel sheathing or 13 mm penetrate framing 38 mm. Lap siding shall overlap 25 mm
particleboard sheathing joints shall occur over framing minimum and be nailed through both courses and into
members and shall be protected with a continuous wood framing members with nails located 13 mm from bottom of
batten, approved caulking, flashing, vertical or horizontal the overlapped course. Square-edged non-grooved panels
shall be nailed 9 mm from the perimeter of the panel and
intermediately into studs. Shiplap edge panel siding with
9 mm shiplap shall be nailed 9 mm from the edges on both

sides of the shiplap. The 19 mm shiplap shall be nailed 9
mm from the edge and penetrate through both the overlap SECTION 610
and underlap. Top and bottom edges of the panel shall be INTERIOR PANELING
nailed 9 mm from the edge. Shiplap and lap siding shall not
be force fit. Square-edged panels shall maintain a 2 mm gap All softwood wood structural panels shall conform to the
at joints. All joints and edges of siding shall be over provisions of the previous Chapter and shall be installed in
framing members, and shall be made resistant to weather accordance with Table 6.3 Panels shall comply with UBC
penetration with battens, horizontal overlaps or shiplaps to Standard 23-3.
the satisfaction of the building official. A 3 mm gap shall be
provided around all openings.
609.7 Nailing
All fasteners used for the attachment of siding shall be of a
corrosion-resistant type.
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SHEATHING
MECHANICALLY-LAMINATED
611.1 Structural Floor Sheathing FLOORS AND DECKS
Structural floor sheathing shall be designed in accordance
with the general provisions of this code and the special A laminated lumber floor or deck built up of wood
provisions in this section. members set on edge, when meeting the following
requirements, may be designed as a solid floor or roof deck
Sheathing used as subflooring shall be designed to support of the same thickness and continuous span may be designed
all loads specified in this code and shall be capable of on the basis of the full cross section using the simple span
supporting concentrated loads of not less than 1.33 kN moment coefficient.
without failure. The concentrated load shall be applied by a
loaded disc, 75 mm or smaller in diameter. Nail length shall not be less than 2-1/2 times the net
thickness of each lamination. When deck supports are 1.20
Flooring, including the finish floor, underlayment and m on center or less, side nails shall be spaced not more than
subfloor, where used, shall meet the following 750 mm on center and staggered one third of the spacing in
requirements: adjacent laminations. When supports are spaced more than
1. Deflection under uniform design load limited to 1/360 1.20 m on center, side nails shall be spaced not more than
of the span between supporting joists or beams. 450 mm on center alternately near top and bottom edges,
and also staggered one third of the spacing in adjacent
2. Deflection of flooring relative to joists under a 25 mm laminations. Two side nails shall be used at each end of
diameter concentrated load of 0.90 kN limited to 3 mm butt-jointed pieces.
or less when loaded midway between supporting joists
or beams not over 600 mm on center and 1/360 of the Laminations shall be toe nailed to supports with 20d or
span for spans over 600 mm. larger common nails. When supports are 1.20 m on center
or less, alternate laminations shall be toe nailed to alternate
Floor sheathing conforming to the provisions of Tables 6.9, supports; when supports are spaced more than 1.20 m on
6.10, 6.12, or 6.13 shall be deemed to meet the center, alternate laminations shall be toenailed to every
requirements of this section. support.
A single-span deck shall have all laminations full length.

611.2 Structural Roof Sheathing
Structural roof sheathing shall be designed in accordance A continuous deck of two spans shall have not more than
with the general provisions of this code and the special every fourth lamination spliced within quarter points
provisions in this section. Structural roof sheathing shall be adjoining supports.
designed to support all loads specified in this code and shall
be capable of supporting concentrated loads of not less than Joints shall be closely butted over supports or staggered
1.33 kN without failure. The concentrated load shall be across the deck but within the adjoining quarter spans.
applied by a loaded disk, 75 mm or smaller in diameter.
Structural roof sheathing shall meet the following
No lamination shall be spliced more than twice in any span.
requirement:
1. Deflection under uniform design live and dead load

limited to 1/180 of the span between supporting rafters
or beams and 1/240 under live load only.
Roof sheathing conforming to the provisions of Tables 6.9
or 6.10 and 6.11 shall be deemed to meet the requirements
of this section.
Wood structural panel roof sheathing shall be bonded by

intermediate or exterior glue. Wood structural panel roof
sheathing exposed on the underside shall be bonded with
exterior glue.


POST–BEAM CONNECTIONS WOOD SHEAR WALLS AND
DIAPHRAGMS
Where post and beam or girder construction is used, the
design shall be in accordance with the provisions of this 614.1 General
code. Positive connection shall be provided to ensure Unless permitted by the Building Official or by relevant
against uplift and lateral displacement. provisions of NSCP Volume 3 on Housing, use of wood
shear walls and diaphragms shall be limited to 1 to 2-storey
dwellings. Where applicable, succeeding provisions of this
Section shall be used as bases for their design.
Particleboard vertical diaphragms and lumber and wood

structural panel horizontal and vertical diaphragms may be
used to resist horizontal forces in horizontal and vertical
distributing or resisting elements, provided the deflection in
the plane of the diaphragms, as determined by calculations,
tests or analogies drawn therefrom, does not exceed the
permissible deflection of attached distributing or resisting
elements.
Permissible deflection shall be that deflection up to which a

diaphragm and any attached distributing or resisting
element will maintain its structural integrity under assumed
load conditions, i.e. continue to support assumed loads
without danger to occupant of the structure.
Connections and anchorages capable of resisting the design

forces shall be provided between the diaphragms and the
resisting elements. Openings in diaphragm which materially
affect their strength shall be fully detailed on the plans and
shall have their edges adequately reinforced to transfer all
shearing stresses.
Size and shape of each horizontal diaphragm and shear wall

shall be limited as set forth in Table 6.14. The height of a
shear wall shall be defined as:
1. The maximum clear height from foundation to bottom
of diaphragm framing above, or
2. The maximum clear height from top of diaphragm to
bottom of diaphragm framing above.
The width of a shear wall shall be defined as the width of

sheathing.
Where shear walls with openings are designed for force

transfer around the openings, the limitations of
Table 6.14 shall apply to the overall shear wall including
openings and to each wall pier at the side of an opening.
The height of a wall pier shall be defined as the clear height
of the pier at the side of an opening. The width of a wall
pier shall be defined as the sheathed width of the pier at the
th
side of an opening. Design for force transfer shall be based masonry or concrete walls to exceed 0.005 times each
on a rational analysis. story height.
2.4 Wood structural panel sheathing in horizontal
In buildings of wood-frame construction where rotation is
diaphragms shall have all unsupported edges blocked.
provided for, the depth of the diaphragm normal to the open
Wood structural panel sheathing for both stories of
side shall not exceed 7.50 m or 2/3 the diaphragm width,
vertical diaphragms shall have all unsupported edges
whichever is the smaller depth. Straight sheathing shall not
blocked and for the lower walls have a minimum
be permitted to resist shears in diaphragms acting in
thickness of 12 mm.
rotation.
2.5 There shall be no out-of-plane horizontal offsets
Exceptions:
between the first and second stories of wood structural
1. One-story, wood-framed structures with the depth panel shear walls.
normal to the open side not greater than 7.50 m. may
have a depth equal to the width. 614.3 Wood Diaphragms
2. Where calculations show that diaphragm deflections Wood Diaphragms shall conform with the following
can be tolerated, the depth normal to the open end may guidelines:
be increased to a depth-to-width ratio not greater than
1.5:1 for diagonal sheathing or 2:1 for special 614.3.1 Conventional Lumber Diaphragm
diagonal sheathed or plywood or particleboard Construction
diaphragms. Such lumber diaphragms shall be made up of 25 mm
nominal sheathing boards laid at an angle of approximately
In masonry or concrete buildings, lumber and wood 45 degrees to supports. Sheathing boards shall be directly
structural panel diaphragms shall not be considered as nailed to each intermediate bearing member with not less
transmitting lateral forces by rotation. than two 65mm nails for 25 mm by 150 mm nominal
boards and three 65mm nails for boards 200 mm or wider;
Diaphragm sheathing nails or other approved sheathing and in addition, three 65 mm nails and four 65 mm nails
connectors shall be driven flush but shall not fracture the shall be used for 150 mm and 200 mm boards, respectively,
surface of the sheathing. at the diaphragm boundaries. End joints in adjacent boards
shall be separated by at least one joist or stud space, and
614.2 Wood Members Resisting Horizontal Forces there shall be at least two boards between joints on the
Contributed by Masonry and Concrete same support. Boundary members at edges of diaphragms
Wood members shall not be used to resist horizontal forces shall be designed to resist direct tensile or compressive
contributed by masonry or concrete construction in chord stresses and adequately tied together at corners.
buildings over one story in height.
614.3.2 Special Lumber Diaphragm Construction
Exceptions: Special diagonally sheathed diaphragms shall conform to
conventional construction and in addition, shall have all
1. Wood floor and roof members may be used in elements designed in conformance with the provisions of
horizontal trusses and diaphragms to resist horizontal this code.
forces imposed by wind, earthquake or earth pressure,
provided such forces are not resisted by rotation of the
Each chord or portion thereof maybe considered as a beam
truss or diaphragm. loaded with a uniform load per meter equal to 50 percent of
2. Vertical wood structural panel-sheathed shear walls the unit shear due to diaphragm action. The load shall be
may be used to provide resistance to wind or assumed as acting normal to the chord, in the plane of the
earthquake forces in two-story buildings of masonry or diaphragm and either towards or away from the diaphragm.
concrete construction, provided the following
requirements are met: The span of chord, or portion thereof, shall be the distance
between structural members of the diaphragm such as the
2.1 Story-to-story wall heights shall not exceed 3.6 joists, studs and blocking, which serve to transfer the
meters. assumed load to the sheathing.
2.2 Horizontal diaphragm shall not be considered to
transmit lateral forces by rotation or cantilever action. Special diagonally sheathed diaphragms shall include
conventional diaphragms sheathed with two layers of
2.3 Deflection of horizontal and vertical diaphragms diagonal sheathing at 90 degrees to each other and on the
shall not permit per-story deflection of supported same face of the supporting members.

614.3.3 Wood Structural Panel Diaphragm unless blocking or other means of shear transfer is
Horizontal and vertical diaphragms sheathed with wood provided.
structural panels may be used to resist horizontal forces for
horizontal diaphragm and for vertical diaphragms, or may 614.5 Wood Shear Walls and Diaphragms in Seismic
be calculated by principles of mechanics without limitation Zone 4
by using values of nail strength and wood structural panel Section 614.5.1 to 614.5.5 shall be used for wooden shear
shear values as specified elsewhere in this code. Wood walls and diaphragms design for Seismic Zone 4 areas.
structural panels for horizontal diaphragms shall be as set
forth in Tables 6.10 and 6.11 for corresponding joist
spacing and loads. Wood structural panels in shear walls 614.5.1 Scope
shall be at least 8 mm thick for studs spaced 400 mm on Design and construction of wood shear walls and
center and 9 mm thick where studs are spaced 600 mm on diaphragms in Seismic Zone 4, as allowed by provisions of
center. Section 614.1 and NSCP Volume 3 on Housing, shall
conform to the requirements of this section.
Maximum spans for wood structural panel subfloor
underlayment shall be as set forth in Table 6.12. Wood 614.5.2 Framing
structural panels used for horizontal and vertical Collector members shall be provided to transmit tension
diaphragms shall conform to UBC Standard 23-2 and UBC and compression forces. Perimeter members at openings
Standard 23-3 or equivalent Philippine National Standards shall be provided and shall be detailed to distribute the
(PNS). shearing stresses. Diaphragm sheathing shall not be used to
splice these members.
All boundary members shall be proportioned and spliced
where necessary to transmit direct stresses. Framing Diaphragm chords and ties shall be placed in, or tangent to,
members shall be at least 50 mm nominal in the dimensions the plane of the diaphragm framing unless it can be
to which the plywood is attached. In general, panel edges demonstrated that the moments, shear and deflections and
shall bear on the framing members and butt along their deformations resulting from other arrangements can be
centerlines. Nails shall be placed not less than 10 mm in tolerated.
from the panel edge, shall be spaced not more than 150 mm
on center along panel edge bearings, and shall be firmly 614.5.3 Wood Structural Panel
driven into the framing members. No unblocked panels less Wood structural panels shall be manufactured using
than 300 mm wide shall be used.
exterior glue.
Diaphragms with panel edges supported in accordance with Wood structural panel diaphragms and shear walls shall be
Tables 6.10, 6.11 and 6.12 shall not be considered as constructed with wood structural panel sheets not less than
blocked diagrams unless blocking or other means of shear 1.20 m by 2.40 m, except at boundaries and changes in
transfer is provided. framing where minimum sheet dimension shall be 600 mm
unless all edges of the undersized sheets are supported by
614.4 Particleboard Diaphragms framing members or blocking.
Vertical diaphragms sheathed with particleboard may be
used to resist horizontal forces. Framing members or blocking shall be provided at the
edges of all sheets in shear walls.
All boundary members shall be proportioned and spliced
where necessary to transmit direct stresses. Framing Wood structural panel sheathing may be used for splicing
members shall be at least 50 mm nominal in the dimension members, other than those noted in Section 614.5.2, where
to which the particleboard is attached. In general, panel the additional nailing required to develop the transfer of
edges shall bear on the framing members and butt along forces will not cause cross-grain bending or cross-grain
their centerlines. Nails shall be placed not less than 9 mm in tension in the nailed member.
from the panel edge, shall be spaced not more than 150 mm
on center along panel edge bearings, and shall be firmly 614.5.4 Heavy Wood Panels
driven into the framing members. Unblocked panels less
Diagonally sheathed panels utilizing 50 mm nominal boards
than 300 mm wide shall not be allowed or used.
may be used to resist the same permissible shear as 25 mm
nominal lumber, except that 16d nails shall be used instead
Diaphragms with panel edges supported in accordance with of 8d.
Table 6.13 shall not be considered as blocked diaphragms
th
Panels utilizing straight decking overlaid with plywood

may be used to resist shear forces using the same shear
values as permitted for the wood structural panel alone. SECTION 615
Wood structural panel joints parallel to the decking shall be STRESSES
located at least 25 mm offset from any parallel decking
joint. 615.1 General
Heavy decking panels utilizing dowel pins, or vertically Except as herein provided, stresses shall not exceed the
laminated panels connected by nailing units to one another, allowable unit stresses for the respective species and grades
resist shear forces based on the permissible shear values of or fabricated products as set forth in Table 6.1 and Table
their connectors. 6.15 for lumber. Values therein indicated are reference
design values. All the tabulated design values (except the
614.5.5 Particleboard average modulus of elasticity E) include reductions for
safety and are primarily intended for direct application in
Particleboard shall not be less than Type M “Exterior ASD.
Glue”.
Reference design values are given the symbol of uppercase
Shear walls shall be sheathed with particleboard sheets not F, and a subscript --- t for tension, c for compression, b for
less than 1.20 m by 2.40 m except at boundaries and bending --- is added to indicate the type of stress.
changes in framing. The required nail size and spacing in
Table 6.3 apply to panel edges only. All panel edges shall Reference design values for wood represent a starting point
be backed with 50 mm nominal or wider framing. Sheets in the determination of the allowable stress for a particular
are permitted to be installed either horizontally or design. Adjusted ASD design values are determined by
vertically. For 9 mm particleboard sheets installed with the multiplying the reference values by the appropriate
long dimension parallel to the studs spaced 600 mm on adjustement factors. A prime is added to the symbol of the
center, nails shall be spaced at 150 mm on center along reference value to indicate that the necessary adjustments
intermediate framing members. For all other conditions, have been applied to obtain the adjusted design value:
nails of the same size shall be spaced at 300 mm on center
along intermediate framing members. Ft’ = Ft x (product of adjustment factors)
614.6 Fiberboard Sheathing Diaphragms For a design to be acceptable, the actual stress, i.e. ft must
Wood stud walls sheathed with fiberboard sheathing may be less than or equal to the adjusted design value Ft’:
be used to resist horizontal forces not exceeding those set
forth in this section. The fiberboard sheathing, 1.2 m by 2.4 ft < Ft’
m, shall be applied vertically to wood studs not less than 50
mm nominal in thickness spaced 400 mm on center. Nailing 615.1.1 Repetitive Member System
shall be provided at the perimeter of the sheathing board A repetitive member system is defined as one that has (1)
and at the intermediate studs. Blocking not less than 50 mm three (3) or more parallel members of Dimension lumber or
nominal in thickness shall be provided at horizontal joints structural composite lumber; (2) Members spaced not more
when wall height exceeds length of sheathing panel, and than 600mm; (3) Members connected together by a load-
sheathing shall be fastened to the blocking with nails sized distributing element such as roof, floor, or wall sheathing.
spaced 75 mm on centers each side of joint. Nails shall be
spaced not less than 9 mm from edges and ends of For a repetitive member system, the reference Fb may be
sheathing. Marginal studs of shear walls or shear-resisting multiplied by a repetitive member factor, Cr = 1.15. For all
elements shall be adequately anchored at the top and other framing systems, Cr = 1.0.
bottom and designed to resist all forces. The maximum
height-width ratio shall be 1.5:1. Values for species and grades not tabulated shall be
approved by the building official.
615.2 Stresses in Piles Used as Structural Members

Induced stresses for normal loading of round poles or piles
when used as a structural member, except modulus of
elasticity which shall be the same as for sawn lumber, shall
not exceed 60 percent of the basic unit working stresses for
the species as forth in Table 6.1

615.3 Adjustment of Stresses 2. When the accumulated duration of the full maximum
The allowable unit stresses specified in this chapter shall be load during the life of the member does not exceed the
subject to applicable adjustments. period indicated below, the values may be increased in
the table as follows:
615.3.1 General.
Increase Period CD
The adjustments shall be as set forth in the footnotes to the
appropriate stress tables and to the requirements of this For seven days duration, as for roof
25% 1.25
section: loads
CD = load duration factor
33.3% For earthquake 1.33
CM = wet service factor
CF = size factor For wind (for connections and
Cf = form factor 33.3% 1.33
fasteners)
Cfu = flat use factor
Cg = support factor 60% For wind (members only) 1.60
Ci = incising factor
100% For impact 2.0
Ct = temperature factor
Cr = repetitive member factor
CP = column stability factor
CL = beam stability factor The foregoing examples are not cumulative. For combined
CS = slenderness factor duration of loadings the resultant structural members shall
CV = coefficient of variation not be smaller than the required for the longer duration of
CV = volume factor loading.
These adjustment factors do not apply to all reference The duration of load factors in this item shall not apply to
design values. compression-perpendicular-to-grain design values based on
615.3.2 Preservative Treatment. a deformation limit, or to modulus of elasticity.
The values for wood pressure impregnated with an
approved process and preservative need no adjustment for 3. Values for normal loading conditions may be used
treatment but are subjected to other adjustments. without regard to impact if the stress induced by impact
does not exceed the values for normal loading.
615.3.3 Fire-Retardant Treatment
The values for lumber and plywood pressure impregnated 615.3.5 Size Factor Adjustment
with approved fire-retardant chemicals, including fastener When the depth of a rectangular sawn lumber bending
values, shall be recommended by the treater and submitted member 125 mm or thicker exceeds 300 mm, the bending
to the building official for approval. Submittal to the values, Fb, shall be multiplied by the size factor, CF, as
building official shall include all substantiating data. Such determined by the Equation (615-1):
values shall be developed from approved test methods and
1/ 9
procedures that consider potential strength-reduction  300 
characteristics, including effects of elevated temperatures CF    (615-1)
 d 
and moisture.
where:
Other adjustments are applicable, except that the impact
load-duration factor shall not apply. CF = size factor
d = depth of beam, mm
615.3.4 Duration of Load
For beams of circular cross section that have a diameter
Values for wood and mechanical fastenings (when the greater than 340 mm, or 300 mm or larger square beams
wood determines the load capacity) are subjected loaded in the plane of the diagonal, the size factor CF may
adjustments based on the following variations in the be determined on the basis of an equivalent conventionally
duration of load: loaded square beam of the same cross-sectional area.
1. Where a member is fully stressed to the maximum
allowable stress, either continuously or cumulatively, Size factor adjustments are cumulative with form factor
for more than 10 years under the conditions of adjustments specified in Section 615.3.7, except for lumber
maximum design load, the values shall not exceed 90 I beam and box beams, but are not cumulative with
percent of those in the tables. slenderness factor adjustments specified in Section 615.3.6.
The size factor adjustment shall not apply to visually
th
graded lumber 50 mm to 100 mm thick or to machine- When the slenderness factor Cs is greater than 10 but does
stress-rated lumber. not exceed Ck , the allowable unit stress in bending F’b shall
be determined from the following equation:
615.3.6 Slenderness Factor and Flexural Stress.
 1C 
4
When the depth of a bending member exceeds its breadth, F 'b  Fb 1   S  
lateral support may be required and the slenderness factor  3  Ck  
  (615-3)
Cs shall be calculated by the following Equation:
where:
le d
CS  (615-2) Ck = 0.811 E / Fb
b2 (615-4)
where: E = modulus of elasticity
Cs = slenderness factor Fb = allowable unit stress for extreme fiber in bending
le = effective length of beam, mm from the following F’b = allowable unit stress for extreme fiber in bending,
table adjusted for slenderness.
d = depth of beam, mm When the slenderness factor Cs is greater than Ck but less
b = breadth of beam, mm than 50, the allowable unit stress in bending F’b shall be
determined by the following Equation:
The effective lengths, le in the table are based on an lu/d
ratio of 17. For other ℓu/d ratios, these effective lengths may 0.438E
F 'b  (615-5)
be multiplied by a factor equal to 0.85+2.55/(lu/d) except CS 2
that this factor shall not apply to a single-span beam with
equal end moments (le =1.84lu) or to a single span or
In no case shall Cs exceed 50.
cantilever beam with any load (le =1.92lu).
The design values for extreme fiber in bending, Fb, and
When the slenderness factor Cs does not exceed 10, the full
modulus elasticity, E, used in the formulas for F’b shall be
allowable unit stress in bending Fb may be used.
modified to account for moisture service condition, duration
Effective Length of Beams of loading, temperature and type of treatment in accordance
with the Section 615.3 except that the modification for size
Type of Beam Span and Nature Value of Effective factor shown in Section 615.3.5 shall not be used. Design
of Load Length, le values for extreme fiber in bending adjusted for slenderness
factor, F’b, are not subject to further modifications for
Single-span beam, load
1.61lu moisture service condition, duration of loading,
concentrated at the center
temperature, type of treatment or size.
Single-span beam, uniformly
1.92lu
distributed load
The design value for extreme fiber in bending, F’b, shall not
Single-span beam, equal end exceed the full design value for extreme fiber in bending,
1.84lu
moments Fb, modified as allowed in this section, including the size
Cantilever beam, load factor adjustment.
1.69lu
concentrated at unsupported end
Cantilever beam, uniformly When the compression edge of a beam is supported
1.06lu
distributed load throughout its length to prevent its lateral displacement, and
Cantilever beam, uniformly the ends at points of bearing have lateral support to prevent
distributed load with rotation, the unsupported length lu may be taken as zero.
1.69lu
concentrated load at cantilever
end When lateral support is provided to prevent rotation at the
Single-span or cantilever beam, points of end bearing but no other lateral support is
1.92lu
any other load provided throughout the length of the beam, the
lu = unsupported length of beam, mm unsupported lu is the distance between such points of end
bearing, or the length of the cantilever.
When a beam is provided with a lateral support to prevent

rotational and lateral displacement at intermediate points as
well as the ends, unsupported length lu is the distance
between such points of intermediate lateral support.

615.3.7 Form Factor Adjustments 615.3.9 Temperature

The allowable unit stress in bending for non-prismatic The allowable unit stress for untreated and preservative-
members shall not exceed the value established by treated wood specified in this chapter and as modified in
multiplying such stress by the form factor Cf determined as this section applies to uses within the range of climatic
follows: temperature ordinarily encountered in buildings. Wood
members shall not be used in areas subject to temperatures
Beam Section Form Factor (Cf) above 66C unless the exposure is infrequent and any
permanent loss in strength is accounted for in the design.
Circular 1.180
Square (with diagonal vertical) 1.414 The allowable unit stress for fire-retardant-treated solid-
Lumber I Beams and Box Beam sawn lumber and plywood, including fasteners values,
subject to prolonged elevated temperatures from
   d 2   manufacturing or equipment processes, but not exceeding
    143  
66C , shall be developed from approved test methods that
   25 .4  
0 .81 1    1 C g  properly consider potential strength-reduction
  d 
2

     88   (615-6) characteristics, including effects of heat and moisture.
   25 .4   
615.3.10 Moisture Service Condition
Where sawn lumber and fastenings are exposed to service
where: conditions causing the wood to possess more than 19
Cf = form factor (615-7) percent moisture content, the tabulated design values shall
Cg = support factor = p2 (6 – 8p + 3p2) (1 – q) + q be reduced as specified in Table 6.16
p = ratio of depth of compression flange to full depth
of beam 615.3.11 Bolted Joints
q = ratio of thickness of web or webs to the full width
Bolt values used in conjunction with metal side plates shall
of beam be in accordance with Section 619.
The form factor adjustment shall be cumulative with the
size factor adjustment, except for lumber I beams and box
beams.
615.3.8 Modulus of Elasticity Adjustment

The use of average modulus of elasticity E values is
appropriate for the design of normal wood structural
members and assemblies. In special applications where
deflections are critical to the stability of structures or
structural components, and where exposed to varying
temperature and relative humidity under sustained loading
conditions, the average values of the modulus of elasticity E
listed in Table 6.1 shall be reduced to account for
variability. Coefficients of variation CV in the modulus of
elasticity E for lumber as follows:
CV
Visually graded sawn lumber ...................................... 0.25
Machine stress-rated sawn lumber ............................... 0.11
The average modulus of elasticity E values listed in the
table shall be multiplied by 1-CV , or 1-1.65CV to obtain a
modulus of elasticity E value exceeded by 84 percent or 95
percent individual pieces, respectively.
The duration-of-load adjustments specified in Section

615.3.4 do not apply to modulus of elasticity values.
th
616.4 Horizontal Shear in Notched Beams

SECTION 616
When rectangular-shaped girder, beams or joists are
HORIZONTAL MEMBER DESIGN notched at points of support on the tension side, they shall
meet the design requirements of that section in bending and
616.1 Beam Span in shear. The horizontal shear stress at such point shall not
For simple beams, the span shall be taken as the distance exceed the value calculated by Equation (616-2):
from face to face of support, plus one half the required
length of bearing at each end; for continuous beams, the 3V  d 
Fv    (616-2)
span is the distance between centers of bearings on support 2bd '  d ' 
over which the beam is continuous.
where:
616.2 Flexure d = total depth of beam.
d’ = actual depth of beam at notch.
616.2.1 Circular Cross Section
A beam of circular cross section may be assumed to have When girder, beams or joists with circular cross section are
the same strength in flexure as a square beam having the notched at points of support on the tension side, they shall
same cross-sectional area. If a circular beam is tapered, it meet the design requirements of that section in bending and
shall be considered a beam of variable cross section. in shear. The actual shear stress at such point shall not
exceed the value calculated by Equation (616-3):
616.2.2 Notching
 3V  d 
If possible, notching of beams should be avoided. Notches f v    
 d 
in sawn lumber bending members shall not exceed one-  2 An  n  (616-3)
sixth the depth of the member and shall not be located in
where:
the middle third of the span. Where members are notches at
An = cross-sectional area of notched member
the ends, the notch depth shall not exceed one- fourth the
d = total depth of beam
beam depth. The tension side of the sawn lumber bending
dn = actual depth of beam at notch
members of 100 mm or greater nominal thickness shall not
be notched except at ends of members. Cantilevered
For bending members with other than rectangular or
portions of beams less than 100 mm in normal thickness
circular cross section and notched at point of support on the
shall not be notched unless the reduced section properties
tension side, the actual shear stress parallel to grain shall be
and lumber defects are considered in the design.
calculated in accordance with conventional engineering
mechanics.
616.2.3 Lateral Moment Distribution
Lateral moment distribution of a concentrated load from a When girders, beams or joists are notched at point of
critically loaded beam to adjacent parallel beams shall be support on the compression side, they shall meet design
calculated. requirement for that net section in bending and in shear.
The shear at such point shall not exceed the value
616.3 Horizontal Shear calculated by :
The maximum horizontal shear stress in a solid-sawn wood
shall not exceed that calculated by means of 2   d  d'  
V  Fvbd   e (616-4)
Equation (616-1): 3   d '  
3V where:
fv 
2bd (616-1) d = total depth of beam
d’ = actual depth of beam at notch
The actual unit shear fV shall not exceed the allowable for e = distance notch extends inside the inner edge of
the species and the grade as given in Table 6.1 adjusted for support
duration of loading, as provided in Section 615.3.4.
The shear for the notch on the compression side shall be
When calculating the shear force,V, distribution of load to further limited to the value determined for a beam of depth
adjacent parallel beams by flooring or other members may d’ if e exceeds d’.
be considered, and all loads within a distance from either
support equal to the depth of the beam may be neglected for
beams support by full bearing on one surface and loads
applied to the opposite surface.

For bearing of less than 150 mm in length and not nearer

616.5 Design of Joints in Shear than 75 mm to the end of a member, the maximum
Eccentric connector and bolted joints and beams support by allowable load per square mm may be obtained by
connectors or bolt shall be designed so that fV in Equation multiplying the allowable unit stresses in compression
(616-5) does not exceed the allowable unit stresses in perpendicular to grain by the factor indicated by:
horizontal shear. lb  0.375
Cb  (616-8)
3V lb
fv  (616-5)
2bde
in which lb is the length of bearing in mm measured along
where: the grain of the wood.
de (with connectors) = the depth of the member less the The multiplying factors for indicated length of bearing on
distance from the unloaded edge of the member to the such small areas as plates and washers may be:
nearest edge of the nearest connector.
Length
de (with bolts or lag screws) = the depth of the member less 150
of
13 25 38 50 75 100 or
the distance from the unloaded edge of the member to the Bearing
more
center of the nearest bolt or lag screw. (mm)
Factor 1.75 1.38 1.25 1.19 1.13 1.10 1.00
Allowable unit stresses in shear for joint involving bolts or
connectors loaded perpendicular to grain may be 50 percent In using the preceding equation and table for round washers
greater than the horizontal shear values as set forth in Table or bearing areas, use a length equal to the diameter.
6.1 and, provided that the joint occurs at least five times the
depth of the member from its end. When the joint is less In joists supported on a ribbon or ledger board and spiked
than five times the depth of the member from its end, the to the studding, the allowable stress in compression
included shear stress is calculated by: perpendicular to grain may be increased 50 percent.
3V  d  616.7 Lateral Support

fv    (616-6)
2bd e d 
 e  Solid-sawn rectangular lumber beams, rafter and joist shall
be supported laterally to prevent rotation or lateral
and the 50 percent increase in design values for shear in displacement in accordance with the following:
joints does not apply.
If the depth-to-thickness ratio, based on nominal
616.6 Compression Perpendicular to Grain dimensions, is:
In application where deformation is critical, Equation 1. Two to one, or 2:1, no lateral support is required.
(616-7) shall be used to calculate the compression-
perpendicular-to-grain design values. 2. Three to one, 3:1 or four to one, 4:1, the ends shall be
held in position, as by full-depth solid blocking,
FC’ = 0.73 FC  bridging, nailing or bolting to other framing members,
approved hangers or other acceptable means.
where:
FC = compression-perpendicular-to-grain values from 3. Five to one, 5:1, one edge shall be held in line for its
Tables 6.1 entire length.
FC’ = critical compression-perpendicular-to-grain value 4. Six to one, 6:1, bridging, full-depth solid blocking or
cross bracing shall be installed at intervals not
The duration of load modification factors given in Section exceeding 2.4 meters unless:
615.3.4 shall not apply to compression-perpendicular-to-
grain values for sawn lumber. Both edges of the member are held in line or,
The compression edge of the member is supported
The allowable unit stresses for compression perpendicular throughout its length to prevent lateral displacement, as
to grain in Table Nos. 6.1 and 6.17 apply to bearings of any by adequate sheathing or sub-flooring, and the ends
length at the ends of the beam and to all bearings 150 mm and all points of bearing have lateral support to prevent
or more in length at any other location. rotation.
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5. Seven to one, 7:1, both edges shall be held in line for SECTION 617
their entire length.
COLUMN DESIGN
If a beam is subject to both flexure and compression
parallel to grain, the ratio may be as much as 5:1 if one 617.1 Column Classifications
edge is held firmly inline. If under any combination of load
the unbraced edge of the member is in tension, the ratio 617.1.1 Simple Solid-Wood Columns
may be 6:1. Simple column consist of a single piece or of pieces
properly glued together to form a single member.
In lieu of providing lateral support by the methods specified
in items 2 through 5 above, the allowable stresses shall be 617.1.2 Spaced Column, Connector Joined
reduced by the slenderness factor set forth in Section Spaced columns are formed of two or more individual
615.3.6. members with their longitudinal axes parallel, separated at
the ends and middle points of their length by blocking and
616.8 Lateral Support of Arches, Compression Chords joined at the ends by timber connectors capable of
of Trusses and Studs developing the required shear resistance.
Where roof joist or purlins are used between arches or
compression chords, the largest value of le/d, calculated 617.1.3 Built-Up Columns
using the depth of the arch or compression chord or Built-up columns, other than connector-joined spaced
calculated using the breadth (least dimension) of the arch or columns and glued-laminated columns, shall not be
compression chord between points of intermittent lateral designed as solid columns.
support, shall be used. The roof joist or purlins shall be
placed to account for shrinkage (for example, by placing the 617.1.4 Glulam Columns
upper edges of unseasoned joist approximately 5 percent of
the joist depth above the tops of the arch or chord) but also Glulam columns shall be composed of at least four
placed low enough to provide adequate lateral support. laminations, with their grain essentially parallel.
Where roof joist or purlins are placed on top of an arch or 617.2 Limitation on l/d Ratio
compression chord and are securely fastened to the arch or For simple solid columns, l/ d shall not exceed 50.
compression chord, the largest value of le/d, calculated
using the depth of the arch or compression chord or 617.3 Simple Solid-Column Design
calculated using the breadth (least dimension) of the arch or The effective column length, le shall be used in design
compression chord between points of intermittent lateral Equations given in this section. The effective column
support, shall be used. length, le shall be determined in accordance with good
engineering practice. Actual column length, l, may be
Where planks are placed on top of an arch or compression multiplied by the factors given in the following table to
chord and securely fastened to the arch or compression determine effective column length, le.
chord, or when sheathing is nailed properly to the top chord
of trussed rafter, the depth rather than the breadth of the Allowable unit stresses in newton per square millimeter of
arch, compression chord or trussed rafter may be used as cross-sectional area of square or rectangular simple solid
the least dimension in determining le/d. Where stud walls in columns shall be determined by the following formulas, but
light-frame construction are adequately sheathed on at least such unit stresses shall not exceed values for compression,
one side, the depth rather than breadth of the stud, may be
taken as the least dimension in calculating the le/d ratio. parallel to grain Fc in Table 6.1 adjusted in accordance with
provision of this section.
1  F / F * 1  FcE / Fc * 
2
F / Fc * 
F'c  Fc *  cE c
    cE

 2c`  2c`  c` 
 
(617-1)

where: Support Conditions:

c’ = 0.8 for sawn lumber. Large end fixed, small end unsupported a = 0.70
= 0.85 for round timber piles. Small end fixed, large end unsupported a = 0.30
KcE E'
FcE  Both ends simply supported:
le / d 2 Tapered toward one end a = 0.50
= Euler critical buckling stress for columns Tapered toward both ends a = 0.70
Fc* = tabulated compression design value multiplied by all
of the applicable adjustment factors. For all other support conditions:
KCE = 0.3 for visually graded lumber.
KCE = 0.418 for products such as machine stress-rated d = dmin + ( dmax - dmin ) ( 1/3) (617-3)
sawn lumber. The design of a column of round cross section shall be
based on the design calculations for a square column of the
same cross-sectional area and having the same degree of
taper.
User Note: le = Ke l
617.4 Tapered Columns

When designing a tapered column with a rectangular cross
section, tapered at one or both ends, the representative
dimension, drep for each face of the column shall be derived
as follows:
drep = dmin + (dmax - dmin)a–0.15 (1-dmin / dmax) 
where:
dmin = the minimum dimension, d, for that face of the
column
dmax = the maximum dimension, d, for that face of the
column
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the plane of bending shall be used to calculate F’c and J

and (2) when checking the design perpendicular to the
SECTION 618 plane of bending the slenderness ratio, le/d, in the plane of
FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADING bending shall be used to calculate F’c and J shall be set
equal to zero.
COMBINED
618.3 Spaced Columns
618.1 Flexure and Axial Tension
In the case of spaced columns, this combined stress formula
Members subjected to both flexure and axial tension shall maybe applied only if the bending is in a direction parallel
be so proportioned that to the greater d of the individual member.
ft f
 b (618-1) 618.4 Truss Compression Chords
Ft Fb* ≤ 1 Effect of buckling of a 50 mm by 100 mm or smaller truss
and compression chord having effective buckling lengths of
2.40 m or less and with 9 mm or thicker plywood sheathing
fb  ft nailed to the narrow face of the chord in accordance with
≤ 1 (618-2) the appropriate standards shall be determined from the
Fb** equation:
where: 1  0.62le
CT 
Fb* = tabulated bending design value multiplied by all E0.05
(618-6)
applicable adjustment factors except beam stability
factor, CL where:
= Fb (CD)(CM)(Ct)(CF)(Cr)(Ci) for sawn lumber
CT = buckling of the stiffness factor
= Fb (CD)(CM)(Ct) (Cv) for glulam
= 0.819E for machine-stress-rated lumber
Fb** = tabulated bending design value multiplied by all
le = effective buckling length used in design of chord
applicable adjustment factor except volume factor,
for compression loading
CV.
E0.05 = 0.589E for visually graded lumber
= Fb (CD)(CM)(Ct)(CL)(CF)(Cr)(Ci) for sawn lumber
E = Modulus of elasticity from tables of allowable unit
= Fb (CD)(CM)(Ct)(CL) for glulam
stress, N/mm2
Ft’ = allowable tension design value parallel to grain
ft = actual unit stress in tension parallel to grain.
The values of CT determined from this equation are for
fb = actual unit stress for extreme fiber in bending.
wood seasoned to a moisture content of 19 percent or less at
the time the plywood is nailed to the chord. For wood that
618.2 Flexure and Axial Compression
is unseasoned at the time of plywood attachment, CT shall
Members subjected to both flexure and axial compression be determined from the Equation (618-7):
shall be proportioned that
1  0.33le
fC f bx CT 
≤ 1 (618-3) E0.05
F' c F' bx  Jf c (618-7)
The value of J shall be derived as For chords with an effective buckling length greater than
2.40 m, Ct shall be taken as the value for a chord having an
l e / d  11 effective length of 2.40 m.
J 
K  11 (618-4)
The buckling stiffness factor does not apply to short
K  0.671
E columns or trusses used under wet conditions. The
Fc (618-5) allowable unit compressive stress shall be modified by the
buckling stiffness factor when a truss chord is subjected to
combined flexure and compression and the bending
except that J shall not be less than zero nor greater than one
moment in the direction that induces compression stresses
(0 J 
in the chord face to which the plywood is attached.
F'c and K shall be determined in accordance with the
The buckling stiffness factor CT shall apply as follows:
provision in Section 617.3, except (1) when checking the
design in the plane of bending the slenderness ratio, le/d, in
Short column ( le / d of 11 or less ):

F’c = Fc (618-8)
Intermediate columns (le / d greater than 11 but less than K): SECTION 619
E
TIMBER CONNECTORS AND
K  0.671 CT FASTENERS
Fc (618-9)
 1  le / d  
4 619.1 General
F' c  Fc 1     (618-10) Timber connectors and fasteners may be used to transmit
 3  K   forces between wood members and between wood and
metal members. The allowable loads and installation of
Long column ( le / d of K or greater ):
timber connectors and fasteners shall be in accordance with
0.30 ECT the tables as provided in this Chapter. The allowable loads
F' 
l / d
and installation of timber connectors shall be as set forth in
c 2
(618-11)
e Tables 6.2, 6.17, 6.19, and 6.20.
618.5 Compression at Angle to Grain Safe loads and design practices for types of connectors and
The allowable unit stress in compression at an angle of load fasteners not mentioned or fully covered may be determined
to grain between 0and 90shall be computed from the in a manner permitted by the Building Official.
Hankinson Equation as follows:
619.2 Bolts
Fc Fc
Fn  (618-12) Safe loads in kN for bolts in shear in seasoned lumber shall
Fc sin 2 θ  Fc cos 2  not exceed the values set forth in Table 6.17.
Allowable values Fc shall be adjusted for duration of load Allowable shear values used to connect a wood to concrete
before use in Hankinson’s Equation. Values of Fn and Fc or masonry are permitted to be determined as one half the
are not subjected to duration of load modifications. tabulated double shear values for a wood member twice the
thickness of the member attached to the concrete or
masonry.
619.3 Nails and Spikes
619.3.1 Safe Lateral Strength

A common wire nail driven perpendicular to grain of the
wood, when used to fasten wood members together, shall
not be subjected to a greater load causing shear and bending
than the safe lateral strength of the wire nail or spike as set
forth in Table 6.21.
A wire nail driven parallel to the grain of the wood shall not
be subjected more than two thirds of the lateral load
allowed when driven perpendicular to the grain. Toenails
shall not be subjected more than five sixths of the lateral
load allowed for nails driven perpendicular to the grain.
619.3.2 Safe Resistance to Withdrawal

A wire nail driven perpendicular to grain of wood shall not
be subjected to a greater load, tending to cause withdrawal,
than the safe resistance of the nail to withdrawal, as set
forth in Table 6.21.
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619.3.3 Spacing and Penetration

Common wire nails shall have penetration into the piece
receiving the point as set forth in Table 6.21. Nails or
spikes for which the wire gauges or lengths are not set forth
in Table 6.21 shall have a required penetration of not less
than 11 diameters, and allowable loads may be interpolated.
Design values shall be increased when the penetration of
nails into the member holding the point is larger than the
required by this item.
For wood-to-wood joints, the spacing center to center of

nails in the direction of stress shall not be less than one half
of the required penetration. Edge or end distances in the Figure 619.5.2-A: Basic Withdrawal Connection
direction of stress shall not be less one half of the required
penetration. All spacing and edge and end distances shall be
such as to avoid splitting of the wood.
Holes for nails, where necessary to prevent splitting, shall

be bored of a diameter smaller than that of the nails.
619.4 Joist Hangers and Framing Anchors

Connections depending upon joist hangers or framing
anchors, ties and other mechanical fastenings not otherwise
covered may be used where approved
Figure 619.5.2-B: Withdrawal from End-Grain
619.5 Miscellaneous Fasteners (not allowed)
619.5.1 Drift Bolts or Drift Pins

Connections involving the use of drift bolts or pins shall be
designed in accordance with the provisions set forth in this
Chapter.
619.5.1.1 Wood Screws and Lag Screws

Wood and lag screws shall be used where there is limited
penetration, especially in a withdrawal design, as these
provide greater resistance. Design of the screws shall be in Figure 619.5.2-C: Toenail Connection Withdrawal from
accordance with the provisions set forth in this Chapter. Side Grain
619.5.1.2 Lateral Design Values

619.5.1.2 Withdrawal Design Values
Allowable lateral design values for drift bolts and drift pins
Drift bolt and drift pin connections loaded in withdrawal driven in the side grain of wood shall not exceed 75 percent
shall be designed in accordance with good engineering
of the allowable lateral design values for common bolts of
practice. Figures 619.5.2-A to 619.5.2-C are examples of
the same diameter and length in main member. Additional
withdrawal connections. penetration of pin into members should be provided in lieu
of the washer, head and nut on a common bolt.
619.5.2 Spike Grids

Wood-to-wood connections involving spike grids for lateral
load transfer shall be designed in accordance with good
engineering practice.

SECTION 620 620.4.2 Veneer

Anchored masonry and stone wall veneer shall not exceed
CONVENTIONAL LIGHT-FRAME 125 mm in thickness.
CONSTRUCTION DESIGN
PROVISIONS 620.4.3 Unusually Shaped Buildings
When building is of an unusual shape as defined in Section
620.1 General 620.5.3, buildings of light-frame construction in Seismic
The requirements in this section are intended for Zone 2 shall have a lateral-force-resisting system designed
conventional light-frame construction. Other methods may to resist the forces specified in Chapter 2.
be used provided a satisfactory design is submitted showing
compliance with other provisions of this code. 620.5 Additional Requirements for Conventional
Construction in Seismic Zone 4
Only the following occupancies may be constructed in
accordance with this division: 620.5.1 Braced Wall Lines
In areas under Seismic Zone 4 and where the basic wind
1. One-, two- or three-story residential buildings.
speed exceeds 125 kph, buildings shall be provided with
2. One-story Occupancy Category IV buildings, as exterior and interior braced wall lines not exceeding 7.50m
defined in Table 103-1, when constructed on a slab-on- on center in both the longitudinal and transverse directions
grade floor. in each story.
3. Category V Occupancies Exception:
4. Top-story walls and roofs of Occupancy Category IV In one- and two-story dwellings and lodging houses,
buildings not exceeding two storeys of wood framing. interior braced wall line spacing may be increased to not
more than 10.0 m on center in order to accommodate one
5. Interior non-load bearing partitions, ceilings and single room per dwelling unit not exceeding 84.0 m2. The
curtain walls in all occupancies. building official may require additional walls to contain
braced panels when this exception is used.
Other approved repetitive wood members may be used in
lieu of solid-sawn lumber in conventional construction 620.5.2 Veneer
provided these members comply with the provisions of this
code. Anchored masonry and stone wall veneer shall not exceed
125 mm in thickness and shall not extend above the first
620.2 Design of Portions story.
When a building of otherwise conventional construction 620.5.3 Unusually Shaped Buildings
contains non-conventional structural elements, those
elements shall be designed in accordance with Section on When of unusual shape, buildings of light-frame
“Rationality of Design Method” on the previous chapter. construction shall have a lateral-force-resisting system
designed to resist the forces specified in Chapter 2. One or
620.3 Additional Requirements for Conventional more of the following shall be considered to constitute an
Construction in High-wind Areas unusual shape:
Provisions for conventional construction in high-wind areas 620.5.3.1 When exterior braced wall panels, as required by
shall apply when specifically adopted. Section 620.10.3, are not in one plane vertically from the
foundation to the uppermost story in which they are
620.4 Additional Requirements for Conventional required.
Construction in Seismic Zone 2
Exceptions:
620.4.1 Braced Wall Lines Floors with cantilevers or setbacks not exceeding four times
In areas under Seismic Zone 2 and where the basic wind the nominal depth of the floor joists may support braced
speed obtained from Figure 207-1 is not greater than 125 wall panels provided:
kph, buildings shall be provided with exterior and interior
braced wall lines not exceeding 10.0 m on center in both the 1. Floor joists are 50 mm by 250 mm or larger and
longitudinal and transverse directions in each story. spaced at not more than 400 mm on center.
2. The ratio of the back span to the cantilever is at least 2
to 1.
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3. Floor joists at ends of braced wall panels are doubled. height, all interior braced wall panels shall be supported on
continuous foundations.
4. A continuous rim joists is connected to ends of all
cantilevered joists. The rim joist may be spliced using Exception:
a metal tie not less than 1.47 mm (16 galvanized gage)
Two-story buildings may have interior braced wall lines
and 38 mm wide fastened with six 16 d nails.
supported on continuous foundations at intervals not
5. Gravity loads carried at the end of cantilevered joists exceeding 15.0 m. provided:
are limited to uniform wall and roof load and the
1. Cripple wall height does not exceed 1.20 m.
reactions from headers having a span of 2.40 m or less.
2. First – floor braced wall panels are supported on
620.5.3.2 When a section of floor or roof is not laterally doubled floor joist, continuous blocking or floor
supported by braced wall lines on all edges. beams.
Exception: 3. Distance between bracing lines does not exceed twice
the building width parallel to the braced wall line.
Portions of roofs or floors which do not support braced
wall panels above may extend up to 1.80 m beyond a
620.6 Girders
braced wall line.
Unless otherwise permitted by provisions in NSCP Volume
620.5.3.3 When the end of a required braced wall panel 3 on Housing, girders for single-story construction or
extends more than 300 mm over an opening in the wall girders supporting loads from a single floor shall not be less
below. This provision is applicable to braced wall panels than 100mm by 150 mm for spans 1.80 m or less, provided
offset in plane and to braced wall panels offset out of plane that girders are spaced not more than 2.40 m on center.
as permitted by Section 620.5.3.1. Other girders shall be designed to support the loads
specified in this code. Girder end joints shall occur over
Exception: supports. When a girder is spliced over a support, an
Braced wall panels may extend over an opening not more adequate tie shall be provided. The end of beams or girders
than 2.40 m. in width when the header is a 100 mm by 300 supported on masonry or concrete shall not have less than
mm or larger member. 75 mm of bearing.
620.5.3.4 When an opening in a floor or roof exceeds the 620.7 Floor Joists
lesser of 3.60 m or 50 percent of the least floor or roof
dimension. 620.7.1 General
The limits of defects by grade in joists and planks for
620.5.3.5 Construction where portions of a floor level are seasoned wood are set forth in Table 6.15.
vertically offset such that the framing members on either
side of the offset cannot be lapped or tied together in an 620.7.2 Bearing
approved manner as required by Section 620.7.3.
Except where supported on a 25 mm by 100 mm ribbon
strip and nailed to the adjoining stud, the ends of each joist
Exception:
shall not have less than 38 mm of bearing on wood or
Framing supported directly by foundations.
metal, or less than 75 mm on masonry.
620.5.3.6 When braced wall lines do not occur in two
620.7.3 Framing Details
perpendicular directions.
Joists shall be supported laterally at the ends and at each
620.5.3.7 Other configurations which, in the opinion of the support by solid blocking except where the ends of joists
building official, create irregularities or discontinuities are nailed to a header, band or rim joist or to an adjoining
which are not addressed by this Section. stud or by other approved means. Solid blocking shall not
be less 50 mm in thickness and the full depth of joist.
620.5.4 Lumber Roof Decks
Notches on the ends of joists shall not exceed one-fourth
Lumber roof decks shall have solid sheathing. the joist depth. Holes bored in joists shall not be within 50
mm of the top or bottom of the joist and the diameter of any
620.5.5 Interior Braced Wall Support such hole shall not exceed one-third the depth of the joist.
In one-story buildings, interior braced wall lines shall be Notches in the top or bottom of joists shall not exceed one-
supported on continuous foundations at intervals not sixth the depth and shall not be located in the middle third
exceeding 15.0 m. In buildings more than one-story in of the span.

Joist framing from opposite sides of a beam, girder or 620.8.3 Plank Flooring
partition shall be lapped at least 75 mm or the opposing Plank flooring shall be designed in accordance with the
joists shall be tied together in an approved manner. general provisions of this code.
Joists framing into the side of a wood girder shall be In lieu of such design, 50 mm tongue-and-groove planking
supported by framing anchors or on ledger strips not less may be used in accordance with Table 6.22. Joints in such
than 50 mm by 50 mm. planking may be randomly spaced, provided the system is
applied to not less than three continuous spans, planks are
620.7.4 Framing Around Openings center-matched and end-matched or splined, each plank
Trimmer and header joists shall be doubled, or of lumber of bears on at least one support and joints are separated by at
equivalent cross section, when the span of the header least 600 mm in adjacent pieces. 25 mm nominal strip
exceeds 1.20 m. The ends of header joists more than 1.80 square-edged flooring; 13 mm tongue-and-groove flooring
m long shall be supported by framing anchors or joist or 9 mm wood structural panel shall be applied at right
hangers unless bearing on a beam, partition or wall. Tail angles to the span of the planks. The 9 mm plywood shall
joists over 3.60 m long shall be supported at header by be applied with the face grain at right angles to the span of
framing anchors or on ledger strips not less than 50 mm by the planks.
50 mm.
620.8.4 Particleboard
620.7.5 Supporting Bearing Partitions Where used as structural subflooring or as combined
Bearing partitions perpendicular to joists shall not be offset subfloor underlayment, particleboard shall be as set forth in
from supporting girders, walls or partitions more than the Table 6.13.
joist depth.
620.9 Particleboard Underlayment
Joists under and parallel to bearing partitions shall be In accordance with approved recognized standards,
doubled. particleboard floor underlayment shall conform to Type
PBU. Underlayment shall not be less than 6 mm in
620.7.6 Blocking thickness and shall be identified by the grade mark of an
Floor joists shall be blocked when required by the approved inspection agency. Underlayment shall be
provisions of Section 620.7.3. installed in accordance with this code and as recommended
by the manufacturer.
620.8 Subflooring
620.10 Wall Framing
620.8.1 Lumber Subfloor
Sheathing used as a structural sub-floor shall conform to the 620.10.1 Size, Height and Spacing
limitations set forth in Table 6.9. The size, height and spacing of studs shall be in accordance
with Table 6.23 except that utility grade studs shall not be
Joints in subflooring shall occur over supports unless end- spaced more than 400 mm on center, or support more than a
matched lumber is used in which case each piece shall bear roof and ceiling, or exceed 2.40 m in height for exterior
on at least two joists. walls and load-bearing walls or 3.00 m for interior non
load-bearing walls.
Subflooring may be omitted when joist spacing does not
exceed 400 mm and 25 mm nominal tongue-and-groove 620.10.2 Framing Details
wood strip flooring is applied perpendicular to the joists.
Studs shall be placed with their wide dimension
620.8.2 Wood Structural Panels perpendicular to the wall. Not less than three studs shall be
Where used as structural subflooring, wood structural installed at each corner of an exterior wall.
panels shall be as set forth in Tables 6.10 and 6.11. Wood Exceptions:
structural panel combination subfloor underlayment shall
have maximum spans as set forth in Table 6.12. At corners, a third stud may be omitted through the use of
wood spacers or backup cleats of 9 mm wood structural
When wood structural panel floors are glued to joists with panel, 9 mm Type M “Exterior Glue” particle-board, 25
an adhesive in accordance with the adhesive manufacturer’s mm lumber or other approved devices that will serve as an
directions, fasteners may be spaced a maximum of 300 mm adequate backing for the attachment of facing materials.
on center at all supports. Where fire resistance ratings or shear values are involved,
th
wood spacers, backup cleats or other devices shall not be than 9 mm for 600 mm stud spacing in accordance with
used unless specifically approved for such use. Tables 6.5 and 6.25.
4. Fiberboard sheathing 1.20 m by 2.40 m panels not less
Bearing and exterior wall studs shall be capped with double
than 13 mm thick applied vertically on studs spaced not
top plates installed to provide overlapping at corners and at
over 406 mm on center when installed in accordance
intersections with other partitions. End joints in double top
with Section 614.6 and Table 6.27.
plates shall be offset at least 2.40 m.
5. Gypsum board (sheathing 13 mm thick by 1.20 m
Exceptions:
wide, wallboard or veneer base) on studs spaced not
A single top plate may be used, provided the plate is over 600 mm on center and nailed at 175 mm on center
adequately tied at joints, corners and intersecting walls by with nails as required by Table 6.28.
at least the equivalent of 75 mm by 150 mm by 0.9 mm
6. Particleboard wall sheathing panels where installed in
galvanized steel that is nailed to each wall or segment of
accordance with Table 6.29.
wall by six 8d nails or equivalent, provided the rafters,
joists or trusses are centered over the studs with a tolerance 7. Portland cement plaster on studs spaced 400 mm on
of no more than 25 mm. center installed in accordance with Table 6.28.
8. Hardboard panel siding when installed in accordance
When bearing studs are spaced at 600 mm intervals and top
with Section 609.6 and Table 6.8.
plates are less than 50 mm by 150 mm or 70 mm by 100
mm members and when the floor joists, floor trusses or roof
User Note: Method 1 is not permitted in the Philippines.
trusses which they support are spaced at more than 406 mm
intervals, such joists or trusses shall bear within 125 mm of
the studs beneath or a third plate shall be installed. For cripple wall bracing, see Section 620.10.5. For Methods
2, 3, 4, 6 and 8, each braced panel must be at least 1.20 m in
length, covering three stud spaces where studs are spaced
Interior nonbearing partitions may be capped with a single
400 mm apart and covering two stud spaces where studs are
top plate installed to provide overlapping at corners and at
spaced 600 mm apart.
intersections with other walls and partitions. The plate shall
be continuously tied at joints by solid blocking at least 400
mm in length and equal in size to the plate or by 3 mm by For Method 5, each braced wall panel must be at least
38 mm metal ties with spliced sections fastened with two 2.40 m in length when applied to one face of a braced wall
16d nails on each side of the joint. panel and 1.20 m when applied to both faces.
All vertical joints of panel sheathing shall occur over studs.

Studs shall have full bearing on a plate or sill not less than
50 mm in thickness having a width not less than that of the Horizontal joints shall occur over blocking equal in size to
wall studs. the studding except where waived by the installation
requirements for the specific sheathing materials.
620.10.3 Bracing
Braced wall panel sole plates shall be nailed to the floor
Braced wall lines shall consists of braced wall panels which framing and top plates shall be connected to the framing
meet the requirements for location, type and amount of above in accordance with Table 6.3. Sills shall be bolted to
bracing specified in Table 6.24 and are in line or offset the foundation or slab. Where joists are perpendicular to
from each other by not more than 1.20 m. Braced wall braced wall lines above, blocking shall be provided under
panels shall start at not more than 2.40 m from each end of and in line with the braced wall panels.
a braced wall line. All braced wall panels shall be clearly 620.10.4 Alternate Braced Wall Panels
indicated on the plans. Construction of braced wall panels Any braced wall panel required by Section 620.10.3 may be
shall be by one of the following methods: replaced by an alternate braced wall panel constructed in
1. Nominal 25 mm by 100 mm continuous diagonal accordance with the following:
braces let into top and bottom plates and intervening 1. In one-story buildings, each panel shall have a length
studs, placed at an angle not more than 60 degrees or of not less than 800 mm and a height of not more than
less than 45 degrees from the horizontal, and attached 3.0 m. Each panel shall be sheathed on one face with 9
to the framing in conformance with Table 6.3. mm plywood sheathing nailed with 65mm common or
2. Wood boards of 16 mm net minimum thickness applied galvanized box nails in accordance with Table 6.3 and
diagonally on studs spaced not over 600 mm on center. blocked at all plywood edges. Two anchor bolts
installed shall be provided in each panel. Anchor bolts
3. Wood structural panel sheathing with a thickness not shall be placed at panel quarter points. Each panel end
less than 8 mm for 400 mm stud spacing and not less stud shall have a tie-down device fastened to the

foundation, capable of providing an approved uplift joists underneath such partitions shall be doubled and
capacity of not less than 820 kg. The tie-down device spaced to permit the passage of such pipes and shall be
shall be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s bridged. Where plumbing, heating or other pipes are placed
recommendations. The panels shall be supported in or partly in a partition, necessitating the cutting of the
directly on a foundation or on floor framing supported soles or plates, a metal tie not less than 1.47 mm (16
directly on a foundation which is continuous across the galvanized gage) and 38 mm wide shall be fastened to each
entire length of the braced wall line. This foundation plate across and to each side of the opening with not less
shall be reinforced with not less than one 12 mm bar than six 16 d nails.
top and bottom.
620.10.8 Bridging
2. In the first story of two-story buildings, each braced
wall panel shall be in accordance with Section Unless covered by interior or exterior wall coverings or
620.10.4, item 1, except that the plywood sheathing sheathing meeting the minimum requirements of this code,
shall be provided on both faces, three anchor bolts shall all stud partitions or walls with studs having a height-to-
be placed at one-fifth points, and tie-down device uplift least thickness ratio exceeding 50 shall have bridging not
capacity shall not be less than 1360 kg. less than 50 mm in thickness and of the same width as the
studs fitted snugly and nailed thereto to provide adequate
620.10.5 Cripple Walls lateral support.
Foundation cripple walls shall be framed of studs not less in
620.10.9 Cutting and Notching
size than the studding above with a minimum length of 350
mm, or shall be framed if solid blocking. When exceeding In exterior walls and bearing partitions, any wood stud may
1.20 m in height, such walls shall be framed of studs having be cut or notched to a depth not exceeding 25 percent of its
the size required for an additional story. width. Cutting or notching of studs to a depth not greater
than 40 percent of the width of the stud is permitted in
Cripple walls having a stud height exceeding 350 mm shall nonbearing partitions supporting no loads other than the
be braced in accordance with Table 6.26. Solid blocking or weight of the partition.
wood structural panel sheathing may be used to brace
cripple walls having a stud height of 350 mm or less. In 620.10.10 Bored Holes
Seismic Zone 4, Method 7 is not permitted for bracing any Bored holes may be permitted in any wood stud provided
cripple wall studs. the holes are not greater than 40 percent of the stud width.
Bored holes not greater than 60 percent of the width of the
Spacing of boundary nailing for required wall bracing shall study is permitted in nonbearing partitions or in any wall
not exceed 150 mm on center along the foundation plate where each bored stud is doubled, provided not more than
and the top plate of the cripple wall. Nail size, nail spacing two such successive doubled studs are so bored.
for field nailing and more restrictive boundary nailing
requirements shall be as required elsewhere in the code for In no case shall the edge of the bored hole be nearer than 16
the specific bracing material used. mm to the edge of the stud. Bored holes shall not be
located at the same section of stud as a cut or notch.
620.10.6 Headers
Headers and lintels shall conform to the requirements set 620.10.11 Roof and Ceiling Framing
forth in this paragraph and together with their supporting
systems shall be designed to support the loads specified in 620.10.11.1 General
this code. All openings 1200 mm wide or less in bearing The framing details required in this section apply to roofs
walls shall be provided with headers consisting of either having a minimum slope of 3 units vertical in 12 units
two pieces of 50 mm framing lumber placed on edge and horizontal (25% slope) or greater. When the roof slope is
securely fastened together or 100 mm lumber of equivalent less than 3 units vertical in 12 units horizontal (25% slope),
cross section. All openings more than 1.20 m. wide shall be members supporting rafters and ceiling joists such as ridge
provided with headers or lintels. Each end of lintel or board, hips and valleys shall be designed as beams.
header shall have a length of bearing of not less than 38 mm
for the full width of the lintel. 620.10.11.2 Framing
Rafters shall be framed directly opposite each other at the
620.10.7 Pipes in Walls ridge. There shall be a ridge board at least 25 mm nominal
Stud partitions containing plumbing, heating, or other pipes thickness at all ridges and not less in depth than the cut end
shall be so framed and the joists underneath so spaced as to of the rafter. At all valleys and hips there shall be a single
give proper clearance for the piping. Where a partition valley or hip rafter not less than 50 mm nominal thickness
containing such piping runs parallel to the floor joists, the and not less than the cut of the rafter.
th
620.10.11.3 Notches and Holes 620.10.11.9 Roof Planking

Notching at the ends of rafters or ceiling joists shall not Planking shall be designed in accordance with the general
exceed one fourth the depth. Notches in the top or bottom provisions of this code.
of the rafter or ceiling joist shall not exceed one sixth the
depth and shall not be located in the middle one third of the In lieu of such design, 50 mm tongue-and-groove planking
span, except that a notch not exceeding one third of the may be used in accordance with Table 6.22. Joints in such
depth is permitted in the top of the rafter or ceiling joist not planking may be randomly spaced, provided the system is
further from the face of the support than the depth of the applied to not less than three continuous spans, the planks
member. are center-matched and end-matched or splined, each plank
bears on at least one support, and the joints are separated by
Holes bored in rafters or ceiling joists shall not be within 50 at least 600 mm in adjacent pieces.
mm of the top and bottom and their diameter shall not
exceed one third the depth of the member. 620.10.11.10 Exit Facilities
In Seismic Zone 4, exterior exit balconies, stairs and similar
620.10.11.4 Framing Around Openings exit facilities shall be anchored to the primary structure at
Trimmer and header rafters shall be doubled, or of lumber not over 2.40 m. on center or shall be designed for lateral
of equivalent cross section, when the span of the header forces. Such attachment shall not be accomplished by used
exceeds 1.20 m. The ends of header rafters more than 1.80 of toenails or nails subject to withdrawal.
m long shall be supported by framing anchors or rafter
hangers unless bearing on a beam, partition or wall.
SECTION 621
620.10.11.5 Rafter Ties METAL PLATE CONNECTED WOOD
Rafter shall be nailed to adjacent ceiling joists to form a TRUSS DESIGN
continuous tie between exterior walls when such joists are
parallel to the rafters. Where not parallel, rafter shall be tied
621.1 Design and Fabrication
to 25 mm by 100 mm (nominal) minimum-size crossties.
Rafter ties shall be spaced not more than 1.20 m on center. The design and fabrication of metal plate connected wood
trusses shall be in accordance with ANSI/TPI 1-1995,
620.10.11.6 Purlins National Design Standard for Metal Plate Connected Wood
Truss Construction of the Truss Plate Institute.
The maximum span of 50mm by 150 mm purlins shall be
1.80 m but in no case shall the purlins be smaller than 50
621.2 Performance
mm by 100 mm members. The unbraced length of struts
shall not exceed 2.40 m and the minimum slope of the struts Full-scale load tests in accordance with ANSI/TPI 2 may be
shall be 45 degrees from the horizontal. required at the option of the building official to provide a
means of demonstrating that minimum adequate
620.10.11.7 Blocking performance is obtainable from specific metal plate
connector plates, various lumber types and grades, a
Roof rafters and ceiling joists shall be supported laterally
particular truss design and a particular fabrication
to prevent rotation and lateral displacement when required
procedure. ANSI/TPI 2 provides procedures for testing and
by Section 616. Roof trusses shall be supported laterally at
evaluating wood trusses designed in accordance with
points of bearing by solid blocking or by other equivalent
ANSI/TPI 1.
means to prevent rotation and lateral displacement.
621.3 In-Plant Inspection
620.10.11.8 Roof Sheathing
Each truss manufacturer shall retain an approved agency
Roof sheathing shall be in accordance with Tables 6.10 and
having no financial interest in the plant being inspected to
6.11 for wood structural panels, and Table 6.9 for lumber.
make nonscheduled inspections shall cover all phases of the
truss operation, including lumber storage, handling, cutting,
Joints in lumber sheathing shall occur over support unless fixtures, presses or rollers, fabrication bundling and
approved end-matched is used, in which case each piece banding, handling, and delivery.
shall bear on at least two supports.
621.4 Marking
Wood structural panels used for roof sheathing shall be
bonded by intermediate or exterior glue. Wood structural Each truss shall be legibly branded, marked or otherwise
panel roof sheathing exposed on the underside shall be have permanently affixed thereto the following information
bonded with exterior glue. located within 600 mm of the center of the span on the face
of the bottom chord:

1. Identity of the company manufacturing the truss.

2. The design load. SECTION 622
3. The spacing of trusses. USE OF MACHINE GRADED
LUMBER (MGL)
622.1 General
In cases where the identification of a particular wood
species is not known, therefore working stresses cannot be
found in Table 6.1, machine graded lumber can be used for
general and structural applications.
622.2 Design Properties for Machine Graded Lumber

The design properties for machine graded lumber
developed by the Forest Products Research and
Development Institute are shown in Table 6.31 – 6.34.
These properties are applicable for dry lumber (moisture
content ≤ 16%) only. In green lumber (moisture content ≥
28%), the design strength shall be reduced by 40% and
modulus of elasticity by 20% For lumber with moisture
content between 16% and 28%, the design properties may
be obtained by direct interpolation.
622.3 Design Using Machine Graded Lumber

The basic working values given in Section 622.2 may be
used to design timber structures in accordance with the
rules given by NSCP and other appropriate national and/or
international standards.
622.4 Preservative Treatment

To ensure the durability of MGL against bio-deteriorating
agents such as fungi and insects, MGL should be treated
with an environment-friendly preservative.
622.5 Moisture Content

A given piece of lumber is considered dry, partially
seasoned, and green, when their respective moisture
contents is above 10%, 22% – 28%, and greater than 28%
622.6 Markings
Prior to use, each machine graded lumber should be
inspected for a mark that contains the mill in which the
lumber was graded, organization that certifies the quality of
the grading procedure, timber size, stress grade and
moisture content.
th
Table 6.1 - Working Stresses for Visually Stress-Graded Unseasoned Structural Timber of Philippine Woods a
80% Stress Grade
Species Bending and
Modulus of Compression Compression Shear
Tension
(Common and Botanical Names) Parallel to
Elasticity in Parallel to P’pendicular Parallel to
Bending Grain to Grain Grain
Grain
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
x103
MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
I. High Strength Group
Agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia Forst) 26.3 8.22 14.5 5.91 2.95
Liusin [Parinari corymbosa (Blume) Miq.] 25.0 9.36 15.6 4.31 2.64
Malabayabas (Tristania spp.) 28.7 8.30 15.8 8.70 3.02
Manggachapui (Hopea spp.) 25.8 9.63 16.0 6.03 2.78
Molave (Vitex parviflora Juss.) 24.0 6.54 15.4 6.34 2.88
Narig (Vatica spp.) 21.8 8.33 13.7 4.97 2.61
Sasalit [Teijmanniodendron ahernianum (Merr) 31.3 9.72 21.60 10.2 3.38
Bkh.]
Yakal (Shorea spp.) 24.5 9.78 15.8 6.27 2.49
II. Moderately High Strength Group

Antipolo (Arthocarpus spp.) 18.6 5.35 10.8 3.90 2.06
Binggas (Terminalia spp.) 18.9 6.57 11.4 3.27 2.24
Bokbok (Xanthophyllum excelsum (Blume) Miq.] 18.1 6.36 11.3 3.41 2.18
Dao (Dracontomelon spp.) 16.2 5.43 9.44 2.27 1.92
Gatasan [Garcinia venulosa (Blanco) Choisy] 20.8 6.84 13.5 3.52 2.36
Guijo (Shorea spp.) 21.8 8.47 13.2 4.26 2.40
Kamagong (Diospyros spp.) 20.9 7.20 11.7 4.39 2.47
Kamatog [Erythrophloeum densiflorum (Elm) 19.0 7.56 11.2 3.95 2.35
Merr.]
Katmon (Dillenia spp) 18.8 6.82 11.9 4.84 2.29
Kato (Amoora spp.) 18.4 8.04 10.6 3.46 1.96
Lomarau (Swintonia foxworthyi Elm.) 19.8 7.92 11.8 2.98 2.18
Mahogany, Big-leafed (Swietenia macrophylla 16.5 4.66 10.5 3.83 2.71
King)
Makaasim (Sysygium nitidum Benth) 20.5 6.72 11.4 3.70 2.40
Malakauayan [Decusocarpus philippinensis (Foxw.) 18.9 6.66 11.12 2.32 2.14
de Laub.]
Narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd) 18.0 5.94 11.4 3.07 1.91
Pahutan (Mangifera spp.) 16.6 6.53 10.0 2.50 2.05
III Medium Strength Group

Apitong (Dipterocarpus spp.) 16.5 7.31 9.56 2.20 1.73
Bagtikan [Parashorea malaanonan (Blanco) Merr.] 16.6 6.48 9.89 2.33 1.82
Dangkalan (Calophyllum spp.) 16.3 6.38 9.20 2.48 1.98
Gisau (Canarium spp.) 14.3 5.33 8.16 1.99 1.90
Lanutan-bagyo [Gonystylus macrophyllum (miq.) 15.0 6.06 8.96 2.02 1.84
Airy Shaw]
Lauan (Shorea spp.) 13.9 5.83 8.18 1.72 1.48
Malaanonang (Shorea spp.) 13.8 5.41 8.54 1.96 1.59
Malasaging (Aglaia spp.) 16.8 5.94 9.51 2.92 1.85
Malugai (Pometia spp) 15.4 6.30 9.33 3.07 2.07
Miau (Dysoxylum spp.) 15.7 6.50 8.83 2.78 2.06
Nato (Palaquium spp.) 16.2 5.56 9.17 2.33 1.98
Palosapis (Anisoptera spp.) 13.8 5.98 8.38 2.73 1.68
Pine (Pinus spp.) 14.7 6.66 8.29 1.88 1.56
Salakin (Aphanamixis spp.) 15.7 5.67 8.83 2.94 1.88

80% Stress Grade

Species Bending and
Modulus of Compression Compression Shear
Tension
(Common and Botanical Names) Parallel to
Elasticity in Parallel to P’pendicular Parallel to
Bending Grain to Grain Grain
Grain
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
x103
MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
Vidal lanutan [Hibiscus campylosiphon Turcz.
var. glabrecens (Har. Ex. Perk.) ] 19.5 5.83 8.54 2.65 2.39
IV Moderately Low Strength Group

Almaciga [Agathis dammara (Lamb.) Rilh.] 11.8 5.47 6.27 1.44 1.47
Bayok (Pterospermum spp.) 12.6 4.75 7.33 1.30 1.20
Lingo-lingo (Vitex turczaninowii Merr.) 13.2 4.13 6.85 2.00 1.66
Mangasinoro (Shorea spp.) 12.8 5.36 7.46 1.97 1.44
Raintree [Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.] 11.9 2.75 7.23 3.32 2.07
Yemane (Gmelina arborea R. Br.) 12.6 4.09 7.87 3.40 1.96
63% Stress Grade

Species Bending And Modulus Of Compression Compression Shear
Tension Elasticity In Parallel To P’pendicular Parallel To
(Common and Botanical Names) Parallel to Bending Grain To Grain Grain
Grain
(1) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
x103
MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
Liusin [Parinari corymbosa (Blume) Miq.] 19.7 7.37 12.3 3.39 2.08
Malabayabas (Tristania spp.) 22.6 6.53 12.5 6.85 2.38
Narig (Vatica spp.) 17.2 6.56 10.8 3.92 2.06
Bkh.]
Yakal (Shorea spp.) 19.3 7.70 12.0 4.94 1.96

Guijo (Shorea spp.) 17.1 6.67 10.4 3.35 1.89
Merr.]
Kato (Amoora spp.) 14.5 6.33 8.34 2.73 1.54
Mahogany, Big-leafed (Swintonia macrophylla 13.0 3.67 8.24 3.01 2.13
King) 16.1 5.29 8.95 2.92 1.89
Makaasim (Sysygium nitidum Benth)
de Laub.]
th
63% Stress Grade

Species Bending And Modulus Of Compression Compression Shear
Tension Elasticity In Parallel To P’pendicular Parallel To
(Common and Botanical Names) Parallel to Bending Grain To Grain Grain
Grain
(1) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
x103
MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
Pahutan (Mangilera spp.) 13.1 5.15 7.88 1.97 1.61

Apitong (Dipterocarpus spp.) 13.0 5.76 7.53 1.73 1.36
Airy Shaw]
Lauan (Shorea spp.) 10.9 4.59 6.44 1.35 1.17
Malugai (Pometia spp.) 12.1 4.96 7.35 2.42 1.63
Pine (Pinus spp.) 11.6 5.24 6.53 1.48 1.23

50% Stress Grade

Species Bending and Modulus of Compression Compression Shear
Tension Elasticity in Parallel to P’pendicular Parallel to
(Common and Botanical Names) Parallel to Bending Grain to Grain Grain
Grain
(1) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)
x103
MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
Liusin [Parinari corymbosa (Blume) Miq.] 15.6 5.85 9376 2.69 1.65
Malabayabas (Tristania spp.) 17.9 5.19 9390 5.44 1.89
Narig (Vatica spp.) 13.6 5.20 8.59 3.11 1.63
Bkh.]
Yakal (Shorea spp.) 15.3 3.11 9.55 3.92 1.55

50% Stress Grade

Species Bending and Modulus of Compression Compression Shear
Tension Elasticity in Parallel to P’pendicular Parallel to
(Common and Botanical Names) Parallel to Bending Grain to Grain Grain
Grain
(1) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)
x103
MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
Guijo (Shorea spp.) 13.6 5.30 8.22 2.66 1.50
Merr.]
Kato (Amoora spp.) 11.5 5.02 6.62 2.17 1.23
Mahogany, Big-leafed (Swintonia macrophylla 10.3 2.91 6.54 2.39 1.69
King)
Makaasim (Sysygium nitidum Benth) 12.8 4.20 7.10 2.31 1.50
de Laub.]
Puhutan (Mangilera spp.) 10.4 4.08 6.25 1.56 1.28

Apitong Dipterocarpus spp.) 10.3 4.57 5.97 1.37 1.08
Airy Shaw]
Lauan (Shorea spp.) 8.68 3.64 5.11 1.07 0.93
Malugai (Pometia spp.) 9.62 3.94 5.83 1.92 1.30
Pine (Pinus spp.) 9.19 4.16 5.18 1.18 0.98

th
Table 6.2 – Grouping of Species for Determining Allowable Loads for Timber Joints
I II III IV
Species Relative Species Relative Species Relative Species Relative
Density Density Density Density
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Malabayabas 0.90 Makaasim 0.74 Malugai 0.61 Lingo-lingo 0.48
Sasalit 0.90 Kamagong 0.72 Dangakalan 0.58 Raintree 0.48
Agoho 0.84 Guijo 0.70 Apitong 0.57 Bayok 0.44
Liusin 0.79 Binggas 0.70 Salakin 0.56 Almaciga 0.42
Yakal 0.76 Katmon 0.68 Pine 0.55 Manggasinoro 0.42
Narig 0.72 Gatasan 0.67 Lanutan-bagyo 0.53 Yemane 0.42
Manggachapui 0.71 Bok-bok 0.64 Miau 0.52
Molave 0.69 Kamatog 0.64 Palosapis 0.52
Lomarau 0.64 Malasaging 0.51
Kato 0.59 Vidal Lanutan 0.50
Pahutan 0.55 Gisau 0.50
Mahogany, big 0.54 Nato 0.49

leaf
Antipolo 0.52 Bagtikan 0.44
Narra 0.52 Malaanonang 0.41
Malakauayan 0.50 Lauan
Dao 0.48
a
See Table 6.35 for Working Stresses for Other Visually Stress-Graded Unseasoned Structural Timber of Philippine Woods.
SOURCE: Philippine Timber Design Standards (J. E. Rocafort and J. O. Siopongco)

November, 1991 (FPRDI Terminal Report)

Table 6.3 – Nailing Schedule

Connection Nailing1
1. Joist to sill or girder, toenail 3-65mm
2. Bridging to joist, toenail each end 2-65mm
3. 25 m x 150 mm subfloor or less to each joist, face nail 2-65mm
4. Wider than 25 mm x 150 mm subfloor to each joist, face 3-65mm
nail
5. 50 mm subfloor to joist or girder, blind and face nail 2-90mm
6. Sole plate to joist or blocking, typical face nail 90mm at 400 mm o.c.
Sole plate to joist or blocking, at braced wall panels 3-90mm per 400 mm
7. Top plate to stud, end nail 2-90mm
8. Stud to sole plate 4-65mm, toenail or 2-90mm, end nail
9. Double studs, face nail 90mm at 600 mm o.c.
10. Doubled top plates, typical face nail 90mm at 400 mm o.c.
Double top plates, lap splice 8-90mm
11. Blocking between joists or rafters to top plate, toenail 3-65mm
12. Rim joist to top plate, toenail 65mm at 150 mm o.c.
13. Top plates, laps and intersections, face nail 2-90mm
14. Continuous header, two pieces 90mm at 400 mm o.c. along each edge
15. Ceiling joists to plate, toenail 3-65mm
16. Continuous header to stud, toenail 4-65mm
17. Ceiling joists, laps over partitions, face nail 3-90mm
18. Ceiling joists to parallel rafters, face nail 3-90mm
19. Rafter to plate, toenail 3-65mm
20. 25 mm brace to each stud and plate, face nail 2-65mm
21. 25 mm x 200 mm sheathing or less to each bearing, face 2-65mm
nail
22. Wider than 25 mm x 200 mm sheathing to each bearing, 3-65mm
face nail
23. Built-up corner studs 90mm at 600 mm o.c.
24. Built-up girder and beams 100mm at 800 mm o.c. at top and bottom
and staggered 2-100mm at ends and at each splice
25. 50 mm planks 2-90mm at each bearing
26. Wood structural panels and particleboard 2:
Subfloor and wall sheathing (to framing):
12 mm and less 50mm 3
16 mm – 20 mm 65mm 4 or 50mm 5
22 mm – 25 mm 65mm 3
28 mm – 32 mm 75mm 4 or 65mm 5
Combination subfloor-underlayment (to framing):
20 mm and less 50mm 5
22 mm – 25 mm 65mm 5
30 mm – 32 mm 75mm 4 or 65mm 5
27. Panel siding (to framing)2:
12 mm or less 50mm 6
16 mm 65mm 6
th
Table 6.3 – Nailing Schedule (Cont’d)

Connection Nailing 1
28. Fiberboard sheathing 7:
12 mm 10mm x 40mm 8
50mm 4
10mm x 30mm 9
20 mm 10mm x 40mm 8
65mm 4
10mm x 30mm 9
29. Interior paneling
6 mm 40mm 10
10 mm 50mm 11
Notes For Table 6.3

1
Common or box nails may be used except where otherwise stated.
2
Nails spaced at 150 mm on center at edges, 300 mm at intermediate supports except 150 mm at all supports where spans are 1200 mm or
more.
For nailing of wood structural panel and particleboard diaphragms and shear walls, refer to Sections 614.3.3 and 614.4. Nails for wall
sheathing may be common, box or casing.
3
Common or deformed shank.
4
Common.
5
Deformed shank.
6
Corrosion-resistant siding or casing nails conforming to the requirements of Section 603.3.
7
Fasteners spaced 75 mm on center at exterior edges and 150 mm on center at intermediate supports.
8
Corrosion-resistant roofing nails with 10 mm head and 40 mm length for 12 mm sheathing and 45 mm length for 20 mm sheathing
conforming to the requirements of Section 603.3.
9
Corrosion-resistant staples with nominal 10 mm crown 30 mm length for 12 mm sheathing and 40 mm length for 20 mm sheathing
conforming to the requirements of Section 603.3.
10
Panel supports at 400 mm (500 mm if strength axis in the long direction of the panel, unless otherwise marked). Casing or finish nails
spaced 150 mm on panel edges, 300 mm at intermediate supports.
11
Panel supports at 600 mm. Casing or finish nails spaced 150 mm on panel edges, 300 mm at intermediate supports.

Table 6.4 – Wood Structural Panel Roof Sheathing Nailing Schedule

ROOF FASTENING ZONE 2
PANEL 1 2 3
WIND REGION NAILS
LOCATION Fastening Schedule
(mm on center)
Greater than 145 Panel edges 3 150 150 100 4
65mm common
kph Panel Field 150 150 150 4
Greater than 129 Panel edges 3 150 150 100
65mm common
kph to 145 kph Panel Field 300 150 150
Panel edges 3 150 150 150
129 kph or less 65mm common
Panel Field 300 300 300
1
Applies only to mean roof heights up to 10.5 m. For mean roof heights over 10.0 m., the nailing shall be designed.
2
The roof fastening zones are shown below:
1.20 m 1.20 m
1.20 m
1.50 m (INCLUDING 0.30 m. OVERHANG)
1 2 2
ROOF RIDGE 3
Roof Fastening Zones

3
Edge spacing also applies over roof framing at gable-end walls.
4
Use 65mm ring-shank nails in this zone if mean roof height is greater than 7.50 m
th
Table 6.5 – Exposed Plywood Panel Siding

Stud Spacing
Minimum Thickness1 Minimum Number of Plies Plywood Siding Applied Directly to
Studs or Over Sheathing
10 mm 3 400 2
12 mm 4 600
1
Thickness of grooved panels is measured at bottom of grooves.
2
May be 600 mm if plywood siding applied with face grain perpendicular to studs or over one of the following: (1) 25 mm board
sheathing, (2) 10 mm wood structural panel sheathing or (3) 10 mm wood structural panel sheathing with strength axis (which is the
long direction of the panel unless otherwise marked) of sheathing perpendicular to studs.
Table 6.6 – Wood Shingle and Shake Side Wall Exposures

Shingle or Shake Maximum Weather Exposures (mm)
Single-Coursing Double-Coursing
Length and Type
No. 1 No. 2 No. 1 No. 2
400 mm shingles 180 180 300 250
450mm shingles 210 210 350 275
600 mm shingles 290 290 400 350
450 mm resawn shakes 180 - 350 -
450mm straight-split
180 - 400 -
shakes
600 mm resawn shakes 290 - 500 -
Table 6.7 – Allowable Spans for Exposed Particleboard Panel Siding

Minimum Thickness
Grade Stud Spacing Siding Exterior Ceilings and
Soffits
Direct to Studs Continuous Support Direct to Supports
M-1 400 16 mm 10 mm 10 mm
M-S
M-2 “Exterior Glue” 600 16 mm 10 mm 10 mm

Table 6.8 – Hardboard Siding

Minimal Framing Nail Size NAIL SPACING
1, 2
Nominal (50mm x 100mm) General Bracing Panels 3
SIDING Thickness Maximum Spacing (mm)
(mm)
1. Lap Siding
Direct to Studs 10 400 mm o.c. 65 400 mm o.c. Not applicable
Over Sheathing 10 400 mm o.c. 75 400 mm o.c. Not applicable
2. Square Edge Panel Siding
150 mm o.c.
100 mm o.c. edges;
edges; 300 mm
200 mm o.c.
Direct to Studs 10 600 mm o.c. 50 o.c. at
intermediate
intermediate
supports
supports
150 mm o.c.
100 mm o.c. edges;
edges; 300 mm
200 mm o.c.
Over Sheathing 10 600 mm o.c. 65 o.c. at
intermediate
intermediate
supports
supports
3. Shiplap Edge Panel Siding
150 mm o.c.
100 mm o.c. edges;
edges; 300 mm
200 mm o.c.
Direct to Studs 10 400 mm o.c. 50 o.c. at
intermediate
intermediate
supports
supports
150 mm o.c.
100 mm o.c. edges;
edges; 300 mm
200 mm o.c.
Over Sheathing 10 400 mm o.c. 65 o.c. at
intermediate
intermediate
supports
supports
1
Nails shall be corrosion resistant in accordance with Section 619.
2
Minimum acceptable nail dimensions (mm).
Panel Siding (mm) Lap Siding (mm)

Shank diameter 2.5 2..5
Head diameter 6.0 6.0
3
When used to comply with Section 620.10.3.
Table 6.9 - Allowable Spans for Lumber Floor and Roof Sheathing 1, 2
Minimum Net Thickness (mm) of Lumber Placed
Span Perpendicular to Supports Diagonally to Supports
Surfaced Dry 3 Surfaced Unseasoned Surfaced Dry 3 Surfaced Unseasoned
Floors
1. 600 20 20 20 20
2. 400 16 16 1 16
Roofs
3. 600 16 16 16 20
1
Installation details shall conform to Section 620.8.1 and 620.11.7 for floor and roof sheathing, respectively.
2
Floor or roof sheathing conforming with this table shall be deemed to meet the design criteria of Section 620.10.11.
3
Maximum 19 percent moisture content.
th
Table 6.10 - Allowable Spans and Loads for Wood Structural Panel Sheathing and Single-Floor Grades Continuous
Over Two or More Spans with Strength Axis Perpendicular to Supports 1, 2
Sheathing Grades Roof 3 Floor 4
Panel Span
Maximum Span (mm) Load 5 (kN/m2)
Rating Panel Thickness Maximum Span
Roof/Floor (mm) With Edge Without Edge (mm)
Total Load Live Load
Span (mm/mm) Support 6 Support
300/0 8 300 300 1.92 1.44 0
400/0 8, 9 400 400 1.92 1.44 0
500/0 8, 9 500 500 1.92 1.44 0
600/0 10, 12 600 5007 1.92 1.44 0
600/400 12 600 600 2.40 1.92 400
800/400 12, 16 800 700 1.92 1.44 400 8
1000/500 16, 20, 22 1000 800 1.92 1.44 500 8, 9
1200/600 20, 22 1200 900 2.16 1.68 600
1350/800 22, 25 1350 1000 2.16 1.68 800
1500/1200 22, 25, 30 1500 1200 2.16 1.68 1200
Single-Floor Grades Roof 3 Floor 4
Panel Span
Maximum Span (mm) Load 5 (kN/m2)
Rating (mm) Panel Thickness Maximum Span
Roof/Floor (mm) With Edge Without Edge (mm)
Total Load Live Load
Span Support 6 Support
400 o.c. 12, 16 600 600 2.40 1.92 400
500 o.c. 16, 20 800 800 1.92 1.44 500
600 o.c. 20 1200 900 1.68 1.20 600
800 o.c. 22 1200 1000 2.40 1.92 800
1200 o.c. 28, 30 1500 1200 2.40 2.40 1200
1
Applies to panels 600 mm or wider.
2
Floor and roof sheathing conforming with this table shall be deemed to meet the design criteria of Section 6.11.
3
Uniform load deflection limitations 1/180 of span under live load plus dead load, 1/240 under live load only.
4
Panel edges shall have approved tongue-and-groove joints or shall be supported with blocking unless 6 mm minimum thickness
underlayment or 40 mm of approved cellular or lightweight concrete is placed over the subfloor, or finish floor is 20 mm wood strip.
Allowable uniform load based on deflection of 1/360 of span is 4.8 kN/m2 except the span rating of 1200 mm on center is based on a total
load of 3.10 kN/m.
5
Allowable load at maximum span.
6
Tongue-and-groove edges, panel edge clips (one midway between each support, except two equally spaced between supports 1200 mm
on center), lumber blocking, or other. Only lumber blocking shall satisfy blocked diaphragms requirements.
7
For 12 mm panel, maximum span shall be 600 mm.
8
May be 600 mm on center where 20 mm wood strip flooring is installed at right angles to joist.
9
May be 600 mm on center for floors where 40 mm of cellular or lightweight concrete is applied over the panels.

Table 6.11 - Allowable Loads for Wood Structural Panel Roof Sheathing Continuous
Over Two or More Spans and Strength Axis Parallel to Supports
(Plywood structural panels are five-ply, five-layer unless otherwise noted) 1, 2
Maximum Span Load at Maximum Span (kN/m2)
Panel Grade Thickness (mm)
(mm) Live Total
Structural 1 12 600 0.96 1.44
12 600 1.68 3 2.16 3
12 600 1.92 3 2.40 3
16 600 3.35 3.83
20 600 4.31 4.79
Other Grades Covered in 12 400 1.92 2.40
UBC Standard 23-2 or 23-3 12 600 0.96 1.20
12 600 1.20 1.44
UBC Standard 23-2 or 23-3 16 600 1.92 3 2.40 3
16 600 2.16 3 2.63 3
3
20 600 2.87 3.11 3
1
Roof sheathing conforming with this table shall be deemed to meet the design criteria of Section 6.11.
2
Uniform load deflection limitations: 1/180 of span under live load plus dead load, 1/240 under live load only. Edges shall be blocked
with lumber or other approved type of edge supports
3
For composite and four-ply plywood structural panel, load shall be reduced by 0.72 kN/m2.
Table 6.12 - Allowable Span for Wood Structural Panel Combination Subfloor-Underfloor-Underlayment
(Single Floor) 1, 2
Panels Continuous over Two or More Spans and Strength Axis Perpendicular to Supports
Maximum Spacing of Joists (mm)
Identification
400 500 600 800 1200
Species Group3 Thickness (mm)
1 12 16 20 - -
2, 3 16 20 22 - -
4 20 22 25 - -
Span rating4 400 o.c. 500 o.c. 600 o.c. 800 o.c. 1200 o.c.
1
Spans limited to value shown because of possible effects of concentrated loads. Allowable uniform loads based on deflection of 1/360 of
span is 4.8 kN/m2, except allowable total uniform load for 30 mm wood structural panels over joists spaced 1200 mm on center is 3.1
kN/m2. Panel edges shall have approved tongue-and-groove joints or shall be supported with blocking, unless 6 mm minimum thickness
underlayment or 38 mm of approved cellular or lightweight concrete is placed over the subfloor, or finish floor is 20 mm wood strip.
2
Floor panels conforming with this table shall be deemed to meet the design criteria of Section 611.
3
Applicable to all grades of sanded exterior-type plywood. See UBC Standard 23-2 for plywood species groups.
4
Applicable to underlayment grade and C-C (plugged) plywood, and single floor grade wood structural panels.
th
Table 6.13 – Allowable Spans for Particleboard Subfloor and Combined Subfloor-Underlayment 1,2
Maximum Spacing of Supports (mm) 3
Grade Thickness (mm)
Subfloor Combined Subfloor-Underlayment 4, 5
12 400 -
2-M-W 16 500 400
20 600 600
2-M-3 20 500 500
1
All panels are continuous over two or more spans.
2
Floor sheathing conforming with this table shall be deemed to meet the design criteria of Section 6.11.
3
Uniform deflection limitation: 1/360 of the span under 4.8 kN/m2 minimum load.
4
Edges shall have tongue-and-groove joints or shall be supported with blocking. The tongue-and-groove panels are installed with the
long dimension perpendicular to supports.
5
A finish wearing surface is to be applied to the top of the panel.
Table 6.14 – Maximum Diaphragm Dimension Ratios

Hortizontal Diaphragms Vertical Diaphragms
Material Maximum Maximum
Span-Width Ratios Height-Width Ratios
1. Diagonal sheathing, conventional 3:1 1:1 1
2. Diagonal sheathing, special 4:1 2:1 2
3. Wood structural panels and particleboard, nailed all edges 4:1 2:1 2
3
4. Wood structural panels and particleboard, blocking omitted at 4:1
intermediate joints.
1
In Seismic Zone 2, the maximum ratio may be 2:1.
2
In Seismic Zone 2, the maximum ratio may be 3½:1.
3
Not permitted.

Table 6.15 - Limits of Defects by Grade in Joists and Planks for Seasoned Wood
Stress Grade Stress Grade Stress Grade
Kind of Defects 80% 63% 50%
A. Natural Defects
Worm holes, average diameter

1.
(maximum allowable size in mm)
a. Individual Not permitted 2 6

b. Quantity limitation Not permitted Not clustered Not clustered
Slope of Grain (maximum variation in
2. mm from longitudinal axis per 300 20 25 32
mm within middle half of length)
3. Checks and Shakes
Size of each check and shake, or
if in combination, the sum of
the sizes of all checks and 3
a. ¼ of thickness ¼ of thickness /8 of thickness
shakes within middle half of
depth of the piece shall not
exceed:
End penetration: Checks and
splits at the middle half of the
3
b. depth of the piece shall not ¼ of thickness ¼ of thickness /8 of thickness
extend a distance greater greater
than:
Knots (Maximum allowable size of individual Narrow Narrow Narrow
knot in mm 1) face on face on face on
edge of edge of edge of
Along
wide face Along wide face Along wide face
center line
within the center line within the center line within the of wide
middle of wide middle of wide middle
face
third of face third of face third of
length of length of length of
Nominal width of face, in mm piece piece piece
50 6 12 20
75 12 20 25
100 20 20 25 40 40 38
125 25 25 30 40 50 50
150 30 30 45 50 60 60
200 35 40 50 60 70 75
250 40 50 55 80 80 100
300 45 55 65 90 90 110
350 50 65 70 100 95 125
400 50 70 75 100 100 125
450 and over 50 75 75 100 100 125
1
The size of knots on the narrow face within the middle third of length may be increased proportionately towards the ends
of the piece of twice the size permitted on the narrow face but not to exceed that allowable along the center line of the
wide face. The size of knots on the edge of wide face within the middle third of length may be increased proportionately
towards the center of the wide face and towards the ends of the piece to the size permitted along the center line of the wide
face. The sum of the sizes of all knots in any 150 mm of length of the piece shall not exceed twice the maximum
permissible size of knots. Two knots of maximum shall not be allowed in the same 150 mm of length on any face. Cluster
knots and knots in group shall not be permitted.
th
Table 6.15 - Limits of Defects by Grade in Joists and Planks for Seasoned Wood
Kind of Defects Stress Grade Stress Grade Stress Grade
80% 63% 50%
B. Handling, Manufacture or Processing Defects
1. Wane (maximum allowable size in mm)
Nominal face dimension in mm
50 3 12 12
75 3 12 12
100 6 15 15
125 6 15 15
150 10 20 20
200 12 22 25
250 15 25 30
300 18 28 38
350 20 38 45
400 25 45 50
450 and over 30 50 55
2. Torn grain (allowable depth in mm) 2 2 3
3. Skips, allowable size not to exceed:
surface area
(Width mm x length) width x 100 width x 100 width x 100
Depth mm 1 2 3
Quantity 1 skip per 5 m or 1 skip per 5 m or 1 skip per 5 m or
shorter length shorter length shorter length

Table 6.16 – Wood Screws-Allowable Loads in Seasoned Wood-Normal Duration
Withdrawal Load from Side Grain per 25 mm of Penetration of Lateral Load in Side
Screw Size Threaded Portion, (N) Grain, (N)
Species Group Species Group

Gage
Diameter
(mm) I II III IV I II III IV
24 9.5 2695 1985 1370 950 3100 2665 2190 1825
20 8.0 2315 1710 1180 820 2295 1970 1620 1350
18 7.5 2130 1570 1085 750 1935 1665 1370 1140
16 7.0 1940 1430 985 685 1610 1380 1135 945
14 6.0 1750 1290 890 620 1315 1130 925 770
12 5.5 1565 1155 795 550 1045 900 740 615
10 5.0 1375 1015 700 485 810 695 570 475
9 4.5 1280 945 650 450 700 605 495 415
8 4.0 1185 875 605 420 605 520 425 355
7 3.8 1095 805 555 385 510 440 360 300
6 3.5 1000 735 510 355 425 365 300 250

th
Table 6.17 - Allowable Loads in kN on One Bolt in Seasoned Wood Load at Both Ends
(Double Shear) Normal Duration
Species Group (Refer to listing in Table 6.2)
I II III IV
Length of Diameter
Bolt in of Bolt Parallel Perpendi- Parallel Perpendi- Parallel Perpendi- Parallel Perpendi-
Main d to Grain cular to to Grain cular to to Grain cular to to Grain cular to
Member (mm) Grain Grain Grain Grain
L P Q P Q P Q P Q
(mm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
12 7.08 3.76 4.86 1.98 4.20 2.07 3.26 1.82
16 8.75 4.19 6.01 2.21 5.20 2.30 4.01 2.02
40 20 11.0 4.85 7.55 2.56 6.53 2.67 5.02 2.35
22 12.1 5.04 8.30 2.66 7.19 2.77 5.52 2.43
25 13.7 5.47 9.43 2.89 8.16 3.01 6.27 2.64
12 8.38 4.70 5.75 2.48 4.98 2.59 3.99 2.27
16 10.8 5.23 7.42 2.76 6.43 2.88 5.00 2.53
50 20 13.7 6.07 9.38 3.20 8.12 3.34 6.27 2.93
22 15.1 6.30 10.3 3.32 8.95 3.46 6.90 3.04
25 17.2 6.83 11.8 3.61 10.2 3.76 7.84 3.30
12 9.29 6.11 6.38 3.23 5.52 3.36 4.68 2.95
16 13.0 6.80 8.95 3.59 7.74 3.74 6.29 3.29
65 20 17.4 7.89 11.9 4.16 10.3 4.34 8.10 3.84
22 19.3 8.19 13.2 4.32 11.4 4.50 8.97 3.96
25 22.2 8.88 15.2 4.69 13.2 4.89 10.2 4.29
12 9.35 6.84 6.42 3.61 5.56 3.76 4.79 3.30
16 13.8 7.85 9.48 4.14 8.21 4.32 6.85 3.79
75 20 19.4 9.10 13.3 4.81 11.5 5.01 9.22 4.40
22 21.9 9.45 15.0 4.99 13.0 5.20 10.2 4.56
25 25.5 10.2 17.5 5.41 15.2 5.64 11.8 4.95
12 9.41 7.14 6.45 3.77 5.59 3.93 4.84 3.45
16 14.1 8.37 9.66 4.42 8.36 4.61 7.09 4.05
80 20 20.3 9.71 14.0 5.13 12.1 5.34 9.77 4.69
22 22.9 10.1 15.7 5.32 13.6 5.54 10.9 4.87
25 26.9 10.9 18.4 5.77 16.0 6.01 12.5 5.28
12 9.39 7.42 6.44 3.92 5.58 4.08 4.84 3.59
16 14.3 9.20 9.79 4.86 8.48 5.06 7.28 4.45
90
20 21.3 10.9 14.6 5.77 12.7 6.04 10.5 5.28
22 24.9 11.3 17.1 5.98 14.8 6.24 12.0 5.48
25 29.4 12.3 20.2 6.49 17.5 6.77 13.9 5.94
100 12 9.40 7.40 6.45 3.91 5.58 4.07 4.84 3.58
16 14.2 9.84 9.78 5.19 8.47 5.41 7.34 4.76
20 22.0 12.1 15.1 6.41 13.1 6.68 11.1 5.87
22 25.9 12.6 17.8 6.65 15.4 7.35 12.8 6.45
25 31.8 13.7 21.8 7.21 18.9 7.52 15.3 6.60
12 9.38 6.92 6.44 3.65 5.57 3.81 4.83 3.34
16 14.2 10.1 9.77 5.33 8.46 5.56 7.33 4.89
20 22.3 14.3 15.3 7.53 13.2 7.85 11.5 6.89
125
22 26.90 15.3 18.5 8.10 16.0 8.44 13.8 7.42
25 34.4 17.1 23.6 9.02 20.4 9.40 17.3 8.26
28 41.8 18.5 28.7 9.78 24.8 10.2 20.5 8.95

SPECIES GROUP (Refer to listing in Table 6.2)

I II III IV
Length of Diameter
Bolt in of Bolt Parallel to Perpendi- Parallel to Perpendi- Parallel to Perpendi- Parallel to Perpendi-
Main d Grain cular to Grain cular to Grain cular to Grain cular to
L P Q P Q P Q P Q
(mm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
12 9.38 6.92 6.44 3.65 5.57 3.81 4.83 3.34
16 14.2 10.1 9.77 5.33 8.46 5.56 7.33 4.89
140 20 22.3 14.3 15.3 7.53 13.2 7.85 11.5 6.89
22 26.90 15.3 18.5 8.10 16.0 8.44 13.8 7.42
25 34.4 17.1 23.6 9.02 20.4 9.40 17.3 8.26
28 41.8 18.5 28.7 9.78 24.8 10.2 20.5 8.95
150 16 14.2 9.59 9.76 5.06 8.45 5.28 7.33 4.64
20 22.3 14.7 15.3 7.78 13.2 8.11 11.5 7.13
22 26.9 16.7 18.5 8.84 16.0 9.21 13.8 8.09
25 34.6 19.7 23.8 10.4 20.6 10.9 17.8 9.54
28 43.5 21.9 29.9 11.6 25.9 12.1 22.1 10.6
16 14.2 8.84 9.72 4.66 8.42 4.86 7.32 4.27
20 22.2 14.1 15.2 7.45 13.2 7.76 11.4 6.82
180 22 26.9 16.6 18.5 8.75 16.0 9.12 13.9 8.01
25 34.8 20.8 23.9 11.0 20.6 11.4 17.9 10.0
28 43.7 24.6 30.0 13.0 25.9 13.5 22.5 11.9
16 14.2 8.59 9.75 4.54 8.44 4.73 7.30 4.15
20 22.2 13.8 15.3 7.30 13.2 7.61 11.4 6.69
190 22 26.9 16.3 18.5 8.63 16.0 8.99 13.9 7.90
25 34.8 20.7 23.9 10.9 20.7 11.4 17.9 10.0
28 43.6 25.0 29.9 13.2 25.9 13.8 22.5 12.1
16 14.2 8.37 9.90 4.42 8.44 4.61 7.30 4.05
20 22.2 13.5 15.2 7.13 13.2 7.40 11.4 6.50
200 22 26.8 16.1 18.4 8.48 16.0 8.84 13.9 7.77
25 34.6 20.5 23.8 10.8 20.6 11.3 17.8 9.91
28 43.6 25.3 29.9 13.3 25.9 13.9 22.4 12.2
20 22.2 12.7 15.2 6.69 13.2 6.97 11.4 6.12
22 26.8 15.1 18.4 7.98 15.9 8.32 13.9 7.31
230 25 34.7 19.7 23.8 10.4 20.6 10.9 17.9 9.54
28 43.5 24.8 29.9 13.1 25.9 13.7 22.5 12.0
32 56.8 31.9 39.0 16.8 33.8 17.5 29.3 15.4
20 22.2 12.4 15.2 6.54 13.2 6.81 11.4 5.98
22 26.8 14.8 18.4 7.83 16.0 8.15 13.8 7.16
240 25 34.7 19.4 23.8 10.2 20.6 10.7 17.9 9.37
28 43.6 24.6 29.9 13.0 25.9 13.5 22.5 11.9
32 57.0 31.9 39.1 16.8 33.9 17.5 29.4 15.4
22 26.8 14.4 18.4 7.61 15.9 7.93 13.8 6.97
25 34.7 18.8 23.8 9.93 20.6 10.4 17.9 9.09
260
28 43.5 24.0 29.8 12.7 25.8 13.2 22.4 11.6
32 56.7 31.5 38.9 16.6 33.7 17.3 29.2 15.2
th
SPECIES GROUP (Refer to listing in Table 6.2)

I II III IV
Length of Diameter
Bolt in of Bolt Parallel to Perpendi- Parallel to Perpendi- Parallel to Perpendi- Parallel to Perpendi-
Main d Grain cular to Grain cular to Grain cular to Grain cular to
L P Q P Q P Q P Q
(mm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
25 34.6 18.1 23.8 9.53 20.6 9.94 17.9 8.73
280 28 43.4 23.0 29.9 12.1 25.8 12.6 22.4 11.1
32 56.9 30.8 39.0 16.3 33.8 17.0 29.3 14.9
25 34.7 17.8 23.8 9.39 20.6 9.79 17.9 8.60
290 28 43.5 22.7 29.9 12.0 25.9 12.5 22.4 11.0
32 56.8 30.4 39.0 16.1 33.7 16.7 29.3 14.7
25 34.7 17.3 23.8 9.13 20.6 9.51 17.8 8.36
305 28 43.4 22.2 29.8 11.7 25.8 12.2 22.4 10.7
32 56.8 29.8 39.0 15.8 33.8 16.4 29.3 14.4

Table 6.18 - Allowable Loads in Seasoned Wood (Normal Duration) for One Shear-Plate Unit and Bolt in Single Shear
Loaded Parallel to
Loaded Perpendicular to Grain (90o)
Number Grain (0o)
of Face of Allowable Load per Allowable Load per
Shear Net Minimum
Bolt Piece Connector Unit and Edge Distance (mm) Connector Unit and Bolt
Plate Thickness Edge
diam. with Bolt (kN) (kN)
diam. of Lumber Distance
(mm) Connec- Species Group Species Group
(mm) (mm) (mm) Unloaded
tors of Loaded-
Same Edge
I II III Edge I II III
Bolt (min.)
40 45
1 14.01 11.70 10.10 8.140 6.761 5.872
minimum minimum
70 or
9.830 8.184 7.072
more
40 45
2 10.90 9.074 7.828 6.316 5.293 4.537
minimum minimum
65 20 45 45
70 or
7.651 6.361 5.471
more
45 or
7.605 6.405 5.516
more
70 or
50 13.26 11.03 9.519 9.296 7.740 6.672
more
45
8.140 6.761 5.871
minimum
65 & 70 or
14.01 11.70 10.10 9.830 8.184 7.072
thicker more
40 70
19.75 16.46 14.19 11.480 9.563 8.229
minimum minimum
95 or
1 13.830 11.52 9.964
more
70
12.280 10.23 8.807
minimum
45 & 95 or 10.68
21.17 17.66 15.21 14.810 12.37
thicker more 0
45 70
14.10 11.74 10.14 8.184 6.805 5.871
minimum minimum
95 or
9.875 8.229 7.117
more
70
50 15.75 13.12 11.30 9.118 7.606 6.583
minimum
95 or
11.030 9.163 7.917
more
70
10.720 8.940 7.695
minimum
95 or
2 65 18.46 15.39 13.25 70 12.940 10.760 9.296
more
100 20 70 70
11.650 9.697 8.362
minimum
1 50
75 20.10 16.72 14.46 95 or 14.060 11.740 10.10
more 0
70 12.280 10.230 8.807
minimum
90 & 21.17 17.66 15.21 95 or 14.810 12.370 10.68
thicker more 0
40 19.57 16.46 14.19 70 11.480 9.563 8.229
minimum minimum
95 or 13.830 11.520 9.964
more
70 12.010 10.230 8.807
minimum
th
Loaded Parallel to
Number Grain (0o)
of Face of Allowable Load per Allowable Load per
Shear Net Minimum
Bolt Piece Connector Unit and Edge Distance (mm) Connector Unit and Bolt
Plate Thickness Edge
diam. with Bolt (kN) (kN)
diam. of Lumber Distance
(mm) Connec- Species Group Species Group
(mm) (mm) (mm) Unloaded
tors of Loaded-
Same Edge
I II III Edge I II III
Bolt (min.)
45 & 21.17 17.66 15.21 95 or 14.810 12.370 10.68

thicker more 0
45 14.10 11.74 10.14 70 8.184 6.805 5.918

minimum minimum
95 or 9.875 8.229 7.117
more
50 & 16.19 13.12 11.30 70 9.118 7.606 6.583
thicker minimum
95 or 11.030 9.163 7.917
more
100 22 2 65 70 18.46 15.39 13.26 70 70 10.720 8.940 7.695
minimum minimum
95 or 12.940 10.760 9.296
more
75 & 20.10 16.72 14.46 70 11.650 9.697 8.362
thicker minimum
95 or 14.060 11.740 10.10
more 0
90 21.17 17.66 15.21 70 12.280 10.230 8.807
minimum minimum
95 or 14.810 12.370 10.68
more

Table 6.19 - Allowable Loads in Seasoned Wood (Normal Duration) for One Toothed-Ring Unit and Bolt in Single Shear
Loaded Parallel to
Number Loaded Perpendicular to Grain (90o)
Grain (0o)
of Face
Toothed Net Thick- Minimum
Bolt of Piece Allowable Load per Allowable Load per
Ring ness of Edge
diam. with Connector Unit and Edge Distance (mm) Connector Unit and Bolt
diam. Lumber Distance
(mm) Connec- Bolt (kN) (kN)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
tors of Species Group Unloaded Species Group
Same Loaded-
Edge
Bolt I II III Edge I II III
(minimum)
32
1 25 minimum 5.338 4.804 4.181 3.203 3.203 2.758
minimum
50 or more 3.647 3.647 3.158
32
40 & thicker 5.871 5.293 4.581 3.514 3.514 3.069
minimum
50 or more 4.003 4.003 3.469
50 12 2 32 32
32
40 minimum 5.338 4.804 4.181 3.203 3.203 2.758
minimum
50 or more 3.647 3.647 3.158
32
50 & thicker 5.871 5.293 4.581 3.514 3.514 3.069
minimum
50 or more 4.003 4.003 3.469
45
25 minimum 8.006 7.206 6.227 4.804 4.804 4.181
minimum
60 or more 5.471 5.471 4.759
45
40 & thicker 10.01 8.985 7.823 6.005 6.005 5.204
minimum
60 or more 6.805 6.805 5.916
45
4.804 4.804 4.181
minimum
65 16 2 40 minimum 45 8.006 7.206 6.227 45 60 or more 5.471 5.471 4.759
45
50 8.852 7.962 6.894 5.293 5.293 4.581
minimum
60 or more 6.716 6.049 5.249

45 6.672 6.005 5.204
minimum
1 65 & thicker 10.01 8.985 7.828 60 or more 7.562 6.805 5.916
25 minimum 10.41 9.385 8.140 55 6.939 6.227 5.427
minimum
80 or more 8.229 7.428 6.450
1 55 9.385 8.451 7.295
minimum
40 & thicker 14.06 12.63 10.94 80 or more 11.120 10.010 8.674
55 6.939 6.227 5.427

85 20 2 55 55
minimum
40 minimum 10.41 9.385 8.140 80 or more 8.229 7.428 6.450
th
Table 6.19 – (continued)

Loaded Parallel to
Number Loaded Perpendicular to Grain (90o)
Grain (0o)
of Face Net
Toothed Minimum
Bolt of Piece Thick- Allowable Load per
Ring Edge Allowable Load per
diam. with ness of Connector Unit and Edge Distance (mm)
diam. Distance Connector Unit and Bolt (kN)
(mm) Connec- Lumber Bolt (kN)
(mm) (mm)
tors of (mm) Species Group Unloaded Species Group
Same Loaded-
Edge
Bolt I II III Edge I II III
(minimum)
50 11.39 10.27 8.896 80 or more 9.029 8.095 7.028

55 8.718 7.828 6.805
minimum
65 13.03 11.74 10.19 80 or more 10.320 9.296 8.051
55 9.385 8.451 7.295
minimum
75 & 14.06 12.63 10.94 80 or more 11.120 10.010 8.674
thicker
70 8.362 7.517 6.494
minimum
1 25 12.54 11.30 9.786 95 or more 10.050 9.029 7.828
minimum
70 10.850 9.786 8.451
minimum
40 & 16.32 14.68 12.72 95 or more 13.030 11.743 10.19
thicker
100 20 70 70
70 8.362 7.517 6.494
minimum
2 40 12.54 11.30 9.786 90 or more 10.050 9.029 7.828
minimum
70 9.029 8.139 7.072

minimum
50 13.57 12.19 10.59 95 or more 10.850 9.786 8.451
70 10.190 9.163 7.962

minimum
65 15.30 13.74 11.92 95 or more 12.230 10.990 9.519
75& 16.32 14.68 12.72 70 10.850 9.700 8.451

thicker minimum
95 or more 13.030 11.740 10.19

Table 6.20 - Allowable Loads in Seasoned Wood (Normal Duration) for One Split-Ring Unit and Bolt in Single Shear
Loaded Parallel to Grain
(0o)
No. of Allowable Load per Allowable Load Per
Face of Connector Unit and Bolt Edge distance (mm) Connector Unit And Bolt
Net
Split Piece Min. (kN) (kN)
Bolt Thick-
Ring with Edge Species Group Species Group
Diam. ness of
Diam. Connec- Distance Unloaded
(mm) Lumber Loaded-
(mm) tors of (mm) Edge
(mm) I II III Edge I II III
Same (Min.)
Bolt
25
1 11.03 9.252 7.962 45 minimum 6.583 5.471 4.715
minimum
70 or more 7.784 6.494 5.560
40 &
13.25 11.12 9.519 45 minimum 7.873 6.583 5.649
thicker
70 or more 9.385 7.784 6.672
64 12 45 45
40
2 11.03 9.252 7.962 45 minimum 6.583 5.471 4.715
minimum
70 or more 7.784 6.494 5.560
50 &
13.25 11.12 9.519 45 minimum 7.872 6.583 5.649
thicker
70 or more 9.385 7.784 6.672
25
1 17.03 14.19 12.23 70 70 minimum 9.875 8.229 7.117
minimum
95 or more 11.830 9.875 8.496
40 &
25.53 21.26 18.37 70 minimum 14.810 12.320 10.630
thicker
95 or more 17.790 14.810 12.770
40
100 20 2 70 17.92 14.90 12.90 70 minimum 10.360 8.629 7.473
minimum
95 or more 12.450 10.360 8.985
50 20.599 17.17 14.81 70 minimum 11.970 9.963 8.585
95 or more 14.320 11.970 10.320
66 25.04 20.90 18.06
70 minimum 14.540 12.100 10.450
95 or more 17.440 14.540 12.540
75 &
25.53 21.26 18.37 70 minimum 14.810 12.320 10.630
thicker
95 or more 17.790 14.810 12.770
th
Table 6.21 - Common Wire Nails and Spikes-Allowable Loads in Seasoned Wood-Normal Duration
Size of Nail or Spike (mm) Withdrawal Load from Side Grain per Lateral Load in Side Grain, (N)
25 mm of Penetration of Nail or Spike
into the Member Holding the Point (N)
Designation Length Diameter Species Group Species Group
(mm) (mm) I II III IV
I II III IV
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
N 150 150 6.5 805 550 340 215 1320 1135 930 775
125 140 6.0 750 510 315 200 1180 1010 830 695
A 110 125 5.75 690 470 290 180 1045 895 735 615
105 115 5.25 685 435 265 170 920 790 650 540
I 100 100 4.75 590 400 245 155 825 705 580 485
90 90 4.00 495 340 210 130 640 550 450 375
L 75 75 3.75 455 310 190 120 555 480 395 330
65 65 3.25 400 275 170 105 465 400 325 275
S 50 50 3.00 345 235 145 90 370 320 260 220
S 3/8 215 9.5 1035 705 435 275 2020 1735 1425 1190
3/8 180 8.0 860 590 360 230 1535 1320 1085 905
P 150 150 7.0 780 535 325 205 1325 1140 935 780
140 140 7.0 780 536 325 205 1325 1140 935 780
I 125 125 6.75 725 495 305 195 1185 1020 840 700
110 115 6.0 675 460 280 180 1060 910 750 625
K 100 100 5.75 620 425 260 165 940 805 665 555
90 90 5.25 570 390 240 150 830 710 585 490
E 80 80 5.0 530 360 220 140 740 635 525 435
S 75 75 5.0 530 360 220 140 740 635 525 435


Table 6.22 - Allowable Spans for 50 mm Tongue and Groove Decking

SPAN1 LIVE LOAD f E
(mm) (kN/m2) DEFLECTION LIMIT
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
Roofs
1/240 1171.30
0.958 1.102
1/360 1763.84
1/240 1763.84
1200 1.437 1.447
1/360 2645.76
1/240 2342.60
1.916 1.860
1/360 3527.68
1/240 1667.38
0.958 1.378
1/360 2101.45
1/240 2501.07
1350 1.437 1.860
1/360 2790.45
1/240 3334.76
1.916 2.412
1/360 4995.25
1/240 2287.48
0.958 1.722
1/360 3445.00
1/240 3410.55
1500 1.437 2.274
1/360 5112.38
1/240 4547.40
1.916 2.894
1/360 6890.00
1/240 3045.38
0.958 2.067
1/360 4547.40
1/240 4561.18
1650 1.437 2.756
1/360 6876.22
1/240 6090.76
1.916 3.445
1/360 9163.70
1/240 3961.75
0.958 2.480
1/360 5939.18
1/240 5939.18
1800 1.437 3.307
1/360 8922.55
1/240 7923.50
1.916 4.143
1/360 11919.70
1/240 4099.55
0.958 2.894
1/360 6145.88
1/240 6145.88
1950 1.437 3.858
1/360 9232.60
1/240 8199.10
1.916 4.823
1/360 11919.70
1/240 6269.90
0.958 3.376
1/360 9370.40
1/240 9439.30
2100 1.437 4.478
1/360 13780.00
1/240 12539.80
1.916 5.581
1/360 18775.25
1/240 7751.25
0.958 3.858
1/360 11609.65
1/240 11609.65
2250 1.437 5.168
1/360 17431.70
1/240 15502.50
1.916 6.408
1/360 23288.2
1/240 9370.40
0.958 4.410
1/360 14055.60
2400
1/240 14055.60
1.437 5.856
1/360 21083.40
th
Table 6.22 - Allowable Spans for 50 mm Tongue and Groove Decking (Cont’d)
Floors
1200 5.788 6890.00

1350 1.916 1/360 6.546 8957.00
1500 7.303 11024.00
1
Spans are based on simple beam action with 0.50 kN/m2 dead load and provisions for a 1300 N concentrated load on a 300 mm width of floor
decking. Random lay-up permitted in accordance with the provisions of Section 620.8.3 or 620.10.11.9. Lumber thickness assumed at 40 mm, net.

Table 6.23 - Size, Height and Spacing of Woods Studs

Bearing Walls Non-Bearing Walls
Supporting Supporting
Laterally Supporting Laterally
One Floor, Two Floors,
Unsupported Roof and Unsupported Spacing
Stud Size Roof and Roof and
Stud Height 1 Ceiling Only Stud Height 1
Ceiling Ceiling
(mm) (mm) Spacing (mm) (mm) (mm)
50 x 75 2 - - - - 3000 400
50 x 100 250 600 400 - 4200 600
75 x 100 250 600 600 400 4200 600
50 x 125 250 600 600 - 4800 600
50 x 150 250 600 600 400 6000 600
1
Listed heights are distances between points of lateral support placed perpendicular to the plane of the wall. Increases in unsupported height are
permitted where justified by an analysis.
2
Shall not be used in exterior walls.
Table 6.24 – Braced Wall Panels 1

Seismic Condition Construction Method 2, 3 Braced Panel Location and
Zone 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Length 4
2 One-story, top of two or X X X X X X X X Each end and not more than
three-story 7500 mm on center
First- story of two-story or X X X X X X X X
second-story of three-story
First-story of three-story X X X X5 X X X
4 One-story, top of two-story X X X X X X6 X Each end and not more than
or three-story 7500 mm on center
First-story of two-story or X X X X5 X X6 X Each end and not more than
second of three-story 7500 mm on center but not less
than 25% of building length7
First-story of three-story X X X X5 X X6 X Each end and not more than
7.5 m on center but not less
than 40% of building length7
1
This table specifies minimum requirements for braced panels which form interior or exterior braced wall lines.
2
See Section 620.10.3 for full description.
3
See Section 620.10.4 for alternate braced panel requirement.
4
Building length is the dimension parallel to the braced wall length.
5
Gypsum wallboard applied to supports at 400 mm on center.
6
Not permitted for bracing cripple walls in Seismic Zone 4. See Section 620.10.5.
7
The required lengths shall be doubled for gypsum board applied to only one face of a braced wall panel.
th
Table 6.25 – Cripple Wall Bracing

Seismic Condition Amount of Cripple Wall Bracing 1, 2
Zone (mm)
4 One-story above cripple 10mm wood structural panel with 65mm at 150 / 300 mm nailing on 60 percent of wall
wall length minimum
Two-story above 10mm wood structural panel with 65mm at 100 / 300 mm nailing on 50 percent of wall
cripple wall length minimum
or
10mm wood structural panel with 65mm at 150 / 300 mm nailing on 75 percent of wall
length minimum
2 One-story above cripple 10mm wood structural panel with 65mm at 150 / 300 mm nailing on 30 percent of wall
wall length minimum
2 Two-story above 10mm wood structural panel with 65mm at 100 / 300 mm nailing on 40 percent of wall
cripple wall length minimum
or
10mm wood structural panel with 65mm at 150 / 300 mm nailing on 60 percent of wall
length minimum
1
Braced panel length shall be at least two times the height of the cripple wall, but not less than 1200 mm.
2
All panels along a wall shall be nearly equal in length and shall be nearly equally spaced along the length of the wall.
Table 6.26 - WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL WALL SHEATHING 1

(Not exposed to the weather, strength axis parallel or perpendicular to studs)
Stud Spacing (mm)
Siding Nailed to Sheathing under Coverings Specified in Section
Minimum Panel Span Rating Studs 620.10.3
Thickness Sheathing Parallel to Sheathing
(mm) Studs Perpendicular to
Studs
10 16/0, 16/0, 20/0 Wall – 16 o.c. 400 - 400
10, 12 16/0, 2/0, 24/0, 32/16 Wall – 24 o.c. 600 400 600
10, 12 24/0, 24/16, 32/16 Wall – 24. o. c. 600 600 600
1
In reference to Section 620.10.3, blocking of horizontal joints is not required.
Table 6.27 - Allowable Shears for Wind or Seismic Loading on Vertical Diaphragms of Fiberboard Sheathing Board
Contraction for Type V Construction Only 1
Shear Value in 75mm Nail Spacing
Size and Application Nail Size Around Perimeter and 150mm at
Intermediate Points
12 x 1200 x 2400 mm Galvanized roofing nail 40 mm long, 10 182.52
mm head
20 x 1200 x 2400 mm Galvanized roofing nail 45 mm long, 10 256
mm head
1
Fiberboard sheathing diaphragms shall not be used to brace concrete or masonry walls.
2
The shear value may be 780 N for 12 by 1200 by 2400 mm fiberboard nail-base sheathing.

Table 6.28 - Allowable Shear for Wind or Seismic Forces in Pounds per Foot for Vertical Diaphragms of Lath
and Plaster or Gypsum Board Frame Wall Assemblies 1
Thickness of Wall Nail Spacing 2 Shear
Type of Material Minimum Nail Size 3 (mm)
Material (mm) Construction Maximum (mm) Value
Expanded metal, or woven

40 mm long, 10 mm head
1. wire lath and portland 22 mm Unblocked 150 2628
Staple, 22 mm legs
cement plaster
10 mm lath and
2. Gypsum lath Unblocked 125 1460 Staple, 30 mm long, 6 mm head,
12 mm plaster
plasterboard blued nail
12 mm x 600
45 mm long, 10 mm head, diamond-point,
3. Gypsum sheathing board mm x 2,400 mm Unblocked 100 1095
galvanized
12 mm x 1200
mm Blocked 100 2555
12 mm x 1200
mm Unblocked 175 1460
175
1460
2 mm dia., 40 mm long, 6 mm head) or
Gypsum wallboard or veneer
4. wallboard (2 mm dia. 40 mm long,
base 12 mm Unblocked
100 6 mm head)
1825
175
1825
Blocked
100
2190
175
1679
Unblocked
100 (2.5 mm dia., 45 mm long, 6 mm head) or
2117
wallboard (2.5 mm dia. 50 mm long,
6 mm head)
175
2117
Blocked
16 mm
100
2555
Base ply – (2.5 mm dia. 50 mm long, 6 mm

head) or wallboard (2.3 mm dia. 50 mm
Base ply: 225 long, 6 mm head)
Blocked
Face ply: 175 3650 Face ply – (3.0 mm dia., 60 mm long, 6 mm
Two ply
head) or wallboard (3.0 mm dia., 60 mm
long, 10 mm head)
1
These vertical diaphragms shall not be used to resist loads imposed by masonry or concrete construction. Values shown are for short-term loading
due to wind or due to seismic loading. Values shown must be reduced 25 percent for normal loading. The values shown in Items 2, 3 and 4 shall be
reduced 50 percent for loading due to earthquake in Seismic Zones 3 and 4.
2
Applies to nailing at all studs, top and bottom plates, and blocking.
3
Alternate nails may be used if their dimensions are not less than the specified dimension.
th
Table 6.29 - Allowable Spans for Particleboard Wall Sheathing 1

(Not exposed to the weather, long dimension of the panel parallel or perpendicular to studs)
Stud Spacing (mm)
Sheathing under Coverings

Specified in Section
GRADE THICKNESS (mm)
Siding Nailed to Studs 620.10.3 Parallel or
Perpendicular to Studs
M-1 10 400 400

M-S
M-2 “Exterior Glue” 12 400 400
1
In reference to Section 620.10.3, blocking of horizontal joints is not required.
Table 6.30 Scientific Name of Philippine Timber Species
1. Malabayabas (Tristania spp.) includes: 8. Dangkalan (Callophyllum spp.) includes:
Malabayabas (T. decorticata Merr.) Dangakalan (C. obliquinervium Merr.)

Tiga (T. micrantha Merr.) Bitanghol (C. blancoi Fl. & Tr.)
Bitaog (C. inophyllum L.)
2. Manggachapui (Hopea spp.) includes:
9. Gisau (Canarium spp.) includes:
Dalingdingan (H, foxworthyi Elm.)
Manggachapui (H. acuminata Merr.) Dulit [C. hirsutum Willd. Forma multipinnatum
Yakal-saplungan [H. plagata (Blanco) Vid.] (Llanos) H. J. Lam]
Gisau (C. vrieseanum Engl.)
3. Narig (Vatica spp.) includes: Pagsahingin-bulog (C. calophyllum Perk.)
Piling-liitan [C. luzonicum (Blume) A. Gray]
Narig (V. manggachapui Blanco spp. manggachapoi)
Narig, Thick-leafed (V. pachyphylla Merr.) 10. Lauan (Shorea spp.) includes:
4. Yakal (Shorea spp.) includes: Almon (S. almon Foxw.)

Lauan, Red (S. negrosensis Foxw.)
Yakal (S.astylosa Foxw.) Lauan, White (S. contorta Vid.)
Yakal-gisok (S.gisok Foxw.) Mayapis [S. squamata (Turcz. Dyer.]
Yakal-Mabolo (S. cillata King) Tangile [S. polysperma (Blanco) Merr.]
Yakal-malibato (S. malibato Foxw.)
11. Malaanonang (Shorea spp.) includes:
5. Antipolo (Arthocarpus spp.) includes:
Kalunti [S. hopeifolia (Heim). Sym.]
Antipolo [A. blanco (Elm.) Merr.] Malaanonang (S. polita Vid.
Anubing (A. ovato Blanco)
Kubi (A. nitida Trec. Spp. Nitida) 12. Malasaging (Aglaia spp.) includes:
Nangka (A. heterophylla Lam.)
Ilo-ilo [A. iloilo (Blanco) Merr.]
6. Binggas (Terminalia spp.) includes: Kuling-manok [A. luzoniensis (Vid.) Merr. &
Rolfe]
Malasaging (A. diffusa Merr.)
Binggas [T. citrina (Gaertn) Roxb.]
Kalumpit (T. microcarpa Decne) 13. Malugai (Pometia spp.) includes:
Lanipau (T. copelandii Elm.)
Sakat (T. Nitens Fresl.) Malugai (P. pinnata Forst.)
Talisai-gubat (T. foetidissima Griff.) Malugai-liitan (P. pinnata forma responda Jacobs)
7. Dao (Dracontomelon spp.) includes: 14. Miau (Dysoxylum spp.) includes:
Dao [D. dao (Blanco) Merr. & Rolfe] Kuling-babui (O. altissisum Merr.)
Lamio [D. edule (Blanco) Skeels.] Miau (D. euphlebium Merr.)

15. Guijo (Shorea spp.) includes: 21. Nato (Palaquium spp.) includes:
Guijo [S. guiso (Blanco) Blume] Malak-malak [P. philippense (Perr.) C. B. Rob.]
Malaguijo (S. plagata Foxw.) Maniknik (P. tenuipetiolatum Merr.)
Nato [P. luzoniensis (F.-Vill.) Vid.]
16. Kamagong (Diospyros spp.) includes: Palak-palak (P. lanceolatum Blanco)
Anang D. pyrrhocarpa Miq.) 22. Palosapis (Anisoptera spp.) includes:

Anang-gulod (D. inclusa Merr.)
Ata-ata (D. mindanaesis Merr.) Afu (A. brunnea Foxw.)
Bolong-eta (D. pilosanthera Blanco) Dagang (A. aurea Foxw.)
Kamagong [D. philippinensis (Resr.) Gurke]
Kamagong, Ponce (D. poncei Merr.) 23. Pine (Pinus spp.) includes:
Katilma (D. nitida Merr.)
Pine, Benguet (P. kesiya Royle ex. Gordon)
17. Katmon (Dillenia spp.) includes: Pine, Mindoro (P. merkusil Jungh & de Vr.)
Katmon (D. philippinensis Rolfe) 24. Salakin (Aphanamixis spp.) includes:

Katmon-bayani (D. megalantha Merr.)
Malakatmon [D. luzoniensis (Vid.) Martelli] Kangko (A. perrottetiana A. Juss)
Salakin [A. cumingiana (C. Dc.)]
18. Kato (Amoora spp.) includes:
25. Bayok (Pterospermum spp.) includes:
Kato (A. aherniana Merr.)
Katong-lakihan (A. macrocarpa Merr.) Bayok (P. diversifolium Blume)
Bayok-bayokan (P. niveum Vid.)
19. Pahutan (Mangifera spp.) includes:
26. Manggasinoro (Shorea spp.) includes:
Pahutan (M. altissima Blanco
Pahong-liitan (M. merrillii Mukh.) Manggasinoro [S. assamica Dyer. forma
philippinensis
(Brandis) Sym.]
20. Apitong (Dipterocarpus spp.) includes: Manggasinorong – lakihan (S. virencens Parijs)
Apitong (D. grandiflorus Blanco)

Apitong, Basilan (D. basilanicus Foxw.)
Apitong, Broad-winged (D. speciosus Brandis)
Hagakhak (D. warbugii Brandis)
Malapanau (D. Kerrii King)
Panau (D. grandis Blume)
Panau, Leaf-tailed (D. caudatus Foxw.)
Table 6.31 Basic Working Stresses and Modulus of Elasticity for Dry Machine Graded Lumber
Machine Basic Working Stress (MPa) Modulus of
Stress Grade Elasticty
Bending Tensile Compression Shear Strength, Fv (GPa)
Strength, Fb Strength, Ft Strength, Fc
M5 5 3 4 1.48 5.68
M10 10 6 8 1.64 8.57
M15 15 9 12 1.79 11.45
M20 20 12 16 1.95 14.34
M25 25 15 20 2.10 17.23
th
Table 6.32 Basic Working Loads for Nails in Lateral Loading (MGL)
Load Capacity (N)
Lumber
Grade
D*=2.5 D=2.8 D=3.15 D=3.75 D=4.5 D=5 D=5.6
M5 92 112 138 188 258 310 378
M10 136 166 204 276 380 457 557
M15 182 222 272 369 508 611 745
M20 229 279 279 466 641 771 940
M25 279 340 340 566 779 937 1143

*D=nail diameter (mm)
Table 6.33 Basic Working Loads for Nails in Withdrawal (MGL)
Lumber Load Capacity (N/mm)
Grade D*=2.5 D=2.8 D=3.15 D=3.75 D=4.5 D=5 D=5.6
M5 47 52 59 70 84 94 105
M10 85 96 108 128 154 171 191
M15 134 150 168 201 241 267 300
M20 192 215 241 287 345 383 429
M25 259 290 327 389 466 518 581
*D=nail diameter (mm)
Table 6.34 Design Stresses for Machine Graded Lumber
Design Stresses M5 M10 M15 M20 M25
Allowable Strength Properties (MPa)
Bending 5 10 15 20 25
Tension Parallel to grain 3 6 9 12 15
Tension Perpendicular to grain 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.30
Compression Parallel to grain 4 8 12 16 20
Compression Perpendicular to grain 2.3 3.3 4.3 5.2 6.2

Shear
Stiffness Properties (GPa)
Modulus of Elasticity (mean) 6.2 8.8 11.3 13.9 16.4

Modulus of Elasticity (20th percentile) 5.1 7.6 10.1 12.6 15.1
Shear Modulus 0.39 0.52 0.65 0.78 0.91

Table 6.35 – (In addition to Table 6.1) Working Stresses for Visually Stress-Graded
Unseasoned Structural Timber of Philippine Woods.
Additional Species 80% STRESS GRADE 50% STRESS GRADE
(Common and Botanical Bending Modulus Compression Compression Shear Bending Modulus Compression Compression Shear
Names) and of parallel to perpendicular parallel and of parallel to perpendicular parallel
Tension elasticity grain to grain to Tension elasticity grain to grain to
parallel in grain parallel in grain
to grain bending to grain bending
1000 1000
MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
1000

A. Commercial Species
Alupag amo [Litchi 28.13 7.98 9.74 6.39 3.49 17.58 4.99 6.09 4.00 2.18
chinensis Sonn. ssp.
philippinensis
(Radlk)Leenh.]
Ata-ata (Diospyros 27.00 8.28 - - - 16.87 5.18 - - -
mindanaensis Merr.)
Bakauan (Rhizophora 31.45 9.60 8.90 6.30 3.05 19.65 6.00 5.56 3.93 1.90
apiculata Blume)
Katilma (Diospyros nitida 26.17 8.31 8.03 3.54 2.66 16.35 5.19 5.02 2.21 1.66
Merr)
Kubi (Artocarpus nitidus 31.21 7.92 11.04 5.47 2.85 19.51 4.95 6.90 3.42 1.78
Trecc. spp. nitidus)
Narig (Vatica mangachapoi 24.47 8.15 9.13 4.19 2.44 15.29 5.09 5.70 2.62 1.53
Blanco ssp. mangachapoi)
Narig, Thick leafed (Vatica 27.04 8.34 10.29 6.42 2.89 16.90 5.21 6.43 4.01 1.81
pechyphylla Merr)
Tiga [Tristeniopsis 31.92 9.00 10.18 9.71 3.41 19.95 5.63 6.36 6.07 2.13
micrantha (Merr) Wils. &
Waterh.]
Tindalo [Afzelia 30.17 8.88 11.39 7.56 3.41 18.86 5.55 7.12 4.73 2.13
rhomboidea (Blanco) Vid.]
Yakal (Shorea astylosa 25.05 9.92 10.14 6.72 2.33 15.66 6.20 6.34 4.20 1.46
Foxw.)
Yakal-yamban (Shorea 29.17 9.50 9.81 6.31 2.43 18.23 5.94 6.13 3.94 1.52
falciferoides ssp.
falciferoides)
Yakal-malibato (Shorea 38.22 8.70 10.14 6.15 2.64 23.89 5.44 6.34 3.84 1.65
malibato Foxw)
Yakal-saplungan [Hopea 41.79 11.18 12.76 9.00 2.91 26.12 6.99 7.97 5.62 1.82
plagata (Blanco) Vid.]
Diospyros sp. 24.67 7.98 8.48 5.71 2.64 15.42 4.99 5.30 3.57 1.65
B. Lesser-Known Species
Antsoan (Cassia javanica L. 27.47 7.62 9.44 5.08 3.00 17.17 4.76 5.90 3.17 1.87
ssp. javenica)
Arangen [Ganophyllum 26.85 7.86 9.82 6.88 3.00 16.78 4.91 6.14 4.30 1.87
obliquum (Blanco) Merr.]
Bansilai (Ochna foxworthyi 27.99 9.24 10.72 8.00 2.88 17.49 5.78 6.70 5.00 1.80
Elm)
Satinwood (Chloroxylon 32.92 8.40 11.39 5.47 3.09 20.57 5.25 7.12 3.42 1.93
swietenia DC.)
II. Moderately High

Strength Group
Akle [Albizia acle (Blanco) 21.08 7.20 7.36 4.78 2.78 13.17 4.50 4.60 2.99 1.74
Merr.]
Amugis 19.48 6.71 6.92 3.90 2.42 12.17 4.20 4.33 2.43 1.51
[Koordersiodendron
pinnatum (Blanco) Merr.]
th
Anang (Diospyros 22.00 7.02 7.62 3.05 2.49 13.75 4.39 4.76 1.91 1.56
pyrrhcorpa Miq.)
Anang-gulod [Diospyros 20.20 6.15 7.41 3.61 2.57 12.62 3.85 4.63 2.26 1.61
myrmecocalyx (Hiern)
Bakh]
Batino (Alstonia - - - - - - - - - -
macrophylla G. Don)
Bingas [Terminalia citrina 18.01 7.20 8.07 4.34 2.72 11.26 4.50 5.05 2.71 1.70
(Gaertn.) Roxb. ex. Flem.]
Bolon [Platymitra arborea 25.34 7.62 8.38 3.63 2.29 15.84 4.76 5.24 2.27 1.43
(Blanco) Kesler]
Bolong-eta (Diospyros 20.46 8.28 5.50 - - 12.79 5.18 3.44 - -
pilosanthera
Blanco var philosanthera] 19.35 7.38 6.38 5.37 2.68 12.09 4.61 3.99 3.36 1.68
Dungon (Heritiera sylvatica 23.73 7.20 9.52 6.15 2.72 14.83 4.50 5.95 3.84 1.70
Vidal)
Dysoxylum sp. 17.10 6.18 6.88 2.38 2.00 10.69 3.86 4.30 1.49 1.25
Ipil [Intsia bijuga (Colebr) 27.09 7.44 - 5.37 - 16.93 4.65 - 3.36 -
O. Ktze]
Kamagong (Diospyros 25.04 7.74 8.54 6.49 3.00 15.65 4.84 5.34 4.06 1.87
discolor Willd.)
Kamagong ponce 22.00 6.30 6.86 4.82 2.19 13.75 3.94 4.29 3.01 1.37
(Diospyros poncei Merr.)
Katmon-bayani (Dillenia 21.17 7.56 6.46 4.51 2.13 13.23 4.73 4.04 2.82 1.33
megalantha Merr.)
Katong-lakihan 19.56 8.22 6.69 3.42 1.90 12.22 5.14 4.18 2.14 1.19
(Dysoxylum crytobotryum
Miq.)
Lithocarpus sp. 18.52 8.04 6.30 3.98 1.49 11.57 5.03 3.94 2.49 0.93
Ludek [Ludekia bernardoi 24.30 7.44 6.78 4.18 2.56 15.18 4.65 4.24 2.61 1.60
(Merr.) Ridsd.]
Malakatmon [Dillenia 23.60 7.40 7.37 5.40 2.46 14.75 4.63 4.61 3.38 1.54
luzoniensis (Vidal) Martelli
ex Dur. et Jacks.]
Malapanau (Dipterocarpus 17.26 6.86 6.12 2.09 1.70 10.79 4.29 3.83 1.31 1.07
kerrii King)
Manggis [Koompassia 24.96 8.94 9.09 3.79 2.27 15.60 5.59 5.68 2.37 1.42
excelsa (Becc.) Taub.]
Maniknik (Palaquium 18.61 6.30 6.94 2.18 2.27 11.63 3.94 4.34 1.36 1.42
tenuipetiolatum Merr.)
20.60 6.18 7.01 3.79 2.24 12.88 3.86 4.38 2.37 1.40
Malugai (Pometia pinnata 17.10 6.36 5.99 2.80 2.15 10.69 3.98 3.75 1.75 1.34
Forst & Forst.)
Malugai-liitan (Pometia 17.06 6.05 6.38 3.93 2.36 10.67 3.78 3.99 2.45 1.47
pinnata forma repanda
Jacobs)
Palak-palak (Palaquium 21.43 7.85 7.29 2.64 1.88 13.39 4.90 4.56 1.65 1.18
lanceolatum Blanco)
Panau, leaf-tailed 19.23 7.32 5.66 2.61 1.62 12.02 4.58 3.54 1.63 1.02
(Dipterocarpus caudatus
Foxw.)
Pianga [Ganua obovatifolia 18.27 7.03 5.70 2.66 1.94 11.42 4.39 3.56 1.66 1.21
(Merr.) Assem]
Sakat (Terminalia nitens 23.63 5.66 - 2.77 - 14.77 3.54 - 1.73 -
Presl.)
Ulaian [Lithocarpus llanosii 17.67 5.55 6.93 3.38 2.21 11.04 3.47 4.33 2.11 1.38
(A.DC.) Rehd.]
Talisai-gubat (Terminalia 21.79 7.32 6.88 2.83 2.06 13.62 4.58 4.30 1.77 1.28
foetidissima Griff.)
Toog [Petersianthus 19.70 6.53 6.77 2.74 2.03 12.31 4.08 4.23 1.71 1.27
quadrialatus (Merr.) Merr.]
Yakal kaliot (Hopea 23.96 8.25 7.62 3.45 2.55 14.98 5.16 4.76 2.16 1.59
malibato Foxw.)
Balakat [Ziziphus talanai 16.89 4.87 8.03 3.02 2.17 10.55 3.05 5.02 1.88 1.36
(Blanco) Merr.]
Balikbikan (Drypetes 24.82 7.74 7.62 3.78 2.08 15.51 4.84 4.76 2.36 1.30
longifolia (Blume) Pax & K
Hoffm.]
Kalamansanai Group 14.94 5.50 - 3.56 2.14 9.34 3.44 - 2.23 1.34
(Neonauclea sp.)

Kalingag (Cinnamomum 21.03 5.83 7.12 2.78 2.22 13.14 3.64 4.45 1.74 1.39
mercadoi Vid.)
Kapulasan (Nephelium 16.36 6.47 - 3.68 2.26 10.22 4.04 - 2.30 1.41
mutabile Blume)
Langil [Albizia lebbek (L.) 22.69 6.66 8.35 5.12 2.78 14.18 4.16 5.22 3.20 1.74
Benth.]
Patangis [Magnolia 21.03 7.08 6.34 3.56 2.61 13.14 4.43 3.96 2.23 1.63
candollei (Blume) Keng
var. candollei]
Siar [Peltophorum 21.45 5.94 7.17 7.37 2.30 13.41 3.71 4.48 4.61 1.44
pterocarpum (DC.) K.
Heyne]
Tamayuan ([Strombosia 30.55 7.44 10.18 8.10 3.12 19.09 4.65 6.36 5.06 1.95
philippinens (Baill.) Rolfe]
Uas [Harpulia arborea 17.05 5.39 5.66 3.02 2.13 10.66 3.37 3.54 1.89 1.33
(Blanco Radik]
C. Plantation Species
Acacia crassicarpa A. 20.08 6.78 5.31 2.64 2.04 12.55 4.24 3.32 1.65 1.27
Cunn. ex Benth
Acacia cincinnata 15.25 5.77 6.46 2.97 2.28 9.53 3.61 4.04 1.86 1.42
Banaba [Lagerstroemia 16.72 5.36 5.92 3.81 2.27 10.45 3.35 3.70 2.38 1.42
speciosa (L.) Pers.]
Ipil-ipil, Giant [Leucaena 15.54 5.43 5.50 3.20 2.50 9.71 3.40 3.44 2.00 1.56
leucocephala (Lam.) de
wit]
III. Medium Strength

Group
Apitong (Dipterocarpus 17.67 8.01 6.26 2.42 2.00 11.05 5.01 3.91 1.51 1.25
grandiflorus Blanco)
Apitong, Basilan 18.26 7.62 5.87 1.93 1.66 11.41 4.76 3.67 1.21 1.04
(Dipterocarpus eurynchus
Miq.)
Apitong Broad-winged 16.57 6.76 5.51 1.90 1.59 10.36 4.23 3.44 1.19 1.00
(Dipterocarpus kunstleri
King)
Bitaog (Calophyllum 14.16 6.30 4.80 1.59 1.38 8.85 3.94 3.00 0.99 0.86
inophyllum L.)
Dagang (Anisoptera aurea 14.98 5.84 5.24 2.58 1.63 9.36 3.65 3.28 1.61 1.02
Foxw.)
Hagakhak (Dipterocarpus 16.98 6.23 5.59 1.59 1.54 10.61 3.90 3.50 0.99 0.96
validus Blume)
Kalumpit (Terminalia 18.52 4.60 6.11 3.32 2.47 11.57 2.87 3.82 2.08 1.54
microcarpa Decne.)
Katmon (Dillenia 18.38 5.16 6.40 3.79 2.28 11.48 3.22 4.00 2.37 1.42
philippinensis Rolfe)
Kuling-babui (Dysoxylum 14.49 5.72 5.73 1.61 1.76 9.06 3.57 3.58 1.01 1.10
excelsum Blume)
Kuling-manuk [Aglaia 18.42 5.25 7.58 3.08 2.06 11.51 3.28 4.74 1.92 1.29
luzoniensis (Vid.) Merr &
Rolfe]
Lamio [Dracontomelon 15.68 4.36 4.77 1.83 1.58 9.80 2.72 2.98 1.14 0.99
edule (Blanco) Skeels]
Lanipau (Terminalia 15.63 5.94 6.11 1.84 1.58 9.77 3.71 3.82 1.15 0.99
copelandii Elm.)
Lokinai [Dacrydium 15.44 3.35 3.65 2.09 1.70 9.65 2.10 2.28 1.31 1.06
beccarii Parl.)
Lamog (Planchonia 19.13 5.08 5.63 4.65 2.09 11.96 3.17 3.52 2.91 1.31
spectabilis Merr.)
Magabuyo (Celtis luzonica 11.51 4.01 5.06 2.12 1.78 7.19 2.50 3.16 1.32 1.11
Warb.)
Nato Villamil [Pouteria 16.34 5.06 5.57 2.59 2.06 10.21 3.17 3.48 1.62 1.29
villamilli (Merr) Baehni]
Philippine maple (Acer 15.77 6.30 7.46 1.86 1.88 9.86 3.94 4.66 1.17 1.17
laurinum
Hassk. apud Hoeven & de - - - - - - - - - -
Vriese)
Piling-liitan [Canarium 15.89 4.66 5.41 2.09 2.08 9.93 2.91 3.38 1.31 1.30
luzonicum (Blume) A.
Gray]
th
Tangile [Shorea 15.83 6.23 5.50 1.79 1.54 9.89 3.89 3.44 1.12 0.96
polysperma (Blanco)
Merr.]
Anang (Diospyros 15.88 5.16 - 2.38 1.86 9.92 3.23 - 1.49 1.16
pyrrhocarpa Miq.)
Amunat (Oraphea 16.86 6.42 6.34 2.14 1.75 10.54 4.01 3.96 1.34 1.09
cumingiana Vid)
Apanit [Mastixia pentandra 17.10 6.48 5.12 1.69 1.65 10.69 4.05 3.20 1.06 1.03
Blume ssp. philippinensis
(Wang.) Matt.]
Balukanag [Chisocheton 16.24 6.60 5.57 2.43 1.60 10.15 4.13 3.48 1.52 1.00
cumingianus (C.DC.)
Harms]
Banai-banai [Radermachera 20.60 5.15 7.01 3.07 2.02 12.88 3.22 4.38 1.92 1.26
pinnata (Blanco) Seem]
Bitanghol (Calophyllum 10.31 4.67 - 1.63 1.51 6.44 2.92 - 1.02 0.94
blancoi Pl. & Tr.)
Dalung (Phyllocladus 20.51 5.70 6.88 2.55 2.04 12.82 3.56 4.30 1.59 1.27
hypophyllus Hook f.)
Gapas-gapas 18.04 5.36 7.26 1.85 1.44 11.28 3.35 4.54 1.16 0.90
[Camptostemon
philippinense (Vid.) Becc.]
Itangan {Weinmannia 13.92 4.85 4.74 1.67 1.62 8.70 3.03 2.96 1.05 1.01
luzoniensis Vid.)
Java sala [Sloanea javanica 17.85 5.36 6.30 2.24 2.00 11.16 3.35 3.94 1.40 1.25
(Miq.) Koord & Val.]
Kangko [Aphanamixis 16.08 5.71 5.73 2.83 1.89 10.05 3.57 3.58 1.77 1.18
polystachya Wall.) R.N.
Parker]
Malakmalak [Palaquium 13.37 4.70 5.71 2.05 1.80 8.36 2.94 3.57 1.28 1.13
philippense (Perr.) C.B.
Rosb.]
Nato [Palaquium 16.72 5.45 5.57 2.14 1.86 10.45 3.40 3.48 1.34 1.16
luzoniense (F. Vill.) Vid]
Pagsahingin-bulog 16.58 6.66 5.63 1.64 1.86 10.36 4.16 3.52 1.02 1.16
(Canarium asperum Benth)
Panang (Palaquium sp.) 14.44 5.48 - 2.59 2.01 9.03 3.42 - 1.62 1.25
Philippine chestnut 14.02 4.98 4.90 2.34 1.75 8.76 3.11 3.06 1.46 1.09
[Castanopsis philipinensis
(Blanco) Vid]
Sagimsim [Syzgium brevi- 16.87 4.03 - 2.21 2.03 10.54 2.52 - 1.38 1.27
stylum (C.B. Rob.) Merr.]
Santiki [Cleidion 15.72 4.25 4.48 3.18 - 9.83 2.66 2.80 1.99 -
spiciflorum (Bum. F.)
Merr.]
Syzgium sp. 12.05 4.21 - 1.89 1.78 7.53 2.63 - 1.18 1.12
Tan-ag (Kleinhovia hospita 15.34 4.48 5.95 2.47 1.91 9.59 2.80 3.72 1.55 1.20
L)
Ulaian [Lithocarpus 18.81 5.09 - 4.51 2.63 11.76 3.18 - 2.82 1.64
celebicus (Miq.) Rehd.]
Usuang-saha (Endiandra 15.49 5.39 4.99 2.81 1.80 9.68 3.37 3.12 1.76 1.12
laxiflora Merr.)
Ternstroemia sp. 19.51 5.32 6.94 2.65 2.12 12.20 3.33 4.34 1.66 1.33
Acacia mangium Willd. 15.51 5.60 7.36 2.49 1.95 9.70 3.50 4.60 1.56 1.22
Nangka (Artocarpus 20.55 5.26 7.04 2.04 1.92 12.85 3.29 4.40 1.27 1.20
heterophyllus Lamk.)
River red gum (Eucalyptus 16.22 6.14 - 3.49 1.51 10.14 3.84 - 2.18 0.94
camaldulensis Dehnh.)
Teak (Tectona grandis Lf.) 18.94 4.99 4.93 2.81 2.01 11.84 3.12 3.08 1.76 1.26
IV. Moderately Low

Strength Group
Almon (Shorea almon 15.32 6.14 5.48 1.63 1.41 9.57 3.83 3.43 1.02 0.88
Foxw.)
Anubing (Artocarpus 19.46 4.04 5.34 4.19 1.87 12.17 2.53 3.34 2.62 1.17
ovatus Blanco)

Batikuling (Litsea leytensis 13.32 4.86 6.08 1.41 1.36 8.33 3.04 3.80 0.88 0.85
Merr.)
Dulit [Canarium hirsutum 12.41 3.52 4.64 1.21 1.38 7.76 2.20 2.90 0.75 0.86
Willd. Forma - - - - - - - - - -
multipinnatum (Llanos) H
J. Lam.]
Igem [Dacycarpus 12.17 4.95 4.26 1.24 1.45 7.61 3.09 2.66 0.77 0.91
imbricatus (Bl.) var.
patulus de Laub.]
Ilo-ilo [Aglaia argentea 16.86 5.50 4.83 1.50 1.42 10.54 3.44 3.02 0.94 0.89
Blume)
Kalunti [Shorea hopeifolia 14.11 4.97 5.50 1.61 1.44 8.82 3.11 3.44 1.00 0.90
(Heim) Sym]
Loktob (Duabanga 8.64 1.79 4.51 1.30 1.11 5.40 1.12 2.82 0.81 0.69
moluccana Blume)
Manggasinoro [Shorea 14.11 5.65 5.13 1.54 1.40 8.82 3.53 3.21 0.96 0.87
assamica
Dyer, ssp. philippinensis - - - - - - - - - -
(Brandis) Sym]
Manggasinorong-lakihan 14.44 5.59 5.57 1.88 1.35 9.03 3.50 3.48 1.18 0.84
(Shorea virescens Parijs)
Mayapis [Shorea palosapis 14.60 5.81 5.20 1.53 1.34 9.12 3.63 3.25 0.96 0.84
(Blanco) Merr.]
Paguringon (Cratoxylum 15.77 4.76 6.05 2.32 2.06 9.86 2.97 3.78 1.45 1.29
sumatranum (Jack) Blume
ssp. sumatranum Robs.].
Tuai (Bischofia javanica 14.75 4.14 4.66 4.10 1.80 9.22 2.59 2.91 2.56 1.13
Blume)
Shorea sp. 13.92 4.84 4.26 1.04 1.15 8.70 3.03 2.66 0.65 0.72
Anongo (Turpinia 11.70 3.68 3.78 1.44 1.30 7.31 2.30 2.36 0.90 0.81
ovalifolia Elm.)
Balakat-gubat [Sapium - - - 1.38 1.55 - - - 0.86 0.97
luzonicum (Vid.) Merr.]
Balanti [Homalanthus 11.32 3.83 - 1.65 1.31 7.07 2.39 - 1.03 0.82
populneus (Geisel.) Pax
var. populneus]
Balete (Ficus balete Merr.) 13.84 5.20 - 2.30 1.72 8.65 3.25 - 1.44 1.08
Balobo (Diplodiscus 16.59 4.71 - 3.12 2.02 10.37 2.94 - 1.95 1.26
paniculatus Turcz.)
Bayok (Pterospermum 15.44 4.40 5.41 1.69 1.44 9.65 2.75 3.38 1.06 0.90
diversifolium Blume)
Bayok-bayokan 13.56 4.69 5.62 1.45 1.29 8.48 2.93 3.51 0.91 0.81
(Pterospermumniveum
Vid.)
Binunga [Macaranga 9.79 3.39 - 1.50 1.37 6.12 2.12 - 0.94 0.85
tanarius (L.) Muell-Arg.]
Buta-buta (Exocecaria 10.61 3.40 3.68 1.40 1.33 6.63 2.12 2.30 0.87 0.83
agallocha L.)
Duguan (Myristica 8.39 4.38 - 1.92 1.38 5.25 2.74 - 1.20 0.86
philippensis Lam.)
Himbabao [Broussonetia 12.83 4.04 4.45 2.24 2.00 8.02 2.53 2.78 1.40 1.25
luzonica (Blanco) Bur. var.
luzonica]
Katong-matsin 14.49 3.56 4.26 1.51 1.32 9.06 2.23 2.66 0.95 0.83
[Chisocheton pentandrus
(Blanco) Merr.]
Tulo [Alphitonia 14.11 3.81 4.61 1.63 1.54 8.82 2.38 2.88 1.02 0.97
philippinensis (Braid.)
Gordonia sp.]
Bagras (Eucalyptus 11.71 4.05 4.80 1.23 1.05 7.32 2.53 3.00 0.77 0.66
deglupta Blume)
Durian (Durio zibethinus 13.88 4.90 5.15 1.80 1.42 8.67 3.06 3.22 1.13 0.89
Merr.)
Para-rubber [Hevea 11.13 3.91 3.33 2.19 1.67 6.96 2.45 2.08 1.37 1.05
brasiliensis (HBK) Muell-
Arg.]
Santol [Sandoricum 11.84 2.91 3.62 1.44 1.31 7.40 1.82 2.26 0.90 0.82
koetjape (Burm. f.) merr.]
th
V. Low Strength Group

Kalantas (Toona calantas 9.66 3.70 3.04 0.86 0.88 6.04 2.31 1.90 0.54 0.55
Merr. & Rolfe)
Malakalumpang (Sterculia 7.72 3.74 3.58 1.08 0.91 4.82 2.34 2.24 0.68 0.57
Rarang [Erythrina 5.23 1.83 2.22 0.73 0.78 3.27 1.15 1.39 0.45 0.48
subumbrans (Hassk) Merr.]
Tiaong (Shorea ovata Dyer 11.56 4.97 4.02 0.91 1.07 7.22 3.11 2.51 0.57 0.67
ex Brandis)
Taluto [Pterocymbium 9.50 3.09 3.30 0.92 1.01 5.93 1.93 2.06 0.58 0.63
tinctorium (Blanco) Merr.]
Anabiong [Trema orientalis 5.56 2.36 2.46 1.01 1.02 3.48 1.48 1.54 0.63 0.63
(L.)]
Bagalunga (Melia 10.32 3.76 3.71 1.54 1.72 6.45 2.35 2.32 0.96 1.08
azedarach L.)
Banilad (Sterculia camosa 6.07 2.15 - 0.83 0.81 3.79 1.34 - 0.52 0.50
Wall.)
Binuang (Octomeles 9.09 3.66 3.11 0.74 0.88 5.68 2.29 1.94 0.47 0.55
sumatrana Miq.)
Dita [Alstonia scholaris 4.64 1.91 - 0.55 0.80 2.90 1.20 - 0.34 0.50
(L.)
R. Br. var. scholarisis] 10.14 3.42 3.84 1.34 0.86 6.33 2.14 2.40 0.84 0.54
Kaitana [Zanthoxylum 11.37 4.36 4.26 0.96 1.29 7.10 2.72 2.66 0.60 0.81
limonella (Dennst.) Alston]
Tangisang-bayawak (Ficus 4.32 1.56 - 0.64 0.78 2.70 0.97 - 0.40 0.49
variegata Blume var.
variegata)
Alnus sp. 9.66 2.53 2.81 1.78 1.80 6.04 1.58 1.75 1.11 1.13
Balsa (Ochroma 8.76 2.77 3.65 1.30 - 5.48 1.73 2.28 0.81 -
pyramidale (Cav.) Urb.]
Bayabas (Psidium guajava 12.55 2.68 - - - 7.84 1.68 - - -
L.)
Ilang-ilang [Cananga - - - - - - - - - -
odorata (Lam.) Hook f. &
Thoms.]
Gubas (Endospermum 9.66 2.96 3.74 2.36 1.02 6.04 1.85 2.34 1.48 0.64
peltatum Merr.]
Kaatoan bangkal 11.08 2.77 3.20 1.40 1.33 6.93 1.73 2.00 0.88 0.83
(Anthocephalus chinensis
(Lamk.) Rich. ex. Walp]
Kapok [Ceiba pentandra 4.27 1.35 1.80 0.74 0.63 2.67 0.84 1.13 0.46 0.39
(L.) Gaertn.]
Lumbang [Aleurites 6.39 2.47 1.63 0.71 0.88 4.00 1.55 1.02 0.44 0.55
moluccana (L.) Willd.]
Malapapaya [Polyscias 10.92 4.04 5.25 0.97 1.17 6.82 2.53 3.28 0.61 0.73
nodosa (Blume) Seem]
Moluccan sau 10.75 3.87 4.26 1.11 1.21 6.72 2.42 2.66 0.70 0.75
[Paraserianthes falcataria
(L.) Nielsen]
Spanish cedar (Cedrela 10.94 3.61 4.22 1.31 1.20 6.84 2.26 2.64 0.82 0.75
odorata L.)
Tulip, African (Spathodea 6.06 1.63 2.33 0.85 0.98 3.79 1.02 1.46 0.53 0.61
campanulata Beauv.)

NSCP C101-10
Chapter 7
MASONRY

VOLUME I
SIXTH EDITION

Tel. No : (+632) 410-0483

Fax No.: (+632) 411-8606
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CHAPTER 7 - Masonry 7-1
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 7 – MASONRY ...................................................................................................................................................... 4
SECTION 701 – GENERAL..................................................................................................................................................... 4
701.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
701.2 Design Methods ................................................................................................................................................................. 4
701.3 Definitions ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
701.4 Notations............................................................................................................................................................................ 5
SECTION 702 – MATERIAL STANDARDS ......................................................................................................................... 7
702.1 Quality ............................................................................................................................................................................... 7
702.2 Standards of Quality .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
SECTION 703 – MORTAR AND GROUT ........................................................................................................................... 8
703.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 9
703.2 Materials ............................................................................................................................................................................ 9
703.3 Mortar ................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
703.4 Grout .................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
703.5 Additives and Admixtures ................................................................................................................................................. 9
SECTION 704 – CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 9
704.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 10
704.2 Materials: Handling, Storage and Preparation ................................................................................................................. 10
704.3 Placing Masonry Units .................................................................................................................................................... 10
704.4 Reinforcement Placing..................................................................................................................................................... 10
704.5 Grouted Masonry ............................................................................................................................................................. 10
SECTION 705 – QUALITY ASSURANCE .......................................................................................................................... 12
705.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 12
705.2 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................... 12
705.3 Compliance with f’m......................................................................................................................................................... 12
705.4 Mortar Testing ................................................................................................................................................................. 14
705.5 Grout Testing ................................................................................................................................................................... 14
705.6 Recycled Aggregates ....................................................................................................................................................... 14
SECTION 706 – GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................. 14
706.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 14
706.2 Allowable Stress Design and Strength Design Requirements for Unreinforced and Reinforced Masonry ..................... 17
706.3 Alternative Strength Design (ASD) and Strength Design Requirements for Reinforced Masonry ................................. 19
SECTION 707 – ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD) OF MASONRY..................................................................... 21
707.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 21
707.2 Design of Reinforced Masonry ........................................................................................................................................ 22
707.3 Design of Unreinforced Masonry .................................................................................................................................... 26
SECTION 708 – STRENGTH DESIGN OF MASONRY .................................................................................................... 27
708.1General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
708.2 Reinforced Masonry ........................................................................................................................................................ 29
SECTION 709 - SEISMIC DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 37
709.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................... 38
709.2 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 38
709.3 Seismic Performance Category A .................................................................................................................................... 38
709.4 Seismic Performance Category B .................................................................................................................................... 38
709.5 Seismic Performance Category C .................................................................................................................................... 38
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7-2 CHAPTER 7 - Masonry
709.6 Seismic Performance Category D .................................................................................................................................... 39

709.7 Seismic Performance Category E..................................................................................................................................... 40
SECTION 710 – EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF MASONRY ................................................................................................... 40
710.1 Height............................................................................................................................................................................... 40
710.2 Lateral Stability ................................................................................................................................................................ 40
710.3 Compressive Stresses ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
710.5 Minimum Thickness ........................................................................................................................................................ 41
710.6 Bond ................................................................................................................................................................................. 41
710.7 Anchorage ........................................................................................................................................................................ 42
710.8 Unburned Clay Masonry .................................................................................................................................................. 42
710.9 Stone Masonry ................................................................................................................................................................. 42
SECTION 711 - GLASS MASONRY..................................................................................................................................... 43
711.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 43
711.2 Mortar Joints .................................................................................................................................................................... 43
711.3 Lateral Support................................................................................................................................................................. 43
711.4 Reinforcement .................................................................................................................................................................. 43
711.5 Size of Panels ................................................................................................................................................................... 43
711.6 Expansion Joints .............................................................................................................................................................. 43
711.7 Reuse of Units .................................................................................................................................................................. 44
SECTION 712 – MASONRY FIREPLACES ........................................................................................................................ 44
712.1 Definition ......................................................................................................................................................................... 44
712.2 Footings and Foundations ................................................................................................................................................ 44
712.3 Seismic Reinforcing ......................................................................................................................................................... 44
712.4 Seismic Anchorage .......................................................................................................................................................... 45
712.5 Firebox Walls ................................................................................................................................................................... 45
712.6 Firebox Dimensions ......................................................................................................................................................... 45
712.7 Lintel and Throat.............................................................................................................................................................. 45
712.8 Smoke Chamber Walls..................................................................................................................................................... 45
712.9 Hearth and Hearth Extension ........................................................................................................................................... 45
712.10 Hearth Extension Dimensions ........................................................................................................................................ 46
712.11 Fireplace Clearance ........................................................................................................................................................ 46
712.12 Fireplace Fireblocking ................................................................................................................................................... 46
712.13 Exterior Air .................................................................................................................................................................... 46
SECTION 713 - MASONRY CHIMNEYS ............................................................................................................................ 47
713.1 Definition ......................................................................................................................................................................... 47
713.2 Footings and Foundations ................................................................................................................................................ 47
713.3 Seismic Reinforcing ......................................................................................................................................................... 47
713.4 Seismic Anchorage .......................................................................................................................................................... 48
713.5 Corbeling ......................................................................................................................................................................... 48
713.6 Changes in Dimension ..................................................................................................................................................... 48
713.7 Offsets .............................................................................................................................................................................. 48
713.8 Additional Load ............................................................................................................................................................... 48
713.9 Termination ...................................................................................................................................................................... 48
713.10 Wall Thickness............................................................................................................................................................... 48
713.11 Flue Lining (Material).................................................................................................................................................... 48
713.12 Clay Flue Lining (Installation) ....................................................................................................................................... 50
713.13 Additional Requirements ............................................................................................................................................... 50
713.14 Multiple Flues ................................................................................................................................................................ 50
713.15 Flue Area (Appliance).................................................................................................................................................... 50
713.16 Flue Area (Masonry Fireplace) ...................................................................................................................................... 51
713.17 Inlet ................................................................................................................................................................................ 51
713.18 Masonry Chimney Cleanout Openings .......................................................................................................................... 51

713.19 Chimney Clearances ...................................................................................................................................................... 51

713.20 Chimney Fireblocking ................................................................................................................................................... 52
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CHAPTER 7
AREA, NET is the gross cross-sectional area minus the
MASONRY area of ungrouted cores, notches, cells and unbedded areas.
Net area is the actual surface area of cross section of
masonry.
SECTION 701
GENERAL AREA, TRANSFORMED is the equivalent area of one
material to a second based on the ratio of modulus of
elasticity of the first material to the second.
701.1 Scope
The materials, design, construction and quality assurance of BOND, ADHESION is the adhesion between masonry
masonry shall be in accordance with this chapter. units and mortar or grout.
701.2 Design Methods BOND, REINFORCING is the adhesion between steel

reinforcement and mortar or grout.
Masonry shall comply with the provisions of one of the
following design methods in this chapter as well as the
requirements of Sections 701 through 705. BOND BEAM is a horizontal grouted element within
masonry in which reinforcement is embedded.
701.2.1 Allowable Stress Design CELL is a void space having a gross cross-sectional area
Masonry designed by allowable stress design method shall greater than 970 mm2.
comply with the provisions of Sections 706 and 707.
CLEANOUT is an opening to the bottom of a grout space
701.2.2 Strength Design of sufficient size and spacing to allow the removal of
debris.
Masonry designed by the strength design method shall
comply with the provisions of Sections 706 and 708.
COLLAR JOINT is the mortared or grouted space
between wythes of masonry.
701.2.3 Empirical Design
Masonry designed by the empirical design method shall COLUMN, REINFORCED, is a vertical structural
comply with the provisions of Sections 706.1 and 710. member in which both the reinforcement and masonry resist
compression.
701.2.4 Glass Masonry
Glass masonry shall comply with the provisions of Section COLUMN, UNREINFORCED, is a vertical structural
711. member whose horizontal dimension measured at right
angles to the thickness does not exceed three times the
thickness.
701.3 Definitions
For the purpose of this chapter, certain terms are defined as DIMENSIONS, ACTUAL are the measured dimensions of
follows: a designated item. The actual dimension shall not vary
from the specified dimension by more than the amount
AREA, BEDDED is the area of the surface of a masonry allowed in the appropriate standard of quality in Section
unit which is in contact with mortar or the surface of 702.
another masonry unit in the plane of the joint.
DIMENSIONS, NOMINAL of masonry units are equal to
EFFECTIVE AREA OF REINFORCEMENT is the its specified dimensions plus the thickness of the joint with
cross-sectional area of reinforcement multiplied by the which the unit is laid.
cosine of the angle between the reinforcement and the
direction for which effective area is to be determined. DIMENSIONS, SPECIFIED are the dimensions specified
for the manufacture or construction of masonry, masonry
AREA, GROSS is the total cross-sectional area of a units, joints or any other component of a structure.
specified section.

GROUT LIFT is an increment of grout height within the WALL, BONDED is a masonry wall in which two or more
total grout pour. wythes are bonded to act as a structural unit.
GROUT POUR is the total height of masonry wall to be WALL, CAVITY is a wall containing continuous air space
grouted prior to the erection of additional masonry. A grout with a minimum width of 50 mm and a maximum width of
pour will consist of one or more grout lifts. 100 mm between wythes which are tied with metal ties.
GROUTED HOLLOW-UNIT MASONRY is that form WALL TIE is a mechanical metal fastener which connects
of grouted masonry construction in which certain wythes of masonry to each other or to other materials.
designated cells of hollow units are continuously filled with
grout. WEB is an interior solid portion of a hollow-masonry unit
as placed in masonry.
GROUTED MULTI-WYTHE MASONRY is that form
of grouted masonry construction in which the space WYTHE is the portion of a wall which is one masonry unit
between the wythes is solidly or periodically filled with in thickness. A collar joint is not considered a wythe.
grout.
JOINT, BED is the joint with or without mortar that is 701.4 Notations
horizontal at the time the masonry units are placed. Ab = cross-sectional area of anchor bolt, mm2
Ae = effective area of masonry, mm2
JOINT, HEAD is the joint with or without mortar having a Ag = gross area of wall, mm2
vertical transverse plane. Ajh = total area of special horizontal reinforcement
through wall frame joint, mm2
Amv = net area of masonry section bounded by wall
MASONRY UNIT is brick, tile, stone, glass block or thickness and length of section in direction of
concrete block conforming to the requirements specified in shear force considered, mm2
Section 702. Ap = area of tension (pullout) cone of embedded
anchor bolt projected onto surface of masonry,
HOLLOW-MASONRY UNIT is a masonry unit whose mm2
net cross-sectional areas (solid area) in any plane parallel to As = effective cross-sectional area of reinforcement in
the surface containing cores, cells or deep frogs is less than column or flexural member, mm2
75 percent of its gross cross-sectional area measured in the Ase = effective area of reinforcement,
same plane. Ash = total cross-sectional area of rectangular tie
reinforcement for confined core, mm2
SOLID-MASONRY UNIT is a masonry unit whose net Av = area of reinforcement required for shear
cross-sectional area in any plane parallel to the surface reinforcement perpendicular to longitudinal
containing the cores or cells is at least 75 percent of the reinforcement, mm2
gross cross-sectional area measured in the same plane. A’s = effective cross-sectional area of compression
reinforcement in flexural member, mm2
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block, mm
MORTARLESS MASONRY SYSTEM is a method of
masonry wall construction that eliminates the use of mortar. Bsn = nominal shear strength of anchor bolt, kN
Bt = allowable tensile force on anchor bolt, kN
Btn = nominal tensile strength of anchor bolt, kN
PRISM is an assemblage of masonry units and mortar (if Bv = allowable shear force on anchor bolt, kN
present) with or without grout used as a test specimen for b = effective width of rectangular member or width
determining properties of the masonry. of flange for T and I sections, mm
bsu = factored shear force supported by anchor bolt,
REINFORCED MASONRY is that form of masonry kN
construction in which reinforcement acting in conjunction bt = computed tensile force on anchor bolt, kN
with the masonry is used to resist forces. btu = factored tensile force supported by anchor
bolt, kN
SHELL is the outer portion of a hollow masonry unit as bv = computed shear force on anchor bolt,
placed in masonry. kN
b’ = width of web in T or I section, mm
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Cd = nominal shear strength coefficient as obtained hc = cross-sectional dimension of grouted core

from Table 708-2 measured center to center of confining
c = distance from neutral axis to extreme fiber, mm reinforcement, mm
D = dead loads, or related internal moments and hp = pier depth in plane of wall frame, mm
forces h’ = effective height of wall or column, mm
d = distance from compression face of flexural I = moment of inertia about neutral axis of cross-
member to centroid of longitudinal tensile sectional area, mm4
reinforcement, mm Ie = effective moment of inertia, mm4
db = diameter of reinforcing bar, mm Ig, Icr = gross, cracked moment of inertia of wall cross
dbb = diameter of largest beam longitudinal reinforcing section, mm4
bar passing through, or anchored in a joint, mm j = ratio or distance between centroid of flexural
dbp = diameter of largest pier longitudinal reinforcing compressive forces and centroid of tensile forces
bar passing through a joint, mm of depth, d
E = load effects of earthquake, or related internal K = reinforcement cover or clear spacing, whichever
moments and forces is less, mm
Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry, MPa k = ratio of depth of compressive stress in flexural
e = eccentricity of Puf, mm member to depth, d
emu = maximum usable compressive strain of masonry L = live loads, or related internal moments and
F = loads due to weight and pressure of fluids or forces
related moments and forces Lw = length of wall, mm
Fa = allowable average axial compressive stress in l = length of wall or segment, mm
columns for centroidally applied axial load lb = embedment depth of anchor bolt, mm
only, MPa lbe = anchor bolt edge distance, the least distance
Fb = allowable flexural compressive stress in measured from edge of masonry to surface of
members subjected to bending load only, MPa anchor bolt, mm
Fbr = allowable bearing stress in masonry, MPa ld = required development length of reinforcement,
Fs = allowable stress in reinforcement, MPa mm
Fsc = allowable compressive stress in column M = design moment, kN-m
reinforcement, MPa Ma = maximum moment in member at stage
Ft = allowable flexural tensile stress in masonry, deflection is computed, kN-m
MPa Mc = moment capacity of compression reinforcement
Fv = allowable shear stress in masonry, MPa in flexural member about centroid of tensile
fa = computed axial compressive stress due to design force, kN-m
axial load, MPa Mcr = nominal cracking moment strength in masonry,
fb = computed flexural stress in extreme fiber due to kN-m
design bending loads only, MPa Mm = moment of compressive force in masonry about
fmd = computed compressive stress due to dead load centroid of tensile force in reinforcement, kN-m
only, MPa Mn = nominal moment strength, kN-m
fr = modulus of rupture, MPa Ms = moment of tensile force in reinforcement about
fs = computed stress in reinforcement due to design centroid of compressive force in masonry, kN-m
loads, MPa Mser = service moment at midheight of panel, including
fv = computed shear stress due to design load, MPa P effects, kN-m
fy = tensile yield stress of reinforcement, MPa Mu = factored moment, kN-m
fyh = tensile yield stress of horizontal reinforcement, n = modular ratio
MPa = Es/Em
f’g = specified compressive strength of grout at age of P = design axial load, kN
28 days, MPa Pa = allowable centroidal axial load for reinforced
f’m = specified compressive strength of masonry at masonry columns, kN
age of 28 days, MPa Pb = nominal balanced design axial strength, kN
G = shear modulus of masonry, MPa Pf = load from tributary floor or roof area, kN
H = loads due to weight and pressure of soil, water Pn = nominal axial strength in masonry, kN
in soil or related internal moments and forces Po = nominal axial load strength in masonry without
h = height of wall between points of support, mm flexure, kN
hb = beam depth, mm Pu = factored axial load, kN
Puf = factored load from tributary floor or roof loads,
kN

Puw = factored weight of wall tributary to section

under consideration, kN Reclaimed or previously used masonry units shall meet the
Pw = weight of wall tributary to section under applicable requirements as for new masonry units of the
consideration, kN same material for their intended use.
r = radius of gyration (based on specified unit
dimensions or Tables 711-1, 711-2 and 711-3),
mm 702.2 Standards of Quality
rb = ratio of area of reinforcing bars cut off to total The standards listed below labeled a “UBC Standard” are
area of reinforcing bars at the section. also listed in Chapter 35, Part II of UBC, and are part of
S = section modulus, mm3 this code. The other standards listed below are recognized
S = spacing of stirrups or of bent bars in direction standards. See Sections 3503 and 3504 of UBC.
parallel to that of main reinforcement, mm
T = effects of temperature, creep, shrinkage and 1. Aggregates
differential settlement 1.1 ASTM C144, Aggregates for Masonry Mortar
t = effective thickness of wythe, wall or column,
mm 1.2 ASTM C404, Aggregates for Grout
U = required strength to resist factored loads, or
related internal moments and forces. 2. Cement
u = bond stress per unit of surface area of
2.1 ASTM C91-93, Cement, Masonry. (Plastic
reinforcing bar, MPa
cement conforming to the requirements of UBC
V = total design shear force, kN
Standard 25-1 may be used in lieu of masonry
Vjh = total horizontal joint shear, kN
cement when it also conforms to ASTM C 91-
Vm = nominal shear strength of masonry, kN
93).
Vn = nominal shear strength, kN
Vs = nominal shear strength of shear reinforcement, 2.2 ASTM C150, Portland Cement
kN
2.3 ASTM C270, Mortar Cement
Vu = required shear strength in masonry, kN
W = wind load, or related internal moments in forces
wu = factored distributed lateral load 3. Lime
s = horizontal deflection at mid height under 3.1 ASTM C5-79, Quicklime for Structural
factored load, mm Purposes
u = deflection due to factored loads, mm
3.2 ASTM C207-91, Hydrated Lime for Masonry
 = ratio of area of flexural tensile reinforcement, As, Purposes. When Types N and NA hydrated
to area bd lime are used in masonry mortar, they shall
b = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain comply with the provisions of UBC Standard
conditions ASTM C270-95, Section 21.1506.7, excluding
n = ratio of distributed shear reinforcement on plane the plasticity requirement.
perpendicular to plane of Amv
o = sum of perimeters of all longitudinal 4. Masonry Units of Clay or Shale
reinforcement, mm
4.1 ASTM C34, Structural Clay Load-bearing Wall
f 'm = square root of specified strength of masonry at
Tile
the age of 28 days, MPa
ɸ = strength-reduction factor 4.2 ASTM C56, Structural Clay Nonload-bearing
Tile
4.3 ASTM C62-87, Building Brick (solid units)
SECTION 702
4.4 ASTM C126, Ceramic Glazed Structural Clay
MATERIAL STANDARDS Facing Tile, Facing Brick and Solid Masonry
Units. Load-bearing glazed brick shall conform
to the weathering and structural requirements of
702.1 Quality
ASTM C73-85, Section 21.106, Facing Brick
Materials used in masonry shall conform to the
requirements stated herein. If no requirements are specified 4.5 ASTM C216-86, Facing Brick (solid units)
in this section for a material, quality shall be based on 4.6 ASTM C90-85, Hollow Brick
generally accepted good practice, subject to the approval of
the building official.
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4.7 ASTM C67, Sampling and Testing Brick and 8.3 ASTM C780, Standard Test Method for
Structural Clay Tile Flexural Bond Strength of Mortar Cement
4.8 ASTM C212, Structural Clay Facing Tile 9. Grout
4.9 ASTM C530, Structural Clay Non-Load 9.1 ASTM C1019-84, Method of Sampling and
bearing Screen Tile. Testing Grout
9.2 ASTM C476-83, Grout for Masonry
5. Masonry Units of Concrete
5.1 ASTM C55-85, Concrete Building Brick 10. Reinforcement
5.2 ASTM C90-85, Hollow and Solid Load-bearing 10.1 ASTM A82, Part I, Joint Reinforcement for
Concrete Masonry Units Masonry
5.3 ASTM C129-85, Non–load bearing Concrete 10.2 ASTM A615, A616, A617, A706, A767 and
Masonry Units A775, Deformed and Plain Billet-steel Bars,
Rail-steel Deformed and Plain Bars, Axle-steel
5.4 ASTM C140, Sampling and Testing Concrete
Deformed and Plain Bars, and Deformed Low-
Masonry Units
alloy Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
5.5 ASTM C426, Standard Test Method for Drying
10.3 ASTM A496, Part II, Cold-drawn Steel Wire
Shrinkage of Concrete Block
for Concrete Reinforcement
6. Masonry Units of Other Materials
6.1 Calcium silicate
6.2 ASTM C73-85, Calcium Silicate Face Brick
(Sand-lime Brick)
6.3 ASTM C216, C62 or C652, Unburned Clay
Masonry Units and Standard Methods of
Sampling and ASTM C 67, Testing Unburned
Clay Masonry Units
6.4 ACI-704, Cast Stone
6.5 ASTM E92b, Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Masonry Prisms
7. Connectors
7.1 Wall ties and anchors made from steel wire
shall conform to UBC Standard 21-10, Part II,
and other steel wall ties and anchors shall
conform to A36 in accordance with UBC
Standard 22-1. Wall ties and anchors made
from copper, brass or other nonferrous metal
shall have minimum tensile yield strength of
200 MPa.
7.2 All such items not fully embedded in mortar or
grout shall either be corrosion resistant or shall
be coated after fabrication with copper, zinc or
a metal having at least equivalent corrosion-
resistant properties.
8. Mortar
8.1 ASTM C270-95, Mortar for Unit Masonry and
Reinforced Masonry other than Gypsum
8.2 ASTM C270, Field Tests Specimens for Mortar

703.4.2 Selecting Proportions

SECTION 703 Water content shall be adjusted to provide proper
workability and to enable proper placement under existing
MORTAR AND GROUT field conditions, without segregation. Grout shall be
specified by one of the following methods:
703.1 General
Mortar and grout shall comply with the provisions of this 1. Proportions of ingredients and any additives shall be
section. Special mortars, grouts or bonding systems may be based on laboratory or field experience with the grout
used, subject to satisfactory evidence of their capabilities ingredients and the masonry units to be used.
when approved by the building official. 2. The grout shall be specified by the proportion of its
constituents in terms of parts by volume, or
703.2 Materials
3. Minimum compressive strength which will produce the
Materials used as ingredients in mortar and grout shall required prism strength, or
conform to the applicable requirements in Section 702.
Cementitious materials for grout shall be one or both of the 4. Proportions by grout type shall be used as given in
following: lime and Portland cement. Cementitious Table 703-2.
materials for mortar shall be one or more of the following:
lime, masonry cement, Portland cement and mortar cement. 703.5 Additives and Admixtures
Cementitious materials or additives shall not contain epoxy
resins and derivatives, phenols, asbestos fibers or fire clays. 703.5.1 General
Water used in mortar or grout shall be clean and free of Additives and admixtures to mortar or grout shall not be
deleterious amounts of acid, alkalies or organic material or used unless approved by the building official.
other harmful substances.
703.5.2 Air Entrainment
703.3 Mortar
Air-entraining substances shall not be used in mortar or
grout unless tests are conducted to determine compliance
703.3.1 General
with the requirements of this code.
Mortar shall consist of a mixture of cementitious materials
and aggregate to which sufficient water and approved 703.5.3 Colors
additives, if any, have been added to achieve a workable,
Only pure mineral oxide, carbon black or synthetic colors
plastic consistency.
may be used. Carbon black shall be limited to a maximum
of 3 percent of the weight of the cement.
703.3.2 Selecting Proportions
Mortar with specified proportions of ingredients that differ
from the mortar proportions of Table 703-1 may be
approved for use when it is demonstrated by laboratory or
field experience that this mortar with the specified
proportions of ingredients, when combined with the
masonry units to be used in the structure, will achieve the
specified compressive strength f’m. Water content shall be
adjusted to provide proper workability under existing field
conditions. When the proportion of ingredients is not
specified, the proportions by mortar type shall be used as
given in Table 703-1.
703.4 Grout
703.4.1 General
Grout shall consist of a mixture of cementitious materials
and aggregate to which water has been added such that the
mixture will flow without segregation of the constituents.
The specified compressive strength of grout, f’g, shall not
be less than 15 MPa
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704.3 Placing Masonry Units
SECTION 704 704.3.1 Mortar

CONSTRUCTION The mortar, when used shall be sufficiently plastic and units
shall be placed with sufficient pressure to extrude mortar
704.1 General from the joint and produce a tight joint. Deep furrowing
Masonry shall be constructed according to the provision of which produces voids shall not be used.
this section.
When mortar is used, the initial bed joint thickness shall not
be less than 6 mm or more than 25 mm; subsequent bed
704.2 Materials: Handling, Storage and Preparation joints shall not be less than 6 mm or more than 16 mm in
All materials shall comply with applicable requirements of thickness.
Section 702. Storage, handling and preparation at the site
shall conform also the following: 704.3.2 Surfaces
1. Masonry materials shall be stored so that at the time of Surfaces to be in contact with mortar or grout shall be clean
use the materials are clean and structurally suitable for and free of deleterious materials.
the intended use.
704.3.3 Solid Masonry Units
2. All metal reinforcement shall be free from loose rust Solid masonry units shall have full head and bed joints.
and other coatings that would inhibit reinforcing bond.
3. At the time of laying, burned clay units and sand lime 704.3.4 Hollow-Masonry Units
units shall have an initial rate of absorption not Except for mortarless system all head and bed joints shall
exceeding 1.6 liter per square meter during a period of be filled solidly with mortar for a distance in from the face
one minute. In the absorption test, the surface of the of the unit not less than the thickness of the shell.
unit shall be held 3 mm below the surface of the water.
4. Concrete masonry units shall not be wetted unless Head and bedded joints of open-ends units with beveled
otherwise approved. ends that are to be fully grouted need not be mortared. The
beveled ends shall form a grout key which permits grout
5. Materials shall be stored in a manner such that within 16 mm of the face of the unit. The units shall be
deterioration or intrusion of foreign materials is tightly butted to prevent leakage of grout.
prevented and that the material will be capable of
meeting applicable requirements at the time of mixing 704.4 Reinforcement Placing
or placement.
Reinforcement details shall conform to the requirements of
6. The method of measuring materials for mortar and this chapter. Metal reinforcement shall be located in
grout shall be such that proportions of the materials can accordance with the plans and specifications.
be controlled. Reinforcement shall be secured against displacement prior
to grouting by wire positioners or other suitable devices at
7. Mortar or grout mixed at the job site shall be mixed for
intervals not exceeding 200 bar diameters.
a period of time not less than three minutes or more
than 10 minutes in a mechanical mixer with the amount
Tolerances for the placement of reinforcement in walls and
of water required to provide the desired workability.
flexural elements shall be plus or minus 12 mm for d equal
Hand mixing of small amounts of mortar is permitted.
Mortar may be re-tempered. Mortar or grout which has to 200 mm or less,  25 mm for d equal to 600 mm or less
hardened or stiffened due to hydration of the cement but greater than 200 mm, and 20 mm for d greater than 600
shall not be used. In no case shall mortar be used two mm. Tolerance for longitudinal location of reinforcement
and one-half hours, nor grout used one and one half shall be  500 mm
hours, after the initial mixing water has been added to
the dry ingredients at the jobsite.
Exceptions:
Dry mixes for mortar and grout which are blended in the
factory and mixed at the job site shall be mixed in
mechanical mixers until workable, but not to exceed 10
minutes.

All cells and spaces containing reinforcement shall be filled

704.5 Grouted Masonry with grout.
704.5.1 General Conditions 704.5.2 Construction Requirements

Reinforcement shall be placed prior to grouting. Bolts shall
Grouted masonry shall be constructed in such a manner that be accurately set with templates or by approved equivalent
all elements of the masonry act together as a structural means and held in place to prevent dislocation during
element. grouting.
Prior to grouting, the grout space shall be clean so that all Segregation of the grout materials and damage to the
spaces to be filled with grout do not contain mortar masonry shall be avoided during the grouting process.
projections greater than 12 mm, mortar droppings or other
foreign material. Grout shall be placed so that all spaces Grout shall be consolidated by mechanical vibration during
designated to be grouted shall be filled with grout and the placement before loss of plasticity in a manner to fill the
grout shall be confined to those specific spaces. grout space. Grout pours greater than 300 mm in height
shall be reconsolidated by mechanical vibration to
Grout materials and water content shall be controlled to minimize voids due to water loss. Grout pours 300 mm or
provide adequate fluidity for placement without segregation less in height shall be mechanically vibrated or puddled.
of the constituents, and shall be mixed thoroughly.
In one-storey buildings having wood-frame exterior walls,
The grouting of any section of wall shall be completed in foundations not over 600 mm high measured from the top
one day with no interruptions greater than one hour. of the footing may be constructed of hollow-masonry units
laid in running bond without mortared head joints. Any
Between grout pours, a horizontal construction joint shall standard shape unit may be used, provided the masonry
be formed by stopping all wythes at the same elevation and units permit horizontal flow of grout to adjacent units.
with the grout stopping a minimum of 40 mm below a Grout shall be solidly poured to the full height in one lift
mortar joint, except the top of the wall. Where bond beams and shall be puddled or mechanically vibrated.
occur, the grout pour shall be stopped a minimum of 10 mm
below the top of the masonry. In nonstructural elements which do not exceed 2.4 m in
height above the highest point of lateral support, including
Size and height limitations of the grout space or cell shall fireplaces and residential chimneys, mortar of pouring
not be less than shown in Table 704-1. Higher grout pours consistency may be substituted for grout when the masonry
or smaller cavity widths or cell size than shown in Table is constructed and grouted in pours of 300 mm or less in
704-1 may be used when approved, if it is demonstrated height.
that grout spaces will be properly filled.
In multi-wythe grouted masonry, vertical barriers of
Cleanouts shall be provided for all grout pours over 1.50 m masonry shall be built across the grout space the entire
in height. height of the grout pour and spaced not more than 9 m
horizontally. The grouting of any section of wall between
Where required, cleanouts shall be provided in the bottom barriers shall be completed in one day with no interruption
course at every vertical bar but shall not be spaced more longer than one hour.
than 800 mm on center for solidly grouted masonry. When
cleanouts are required, they shall be sealed after inspection 704.5.3 Aluminum Equipment
and before grouting. Grout shall not be handled nor pumped utilizing aluminum
equipment unless it can be demonstrated with the materials
Where cleanouts are not provided, special provisions must and equipment to be used that there will be no deleterious
be made to keep the bottom and sides of the grout spaces, effect on the strength of the grout.
as well as the minimum total clear area as required by Table
704-1, clean and clear prior to grouting. 704.5.4 Joint Reinforcement
Units may be laid to the full height of the grout pour and Wire joint reinforcement used in the design as principal
grout shall be placed in a continuous pour in grout lifts not reinforcement in hollow-unit construction shall be
exceeding 1.8 m. When approved, grout lifts may be greater continuous between supports unless splices are made by
than 1.8 m if it can be demonstrated the grout spaces can be lapping:
properly filled. 1. Fifty-four wire diameters in a grouted cell, or
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2. Seventy-five wire diameters in the mortared bed joint, SECTION 705 – QUALITY
or
ASSURANCE
3. In alternate bed joints of running bond masonry a
distance not less than 50 diameters plus twice the 705.1 General
spacing of the bed joints, or
Quality assurance shall be provided to ensure that materials,
4. As required by calculation and specific location in construction and workmanship are in compliance with the
areas of minimum stress, such as points of inflection. plans and specifications, and the applicable requirements of
this chapter. When required, inspection records shall be
Side wires shall be deformed and shall conform to ASTM maintained and made available to the building official.
A82 Joint Reinforcement for Masonry.
705.2 Scope
Quality assurance shall include, but is not limited to,
assurance that:
1. Masonry units, reinforcement, cement, lime, aggregate
and all other materials meet the requirements of the
applicable standards of quality and that they are
properly stored and prepared for use.
2. Mortar and grout are properly mixed using specified
proportions of ingredients. The method of measuring
materials for mortar and grout shall be such that
proportions of materials are controlled.
3. Construction details, procedures and workmanship are
in accordance with the plans and specifications.
4. Placement, splices and reinforcement sizes are in
accordance with the provisions of this chapter and the
plans and specifications.
705.3 Compliance with f’m
705.3.1 General
Compliance with the requirements for the specified
compressive strength of masonry f’m shall be in accordance
with one of the sections in this subsection.
The actual compressive strength of masonry f’m shall not be

less that 4 MPa or the minimum requirement of NSCP
Volume on Housing, whichever is lower.
705.3.2 Masonry Prism Testing

The compressive strength of masonry determined in
accordance with ASTM E447 for each set of prisms shall
equal or exceed f’m. Compressive strength of prisms shall
be based on tests at 28 days. Compressive strength at seven
days or three days may be used provided a relationship
between seven-day and three-day and 28-day strength has
been established for the project prior to the start of
construction. Verification by masonry prism testing shall
meet the following:
1. A set of five masonry prisms shall be built and tested in
accordance with ASTM E447 prior to the start of
construction. Materials used for the construction of the
prisms shall be taken from those specified to be used in

the project. Prisms shall be constructed under the

705.3.4 Unit Strength Method
observation of the engineer-of-record or special
inspector or an approved agency and tested by an Verification by the unit strength method shall meet the
approved agency. following:
2. When full allowable stresses are used in design, a set of 1. When full allowable stresses are used in design, units
three prisms shall be built and tested during shall be tested prior to construction and test units
construction in accordance with ASTM E447 for each during construction for each 460 m2 of wall area for
460 m2 of wall area, but not less than one set of three compressive strength to show compliance with the
masonry prisms for the project. compressive strength required in Table 705-1; and
3. When one half the allowable masonry stresses are used Exception:
in design, testing during construction is not required. Prior to the start of construction, prism testing may be used
A letter of certification from the manufacturer and/or in lieu of testing the unit strength. During construction,
supplier of the materials used to verify the f’m in prism testing may also be used in lieu of testing the unit
accordance with Section 705.3.2, Item 1, shall be strength and the grout as required by Section 705.3.4,
provided at the time of, or prior to, delivery of the Item 4.
materials to the job site to ensure the materials used in
construction are representative of the materials used to 2. When one half the allowable masonry stresses are used
construct the prisms prior to construction. in design, testing is not required for the units. A letter
of certification from the manufacturer of the units shall
705.3.3 Masonry Prism Test Record be provided at the time of, or prior to, delivery of the
units to the job site to assure the units comply with the
Compressive strength verification by masonry prism test
compressive strength required in Table 705-1; and
records shall meet the following:
3. Mortar shall comply with the mortar type required in
1. A masonry prism test record approved by the building
Table 705-1; and.
official of at least 30 masonry prisms which were built
and tested in accordance with ASTM E447. Prisms 4. When full stresses are used in design for concrete
shall have been constructed under the observation of an masonry, grout shall be tested for each 460 m2 of wall
engineer or special inspector or an approved agency area, but not less than one test per project, to show
and shall have been tested by an approved agency. compliance with the compressive strength required in
Table 705-1, Footnote 4.
2. Masonry prisms shall be representative of the
corresponding construction. 5. When one half the allowable stresses are used in design
for concrete masonry, testing is not required for the
3. The average compressive strength of the test record
grout. A letter of certification from the supplier of the
shall equal or exceed 1.33 f’m.
grout shall be provided at the time of, or prior to,
4. When full allowable stresses are used in design, a set of delivery of the grout to the job site to assure the grout
three masonry prisms shall be built during construction complies with the compressive strength required in
in accordance with ASTM E 447 for each 460 m2 of Table 705-1, Footnote 4; or
wall area, but not less than one set of three prisms for
6. When full allowable stresses are used in design for clay
the project.
masonry, grout proportions shall be verified by the
5. When one half the allowable masonry stresses are used engineer-of-record or special inspector or an approved
in design, field testing during construction is not agency to conform with Table 703-2.
required. A letter of certification from the supplier of
7. When one half the allowable masonry stresses are used
the materials to the job site shall be provided at the
in design for clay masonry, a letter of certification from
time of, or prior to, delivery of the materials to assure
the supplier of the grout shall be provided at the time
the materials used in construction are representative of
of, or prior to, delivery of the grout to the job site to
the materials used to develop the prism test record in
assure the grout conforms to the proportions of Table
accordance with Section 705.3.3, Item 1.
703-2.
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705.3.5 Testing Prisms from Constructed Masonry SECTION 706 GENERAL DESIGN
When approved by the building official, acceptance of REQUIREMENTS
masonry which does not meet the requirements of Section
705.3.2, 705.3.3 or 705.3.4 shall be permitted to be based 706.1 General
on tests of prisms cut from the masonry construction in
accordance with the following: 706.1.1 Scope
1. A set of three masonry prisms that are at least 28 days The design of masonry structures shall comply with the
old shall be saw cut from the masonry for each 460 m2 allowable stress design provisions of Section 707, or the
of the wall area that is in question but not less than one strength design provisions of Section 708 or the empirical
set of three masonry prisms for the project. The length, design provisions of Section 710, and with the provisions of
width and height dimensions of the prisms shall this section. Unless otherwise stated, all calculations shall
comply with the requirements of ASTM E 447. be made using or based on specified dimensions.
Transporting, preparation and testing of prisms shall be
in accordance with ASTM E 447. 706.1.2 Plans
2. The compressive strength of prisms shall be the value Plans submitted for approval shall describe the required
calculated in accordance with UBC Standard 21-17, design strengths of masonry materials and inspection
Section 21.1707.2, except that the net cross-sectional requirements for which all parts of the structure were
area of the prism shall be based on the net mortar designed, and any load test requirements.
bedded area.
706.1.3 Design Loads
3. Compliance with the requirement for the specified See Chapter 2 for design loads and load combinations.
compressive strength of masonry, f’m, shall be
considered satisfied provided the modified compressive
706.1.4 Stack Bond
strength equals or exceeds the specified f’m. Additional
testing of specimens cut from locations in question In bearing and nonbearing walls, except veneer walls, if
shall be permitted. less than 75 percent of the units in any transverse vertical
plane lap the ends of the units below a distance less than
705.4 Mortar Testing one half the height of the unit, or less than one fourth the
length of the unit, the wall shall be considered laid in stack
When required, mortar shall be tested in accordance with bond.
ASTM C 270.
706.1.5 Multi-wythe Walls
705.5 Grout Testing
When required, grout shall be tested in accordance with 706.1.5.1 General
ASTM C 476-83.
All wythes of multi-wythe walls shall be bonded by grout
or tied together by corrosion-resistant wall ties or joint
705.6 Recycled Aggregates reinforcement conforming to the requirements of Section
Recycled aggregates shall refer to those materials whose 702, and as set forth in this section.
mixtures are part of masonry blocks or concrete debris that
have been crushed for re-use. Recycled aggregates shall 706.1.5.2 Wall Ties in Cavity Wall Construction
pass the necessary tests before considered for re-use.
Wall ties shall be of sufficient length to engage all wythes.
The portion of the wall ties within the wythe shall be
completely embedded in mortar or grout. The ends of the
wall ties shall be bent to 90-degree angles with an extension
not less than 50 mm long. Wall ties not completely
embedded in mortar or grout between wythes shall be a
single piece with each end engaged in each wythe.
There shall be at least one ɸ10 mm wall tie for each 0.40
m2 of wall area. For cavity walls in which the width of the
cavity is greater than 75 mm, but not more than 115 mm, at
least one 10 mm diameter wall tie for each 0.25 m2 of wall
area shall be provided.

Ties in alternate courses shall be staggered. The maximum

vertical distance between ties shall not exceed 600 mm and 706.1.7 Lateral Support
the maximum horizontal distance between ties shall not Lateral support of masonry may be provided by cross walls,
exceed 900 mm. columns, pilasters, counterforts or buttresses where
spanning horizontally or by floors, beams, girts or roofs
Additional ties spaced not more than 900 mm apart shall be where spanning vertically.
provided around openings within a distance of 300 mm
from the edge of the opening. The clear distance between lateral supports of a beam shall
not exceed 32 times the least width of the compression area.
Adjustable wall ties shall meet the following requirements:
1. One tie shall be provided for each 0.16 m2 of wall area. 706.1.8 Protection of Ties and Joint Reinforcement
Horizontal and vertical spacing shall not exceed 400 A minimum of 16 mm mortar cover shall be provided
mm. Maximum misalignment of bed joints from one between ties or joint reinforcement and any exposed face.
wythe to the other shall be 30 mm. The thickness of grout or mortar between masonry units
and joint reinforcement shall not be less than 6mm, except
2. Maximum clearance between the connecting parts of
that 6 mm or smaller diameter reinforcement or bolts may
the tie shall be 1.5 mm. When used, pintle ties shall
be placed in bed joints which are at least twice the thickness
have at least two 5 mm diameter pintle legs.
of the reinforcement or bolts.
Wall ties of different size and spacing that provide
706.1.9 Pipes and Conduits Embedded in Masonry
equivalent strength between wythes may be used.
Pipes or conduit shall not be embedded in any masonry in a
706.1.5.3 Wall Ties for Grouted Multi-wythe manner that will reduce the capacity of the masonry to less
Construction than that necessary for required strength or required fire
protection.
Wythes of multi-wythe walls shall be bonded together with
at least 4.8 mm diameter steel wall tie for each 0.20 m2 of Placement of pipes or conduits in unfilled cores of hollow-
area. Wall ties of different size and spacing that provide unit masonry shall not be considered as embedment.
equivalent strength between wythes may be used.
Exceptions:
706.1.5.4 Joint Reinforcement
Prefabricated joint reinforcement for masonry wall shall 1. Rigid electric conduits may be embedded in structural
have at least one cross wire of at least No. 9 gage steel for masonry when their locations have been detailed on
each 0.20 m2 of wall area. The vertical spacing of the joint the approved plan.
reinforcement shall not exceed 400 mm. The longitudinal 2. Any pipe or conduit may pass vertically or horizontally
wires shall be thoroughly embedded in the bed joint mortar. through any masonry by means of a sleeve at least
The joint reinforcement shall engage all wythes. large enough to pass any hub or coupling on the
pipeline. Such sleeves shall not be placed closer than
Where the space between tied wythes is solidly filled with three diameters, center to center, nor shall they unduly
grout or mortar, the allowable stresses and other provisions impair the strength of construction.
for masonry bonded walls shall apply. Where the space is
not filled, tied walls shall conform to the allowable stress, 706.1.10 Load Test
lateral support, thickness (excluding cavity), height and tie When a load test is required, the member or portion of the
requirements for cavity walls. structure under consideration shall be subjected to a
superimposed load equal to twice the design live load plus
706.1.6 Vertical Support one half of the dead load: 0.5D + 0.2L
Structural members providing vertical support of masonry
shall provide a bearing surface on which the initial bed joint This load shall be left in position for a period of 24 hours
shall not be less than 6 mm or more than 25 mm in before removal. If, during the test or upon removal of the
thickness and shall be of noncombustible material, except load, the member or portion of the structure shows evidence
where masonry is a nonstructural decorative feature or of failure, such changes or modifications as are necessary to
wearing surface. make the structure adequate for the rated capacity shall be
made; or where approved, a lower rating shall be
established.
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A flexural member shall be considered to have passed the reinforcement or by horizontal reinforcement spaced
test if the maximum deflection D at the end of the 24-hour not over 1.2 m and fully embedded in grout or mortar.
period does not exceed the value of Formula (706-1) or
5. The following materials shall not be used as part of the
(706-2) and the beams and slabs show a recovery of at least
vertical or lateral load-resisting system: Type O
75 percent of the observed deflection within 24 hours after
mortar, masonry cement, plastic cement, non-load
removal of the load.
bearing masonry units and glass block.
1
D (706-1)
200 706.1.12.3 Special Provisions for Seismic Zone 4
All masonry structures built in Seismic Zone 4 shall be
12 designed and constructed in accordance with requirements
D (706-2)
4,000t for Seismic Zone 2 and with the following additional
requirements and limitations:
706.1.11 Reuse of Masonry Units
1. Column Reinforcement Ties
Masonry units may be reused when clean, whole and
conforming to the other requirements of this section. All In columns that are stressed by tensile or compressive axial
structural properties of masonry of reclaimed units shall be overturning forces from seismic loading, the spacing of
determined by approved test. column ties shall not exceed 200 mm for the full height of
such columns.
706.1.12 Special Provisions in Area of Seismic Risk
In all other columns, ties shall be spaced a maximum of
706.1.12.1 General 0.20 m in the tops and bottoms of the columns for a
distance of the greatest among (1) one sixth of the clear
Masonry structures constructed in the seismic zones shown column height, (2) 450 mm, or (3) the maximum column
in Figure 208-1 shall be designed in accordance with the cross-sectional dimension.
design requirements of this chapter and the special
provisions for each seismic zone given in this section.
Tie spacing for the remaining column height shall not
exceed the lesser of 16 bar diameters, 48 tie diameters, the
706.1.12.2 Special Provisions for Seismic Zone 2 least column cross-sectional dimension, or 450 mm.
Masonry structures in Seismic Zone 2 shall comply with the
following special provisions: Column ties shall terminate with a minimum 135-degree
1. Columns shall be reinforced as specified in Sections hook with extensions not less than six bar diameters or 100
706.3.6, 706.3.7 and 707.2.13. mm. Such extensions shall engage the longitudinal column
reinforcement and project into the interior of the column.
2. Vertical wall reinforcement of at least 130 mm2 in Hooks shall comply with Section 707.2.2.5, Item 3.
cross-sectional area shall be provided continuously
from support to support at each corner, at each side of Exceptions:
each opening, at the ends of walls and at maximum Where ties are placed in horizontal bed joints, hooks shall
spacing of 1.20 m apart horizontally throughout walls. consist of a 90-degree bend having an inside radius of not
3. Horizontal wall reinforcement not less than 130 mm2 in less than four tie diameters plus an extension of 32 tie
cross-sectional area shall be provided (1) at the bottom diameters.
and top of wall openings and shall extend not less than
600 mm or less than 40 bar diameters past the opening, 2. Shear Walls
(2) continuously at structurally connected roof and
floor levels and at the top of walls, (3) at the bottom of 2.1 Reinforcement
walls or in the top of foundations when doweled in The portion of the reinforcement required to resist shear
walls, and (4) at maximum spacing of 3.0 m unless shall be uniformly distributed and shall be joint
uniformly distributed joint reinforcement is provided. reinforcement, deformed bars or a combination thereof.
Reinforcement at the top and bottom of openings when The spacing of reinforcement in each direction shall not
continuous in walls may be used in determining the exceed one half the length of the element, nor one half the
maximum spacing specified in Item 1 of this height of the element, nor 1.2 m.
paragraph.
Joint reinforcement used in exterior walls and considered in
4. Where stack bond is used, the minimum horizontal
the determination of the shear strength of the member shall
reinforcement ratio shall be 0.0007bt. This ratio shall
be hot-dipped galvanized in accordance with ASTM A 385
be satisfied by uniformly distributed joint
& A 641.

Reinforcement required to resist in-plane shear shall be

terminated with a standard hook as defined in Section 4. Concrete Abutting Structural Masonry
707.2.2.5 or with an extension of proper embedment length Concrete abutting structural masonry, such as at starter
beyond the reinforcement at the end of the wall section. courses or at wall intersections not designed as true
The hook or extension may be turned up, down or separation joints, shall be roughened to a full amplitude of
horizontally. Provisions shall be made not to obstruct grout 1.5 mm and shall be bonded to the masonry in accordance
placement. Wall reinforcement terminating in columns or with the requirements of this chapter as if it were masonry.
beams shall be fully anchored into these elements. Unless keys or proper reinforcement is provided, vertical
joints as specified in Section 706.1.4 shall be considered to
2.2 Bond be stack bond and the reinforcement as required for stack
Multi-wythe grouted masonry shear walls shall be designed bond shall extend through the joint and be anchored into the
with consideration of the adhesion bond strength between concrete.
the grout and masonry units. When bond strengths are not
known from previous tests, the bond strength shall be 706.2 Allowable Stress Design and Strength Design
determined by tests. Requirements for Unreinforced and Reinforced
Masonry
2.3 Wall Reinforcement
All walls shall be reinforced with both vertical and 706.2.1 General
horizontal reinforcement. The sum of the areas of In addition to the requirements of Section 706.1, the design
horizontal and vertical reinforcement shall be at least 0.002 of masonry structures by the allowable stress design method
times the gross cross-sectional area of the wall, and the and strength design method shall comply with the
minimum area of reinforcement in either direction shall not requirements of this section. Additionally, the design of
be less than 0.0007 times the gross cross-sectional area of reinforced masonry structures by these design methods
the wall. The minimum steel requirements for Seismic shall comply with the requirements of Section 706.3.
Zone 2 in Section 706.1.12.2, Items 2 and 3, may be
included in the sum. The spacing of reinforcement shall not 706.2.2 Specified Compressive Strength of Masonry
exceed 1.2 m. The diameter of reinforcement shall not be The allowable stresses for the design of masonry shall be
less than 10 mm except that joint reinforcement may be based on value of f’m selected for the construction.
considered as a part or all of the requirement for minimum
reinforcement. Reinforcement shall be continuous around Verification of the value of f’m shall be based on
wall corners and through intersections. Only reinforcement compliance with Section 705.3. Unless otherwise specified,
which is continuous in the wall or element shall be f’m shall be based on 28-day tests. If other than a 28-day test
considered in computing the minimum area of age is used, the value of f’m shall be as indicated in design
reinforcement. Reinforcement with splices conforming to drawings or specifications. Design drawings shall show the
Section 707.2.2.6 shall be considered as continuous value of f’m for which each part of the structure is designed.
reinforcement.
706.2.3 Effective Thickness
2.4 Stack Bond
Where stack bond is used, the minimum horizontal 706.2.3.1 Single-Wythe Walls
reinforcement ratio shall be 0.0015bt. Where open-end
The effective thickness of single-wythe walls of either solid
units are used and grouted solid, the minimum horizontal or hollow units is the specified thickness of the wall.
reinforcement ratio shall be 0.0007bt.
706.2.3.2 Multi-wythe Walls
Reinforced hollow-unit stacked bond construction which is
part of the seismic-resisting system shall use open-end units The effective thickness of multi-wythe walls is the specified
so that all head joints are made solid, shall use bond beam thickness of the wall if the space between wythes is filled
units to facilitate the flow of grout and shall be grouted with mortar or grout. For walls with an open space between
solid. wythes, the effective thickness shall be determined as for
cavity walls.
3. Type N Mortar
Type N mortar shall not be used as part of the vertical-or
lateral-load-resisting system.
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of the wall parallel to the shear forces may be assumed to

706.2.3.3 Cavity Walls carry horizontal shear.
Where both wythes of a cavity wall are axially loaded, each
wythe shall be considered to act independently and the 706.2.7 Distribution of Concentrated Vertical Loads in
effective thickness of each wythe is as defined in Section Walls
706.2.3.1. Where only one wythe is axially loaded, the The length of wall laid up in running bond which may be
effective thickness of the cavity wall is taken as the square considered capable of working at the maximum allowable
root of the sum of the squares of the specified thicknesses compressive stress to resist vertical concentrated loads shall
of the wythes. not exceed the center-to-center distance between such
loads, nor the width of bearing area plus four times the wall
Where a cavity wall is composed of a single wythe and a thickness. Concentrated vertical loads shall not be assumed
multi-wythe, and both sides are axially loaded, each side of to be distributed across continuous vertical mortar or
the cavity wall shall be considered to act independently and control joints unless elements designed to distribute the
the effective thickness of each side is as defined in Sections concentrated vertical loads are employed.
706.2.3.1 and 706.2.3.2. Where only one side is axially
loaded, the effective thickness of the cavity wall is the 706.2.8 Loads on Nonbearing Walls
square root of the sum of the squares of the specified Masonry walls used as interior partitions or as exterior
thicknesses of the sides. surfaces of a building which do not carry vertical loads
imposed by other elements of the building shall be designed
706.2.3.4 Columns to carry their own weight plus any superimposed finish and
The effective thickness for rectangular columns in the lateral forces. Bonding or anchorage of nonbearing walls
direction considered is the specified thickness. The shall be adequate to support the walls and to transfer lateral
effective thickness for non-rectangular columns is the forces to the supporting elements.
thickness of the square column with the same moment of
inertia about its axis as that about the axis considered in the 706.2.9 Vertical Deflection
actual column. Elements supporting masonry shall be designed so that their
vertical deflection will not exceed 1/600 of the clear span
706.2.4 Effective Height under total loads. Lintels shall bear on supporting masonry
The effective height of columns and walls shall be taken as on each end such that allowable stresses in the supporting
the clear height of members laterally supported at the top masonry are not exceeded. A minimum bearing length of
and bottom in a direction normal to the member axis 100 mm shall be provided for lintels bearing on masonry.
considered. For members not supported at the top normal
to the axis considered, the effective height is twice the 706.2.10 Structural Continuity
height of the member above the support. Effective height Intersecting structural elements intended to act as a unit
less than clear height may be used if justified. shall be anchored together to resist the design forces.
706.2.5 Effective Area 706.2.11 Walls Intersecting with Floors and

The effective cross-sectional area shall be based on the Roofs
minimum bedded area of hollow units, or the gross area of Walls shall be anchored to all floors, roofs or other
solid units plus any grouted area. Where hollow units are elements which provide lateral support for the wall. Where
used with cells perpendicular to the direction of stress, the floors or roofs are designed to transmit horizontal forces to
effective area shall be the lesser of the minimum bedded walls, the anchorage to such walls shall be designed to
area or the minimum cross-sectional area. Where bed joints resist the horizontal force.
are raked, the effective area shall be correspondingly
reduced. Effective areas for cavity walls shall be that of the 706.2.12 Modulus of Elasticity of Materials
loaded wythes.
706.2.12.1 Modulus of Elasticity of Masonry
706.2.6 Effective Width of Intersecting Walls
The moduli for masonry may be estimated as provided
Where a shear wall is anchored to an intersecting wall or below. Actual values, where required, shall be established
walls, the width of the overhanging flange formed by the by test. The modulus of elasticity of masonry shall be
intersected wall on either side of the shear wall, which may determined by the secant method in which the slope of the
be assumed working with the shear wall for purposes of line for the modulus of elasticity is taken from 0.05 f’m to a
flexural stiffness calculations, shall not exceed six times the point on the curve at 0.33 f’m. These values are not to be
thickness of the intersected wall. Limits of the effective reduced by one half as set forth in Section 707.1.2.
flange may be waived if justified. Only the effective area

Modulus of elasticity of clay or shale unit masonry. distributed to the wythes according to their respective
flexural rigidities.
Em = 750 f’m, 20.5 GPa maximum (706-3)
706.3 Alternative Strength Design (ASD) and Strength
Modulus of elasticity of concrete unit masonry.
Design Requirements for Reinforced Masonry
Em = 750 f’m, 20.5 GPa maximum (706-4)
706.3.1 General
706.2.12.2 Modulus of Elasticity of Steel In addition to the requirements of Sections 706.1 and 706.2,
Es=200 GPa (706-5) the design of reinforced masonry structures by the working
stress design method or the strength design method shall
706.2.13 Shear Modulus of Masonry comply with the requirements of this section.
G = 0.4 Em (706-6) 706.3.2 Plain Bars

The use of plain bars larger than 6 mm in diameter is not
706.2.14 Placement of Embedded Anchor Bolts permitted.
706.2.14.1 General 706.3.3 Spacing of Longitudinal Reinforcement
Placement requirements for plate anchor bolts, headed The clear distance between parallel bars, except in columns,
anchor bolts and bent bar anchor bolts shall be determined shall not be less than the nominal diameter of the bars or 25
in accordance with this subsection. Bent bar anchor bolts mm, except that bars in a splice may be in contact. This
shall have a hook with a 90-degree bend with an inside clear distance requirement applies to the clear distance
diameter of three bolt diameters, plus an extension of one between a contact splice and adjacent splices or bars.
and one half bolt diameters at the free end. Plate anchor
bolts shall have a plate welded to the shank to provide The clear distance between the surface of a bar and any
anchorage equivalent to headed anchor bolts. surface of a masonry unit shall not be less than 6 mm for
fine grout and 12 mm for coarse grout. Cross webs of
The effective embedment depth lb for plate or headed hollow units may be used as support for horizontal
anchor bolts shall be the length of embedment measured reinforcement.
perpendicular from the surface of the masonry to the
bearing surface of the plate or head of the anchorage, and lb
706.3.4 Anchorage of Flexural Reinforcement
for bent bar anchors shall be the length of embedment
measured perpendicular from the surface of the masonry to The tension or compression in any bar at any section shall
the bearing surface of the bent end minus one anchor bolt be developed on each side of that section by the required
diameter. All bolts shall be grouted in place with at least 25 development length. The development length of the bar
mm of grout between the bolt and the masonry, except that may be achieved by a combination of an embedment length,
6 mm bolts may be placed in bed joints which area at least anchorage or, for tension only, hooks.
12 mm in thickness.
Except at supports or at the free end of cantilevers, every
706.2.14.2 Minimum Edge Distance reinforcing bar shall be extended beyond the point at which
it is no longer needed to resist tensile stress for a distance
The minimum anchor bolt edge distance lbe measured from equal to 12 bar diameters or the depth of the beam,
the edge of the masonry parallel with the anchor bolt to the whichever is greater. No flexural bar shall be terminated in
surface of the anchor bolt shall be 38 mm. a tensile zone unless at least one of the following conditions
is satisfied:
706.2.14.3 Minimum Embedment Depth
The minimum embedment depth of anchor bolts lb shall be 1. The shear is not over one half that permitted, including
four bolt diameters but not less than 50 mm. allowance for shear reinforcement where provided.
2. Additional shear reinforcement in excess of that
706.2.14.4 Minimum Spacing between Bolts required is provided each way from the cutoff a
The minimum center-to-center distance between anchor distance equal to the depth of the beam. The shear
bolts shall be four bolt diameters. reinforcement spacing shall not exceed d/8rb.
3. The continuing bars provide double the area required
706.2.15 Flexural Resistance of Cavity Walls for flexure at that point or double the perimeter
For computing the flexural resistance of cavity walls, lateral required for reinforcing bond.
loads perpendicular to the plane of the wall shall be
th
At least one third of the total reinforcement provided for project beyond the end of the bend at least 12 stirrup
negative moment at the support shall be extended beyond diameters.
the extreme position of the point of inflection a distance
sufficient to develop one half the allowable stress in the bar, 706.3.6 Lateral Ties
not less than 1/16 of the clear span, or the depth d of the All longitudinal bars for columns shall be enclosed by
member, whichever is greater. lateral ties. Lateral support shall be provided to the
longitudinal bars by the corner of a complete tie having an
Tensile reinforcement for negative moment in any span of a included angle of not more than 135 degrees or by a
continuous restrained or cantilever beam, or in any member standard hook at the end of a tie. The corner bars shall have
of a rigid frame, shall be adequately anchored by such support provided by a complete tie enclosing the
reinforcement bond, hooks or mechanical anchors in or longitudinal bars. Alternate longitudinal bars shall have
through the supporting member. such lateral support provided by ties and no bar shall be
farther than 150 mm from such laterally supported bar.
At least one third of the required positive moment
reinforcement in simple beams or at the freely supported Lateral ties and longitudinal bars shall be placed not less
end of continuous beams shall extend along the same face than 38 mm and not more than 125 mm from the surface of
of the beam into the support at least 150 mm. At least one the column. Lateral ties may be placed against the
fourth of the required positive moment reinforcement at the longitudinal bars or placed in the horizontal bed joints
continuous end of continuous beams shall extend along the where the requirements of Section 706.1.8 are met.
same face of the beam into the support at least 150 mm. Spacing of ties shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar
diameters, 48 tie diameters or the least dimension of the
Compression reinforcement in flexural members shall be column but not more than 450 mm.
anchored by ties or stirrups not less than 6 mm in diameter,
spaced not farther apart than 16 bar diameters or 48 tie Ties shall be at least 6 mm in diameter for 20 mm or
diameters, whichever is less. Such ties or stirrups shall be smaller longitudinal bars and at least 10 mm for
used throughout the distance where compression longitudinal bars larger than 20 mm. Ties smaller than 10
reinforcement is required. mm may be used for longitudinal bars larger than 20 mm,
provided the total cross-sectional area of such smaller ties
706.3.5 Anchorage of Shear Reinforcement. crossing a longitudinal plane is equal to that of the larger
Single, separate bars used as shear reinforcement shall be ties at their required spacing.
anchored at each end by one of the following methods:
706.3.7 Column Anchor Bolt Ties
1. Hooking tightly around the longitudinal reinforcement
through 180 degrees. Additional ties shall be provided around anchor bolts which
are set in the top of columns. Such ties shall engage at least
2. Embedment above or below the mid-depth of the beam four bolts or, alternately, at least four vertical column bars
on the compression side a distance sufficient to or a combination of bolts and bars totaling at least four.
develop the stress in the bar for plain or deformed bars. Such ties shall be located within the top 125 mm of the
3. By a standard hook, as defined in Section 707.2.2.5, column and shall provide a total of 260 mm2 or more in
considered as developing 50 MPa, plus embedment cross-sectional area. The uppermost tie shall be within 50
sufficient to develop the remainder of the stress to mm of the top of the column.
which the bar is subjected. The effective embedded
length shall not be assumed to exceed the distance 706.3.8 Effective Width B of Compression Area
between the mid-depth of the beam and the tangent of In computing flexural stresses in walls where reinforcement
the hook. occurs, the effective width assumed for running bond
masonry shall not exceed six times the nominal wall
The ends of bars forming a single U or multiple U stirrup thickness or the center-to-center distance between
shall be anchored by one of the methods set forth in Items 1 reinforcement. Where stack bond is used, the effective
through 3 above or shall be bent through an angle of at least width shall not exceed three times the nominal wall
90 degrees tightly around a longitudinal reinforcing bar not thickness or the center-to-center distance between
less in diameter than the stirrup bar, and shall project reinforcement or the length of one unit, unless solid grouted
beyond the bend at least 12 stirrup diameters. open-end units are used.
The loops or closed ends of simple U or multiple U stirrups

shall be anchored by bending around the longitudinal
reinforcement through an angle of at least 90 degrees and

SECTION 707 – ALLOWABLE 707.1.4 Design Assumptions

The working stress design procedure is based on working
STRESS DESIGN (ASD) OF stresses and linear stress-strain distribution assumptions
MASONRY with all stresses in the elastic range as follows:
1. Plane sections before bending remain plane after
707.1 General
bending.
707.1.1 Scope 2. Stress is proportional to strain.
The design of masonry structures using allowable stress 3. Masonry elements combine to form a homogenous
design shall comply with the provisions of Section 706 and member.
this section. Stresses in clay or concrete masonry under
service loads shall not exceed the values given in this 707.1.5 Embedded Anchor Bolts
section.
707.1.5.1 General
707.1.2 Allowable Masonry Stresses
Allowable loads for plate anchor bolts, headed anchor bolts
When quality assurance provisions do not include and bent bar anchor bolts shall be determined in accordance
requirements for special inspection as prescribed in Section with this section.
701, the allowable stresses for masonry in Section 707 shall
be reduced by one half. 707.1.5.2 Tension
When one half allowable masonry stresses are used in Allowable loads in tension shall be the lesser value selected
Seismic Zone 4, the value of f’m from Table 705-1 shall be from Table 707-1 and 707-2 or shall be determined from
limited to a maximum of 10 MPa for concrete masonry and the lesser of Formula (707-1) or Formula (707-2).
18 MPa for clay masonry unless the value of f’m is verified
Bt  0.042 Ap f 'm (707-1)
by tests in accordance with Section 705.3.4, Items 1 and 4
or 6. A letter of certification is not required. Bt = 0.2 Abfy (707-2)
When one half allowable masonry stresses are used for The area Ap shall be the lesser of Formula (707-3) or
design in Seismic Zones 4, the value of f’m shall be limited Formula (707-4) and where the projected areas of adjacent
to 10 MPa for concrete masonry and 18 MPa for clay anchor bolts everlap, Ap of each anchor bolt shall be
masonry for Section 705.3.2, Item 3, and Section 705.3.3, reduced by one half of the overlapping area.
Item 5, unless the value of f’m is verified during
construction by the testing requirements of Section 705.3.2, Ap =  lb2 (707-3)
Item 2. A letter of certification is not required.
Ap =  lbe2 (707-4)
707.1.3 Minimum Dimensions for Masonry Structures
707.1.5.3 Shear
Located in Seismic Zones 2 and 4
Elements of masonry structures located in Seismic Zones 2 Allowable loads in shear shall be the value selected from
Table 707-3 or shall be determined from the lesser of
and 4 shall be in accordance with this section.
Formula (707-5) or Formula (707-6).
707.1.3.1 Bearing Walls B y  1070 4 f 'm Ab (707-5)
The nominal thickness of reinforced masonry bearing walls
shall not be less than 150 mm except that nominal 100 mm Bv = 0.12 Abfy (707-6)
load-bearing reinforced hollow-clay unit masonry walls
may be used, provided net area unit strength exceeds 55 Where the anchor bolt edge distance lbe in the direction of
MPa, units are laid in running bond, bar sizes do not exceed load is less than 12 bolt diameters, the value of Bv in
12 mm with no more than two bars or one splice in a cell, Formula (707-5) shall be reduced by linear interpolation to
and joints are flush cut, concave or a protruding V section. zero at an lbe distance of 40 mm. Where adjacent anchors
are spaced closer than 8db, the allowable shear of the
707.1.3.2 Columns adjacent anchors determined by Formula (707-5) shall be
The least nominal dimension of a reinforced masonry reduced by linear interpolation to 0.75 times the allowable
column shall be 300 mm except that, for ASD, if the shear value at a center-to-center spacing of four bolt
allowable stresses are reduced by one half, the minimum diameters.
nominal dimension shall be 200 mm.
th
707.1.5.4 Combined Shear and Tension 707.1.8.2 Determination of Modulus of Elasticity

Anchor bolts subjected to combined shear and tension shall The modulus of elasticity of each type of masonry in
be designed in accordance with: composite construction shall be measured by tests if the
modular ratio of the respective types of masonry exceeds 2
bt bv to 1 as determined by Section 706.2.12.
  1.0 (707-7)
Bt Bv
707.1.8.3 Structural Continuity
707.1.6 Compression in Walls and Columns
707.1.8.3.1 Bonding of Wythes
707.1.6.1 Walls, Axial Loads All wythes of composite masonry elements shall be tied
Stresses due to compressive forces applied at the centroid together as specified in Section 706.1.5.2 as a minimum
of wall may be computed, assuming uniform distribution requirement. Additional ties or the combination of grout
over the effective area, by and metal ties shall be provided to transfer the calculated
stress.
fa = P/Ae (707-8)
707.1.8.3.2 Material Properties
707.1.6.2 Columns, Axial Loads
The effect of dimensional changes of the various materials
Stresses due to compressive forces applied at the centroid and different boundary conditions of various wythes shall
of columns may be computed by Formula (707-8) assuming be included in the design.
uniform distribution over the effective area.
707.1.8.4 Design Procedure, Transformed Sections
707.1.6.3 Columns, Bending or Combined Bending and
Axial Loads In the design of transformed sections, one material is
chosen as the reference material, and the other materials are
Stresses in columns due to combined bending and axial transformed to an equivalent area of the reference material
loads shall satisfy the requirements of Section 707.2.7 by multiplying the areas of the other materials by the
where fa/Fa is replaced by P/Pa. Columns subjected to respective ratios of the modulus of elasticity of the other
bending shall meet all applicable requirements for flexural materials to that of the reference material. Thickness of the
design. transformed area and its distance perpendicular to a given
bending axis remain unchanged. Effective height or length
707.1.7 Shear Walls, Design Loads of the element remains unchanged.
When calculating shear or diagonal tension stresses, shear
walls which resist seismic forces in Seismic Zone 4 shall be 707.1.9 Reuse of Masonry Units
designed to resist 1.5 times the forces required by Section The allowable working stresses for reused masonry units
208.5. shall not exceed 50 percent of those permitted for new
masonry units of the same properties.
707.1.8 Design, Composite Construction
707.2 Design of Reinforced Masonry
707.1.8.1 General
The requirements of this section govern multi-wythe 707.2.1 Scope
masonry in which at least one wythe has strength or The requirements of this section are in addition to the
composition characteristics different from the other wythe requirements of Sections 706 and 707.1, and govern
or wythes and is adequately bonded to act as a single masonry in which reinforcement is used to resist forces.
structural element.
Walls with openings used to resist lateral loads whose pier
The following assumptions shall apply to the design of and beam elements are within the dimensional limits of
composite masonry: Section 708.2.6.1.2 may be designed in accordance with
1. Analysis shall be based on elastic transformed section Section 708.2.6. Walls used to resist lateral loads not
of the net area. meeting the dimensional limits of Section 708.2.6.1.2 may
be designed as walls in accordance with this section or
2. The maximum computed stress in any portion of Section 708.2.5.
composite masonry shall not exceed the allowable
stress for the material of that portion.

707.2.2 Reinforcement 3. Inside diameter of bend for 16 mm or smaller stirrups

and ties shall not be less than four bar diameter.
707.2.2.1 Maximum Reinforcement Size Inside diameter of bend for 16 mm or larger stirrups
The maximum size of reinforcement shall be 32 mm. and ties shall not be less than that set forth in Table
Maximum reinforcement area in cells shall be 6 percent of 707-4.
the cell area without splices and 12 percent of the cell area 4. Hooks shall not be permitted in the tension portion of
with splices. any beam, except at the ends of simple or cantilever
beams or at the freely supported end of continuous or
707.2.2.2 Cover restrained beams.
All reinforcing bars, except joint reinforcement, shall be 5. Hooks shall not be assumed to carry a load which
completely embedded in mortar or grout and have a
would produce a tensile stress in the bar greater than 52
minimum cover, including the masonry unit, of at least 20 MPa.
mm, 40 mm of cover when the masonry is exposed to
weather and 50 mm of cover when the masonry is exposed 6. Hooks shall not be considered effective in adding to the
to soil. compressive resistance of bars.
7. Any mechanical device capable of developing the
707.2.2.3 Development Length strength of the bar without damage to the masonry may
The required development length ld for deformed bars or be used in lieu of a hook. Data must be presented to
deformed wire shall be calculated by: show the adequacy of such devices.
ld = 0.29 db fs for bars in tension (707-9)
707.2.2.6 Splices
ld = 0.22 db fs for bars in compression (707-10)
The amount of lap of lapped splices shall be sufficient to
transfer the allowable stress of the reinforcement as
Development length for smooth bars shall be twice the specified in Sections 706.3.4, 707.2.2.3 and 707.2.12. In no
length determined by Formula (707-9). case shall the length of the lapped splice be less than 30 bar
diameters for compression or 40 bar diameters for tension.
707.2.2.4 Reinforcement Bond Stress
Bond stress u in reinforcing bars shall not exceed the Welded or mechanical connections shall develop 125
following: percent of the specified yield strength of the bar in tension.
Plain Bars 410 kPa Exception:

Deformed Bars 1370 kPa For compression bars in columns that are not part of the
Deformed Bars without seismic-resisting system and are not subject to flexure, only
Special Inspection 690 kPa the compressive strength need be developed.
When adjacent splices in grouted masonry are separated by

707.2.2.5 Hooks
76 mm or less, the required lap length shall be increased 30
1. The term “standard hook” shall mean one of the percent.
following:
Exception:
1.1 A 180-degree turn plus extension of at least 4
Where lap splices are staggered at least 24 bars diameters,
bar diameters, but not less than 63mm at free
no increase in lap length is required.
end of bar.
1.2 A 90-degree turn plus extension of at least 12 See Section 707.2.12 for lap splice increases.
bar diameters at free end of bar.
707.2.3 Design Assumptions
1.3 For stirrup and tie anchorage only, either a 90-
degree or a 135-degree turn, plus an extension of The following assumptions are in addition to those stated in
at least six bar diameters, but not less than 65 Section 707.1.4:
mm at the free end of the bar. 1. Masonry carries no tensile stress.
2. Inside diameter of bend of the bars, other than for 2. Reinforcement is completely surrounded by and
stirrups and ties, shall not be less than that set forth in bonded to masonry material so that they work together
Table 707-4 as a homogenous material within the range of
allowable working stresses.
th
707.2.4 Nonrectangular Flexural Elements Where shear reinforcement designed to take entire shear
Flexural elements of nonrectangular cross section shall be force is provided, the allowable shear stress, Fv in flexural
designed in accordance with the assumptions given in members is:
Sections 707.1.4 and 707.2.3.
Fv  0.25 f 'm , 1.0 MPa maximum (707-18)
707.2.5 Allowable Axial Compressive Stress and Force
For members other than reinforced masonry columns, the 707.2.9 Allowable Shear Stress in Shear Walls
allowable axial compressive stress Fa shall be determined Where inplane flexural reinforcement is provided and
as follows: masonry is used to resist all shear, the allowable shear
2
stress Fv in shear wall is:
 h' 
Fa  0.25 f ' m [1    ] (707-11)
 140r  M M
Fv  1 36 (4  ) f ' m (80  45 ) maximum
for h’/ r  99 Vd Vd
2
(707-19)
 70r 
Fa  0.25 f 'm   (707-12)
 h'  For M Vd  1, Fv  1 12 f 'm , 240 kPa maximum
for h’/r > 99 (707-20)
For reinforced masonry columns, the allowable axial Where shear reinforcement designed to take all the shear is
compressive force Pa shall be determined as follows: provided, the allowable shear stress Fv, in shear walls is:
2
 h'  For M/Vd < 1,
Pa  [0.25 f 'm Ae  0.65 As Fsc ][1  ] (707-13)
 140r  M M
for h’/r  99 Fv  1 24 (4  ) f 'm, (120  45 ) maximum
Vd Vd
70r (707-21)
Pa  [0.25 f 'm Ae  0.65 As Fsc ][ ] (707-14)
h' M Vd  1, Fv  0.12 f ' m , 520 kPa maximum
for h’/r > 99
(707-22)
707.2.6 Allowable Flexural Compressive Stress
707.2.10 Allowable Bearing Stress
The allowable flexural compressive stress Fb is:
When a member bears on the full area of a masonry
Fb  0.33 f ' m , 13.8 MPa maximum (707-15) element, the allowable bearing stress Fbr is:
Fbr = 0.26 f’m (707-23)
707.2.7 Combined Compressive Stresses, Unity
Formula When a member bears on one third or less of a masonry
Elements subjected to combined axial and flexural stresses element, the allowable bearing stress Fbr is:
shall be designed in accordance with accepted principles of
mechanics or in accordance with Formula (707-16): Fbr = 0.38 f’m (707-24)
f a fb Formula (707-24) applies only when the least dimension

 1 (707-16)
Fa Fb between the edges of the loaded and unloaded areas is a
minimum of one fourth of the parallel side dimension of the
loaded area. The allowable bearing stress on a reasonably
707.2.8 Allowable Shear Stress in Flexural Members
concentric area greater than one third but less than the full
Where no shear reinforcement is provided, the allowable area shall be interpolated between the values of Formulas
shear stress Fv in flexural members is: (707-23) and (707-24).
Fv  0.083 f ' m , 345 kPa maximum (707-17)
Exception:
For a distance of 1/16 the clear span beyond the point of
inflection, the maximum stress shall be 140 kPa.

707.2.14.2 Walls, Bending or Combined Bending and

707.2.11 Allowable Stresses in Reinforcement Axial Loads
The allowable stresses in reinforcement shall be as follows: Stresses in walls due to combined bending and axial loads
shall satisfy the requirements of Section 707.2.7 where fa is
1. Tensile Stress given by Formula (707-8). Walls subjected to bending with
or without axial loads shall meet all applicable requirements
1.1 Deformed bars, for flexural design. The design of walls with an h’/t ratio
Fs = 0.5 fy , 165 MPa maximum (707-25) larger than 30 shall be based on forces and moments
determined from an analysis of the structure. Such analysis
1.2 Wire reinforcement, shall consider the influence of axial loads and variable
Fs = 0.5 fy , 200 MPa maximum (707-26) moment of inertia on member stiffness and fixed-end
moments, effect of deflections on moments and forces and
1.3 Ties, anchors and smooth bars, the effects of duration of loads.
Fs = 0.4 fy , 140 MPa maximum (707-27)
707.2.15 Flexural Design, Rectangular Flexural
2. Compressive Stress Elements
Rectangular elements shall be designed in accordance with
2.1 Deformed bars in columns,
the following formulas or other methods based on the
Fsc = 0.4 fy , 165 MPa maximum (707-28) assumptions given in Sections 707.1.4, 707.2.3 and this
section.
2.2 Deformed bars in flexural members,
1. Compressive stress in the masonry:
Fs = 0.5 fy , 165 MPa maximum (707-29)
M 2
2.3 Deformed bars in shear walls which are confined by fb  2
)( (707-31)
bd jk
lateral ties throughout the distance where compression
reinforcement is required and where such lateral ties 2. Tensile stress in the longitudinal reinforcement:
are not less than 6 mm in diameter and spaced not M
farther apart than 16 bar diameters or 48 tie diameters, fs  (707-32)
As jd
Fsc = 0.4 fy , 165 MPa maximum (707-30) 3. Design coefficients:
707.2.12 Lap Splice Increases k  (np) 2  2np  np (707-33)

In regions of moment where the design tensile stresses in
the reinforcement are greater than 80 percent of the or
allowable steel tensile stress Fs, the lap length of splices
1
shall be increased not less than 50 percent of the minimum k (707-34)
required length. Other equivalent means of stress transfer fs
1
to accomplish the same 50 percent increase may be used. nf b
k
707.2.13 Reinforcement for Columns j  1 (707-35)
Columns shall be provided with reinforcement as specified 3
in this section.
707.2.16 Bond of Flexural Reinforcement
707.2.13.1 Vertical Reinforcement In flexural members in which tensile reinforcement is
The area of vertical reinforcement shall not be less than parallel to the compressive face, the bond stress shall be
0.005 Ae and not more than 0.04 Ae. At least four 10 mm computed by the formula:
bars shall be provided. The minimum clear distance
V
between parallel bars in columns shall be two and one half u
times the bar diameter.  o jd
(707-36)
707.2.14 Compression in Walls and Columns
707.2.14.1 General
Stresses due to compressive forces in walls and columns
shall be calculated in accordance with Section 707.2.5.
th
f a fb
707.2.17 Shear in Flexural Members and Shear Walls  1 (707-42)
Fa Fb
The shear stress in flexural members and shear walls shall
be computed by: 707.3.5 Allowable Tensile Stress
V Resultant tensile stress due to combined bending and axial
fv  (707-37) load shall not exceed the allowable flexural tensile stress,
bjd
Ft.
For members of T or I section, b’ shall be substituted for b.
The allowable tensile stress for walls in flexure without
Where fv as computed by Formula (707-37) exceeds the
tensile reinforcement using portland cement and hydrated
allowable shear stress in masonry, Fv, web reinforcement
lime, or using mortar cement Type M or S mortar, shall not
shall be provided and designed to carry the total shear
exceed the values in Table 707-5.
force. Both vertical and horizontal shear stresses shall be
considered.
Values in Table 707-5 for tension normal to head joints are
for running bond; no tension is allowed across head joints
The area required for shear reinforcement placed
in stack bond masonry. These values shall not be used for
perpendicular to the longitudinal reinforcement shall be
horizontal flexural members.
computed by:
sV 707.3.6 Allowable Shear Stress in Flexural Members
Av 
Fs d The allowable shear stress Fv in flexural members is:
(707-38)
Fv  0.083 f 'm , 345 kPa maximum (707-43)
Where web reinforcement is required, it shall be so spaced
that every 45-degree line extending from a point at d/2 of Exception:
the beam to the longitudinal tension bars shall be crossed by
at least one line of web reinforcement. For a distance of 1/16th the clear span beyond the point of
inflection, the maximum stress shall be 138 kPa.
707.3 Design of Unreinforced Masonry
707.3.7 Allowable Shear Stress in Shear Walls
707.3.1 General The allowable shear stress Fv in shear walls is as follows:
The requirements of this section govern masonry in which
reinforcement is not used to resist design forces and are in 1. Fv  0.025 f 'm , 550 kPa maximum (707-44)
addition to the requirements of Sections 706 and 707.1
2. Concrete units with Type M or S mortar, Fv =235 kPa
707.3.2 Allowable Axial Compressive Stress. maximum.
The allowable axial compressive stress Fa is: 3. Concrete units with Type N mortar, Fv = 160 kPa
maximum.
h' 2
Fa  0.25 f ' m [1  ( ) ] for h’/r  99 (707-39) 4. The allowable shear stress in unreinforced masonry
140r
may be increased by 0.2 fmd.
70 r
Fa  0.25 f ' m ( ) 2 for h’/r > 99 (707-40)
h' 707.3.8 Allowable Bearing Stress
When a member bears on the full area of a masonry
707.3.3 Allowable Flexural Compressive Stress element, the allowable bearing stress Fbr shall be:
The allowable flexural compressive stress Fb is: Fbr = 0.26 f’m (707-45)
Fb  0.33 f ' m , 14 MPa maximum (707-41)
When a member bears on one-third or less of a masonry
element, the allowable bearing stress Fbr shall be:
707.3.4 Combined Compressive Stresses, Unity
Formula Fbr = 0.38 f’m (707-46)
Elements subjected to combined axial and flexural stresses
shall be designed in accordance with accepted principles of Formula (707-46) applies only when the least dimension
mechanics or in accordance with the Formula (707-42): between the edges of the loaded and unloaded areas is a
minimum of one fourth of the parallel side dimension of the
loaded area. The allowable bearing stress on a reasonably

concentric area greater than one third but less than the full SECTION 708 – STRENGTH DESIGN
area shall be interpolated between the values of Formulas
(707-45) and (707-46). OF MASONRY
707.3.9 Combined Bending and Axial Loads, 708.1General
Compressive Stresses
Compressive stresses due to combined bending and axial 708.1.1 General Provisions
loads shall satisfy the requirements of Section 707.3.4. The design of hollow-unit clay and concrete masonry
structures using strength design shall comply with the
707.3.10 Compression in Walls and Columns provisions of Section 706 and this section.
Stresses due to compressive forces in walls and columns Exception:
shall be calculated in accordance with Section 707.2.5.
Two-wythe solid-unit masonry may be used under Sections
708.2.1 and 708.2.4.
707.3.11 Flexural Design
Stresses due to flexure shall not exceed the values given in 708.1.2 Quality Assurance Provisions
Sections 707.1.2, 707.3.3 and 707.3.5, where:
Special inspection during construction shall be provided as
fb = Mc /I (707-47) set forth in Section 1701.5, Item 7 of UBC.
707.3.12 Shear in Flexural Members and Shear Walls 708.1.3 Required Strength
Shear calculations for flexural members and shear walls The required strength shall be determined in accordance
shall be based on Formula (707-48). with the factored load combinations of Section 203.3.
fv = V / Ae (707-48)
708.1.4 Design Strength
707.3.12 Corbels Design strength is the nominal strength, multiplied by the
The slope of corbelling (angle measured from the horizontal strength-reduction factor, , as specified in this section.
to the face of the corbelled surface) or unreinforced Masonry members shall be proportioned such that the
masonry shall not be less than 60 degrees. design strength exceeds the required strength.
The maximum horizontal projection of corbelling from the 708.1.4.1 Beams, Piers and Columns
plane of the wall shall be such that allowable stresses are
not exceeded. 708.1.4.1.1 Flexure
Flexure with or without axial load, the value of  shall be
707.3.13 Stack Bond determined from Formula (708-1):
Masonry units laid in stack bond shall have longitudinal Pu
reinforcement of at least 0.00027 times the vertical cross-   0.8  (708-1)
sectional area of the wall placed horizontally in the bed Ae f 'm
joints or in bond beams spaced vertically not more than and 0.60    0.80
1.20 m apart.
708.1.4.1.2 Shear
Shear:  = 0.60
708.1.4.2 Wall Design for Out-of-Plane Load
708.1.4.2.1 Walls with Factored Axial Load of 0.04 f’m or

less
Flexure:  = 0.80.
708.1.4.2.2 Walls with Factored Axial Load Greater

than 0.04 f’m
Axial load and axial load with flexure:  = 0.80. Shear:  =
0.60.
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708.1.4.3 Wall Design for in-Plane Loads 708.1.5 Anchor Bolts
708.1.4.3.1 Axial Load 708.1.5.1 Required Strength

Axial load and axial load with flexure:  = 0.65. The required strength of embedded anchor bolts shall be
determined from factored loads as specified in Section
For walls with symmetrical reinforcement in which fy does 708.1.3.
not exceed 413 MPa, the value of  may be increased
linearly to 0.85 as the value of  Pn decreases from 0.10 f’m 708.1.5.2 Nominal Anchor Bolt Strength
Ae or 0.25 Pb to zero. The nominal strength of anchor bolts times the strength-
reduction factor shall equal or exceed the required strength.
For solid grouted walls, the value of Pb may be calculated
by Formula (708-2) The nominal tensile capacity of anchor bolts shall be
determined from the lesser of Formula (708-5) or (708-6).
Pb = 0.85 f’m bab (708-2)
where: Btn  0.084 Ap f 'm (708-5)
ab = 0.85d {emu / [emu + (fy / Es)]} (708-3) Btn  0.4 Ab f y (708-6)
708.1.4.3.1 Shear
The area Ap shall be the lesser of Formula (708-7) or
Shear:  = 0.60.
(708-8) and where the projected areas of adjacent anchor
bolts overlap, the value of Ap of each anchor bolt shall be
The value of  may be 0.80 for any shear wall when its reduced by one half of the overlapping area.
nominal shear strength exceeds the shear corresponding to
development of its nominal flexural strength for the Ap =  lb2 (708-7)
factored-load combination. 2
Ap =  lbe (708-8)
708.1.4.4 Moment-Resisting Wall Frames
The nominal shear capacity of anchor bolts shall be
determined from the lesser of Formula (708-9) or (708-10).
708.1.4.4.1 Flexure With or Without Axial Load
The value of  shall be as determined from formula (708- Bsn  2750 4 f ' m Ab (708-9)
4); however, the value of  shall not be less than 0.65 nor
greater than 0.85. Bsn  25 Ab f y (708-10)
Pu
  0.85  2 ( ) (708-4) Where the anchor bolt edge distance, lbe, in the direction of
An f ' m load is less than 12 bolt diameters, the value of Btn in
formula (808-9) shall be reduced by linear interpolation to
708.1.4.4.2 Shear zero at an lbe distance of 38 mm. Where adjacent anchor
Shear:  = 0.80. bolts are spaced closer than 8db, the nominal shear strength
of the adjacent anchors determined by Formula (708-9)
708.1.4.5 Anchor shall be reduced by linear interpolation to 0.75 times the
nominal shear strength at a center-to-center spacing of four
Anchor bolts :  = 0.80.
bolt diameters.
708.1.4.6 Reinforcement
Anchor bolts subjected to combined shear and tension shall
be designed in accordance with Formula (708-11).
708.1.4.6.1 Development
Development:  = 0.80. btu bsu
  1 .0 (708-11)
Btn Bsn
708.1.4.6.2 Splices
Splices:  = 0.80. 708.1.5.2 Anchor Bolt Placement
Anchor bolts shall be placed so as to meet the edge
distance, embedment depth and spacing requirements of
Sections 706.2.14.2, 706.2.14.3 and 706.2.14.4.

708.2 Reinforced Masonry parallel to the neutral axis at a distance a = 0.85c from the
fiber of maximum compressive strain. Distance c from
708.2.1 General fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be
measured in a direction perpendicular to that axis.
708.2.1.1 Scope
The requirements of this section are in addition to the 708.2.2 Reinforcement Requirements and Details
requirements of Sections 706 and 708.1 and govern
masonry in which reinforcement is used to resist forces. 708.2.2.1 Maximum Reinforcement
The maximum size of reinforcement shall be 28 mm. The
708.2.1.2 Design Assumptions diameter of a bar shall not exceed one fourth the least
The following assumptions apply: dimension of a cell. No more than two bars shall be placed
in a cell of a wall or a wall frame.
Masonry carries no tensile stress greater than the modulus
of rupture. 708.2.2.2 Placement
The placement of reinforcement shall comply with the
Reinforcement is completely surrounded by and bonded to following:
masonry material so that they work together as a
homogeneous material. In columns and piers, the clear distance between vertical
reinforcing bars shall not be less than one and one-half
Nominal strength of singly reinforced masonry wall cross times the nominal bar diameter, nor less than 40 mm.
sections for combined flexure and axial load shall be based
on applicable conditions of equilibrium and compatibility 708.2.2.3 Cover
of strains. Strain in reinforcement and masonry walls shall All reinforcing bars shall be completely embedded in
be assumed to be directly proportional to the distance from mortar or grout and shall have a cover of not less than 38
the neutral axis. mm nor less than 2.5 db.
Maximum usable strain, emu, at the extreme masonry 708.2.2.4 Standard Hooks
compression fiber shall: A standard hook shall be one of the following:
1. be 0.003 for the design of beams, piers, columns and 1. A 180-degree turn plus an extension of at least four bar
walls.
diameters, but not less than 60 mm at the free end of
2. not exceed 0.003 for moment-resisting wall frames, the bar.
unless lateral reinforcement as defined in Section 2. A 135-degree turn plus an extension of at least six bar
708.2.6.2.6 is utilized.
diameters at the free end of the bar.
Strain in reinforcement and masonry shall be assumed to be 3. A 90-degree turn plus an extension of at least 12 bar
directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis. diameters at the free end of the bar.
Stress in reinforcement below specified yield strength fy for 708.2.2.5 Minimum Bend Diameter for Reinforcing Bars
grade of reinforcement used shall be taken as Es times steel Diameter of bend measured on the inside of a bar other than
strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy, for stirrups and ties in sizes 10 mm through 16 mm shall not
stress in reinforcement shall be considered independent of be less than the values in Table 707-4
strain and equal to fy.
Inside diameter of bends for stirrups and ties shall not be
Tensile strength of masonry walls shall be neglected in less than 4db for 16 mm bars and smaller. For bars larger
flexural calculation of strength, except when computing than 16 mm diameter of bend shall be in accordance with
requirements for deflection. Table 707-4
Relationship between masonry compressive stress and 708.2.2.6 Development

masonry strain may be assumed to be rectangular as defined The calculated tension or compression reinforcement shall
by the following: be developed in accordance with the following provisions:
Masonry stress of 0.85 f’m shall be assumed uniformly
The embedment length of reinforcement shall be
distributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded
determined by Formula (708-12).
by edges of the cross section and a straight line located
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ld = lde /  (708-12) 708.2.3.3 Balanced Reinforcement Ratio for

Compression Limit State.
where:
Calculation of the balanced reinforcement ratio, b, shall be
1.8d b 2 f v based on the following assumptions:
l de   52d b (708-13)
Kf ' m 1. The distribution of strain across the section shall be
assumed to vary linearly from the maximum usable
K shall not exceed 3db. strain, emu, at the extreme compression fiber of the
element, to a yield strain of fy/Es at the extreme tension
The minimum embedment length of reinforcement shall be fiber of the element.
300 mm. 2. Compression forces shall be in equilibrium with the
sum of tension forces in the reinforcement and the
708.2.2.7 Splices maximum axial load associated with a loading
Reinforcement splices shall comply with one of the combination 1.0D + 1.0L + (1.4E or 1.3W).
following: 3. The reinforcement shall be assumed to be uniformly
1. The minimum length of lap for bars shall be 300 mm distributed over the depth of the element and the
or the length determined by Formula (708-14). balanced reinforcement ratio shall be calculated as the
area of this reinforcement divided by the net area of the
2. l d  l de  (708-14) element.
4. All longitudinal reinforcement shall be included in
Bars spliced by non-contact lap splices shall be spaced
calculating the balanced reinforcement ratio except that
transversely a distance not greater than one fifth the
the contribution of compression reinforcement to
required length of lap or more than 200 mm.
resistance of compressive loads shall not be
2. A welded splice shall have the bars butted and welded considered.
to develop in tension 125 percent of the yield strength
of the bar, fy. 708.2.3.4 Required Strength
3. Mechanical splices shall have the bars connected to Except as required by Sections 708.2.3.6 through
develop in tension or compression, as required, at least 708.2.3.12, the required strength shall be determined in
125 percent of the yield strength of the bar, fy. accordance with Section 708.1.3.
708.2.3 Design of Beams, Piers and Columns 708.2.3.5 Design Strength

Design strength provided by beam, pier or column cross
708.2.3.1 General
sections in terms of axial force, shear and moment shall be
The requirements of this section are for the design of computed as the nominal strength multiplied by the
masonry beams, piers and columns. applicable strength-reduction factor, , specified in Section
708.1.4.
The value of f’m shall not be less than 10 MPa. For
computational purposes, the value of f’m shall not exceed 28 708.2.3.6 Nominal Strength
MPa.
708.2.3.6.1 Nominal Axial and Flexural Strength
708.2.3.2 Design Assumptions
The nominal axial strength, Pn, and the nominal flexural
Member design forces shall be based on an analysis which strength, Mn, of a cross section shall be determined in
considers the relative stiffness of structural members. The accordance with the design assumptions of
calculation of lateral stiffness shall include the contribution Section 708.2.1.2 and 708.2.3.2.
of all beams, piers and columns.
The maximum nominal axial compressive strength shall be
The effects of cracking on member stiffness shall be determined in accordance with Formula (708-15).
considered.
Pn = 0.80[0.85f’m (Ae – As) + fyAs] (708-15)
The drift ratio of piers and columns shall satisfy the limits
specified in Chapter 2. 708.2.3.6.2 Nominal Shear Strength
The nominal shear strength shall be
Vn = Vm + Vs (708-16)

where: Exception:
Vm = 0.083 CdAe f 'm , 63Cd Ae maximum (708-17) Where seismic loads are determined based on Rw not
greater than three and where all joints satisfy the
provisions of Section 708.2.6.2.9, the piers may be used to
and Vs = Aenfy (708-18) provide seismic load resistance.
708.2.3.6.2 Nominal Shear Strength 708.2.3.9 Dimensional Limits

The nominal shear strength shall be: Dimensions shall be in accordance with the following:
1. The nominal shear strength shall not exceed the value 1. Beams
given in Table 708-1.
1.1 The nominal width of a beam shall not be less than 150
2. The value of Vm shall be assumed to be zero within any mm.
region subjected to net tension factored loads.
1.2 The clear distance between locations of lateral bracing
3. The value of Vm shall be assumed to be 170 kPa where of the compression side of the beam shall not exceed
Mu is greater than 0.7 Mn. The required moment, Mu, 32 times the least width of the compression area.
for seismic design for comparison with the 0.7 Mn
value of this section shall be based on an Rw of 3. 1.3 The nominal depth of a beam shall not be less than 200
mm.
708.2.3.7 Reinforcement
2. Piers
1. Where transverse reinforcement is required, the
maximum spacing shall not exceed one half the depth 2.1 The nominal width of a pier shall not be less than 153
of the member nor 1200 mm. mm and shall not exceed 400 mm.
2. Flexural reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed 2.2 The distance between lateral supports of a pier shall
throughout the depth of the element. not exceed 30 times the nominal width of the piers
except as provided for in Section 708.2.3.9, Item 2.3.
3. Flexural elements subjected to load reversals shall be
symmetrically reinforced. 2.3 When the distance between lateral supports of a pier
exceeds 30 times the nominal width of the pier, the
4. The nominal moment strength at any section along a provisions of Section 708.2.4 shall be used for design.
member shall not be less than one fourth of the
maximum moment strength. 2.4 The nominal length of a pier shall not be less than three
times the nominal width of the pier. The nominal
5. The flexural reinforcement ratio, , shall not exceed length of a pier shall not be greater than six times the
0.5 b. nominal width of the pier. The clear height of a pier
6. Lap splices shall comply with the provisions of Section shall not exceed five times the nominal length of the
708.2.2.7. pier.
7. Welded splices and mechanical splices which develop Exception:

at least 125 percent of the specified yield strength of a The length of a pier may be equal to the width of the pier
bar may be used for splicing the reinforcement. Not when the axial force at the location of maximum moment is
more than two longitudinal bars shall be spliced at a less than 0.04 f’m Ag.
section. The distance between splices of adjacent bars
shall be at least 750 mm along the longitudinal axis. 3. Columns
8. Specified yield strength of reinforcement shall not 3.1 The nominal width of a column shall not be less than
exceed 415 MPa. The actual yield strength based on 300 mm.
mill tests shall not exceed 1.25 times the specified
yield strength. 3.2 The distance between lateral supports of a column shall
not exceed 30 times the nominal width of the column.
708.2.3.8 Seismic Design Provisions 3.3 The nominal length of a column shall not be less than
The lateral seismic load resistance in any line or story level 300 mm and not greater than three times the nominal
shall be provided by shear walls or wall frames, or a width of the column.
combination of shear walls and wall frames. Shear walls
and wall frames shall provide at least 80 percent of the
lateral stiffness in any line or story level.
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708.2.3.10 Beams 708.2.3.11.3 Transverse Reinforcement

Transverse reinforcement shall be provided where Vu
708.2.3.10.1 Scope exceeds Vm. Required shear, Vu, shall include the effects of
Members designed primarily to resist flexure shall comply drift. The value of Vu shall be based on M. When
with the requirements of this section. The factored axial transverse shear reinforcement is required, the following
compressive force on a beam shall not exceed 0.05 Ae f’m. provisions shall apply:
1. Shear reinforcement shall be hooked around the
708.2.3.10.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement
extreme longitudinal bars with a 180-degree hook.
1. The variation in the longitudinal reinforcing bars shall Alternatively, at wall intersections, transverse
not be greater than one bar size. Not more than two bar reinforcement with a 90-degree standard hook around a
sizes shall be used in a beam. vertical bar in the intersecting wall shall be permitted.
2. The nominal flexural strength of a beam shall not be 2. The minimum transverse reinforcement ratio shall be
less than 1.3 times the nominal cracking moment 0.0015.
strength of the beam. The modulus of rupture, fr, for
this calculation shall be assumed to be 1.6 MPa. 708.2.3.12 Columns
708.2.3.10.3 Transverse Reinforcement 708.2.3.12.1 Scope

Transverse reinforcement shall be provided where Vu Columns shall comply with the requirements of this section.
exceeds Vm. Required shear, Vu, shall include the effects of
the drift. The value of Vu shall be based on M. When 708.2.3.12.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement
transverse shear reinforcement is required, the following Longitudinal reinforcement shall be a minimum of four
provisions shall apply: bars, one in each corner of the column.
1. Shear reinforcement shall be a single bar with 180- 1. Maximum reinforcement area shall be 0.03 Ae.
degree hook at each end.
2. Minimum reinforcement area shall be 0.005 Ae.
2. Shear reinforcement shall be hooked around the
longitudinal reinforcement. 708.2.3.12.3. Lateral Ties
3. The min. transverse shear reinforcement ratio shall be 1. Lateral ties shall be provided in accordance with
0.0007. Section 706.3.6.
4. The first transverse bar shall not be more than one 2. Minimum lateral reinforcement area shall be 0.0018 Ag.
fourth of the beam depth from the end of the beam.
708.2.3.12.4 Construction
708.2.3.10.4 Construction
Columns shall be solid grouted.
Beams shall be solid grouted.
708.2.4 Wall Design for Out-of-Plane Loads
708.2.3.11 Piers
708.2.4.1 General
708.2.3.11.1 Scope
The requirements of this section are for the design of walls
Piers proportioned to resist flexure and shear in conjunction for out-of-plane loads.
with axial load shall comply with the requirements of this
section. The factored axial compression on the piers shall 708.2.4.2 Maximum Reinforcement
not exceed 0.3 Aef’m.
The reinforcement ratio shall not exceed 0.5 b.
708.2.3.11.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement
708.2.4.3 Moment and Deflection Calculations
A pier subjected to in-plane stress reversals shall be
longitudinally reinforced symmetrically on both sides of the All moment and deflection calculations in Section 708.2.4
neutral axis of the pier. are based on simple support conditions top and bottom.
Other support and fixity conditions, moments and
1. One bar shall be provided in the end cells. deflections shall be calculated using established principles
2. The minimum longitudinal reinforcement ratio shall be of mechanics.
0.0007.

708.2.4.4 Walls with Axial Load of 0.04 f’m or The nominal shear strength shall be determined by Formula
less (808-26).
The procedures set forth in this section, which consider the
slenderness of walls by representing effects of axial forces Vn  0.166Amv f 'm (708-26)
and deflection in calculation of moments, shall be used
when the vertical load stress at the location of maximum
moment does not exceed 0.04 f’m as computed by Formula 708.2.4.6 Deflection Design
(708-19). The value of f’m shall not exceed 40 MPa. The mid-height deflection, s, under service lateral and
vertical loads (without load factors) shall be limited by the
Pw  Pf relation:
 0.04 f ' m (708-19)
Ag
s = 0.007 h (708-27)
Walls shall have a minimum thickness of 150 mm. P effects shall be included in deflection calculation. The
midheight deflection shall be computed with the following
Required moment and axial force shall be determined at the formula:
mid-height of the wall and shall be used for design. The
factored moment, Mu, at the mid-height of the wall shall be 5M s h 2
determined by Formula (708-20). s  for M ser  M cr (708-28)
48 E m I g
wu h 2 e 5M cr h 2 5( M ser  M cr )h 2
Mu   Puf  Pu  u (708-20) s  
8 2 48Em I g 48Em I cr
where: for Mcr < Mser< Mn (708-29)
u = deflection at mid-height of wall due to factored loads
The cracking moment strength of the wall shall be
Pu = Puw + Puf (708-21) determined from the formula:
The design strength for out-of-plane wall loading shall be Mcr = Sfr (708-30)
determined by Formula (708-22).
The modulus of rupture, fr, shall be as follows:
Mu   Mn (708-22)
where: 1. For fully grouted hollow-unit masonry,
Mn = Ase fy (d – a/2) (708-23) f r  0.33 f 'm , 1.6 MPa maximum (708-31)
Ase =(Asfy + Pu)fy, effective area of steel (708-24)

2. For partially grouted hollow-unit masonry,
a =(Pu + As fy) / 0.85 f’m b, depth of stress block due to f r  0.21 f ' m , 0.86 MPa maximum (708-32)
factored loads (708-25)
3. For two-wythe brick masonry,

708.2.4.5 Wall with Axial Load Greater than 0.04f’m
The procedures set forth in this section shall be used for the fr  0.166 f 'm , 0.86 kPa maximum (708-33)
design of masonry walls when the vertical load stresses at
the location of maximum moment exceed 0.04f’m but are 708.2.5 Wall Design for In-Plane Loads
less than 0.2f’m and the slenderness ratio h’/t does not
exceed 30. 708.2.5.1 General
The requirements of this section are for the design of walls
Design strength provided by the wall cross section in terms
for in-plane loads.
of axial force, shear and moment shall be computed as the
nominal strength multiplied by the applicable strength-
The value of f’m shall not be less than 10 MPa nor greater
reduction factor, , specified in Section 708.1.4. Walls
than 28 MPa.
shall be proportioned such that the design strength exceeds
the required strength.
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3. For a shear wall whose nominal shear strength exceeds

708.2.5.2 Reinforcement the shear corresponding to development of its nominal
Reinforcement shall be in accordance with the following: flexural strength, two shear regions exist.
1. Minimum reinforcement shall be provided in For all cross sections within the region defined by the base
accordance with Section 706.1.12.4, Item 2.3, for all of the shear wall and a plane at a distance Lw above the base
seismic areas using this method of analysis. of the shear wall, the nominal shear strength shall be
2. When the shear wall failure mode is in flexure, the determined from Formula (708-39).
nominal flexural strength of the shear wall shall be at Vn = Amv nfy (708-39)
least 1.8 times the cracking moment strength of a fully
grouted wall or 3.0 times the cracking moment strength The required shear strength for this region shall be
of a partially grouted wall from Formula (708-30). calculated at a distance Lw/2 above the base of the shear
wall, but not to exceed one half story height.
3. The amount of vertical reinforcement shall not be less
than one half the horizontal reinforcement. For the other region, the nominal shear strength of the shear
4. Spacing of horizontal reinforcement within the region wall shall be determined from Formula (708-36).
defined in Section 708.2.5.5, Item 3, shall not exceed
three times the nominal wall thickness nor 600 mm. 708.2.5.6 Boundary Members
Boundary members shall be as follows:
708.2.5.3 Design Strength
1. Boundary members shall be provided at the boundaries
Design strength provided by the shear wall cross section in of shear walls when the compressive strains in the wall
terms of axial force, shear and moment shall be computed exceed 0.0015. The strain shall be determined using
as the nominal strength multiplied by the applicable factored forces and Rw equal to 1.5.
strength-reduction factor, , specified in Section 708.1.4.3.
2. The minimum length of the boundary member shall be
708.2.5.4 Axial Strength three times the thickness of the wall, but shall include
all areas where the compressive strain per Section
The nominal axial strength of the shear wall supporting 2108.2.6.2.7 is greater than 0.0015.
axial loads only shall be calculated by Formula (708-34).
3. Lateral reinforcement shall be provided for the
Po = 0.85 f’m (Ae – As) + fy As (708-34)
boundary elements. The lateral reinforcement shall be
a minimum of 10 mm diameter at a maximum of 200
Axial design strength provided by the shear wall cross mm spacing within the grouted core or equivalent
section shall satisfy Formula (708-35).
confinement which can develop an ultimate
Pu  0.80  Po (708-35) compressive masonry strain of at least 0.006.
708.2.5.5 Shear Strength 708.2.6 Design of Moment-Resisting Wall Frames

Shear strength shall be as follows:
708.2.6.1 General Requirements
1. The nominal shear strength shall be determined using
either Item 2 or 3 below. Maximum nominal shear 708.2.6.1.1 Scope
strength values are determined from Table 708-1. The requirements of this section are for the design of fully
2. The nominal shear strength of the shear wall shall be grouted moment-resisting wall frames constructed of
determined from Formula (708-36), except as provided reinforced open-end hollow-unit concrete or hollow-unit
in Item 3 below clay masonry.
Vn = Vm + Vs (708-36)
where:
Vm  0.083 C d Amv f 'm (708-37)
and
Vs = Amv nfy (708-38)

708.2.6.2.3 Design Assumption for Nominal Strength

708.2.6.1.2 Dimensional Limits The nominal strength of member cross sections shall be
Dimensions shall be in accordance with the following: based on assumptions prescribed in Section 708.2.1.2.
708.2.6.1.2.1 Beams The value of f’m shall not be less than 10 MPa or greater
Clear span for the beam shall not be less than two times its than 28 MPa.
depth.
708.2.6.2.4 Reinforcement
The nominal depth of the beam shall not be less than two The nominal moment strength at any section along a
units or 400 mm, whichever is greater. The nominal beam member shall not be less than one fourth of the higher
depth to nominal beam width ratio shall not exceed 6. moment strength provided at the two ends of the member.
The nominal width of the beam shall be the greater of 200 Lap splices shall be as defined in Section 708.2.2.7. The
mm or 1/26 of the clear span between pier faces. center of the lap splice shall be the center of the member
clear length.
708.2.6.1.2.2 Piers
The nominal depth of piers shall not exceed 2.4 m. Nominal Welded splices and mechanical connection conforming to
depth shall not be less than two full units or 800 mm, Section 412.14.3. Item 1 through 4 of UBC, may be used
whichever is greater. for splicing the reinforcement at any section provided not
more than alternate longitudinal bars are spliced at section,
The nominal width of piers shall not be less than the and the distance between splices of alternate bars is at least
nominal width of the beam, nor less than 200 mm or 1/14 of 600 mm along the longitudinal axis.
the clear height between beam faces, whichever is greater.
Reinforcement shall not have a specified yield strength
The clear height-to-depth ratio of pier shall not exceed 5. greater than 415 MPa. The actual yield strength based on
mill tests shall not exceed the specified yield strength times
708.2.6.1.2.3 Analysis 1.3.
Member design forces shall be the based on an analysis
708.2.6.2.5 Flexural Members (Beam)
which considers the relative stiffness of pier and beam
member, including the stiffening influence of joints. Requirements of this section apply to beams proportioned
primarily to resist flexure as follows.
The calculation of beam moment capacity for the
determination of pier design shall include any contribution The axial compressive force on beams due to factored loads
of floor slab reinforcement. shall not exceed 0.10 An f’m.
The out-of-plane drift ratio of all piers shall satisfy the drift
ratio limits specified in Section 2-47. 1. Longitudinal Reinforcement
At any section of a beam, each masonry unit through the
708.2.6.2 Design Procedure beam depth shall contain longitudinal reinforcement.
708.2.6.2.1 Required Strength The variation in the longitudinal reinforcement area

Except as required by the Sections 708.2.6.7 and between units at any section shall not be greater than 50
708.2.6.2.8, the required strength shall be determined in percent, except multiple diam. 12 bars shall not be greater
accordance with Section 708.1.3 than 100 percent of the minimum area of longitudinal
reinforcement contained by any one unit, except where
708.2.6.2.2 Design Strength splices occur.
Design strength provided by frame member cross sections Minimum reinforcement ratio calculated over the gross
in terms of axial force, shear and moment shall be cross section shall be 0.002.
computed as the nominal strength multiplied by the
applicable strength-reduction factor.  , specified in Section Maximum reinforcement ratio calculated over the gross
708.1.4.4 cross section shall be 0.15 f’m / fy.
Members shall be proportioned such that the design
strength exceeds the required strength.
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The minimum transverse reinforcement ratio shall be

2. Transverse Reinforcement 0.0015.
Transverse reinforcement shall be hooked around top and
bottom longitudinal bars with a standard 180-degree hook, 3. Lateral Reinforcement
as defined in Section 708.2.2.4, and shall be single pieces. Lateral reinforcement shall be provided to confine the
grouted core when compressive strains due to axial and
Within an end region extending one beam depth from pier bending forces exceed 0.0015, corresponding to factored
faces and at any region at which beam flexural yielding forces with Rw equal to 1.5. The unconfined portion of the
may occur during seismic or wind loading, maximum cross section with strain exceeding 0.0015 shall be
spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not exceed one neglected in computing the nominal strength of the section.
fourth the nominal depth of the beam.
The total cross-sectional area of rectangular tie
The maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not reinforcement for the confined core shall not be less than:
exceed one half the nominal depth of the beam.
Ash = 0.09shc f’m / fyh (708-40)
Minimum reinforcement ratio shall be 0.0015
The first transverse bar shall not be more than 100 mm Alternatively, equivalent confinement which can develop
from the face of the pier. an ultimate compressive strain of at least 0.006 may be
substituted for rectangular tie reinforcement.
708.2.6.2.6 Members Subjected to Axial Force and
Flexure 708.2.6.2.7 Pier Design Forces
The requirements set forth in this subsection apply to piers Pier nominal moment strength shall not be less than 1.6
proportioned to resist flexure in conjunction with axial times the pier moment corresponding to the development of
loads. the beam plastic hinges, except at the foundation level.
1. Longitudinal Reinforcement Pier axial load based on the development of beam plastic
A minimum of four longitudinal bars shall be provided at hinges in accordance with the paragraph above and
all sections of every pier. including factored dead and live loads shall not exceed 0.15
An f’m.
Flexural reinforcement shall be distributed across the
member depth. Variation in reinforcement area between The drift ratio of piers shall satisfy the limits specified in
reinforced cells shall not exceed 50 percent. Chapter 2.
Minimum reinforcement ratio calculated over the gross The effects of cracking on member stiffness shall be
cross section shall be 0.002 considered.
Maximum reinforcement ratio calculated over the gross The base plastic hinge of the pier must form immediately
cross section shall be 0.15 f’m / fy. adjacent to the level of lateral support provided at the base
or foundation.
Maximum bar diameter shall be one eight nominal width of
the pier. 708.2.6.2.8 Shear Design.
2. Transverse Reinforcement 1. General

Transverse reinforcement shall be hooked around the Beam and pier nominal shear strength shall not be less than
extreme longitudinal bars with standard 180-degree hook as 1.4 times the shears corresponding to the development of
defined in Section 708.2.2.4. the flexural yielding.
Within an end region extending one pier depth from the end It shall be assumed in the calculation of member shear force
of the beam, and at any region at which flexural yielding that moments of opposite sign act at the joint faces and that
may occur during seismic or wind loading, the maximum the member is loaded with the tributary gravity load along
spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not exceed one its span.
fourth the nominal depth of the pier.
2. Vertical Member Shear Strength
The maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not The nominal shear strength shall be determined from
exceed one half the nominal depth of the pier. Formula (708-41).

Vn = Vm + Vs (708-41) Pier longitudinal reinforcement terminating in a beam shall

where: be extended to the far face of the beam and anchored by a
standard 90 or 180 degree hook, as defined in Section
Vm  0.083 C d Amv f 'm (708-42) 708.2.2.4, bent back to the beam.
and
2. Transverse Reinforcement
Vs = Amv pn fy (708-43) Special horizontal joint shear reinforcement crossing a
potential corner to corner diagonal joint shear crack, and
The value of Vm shall be zero within an end region anchored by standard hooks, as defined in Section
extending one pier depth from beam faces and at any region 708.2.2.4, around the extreme pier reinforcing bars shall be
where pier flexural yielding may occur during seismic provided such that
loading, and at piers subjected to net tension factored loads.
The nominal pier shear strength, Vn, shall not exceed the Ajh = 0.5 Vjh / fy (708-48)
value determined from Table 708-1.
Vertical shear forces may be considered to be carried by a
3. Beam Shear Strength combination of masonry shear resisting mechanisms and
The nominal shear strength shall be determined from truss mechanism involving intermediate pier reinforcing
Formula (708-44). bars.
Vm  0.01 Amv f 'm (708-44)
The value of Vm shall be zero within an end region

3. Shear Strength
extending one beam depth from pier faces and to any region
The nominal horizontal shear strength of the joint shall not
at which beam flexure yielding may occur during seismic
exceed:
loading.
0.58 f ' m or 2.5 MPa, whichever is less.
The nominal beam shear strength, Vn, shall be determined
from Formula (708-45).
Vn  0.33 Amv f 'm (708-45)
708.2.6.2.9 Joints
1. General Requirements
Where reinforcing bars extend through a joint, the joint
dimensions shall be proportioned such that
hp > 57827 dbb / f’g (708-46)
and
hp > 21685 dbb / f’g (708-47)
The grout strength shall not exceed 35 MPa for the

purposes of Formula (708-46) and (708-47).
Joint shear forces shall be calculated on the assumption that

the stress in all flexural tension reinforcement of the beams
at that pier faces is 1.4 fy.
Strength of joint shall be governed by the appropriate

strength reduction factors specified in Section 708.1.4.4.
Beam longitudinal reinforcement terminating in a pier shall

be extended to the far face of the pier and anchored by a
standard 90 or 180 degree hook, as defined in Section
708.2.2.4, bent back to the beam.
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709.2.1.3 Design Strength

SECTION 709 The design strength of masonry provided by a member, its
SEISMIC DESIGN connections to other members and its cross sections in
terms of flexure, axial load, and shear shall be taken as the
709.1 Scope nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction factor,
The seismic design requirements of this section apply to the Ø.
design of masonry and the construction of masonry building
elements, except glass unit masonry, for all seismic (a) Axial load and flexure except for flexural Ø= 0.80
performance categories as defined in ASCE 7. tension in unreinforced masonry
(b) Flexural tension in unreinforced masonry Ø = 0.40
709.2 General (c) Shear Ø = 0.60
(d) Shear and tension in anchor bolts embedded
Masonry structures and masonry elements shall comply Ø = 0.60
in masonry
with the requirements of Sections 709.3 through 709.7
based on Seismic Performance Categories A, B, C, D or E 709.2.1.4 Drift Limits
as defined on ASCE 7. In addition, masonry structures and
masonry elements shall comply with either the The calculated storey drift of masonry structures due to the
requirements of Section 706 or the requirements of Section combination of seismic forces and gravity loads shall not
709.2.1 exceed 0.007 times the storey height.
709.2.1 Strength Requirement 709.3 Seismic Performance Category A

For masonry structures that are not designed in accordance Structures in Seismic Performance Category A shall
with Section 706, the provisions of this section shall apply. comply with the requirements of Sections 707, 708 and
The design strength of masonry structures and masonry 710.
elements shall be at least equal to the required strength
determined in accordance with this section, except for 709.3.1 Anchorage of Masonry Walls
masonry structures and masonry elements in Seismic Masonry walls shall be anchored to the roof and all floors
Performance Category A designed in accordance with the that provide lateral support for the wall. The anchorage
provisions of Section 710. shall provide a direct connection between the walls and the
floor or roof construction. The connections shall be capable
709.2.1.1 Required Strength of resisting the greater of a seismic lateral force induced by
Required strength, U, to resist the seismic forces in such the wall or 14590 times the effective peak velocity- related
combinations with gravity and other loads, including load acceleration, N/m of wall.
factors, shall be as required in the earthquake loads section
of ASCE 7, except that nonbearing masonry walls shall be 709.4 Seismic Performance Category B
designed for the seismic force applied perpendicular to the Structures in Seismic Performance Category B shall comply
plane of the wall and uniformly distributed over the wall with the requirements of Seismic Performance Category A
area in lieu of the provisions of ASCE 7 Section 9.8.1.1. and to the additional requirements of this section. The
lateral force resisting system shall be designed to comply
709.2.1.2 Nominal Strength with the requirements of Sections 707 and 708.
The nominal strength of masonry shall be taken as 2.5 times
the allowable stress value. The allowable stress values shall 709.5 Seismic Performance Category C
be determined in accordance with Section 707.2 or Section Structures in Seismic Performance Category C shall comply
707.3 and are permitted to be increased by one-third (1/3) with the requirements of Seismic Performance Category B
for load combinations including earthquake. and to the additional requirements of this section.

perpendicular or parallel to the wall, but not less than 2.9

709.5.1 Design of Elements that are Not Part of Lateral kN/m of wall. The maximum spacing between connectors
Force-Resisting System shall be 1.2 m.
709.5.1.1 Load Bearing Frames 709.5.2.2 Connections to Masonry Columns

Load bearing frames or columns that are not part of the Connectors shall be provided to transfer forces between
lateral force resisting system shall be analyzed as to their masonry columns and horizontal elements in accordance
effect on the response of the system. Such frames or with the requirements of Section 706. Where anchor bolts
columns shall be adequate for vertical load carrying are used to connect horizontal elements to the tops of
capacity and induced moment due to the design story drift. columns, anchor bolts shall be placed within lateral ties.
Lateral ties shall enclose both the vertical bars in the
709.5.1.2 Masonry Walls and Elements column and the anchor bolts. There shall be a minimum of
Masonry partition walls, masonry screen walls and other two 12 mm diameter lateral ties provided in the top 125 mm
masonry elements that are not designed to resist vertical or of the column.
lateral loads, other than those induced by their own mass,
shall be isolated from the structure so that vertical and 709.5.2.3 Minimum Reinforcement Requirements for
lateral forces are not imparted to these elements. Isolation Masonry Shear Walls
joints and connectors between these elements and the Vertical reinforcement of at least 129 mm2 in cross-
structure shall be designed to accommodate the design story sectional area shall be provided at comers, within 400 mm
drift. of each side of openings, within 200 mm of each side of
movement joints, within 200 mm of the ends of walls, and
709.5.1.3 Reinforcement Requirements for Masonry at a maximum spacing of 3.0 m.
Elements
Masonry elements listed in Section 709.5.1.2 shall be Horizontal joint reinforcement shall consist of at least two
reinforced in either the horizontal or vertical direction in W1.7 wires spaced not more than 400 mm; or bond beam
accordance with the following: reinforcement shall be provided of at least 129 mm2 in
cross-sectional area spaced not more than 3.0 m. Horizontal
709.5.1.3.1 Horizontal Reinforcement reinforcement shall also be provided at the bottom and top
of wall openings and shall extend not less than 600 mm nor
Horizontal joint reinforcement shall consist of at least two less than 40 bar diameters past the opening; continuously at
longitudinal W1.7 wires spaced not more than 400 mm for structurally connected roof and floor levels; and within 400
walls greater than 100 mm in width and at least one mm of the top of walls.
longitudinal W1.7 wire spaced not more 400 mm for walls
not exceeding 100 mm in width; or at least one 12 mm
709.6 Seismic Performance Category D
diameter bar spaced not more than 1.2 m. Where two
longitudinal wires of joint reinforcement are used, the space Structures in Seismic Performance Category D shall
between these wires shall be the widest that the mortar joint comply with the requirements of Seismic Performance
will accommodate. Horizontal reinforcement shall be Category C and to the additional requirements of this
provided within 400mm of the top and bottom of these section.
masonry elements.
709.6.1 Design Requirements
709.5.1.3.2 Vertical Reinforcement Masonry elements other than those covered by Section
Vertical reinforcement shall consist of at least one 12 mm 709.5.1.2 shall be designed in accordance with the
diameter bar spaced not more than 1.2 m. Vertical requirements of Sections 707.2 and 708.2.
reinforcement shall be located within 400 mm of the ends
of masonry walls. 709.6.2 Minimum Reinforcement Requirements for
Masonry Walls
709.5.2 Design of Elements that are Part of the Lateral Masonry walls other than those covered by Section
Force - Resisting System 709.5.1.3 shall be reinforced in both the vertical and
horizontal direction. The sum of the cross-sectional area of
709.5.2.1 Connections to Masonry Shear Walls horizontal and vertical reinforcement shall be at least 0.002
Connectors shall be provided to transfer forces between times the gross cross-sectional area of the wall, and the
masonry walls and horizontal elements in accordance with minimum cross-sectional area in each direction shall be not
the requirements of Section 706. Connectors shall be less than 0.0007 times the gross cross-sectional area of the
designed to transfer horizontal design forces acting either wall. Reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed. The
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maximum spacing of reinforcement shall be 1.2 m provided SECTION 710

that the walls are solid grouted and constructed of hollow
open-end units, hollow units laid with full head joints or EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF MASONRY
two wythes of solid units. The maximum spacing of
reinforcement shall be 600 mm for all other masonry. 710.1 Height
Building relying on masonry walls for lateral load
709.6.2.1 Shear Wall Reinforcement Requirements resistance shall not exceed 10 m in height.
The maximum spacing of vertical and horizontal
reinforcement shall be the smaller of; one-third the length 710.2 Lateral Stability
of the shear wall, one-third the height of the shear wall, 1.2 Where the structure depends on masonry walls for lateral
m. The minimum cross-sectional area of vertical stability, shear walls shall be provided parallel to the
reinforcement shall be one-third of the required shear direction of the lateral forces resisted.
reinforcement. Shear reinforcement shall be anchored
around vertical reinforcing bars with a standard hook. Minimum nominal thickness on masonry shear walls shall
be 200 mm.
709.6.3 Minimum Reinforcement for Masonry Columns
Lateral ties in masonry columns shall be spaced not more In each direction in which shear walls are required for
than 200 mm on center and shall be at least 10 mm lateral stability, the minimum cumulative length of shear
diameter. Lateral ties shall be embedded in grout. walls provided shall be 0.4 times the dimension of the
building. The cumulative length of shear walls shall not
709.6.4 Material Requirements include openings.
Neither Type N mortar nor masonry cement shall be used as
part of the lateral force resisting system. The maximum spacing of shear walls shall not exceed the
ratio listed in Table 710-1.
709.6.5 Lateral Tie Anchorage
Standard hooks for lateral tie anchorage shall be either a 710.3 Compressive Stresses
135 degree standard hook or a 180 degree standard hook.
710.3.1 General
709.7 Seismic Performance Category E Compressive stresses in masonry due to vertical dead loads
Structures in Seismic Performance Category E shall comply plus live loads, excluding wind or seismic loads, shall be
with the requirements of Seismic Performance Category D determined in accordance with Section 710.4.3. Dead and
and to the additional requirements of this section. live loads shall be in accordance with this code with
permitted live load reductions.
709.7.1 Design of Elements that are Not Part of Lateral
Force Resisting System 710.3.2 Allowable Stresses
Stack bond masonry that is not part of the lateral force- The compressive stresses in masonry shall not exceed the
resisting system shall have a horizontal cross sectional area values set forth in Table 710-2. The allowable stresses
of reinforcement of at least 0.0015 times the gross cross- given in Table 710-2 for the weakest combination of the
sectional area of masonry. The maximum spacing of units and mortar used in any load wythe shall be used for all
horizontal reinforcement shall be 600 mm. These elements loaded wythes of multi-wythe walls.
shall be solidly grouted and shall be constructed of hollow
open-end units or two wythes of solid units. 710.3.3 Stress Calculations
Stresses shall be calculated based on specified rather than
709.7.2 Design of Elements that are Part of Lateral nominal dimensions. Calculated compressive stresses shall
Force Resisting System be determined by dividing the design load by the gross
Stack bond masonry that is part of the lateral force-resisting cross-sectional area of the member. The area of openings,
system shall have a horizontal cross sectional area of chases or recesses in walls shall not be included in the gross
reinforcement of at least 0.0025 times the gross cross- cross-sectional area of the wall.
sectional area of masonry. The maximum spacing of
horizontal reinforcement shall be 400 mm. These elements 710.3.4 Anchor Bolts
shall be solidly grouted and shall be constructed of hollow Bolt values shall not exceed those set forth in Table 710-3.
open-end units or two wythes of solid units.

710.4 Lateral Support 710.5.5 Foundation Walls

Masonry walls shall be laterally supported in either the Mortar used in masonry foundation walls shall be either
horizontal or vertical direction not exceeding the intervals Type M or S.
set forth in Table 710-4.
Where the height of unbalanced fill (height of finished
Lateral support shall be provided by cross walls, pilasters, grade above basement floor or inside grade) and the height
buttresses or structural framing members horizontally or by of the wall between lateral support does not exceed 2.4 m,
floors, roof or structural framing members vertically. and when the equivalent fluid weight of unbalanced fill
does not exceed 480 kg/m2, the minimum thickness of
Except for parapet walls, the ratio of height to nominal foundation walls shall be as set forth in Table 710-5.
thickness for cantilever walls shall not exceed 6 for solid Maximum depths of unbalanced fill permitted in Table 710-
masonry or 4 for hollow masonry. 5 may be increased with the approval of the building
official when local soil conditions warrant such an increase.
In computing the ratio for cavity walls, the value of
thickness shall be the sums of the nominal thickness of the Where the height of unbalanced fill, height between lateral
inner and outer wythes of the masonry. In walls composed supports or equivalent fluid weight of unbalanced fill
of different classes of units and mortars, the ratio of height exceeds that set forth above, foundation walls shall be
or length to thickness shall not exceed that allowed for the designed in accordance with Chapter 3.
weakest of the combinations of units and mortar of which
the member is composed. 710.6 Bond
710.5 Minimum Thickness 710.6.1 General

The facing and backing of multi-wythe masonry walls shall
710.5.1 General be bonded in accordance with this section.
The nominal thickness of masonry bearing walls in
buildings more than one story in height shall not be less 710.6.2 Masonry Headers
than 200 mm. Solid masonry walls in one-storey buildings Where the facing and backing of solid masonry
may be of 150 mm nominal thickness when not over 2.7 m construction are bonded by masonry headers, not less than 4
in height, provided that when gable construction is used, an percent of the wall surface of each face shall be composed
additional 1.8 m is permitted to the peak of the gable. of headers extending not less than 75 mm into the backing.
Exception: The distance between adjacent full-length headers shall not
The thickness of unreinforced grouted brick masonry walls exceed 600 mm either vertically or horizontally. In walls in
may be 50mm less than required by this section, but in no which a single header does not extend through the wall,
case less than 150 mm. headers from opposite sides shall overlap at least 75 mm, or
headers from opposite sides shall be covered with another
header course overlapping the header below at least 75 mm.
710.5.2 Variation in Thickness
Where a change in thickness due to minimum thickness Where two or more hollow units are used to make up the
occurs between floor levels, the greater thickness shall be thickness of the wall, the stretcher courses shall be bonded
carried up to the higher floor level. at vertical intervals not exceeding 865 mm by lapping at
least 75 mm over the unit below, or by lapping at vertical
710.5.3 Decrease in Thickness intervals not exceeding 430 mm with units which are at
Where walls of masonry of hollow units or masonry- least 50 percent greater in thickness than the units below.
bonded hollow walls are decrease in thickness, a course or
courses of solid masonry shall be constructed between the 710.6.3 Wall Ties
walls below and the thinner wall above, or special units or Where the facing and backing of masonry walls are bonded
construction shall be used to transmit the loads from face with 4.8 mm diameter wall ties or metal ties of equivalent
shells or wythes to the walls below. stiffness embedded in the horizontal mortar joints, there
shall be at least one metal tie for each 0.42 m2 of wall area.
710.5.4 Parapets Ties in alternate courses shall be staggered, the maximum
Parapet walls shall be at least 200 mm in thickness and their vertical distance between ties shall not exceed 600 mm, and
height shall not exceed three times their thickness. The the maximum horizontal distance shall not exceed 900 mm.
parapet wall shall not be thinner than the wall below. Rods bent to rectangular shape shall be used with hollow-
masonry units laid with the cells vertical. In other walls,
the ends of ties shall be bent to 90-degree angles to provide
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hooks not less than 50 mm long. Additional ties shall be 1. Wood floor joists bearing on masonry walls shall be
provided at all openings, spaced not more than 900 mm anchored to the wall by approved metal strap anchors
apart around the perimeter and within 300 mm of the at intervals not exceeding 1.8 m. Joists parallel to the
opening. wall shall be anchored with metal straps spaced not
more than 1.8 m on center extending over and under
The facing and backing of masonry walls may be bonded and secured to at least three joists. Blocking shall be
with prefabricated joint reinforcement. There shall be at provided between joists at each strap anchor.
least one cross wire serving as a tie for each 0.25 m2 of wall
2. Steel floor joists shall be anchored to masonry walls
area. The vertical spacing of the joint reinforcement shall
with 10 mm diameter bars, or their equivalent, spaced
not exceed 406 mm. Cross wires of prefabricated joint
not more than 1.8 m on center. Where joists are
reinforcement shall be at least No. 9 gage wire. The
parallel to the wall, anchors shall be located at joists
longitudinal wire shall be embedded in mortar.
cross bridging.
710.6.4 Longitudinal Bond 3. Roof structures shall be anchored to masonry walls
In each wythe of masonry, head joints in successive courses with 12 mm bolts at 1.8 m on center or their equivalent.
shall be offset at least one fourth of the unit length or the Bolts shall extend and be embedded at least 400 mm
walls shall be reinforced longitudinally as required in into the masonry, or be hooked or welded to not less
Section 706.1.12.3, Item 4. than 130 mm2 of bond beam reinforcement placed not
less than 150 mm from the top of the wall.
710.7 Anchorage
710.7.3 Walls Adjoining Structural Framing
710.7.1 Intersecting Walls Where walls are dependent on the structural frame for
Masonry walls depending on one another for lateral lateral support, they shall be anchored to the structural
support shall be anchored or bonded at locations where they members with metal anchors or keyed to the structural
meet or intersect by one of the following methods: members. Metal anchors shall consist of 12 mm bolts
spaced at a maximum of 1.2 m on center and embedded at
1. Fifty percent of the units at the intersection shall be least 100 mm into the masonry, or their equivalent area.
laid in an overlapping pattern, with alternating units
having a bearing of not less than 75 mm on the unit 710.8 Unburned Clay Masonry
below.
2. Walls shall be anchored by steel connectors having a 710.8.1 General
minimum section of 6 mm by 38 mm with ends bent up Masonry of stabilized clay unburned units shall not be used
at least 50 mm, or with cross pins to form anchorage. in any building more than one story in height. The
Such anchors shall be at least 600 mm long and the unsupported height of every wall of unburned clay units
maximum spacing shall be 1.2 m vertically. shall not be more than 10 times the thickness of such walls.
Bearing walls shall in no case be less than 400 mm in
3. Walls shall be anchored by joint reinforcement spaced thickness. All footing walls which support masonry of
at a maximum distance of 200 mm vertically. unburned clay units shall extend to an elevation not less
Longitudinal rods of such reinforcement shall be at than 150 mm above the adjacent ground at all points.
least No. 9 gage and shall extend at least 750 mm in
each direction at the intersection.
710.8.2 Bolts
4. Interior nonbearing walls may be anchored at their Bolt values shall not exceed those set forth in Table 710-6.
intersection, at vertical spacing of not more than 400
mm with joint reinforcement or 6 mm mesh galvanized 710.9 Stone Masonry
hardware cloth.
5. Other metal ties, joint reinforcement or anchors may be 710.9.1 General
used, provided they are spaced to provide equivalent Stone masonry is that form of construction made with
area of anchorage to that required by this section. natural or cast stone in which the units are laid and set in
mortar with all joints filled.
710.7.2 Floor and Roof Anchorage
Floor and roof diaphragms providing lateral support to 710.9.2 Construction
masonry walls shall be connected to the masonry walls by In ashlar masonry, bond stones uniformly distributed shall
one of the following methods: be provided to the extent of not less than 10 percent of the
area of exposed facets. Rubble stone masonry 600 mm or
less in thickness shall have bond stones with a maximum

spacing of 900 mm vertically and 900 mm horizontally and, SECTION 711

if the masonry is of greater thickness than 600 mm, shall
have one bond stone for each 0.56 m2 of wall surface on GLASS MASONRY
both sides.
711.1 General
710.9.3 Minimum Thickness Masonry of glass blocks may be used in non-load-bearing
exterior or interior walls and in openings which might
The thickness of stone masonry bearing walls shall not be
otherwise be filled with windows, either isolated or in
less than 400 mm.
continuous bands, provided the glass block panels have a
minimum thickness of 75 mm at the mortar joint and the
mortared surfaces of the blocks are treated for mortar
bonding. Glass block may be solid or hollow and may
contain inserts.
711.2 Mortar Joints

Glass block shall be laid in Type S or N mortar. Both
vertical and horizontal mortar joints shall be at least 6 mm
and not more than 10 mm thick and shall be completely
filled. All mortar contact surfaces shall be treated to ensure
adhesion between mortar and glass.
711.3 Lateral Support

Glass panels shall be laterally supported along each end of
the panel.
Lateral support shall be provided by panel anchors spaced

not more than 400 mm on center or by channels. The
lateral support shall be capable of resisting the horizontal
design forces determined in Chapter 2 or a minimum of 3
kN/m of wall, whichever is greater. The connection shall
accommodate movement requirements of Section 711.6.
711.4 Reinforcement
Glass block panels shall have joint reinforcement spaced
not more than 400 mm on center and located in the mortar
bed joint extending the entire length of the panel. A
lapping of longitudinal wires for a minimum of 150 mm is
required for joint reinforcement splices. Joint
reinforcement shall also be placed in the bed joint
immediately below and above openings in the panel. Joint
reinforcement shall conform to ASTM A 385 and A 641.
Joint reinforcement in exterior panels shall be hot-dip
galvanized in accordance with ASTM A 385 and A 641.
711.5 Size of Panels

Glass block panels for exterior walls shall not exceed 13.5
m2 of unsupported wall surface or 4.50 m in any dimension.
For interior walls, glass block panels shall not exceed 23.2
m2 of unsupported area or 7.60 m in any dimension.
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711.6 Expansion Joints

Glass block shall be provided with expansion joints along SECTION 712
the sides and top, and these joints shall have sufficient MASONRY FIREPLACES
thickness to accommodate displacements of the supporting
structure, but not less than 10 mm. Expansion joints shall 712.1 Definition
be entirely free of mortar and shall be filled with resilient A masonry fireplace is a fireplace constructed of concrete
material. or masonry. Masonry fireplaces shall be constructed in
accordance with this section.
711.7 Reuse of Units
Glass block units shall not be reused after being removed 712.2 Footings and Foundations
from an existing panel. Footings for masonry fireplaces and their chimneys shall be
constructed of concrete or solid masonry at least 300 mm
thick and shall extend at least 150 mm beyond the face of
the fireplace or foundation wall on all sides. Footings shall
be founded on natural undisturbed earth or engineered fill
below frost depth. In areas not subjected to freezing,
footings shall be at least 300 mm below finished grade.
712.2.1 Ash Dump Cleanout

Cleanout openings, located within foundation walls below
fireboxes, when provided, shall be equipped with ferrous
metal or masonry doors and frames constructed to remain
tightly closed, except when in use. Cleanouts shall be
accessible and located so that ash removal will not create a
hazard to combustible materials.
712.3 Seismic Reinforcing

Masonry or concrete fireplaces shall be constructed,
anchored, supported and reinforced as required in this
chapter. In Seismic Design Category D, masonry and
concrete fireplaces shall be reinforced and anchored as
detailed in Sections 712.3.1, 712.3.2, 712.4 and 712.4.1 for
chimneys serving fireplaces. In Seismic Design Category
A, B or C, reinforcement and seismic anchorage is not
required. In Seismic Design Category E or F, masonry and
concrete chimneys shall be reinforced in accordance with
the requirements of Sections 701 through 709.
712.3.1 Vertical Reinforcing

For fireplaces with chimneys up to 1.0 m wide, four 10 mm
diameter continuous vertical bars, anchored in the
foundation, shall be placed in the concrete between wythes
of solid masonry or within the cells of hollow unit masonry
and grouted in accordance with Section 703.4. For
fireplaces with chimneys greater than 1.0 m wide, two
additional 12 mm diameter vertical bars shall be provided
for each additional 1.0 m in width or fraction thereof.
712.3.2 Horizontal Reinforcing

Vertical reinforcement shall be placed enclosed within 6
mm) ties or other reinforcing of equivalent net cross-
sectional area, spaced not to exceed 450 mm on center in
concrete; or placed in the bed joints of unit masonry at a

minimum of every 450 mm of vertical height. Two such 712.7 Lintel and Throat
ties shall be provided at each bend in the vertical bars. Masonry over a fireplace opening shall be supported by a
lintel of noncombustible material. The minimum required
712.4 Seismic Anchorage bearing length on each end of the fireplace opening shall be
Masonry and concrete chimneys in Seismic Design 100 mm. The fireplace throat or damper shall be located a
Category D shall be anchored at each floor, ceiling or roof minimum of 200 mm above the top of the fireplace
line more than 1.8 m above grade, except where constructed opening.
completely within the exterior walls. Anchorage shall
conform to the following requirements. 712.7.1 Damper
Masonry fireplaces shall be equipped with a ferrous metal
712.4.1 Anchorage damper located at least 200 mm above the top of the
4.8 mm by 25 mm straps shall be embedded a minimum of fireplace opening. Dampers shall be installed in the
300 mm into the chimney. Straps shall be hooked around fireplace or at the top of the flue venting the fireplace, and
the outer bars and extend 150 mm beyond the bend. Each shall be operable from the room containing the fireplace.
strap shall be fastened to a minimum of four floor joists Damper controls shall be permitted to be located in the
with two 12 mm bolts. fireplace.
712.5 Firebox Walls 712.8 Smoke Chamber Walls

Masonry fireboxes shall be constructed of solid masonry Smoke chamber walls shall be constructed of solid masonry
units, hollow masonry units grouted solid, stone or units, hollow masonry units grouted solid, stone or
concrete. When a lining of firebrick at least 50 mm in concrete. Corbeling of masonry units shall not leave unit
thickness or other approved lining is provided, the cores exposed to the inside of the smoke chamber. The
minimum thickness of back and sidewalls shall each be 200 inside surface of corbeled masonry shall be parged smooth.
mm of solid masonry, including the lining. The width of Where no lining is provided, the total minimum thickness
joints between firebricks shall not be greater than 6 mm. of front, back and sidewalls shall be 200 mm of solid
When no lining is provided, the total minimum thickness of masonry. When a lining of firebrick at least 50 mm thick, or
back and sidewalls shall be 250 mm of solid masonry. a lining of vitrified clay at least 16 mm thick, is provided,
Firebrick shall conform to ASTM C 27 or ASTM C 1261 the total minimum thickness of front, back and sidewalls
and shall be laid with medium-duty refractory mortar shall be 150 mm of solid masonry, including the lining.
conforming to ASTM C 199. Firebrick shall conform to ASTM C 27 or ASTM C 1261
and shall be laid with refractory mortar conforming to
712.5.1 Steel Fireplace Units ASTM C 199.
Steel fireplace units are permitted to be installed with solid
masonry to form a masonry fireplace provided they are 712.8.1 Smoke Chamber Dimensions
installed according to either the requirements of their listing The inside height of the smoke chamber from the fireplace
or the requirements of this section. Steel fireplace units throat to the beginning of the flue shall not be greater than
incorporating a steel firebox lining shall be constructed with the inside width of the fireplace opening. The inside surface
steel not less than 6 mm in thickness, and an air-circulating of the smoke chamber shall not be inclined more than 45
chamber which is ducted to the interior of the building. The degrees (0.76 rad) from vertical when prefabricated smoke
firebox lining shall be encased with solid masonry to chamber linings are used or when the smoke chamberwalls
provide a total thickness at the back and sides of not less are rolled or sloped rather than corbeled. When the inside
than 200 mm, of which not less than 100 mm shall be of surface of the smoke chamber is formed by corbeled
solid masonry or concrete. Circulating air ducts employed masonry, the walls shall not be corbeled more than 30
with steel fireplace units shall be constructed of metal or degrees (0.52 rad) from vertical.
masonry.
712.9 Hearth and Hearth Extension
712.6 Firebox Dimensions Masonry fireplace hearths and hearth extensions shall be
The firebox of a concrete or masonry fireplace shall have a constructed of concrete or masonry, supported by
minimum depth of 500 mm. The throat shall not be less noncombustible materials, and reinforced to carry their own
than 200 mm above the fireplace opening. The throat weight and all imposed loads. No combustible material
opening shall not be less than 100 mm in depth. The cross- shall remain against the underside of hearths or hearth
sectional area of the passageway above the firebox, extensions after construction.
including the throat, damper and smoke chamber, shall not
be less than the cross-sectional area of the flue.
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712.9.1 Hearth Thickness 4. Exposed combustible mantels or trim is permitted to be

The minimum thickness of fireplace hearths shall be 100 placed directly on the masonry fireplace front
mm. surrounding the fireplace opening provided such
combustible materials shall not be placed within 150
712.9.2 Hearth Extension Thickness mm of a fireplace opening. Combustible material
directly above and within 300 mm of the fireplace
The minimum thickness of hearth extensions shall be 50 opening shall not project more than 3.2 mm for each
mm.
25 mm distance from such opening. Combustible
materials located along the sides of the fireplace
Exception: opening that project more than 40 mm from the face of
When the bottom of the firebox opening is raised at least the fireplace shall have an additional clearance equal
0.20m above the top of the hearth extension, a hearth to the projection.
extension of not less than 10 mm thick brick, concrete,
stone, tile or other approved noncombustible material is
permitted.
712.10 Hearth Extension Dimensions

Hearth extensions shall extend at least 400 mm in front of,
and at least 200 mm beyond, each side of the fireplace
opening. Where the fireplace opening is 0.60 m2 or larger,
the hearth extension shall extend at least 500 mm in front
of, and at least 300 mm beyond, each side of the fireplace
opening.
Figure 712.11
712.11 Fireplace Clearance Illustration of Exception to Fireplace Clearance Provision
Any portion of a masonry fireplace located in the interior of
a building or within the exterior wall of a building shall 712.12 Fireplace Fireblocking
have a clearance to combustibles of not less than 50 mm All spaces between fireplaces and floors and ceilings
from the front faces and sides of masonry fireplaces and not through which fireplaces pass shall be fireblocked with
less than 0.10m from the back faces of masonry fireplaces. noncombustible material securely fastened in place. The
The airspace shall not be filled, except to provide fireblocking of spaces between wood joists, beams or
fireblocking in accordance with Section 712.12. headers shall be to a depth of 25 mm and shall only be
placed on strips of metal or metal lath laid across the spaces
Exceptions: between combustible material and the chimney.
1. Masonry fireplaces listed and labeled for use in
712.13 Exterior Air
contact with combustibles in accordance with UL 127
and installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s Factory-built or masonry fireplaces covered in this section
installation instructions are permitted to have shall be equipped with an exterior air supply to ensure
combustible material in contact with their exterior proper fuel combustion unless the room is mechanically
surfaces. ventilated and controlled so that the indoor pressure is
neutral or positive.
2. When masonry fireplaces are constructed as part of
masonry or concrete walls, combustible materials shall 712.13.1 Factory-Built Fireplaces
not be in contact with the masonry or concrete walls
Exterior combustion air ducts for factory-built fireplaces
less than 300 mm from the inside surface of the nearest
shall be listed components of the fireplace, and installed
firebox lining.
according to the fireplace manufacturer’s instructions.
3. Exposed combustible trim and the edges of sheathing
materials, such as wood siding, flooring and drywall, 712.13.2 Masonry Fireplaces
are permitted to abut the masonry fireplace sidewalls Listed combustion air ducts for masonry fireplaces shall be
and hearth extension, in accordance with Figure installed according to the terms of their listing and
712.11, provided such combustible trim or sheathing is manufacturer’s instructions.
a minimum of 300 mm from the inside surface of the
nearest firebox lining.

712.13.3 Exterior Air Intake

The exterior air intake shall be capable of providing all
combustion air from the exterior of the dwelling. The SECTION 713
exterior air intake shall not be located within the garage, MASONRY CHIMNEYS
attic, basement or crawl space of the dwelling nor shall the
air intake be located at an elevation higher than the firebox. 713.1 Definition
The exterior air intake shall be covered with a corrosion- A masonry chimney is a chimney constructed of concrete or
resistant screen of 6.4 mm mesh. masonry, hereinafter referred to as “masonry.” Masonry
chimneys shall be constructed, anchored, supported and
712.13.4 Clearance reinforced as required in this chapter.
Unlisted combustion air ducts shall be installed with a
minimum 25 mm clearance to combustibles for all parts of 713.2 Footings and Foundations
the duct within 1.5 m of the duct outlet. Footings for masonry chimneys shall be constructed of
concrete or solid masonry at least 300 mm thick and shall
712.13.5 Passageway extend at least 150 mm beyond the face of the foundation or
The combustion air passageway shall be a minimum of support wall on all sides. Footings shall be founded on
0.040 m2 and not more than 0.035 m2, except that natural undisturbed earth or engineered fill below frost
combustion air systems for listed fireplaces or for fireplaces depth. In areas not subjected to freezing, footings shall be at
tested for emissions shall be constructed according to the least 300 mm below finished grade.
fireplace manufacturer’s instructions.
713.3 Seismic Reinforcing
713.13.6 Outlet Masonry or concrete chimneys shall be constructed,
The exterior air outlet is permitted to be located in the back anchored, supported and reinforced as required in this
or sides of the firebox chamber or within 600 mm of the chapter. In Seismic Design Category D, masonry and
firebox opening on or near the floor. The outlet shall be concrete chimneys shall be reinforced and anchored as
closable and designed to prevent burning material from detailed in Sections 713.3.1, 713.3.2 and 713.4. In Seismic
dropping into concealed combustible spaces. Design Category A, B or C, reinforcement and seismic
anchorage is not required. In Seismic Design Category Eor
F, masonry and concrete chimneys shall be reinforced in
accordance with the requirements of Sections 701 through
709.
713.3.1 Vertical Reinforcing

For chimneys up to 1.0 m wide, four 12mm diameter
continuous vertical bars anchored in the foundation shall be
placed in the concrete between wythes of solid masonry or
within the cells of hollow unit masonry and grouted in
accordance with Section 703.4. Grout shall be prevented
from bonding with the flue liner so that the flue liner is free
to move with thermal expansion. For chimneys greater than
1.0 m wide, two additional 12 mm vertical bars shall be
provided for each additional 1.0 m in width or fraction
thereof.
713.3.2 Horizontal Reinforcing

Vertical reinforcement shall be placed enclosed within 6.4
mm ties, or other reinforcing of equivalent net cross-
sectional area, spaced not to exceed 450 mm o.c. in
concrete, or placed in the bed joints of unit masonry, at a
minimum of every 450 mm of vertical height. Two such
ties shall be provided at each bend in the vertical bars.
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713.4 Seismic Anchorage 713.9 Termination

Masonry and concrete chimneys and foundations in Seismic Chimneys shall extend at least 600 mm higher than any
Design Category D shall be anchored at each floor, ceiling portion of the building within 3.0 m, but shall not be less
or roof line more than 1.8 m above grade, except where than 900 mm above the highest point where the chimney
constructed completely within the exterior walls. passes through the roof.
Anchorage shall conform to the following requirements.
713.9.1 Spark Arrestors
713.4.1 Anchorage Where a spark arrestor is installed on a masonry chimney,
Two 4.8 mm by 25 mm straps shall be embedded a the spark arrestor shall meet all of the following
minimum of 300 mm into the chimney. Straps shall be requirements:
hooked around the outer bars and extend 150 mm beyond
1. The net free area of the arrestor shall not be less than
the bend. Each strap shall be fastened to a minimum of four
four times the net free area of the outlet of the chimney
floor joists with two 12 mm bolts.
flue it serves.
713.5 Corbeling 2. The arrestor screen shall have heat and corrosion
Masonry chimneys shall not be corbelled more than half of resistance equivalent to 19-gage galvanized steel or 24-
the chimney’s wall thickness from a wall or foundation, nor gage stainless steel.
shall a chimney be corbeled from a wall or foundation that 3. Openings shall not permit the passage of spheres
is less than 300 mm in thickness unless it projects equally having a diameter greater than 12 mm nor block the
on each side of the wall, except that on the second story of a passage of spheres having a diameter less than 10 mm.
two-story dwelling, corbeling of chimneys on the exterior
of the enclosing walls is permitted to equal the wall 4. The spark arrestor shall be accessible for cleaning and
thickness. The projection of a single course shall not exceed the screen or chimney cap shall be removable to allow
one-half the unit height or one-third of the unit bed depth, for cleaning of the chimney flue.
whichever is less.
713.10 Wall Thickness
713.6 Changes in Dimension Masonry chimney walls shall be constructed of concrete,
The chimney wall or chimney flue lining shall not change solid masonry units or hollow masonry units grouted solid
in size or shape within 150 mm above or below where the with not less than 100 mm nominal thickness.
chimney passes through floor components, ceiling
components or roof components. 713.10.1 Masonry Veneer Chimneys
Where masonry is used as veneer for a framed chimney,
713.7 Offsets through flashing and weep holes shall be provided as
Where a masonry chimney is constructed with a fireclay required by Chapter 14 of IBC.
flue liner surrounded by one wythe of masonry, the
maximum offset shall be such that the centerline of the flue 713.11 Flue Lining (Material)
above the offset does not extend beyond the center of the Masonry chimneys shall be lined. The lining material shall
chimney wall below the offset. Where the chimney offset is be appropriate for the type of appliance connected,
supported by masonry below the offset in an approved according to the terms of the appliance listing and the
manner, the maximum offset limitations shall not apply. manufacturer’s instructions.
Each individual corbeled masonry course of the offset shall
not exceed the projection limitations specified in Section 713.11.1 Residential-Type Appliances (General)
713.5. Flue lining systems shall comply with one of the following:
713.8 Additional Load 1. Clay flue lining complying with the requirements of
Chimneys shall not support loads other than their own ASTM C315, or equivalent.
weight unless they are designed and constructed to support 2. Listed chimney lining systems complying with UL
the additional load. Masonry chimneys are permitted to be 1777.
constructed as part of the masonry walls or concrete walls
of the building. 3. Factory-built chimneys or chimney units listed for
installation within masonry chimneys.
4. Other approved materials that will resist corrosion,
erosion, softening or cracking from flue gases and
condensate at temperatures up to 1,800°F (982°C).

713.11.1.1 Flue Linings for Specific Appliances

Flue linings other than those covered in Section 713.11.1 713.11.2.3 Lining
intended for use with specific appliances shall comply with Concrete and masonry chimneys shall be lined with an
Sections 713.11.1.2 through 713.11.1.4 and Sections approved medium-duty refractory brick a minimum of 115
713.11.2 and 713.11.3. mm thick laid on the 115 mm bed in an approved medium-
duty refractory mortar. The lining shall start 600 mm or
713.11.1.2 Gas Appliances more below the lowest chimney connector entrance.
Flue lining systems for gas appliances shall be in Chimneys terminating 7.5 m or less above a chimney
accordance with the International Fuel Gas Code. connector entrance shall be lined to the top.
713.11.1.3 Pellet Fuel-Burning Appliances 713.11.2.4 Multiple Passageways

Flue lining and vent systems for use in masonry chimneys Concrete and masonry chimneys containing more than one
with pellet fuel-burning appliances shall be limited to flue passageway shall have the liners separated by a minimum
lining systems complying with Section 713.11.1 and pellet 100 mm thick concrete or solid masonry wall.
vents listed for installation within masonry chimneys (see
Section 713.11.1.5 for marking). 713.11.2.5 Termination Height
Concrete and masonry chimneys for medium-heat
713.11.1.4 Oil-Fired Appliances Approved for Use with appliances shall extend a minimum of 3.0 m higher than
L-Vent any portion of any building within 7.5 m.
Flue lining and vent systems for use in masonry chimneys
with oil-fired appliances approved for use with Type L vent 713.11.2.6 Clearance
shall be limited to flue lining systems complying with A minimum clearance of 100 mm shall be provided
Section 713.11.1 and listed chimney liners complying with between the exterior surfaces of a concrete or masonry
UL 641 (see Section 713.11.1.5 for marking). chimney for medium-heat appliances and combustible
material.
713.11.1.5 Notice of Usage
When a flue is relined with a material not complying with 713.11.3 Concrete and Masonry Chimneys for High-
Section 713.11.1, the chimney shall be plainly and Heat Appliances
permanently identified by a label attached to a wall, ceiling
or other conspicuous location adjacent to where the 713.11.3.1 General
connector enters the chimney. The label shall include the Concrete and masonry chimneys for high-heat appliances
following message or equivalent language: “This chimney shall comply with Sections 713.1 through 713.5.
is for use only with (type or category of appliance) that
burns (type of fuel). Do not connect other types of 713.11.3.2 Construction
appliances.” Chimneys for high-heat appliances shall be constructed
with double walls of solid masonry units or of concrete,
713.11.2 Concrete and Masonry Chimneys for Medium- each wall to be a minimum of 200 mm thick with a
Heat Appliances minimum airspace of 50 mm between the walls.
713.11.2.1 General 713.11.3.3 Lining
Concrete and masonry chimneys for medium-heat The inside of the interior wall shall be lined with an
appliances shall comply with Sections 713.1 through 713.5. approved high-duty refractory brick, a minimum 115 mm
thick laid on the 115 mm bed in an approved high-duty
713.11.2.2 Construction refractory mortar. The lining shall start at the base of the
Chimneys for medium-heat appliances shall be constructed chimney and extend continuously to the top.
of solid masonry units or of concrete with walls a minimum
of 200 mm thick, or with stone masonry a minimum of 300 713.11.3.4 Termination Height
mm thick. Concrete and masonry chimneys for high-heat appliances
shall extend a minimum of 6.0 m higher than any portion of
any building within 15.0 m.
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713.11.3.5 Clearance
Concrete and masonry chimneys for high-heat appliances Table 713.16(1)
shall have approved clearance from buildings and structures Net Cross-Sectional Area of Round Flue Sizes
to prevent overheating combustible materials, permit Flue Size, Inside Diameter Cross-Sectional Area
inspection and maintenance operations on the chimney and (mm) (mm2 x 103)
prevent danger of burns to persons. 150 18.0
175 24.5
713.12 Clay Flue Lining (Installation) 200 32.3
Clay flue liners shall be installed in accordance 250 50.3
withASTMC 1283 and extend from a point not less than 275 58.1
200 mm below the lowest inlet or, in the case of fireplaces, 300 72.9
from the top of the smoke chamber to a point above the 380 113.5
enclosing walls. The lining shall be carried up vertically, 460 163.9
with a maximum slope no greater than 30 degrees (0.52
rad) from the vertical. Clay flue liners shall be laid in
Table 713.16(2)
medium-duty refractory mortar conforming to ASTM C
Net Cross-Sectional Area of Square
199 with tight mortar joints left smooth on the inside and
and Rectangular Flue Sizes
installed to maintain an air space or insulation not to exceed
the thickness of the flue liner separating the flue liners from Flue Size, Outside Nominal Cross-Sectional Area
the interior face of the chimney masonry walls. Flue lining Dimensions (mm) (mm2 x 103)
shall be supported on all sides. Only enough mortar shall be 114 x 216 14.8
placed to make the joint and hold the liners in position. 114 x 330 21.9
203 x 203 27.1
713.13 Additional Requirements 216 x 216 31.6
216 x 305 43.2
713.13.1 Listed Materials 216 x 330 49.0
Listed materials used as flue linings shall be installed in 305 x 305 65.8
accordance with the terms of their listings and the 216 x 457 65.2
manufacturer’s instructions. 330 x 330 81.9
305 x 406 84.5
713.13.2 Space Around Lining 330 x 457 111.6
The space surrounding a chimney lining system or vent 406 x 406 116.8
installed within a masonry chimney shall not be used to 406 x 508 143.2
vent any other appliance. 457 x 457 150.3
508 x 508 192.3
Exception:
508 x 610 216.1
This shall not prevent the installation of a separate flue 610 x 610 278.1
lining in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
Exception:
713.14 Multiple Flues When venting only one appliance, two flues are permitted to
When two or more flues are located in the same chimney, adjoin each other in the same chimney with only the flue
masonry wythes shall be built between adjacent flue lining separation between them. The joints of the adjacent
linings. The masonry wythes shall be at least 100 mm thick flue linings shall be staggered at least 100 mm.
and bonded into the walls of the chimney.

713.15 Flue Area (Appliance) Figure 713.16

Chimney flues shall not be smaller in area than the area of Flue Sizes for Masonry Chimneys
the connector from the appliance. Chimney flues connected
to more than one appliance shall not be less than the area of
the largest connector plus 50 percent of the areas of
additional chimney connectors.
Exceptions:
1. Chimney flues serving oil-fired appliances sized in
accordance with NFPA 31.
2. Chimney flues serving gas-fired appliances sized in
accordance with the International Fuel Gas Code.
713.16 Flue Area (Masonry Fireplace)

Flue sizing for chimneys serving fireplaces shall be in
accordance with Section 713.16.1 or 713.16.2.
713.16.1 Minimum Area

Round chimney flues shall have a minimum net cross-
sectional area of at least 1/12 of the fireplace opening. Square
chimney flues shall have a minimum net cross-sectional
area of at least 1/10 of the fireplace opening. Rectangular
chimney flues with an aspect ratio less than
2 to 1 shall have a minimum net cross-sectional area of a 713.18 Masonry Chimney Cleanout Openings
least 1/10 of the fireplace opening. Rectangular chimney Cleanout openings shall be provided within 150 mm of the
flues with an aspect ratio of 2 to 1 or more shall have a base of each flue within every masonry chimney. The upper
minimum net cross-sectional area of at least 1/8 of the edge of the cleanout shall be located at least 150 mm below
fireplace opening. the lowest chimney inlet opening. The height of the opening
shall be at least 150 mm. The cleanout shall be provided
713.16.2 Determination of Minimum Area with a noncombustible cover.
The minimum net cross-sectional area of the flue shall be
determined in accordance with Figure 713.16. A flue size Exception:
providing at least the equivalent net cross-sectional area Chimney flues serving masonry fireplaces, where cleaning
shall be used. Cross-sectional areas of clay flue linings are is possible through the fireplace opening.
as provided in Tables 713.16(1) and 713.16(2) or as
provided by the manufacturer or as measured in the field. 713.19 Chimney Clearances
The height of the chimney shall be measured from the Any portion of a masonry chimney located in the interior of
firebox floor to the top of the chimney flue. the building or within the exterior wall of the building shall
have a minimum airspace clearance to combustibles of 50
713.17 Inlet mm. Chimneys located entirely outside the exterior walls of
Inlets to masonry chimneys shall enter from the side. Inlets the building, including chimneys that pass through the soffit
shall have a thimble of fireclay, rigid refractory material or or cornice, shall have a minimum airspace clearance of 25
metal that will prevent the connector from pulling out of the mm. The airspace shall not be filled, except to provide
inlet or from extending beyond the wall of the liner. fireblocking in accordance with Section 713.20.
Exceptions:
1. Masonry chimneys equipped with a chimney lining
system listed and labeled for use in chimneys in contact
with combustibles in accordance with UL 1777, and
installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions, are permitted to have combustible
material in contact with their exterior surfaces.
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2. Where masonry chimneys are constructed as part of

masonry or concrete walls, combustible materials shall
not be in contact with the masonry or concrete wall
less than 300 mm from the inside surface of the nearest
flue lining.
3. Exposed combustible trim and the edges of sheathing
materials, such as wood siding, are permitted to abut
the masonry chimney sidewalls, in accordance with
Figure 713.19, provided such combustible trim or
sheathing is a minimum of 300 mm from the inside
surface of the nearest flue lining. Combustible material
and trim shall not overlap the corners of the chimney Figure 713.19
by more than 25 mm Illustration of exception three chimney clearance provision
713.20 Chimney Fireblocking

All spaces between chimneys and floors and ceilings
through which chimneys pass shall be fireblocked with
noncombustible material securely fastened in place. The
fireblocking of spaces between wood joists, beams or
headers shall be to a depth of 25 mm and shall only be
placed on strips of metal or metal lath laid across the spaces
between combustible material and the chimney.
Table 703-1- Mortar Proportions for Unit Masonry
PROPORTIONS BY VOLUME (CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS) AGGREGATE

MEASURED
Portland Cement Masonry Cement 1 Mortar Cement 2 Hydrated Lime or IN A DAMP, LOOSE
MORTAR TYPE or Blended Cement M S N M S N Lime Putty CONDITION
Cement -Lime M 1 - - - - - - ¼
S 1 - - - - - - over ¼ to ½
N 1 - - - - - - over ½ to 1 ¼
O 1 - - - - - - over 1 ¼ to 2 ½
Mortar cement M 1 - - - - - 1 Not less than 2 ¼ and not
M - - - - 1 - - more than 3 times the sum
S ½ - - - - - 1 of the separate volumes of
S - - - - - 1 - cementitious materials.
N - - - - - - 1
Masonry cement M 1 - - 1 - - -
M - 1 - - - - -
S ½ - - 1 - - -
S - - 1 - - - -
N - - - 1 - - -
O - - - 1 - - -
1
Masonry cement conforming to the requirements of UBC Standard 21-11.
2
Mortar cement conforming to the requirements of UBC Standard 21-14.
Table 703-2 - Grout Proportions by Volume 1
PARTS BY VOLUME OF PARTS BY VOLUME OF AGGREGATE MEASURED IN A DAMP,

PORTLAND CEMENT HYDRATED LIME OR LOOSE CONDITION
TYPE OR BLENDED CEMENT LIME PUTTY Fine Coarse
Fine 1 0 to 1/10 2 ¼ to 3 times the sum of the volumes
grout of the cementitious materials
Coarse 1 0 to 1/10 2 ¼ to 3 times the sum of the volumes 1 to 2 times the sum of the volumes
grout of the cementitious materials of the cementitious materials
1
Grout shall attain a minimum compressive strength at 28 days of 13.8 MPa. The building official may require a compressive field strength test of grout
made in accordance with UBC Standard 21-18.

Table 704-1- Grouting Limitations

MINIMUM DIMENSIONS OF THE TOTAL CLEAR
AREAS WITHIN GROUT SPACES AND CELLS2,3
GROUT TYPE GROUT POUR MAXIMUM HEIGHT (mm) 1
Multi-wythe Masonry Hallow-unit Masonry
Fine 300 20 35 x 50
Fine 1,500 35 35 x 50
Fine 2,400 35 35 x 50
Fine 3,600 35 45 x 75
Fine 7,200 50 75 x 75
Coarse 300 35 35 x 75
Coarse 1,500 50 65 x 75
Coarse 2,400 50 75 x 75
Coarse 3,600 60 75 x 75
Coarse 7,200 75 75 x 100
1
See also Section 2104.6.
2
The actual grout space or grout cell dimensions must be larger than the sum of the following items (1) The required minimum dimensions of total clear
areas in Table 704-1; (2) The width of any mortar projections within the space; and (3) The horizontal projections of the diameters of the horizontal
reinforcing bars within a cross section of the grout space or cell.
3
The minimum dimensions of the total clear areas shall be made up of one or more open areas with at least one area being 19 mm or greater in width.
Table 705-1 - Specified Compressive Strength of Masonry, f'm (MPa) Based on

Specifying the Compressive Strength of Masonry Units
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CLAY SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF MASONRY, ƒ'm
MASONRY UNITS 1,2 Type M or S Mortar 3 Type N Mortar 3
(MPa ) (MPa ) (MPa)
96.5 more 36.5 30.3

82.7 32.4 26.2
68.9 27.6 22.7
55.1 23.1 18.6
41.3 18.6 15.2
27.6 13.8 11.0
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF MASONRY, ƒ'm
CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS2,4 Type M or S Mortar3 Type N Mortar3
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
33.1 or more 20.7 19.3

25.8 17.2 16,191
19.3 13.8 12.7
13.1 10.3 9..30
8.60 6..90 6..50
1
compressive strength of solid clay masonry units is based on gross area. Compressive strength of hollow clay masonry units is based on minimum net area.
Values may be interpolated. When hollow clay masonry units are grouted, the grout shall conform to the proportion in Table 703-2.
2
Assumed assemblage. The specified compressive strength of masonry ƒ' m is based on gross area strength when using solid units or solid grouted masonry
and net area strength when using ungrouted hollow units.
3
Mortar for unit masonry, proportion specification, as specified in Table 703-1. These values apply to portland cement - lime mortars without added
air - entraining materials.
4
Values may be interpolated. In grouted concrete masonry, the compressive strength of grout shall be equal to or greater than the compressive strength of the
concrete masonry units.
th
Table 707-1- Allowable Tension, Bt, for Embedded Anchor

Bolts for Clay and Concrete Masonry, kN1,2,3
EMBEDMENT LENGTH, lb, or EDGE DISTANCE, lbe (mm)

ƒ'm 50 75 100 125 150 200 250
(MPa)
10.3 1.10 2.45 4.32 6.76 9.74 17.3 27.0
12.4 1.20 2.67 4.76 7.43 10.7 18.9 29.6
13.8 1.25 2.80 4.98 7.83 11.2 20.0 31.2
17.2 1.38 3.16 5.61 8.72 12.6 22.4 34.9
20.7 1.50 3.43 6.14 9.57 13.8 24.5 38.3
27.6 1.78 3.96 7.08 11.04 15.9 28.3 44.2
34.4 1.96 4.45 7.92 12.37 17.8 31.6 49.4
41.3 2.146 4.85 8.68 13.53 19.5 34.7 54.3
1
The allowable tension values in Table 707-1 are based on compressive strength of masonry assemblages. Where yield strength of anchor bolt steel governs,
the allowable tension in kN is given in Table 707-2.
2
Values are for bolts of at least A 307 quality. Bolts shall be those specified in Section 706.2.14.1
3
Values shown are for work with or without special inspection.
Table 707-2 - Allowable Tension, Bt, for Embedded Anchor

Bolts for Clay and Concrete Masonry, kN 1,2
ANCHOR BOLT DIAMETER (mm)
6 10 12 16 20 22 25 28
1.56 3.51 6.27 9.83 14.1 19.3 25.1 31.9
1
Values are for bolts of at least A 307 quality. Bolts shall be those specified in Section 706.2.14.1
2
Table 707-3- Allowable Shear, Bv, for Embedded Anchor

Bolts for Clay and Concrete Masonry, kN 1,2
ANCHOR BOLT DIAMETER (inches)

ƒ'm
(MPa) 10 12 16 20 22 25 28
10.3 2.14 3.78 5.92 7.92 8.45 9.12 9.7
12.4 2.14 3.78 5.92 8.28 9.35 9.57 10.1
13.8 2.14 3.78 5.92 8.45 9.17 9.79 10.4
17.2 2.14 3.78 5.92 8.45 9.70 10.4 11.0
20.7 2.14 3.78 5.92 8.45 10.1 10.9 11.5
276 2.14 3.78 5.92 8.45 10.9 11.7 12.4
34.4 2.14 3.78 5.92 8.45 11.5 12.3 13.1
41.3 2.14 3.78 5.92 8.45 11.6 12.9 13.7
1
Values are for bolts of at least A 307 quality. Bolts shall be those specified in Section 706.2.14.1.
2

Table 707-4- Minimum Diameters of Bend
BAR SIZE MINIMUM DIAMETER

10 mm through 25 mm 6 bar diameters
28 mm through 36 mm 8 bar diameters
Table 707-5- Allowable Flexural Tension (kPa)
MORTAR TYPE
Cement -lime and Mortar Cement Masonry Cement
M or S N M or S N
UNIT TYPE
Normal to bed Joints
Solid 276 207 165 103
Hollow 172 131 103 62
Normal to head joints
Solid 551 267 330 207
Hollow 222 262 207 124
Table 708-1- Maximum Nominal Shear Strength Values 1,2
M/Vd Vn MAXIMUM
 
≤ 0.25 6.0 Ae ƒ'm ≤ 380 Ae (322 Ae ƒ'm ≤ 1691 Ae
≥ 1.00
 
4.0 Ae ƒ'm ≤ 250 Ae (214 Ae ƒ'm ≤ 1113 Ae
1
M is the maximum bending moment that occurs simultaneously with the shear load V at the section under consideration. Interpolation
may be by straight line for M/Vd values between 0.25 and 1.00.
2
Vn is in N, and ƒ'm is in kPa.
Table 708-2- Nominal Shear Strength Coefficient
M/Vd1 Cd
≤ 0.25 2.4
≥ 1.00 1.2
1
M is the maximum bending moment that occurs simultaneously with the shear load V at the section under consideration. Interpolation
may be by straight line for M/Vd values between 0.25 and 1.00.
Table 710-1- Shear Wall Spacing Requirements for Empirical Design of Masonry
MAXIMUM RATIO
Shear Wall Spacing to
FLOOR OR ROOF CONSTRUCTION Shear Wall Length
Cast-in-place concrete 5:1
Precast Concrete 4:1
Metal deck with concrete fill 3:1
Metal deck with no fill 2:1
Wood Diaphragm 2:1
th
Table 710-2- Allowable Compressive Stresses for Empirical Design of Masonry
ALLOWABLE COMPRESSIVE STRESSES

CONSTRUCTION: COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF UNIT, GROSS AREA
GROSS CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA (MPa)
Type M or S Mortar Type N Mortar
Solid masonry of brick and other solid units of clay or shale;
Sand-lime or concrete brick:
55.1 plus, MPa 2.41 2.07
31.0 MPa 1.55 1.38
17.2 MPa 1.10 0.96
10.3 MPa 0.79 0.69
Grouted masonry, of clay or shale; sand-lime or concrete:
31.0 plus, MPa 1.89 1.38
17.2 MPa 1.48 0.96
10.3 MPa 1.21 0.69
Solid masonry of solid concrete masonry units:
20.7 plus, MPa 1.55 1.38
13.8 MPa 1.10 0.96
8.27 MPa 0.79 0.69
Masonry of hollow load-bearing units:
13.8 plus, MPa 0.96 0.83
10.3 MPa 0.79 0.69
6.89 MPa 0.52 0.48
4.82 MPa 0.41 0.38
Hollow walls (cavity or masonry bonded)2 solid units:
17.2 plus, MPa 1.10 0.96
10.3 MPa 0.79 0.69
Hollow units 0.52 0.48
Stone ashlar masonry:
Granite 4.96 4.41
Limestone or marble 3.10 2.76
Sandstone or cast stone 2.48 2.20
Rubble stone masonry
Coarse, rough or random 0.837 0.69
Unburned clay masonry 0.21
1
Linear interpolation may be used for determining allowable stresses for masonry units having compressive strengths which are intermediate between those
given in the table.
2
Where floor and floor loads are carried upon wythe, the gross cross-sectional area is that of the wythe under load. If both wythes are loaded, the gross
cross-sectional area is that of the wall minus the area of the cavity between the wythes.
Table 710-3- Allowable Shear on Bolts for Empirically

Designed Masonry Except Unburned Clay Units
DIAMETER BOLT EMBEDMENT SOLID MASONRY GROUTED MASONRY

(mm) (mm) (shear in kN) (shear in kN)
12 100 1.56 2.47

16 100 2.22 3.34
20 125 3.34 4.89
22 150 4.45 6.67
25 175 5.56 18.22
28 200 6.67 10.02
1
An additional 50 mm of embedment shall be provided for anchor bolts located in the top of columns for buildings located in Seismic Zones 2 and 4.
2
Permitted only with not less than 17.2 MPa units.

Table 710-4- Wall Lateral Support Requirements

for Empirical Design of Masonry
CONSTRUCTION MAXIMUM l/t or h/t

Bearing walls
Solid or solid grouted 20
All other 18
Nonbearing walls
Exterior 18
Interior 36
Table 710-5 - Thickness of Foundation Walls for Empirical Design of Masonry
NOMINAL THICKNESS MAXIMUM DEPTH OF UNBALANCED FILL

(mm) (m)
FOUNDATION WALL CONSTRUCTION
Masonry of hollow units, ungrouted 200 1.22
250 1.52
300 1.83
Masonry of solid units 200 1.52
250 1.83
300 2.13
Masonry of hollow or solid units, fully grouted 200 2.13
20 2.45
300 2.45
Masonry of hollow units reinforced vertically with 200 2.13
12 mm bars and grout at 600 mm o.c. Bars
located not less than 115 mm from pressure
Side of wall.
Table 710-6 - Allowable Shear on Bolts for Masonry of Unburned Clay Units
DIAMETER OF BOLTS EMBEDMENTS SHEAR

(mm) (mm) (kN)
12 - -
16 300 0.89
20 380 1.33
22 457 1.78
25 533 2.22
28 600 2.67
th
Table 711-1- Radius of Gyration1 for Concrete Masonry Units2
NOMINAL WIDTH OF WALL (mm)

GROUT SPACING (mm)
100 150 200 250 300
Solid Grouted 26.40 41.15 55.60 70.30 84.80
400 29.50 45.46 61.70 77.20 93.20
600 30.70 47.50 64.30 80.50 97.00
800 31.50 48.50 65.80 82.60 99.30
1000 32.00 49.30 66.80 83.80 100.80
1200 32.25 49.80 67.60 84.60 102.10
1400 32.50 50.30 68.10 85.30 102.90
1600 32.75 50.55 68.60 85.80 103.60
1800 33.00 50.80 68.80 86.40 104.10
No grout 33.50 52.80 72.10 90.20 108.96
1
For single-wythe masonry or for an individual wythe of a cavity wall.

r= I/Ae
2
The radius of gyration shall be based on the specified dimensions of the masonry units or shall be in accordance with the values shown which are based on
the minimum dimensions of hollow concrete masonry unit face shells and webs in accordance with UBC Standard 21-4 for two cell units.
Table 711-2- Radius of Gyration1 for Clay Masonry Unit Length, 400 MM2

GROUT SPACING (mm)
100 150 200 250 300
Solid Grouted 26.92 41.65 56.64 71.37 86.10
400 29.45 45.20 61.47 77.00 92.70
600 30.48 47.00 63.75 79.50 95.80
800 31.24 47.75 65.02 81.00 97.80
1000 31.75 48.50 65.80 82.00 99.10
1200 32.00 49.00 66.29 82.80 99.80
1400 32.26 49.28 66.80 83.30 100.30
1600 32.26 49.53 67.05 83.80 100.80
1800 32.50 49.53 67.30 84.10 101.35
No grout 33.53 51.31 69.85 86.90 104.90
1
 I/A
r= e
2
the minimum dimensions of hollow clay concrete masonry face shells and webs in accordance with UBC Standard 21-1 for two cell units.

Table 711-3- Radius of Gyration1 for Clay Masonry Unit Length, 300 MM2

GROUT SPACING (mm)
100 150 200 250 300
Solid Grouted 26.92 41.90 56.90 71.63 86.60
300 29.20 45.00 61.00 76.20 91.69
450 30.20 46.23 62.74 78.23 94.23
600 30.70 47.00 63.75 79.25 95.50
750 31.20 47.50 64.26 80.00 96.52
900 31.50 47.75 64.77 80.52 97.00
1050 31.50 48.00 65.02 81.03 97.54
1200 31.75 48.26 65.28 81.28 97.79
1350 31.75 48.26 65.53 81.53 98.00
1500 32.00 48.50 65.79 81.53 98.30
1650 32.00 48.50 65.79 81.79 98.55
1800 32.00 48.50 65.79 81.79 98.55
No grout 32.77 49.50 67.30 83.30 100.33
1
 I/A
r= e
2
the minimum dimensions of hollow clay concrete masonry face shells and webs in accordance with UBC Standard 21-1 for two cell units.
th
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NSCP C101-10

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

Tel. No : (+632) 410-0483

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

ISSN No.: 2094-5477

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP)

First Edition, 1972

ADAM C ABINALES, F. ASEP

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

2. Changes and Developments

Significant revisions are summarized as follows:

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

ANTHONY VLADIMIR C. PIMENTEL, F.ASEP CHRISTOPHER P. T. TAMAYO, F.ASEP

EMILO M. MORALES, MSCE, F.ASEP ROMEO A. ESTAÑERO, Ph.D., F.ASEP

CODES AND STANDARDS COMMITTEE

CARLOS M. VILLARAZA, F.ASEP CARLOS M. VILLARAZA, F.ASEP

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

ANTHONY VLADIMIR C. PIMENTEL, F.ASEP CHRISTOPHER P.T. TAMAYO, F.ASEP

CHRISTOPHER P.T. TAMAYO, F.ASEP

Letter of Acknowledgement and Appreciation

EMILIO M. MORALES MSCE, F.ASEP, F.PICE, F.ASCE

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

ADAM C. ABINALES, MEng., F.ASEP

ANTONIO A. AVILA, M.ASEP

WILFREDO S. LOPEZ, MCM, F.ASEP

ROMEO A. ESTAÑERO, Ph.D., F.ASEP

WILFREDO S. LOPEZ, MCM, F.ASEP

DANILO A. DOMINGO, M.ASEP

CHRISTOPHER P. T. TAMAYO, F.ASEP

ROMEO A. ESTAÑERO, Ph.D., F.ASEP

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

CHRISTOPHER P. T. TAMAYO, F.ASEP

ADAM C. ABINALES, MEng., F.ASEP

JORGE P. GENOTA, F.ASEP

ROMEO A. ESTAÑERO, Ph. D., F.ASEP