Chapter 24 - Electromagnetic Doppler

effect and the Expanding Universe

THE DOPPLER EFFECT

Doppler effect in sound waves: Pitch (and frequency) rises and falls when
passing an observer.

The same effect occurs in electromagnetic waves. The difference is that the
speed of the EM radiation is constant no matter what the speed of the object
from which it originates.

FREQUENCY OF EM RADIATION FROM A RECEDING OBJECT

Consider fig.1
Waves from the object travel with speed c, the object is receding with a speed v,
so the waves become spread out over a great distance, i.e. their wavelength
increases. So when wavelength increases but peed stays the same then
frequency decreases.
The change in wavelength causes the change in frequency

Conclusion
If radiation is emitted from a receding source, its frequency is lowered slightly

Fig.1 Frequency of EM radiation from a receding object

EMISSION SPECTRA

The spectra of hot gases can be observed using a diffraction grating.

Hot gases emit a spectrum, but its not a continuous spectrum like a rainbow
(called a black body spectrum). It consists of discrete lines seen below

When the gas is heated, the electrons are excited into a higher energy state.
When they drop back down into lower energy states they emit a photon of
radiation at a specific frequency.

Energy of the photon:

frequency
energy level gap
Planck's constant

Conclusion
An emission spectrum consists of discrete lines of frequency characteristic of
the elements emitting the radiation.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA

When white light i.e. radiation of all frequencies passes through cooler gases,
radiation is absorbed at frequencies where it would have been emitted by the hot
gases. So radiation passing through the cooler layers of the atmosphere of
distant stars acquire dark lines characteristics of the gases in the atmosphere.
Thus we can recognize, say, hydrogen and helium lines in these absorption
spectra from distant stars.

Conclusion
An absorption spectrum consists of a white light background
crossed with dark lines of frequencies characteristic of those elements
which have absorbed the radiation.

Doppler shift of lines in absorption spectra.

Conclusion
Doppler effect can explain the shift to lower frequencies, which
is observed in the characteristic lines in absorption spectra of the radiation
from distant stars. The stars are moving away from each other or
receding.

HUBBLE'S LAW

Speed is directly proportional to the distance away.

d = the distance of the galaxy from Earth

v = Speed in compatible units
H = the Hubble constant (range between 1.6 - 2.3 x )

UNIT OF A DISTANCE

Distances are too vast to measure with km or m. So light year is used.

Light year: the distance travelled by light in one year.

1 light year = 3 x x 60 x 60 x 24 x 365.25

= 9.467 x m

THE BIG BANG THEORY

A logical explanation of the red shift is that they are receding. This supports the
big bang theory of the Universe.

If the Universe began as a concentrated point and then exploded, then it is

expected galaxies would move away from each other. Additionally, they are
expected to slow down, since the only force acting should be the gravitational
pull of other galaxies, to reduce the initial velocity after the bang.

Hubble's law suggests that those galaxies moving away from the Earth are
moving faster. The furthest galaxies are also the oldest, since the light takes
longer to reach us, so we are seeing them as they were long ago. Thus the older
galaxies are travelling faster.

Conclusion
The red shift of galactic radiation supports the Big Bang Theory.

THE AGE OF THE UNIVERSE

We use Hubble's law to give an approximate value for the age of the Universe.

If a galaxy is distance d from our own, and has a recession of velocity v, then
the separation must have occurred at time ago.

Since then

This gives an approximate age of the universe as 1 - 2 x years.

Problems with this conclusion

1. It assumes constant speed, and it was suggested that the speed was thought to
have decreased from an initial value to its present value.
2. The large uncertainty in H.

These factors mean that this is a very approximate estimate.