Notes and interesting results

Daniel Alves Paladim

09/04/2013

1 Definitions
Let x(X, t) be a function describing the position of a particle whose position
on a reference time t0 was X. Then, we define

Displacement
u=xX

Deformation gradient
F = x

Displacement gradient
u = x I

Stress Tij is parallel to i and acts on a plane whose normal is paralllel to j.

Lagrangian or finite strain tensor

1 1
E = (u + uT + uT u) = (F T F I)
2 2
where dx1 dx2 = dX 1 dX 2 + 2dX 1 E dX 2

(Infinitesimal) strain tensor

1 1
E= (u + uT ) = (x + xT ) I
2 2

Material or Lagrangian description All functions are described as func-

tion of X and t.

Spatial or Eulerian description All functions are described as function of

x and t.

1
Deviatoric and hydrostatic stress tensor For a given stress tensor T the
hydrostatic stress tensor is
Tkk
I
3
and deviatoric stress tensor has the following definition
Tkk
T0 = T I
3
Since the hydrostatic tensor is coordinate isotropic (coordinate indepedent), it
is possible to find a coordinate system where the diagonal of the deviatoric stress
tensor is full of zeros. In this coordinate system, the deviatoric is responsible for
the shear stresses (change of shape) while the hydrostatic tensor is responsible
for normal stresses (change of volume).

2 Tensors
2.1 Dyadic product
The dyadic product of two vectors is defined as
a b = aT b (1)
which is an order 2 tensor. This product is also called outer product or tensor
product. Basically, the resulting matrixs row i is the vector b times the i-th
entry of vector a. It has the following properties,
a b has at most rank 1.
(a b)T = b a
a b c = a(b c)
It is interesting also to point out that if a matrix A is SPD (symmetric and
positive definite, which implies that its autovectors are orthogonal), then
N
X
A= i q i q i (2)
i=1

where q i is an eigenvector of A and i its associated eigenvalue.

2.2 Orthogonal tensor

A tensor T that represents a rigid body rotation is orthogonal (T T T = I)1 .
This can be easily justified. For a rotation, two position vectors v1 , v2 will still
form the same angle and have the same lenght. Therefore,
v1 v1 = Qv1 Qv1
and also (since the angle is conserved)
v1 v2 = Qv1 Qv2 = v1 QT Qv2
and from here it follows that
QT Q = I
1 The converse is not true. i.e. a reflection. The converse is true, if we impose also det T = 1

2
2.3 Levi-Civita symbol
ijm klm = ik jl il jk

a b = ijk ai bj ek

2.4 Antisymetric tensors

Every antisymetric tensor T can be represented by a cross product and a vector
t (usually called dual vector):

Ta = t a

We can see that T must be antisymetric by choosing a = ek

Tik = xki tx

and this implies that

Tki = xki tx
Using the previous relation, we can see that,

tT = {T32 , T13 , T21 }

dQT
If Q is orthogonal, then dt Q is antisymetric. This can be shown easily

dQT Q dQT dQ
= Q + QT =0
dt dt dt
This is interesting, because this explains, why the velocity field of a rotation
can be represented by the cross product of the angular velocity and the current
position vector r. Given that r(t) = Qr0 (notice r0 = QT r(t)),
dr(t) dQ dQ T
= r0 = Q r =r
dt dt dt

2.5 Symmetry of the Cauchy stress-tensor

The Cauchy stress-tensor is symmetric if there are no point moments 2 . It is
not required that infinitesimal element is in static equilibrium, according to Lai,
Rubin, Krempl. The proof is as follows:
   
X x1 x1
MA =T21 (x2 x3 ) + (T21 + T21 )(x2 x3 )
2 2
   
x2 x2
T12 (x1 x3 ) (T12 + T12 )(x1 x3 )
2 2
= IA 3 = x1 x2 x3 (x21 + x22 )3
Now dividing by x1 x2 x3 and taking limits when the volume of the element
goes to 0 X
MA = (T21 T12 ) = 0
This last equation is also called the principle of moment of momentum.
2 Point moments appear in anisotropic dielectric solids

3
2.6 Isotropic tensor
A tensor having the same components under any orthonormal basis is called
isotropic. The basis of isotropic fourth order tensors is tensors
Aijkl = ij kl
Bijkl = ik jl
Hijkl = il jk
Since the elasticity tensor for a Hookean material is a 4th order tensor and it is
also isotropic, it can be written as a linear combination of the previous.
Cijkl = Aijkl + Bijkl + Hijkl
Since
Aijkl Ekl = ij Ekk = ij e
Bijkl Ekl = Eij
Hijkl Ekl = Eji = Eij
we can write Tij = Cijkl Ekl as
Tij = eij + ( + )Eij
T = eI + ( + )E
Choosing = , = = , where and are the first and second Lame
constansts respectively gives us the known relation
T = eI + 2E

3 Elasticity
3.1 Problems of the infinitesimal strain tensor
The infinitesimal strain tensor has no problem with translations of the body.
However, it does have a problem with rotations. Applying a pure rotation to a
body gives,
x = QX
xi = Qik Xk
Then, F = Q. The finite strain tensor is E = F T F I and since Q is
orthogonal (QT Q = I) E = 0. For the infinitesimal strain tensor,
1
E= (F + F T ) I 6= 0
2
Even though, there is a rigid body motion, the strain tensor is not equal 0.

3.2 Linear elastic solid

Bulk modulus and dilatation It relates p, the pressure applied and the
change of volume per initial volume e (also known as dilatation):
p
k=
e
The dilatation is Eii = E11 + E22 + E33 .

4
Shear modulus It relates the moment applied to circular bar and the twist
produced
Mt l
=
Ip
Since there only 2 constants independently describe a linear elastic solid material
(EY , )
EY
=
2(1 + )

Incompressible solid Using the relations between (EY , , , , k) it can be

shown that,
k 1
=
EY 3(1 2)
If the ratio k/EY then 12 . A material with a big ratio between the
bulks modulus and the Youngs modulus is called incompressible and this is
because  
Tii 1 2
e= = Tii
3k EY
Therefore, if 21 , then e 0

3.3 Strain energy density function

It is a function (E) that relates strain and density of energy in a material. If
there is such a function (for instance, it does not exist for viscoelastic materials),
we have

Tij =
Eij

2
Cijkl =
Eij Ekl
Several material models are defined by their strain energy function.

3.4 Additional hypothesis on the derivation of the Navier-

Cauchy equations
There are 2 additional hypothesis that are usually omitted in the derivation of
the Navier-Cauchy equations. Starting with the Cauchy motion equations (or
Newtons second law)
Tij
ai = Bi +
xj
The next step, is to use the constitutive equation to introduce the strains in this
equations and get rid of the stresses. And then in the following step, substitute
the strains by their relation with displacements. However, it is important to
notice that the stresses are differentiated with respect to spatial coordinates (xi )

5
while strains are derivatives of the displacements with respect to the material
coordinates (Xi ). So, one assumption that is made is that
Tij Tij

Xk xk
This is only true if ui /Xj is much smaller than unity, because
 
Tij Tij xl Tij ul
= = lk +
Xk xl Xk xl Xk
The second assumption is related with density. Since the mass is conserved, the
density of each point is modified through time. The current density and the
reference density 0 can be related by 3

(1 + Ekk ) = 0

However, small deformations are assumed, therefore

3.5 Compatibility equations

If Eij (X1 , X2 , X3 ) are continuous functions having continuous second partial
derivatives in a simply connected region 4 , then the necessary and sufficient
conditions for the existence of single-valued continuous solutions ui (X1 , X2 , X3 )
are:
2 E11 2 E22 2 E12
2 + 2 =2
X2 X1 X1 X2
2 2
E22 E33 2 E23
2 + 2 =2
X3 X2 X2 X3
2 2
E33 E11 2 E31
2 + 2 =2
X1 X3 X3 X1

2 E11
 
E23 E31 E12
= + +
X2 X3 X1 X1 X2 X3
2
 
E22 E31 E12 E23
= + +
X3 X1 X2 X2 X3 X1
2
 
E33 E12 E23 E31
= + +
X1 X2 X3 X3 X1 X2

3.6 Why we choose 1/2 in the definition of the strain ten-

sor?
1
E= (u + uT + uT u)
2
3 Even this formula is an approximation, since the change of volume per original volume is

Eii + E11 E22 + E11 E33 + E22 E33 + E11 E22 E33
4 Simply connected informally, means no holes in the domain. If the region is not simply

connected, those conditions are necessary but not sufficient.

6
3.7 Plane strain
Under the plane strain hypothesis, we assume that
u = u(x, y)
v = v(x, y)
w=0
Fz = 0
Under those assumptions, z = xz = yz = xz = yz = 0. But, z 6= 0,
z = (x + y ). An infinite prismatical body with its axis direction parallel to
the z-axis fulfills the equation. Also a finite prismatical body that has the faces
with the normal parallel to the z-axis fixed( w = 0) and xz = yz = 0 on those
faces. To conclude, plane strain equations are coherent with the 3D equations of
linear elasticity. Since the bodies that fulfill this equation are prismatic, plane
strain can be applied approximately to thick prismatic bodies.

3.8 Plane stress

Under the plane stress hypothesis, we assume that
x = x (x, y)
y = y (x, y)
xy = xy (x, y)
z = xz = yz = 0
Fz = 0
Then, xz = yz = 0 and z = (x + y ). It is important to notice that
the equations of plane stress are, most of the time, not coherent with the 3D
equations of linear elasticity (the cases where they are coherent are of little
practical importance). However, it can be show that for very thin prismatical
bodies is a good approximation to the exact solution. Finally, by modifying the
Youngs modulus and the Poissons ration a solution of a problem of plane stress
can be transformed into a solution of a problem of plane strain (and vice-versa).

3.9 Airys stress function

Under the plane stress hypothesis and the body forces acting on the body are
conservative (Fx = V V
x and Fy = y ), exists a function such that

2
x + V =
y 2
2
y + V =
x2
2
xy =
xy
The equilibrium equations are automatically satisfied and the problem is re-
duced to solving the following problem,
4 = (1 )2 V

7
with a single unknown, 5

3.10 Torsion of beams

TODO

3.11 Polar decomposition

TODO

3.12 Stress tensors

The most important idea to understand is that stress tensor are linear maps that
relates area vectors (a = an where a is the area and n is unitary vector normal
to the surface) and the force applied to this area6 . Now, it is important to point
out that those two vectors (stress and area) might be in different configurations,
reference (or material) and current (or deformed). Those different combinations
gives rise to the different tensors. Finally, after choosing one stress tensor, it is
important to know what strain tensor is its energy conjugate. Two tensors are
energy conjugate, if their double dot product results in the strain energy.

3.12.1 Cauchy stress tensor

The Cauchy stress tensor, also known as true stress tensor relates the area
vectors in the current configuration with forces in the current configuration.

3.12.2 Nominal stress tensor

Also known as 1st Piola-Kirchoff stress tensor it relates forces in the current
configuration with areas in the reference configuration. This tensor is unsym-
metric and can be understood as a generalization of the 1D concept of engineer-
ing stress, the quotient of the force and the original area. The Cauchy stress
and the nominal stress are related by the following formula,

P K1 = JF T

Its energy conjugate is F , the deformation gradient.

3.13 2nd Piola-Kirchoff stress tensor

It relates forces in the reference configuration with areas in the reference con-
figuration. It is symmetric and it is related to the Cauchy stress tensor through
the following formula,
P K2 = JF 1 F T
Its energy conjugate is E, the Green-Lagrange finite strain tensor.
5 4 = 2 (2 )
6 It can be shown that the function that relates those two quantities must be a linear map

8
3.14 Energy
The work done by the external forces, assuming that the loads are applied very
slowly, is Z Z
1 1
W = Bu+ tu
2 2
The constant 1/2 appears because when the load is slowly applied, it faces an
opposing force that is linearly proportional to the displacement of the point
where it is applied. This work is stored in the form of strain energy U = W .
By a similar argument on an infinitesimal domain, the strain energy density
is given by
1
U0 = ij ij
2
The strain energy can be calculated as
Z
U= U0

It is worth noting now that the correctness of the equality U = W can be proved
without invoking the conservation of energy. It can be derived making use of
the divergence theorem.
The potential energy of the external forces7 is defined as
Z Z
V = F u Bu tu

With that definition, we can define the total potential energy as

=U +V (3)

3.14.1 The theorem of the minimum potential energy

Let u be the displacement field that satisfies the equilibrium equations and the
boundary conditions. Now, lets consider a kinematically admissible8 disturba-
tion of u, u. Then, the variation of the total potential energy

= (u + u) (u) = 0 (4)

3.14.2 Castiglianos second theorem

Barber

3.14.3 Castiglianos method

TODO wikipedia
7 I still havent completely digested this definition. With this definition, we have the mini-

mum potential energy theorem, however, the potential energy is just a mathematical artifact,
that I am unable to relate to the classical particle mechanics definition. UPDATE: It seems to
be just a mathematical artifact. It appears naturally, when applying the principle of virtual
work to elasticity.
8 Continuos and and zero valued on the boundaries where the displacement is prescripted.

9
3.14.4 Maxwells theorem
Let F 1 be a force applied at point P and let u1 be the displacement of a point
Q. Similarly, let F 2 be a force applied at Q and u2 be the displacement in the
point P . This theorem states that,

F 1 u2 = F 2 u1

To prove this theorem, we will firstly apply slowly, F 1 at point P , following

that, we apply slowly F 2 and compute the work done by the external forces.
This work is,

W = W11 + W12 + W22 (5)

where,
W11 = F 1 (6)

3.14.5 Average stress

It is possible to compute the average component Tik of the stress tensor as a
boundary integral. Multiplying the equilibrium equations by xk and integrating
over the domain
Z Z Z Z Z
Tij Tij xk xk
0= xk = Tij = xk Tij nj Tik (7)
V xj V xj V xj S V

where we get, Z
1
Tik = fi xk (8)
V S

3.14.6 Bettis theorem

4 Fluids
Fluids is material that is unable to sustain shearing stress without continuously
deforming. Therefore, for a fluid in rigid body motion 9 the stress vector is
always normal to any plane. The only possible stress tensor is then

T = pI

4.1 Streamline
A stream line in a flow at the instant t0 is a curve where its tangent vector at
x is tangent to the velocity at the same point. If x(s) is a parametrization of
the curve, then
dx
= v(x, t0 )
ds
where is a constant dependent of the parametrization choosen (there is always
a parametrization such that = 1).
9 Any three points forming a triangle in a body under a rigid motion, will always form the

same triangle for any instant of time.

10
4.2 Incompressible fluids
From the mass continuity equation
d
+ v = 0
dt

it can be infered that for an incompressible fluid ( d

dt = 0)

v =0

4.3 Newtonian fluid

Decomposing the stress tensor of a fluid in two terms (one term is responsible for
the rigid body motion and the other responsible for non-rigid body motion)

Tij = pij + Tij0

If, it is assumed that

1. For a material point, the values of Tij0 at any time t depend linearly on
the components of the rate of deformation tensor at that time and not
any other kinematic quantities.
2. The fluid is isotropic
Tij0 , known as the viscous stress tensor, can be expressed as

Tij0 = ij + 2Dij

where = Dii and is called the (first) coefficient of viscosity. + 32 is known

as the cofficient of bulk viscosity, since it relates viscous mean stress and the
rate of change of volume,
1 0 2
T = ( + )
3 ij 3

4.4 Navier-Stokes equation for incompressible fluid

Substituting the total stress tensor in the Cauchy motion equation and taking
into account that v = 0 gives
dv
= B p + 2 v
dt

11
4.5 Particular solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations
4.5.1 Plane Couette flow
4.5.2 Plane Poiseuille flow
4.5.3 Hagen-Poiseuille flow
4.5.4 Plane Couette flow of two layers of incompressible fluids
4.5.5 Couette Flow
4.5.6 Flow near an oscillating plane

5 Useful theorems
5.1 Differentiation under the integral sign
Let f (x, ) be a function such that f (x, ) exists, and is continuous. Then,
Z b() ! Z b() !
d
f (x, ) dx = f (x, ) dx + f (b(), )b0 () f (a(), )a0 ()
d a() a()

5.2 Theorems of vectorial calculus

5.2.1 Gradient theorem
The gradient theorem states that
Z
f dr = f (b) f (a)
:[a,b]

This is useful, for computing the work done by a conservative force. By defini-
tion, a force F is conservative, if there exists, a function V such that F = V .
Then the work done by this force is,
Z
V dr = V (a) V (b)
:[a,b]

5.2.2 Stokes theorem

This theorem establishes the following relation
Z Z
F nd = F dr (9)

This theorem can be used to transform the problem of computing an area using
a domain integral into a problem of computing a line integral. Choosing F =
1/2(y, x), we have
Z Z Z
|| = 1d = F nd = F dr (10)

12
5.2.3 Divergence theorem
Z Z
F d = F nds (11)

The divergence theorem can also be used to compute areas and volumes. Choos-
ing F such that F = 1 (for example, F = (x, y, z) transforms the left hand
side into the volume of the domain.
Z Z
F d = F nds (12)

5.2.4 Divergence of a tensor

Some books define the divergence of a tensor as
 
ij
= column vector (13)
xj

Using this notation, the divergence theorem reads

Z Z
= n (14)

In the first notation, if f is column function,

(f T )T = ( T f ) = + : f (15)

In the following notation,

 
ij
= row vector (16)
xi

it reads Z Z
= nT (17)

13