ISSUE 15 n JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2007 $5.

00

OYSTERS
SUFFER
in the
hands of
bureaucracy

No paddle for GLOBAL

marine farmers DEMAND
up a creek FOR
Sea cucumbers SEAFOOD
a future potential GROWS
CONTENTS

6 10 13

3 EDITORIAL
Time to turn the other cheek

4 NEWS
A look at whats happening in the industry

6 HATCHERY PRODUCTION OF SEA CUCUMBERS

Husbandry and broodstock management
Sea cucumbers could supplement marine farm incomes

8 OCEAN LAW Marine farmers up the creek without a paddle?

Oyster farmers need access to good water quality

9 GLOBAL DEMAND FOR FISH

The FAO says bottlenecks are dampening future aquaculture growth

10 EEL RESEARCH spawns further success ISSUE 15

n JANUAR
Y/FEBRUAR

Kiwi team close to producing commercial eels in captivity

Y 2007

$5.00

11 BARRIERS TO AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT OYSTER

in Norway and New Zealand SUFFER S
Coastal lifestyles may conflict with industrial marine farms in th
hands ef
ON THE COVER: bureaucora
Pied shags are cy
13 IWI GAIN INSIGHTS AT WORKSHOP opportunist feeders that
Maori gather in Nelson to learn about frequent marine farms
aquaculture development in search of small fish

PHOTO BY:
Keith Ingram No pa
marin ddle for
e farm
up a cr ers
eek GLOB
Sea cu AL
a futu cumbers DEMA
re pote ND
ntial
SEAF FOR
OO
AC15.indd GROW D
1
S

12/12/06
1:09:09
AM

EDITOR: ADVERTISING:
Keith Ingram Hamish Stewart
ASSISTANT EDITOR: DESIGNER:
ISSN 1176-5402 ISSN 1176-8657 (web) Mark Barratt-Boyes Rachel Walker
An informative journal CONTRIBUTORS: PRE PRESS/CTP:
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Email keith@skipper.co.nz relevant to the aquaculture industry are welcomed and industry participants are especially encouraged to contribute. Articles and information printed in
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2 n NZ AQUACULTURE JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07
EDITORIAL
BY KEITH INGRAM

TIME TO TURN the other cheek

s though the oyster farmers of the north have No go, no touchy, no take marine reserves.

A not already suffered enough, they have just

received another slap in the face from the
courts, with the judge rejecting their claims that the local
Our government is proceeding at unprecedented speed
in meeting its wishes in the marine diversity strategy to
have ten percent of our coastline in some form of marine
uncontrolled discharges of untreated sewage was responsible protection. And yet when we look to have access to clean
to polluting their waters. water for seafood production our requests are frequently
These farmers are not alone in their plight. Talk with met with silence.
anyone in the aquaculture industry and its not long before Internationally, particularly in the northern hemisphere,
the horror stories appear, as most will say they have suffered aquaculture production is approaching 50 percent of the
at the hands of bureaucracy. Its time to turn the other cheek. available seafood for human consumption. As the worlds
Local government officials frequently appear powerless to demands for quality
resolve the many problems farmers have in getting access seafood continue and
to clean water. The Resource Management Act is a dogs our wild fish stocks
breakfast designed not with the environment in mind but as decline there is a greater
WHEN IT
a process that must be driven by the legal profession. All too requirement for the
COMES TO
often we see well planned and prepared applications that industry to respond.
meet all the criteria being tripped at the last hurdle by a local If we in New Zealand
COASTAL
objector who is not held accountable for their actions nor are not given the MANAGEMENT
the associated costs. opportunity to establish PROGRESS IS
When it comes to coastal management and making the large, innovative marine STIFLED BY
best use of our natural resources and water space, progress farms now, countries like THOSE WHO
is stifled by those who complain of the visual aspects, the Australia will steal the best COMPLAIN OF
structures, the activity and about anything else. Yet they are of the golden eggs in future THE VISUAL
the first to complain if the supermarket has run out of fresh export potential. Even if
ASPECTS
oysters or mussels. we could double or even
So what can we as an industry do about it. The problem triple the current allocated
can only be resolved by the central government. Leadership is aquaculture management
required. Now is the time to start lobbying all political parties areas and water space, the total industry would not even
and local politicians on the benefits, needs and value of the match the farms on the Hauraki Plains.
aquaculture industrys contribution to the local economy. My Christmas wish is for an informed political leader to
When we look at the amount of space currently allocated take up the challenge and demonstrate leadership guidance
to marine farming and the dollars this industry produces and support for what can only be an aquaculture goldmine in
from this space, and compare it with agriculture returns the making.
from the same area on land, one has to ask why do we May the New Year see the tide turn and bring with it the
procrastinate. opportunities we are all seeking so that we can continue
If the RMA was in place when New Zealand was settled to build on the valued contribution we make to our local
and the farmland developed, our country would only be communities and the New Zealand economy.
a shadow of what it is today. Our frustration is further All the best from us all at New Zealand Aquaculture. May you
increased when the environmental sector, with government and yours have a merry Christmas and a prosperous
acknowledgement, can close off huge tracts of water space as New Year.

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JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07 NZ AQUACULTURE n 3
NEWS
INDUSTRY TO
PAY FOR AMAS SET UP
The Northland Regional Council has decided
to use a groundbreaking process to decide
where its aquaculture management areas, or
AMAs, will be. Marine farmers will be the
ones to request where the AMAs should go.
The council is formally consulting on a
change to its regional coastal plan to allow
for them. It says it will be guided by criteria
and maps, including feedback gathered over
three years of consultation. Under the
process, the industry will face the substantial
FARMERS HOPE TO REOPEN OYSTER FARMS
Bay of Islands oyster farmers who
unsuccessfully sued the Far North District
Council for $12 million after their marine
farms became polluted with sewage now want
to reopen their farms.
A meeting of all the parties involved in the
five-year-old oyster operation shutdown in the
Waikare Inlet is expected to be held before
Christmas.
The oyster farmers have decided not to
appeal a High Court judgment issued in
October that cleared the council and its
wastewater treatment plant at Kawakawa as a
source of likely contamination.
Nine oyster farmers on 11 leased farms in
Waikare Inlet took the council to court,
claiming loss of income, compensation
and general damages. Health authorities
closed down their operations in 2001
following outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis
in consumers that were traced back to
oysters from Waikare.
The High Court rejected the farmers
claim that the council and its Kawakawa
plant were responsible for allowing the
inlet to become polluted with human
sewage, a cause of the norovirus.
The president of Northland Federated
Farmers, Ian Walker, whose organisation
strongly supported the farmers in their court
action, said the meeting would be arranged
before Christmas to discuss what needed to
be done before the oyster farms could reopen.
He expected representatives from the
Ministry of Fisheries, which owns the farm
leases, the New Zealand Food Safety Authority,
Northland Health and the Northland Regional
Council would be involved. The Far North
District Council would also be invited to
attend. Walker said all of the farmers but one
wanted to reopen their farms after deciding
unanimously but reluctantly not to appeal
4 n NZ AQUACULTURE JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07
cost of setting up the areas, saving ratepayers
hundreds of thousands of dollars.
Glen Mortimer, the Northland Regional
Councils planning and policy manager, said
the approach allowed more flexibility such
as new marine farming methods, and the
industry would pay the bills, not ratepayers.
The council would not be seen to be backing
AMAs, said Mortimer. While there were no
exclusion zones, the industry had been told of
areas where AMAs were unlikely to succeed.
The Northland public should be
encouraged to participate in the councils
the High Court ruling.
At present, the affected oyster farms in
the Waikare Inlet, which covers 61ha, cannot
operate until they have Food Safety and
health authority clearance. The farmers have
the option, however, of transporting their
oysters to clean water for a period before
harvesting.
Farms in the Waikare Inlet used to supply
about 30 percent of New Zealands oysters
for export and domestic consumption. Walker
says a massive clean-up operation has to be
undertaken before the farms can reopen.
There was also the issue of who would pay
for the clean-up, which he estimated would
cost between $2.7 and $3 million. The oyster
farmers were in no position to pay such a sum,
he said.
Walker estimated it would be at least two
more years before oyster production could
resume in the inlet if the authorities gave the excellent water quality is within our grasp for
go-ahead.
In another development, the chairman
of the New Zealand Aquaculture Council,
Callum McCallum, is careful to acknowledge
the courts considered decision, but says,
The system is failing to perform to its own
standards.
This pollution had occurred despite clear
requirements for good coastal water quality, exporting countries from such incidents.
aquaculture planning process, the chair of the
New Zealand Aquaculture Council, Callum
McCallum, said on October 27.
Communities will know where
aquaculture would be appropriate, and where
it wouldnt. They can also highlight where it
could bring long-term benefits to the region.
We recognise that there are some areas of
high natural value and unique character that
just arent appropriate for aquaculture.
The aquaculture manager of Sanford
Ltd, Ted Culley, said Northland could take
advantage of this business growth. It is
BY TONY GEE
including
the Resource Management Act, which
requires the highest standards for coastal
waters
the Northland Regional Councils high-
quality water classification of the Waikare
Inlet
the Bay of Islands status as one of New
Zealands key clean and beautiful tourist
destinations
the Oceans Policy (in preparation), which
identifies clean and healthy seas as New
Zealanders top priority, and
the Waikare Inlet, a taiapure area, gives
top priority to high-quality customary and
traditional shellfish harvesting.
McCallum noted that there had been
a series of failures lately as councils
struggled with development and ageing
infrastructure. However, he asserted that
good performance was essential.
The New Zealand public, our laws
and shellfish harvesters are all crystal
clear. Coastal water quality is not
optional, it is a given, he said. As we
head for the beaches this summer, we
all want, need and require that our
coastal water quality is protected.
Coastal water quality was vital to the
New Zealand way, for economic (including
employment in areas of very seasonal jobs),
social and cultural reasons. Good or even
all but a very few areas of our coast, and any
lowering of standards must be the exception,
not the rule.
Given the potentially very large financial
losses, including the Waikare pollution closure,
the industry would consider further legal
options, he said. Aquaculturists were also
concerned at potentially bad messages to
important that the community gets involved
in the decision-making around how this
is achieved, he said. The company runs a
substantial aquaculture operation in Kaeo.
The Northland Regional Council is
currently seeking submissions on the criteria
to evaluate AMA requests. Submissions close
on February 14.
AIR FREIGHT
AGREEMENT FOR
SALMON
New Zealand King Salmon will use the Air
New Zealand link network operated by Air
Nelson to fly most of its product to domestic
destinations for the next five years.
Under the freight agreement, signed on
October 12, most of the companys salmon
will be loaded on to Air Nelsons Q300
aircraft, which began flying this year.
The new arrangement is designed to
ensure that customers receive their delivery
within 24 hours of placing an order. The
airline is also able to direct deliveries into
multiple destinations and avoid traditional
road transport bottlenecks in the North
Island.
Consumers depend upon very fresh
salmon, says Don Everitt, the general
manager of sales and marketing for NZ
King Salmon, and the contract ensures that
the salmon is well handled and carried in
pristine condition.
APPOINTMENT WILL
HELP DRIVE SECTOR
GROWTH
The appointment of Mike Burrell as chief
executive of New Zealand Aquaculture Ltd
is an important step in delivering the sectors
Aquaculture Strategy, says the Minister of
Fisheries, Jim Anderton.
Aquaculture was already worth $325
million a year to the New Zealand economy,
and the strategy, released in June, aims to
grow the industry to $1 billion a year by
2025.
The government was working with industry
representatives and other stakeholders to
help achieve this goal.
Anderton said the government will
announce early in the new year what actions
it will take to directly support the industry.
BAN ON FISH
MOVEMENTS
The American Congress has issued a
federal order prohibiting the movement of
37 species of live fish susceptible to viral
INTRODUCING THE LIFE CYCLES OF
NEW ZEALANDS AQUACULTURE SPECIES
New Zealands climate and diverse range of coastal habitats lends itself to many types
of aquaculture, encompassing finfish and
shellfish.
A series of life cycle brochures
produced by NIWA showcases the
broad range of New Zealand species
at different stages of aquaculture
development from the well established
mussels and oysters, through new
species such as kingfish and paua, to
relatively underdeveloped aquaculture
species, such as rock lobster and eel.
The first brochure in the series is included with this issue of New Zealand Aquaculture
the others will follow with future issues.
The series begins with New Zealands green-lipped mussel, also known as Greenshell.
Over the last two decades, this species has been developed into one of New Zealands most
valuable seafood exports, showing the world-leading potential of Aotearoa aquaculture.
haemorrhagic septicemia, or VHS.
The emergency order, released on
October 24, prohibits the importation
of certain species of live fish from two
Canadian provinces into the United States,
and the interstate movement of the same
species from the eight states bordering the
Great Lakes, due to outbreaks of VHS. The
order was issued by the Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service of the United
States Department of Agriculture. within consented areas.
Live fish originating outside the prohibited However, a follow-up survey showed that
areas that are susceptible to VHS may the 2005 survey had not taken into account
move through or to the affected states and about 6ha of the bay left unfarmed to allow
provinces. the farmers to access the mussel lines.
There were areas that were left open for
MUSSEL FARMS navigation purposes, but which still had lines
UNDER SCRUTINY running underwater, although no product
The Northland Regional Council should was growing on these. These were not
know soon whether mussel farmers at included in the surveys size calculations,
Houhora Bay have removed several hectares Howse said.
of unauthorised structures. He says an agent of the farmers told the
Westpac Mussels Distributors Ltd and council that they had removed the lines, and
Houhora Bay Marine Farms were together that the farms were within their permitted
fined $30,000 in 2005 for failing to remove sizes.
about 14ha of mussel lines they did not have The council is waiting for the results of a
resource consents for. new survey that will confirm whether the
The councils coastal monitoring team farmers have removed the unauthorised
leader, Bruce Howse, says a survey of structures.
the farms carried out in 2005 after the
prosecution showed they were operating CONTINUED ON PAGE14
JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07 NZ AQUACULTURE n 5
HATCHERY PRODUCTION OF
SEA CUCUMBERS:
Husbandry and broodstock management
BY DR ANDREW MORGAN
ea cucumbers are a traditional food in Asian
S countries, and these animals have been exploited
heavily in the Asia-Pacific region for centuries.
As stocks have become fished out in a boom-and-bust cycle
in the last century, other temperate species have also become
commercially viable fisheries. The New Zealand sea cucumber,
Stichopus mollis, is one of these species. Although quota
has been allocated, the fishery is in its infancy and may be
susceptible to overfishing. However, there is an opportunity to
maintain a sustainable fishery.
Sea cucumbers are found on some marine farms, in
particular mussel farms, where the environment mimics its
habitat in terms of larval settlement, topography, shelter and
access to food. They feed on waste produced from other
animals and plant life.
A supplementary income could be provided by seeding out
juvenile sea cucumbers onto mussel farms from hatchery-
reared larvae. Both the raw meat and value-added products
from gonads and fermented gut from adults could be utilised.
Markets already exist here for these products, but they have
not been developed.
With this in mind, this series of five articles will address
aspects of hatchery production of sea cucumbers, including S
mollis, from work carried out over the last 10 years.
These articles will deal with husbandry, spawning, larval
rearing, settlement and growout. The first of these, husbandry
and broodstock management, will review handling these
animals in captivity in a manner to optimise reproductive
condition, and minimise stress and other factors that may limit
gamete production and spawning.
6 n NZ AQUACULTURE JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07
ABOVE & RIGHT: Husbandry and
management of broodstock during captivity
LEFT: Collection and initial preparation of
broodstock for holding in captivity
Sea cucumbers have often proved
difficult to keep in captivity over long
periods of time. Unless nutritional
requirements can be met for the
entire reproductive season, spawning
success will be compromised and the quality of
gametes reduced. Consequently, when collecting broodstock
over the reproductive season, potential spawners should be
kept in captivity for relatively short periods of time.
Broodstock can be collected at regular intervals through
their reproductive season without the need to develop
selective breeding and F1 or F2-generation parents.
Average-sized individuals are easier to work with in
captivity than large ones, and tend to be more conducive
to successful spawning. Peak season can be monitored by
sampling a few animals and measuring gonad weight relative
to body mass.
It is important that they are not overly damaged during
collection and transport to the hatchery for keeping in holding
tanks a few weeks at a time for spawning. Intervals in captivity
should be long enough for individuals to settle into a captive
environment in preparation for spawning, but not so long as
to compromise their potential to spawn due to inadequate
nutrition. However, the success of this very much depends on
handling in captivity.
HUSBANDRY AND MANAGEMENT
Individuals are very susceptible to being moved, and also to
changes in light and water quality. Broodstock being used for
spawning should only be moved after dusk once they are
active. The production of mucous, white
lesions and evisceration of the intestinal
tract are signs of ill health, and these
broodstocks should be replaced with others.
Individual males and females are identified
from strands of gonad sampled during
biopsies. Gonad is obtained from individuals
kept in separate spawning preparation tanks
over their period in captivity.
A matrix of small tubs in a flow-through
water bath is used to hold individuals. Water
flows through mesh screens and around for full mixing and These all interact
promotion of chemical maturation cues that are involved in with reproductive
synchronising reproductive condition. condition. All work
in combination
REPRODUCTIVE CONDITION to affect gamete
Assessment of reproductive condition is done using visual production, maturation and spawning. This process is Reproductive
condition of
indices of gonad and gamete quality. From these it is predictable when assessed properly. broodstock
possible to assess and predict the likelihood of spawning Without a good understanding of how husbandry and assessed from
strands of
involving large numbers of individuals. Assessment of management interacts with natural cycles of reproduction, it gonad excised
from biopsies
reproductive condition at the start of their period in can be difficult to maximise the opportunity to obtain many
captivity in spawn preparation tanks indicates the likely viable sperm and eggs on spawning.
timing of spawning events. These are some of the considerations to account for when
Reproductive condition is also affected if animals have caring for these animals in captivity. Of course, husbandry is
spawned prior to capture. A natural rhythm of spawning exists a little more involved than what is highlighted here. The next
that is associated with the lunar cycle and is affected by factors issue will address aspects of maturation, spawning and
such as tide and phytoplankton. embryo quality.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07 NZ AQUACULTURE n 7
MARINE FARMERS
up the creek without a paddle?
he recent decision of the Auckland High Court in
T the action brought by Waikare Inlet oyster farmers*
has focused attention on the devastating effects of
pollution and contamination on marine farmers.
This is in contrast to the usual perspective of considering only
the effects - or perceived effects - marine farming has on the
BY environment.
JUSTINE The emphasis over the last decade or so has been on the
INNS
need to control marine farming so as to avoid it having adverse
effects on the marine environment. This is despite the fact
that many experts have agreed that those effects are generally
negligible at best and minor at worst.
Nonetheless, the result of the 2004 aquaculture law reform
is to treat marine farming, outside of aquaculture management
areas at least, as on a par with dumping radioactive matter and
toxic waste.
Almost two years since the passage of the reforms, there
are still no new AMAs on the horizon, so marine farming looks
doomed to remain in the radioactive matter category for the
time being.
The Northland Regional Council is due some credit for
attempting to grapple with the reforms by proposing a variation
to its Coastal Plan that would allow for private plan changes to
establish AMAs.
Even if that variation becomes operative, and it will have
to survive a public consultation process and overcome some
technical issues in order to do so, it will only be the first step on
a long road to new AMAs in the region.
In the meantime, though, the oyster farmers' case has
underlined the fact that if there is one thing the industry needs
even more than new AMAs, it is good water quality in existing
marine farming areas.
In the case, 14 Waikare Inlet oyster farmers sued the Far
North District Council (FNDC), claiming that discharges from
the FNDC's Kawakawa sewerage plant were responsible for
three outbreaks of gastro-enteritis linked to the consumption of
oysters harvested from the farms in 1994, 1999 and 2001.
After the 2001 outbreak, the farms were subject to an
emergency closure by Northland Health, and then reclassified as
"restricted", meaning that harvesting of the farms' oysters was
allowed only on a limited basis.
That classification remains in place today, and the farmers
claimed that its effect is that the farms have not been
economically viable since October 2001.
The only law firm in the South Pacific dedicated to the sea
14 New Street, PO Box 921 Nelson. Phone 64 3 548 4136, Fax 64 3 548 4195, 0800 OCEANLAW
email martylo@oceanlaw.co.nz www.oceanlaw.co.nz
8 n NZ AQUACULTURE JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07
The farmers claimed damages from the FNDC for nuisance
and negligence. The action failed primarily because of a lack of
evidence on the timing and effect of sewage discharges. While it
was clear that the inlet was subject to periodic contamination
by sewage, the Court took the view that
there was insufficient evidence that raw or partially treated
sewage was discharged from the Kawakawa plant immediately
prior to the 1994, 1999 and 2001 contaminations
even if raw or partially treated sewage was discharged at
the relevant times, it was unlikely that the norovirus that led
to gastro-enteritis outbreaks would have survived the long
journey between the plant and the farms and, if it did, it would
have been highly diluted, and
there were other, more likely, sources of faecal contamination
in the inlet, such as coastal septic tanks, long-drop toilets and
boats.
Even if these evidential problems had not defeated the
farmers' claims, the court considered that the risk of a
lengthy reclassification of the farms such as to make them
economically unviable not reasonably foreseeable by the
FNDC, such that the FNDC should be liable for the damage
caused to farmers as result.
Notwithstanding that defeat, efforts to clean up the FNDC's
act continue. It has another battle on its hands as it is prosecuted
by the Northland Regional Council under the Resource
Management Act for a range of sewage spills in the region.
The threshold for succeeding in such a prosecution is
significantly lower than the marine farmers faced in their
action, with the RMA deeming it an offence to "discharge any
contaminant into water unless the discharge is expressly allowed
by a rule in a regional plan, a resource consent, or regulations".
While all this is no doubt cold comfort to the Waikare Inlet
farmers whose livelihoods have been devastated, their efforts
may at least have played a part in highlighting a major problem.
The FNDC has announced that it will replace its sewage
pipeline between Waitangi and Paihia, responsible for two spills
in early 2006, at a cost of $5.7 million. Discussions are scheduled
between Waikare Inlet farmers, the council, the Ministry of
Fisheries and health authorities in an attempt to find a way for
farming to recommence.
If nothing else, it is nice to see that marine farmers, for
once, have not been painted as the villains of the piece.
* Tindall and others v Far North District Council, 20/20/06, Winkelmann J.
Contact the author if you would like a copy of the case.
VIP.S40
GLOBAL demand for fish
early half the fish consumed as food worldwide the shortage of land and fresh water for aquaculture

N are raised on fish farms rather than being caught

in the wild, says a report from the Food and
Agricultural Organisation published on September 4.
rising energy costs
environmental impacts, and
questions of product safety.
Forty-three percent of fish eaten by people today comes The report also points to doubts regarding future supplies
from aquaculture, rather than the wild, compared with just of fish meal and oil used to feed carnivorous species such as
nine percent in 1980, the FAO says in its 2006 State of World salmon, grouper and sea bream.
Aquaculture 2006. It was presented at the biennial meeting of Since 1985, the world production of fish meal and fish oil
the FAO Sub-Committee on Aquaculture to representatives of - made from fish caught in large volumes but not consumed by
more than 50 countries. humans - has stabilised at six to seven million tonnes and one
Thats 45.5 million tonnes of farmed fish, worth US$63 million tonnes, respectively.
billion, eaten each year. (Wild freshwater and marine fisheries While most fish meal is used for livestock feed, mainly
produce 95 million tonnes annually, of which 60 million tonnes poultry, aquaculture now accounts
is destined for human consumption). for 35 percent of the worlds fish
The key to resolving
Globally, consumer demand for fish continues to climb, meal consumption. So competition
especially in affluent, developed nations. In 2004 they imported with terrestrial livestock for a the dilemma will be
33 million tonnes of fish worth over US$61 billion, or 81 limited resource will intensify, with continued progress
percent of all fish imports that year, in value terms. ramifications for both price and in improving the
But the level of fish caught in the wild has remained roughly availability. efficiency of feed
stable since the mid-1980s, hovering at around 90 to 93 The FAO says the key to formulations, ie
million tonnes annually. There is little chance of any significant resolving the dilemma will be reduce the amount of
increases in catches beyond these levels, says the FAO. continued progress in improving
fish meal they contain
The agencys most recent global assessment of wild marine the efficiency of feed formulations,
fish stocks found that out of the nearly 600 species groups it ie reduce the amount of fish meal
monitors they contain, and introduce adequate vegetable-based additives.
52 percent are fully exploited We need to start planning now for handling these
25 percent are overexploited (17 percent), depleted (seven challenges, because aquaculture is crucial to the fight against
percent) or recovering from depletion (one percent) global hunger, says the FAOs assistant director-general for
20 percent are moderately exploited, and fisheries, Ichiro Nomura. Fish is rich in protein, essential
three percent were ranked as under-exploited. fatty acids, vitamins and minerals. And it offers a way to
Catches in the wild are still high, but they have levelled off, boost development by providing jobs, improving peoples
probably for good, says the secretary of the sub-committee, incomes and increasing returns on natural resource use,
Rohana Subasinghe. This levelling off, coupled with a growing he says.
world population and increasing per capita demand for fish, We must ensure that the sector continues to expand,
spells trouble. sustainably, to provide more people with food and income,
The report estimates that an additional 40 million tonnes especially in areas like sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, where
of aquatic food will be required by 2030 just to maintain hunger and poverty prevail.
current levels of consumption. The only way to meet the See www.fao.org
future demand for fish, says Subasinghe, is to farm them. Can
aquaculture actually deliver? The jury is still out, says the FAO.
Aquaculture could cover the gap between supply and demand,
but there are also many forces which could pull production in
the opposite direction, making it difficult for the industry to grow
substantially enough to meet demand in the decades to come.
Aquaculture has boomed since the mid-1980s, sustaining a
growth rate of around eight percent per year. The expansion
continues in almost all the worlds regions, with the notable
exception of sub-Saharan Africa.
But the FAO is concerned that the momentum could taper
off if governments and development agencies dont respond to
emerging challenges that threaten to dampen future growth.
Some of the bottlenecks include
the lack of investment capital for producers in the
developing world VIP.AC01

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07 NZ AQUACULTURE n 9
 EEL RESEARCH
spawns further success
BY DAVID COOPER, MAHURANGI TECHNICAL INSTITUTE
he latest success of a New Zealand research team
T has taken it one step closer to its target of being the
first in the world to produce commercial quantities
of eels in captivity.
EelCo Ltd scientists working at the Mahurangi Technical
Institute have successfully managed to trigger eel spawning
outside the eels normal spawning period. This is a major
achievement if the freshwater fish, considered a high-value
overseas delicacy, is to be produced in commercial quantities at
fish farms throughout the year.
The team achieved a world first in 2005 by breeding New
Zealand shortfinned eels in captivity during the normal March-to-
ABOVE:
Dr Tagried
Kurwie with
eel broodstock
RIGHT:
Eel hatchlings
10 n NZ AQUACULTURE JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07
April spawning period. But the institutes chief scientific officer, Dr
Tagried Kurwie, says manipulating spawning at other times of the
year has major implications for commercialising the process.
The Foundation for Research, Science and Technology has
invested $430,000 as part of its Technology for Business Growth
programme to help the company achieve its goal of raising eels
commercially to the glass eel stage to meet world demand. A
previous TBG investment of $200,000 was provided for earlier
research.
The challenge now is to grow the out-of-season spawnings of
larval eels and raise them to the glass eel stage. This takes about
200 days in the wild, but possibly much less in captivity. At that
point they can be sold to existing eel farms for on-growing to
market size.
Seventy-five percent of world eel consumption is currently
supplied by eel farmers, who all acquire their juvenile stock of
glass eels from the wild. This global wild fishery is under severe
threat from overfishing and polluted overseas environments,
and is in steep decline from overfishing and polluted overseas
environments, seriously threatening the future viability of the
international eel-farming industry and the survival of the eel
species involved. This decline has left a worldwide annual shortfall
for glass eels of around 780 tonnes.
The world demand for freshwater eels is currently estimated
to be more than 130,000 tonnes annually, worth approximately
US$1.3 billion, with one kilogram returning an average price
of NZ$1600 in 2005. The fish is used in traditional European
smoked and jellied eel, the Asian delicacy kabayaki, or as a
steamed or grilled spiced dish.
The institute is carrying out the research, and EelCo has
been formed to commercialise the intellectual property being
developed.
The foundations business manager, Stephen Flint, says the
research holds exciting commercial promise. If successful, it also
stands to provide considerable environmental benefits, because
commercial production will alleviate the depletion of wild stocks.
Reliable sources of glass eels are imperative to developing
a commercial industry. No-one has achieved that, and EelCo
is proving it is right at the forefront of world research. This
is a highly challenging technical project, but it has potentially
significant export gains, says Flint.
The research has a long time span, with the foundation
investment spread over almost three years. That takes into
account the time eels take to mature.
Contact Stephen Flint
Foundation for Research, Science and Technology tel 09 915 3769
or email Stephen.flint@frst.govt.nz
David Cooper
EelCo Ltd, tel 09 425 8493 or email david@mti.net.nz
See www.mti.net.nz and www.frst.govt.nz
Barriers to aquaculture development
IN NORWAY AND NEW ZEALAND
BY MARK GIBBS, MANAGER, SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS GROUP, CAWTHRON INSTITUTE

he development of the aquaculture sector in New

T Zealand has been stifled over recent years as a

result of moratoria, law reforms and subsequent
lack of establishment of Aquaculture Management Areas. A
number of reasons for this lack of progress have been voiced,
including lack of political will, slow legislative reform, and the
lack of resources in regional government to implement the
new legislation. Having observed aquaculture development in
a number of countries, I believe that a major obstacle to its
development in New Zealand lies at a deeper cultural level
rather than the factors often quoted. Ill use a comparison
between Norway and New Zealand to make my point.
Norway is a true maritime nation, and for centuries,
abundant fishery resources (principally Atlantic cod) have
supported Norways economic development. The prominence
of fisheries resources in the economy and culture has also been
accentuated by the lack of a strong agricultural base in Norway.
One of the many Nor
Over recent decades, falling cod yields have had painful that thrive on aquacu
wegian coastal commu
nities
lture
consequences for many Norwegian coastal communities.
Once these fishing communities became aware of the state
of cod stocks, it was only natural for them to seek alternative
resource bases.
Given their knowledge and experience with wild fisheries, it
was only a small cultural step to establish sea-cage fish farming
as an alternative to cod fishing.
The development of the Norwegian aquaculture sector
was triggered by the necessity to solve a substantial problem
(a diminishing economic resource base), and the values and
beliefs of the coastal communities were conducive to the
establishment of fish farming as a result of their very long
association with fishing.
In contrast, the economic development of New Zealand has
largely been underpinned by an increasing agricultural resource
base, and although seafood is a major contributor to export
revenue, commercial fishing has played a much smaller role in
New Zealands culture and lifestyle than agriculture.
There has also been an increasing trend for rural dwellers
to spend their holidays and retirement in coastal regions.
This instils a sense that the coast is a place for leisure and
recreation, whereas rural regions are commonly associated
with production activities such as agriculture.
This perception contrasts with Norway, where coastal
regions are primarily bases for commercial and subsistence
fishing rather than places for swimming, waterskiing, walking on
the beach, and so on. (Not many Norwegians retire to the
coast.)
Many New Zealanders identify with coastal regions as
locations for leisure. This has, in effect, tied up coastal land
for undertaking leisure activities that are often seen to be in
conflict with the more industrial aquaculture activities.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07 NZ AQUACULTURE n 11
 Rowing out to
get a feed in
The commonly cited factors
Norway. The land
around the old restricting aquaculture development
man consists of
barren rock and in New Zealand, such as a lack of
will not provide
sustenance. It enabling legislation, may be purely
is not surprising an expression of the underlying
that he welcomes
aquaculture values and associations that many
as a logical
replacement for communities have in our coastal
the cod fishery of
his young days marine regions

From an economic perspective, this means that the dominant
economic value of these coastal regions is now associated with
leisure, tourism and recreation, rather than wealth generation
through primary production, and this is simply a reflection of
the communitys core values connected with these regions.
It is therefore understandable that in opinion surveys, coastal
residents are often against aquaculture development. This is
rational self-interest behaviour on the part of many coastal
residents, since they often believe that the benefits from
aquaculture will be captured by marine farmers or dispersed
across the whole community and region, whereas the costs,
such as impacted views, are often perceived to be fully borne
by the individual coastal residents being surveyed (ie for
an individual, the perceived costs outweigh the perceived
benefits).
It can also be argued that New Zealand politicians are
simply responding to the strong underlying value sets
associated with leisure and recreation in coastal areas, rather
than commercial/subsistence activities such as fishing, as is
the case in Norway. Obvious New Zealand exceptions to this
are Havelock and Coromandel, where aquaculture has been
embraced.
Therefore, the commonly cited factors restricting
aquaculture development in New Zealand, such as a lack
of enabling legislation, may be purely an expression of the
underlying values and associations that many communities have
in our coastal marine regions.
A challenge for the aquaculture sector is therefore to
work closely with coastal communities not presently involved
in aquaculture, and to enhance these core values through
aquaculture activities. The recently released Aquaculture
Sector Strategy is a good starting point for this.

12 n NZ AQUACULTURE JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07
 IWI GAIN INSIGHTS
at workshop
Henry Kaspar
(centre) from
shows oyster the Cawthron
spat to, from Institute
Manawa), Jo left, Bill Kerr
hn Merito (Te ison (Ngati
Waka Fisherie Kotahitanga
s Trust) and o Te Arawa
Jack Daymon
Mutunga o W d (Ngati
harekauri Trus
t).

Barry Campbell of New Zealand

King Salmon (far right), with hui
participants at the companys
Waihinau Bay farm

ite visits to marine farms in Pelorus Sound and and processing, while acknowledging that todays marine

S research facilities in Nelson were some of the

highlights of an iwi aquaculture workshop held on
November 23 and 24.
The Nelson workshop was organised by the Takutai Trust,
the Maori Commercial Aquaculture Settlement Trust of Te
Ohu Kai Moana Trustee Ltd, and was held for iwi to identify
key questions and ways to best participate in aquaculture.
It provided a valuable opportunity for iwi and industry
participants to share knowledge and experiences and build
relationships.
Over 90 people attended from as far afield as Te Kao in
the north and the Chatham Islands. Guest speakers included
Maori marine farmers, iwi members, coastal planners, scientists
and industry leaders. Other participants included government,
industry and research representatives.
Field visits to kingfish, mussel and salmon farms in Pelorus
Sound and to Sealord, New Zealand King Salmon, Crop and
Food and Cawthron Institute facilities in Nelson were arranged
for day one of the workshop, while day two included a series
of presentations by guest speakers.
Sessions discussed Maori involvement in aquaculture, regional
council processes, what makes a successful aquaculture business
and the New Zealand aquaculture sector strategy.
Participants were able to share practical advice on farming
farming opportunities differ from the situation in the 1980s.
It is important to view the industry in an integrated way,
starting from the resource consent process through to
marketing and research and development. Collaborative
approaches are also being explored, such as a consortium of
Taitokerau iwi working together on aquaculture development
in their region.
A key outcome of the workshop was a resolution that Harry
Mikaere of the Hauraki Maori Trust Board be appointed the
interim Maori representative and a director on Aquaculture
New Zealand Ltd. This position will be reviewed and ratified at
the Maori fisheries conference in 2007.
Takutais policy manager, Kirsty Woods, said the workshop
was successful in bringing industry and iwi together to talk
about aquaculture development in New Zealand.
Iwi will be promoted into the aquaculture industry as new
aquaculture management areas are created, she says. This
workshop gave iwi access to the knowledge and experience
of some of the acknowledged pioneers of aquaculture in
New Zealand, where they gained sound advice, including the
importance of having the right technology, people and species
and, perhaps most importantly, to keep aquaculture simple.
For more information, contact Riana Meha at
raina.meha@teohu.maori.nz.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07 NZ AQUACULTURE n 13
 NEWS

CAWTHRON PARK
MAKES PROGRESS
The Cawthron Institute says its plans for
its new aquaculture park near Nelson are
well advanced. Infrastructure costs and
the commercial structure were now being
finalised, said the commercial manager, Mark
Jarvis.
The development will cover almost
20ha and incorporate Cawthrons existing
aquaculture facility. Its the first of its
kind in the South Island and the concept
is about focusing knowledge and letting
tenants undertake experimental or high-
value aquaculture in a controlled, land-based
environment, he said.
The unique geography of the site means
there is high quality sea water and low-
lying land specially suited for pond-based
aquaculture - perfect for shellfish hatcheries
but with possible applications for fin fish, too.
ABALONE CLEAR
OF DISEASE
A mariculture farm in Port Fairy says it has
completed a six-week trial to reintroduce
abalone stocks with no evidence of the
ganglioneuritis virus which has forced
closures on areas of the Victorian wildstock
fishery.
TUNA BROODSTOCK SETTLE IN
Nine southern bluefin tuna weighing about 130kg each were recently transferred by
helicopter from a Clean Seas Tuna sea farm to new onshore breeding facility at Arno
Bay. The move took eight hours, and staff said
the fish only took a few days to settle
into the hatchery.
The seven-year-old
broodstock are expected
to spawn next February or
March.
They company must have approval from tourism and camping.
the Department of Primary Industry before Email stevemurray@optusnet.com.au
it can begin production again. It is expected
that the quarantine area off Port Fairy will be FUNDING FOR FISH OIL
lifted before Christmas. SUBSTITUTE
An A$265,000 Australian federal government
OYSTER FARMS FACE grant has enabled researcher Giovanni
DOUBLE THREAT Turchini to return to Warrnambool to work
Oyster farmers Brian and Barry Allen say with aquaculturist Sena De Silva on a three-
continued poaching is helping to destroy year project to investigate alternative ways of
the industry on the South Coast. Over a farming fish.
period of several weeks they lost almost The work will examine Omega-3 fatty acids
$5000 of oysters from their leases in the and the appetite and growth of cultured fish
Crookhaven River from several burglaries. such as Murray cod. Turchini says he hopes to
They believe the oysters were being sold discover a way to farm fish without using fish
illegally. oil from the worlds dwindling resources.
However, Brian Allen said the state
government posed a bigger threat to the AUTORE ACQUIRES
industry by continually imposing more CLIPPER PEARLING
requirements and costs on farmers. The Autore Group has acquired the Clipper
Farmers are also affected by the Pearling Group based in Quondong, Broome.
drought, and Barry Allen says the regulated Clipper has a current annual quota of 32,000
environmental flow of 90 megalitres per day
in the Shoalhaven River was not enough.

Southern Ocean Mariculture had to
completely destock the farm, at a cost of
several million dollars, when the virus was
discovered. The restocking trial involved 32kg
of abalone.
CAIRNS PROPERTY
HAS POTENTIAL
A rare opportunity has arisen to invest in
part of a rapidly expanding tourism and
aquaculture industry in North Queensland.
The 16ha property in the heart of the
Cairns highlands includes main road frontage,
full permits and licences for aquaculture,

wild shell and 40,000 hatchery oysters.

STEHR TO STOCK FITZGERALD BAY Using purchases from other sources, the
The Stehr Group says it has completed the acquisition of the fish farms previously owned business will seed around 107,000 first-
by South Australia Aquaculture Management. operation oysters this year. Autore distributes
It is to build the Fitzgerald Bay component of its business by placing some 300,000 over 600,000 South Sea pearls each year, or
juvenile fish at the farms in the bay. about 18 percent of world production of
The managing director of Clean Seas, Marcus Stehr, said the bay had some valuable white South Sea pearls.
infrastructure, and the company was looking forward to progressing the industry. He said
he would consult with residents as soon as the company was settled on the area. PUBLIC SUPPORT
The Stehr Group is the first fishing and aquaculture company in the southern SOUGHT
hemisphere to receive ISO 4001 accreditation, the highest environmental standard. Environment Waikato is seeking a change to
its aquaculture management areas to facilitate

14 n NZ AQUACULTURE JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07
other forms of aquaculture from sea cages to
kelp and seaweeds.
It says that to ensure public support from
the boating community, it is essential that
the existing AMA use and any future changes
dont impede public access to safe haven
anchorages, night or day.

NATIVE CLAMS TO BE
HARVESTED
Southern Clams has unveiled plans for a
shellfish operation in Dunedin which it will
operate with Ngai Tahu interests. It would see
an expansion of commercial harvesting of the
native tuaki shellfish into Otago Harbour.
Southern Clams managing director, Roger
Belton, estimates the area contains between
70,000 and 80,000 tonnes of cockles.
He says it is too early to say what the
sustainable yield would be because of variable
productivity. Public consultation on a draft
management plan for the venture is expected
to begin next year.
CLEAN YOUR
BOAT HULL
With the summer season on us again,
Biosecurity New Zealand is reminding those
in the aquaculture and seafood industries
Styela clava
how they can assist marine biosecurity and
help prevent the spread of marine pests.
The clear message is that the surest way
to slow the spread of marine pests is to
regularly clean and anti-foul boat hulls.
Recent initiatives by the aquaculture
industry to minimise the adverse impacts
of the Didemnum vexillum sea squirt in
Marlborough and the sea squirt Styela clava
in the Hauraki Gulf illustrate the importance
of minimising the spread of marine pests.
The clean and anti-foul message in 2005
and 2006 was the core of the communication
programme run as part of its response to the
discovery of Styela clava.
While the vast majority of boat owners
maintain their vessels well and have an
affinity with the environment, the concept
of managing the threat of marine pests
is relatively new, and there is a need to
continue to raise awareness among the
wider maritime community, and encourage
personal responsibility for marine
biosecurity.

BLUFF OYSTER FISHERY IN RUINS

The days of the Bluff oyster industry are numbered, according to a
University of Otago paper titled Picking among the Ruins.
Theres a consensus among everyone that the Bluff oyster
fishery is in ruins, researcher Peter Knight said in early October.
You cannot argue with the fact that the catches are only a few
percent of what they were 20 or 30 years ago.
There were differences of opinion on the best way to deal with
the situation, he said.
Knight, who lectures in hydrographic surveying, based his
assessment on interviews with more than 50
Bluff fishermen, whom he said had been shut
out of the management of the fishery since views, saying that each skipper filled in a
the application of the quota management daily logbook with the catch and catch
system in the mid-1990s. While they were rates, and where they were.
involved, they brought a strong conservation However, Knight said those in charge
ethic to the fishery, Knight said in his paper. did not weigh all scientific information
The QMS... is not about oysters and equally.
people, it is about quota numbers and Several papers by John Cranfield, a
property rights. It is non-management at the highest level. scientist with the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric
The Bluff Oyster Management Company, which oversees Research, showed that the damage done to the Foveaux Strait sea
the running of the fishery, has disputed Knights argument. The floor by oyster dredging had been largely overlooked, he said.
chairman, Warren Conway, said the 2006 season, which ended on A Ministry of Fisheries senior fisheries management adviser,
August 31, was an improvement on the previous year, when some Rose Grindley, said the biggest problem facing the fishery
fishermen could not fill their quota. remained the bonamia parasite that struck in the late 1980s and
He also disputed the opinion that the QMS excluded local closed it for two years in the 1990s.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07 NZ AQUACULTURE n 15
16 n NZ AQUACULTURE JANUARY/FEBRUARY 07