Air Dist PWGSC

High-efficiency Air Distribution
Systems for Office Buildings
March 1996
March 1996
FOREWORD
This project examined high-efficiency air distribution systems and their related efficiencies of
energy usage. It provides retrofit guidelines for implementation in office buildings. This project
was partially funded under the Program on Energy Research and Development (PERD), Energy
Efficiency - Buildings Task 1.4.4.
A contract was negotiated with Scanada Consultants Limited who provided Anil Parekh to
work on this project. Data from PWGSC projects and other experiences was provided. I
managed the project and provided access to PWGSC staff and information and edited the
report. Jean Lafontaine of EMCS Engineering has since reviewed it and modifications are
included in this version.
A follow on study on Intelligent Building Options and costs is to be completed by October

1998 and will provide costs for some high- efficiency air distribution options based on recent
PWGSC retrofit and new building projects. It will be available in Adobe Acrobat format on
our FTP site at ftp://ftp.pwgsc.gc.ca/rpstech/ along this report.
Edward Morofsky
Senior Energy Technology Research Engineer
PWGSC, Architecture and Engineering, Technology
Place du Portage, Phase III, 8B1
Hull, Quebec K1A 0S5 Canada
(819)956-3419 phone
(819)956-3400 fax
MOROFSKE@PWGSC.GC.CA
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems ii

March 1996
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................v
1. INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................1
1.1 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE ....................................................................................................................4
1.2 REPORT ORGANIZATION ...................................................................................................................4
2. VENTILATION SYSTEMS................................................................................................................5
2.1 PERSONAL CONTROL AND PRODUCTIVITY .........................................................................................6
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONVENTIONAL AND STATE-OF-THE-ART HVAC SYSTEMS ..............................8
2.3 INTERACTION WITH OPERABLE WINDOWS....................................................................................... 11
2.4 ENERGY USE IN THE AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ............................................................................ 11
2.5 THE EFFECTS OF INTRODUCING 100% OUTDOOR-AIR ..................................................................... 13
2.6 AIR DISTRIBUTION AND APPLICABLE CRITERIA ............................................................................... 17
2.7 SUMMARY OF CANADA OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH REGULATIONS ................................... 18
2.8 RETROFIT GUIDELINES FOR AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ................................................................. 19
3. HIGH EFFICIENCY AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS...............................................................21
3.1 CONSIDERATIONS .......................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF VENTILATION SYSTEMS ................................................................................... 25
3.3 PERSONAL ENVIRONMENTAL MODULES ......................................................................................... 28
3.4 DISPLACEMENT VENTILATION ........................................................................................................ 29
3.5 SMALL- DIAMETER, HIGH VELOCITY DUCTS ................................................................................... 32
3.6 AIR JETS WITH AN OCCUPANT CONTROLLED DAMPER ..................................................................... 33
3.7 OCCUPANCY CONTROLLED VENTILATION SYSTEM .......................................................................... 36
4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................38
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems iii

March 1996
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Pollution loads for ten to twenty year old office buildings........................................................2
Table 2: Recommended minimum ventilation rates for office buildings. ...............................................3
Table 3: Annual operating costs/sq ft (a typical PWGSC office building)...............................................8
Table 4: Characteristics of conventional and state-of-the-art HVAC systems. ......................................8
Table 5: Theoretical Efficiency of Chiller Equipment with New Refrigerants.......................................9
Table 6: Typical fan efficiencies. .............................................................................................................9
Table 7: Recommended air velocity through diffusers.......................................................................... 22
Table 8: Filter characteristics (data based on ASHRAE Equipment Guide) ........................................ 23
Table 9: Comparison of small-diameter and conventional duct systems. ............................................. 33
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Indoor air quality, ventilation and the energy use are closely related and also inter-
dependent parameters in office buildings. ..............................................................................5
Figure 2: Factors affecting design and development of ventilation distribution systems......................6
Figure 3: Ventilation needs in the building to control pollutants. .........................................................7
Figure 4: Comparison of thermal loads for an all air conventional office and a central hydronic
cooling system........................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 5: Energy use profile of typical office buildings located in Toronto. (A) shows the energy use
profile of a large office building built in 1975. (B) shows a building built to OBC 1993 Code
meeting or exceeding the ASHRAE 90.1 requirements. Figures (C) and (D) show the
energy use profile for medium size existing and new office building respectively............... 12
Figure 6: Typical air volume requirements in office buildings at the workstation. ............................. 15
Figure 7: Comparison of annual energy use associated with HVAC systems in office buildings.
Assumed that the building is located in Ottawa................................................................... 15
Figure 8: Comparison of typical energy costs associated with HVAC and lighting systems in office
buildings in 1996. .................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 9: The reduction of contaminants depends on the number of air changes in a work station.
The degree of mixing can be determined using the tracer gas test...................................... 18
Figure 10: Air flow capacity of various types of diffusers. (Obtained from product literature of
various manufacturers) ......................................................................................................... 22
Figure 11: Relative cost of various types of diffusers. (Obtained from product literature of various
manufacturers) ...................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 12: This typical office building ventilation profile demonstrates the energy savings produced
with CO2 control versus constant ventilation control methods. (Carrier, 1995) ................. 25
Figure 13: Air jets in a work station. The wavy lines of various densities represent air at various
temperatures being pushed up through the displacement effect. ........................................ 34
Figure 14: Conventional duct layout. (adapted from ref. 9)................................................................. 35
Figure 15: Retrofit with air jets. (adapted from ref. 9) ........................................................................ 35
Figure 16: Performance of an infrared controlled terminal unit.......................................................... 37
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems iv

March 1996
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In office buildings, the indoor air-quality and thermal comfort play a significant role
in well-being of occupants and the performance of productivity. Occupants use the
artificial environment for more than 90% of the work time. Proper design, better
controls, and the maintenance of an artificial environment in the building are seem
to be fundamental keys for improved thermal comfort and work productivity.
As a result of the energy conservation upgrades implemented in the periods of 1970s

to late 1980s, the artificially created indoor environments have undergone radical
changes, some being positive and others negative. On the positive side, increased
levels of thermal comfort have been achieved through improved thermal insulation,
reduced air leakage and more advanced heating, cooling and ventilation systems.
On the negative side, a deterioration of the indoor air quality has been experienced
particularly among some of the fully mechanically-controlledbuildings mainly due
to two reasons:
unsatisfactory air movement; and
high levels of pollutant sources from the building furnishing materials and
the office equipment (such as photocopiers and laser printers).
In recent years, federal government is going through a significant level of work

space adjustments. The work space redesign and retrofitting of the existing office
facilities is necessary to accommodate increased occupancy in federal buildings. The
increase in the occupancy level puts additional needs for various utility
requirements as well as ventilation and space conditioning requirements. The air
distribution system retrofits are key to any new changes to the office space. There
are innovative ways to undertake air distribution retrofits which can accomplish
acceptable levels of thermal comfort and indoor-air quality within the first-costs.
These innovative equipment and systems also reduces the operating energy costs. It
is highly recommended that one should consider the following general guidelines
before undertaking the air-distribution system retrofits.
RETROFIT GUIDELINES FOR AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The retrofit of the existing facility should consider the following components:
1. Examine and investigate the existing ducting system. Evaluate the new
loads and determine best possible ways to improve the air-flow
distribution.
2. Reduce the space heating and cooling loads can accomplish major
reductions in the annual operating costs;
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems v

March 1996
3. Examine and improve the existing ducting system re-zoning and tuning
of existing duct work can improve the air distribution; and
4. Install or retrofit with energy efficiency upgrades for the fans, motors,
controls and air distribution equipment can actually realize better air
quality accomplished through improved air movement and reduce the
overall energy consumption of the building.
The following summarizes the retrofit approaches for air distribution systems:
Do lighting and other internal retrofits first, solar control, etc; complete
recalculation of heating and ventilation loads with new occupancy levels
and use profile. Use the following approaches to reduce cooling loads:
solar gains
day lighting
efficient envelope
well designed air distribution
Measure existing fan performance.
Examine duct system, filter and coils.
Rezone the area if need be.
Consider fan staging, if fans operate in parallel.
Consider retrofitting return fans.
Consider retrofitting fan motors with properly sized high efficiency units.
Shop around for drivers and VAV boxes. Use boxes with linear-response
dampers, DDC control and adjustable minimum openings.
Consider how the fan will be controlled. Options include existing EMS,
new EMS, stand alone fan controller, or a control loop built into the fan
motor drive.
Commission the system thoroughly to ensure performance.
The above retrofit approaches are based on achieving the maximum possible cost
effective potential in the building. A piece-meal approach of retrofits may hinder the
full potential of cost effectiveness; therefore, a comprehensive retrofit strategy
should be applied.
The following briefly summarizes the opportunities for improving existing air
distribution system in buildings:
1. An efficient air system works from the end-user upstream. Reducing flow
requirements by minimizing internal and external heat gains offers
potentially deep cube-law savings in peak power demand [Power flow3].
2. Matching air supply continuously to ventilation loads using VAV.
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems vi
March 1996
3. Arranging air zones logically is a key to making VAV systems efficient and
effective - similar load profiles.
4. Measuring fan power and continuous monitoring of the system is critical
to ensure savings with VAVs.
5. Exhaust air fans are viable alternative to return air fans - lower power
and move less air.
6. About 80-90% of the moving air recirculates through the building.
7. Displacement air distribution can efficiently provide excellent air-quality
and heat removal by moving a large mass of air slowly instead of
conventional induction systems that move less air at lower speed.
INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS
The following lists some of the innovative air distribution systems.
Zero Complaint Air-Conditioning System: This system is based on the
McGill Jet principle, where the supply air through the diffuser is
controlled by an infra-red remote controller. The controller can vary the
flow rate through the diffuser. User can also adjust the angle of the jet.
Each diffuser can provide up to 30 L/s per workstation with up to nine
air changes per hour at the work station. The control of the air jet can
be accomplished by a remote controller or through a local area network
from a work station computer. The system has been demonstrated
successfully in several office buildings. The equipment is going though
field studies and maturing of this technology should occur over next
couple of years. The cost of this system vary from $750 to $1,500 per
work station. LAN based control system may add further by about
$1,000 to $10000 per 50 work stations.
Small diameter- high velocity jets: In existing layout, where access for
ducting is difficult, the small diameter jets provide an affordable
solution. These jets are generally located in corners and supply air is
deflected on a wall to reduce the discomfort related high velocity air
steams. This system has been successfully demonstrated in houses and
small office buildings. However, in medium to large office buildings,
there are no known demonstrations. Further data is needed to evaluate
its impact. The cost of this system in small office buildings vary from
$800 to $1,400 per work station. Individual controls can be considered.
Personal environmental modules: These are effectively balanced air
supply and exhaust modules located at each work station. These
modules are commercially available from various manufacturers. The
cost of PEMs vary from $1,500 to $2,500 depending on type of
applications. PEMs have a good track record.
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems vii

March 1996
High Efficiency Air Distribution

Systems for Office Buildings
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of a ventilation system is to provide an acceptable indoor-climate in the

space being ventilated. In this context, indoor-climate refers to thermal
environment as well as indoor air quality. These two factors must be incorporated
in the design or retrofit of a building as they are fundamental to the comfort and
well-being of the human occupants or the performance of productivity within these
spaces. In office buildings, occupants are in the artificial environment for more than
90% of the work time. Proper design and the maintenance of an artificial
environment are fundamental keys for improved thermal comfort and work
productivity.
As a result of the energy-efficiency measures implemented in the periods of 1970s to

late 1980s, the artificially created indoor environments have undergone radical
changes, some being positive and others negative. On the positive side, increased
levels of thermal comfort have been achieved through improved thermal insulation,
reduced air leakage and more advanced heating, cooling and ventilation systems.
On the negative side, a deterioration of the indoor air quality has been experienced
particularly among some of the fully mechanically-controlledbuildings mainly due
to two reasons:
unsatisfactory air movement; and
high levels of pollutant sources from the building furnishing materials and
the office equipment (such as photocopiers, laser printers, etc.).
Table 1 shows pollution load in a typical office building which the ventilation system
is required to handle. As shown, the material and equipment emissions are about
four to five times higher than the occupant generated metabolic effluents. Although,
there is a great difference in characteristics of bio-effluents and the material and
equipment emissions, the ventilation system must provide a means of reducing both
levels at all times for occupant comfort satisfaction.1
The main function of air distribution system in the building is to supply the
conditioned air and extract the used air from the space effectively and efficiently.
On a continuous basis, air distribution system exhaust a portion stale air and
replenishes with fresh outdoor air. The outdoor air component is defined to as
1 D.W. Bearg, Indoor Air Quality and HVAC Systems, LCC # TH7015.B42, 1993.
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems INTRODUCTION 1

March 1996
ventilation. Air distribution system recircultaes some portion of the extracted air
and exhaust remaining to outside of the building. Make-up air is provided in the
form of outside air. Air distribution system mixes the ventilation component and
recirculation component and passes through heat exchangers for either heating and
cooling depending on the needs of a conditioning space. The make-up outdoor air or
the ventilation component may vary from as low as 5% to full 100% of the required
occupant load.
Air distribution plays a principal role in the dilution and removal of pollutants
within occupied spaces to maintain indoor environmental conditions, and the
thermal transport to provide occupant comfort. Increasing attention need be focused
on internal air movement and the mixing characteristics of local distribution
components in order to provide an optimal and healthy office working environment.
Significant indoor air quality research and investigations have been conducted over
last twenty to thirty years to develop acceptable air change rates and design
strategies for various type of occupancies. The minimum ventilation rate (the
requirement for outdoor air) is determined for the following purposes:
human respiration requires 0.1 to 0.9 L/s of fresh air per person
depending on the type of metabolic activities;2
dilution of gaseous contaminants to not exceed maximum permissible
concentrations or threshold limit values (TLVs) for CO2, odour and
vapours of harmful chemical compounds;
control of internal humidity;
control of airborne particulate inside buildings; and
promoting air movement by proper air distribution design to provide
comfort for occupants.
Table 1: Pollution loads for ten to twenty year old office buildings.
Pollutants Source Load (olf units/m2

of floor area)
Occupants (1 person/10 m2)
bio-effluent 0.1
Materials and ventilation systems
average of existing buildings 0.4
low-pollution buildings 0.1
Total load
average in existing buildings 0.5
low-pollution buildings 0.2
2 H.B. Awabi, Ventilation of Buildings, LCC # TH7653.A92, 1991.

March 1996
Table 2: Recommended minimum ventilation rates for office buildings.
Source Ventilation
rates (L/s.m2)
ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 and 62-R (US and Canada) 0.7
BS 5925 (UK Code of Practice for Design of Buildings) 1.3
DIN 1946 (Germany) 1.9
BFS 1988:18 (Sweden National Swedish Board of Physical 0.9
Planning and Buildings)
ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 and the revised 62-R (1996) provides necessary
guidelines to north American buildings. Table 2 shows a comparison of minimum
ventilation rates required for office buildings for four major Standards used in the
western world.
The overall thermal efficiency of mechanical systems is improving significantly with

the commercial availability of high efficiency heating, cooling and distribution
equipment. The full-load and part load efficiencies of boilers and chillers have
improved significantly over the years. Electric motors are now about 8% more
efficient than ten years ago. Aerodynamic design of fans, blowers and pumps have
significantly improved the performance over the operating range. The next phase of
energy efficiency upgrades must be directed to the enhancement of distribution
systems. Improvements to air distribution systems offer opportunities for further
gains in overall system efficiency as well as achieving greater effectiveness.
The distribution system (fans, air filters and controls) can account for 15% to 20% of
the total annual energy use in buildings with constant volume systems. The annual
energy use component varies from 8% to 12% in buildings with variable-air-volume
(VAV) systems, and about 4% to 8% in modern state-of-the-art variable-air-volume
systems combined with low flow and low temperature systems.
Over the years, different types of all-air systems, air-water systems and unitary
systems have been promoted in office buildings to provide ventilation. These
systems are generally constructed to provide balanced ventilation in zones (inter-
room flow control) rather than at work stations. Several types of demand-controlled
strategies, such as CO2 seroling and occupancy sersors, are being considered to
improve the overall effectiveness and efficiency of ventilation. However, few
measures are being promoted to improve the ventilation efficiency in office
buildings.3
3 The concept of ventilation efficiency provide a useful method of quantifying the performance of a ventilation
system, both in providing fresh air to occupants and in diluting and removing pollutants derived from contaminant
sources within a building. Ventilation efficiency has therefore two components: air change efficiency and the
contaminant removal efficiency. Air change efficiency characterizes the mixing of incoming air with that already
present in the building. Contaminant or pollutant removal effectiveness quantifies the efficiency with which
internal pollutant is diluted and removed. Air change efficiency is a measure of how effectively the air present in a
room is replaced by fresh air from the ventilation system. Ventilation efficiency is a measure of how quickly a
contaminant is removed from the room.

March 1996
Current trends in providing control of air distribution at the work station level
necessitate changes to the floor ventilation system. Several strategies are emerging:
spot flow control systems (small diameter high-velocity flexible ducts, jet flow,
localized supply and return, McGill Jet); internal room flow control systems
(displacement ventilation, forced vortex); and inter-room flow control systems
(mechanical exhaust controlled supply system, cold-air distribution).
PWGSC office buildings are undergoing work-space adjustments which in many

cases would require changes to existing air-distribution systems. Retrofits to
existing distribution systems may provide several opportunities to demonstrate and
test new trends in demand-controlled ventilation. The main focus of this report is to
evaluate different types of air distribution systems with regard to thermal comfort
and energy efficiency.
1.1 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE
The main objective of this study is to identify, review and document current
practices and future trends in air distribution systems. This study is based on the
literature review of research and application documents and manufacturers
products. Performance data has been collected from various reports.
The following tasks were undertaken:

Gather information and prepare a framework of evaluation;
Review and document ventilation technologies; and
Prepare draft and final reports
1.2 REPORT ORGANIZATION
The report provides a brief overview of issues pertaining to air distribution systems
in office buildings. Applicable ventilation systems have been identified based on
providing the acceptable indoor comfort within the operating cost constraints.
Improving the air quality of the existing building is a priority; therefore, general
retrofit guidelines have been provided. A detailed evaluation of various ventilation
systems has been provided in Section 3. Section 4 provides comparison and
suitability of applications in office buildings.

March 1996
2. VENTILATION SYSTEMS
The quality of indoor environment in office buildings is a key parameter for

achieving higher work productivity for the occupants as well as generating higher
income for the building owners. Ventilation, indoor air quality and the energy use
in the building are closely related as shown in Figure 1.
Energy consumption in the buildings is either beneficial or parasitic. Beneficial uses

of energy in buildings include: heating equipment, refrigeration and air-
conditioning, lighting, vertical transportation, communication and office equipment.
The energy consumption attributed to fans and air handling systems is part of the
parasitic component.4 The distribution of air through the conditioned space is
generally not considered as the beneficial use of energy; however, provide an
important infrastructure in delivering the conditioned fresh air and extracting the
used air and pollutants.
The distribution of air in a building is a primary task of air distribution systems.

Quantity and quality of air movement affect thermal comfort of occupants and
removal of metabolic as well as other pollutants. Supply and return air points must
provide sufficient air movement without creating drafty space or leaving pockets of
stagnant air.
Efforts have been made in the past to improve the thermal efficiency of HVAC
equipment. The increased thermal performance of HVAC equipment has
significantly raised the overall energy efficiency of buildings and also lowered
operating costs. Further opportunity of increasing the overall energy efficiency of
HVAC system rests now with the air distribution system.
Air Quality Ventilation
Energy
Figure 1: Indoor air quality, ventilation and the energy use are closely related and also
inter-dependent parameters in office buildings.
4 ASHRAE 1994, Energy Efficient Design and Retrofit of Air Systems, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration
and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTEMS 5

March 1996
Needs Energy Cost Reliability

(IAQ, Comfort) Efficiency Efficiency (QA)
Ventilation Low Energy Low Operating, Tolerant to

Requirements Systems Installation and Occupant
Maintenance Costs Interactions
Ventilation Distribution Unintrusive

System Development Operation
(Noise, Controls)
Figure 2: Factors affecting design and development of ventilation distribution systems.
On the basis of the above discussion, factors affecting the design and the
development of distribu11.systems are identified in Figure 2. The distribution
system should fulfill the following requirements:
It should provide the required supply and exhaust air-flow rates on the
basis of indoor air-quality and occupant comfort.
Components should be designed to consume minimum energy for its
operation. Energy efficient operation of these components will
significantly reduce the operating costs.
Components should be simple in design and initial costs should be
affordable.
The system must be reliable and be flexible. The control system must
provide adequate flexibility for occupant interactions.
The components must have unintrusive operation with regard to noise.
The air distribution system must ensure ventilation requirements within
acceptable capital and operating energy costs.
Figure 3 shows the relationship of ventilation needs in the building to control

pollutants. With the increase in the ventilation rate, the pollutant levels in the
work space decreases. The space conditioning energy load linearly increases with
the increase in ventilation rates.
2.1 PERSONAL CONTROL AND PRODUCTIVITY
Over the years, various case studies have been conducted to establish the
relationship between the condition of the indoor environment and personal work
productivity. Intuitively, it is anticipated that a favourable and acceptable work
environment would generate better work productivity. However, there are several

March 1996
other important human factors, such as satisfaction level with the job, personal
motivation, and work stability, which affect the work productivity. It is difficult to
ascertain the effects of personal work environment and the work productivity.
Several breakthrough attempts have been made to establish some guiding
evaluations.
The case study of impact of personal control of air distribution on work productivity
comes from West Band Insurance Company in West Band, Wisconsin. Insurance
Companys headquarters building is about 40 years old and was significantly
retrofitted in 1991-92 to provide state-of-the-art work environment. Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute was hired to conduct a detailed assessment of changes in the
work productivity associated with major retrofits over a period of one year. The
major retrofits included the office space arrangement, personal control of air
distribution and temperature, personal control of lights, sound attenuation, etc. To
accomplish the personal control of air distribution and required conditioning of air,
West Band used Johnson Controls Personal Environment Modules (PEM).
Rensselaer did the monitoring for 26 weeks prior and 24 weeks after the retrofit
work. In 1993, Rensselaer updated the study with the use of more than three years
of work productivity data collected by the Company. The final assessment showed
that the overall improvement in the work productivity was about 16%. The personal
control of air distribution system accounted for 2.6% in work productivity gains. The
productivity gains saved US$364,000 in the first year alone. The productivity gains
were enough to pay for the capital cost of new state-of-the-art PEMs in 18 months.
100 120
Pollutanat
90
Concentration
100
Concentration of pollutants (%)
80 Space
conditioning
70
Energy Demand (%)
energy load 80
60
Optimum ventilation
50 60
rate to satisfy air
40 quality needs Traget pollutnat
concentration to 40
30
avoid IAQ problems
20
20
10
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Ventilation rate, L/s
Figure 3: Ventilation needs in the building to control pollutants.

March 1996
Lets us examine a working scenario in the federal work force. Average cost of the
employee to the employer includes the average salary plus benefits, administration,
maintenance and utility costs. To the client or owner of the company, the return on
the total investment, in terms of work productivity, is a key parameter in keeping
the profitability as well as favorable bottom line. As shown in Table 3, for a typical
PWGSC building located in the National Capital Region, the average annual
operating costs per unit area comprised about 85% of the workers salary and other
15% of total cost for providing and maintaining work space. Therefore, work
environment conducive to higher productivity should generally be attained and
sustained. The cost of providing a personal control of the work environment is
significantly lower. Benefits are significant. Even a one percent improvement in the
work productivity could also prove a worth cause for introduction of personal
controlled stations.
Table 3: Annual operating costs/sq ft (a typical PWGSC office building)
Office workers salary $130.00 84.9%

Office rent, property maintenance, office equipment and $21.00 13.7%
administration
Energy use $1.53 1.0%

March 1996
Table 5: Theoretical Efficiency of Chiller Equipment with New Refrigerants.
Conventional Refrigerant Replacement Refrigerant

CFC -11 0.45 kW/ton HCFC-123 0.46 kW/ton
HCFC-22 0.50 kW/ton
CFC-12 0.51 kW/ton HFC-134A 0.52 kW/ton
Table 6: Typical fan efficiencies.
Fans Type Efficiency

Axial Fans With vanes 78-90%
Without vanes 67-84%
Propeller 45-50%
Centrifugal Fans Airfoil 79-86%
Backward-curved 79-83%
Radial 60-72%
Forward-curved 60-65%
In-line 60-65%
Mixed flow 75-80%
Cross flow 40-45%
As shown in Table 4, air handling system improvements provide the highest level of
energy efficiency opportunity. A conventional high pressure central air distribution
system generally operates at pressures of 750 to 1,500 Pa with 40% to 50% energy
efficient fan-motor sets. The new modular units generally operate at a pressure
difference of 100 Pa and have fan-motor set efficiency of 80% to 90%.
Table 6 lists the typical efficiency of various types of fans. The vane-controlled axialfans offer the be
foiled or backward-curved, can also provide excellent air transport efficiency. Slow-
speed, backward-curved or airfoil types of large centrifugal fans provide a reliable,
energy efficient and low-noise performance. However, these fans take up significant
floor space. An optimum life-cycle cost analysis must be conducted to determine the
appropriate prime-over.
Over last five years, PWGSC has introduced a planned phase out of old chillers,
which have passed useful service life, with new less ozone depleting refrigerant
equipment. As shown in Table 5, the theoretical thermal efficiency of chillers with
new substitute refrigerants is about 2 to 3% lower than the CFC refrigerant
equipment.5 The size of new refrigerant equipment is about 3 to 10% larger than
the conventional equipment. The energy penalty associated with new refrigerants
must be compensated through other improvements in the air distribution system.
5 James Calm, Alternative Refrigerants: Challenges and Opportunities, Heating, Piping and Air-Conditioning,
page 39, May 1992.
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTE]S 9

March 1996
100
90 Fans and motors
Lights
Units of peak power demand

80
Air distribution
70
Other loads
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Conventional Hydronic
air to air cooling
Figure 4: Comparison of thermal loads for an all air conventional office and a central
hydronic cooling system.
Figure 4 shows a comparison of peak thermal loads of conventional all air system to
that of a terminal based central four-pipe cooling system. The components of
thermal loads are shown in the figure.
In the retrofit of existing buildings, one must consider the following points for
installing the high-efficiency ventilation system.
Use the following approaches to reduce cooling loads:

solar gains
day lighting
efficient envelope
The following briefly summarizes the opportunities for improving existing air
distribution system in buildings:
1. An efficient air system works from the end-user upstream. Reducing flow
requirements by minimizing internal and external heat gains offers
potentially deep cube-law savings in peak power demand [Power flow3].
2. Matching air supply continuously to cooling and ventilation loads using
VAV.
3. Arranging air zones logically is a key to making VAV systems efficient and
effective - similar load profiles.

March 1996
4. Measuring fan power and continuous monitoring of the system is critical

to ensure savings with VAVs.
5. Exhaust air fans are viable alternative to return air fans - lower power
and move less air.
6. About 80-90% of the moving air recirculates through the building.
7. Displacement air distribution can efficiently provide excellent air-quality
and heat removal by moving a large mass of air slowly instead of
conventional turbulent induction systems that move less air at higher
speed.
2.3 INTERACTION WITH OPERABLE WINDOWS
It has been demonstrated that access to outside view and air from a window is
generally critical to workers comfort satisfaction. The operable windows, however,
pose a greater problem for the ventilation systems. The direct interaction with
outdoor through windows, however, may lead to either excessive infiltration or
exfiltration of indoor air and may also unbalance the thermal comfort. Space
heating or cooling may also compete with free air flows through opened windows.
Some HVAC designers have accommodated the use of operable windows in tall
buildings by using the position sensors which are integrated with the space
conditioning terminal unit. When the window is opened more than 5%, the terminal
unit shuts off. Currently, a research project is underway at the Kansas State
University, sponsored by ASHRAE, to study the interaction of windows with HVAC
system in buildings of 10 storey or higher and develop necessary design guidelines.
In southern US, there are several new buildings which provide access to windows
that can be partially opened. The National Telephone and Telegraph building
located in Tokyo is a unique demonstration of central HVAC system combined with
operable windows. The building was retrofitted with operable windows. In this 14
storey building, windows are electrically operated. Each window can be opened a
maximum of 30 cm with an electrical switch, which also lock out the operation of a
nearby fan-coil unit when the window is fully opened. Over a three year monitoring
of the building, the company reduced annual energy use, on an average, by 2.4%.
2.4 ENERGY USE IN THE AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The question is, what is the component of energy and cost used in the distribution of
ventilation air in the building. Energy consumption by fans and controls is
attributed to the air distribution system. Figure 5 shows the typical energy use
profiles for a large and medium size office buildings located in Toronto. Note that
the energy consumption attributed to distribution system only accounts for the fan
energy use and various duct control dampers and controls. Pumping energy is
attributed to the heating or cooling energy component for the comparison purpose.

March 1996
Energy Use - Large Office Building (1,710 MJ/m2) Energy Use - Large Office Building (611 MJ/m2)
Fans
Fans Other Other
(Distribution)
(Distribution) 7% 5%
5%
9% Office equipment
Heating
13%
36%
Office equipment Heating
9% 39%
Hot w ater
Hot w ater
2%
4%
Lights Cooling Lights Cooling

23% 12% 29% 7%
A B
Energy Use - Medium Office Building (1,370 MJ/m2 ) Energy Use - Medium Office Building (699 MJ/m2 )
Fans Other Fans

(Distribution) Other
5% (Distribution)
8% 6%
Heating 5%
Office equipment
35% 12%
Office equipment
11% Heating
Hot w ater
Hot w ater 42%
2%
3%
Lights
Lights Cooling 25%
13% Cooling
25%
C 8%
D
Figure 5: Energy use profile of typical office buildings located in Toronto. (A) shows the
energy use profile of a large office building built in 1975. (B) shows a building built to OBC
1993 Code meeting or exceeding the ASHRAE 90.1 requirements. Figures (C) and (D) show
the energy use profile for medium size existing and new office building respectively.
The annual energy requirements for air distribution ranges from 90 to 130 MJ/m2
representing about eight percent of the total energy use in existing buildings. For
buildings built in last three years, which met or exceeded ASHRAE 90.1 Standard,
the air distribution system consumes 30 to 50 MJ/m2 annually.6 The high efficiency
air distribution system not only reduces the energy consumed in the operation of the
distribution system but also reduces the space heating and cooling energy needs of
the building. The redugtion in heating and cooling energy is achieved through
optimum control of ventilation in the building.
In existing buildings, improvements to the air distribution system offer savings of

about 8 to 15% of space conditioning energy use in the building and, of course,
enhancing the occupant comfort. Demand-controlled ventilation strategies will also
provide reins of the ventilation use in the hands of occupants. In relatively new
buildings, the advanced air distribution systems would achieve better air movement
and indoor air quality; however, energy savings would be small.
According to ASHRAE Handbook of HVAC Applications, a survey of 30 buildings

with (14) and without (16) central HVAC systems showed that central system
6 NRCan 1994, Summary of C-2000 Building Simulation, Report prepared by Caneta Research Inc. for CANMET,
Natural Resources Canada.

March 1996
reduces the annual energy consumption by 0.1% to 17.9% annually. The average for
the sample was 5.4% every year.7
The space heating energy use in Canadian office buildings account for about one-
third to one-half of total annual energy consumption. There is, however, a choice for
the use of cheaper fuel (such as natural gas) for providing primary space heating
and hot water to the building. Therefore, the space heating costs account for less
than one-forth to one-third of the total energy costs. Distribution system is
primarily all electric, hence, can provide significant utility cost savings.
2.5 THE EFFECTS OF INTRODUCING 100% OUTDOOR-AIR
Recent studies done by a McGill University Air Quality Team have found that some
50% of office occupants find reason to criticize the IAQ in their buildings.8 These
studies found the following criticism occupants offer:
poor controllability of the air conditioning system;
problems due to off-gassing of building fabrics, furnishings, carpets and
office equipment;
the reduction in air movement associated with variable air volume system
as a means of temperature control;
short circuiting of air due poor placement of supply and return diffusers;
lack of independent control of temperature and air motion at the
workstation level; and
there is a general consensus among occupants that increasing the outdoor
air supply would dilute the contaminants and improve the indoor comfort
conditions.
To address the current trends in thinking that perceives that more ventilation
corresponds to better comfort in buildings and of course fewer occupant complaints,
an evaluation was undertaken to determine the impact of introduction of 100% of
outdoor air in the building.9 The following analysis pertains to office retrofits where
the changes to the source equipment is minimal. Figure 6 to Figure 8 show the
energy analysis of retrofits.
1. Conventional System: The base case HVAC system for current
evaluation is assumed to employ a variable air volume system with
separate supply air zones for the interior and perimeter area. Air is
7 ASHRAE 1995. ASHRAE Handbook of HVAC Applications, ASHRAE Inc., Georgia, Atlanta.
8 Menzies R.I., Farant J.P. and Tamblyn R.T. 1993. The Effect of Levels of Outside Air Supply on Sick Building
Syndrome Interventions for Sick Building Syndrome, The New England Medical Journal.
9 The evaluation of energy impact 100% outside air is based on the case study developed by Engineering Interface.
The referenced report is Personal Control and 100% Outside-Air Ventilation for Office Building and was prepared
for Natural Resources Canada in 1993.

March 1996
supplied and returned through conventional lighting system diffusers and

the return air plenum in the ceiling. Heating for the base system is
provided by heating coils in the air terminals. The supply air is provided
to air terminals at 12.8 oC (55 oF). This type of configuration is very
common in office buildings built in last thirty years. The energy analysis
of such a system in a 20 storey office building in Ottawa showed the
following: The typical air volume requirement was about 4.9 L/s per m2 of
floor space to meet the indoor air quality criteria. The annual energy use
for HVAC systems averaged at about 83.9 kWh/m2 of floor space.
2. Conventional System with 100% Outdoor-Air: This system is similar
to the conventional system. Additional heat recovery system is installed to
accomplish the use of 100% of outdoor air. The heat recovery system
which draw upon exhaust air to preheat the outdoor air offsets significant
heating energy needs. The annual energy use for HVAC systems averaged
at about 103.8 kWh/m2 in existing configurations with LTA design change.
The cost of LTA retrofit along with heat recovery system would be about
$5 per sqm. There is an increase in HVAC energy consumption by about
23%.
3. Conventional System with Low Temperature Supply Air (LTA):
This system is similar to the conventional system. The supply air is
provided to air terminals at 7.2 oC (45 F). In this system, the chiller uses
more energy in order to generate water cold enough to produce the 7.2 oC
(45 F) supply air. Due to lower supply temperature, air volume needed to
maintain the comfort conditions would be about 3.2 L/s per m2 of floor
space. The annual energy use for HVAC systems averaged at about 82.5
kWh/m2 in existing configurations with LTA design change. The cost of
LTA retrofit would be about $1.5 per sqm. There is a decrease in overall
energy consumption by about 1.7% or about $0.1 per m2 of floor space.
4. Low Temperature Supply Air (LTA) with 100% OA: This system is
similar to the above LTA system. The supply air is provided to air
terminals at 7.2 oC (45 F). In this system, the chiller uses more energy in
order to generate water cold enough to produce the 7.2 oC (45 F) supply
air. Due to lower supply temperature, air volume needed to maintain the
comfort conditions would be about 3.2 L/s per m2 of floor space. Additional
heat recovery system is installed to accomplish the use of 100% of outdoor
air. The heat recovery system which draw upon exhaust air to preheat the
outdoor air offsets significant heating energy needs. The annual energy
use for HVAC systems averaged at about 74.2 kWh/m2 in existing
configurations with LTA design change. The cost of LTA retrofit would be
about $6 per sqm. There is a decrease in HVAC energy consumption by
about 11.5% or about $0.25 per m2 of floor space.

March 1996
Typical Air Volume Requiements in Office Buildings

Air Volume, L/s per sqm of floor space 5.00
0.34 0.34
4.50
4.00 1.45 1.45
3.50 Interior
3.00 0.22 0.22 North

0.54 0.54
0.93 0.93 0.20 West
2.50
2.00 0.79
1.45 1.45 0.35 0.35 East
1.50 0.29
0.93 0.93 South
1.00 0.79
0.50 1.09 1.09
0.70 0.70 0.59
-
and Air Jets

System
System
System with
100% OA
LTA with
Base
100% OA
LTA with
100% OA
LTA
Base
Figure 6: Typical air volume requirements in office buildings at the workstation.
120.0
Enerrgy Consumption, kWh/m2
100.0 7.5
5.4
80.0 6.5 5.4
5.4 Humidity
71.0 Space Heat
60.0 64.6
57.0 56.0 Miscellaneous
46.3
40.0 Chillers
Fans
4.3 3.2 5.4
20.0 3.2 9.7 4.3
6.5 9.7 9.7 8.6
10.8 11.3 7.5 9.7 9.7
-
OA with Air
LTA System
LTA System
LTA System
Base System
Base System
with 100%
with 100%
with 100%
Jets
OA
OA
Figure 7: Comparison of annual energy use associated with HVAC systems in office
buildings. Assumed that the building is located in Ottawa.

March 1996
Comparison of Energy Costs

10.0
9.0
Cost, $/sqm of office space
8.0
7.0 Lights and Plug Load
6.0 Humidity
5.0 Space Heat
4.0 Miscellaneous
3.0 Chillers
2.0 Fans
1.0
-
OA with Air
Base System
Base System
LTA System
LTA System
LTA System
with 100%
with 100%
with 100%
Jets
OA
OA
Figure 8: Comparison of typical energy costs associated with HVAC and lighting systems
in office buildings in 1996.
5. Low Temperature Supply Air (LTA) with 100% OA and Air Jets:
This system is configured to have all the above changes plus the air jets
for distribution. The supply air is provided to air terminals at 7.2 oC (45
F). In this system, the chiller uses more energy to generate water cold
enough to produce the 7.2 oC (45 F) supply air. Due to lower supply
temperature and local control of air flows, the air volume needed to
maintain the comfort conditions would be about 2.7 L/s per m2 of floor
space. Additional heat recovery system is installed to accomplish the use
of 100% of outdoor air. The heat recovery system which draw upon
exhaust air to preheat the outdoor air offsets significant heating energy
needs. Air jets provide the personal control at each workstation. The
annual energy use for HVAC systems averaged at about 84.6 kWh/m2 in
existing configurations with LTA design change. The cost of the retrofit
would be about $28 per sqm. There is an increase in HVAC energy
consumption by about 0.1%.
The above analysis showed that it is possible to provide 100% outdoor air without
significant penalty in energy consumption with proper design and selection of
equipment. However, there is a significant cost expenditure associated with the
retrofit costs. In many cases, improvements in the thermal comfort and the
associated productivity gains are the major drivers for undertaking retrofits to air-
distribution system in existing buildings.

March 1996
2.6 AIR DISTRIBUTION AND APPLICABLE CRITERIA
The criteria against which air quality or HVAC system performance are to be
assessed include ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
Quality, ASHRAE Standard 55-1981, Thermal Conditions for Human Comfort,
and where applicable, environmental conditions in the occupancy agreement that
supplement or override these standards. For example, the Ontario Hydros North
York Headquarters building built in 1995 has a minimum of 13 L/s per person based
on achieving maximum CO2 content to 850 ppm levels rather than 1,000 ppm
prescribed by ASHRAE Standard 62-1989.
ASHRAE Standards specify minimum conditions that should be maintained in

occupied spaces as follows:
Minimum outdoor air supply rate: 10 L/s per person
Air temperature: 20 - 27 oC
Relative humidity: 20 - 70 percent
Maximum indoor CO2 concentration: 1,000 ppm
The above criteria do not specifically address the issue of air flow distribution, other
than to cite the minimum outdoor air supply rate per person and the maximum
concentration of CO2 in a work station.
To achieve good ventilation and IAQ, it is necessary to ensue adequate air

distribution to and within each work station. Figure 9 shows the amount of outdoor
air required to dilute the concentration of air contaminants to a certain level.10 One
air change means that all the air in a work station is completely replaced once by
the outdoor air. Two cases are presented: a building with perfect mixing and a
building with very poor mixing. The mixing condition of most buildings is likely to fit
somewhere between these two extremes. The air distribution system must achieve
high degree of perfect mixing. This will not only accomplish the effective removal of
contaminants but will also require less number of air changes in a work station and
in the building. The former improves the thermal comfort and reduces complaints
from the occupants while the later improves the energy efficiency.
Good air distribution to each work station is achieved by good air balancing. Supply
air outlets are expected to provide all the kinetic energy to the supply air that is
necessary for good removal of contaminants. The physical configuration of the work
station needs to be taken into account for providing good mixing conditions for the
supply air as well as return or exhaust take off from the work station. The
advanced ventilation strategies are based on achieving better air circulation in a
work station and in the complete thermal zone.
10 Maintaining Indoor Air Quality through the Use of HVAC Systems, PWGSC and NRC, 1995.

March 1996
Reduction of Concentration of Contaminants

100
Concentration of Contaminants,
90
80
Perfect Mixing
70
Poor Mixing
60
%
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of Air Changes
Figure 9: The reduction of contaminants depends on the number of air changes in a work
station. The degree of mixing can be determined using the tracer gas test.
2.7 SUMMARY OF CANADA OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH REGULATIONS
In March 1996, the Canada Occupational Safety and Health Regulations (COSHR)
was amended to include a new division concerning heating, ventilating and air
conditioning systems. The provisions in this new division set out the requirements
for the installation, operation, inspection, testing, cleaning and maintenance of
HVAC systems which are under the control of the federal government employers.
The COSHR requires that every HVAC system installed on or after January 1, 1996
shall meet the design requirements of ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, entitled
Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, as amended from time to time. The
Regulations also requires the reasonably practical changes to HVAC system where
the level of occupancy in the building or portion of a building exceeds the level for
which the HVAC system was designed. The major emphasis of the new regulations
is on the existing buildings where the new amendments require every employer to
appoint a qualified person to set out, in writing, instructions for the operation,
inspection, testing, cleaning and maintenance of the HVAC system and the
calibration of probes or sensors on which the system relies. Instructions stipulate
that CSA Guideline Z204-94 entitled Guideline for Managing Air Quality in Office
Buildings as amended time to time, be adhered. Another interesting change
emphasized by the Regulation is to have periodic scheduled investigation of HVAC
systems for cleanliness, operation and performance with regard to equipment and
periodic monitoring of indoor air-quality parameters to ensure acceptable air quality
in work places.

March 1996
The implementation of COSHR standards has affected PWGSCs operation and

maintenance activities. There are certain aspects of the regulation, such as periodic
scheduled investigation of HVAC systems, which will require changes in the current
preventative maintenance schedules and can be easily implemented. However,
frequent changes to ASHRAE Standard 62 will necessitate changes to ventilation
capacities and in some cases changes to distribution system for improving
ventilation effectiveness. These are major modifications and will be financially
costly. For example, the proposed changes to ASHRAE Standard 62-R will require
that the designer account more thoroughly about the ventilation efficiency
actually delivering outside air to the breathing zone, rather than just taking it into
the building. New version provide a formal calculation procedure for ventilation
efficiency and multiple space effects. This change can be costly to implement in
number of PWGSCs existing facilities.
2.8 RETROFIT GUIDELINES FOR AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
On the basis of survey of various case studies and guidelines, a step wise procedure
was developed to evaluate the need for changes to the air distribution systems. In
the event of retrofits to existing systems, one should consider the following steps.
The retrofit of the existing facility should consider the following components:
1. Examine and investigate the existing ducting system. Evaluate the new
loads and determine best possible ways to improve the air-flow
distribution.
2. Reduce the space heating and cooling loads can accomplish major
reductions in the annual operating costs;
3. Examine and improve the existing ducting system re-zoning and tuning
of existing duct work can improve the air distribution; and
4. Install or retrofit with energy efficiency upgrades for the fans, motors,
controls and air distribution equipment can actually realize better air
quality accomplished through improved air movement and reduce the
overall energy consumption of the building.
The following summarizes the retrofit work for air distribution systems:
Do lighting and other internal retrofits first, solar control, etc; complete
recalculation of heating and ventilation loads with new occupancy levels
and use profile. Use the following strategies to reduce cooling loads:
solar gains
day lighting
efficient envelope
Measure existing fan performance.
March 1996
Examine duct system, filter and coils.

Rezone the area if need be.
Consider fan staging, if fans operate in parallel.
Consider retrofitting return fans.
Consider retrofitting fan motors with properly sized high efficiency units.
Shop around for drivers and VAV boxes. Use boxes with linear-response
dampers, DDC control and adjustable minimum openings.
Consider how the fan will be controlled. Options include existing EMS,
new EMS, stand alone fan controller, or a control loop built into the fan
motor drive.
Commission the system thoroughly to ensure performance.
The above retrofit guidelines are based on achieving the maximum possible cost
effective potential in the building. A piece-meal approach of retrofits may hinder the
full potential of cost effectiveness; therefore, a comprehensive retrofit strategy
should be applied.

March 1996
3. HIGH EFFICIENCY AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
In 1991, a survey was conducted for Ontario Hydro to evaluate the energy
consumption of about 40 mid- and high-rise office buildings in Toronto. The
objective of this study was to develop the retrofit potential in office buildings built in
last 10 to 30 years. The following observations were noted regarding the status of
the ventilation systems:
Most ventilation systems had a poor ability to supply and exhaust air from
the polluted areas or high activity areas.
The application of decentralized air flow rate-control was found to be rare
and poorly understood among the building operators.
It was found that the air change performance was low for most systems.
Very few system had the capability for heat recovery or strategy for the
alternate energy gains.
It was found in two or three retrofit instances that the reliability of
ventilation systems was affected significantly with the introduction of
some types of advanced controls. However, the study identified that the
advanced control strategies employed in these retrofitted buildings were
not suitable due to original design of the air-distribution systems or
completely inappropriate for the application.
The study strongly recommended for the significant improvement of
thermal conditions of decentralized supply systems in buildings.
With these findings in mind, one has to evaluate the status of the existing air
distribution system with regard to applicability of localized controls. The retrofits
should ensure proper pressure and flow balances at each node and at the supply,
return and exhaust risers. Flow and pressure balances at zone level as well as at
the source level play an important part in keeping the overall system efficient. This
section describes some of the proven ventilation control systems which can be
applied to existing buildings.
3.1 CONSIDERATIONS
The following aspects should be considered during the retrofit design stage.
Air velocity: The recommended through velocity at the diffuser for
various configurations should be as described in the following Table 7.
Type of supply air diffusers: There are various types of diffusers
available in the market. The selection of a supply air diffuser depends on
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems HIGH EFFICIENCY AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 21

March 1996
the work space layout. For example, circular type of diffusers are
generally applicable where a group of four or more work stations form a
working space. Wall grilles generally provide a slow supply of relatively
large air volume in areas where there is a constantly changing
occupancies, such as cafeteria. Figure 10 and Figure 11 show the capacity
of commonly used supply air diffusers and their relative unit costs. Wall
grilles are significantly cheaper than slot diffusers.
Table 7: Recommended air velocity through diffusers.
Location of air-inlets Velocity, m/s

Above occupied zone 1.00 or more
Within occupied zone, away from work station 0.75 to 1.00
Within occupied zone, near work station 0.50 to 0.60
Door or wall louvers 0.25 to 0.38
Undercut door area 0.25 to 0.38
Circular diffusers
Perforated diffusers
Slot diffusers
Square and rectangular

multi-cone diffusers
Linear grilles
Wall grilles
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Flow Rate Capacity of Each Unit, L/s.m2

March 1996
High efficiency filtration: A portion of return air which is used with

the outdoor air needs to be treated with filtration to remove the metabolic
and building generated pollutants. Table 8 shows the application of
different types of filters. The following types of air filters are used in office
buildings.
1. Panel type rigid filters: These are conventional filters. The filtration
efficiency of these filters is relatively low. Rigid filters are easy to
maintain and have low cost for replacement.
2. Bag filters: These are conventional filters. The filtration efficiency of
these filters is relatively low.
3. Automatic roll filters: These are modified types of bag filters where the
filter is rolling in at a low speed. These self cleaning filters keep
maintaining the filtration efficiency high over the period of its service
life.
4. High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters (500 Pa pressure drop):
HEPA filters are gaining popularity in the new as well as retrofit
markets. The only drawback is the high pressure drop across the filter
and therefore incurs energy efficiency losses. HEPA filters can achieve
more than 95% of filtration efficiency. Maintenance cost of HEPA
filters is about 50% higher than conventional filters.
5. Electrostatic precipitation: Electrostatic precipitation filters can
achieve more than 99% of filtration efficiency. However, the filter
maintenance cost is almost double or triple of conventional filters.
Electrostatic filters also add to the energy consumption and electric
peak demand during its operation. A typical electrostatic filter draws
about 1.17 W per Pa of pressure difference for each 1000 L/s of flow
rate.11 Electrostatic filters are generally used where an extreme air
quality is required such as in clean rooms, operation theaters in
hospitals and high speed super computers.
6. Carbon filters: Carbon filters effectively removes metabolic pollutants,
odours and some of building material emissions from the supply air.
Carbon filters are relatively expensive to maintain; however, provides
a cheaper solution to improve the filtration efficiency significantly.
"Intelligent" controls to match various energy and ventilation
loads for optimum performance: Control system tunes the operation
of high efficiency equipment and the effective air distribution system to
achieve an optimum efficiency depending on the occupant loads and other
operating parameters. Control system is a major key in achieving
occupant comfort as well as energy efficiency. The personal controls for
Table 8: Filter characteristics (data based on ASHRAE Equipment Guide)

March 1996
Efficiency
Type of Filter Typical face Typical Sodium flame Dust Arrestanc
velocity pressure (0.02 - 2 mm) spot e
(m/s) drop (Pa) (> 2 mm) (> 5 mm)
Panel
Viscous impingement 1.5 - 2.5 40 - 160 - 10% - 65% - 80%
20%
Pleated 1.5 - 2.5 50 -250 - 30% - > 90%
40%
Bag filters 1.5 -2.5 200 - 350 15% - 35% 60% -
80%
Bag and Electrostatic
Charged plate 1.5 - 2.5 40 -60 50% - 75% 90% -
95%
Charged media 1.0 -2.0 25 - 125 75% - 95% > 95%
HEPA 2.5 250 -650 99.95% - 99.97%
HEPA and Electrostatic
Charged plate 1.5 - 2.5 40 - 60 99.99% - 99.999%
Charged media 1.0 - 2.0 25 - 125 >99.999%
the ventilation system should be fed back to zone controls to keep the air
balancing and in turn to the air handling unit for proper modulations.
The influence of ventilation on an external pollutant source:
Current interest is being focused on the viability of demand controlled
ventilation systems. These control strategies take advantages of various
forms of air quality sensors which are able to track the dominant pollutant
in a space and to moderate the ventilation system to prevent a preset
threshold concentration of pollutant from being exceeded. For example,
the CO2 controlled ventilation systems are gaining popularity. The second
or third generation of these systems have improved significantly are
considerably reliable. Figure 12 shows a typical daily profile of CO2
controlled ventilation system as opposed to constant ventilation system in
an office building. This strategy in existing buildings, however, needs a
detailed evaluation to assess its impact on other interrelations.
Other considerations:
1. For variable air volume and temperature controlled (VVT) Systems
reduce the static regain. This will reduce the air transfer losses. For a
given air flow rate, doubling the duct size will decrease the friction loss
by a factor of 32 a fifth power reduction. The availability of space for
ducting should be also considered.
2. In VAV systems, the high induction pressure difference increases the
turn-down ratios and also prevents stagnation at low air flows.
3. In new and retrofit situations, use low pressure-loss filters, coils and
terminal boxes.
11 From manufacturers literature.

March 1996
4. Round ducts are lighter, more efficient, quieter and easier to install
than rectangular ducts.
Constant
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
CO2 Controlled
14
16
18
20
22
24

March 1996
Traditionally, the classification of ventilation systems is generally based on the heat

transfer medium such as all-air, air-water, all-water, gas-cooling, central or zone
system and so on. The adequacy of a ventilation system in satisfying fresh air needs
is influenced by the rate of supply and by the mixing behaviour of air. Mixing
characteristics will be a function of:
zone layout and dimensions;
the distribution and magnitude of infiltration paths for the building
envelope;
inlet and outlet configuration;
diffuser characteristics;
inlet air velocity and supply rate; and
the location and size of heat sources and sinks.
With a view to address the occupant comfort and indoor environment parameters,
the following classification of ventilation systems is based on the room air
distribution systems. The ventilation systems aim to remove specified pollutants by
extraction or supply of ventilation air to specific locations within the conditioned
space. The main categories are:
1. Air movement systems
2. Flow quantity systems
3. Ventilation heat recovery systems
4. Alternative ventilation energy gain systems
5. Air cleaning and recirculating systems
In the above categories, the following is an exhaustive list of ventilation systems.

Note that the list carry large number of options which are only good for small office
buildings and houses. For medium to large office buildings, specific options are
limited due to complexity of occupancy patterns and techniques.
1. Air movement systems
Spot flow supply and exhaust systems
Localized ventilation (office buildings and hospitals)
Local exhaust (houses)
Jet flow (industrial procesor m)
Enforced local exhaust (industrial procesor m)
Internal room flow systems
Displacement ventilation (office buildings)
Forced vortex ventilation (airlocks at building entrances)

March 1996
Mixing ventilation room (houses)

Inter-room flow systems
Natural exhaust duct system with controlled supply (small office
buildings, houses)
Balanced mechanical ventilation (office buildings)
Overflow ventilation (hospitals, clean rooms)
Mechanical exhaust and passive supply inlets (houses)
2. Flow systems
Automatic set point maintenance systems
Pressure difference controlled mechanical supply (small office buildings)
Temperature controlled natural supply (houses)
Pressure difference controlled natural supply (houses)
Automatic set point adjustment systems
Presence dependent mechanical ventilation (office buildings)
Carbon dioxide and odour controlled ventilation (office buildings)
Temperature controlled ventilation (industrial buildings, storage)
3. Ventilation heat recovery systems
Air to air heat recovery (houses, small office buildings)
Air to heat pump systems (houses)
Heat recovery air supply windows (houses)
Dynamic wall heat recovery (houses, industrial buildings)
4. Alternative ventilation energy gain systems
Ground- or water-source heat pump systems (houses and small buildings)
Solar heated ventilation air (houses)
5. Air cleaning and recirculating systems (mainly industrial applications)
High efficiency filtration
The above classification emphasized the zone air distribution for mechanical
systems. Therefore, the classification provides functions of the ventilation
distribution system independent of the type of building and, for the mater of fact,
the location and climate. The objective of the above classification is also to give the
potential ability of a ventilation system to use a minimum of energy for obtaining an
acceptable indoor air-quality, without occupant discomfort and displeasure. The
rating of ventilation strategies can be based on the following criteria:12
12 Scanada 1995, The Design of Mechanical and Electrical Systems in Multi-Unit Residential Buildings An
Advisory Document, Report prepared for Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation.

March 1996
application of ventilation flows linking the location, the production and the
flow pattern of pollutants;
energy input or recovery;
cost of installation and operation;
reliability; and
effect on comfort.
The network of air distribution ducts may be similar for different types of systems.
The difference may be in the air delivery or extraction, damper control, and the type
of occupant control of the supply and/or extract device. The next section summarizes
the salient features of high-efficiency air distribution systems for office buildings.
3.3 PERSONAL ENVIRONMENTAL MODULES
This strategy can be employed in small to medium sized office buildings. This is a
personalized environmental module which is connected with the main supply and
return duct systems. In this module, the occupant can adjust the supply flow rate
and direction of jet depending on the needs. The return air grilles keep the uptake
of return air. The personalized module generates almost an air change per two to
three minutes. The supply jet is able to produce secondary air movement of almost
three to four times of its supply flow rate.
This system can be mounted in a variety of ways. Ceiling mounted units are
generally operated by a hand-held remote controller or through a local area network
from the desk personal computer. Personal environmental modules are available
from major HVAC equipment manufacturers. These are effectively balanced air
supply and exhaust modules located at each work station. PEMs have a good track
record.
The personal environmental modules (PEMs), as these are referred in the trade
literature of various manufacturers, can be used both in the retrofit as well as in
new construction. In the retrofit situations, it requires a detailed analysis of various
flow patterns of existing system when integrating with PEMs. First of all, the zone
supply, return and exhaust system should be balanced. PEM is generally set to
provide a minimum ventilation rate (say 3 L/s), also known as background
ventilation, and a maximum set limit of about 30 L/s. Occupant can vary the flow
rate within this range depending on the needs.
The case study of impact of personal control of air distribution on work productivity
comes from West Band Insurance Company in West Band, Wisconsin. Insurance
Companys headquarters building is about 40 years old and was significantly
retrofitted in 1991-92 to provide state-of-the-art work environment. Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute was hired to conduct a detailed assessment of changes in the
work productivity associated with major retrofits over a period of one year. The

March 1996
major retrofits included the office space arrangement, personal control of air
distribution and temperature, personal control of lights, sound attenuation and so
on. To accomplish the personal control of air distribution and required conditioning
of air, West Band used Johnson Controls Personal Environment Modules (PEM).
Rensselaer did the monitoring for 26 weeks prior and 24 weeks after the retrofit
work. In 1993, Rensselaer updated the study with the use of more than three years
of work productivity data collected by the Company. The final assessment showed
that the overall improvement in the work productivity was about 16%. The personal
control of air distribution system accounted for 2.6% in work productivity gains. The
productivity gains saved US$364,000 in the first year alone. The productivity gains
were enough to pay for the capital cost of new state-of-the-art PEMs in 18 months.
A case study was presented at a recent ASHRAE seminar in Toronto described the
indoor air quality and comfort parameters in retrofits of three mid-rise office
buildings located in Toronto13. This case study showed that the occupant
satisfaction with the air-quality increased to a level of more than 90% with PEMs
from a 60% level just before the retrofit. Estimated energy cost savings were about
$150 per module.
The cost of PEMs vary from $1,500 to $2,500 depending on the type of application.
Energy benefits in retrofit situation vary from 3% to 8% of space heating, cooling
and ventilation costs. On the basis of energy savings alone PEMs have a much
3.4 longer payback
DISPLACEMENT period; however, improves the thermal comfort significantly.
VENTILATION
According to some case studies, presented in previous section, PEMs were noted for
Displacement
improving the ventilation
productivityhas
by been
1% toused
2%. quite commonly
It is difficult in Scandinavia
to quantify during
productivity the
gains
past twenty
in each years as aAccording
situation. means of to ventilation
some ofinmanufacturers
industrial facilities. More occupant
literature, recently,
its use has have
complaints been been
extended
almostto eliminated
ventilationafter
in offices andinother
retrofits commercial
several buildings spaces
which
where, in addition
were otherwise to air
suffering quality,
from comfortsyndrome.
sick building is an important consideration. It is
estimated that displacement ventilation accounts for a 50% market share in
PEMs are facilities
industrial still goingand
through
25% infine tuning.
office Theapplications
building market segment
14. is small for retrofits.
Integration with existing HVAC system is one of the major challenge for PEMs.

March 1996
In displacement ventilation systems for cooling applications, conditioned air with a

temperature slightly lower than the desired room air temperature in the occupied
zone is supplied from air outlets at low air velocities (0.5 m/s or less). The outlets
are located at or near the floor level, and the supply air is directly introduced to the
occupied zone. The most common supply configuration is horizontal discharge from
a low side wall position. Returns are located at or close to the ceiling through which
the warm room air is exhausted from the room. The supply air is spread over the
floor and then rises as it is heated by the heat sources in the occupied zone. Heat
sources (e.g., persons, computers) in the occupied zone create upward connective
flows in the form of thermal plumes. These plumes remove heat and contaminants
which are less dense than air from the surrounding occupied zone.
The air volume in the plumes increases as it rises because the plume entrains
ambient air. A stratification level exists where the airflow rate in the plumes equals
the supply airflow rate. Two distinct zones are thus formed within the room, one
lower zone below the stratification level with no recirculation flow (close to
displacement flow), and one upper zone with recirculation flow. The height of the
lower zone depends on the supply airflow rate and characteristics and distribution of
heat sources across the floor area. The determination at what height the lower zone
will be maintained is an important parameter in the proper operation of
displacement ventilation systems. For this type of system to function properly, a
stable vertically stratified temperature field is essential. It has been shown in
numerous recent technical papers and publications, that when properly designed,
displacement ventilation can take advantage of the naturally occurring temperature
stratification in the room, and thus, can increase the ventilation efficiency.
Traditionally, the amount of supply air in a displacement ventilation system has

been less than that of conventional mixing-type systems. This necessitates a careful
design of the system configuration and operation to adequately handle the space
cooling loads. The supply temperature, velocity level, and vertical temperature
gradient in the occupied zone are all very important comfort-related design
parameters. Compliance with the specification of ASHRAE Standard 55-1992 for
acceptable vertical temperature difference in the occupied zone places limitations on
the magnitudes of supply-room temperature difference and/or space cooling loads for
a given supply volume.
Previous research and demonstrations in Scandinavia has indicated that in office

environments with normal room heights of around 2.7 m (9 ft), displacement
ventilation can not maintain acceptable comfort for heat loads above 25 - 30 W/sq.m.
without increasing the air supply volume, or by providing additional heat removal
capacity through the use of low temperature air supply or cooled ceiling panels.
With higher ceiling heights, displacement ventilation systems are capable of
removing larger heat loads. To address the need for greater supply volume without
increasing the risk of draft discomfort, recent publications have described an office

March 1996
displacement ventilation system design that significantly increases the supply area
by supplying air through a perforated carpet over a raised access floor.
The performance of displacement ventilation systems also depends significantly on

the location and type of heat sources and pollutant sources in the space. For
example, the convective to radiant component ratio of the heat released by the
source has a major impact on the temperature gradient in the room. When the
number of heat sources is large, displacement ventilation might be less efficient
compared to mixing-type systems. The influence of thermal plumes around people
on the dispersion of contaminants and breathing-level ventilation has been studied,
but is still not fully understood. Any design procedure will involve the
determination of the stratification level height, which depends on the characteristics
of the convective plumes in the space. This height can only be found if the nature of
thermal plumes generated above the heat sources is known.
From the information available on displacement ventilation the following can be

concluded:
Displacement ventilation has significant advantages when properly
designed and applied;
Reduced fan power - low velocity; reduce noise and local drafts; a cool low
velocity air encounters people;
Displacement ventilation has low heat removal capability @ 25 to 40 W/m2
(in energy-efficient offices, the load is about 35 to 45 W/m2);
In the traditional displacement ventilation configurations, supply air is
delivered horizontally from low side-wall or pedestal locations;
Experience has shown that an analytical approach can lead to a simple
and practical design method that works well for most rooms with normal
geometry;
There are inadequate data on thermal comfort (temperature stratification
within the height of the occupied zone and temperature and velocity
distribution across the occupied zone) when displacement ventilation is
used, especially in situations with a high temperature difference;
The data base on typical heat sources is not sufficient enough to
extrapolate the available design methods to the large number of different
applications;
There is no available economic analysis comparing displacement
ventilation with mixing type ventilation systems. Such an analysis would
define areas for the preferred usage of displacement ventilation in terms of
different climatic zones, building configurations, and cooling loads, while
considering the positive effect of temperature stratification, and
limitations on air supply temperature and velocity;

March 1996
There are no data available on the performance of displacement

ventilation systems under different applications (offices, dining halls of
restaurants, industrial shops) for the range of climatic regions in Canada.
ASHRAE has recently launched a multi-year project to evaluate, demonstrate and

develop guidelines for traditional displacement ventilation systems for commercial
buildings in North American climate and situations. This project is expected to
provide more information about displacement ventilation by the end of the year
1999.
3.5 SMALL- DIAMETER, HIGH VELOCITY DUCTS
The small-diameter, high velocity ducts offer a significant retrofit opportunity in

small commercial or small office buildings. This technology has been well developed,
however, demonstrated in residential buildings and houses. Few applications have
been recorded for their use in small office buildings (less than 400 m2 floor area).
The duct system consists of a small-diameter (50 mm, 2), high-velocity flexible
ducts that supplies air to outlets along the interior as well as perimeter walls. In the
past, the small-diameter flexible ducting was almost exclusively used for air
conditioning retrofits in small buildings without existing ductwork.
The heating and cooling source for the high-velocity systems currently on the
market is a central fan coil that contains a blower with fan coils for heating and/or
cooling. The distribution system consists of a 200 mm or 225 mm diameter rigid
supply plenum off of which the 50 mm diameter flexible ducting branches. The final
three feet of each branch circuit are made of special sound-attenuating tubing for
reducing noise to a level comparable to current requirements. The supply outlets
are round plates with 25 mm openings and can be installed in ceilings, wall or floors.
The supply air velocity is between 3 to 5 m/s.
The flexibility provided for the location of outlets is not only convenient but also
ensures that outlets can be located in positions which will prevent the fast-moving
airstream from blowing directly on occupants. The area of influence is
approximately a 0.3 m radius (or smaller) circle around the outlet, but it is still
important to locate outlets properly. This narrow plume aspirates and mixes with
surrounding air by entrainment and is promoted as providing better mixing and less
temperature stratification than conventional systems, which rely on diffusion to mix
supply air into the room.
Historically, the problem with high-velocity duct system has been excessive noise, as
whistling can occur due to the high speeds of air. Various products show the use of
baffles and sound attenuating devices to address this issue. Whether this is
completely effective is still uncertain. While the small diameter, high velocity
systems, offer some advantages with regard to comfort and distribution efficiency,

March 1996
they are currently more expensive (about 40%) than conventional sheet-metal duct
systems.
Table 9: Comparison of small-diameter and conventional duct systems.
Small Diameter System Conventional System

Pressure 375 Pa of wg 40 Pa of wg
Air velocity 10 m/s 2.5 m/s
Air flow per ton of cooling 120 L/s 190 L/s
Sensible heat gain ratio 0.6 0.7 to 0.8
The greatest energy and environmental benefits of these systems are found in
retrofit applications, where fuel switching from electric to gas is facilitated by less
labour-intensive and less disrupting installation procedures, and where the system
can contribute to improving the indoor air quality through ventilation. This
technology does not save energy directly but rather facilitates fuel switching and
energy upgrades.
3.6 AIR JETS WITH AN OCCUPANT CONTROLLED DAMPER
The air distribution system is designed to be installed so that each workstation is

provided with an air-jet and a controller. The system consists of ceiling-mounted
nozzle-type air diffusers which can be swiveled in any direction and whose air flow
can be controlled by a motorized damper. The damper is controlled by a hand-held
remote controller. McGill University and Robert T. Tamblyn jointly developed this
system and has been demonstrated in four office buildings.15 The commercial
product is available as Zero Complaint Systems.
Air jet can provide the air flow rate varying from 5 to 80 L/s. A motorized damper
operated with a remote control vary the flow. The ball-type of nozzle can also be
aimed at in any direction. Figure 13 shows a schematic of the air jet system.
In existing buildings, air jets can be accommodated in the existing distribution

system. In a typical zone, the conventional system consists of a fan driven VAV
terminal box which supply the required air flow rate to several low air-flow
diffusers. Air jets can be connected directly to main duct ring and removing the
VAV terminal box. In new buildings, air-jets are intended to be operated with a
100% outdoor air and the chilled-air distribution system (air at 6.7oC or 44oF) and
with an air velocity of 10 m/s (2,000 FPM) to achieve better distribution efficiency.
The jet of cold air gradually rising towards the ceiling and as a result modifying the
air distribution pattern. Density difference is the prime air movement mechanism.
The original design temperature difference from the floor to the ceiling height was
about 14oC. However, due to varying layout of workstations and chilling complaints
15 General description and performance parameters have been obtained from published articles, conversation with
Bob Tamblyn, Ian Beausoilel-Morrison and John Gusdorf of NRCan.

March 1996
Several demonstrations are in progress. One such is at the NRCans office building
in Ottawa. Two floors have been significantly retrofitted. The 13th floor is installed
with air jets and each work station is provided with a remote controller. On the 7th
floor, individual air jet is set as per occupants requirement by a desk computer
which interfaces with the air jet through a local area network. Initial, set up of
these systems showed that there was significant interference of other electrical
equipment on the controls ofencr jets. Subsequently, the interference problems have
been resolved. A systematic study is being conducted to monitor various indoorencr
quality parameters, energy consumption and ventilation flow rates. McGill
University is also conducting the occupant comfort and work productivity surveys.
Results should be available by March 1998. In the meantime, there were many
complaints regarding the coolencr jets creating draft during the winter months.
These complaints may be due to lack of occupant understanding of the operation of
air jets.
The coD /F ofencr jet is about $750 to $1,500 per work station in retrofit situations. It
is expected that on a large volume production, air jet coDt should be about $600 to
$900. In new construction, as discussed in Section 2.5, the total capital coD /F of low
temperature air distribution withencr jets (including heating, cooling and
distribution equipment) should be about 3 to 5% lower than conventional air
distribution system (ref. 9). So coDt advantages are significant.
3.7 OCCUPANCY CONTROLLED VENTILATION SYSTEM
Apart from work stations, office buildings have large meeting and gathering area.
Meeting rooms, conference board rooms can have varying occupancy levels over the
day. The use ofeinfrared detectors to steer ventilation is a poDsible approach for
optimizing the ventilation as a function of the occupancy in these ventilated spaces.
Other methods like people counting or carbon dioxide measurements can be
appropriate as well.
There are two types of occupancy-controlled devices: (1) motion detectors which are
generally on/off type sensors; and (2) occupancy counters which counts the number
of occupants and according adjusts the supply ofeair as per the predetermined
settings.
There are several commercial products available in market which are controlled by
motion sensors based upon infrared detection. Ifepresence ofeoccupants is detected in
a room, the ventilation system s activated. When the occupants leave the room, the
ventilation remains activated for a further 15 minutes before switching off. Each
terminal can be manually set for three to four different ventilation capacities. These
terminal are available in sizes from 25 to 500 L/s. The pressure in the ductwork
should remain between 70 Pa to 130 Pa to ensure a proper operation ofethe
terminals.

March 1996
4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In recent years, federal government is going through a significant level of work

space adjustments. The current work space redesign and retrofitting of the existing
office facilities is necessary to accommodate increased occupancy in federal
buildings. The increase in the occupancy level puts additional needs for various
utility requirements as well as ventilation and space conditioning requirements.
The air distribution system retrofits are key to any new changes to the office space.
Proper design, better controls, and the maintenance of an artificial environment in
the building are seem to be fundamental keys for improved thermal comfort and
work productivity.
This report presents a background on the air distribution systems in office buildings.
The following summarizes salient aspects of air distribution systems:
The quality and quantity of ventilation plays a key role in personal work
productivity.
The conventional air distribution systems consume about 90 to 130 MJ per
square meters of office space. High-efficiency air distribution systems can
reduce the energy consumption associated with air distribution systems to
30 to 50 MJ/m2.
Introduction of 100% out door air coupled with low-temperature air
distribution could substantially improve the ventilation effectiveness in
the work space and eliminate indoor air quality complaints. Energy
penalty of such a system is minimal.
The report provides retrofit guidelines on the basis of considering all
systems contributing to the energy consumption and also to the occupants
comfort.
The following lists some of the innovative air distribution systems.
Personal environmental modules: These are effectively balanced air
supply and exhaust modules located at each work station. These
modules are commercially available from various manufacturers. The
cost of PEMs vary from $1,500 to $2,500 depending on type of
applications. PEMs have a good track record.
Zero Complaint Air-Conditioning System: This system is based on the
McGill Jet principle, where the supply air through the diffuser is
controlled by an infra-red remote controller. The controller can vary the
flow rate through the diffuser. User can also adjust the angle of the jet.
Each diffuser can provide up to 30 L/s per workstation with up to nine
air changes per hour at the work station. The control of the air jet can
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 38

March 1996
be accomplished by a remote controller or through a local area network

from a work station computer. The system has been demonstrated
successfully in several office buildings. The equipment is going though
field studies and maturing of this technology should occur over next
couple of years. The cost of this system vary from $750 to $1,500 per
work station. LAN based control system may add further by about
$1,000 to $10000 per 50 work stations.
Small diameter- high velocity jets: In existing layout, where access for
ducting is difficult, the small diameter jets provide an affordable
solution. These jets are generally located in corners and supply air is
deflected on a wall to reduce the discomfort related high velocity air
steams. This system has been successfully demonstrated in houses and
small office buildings. However, in medium to large office buildings,
there are no known demonstrations. Further data is needed to evaluate
its impact. The cost of this system in small office buildings vary from
$800 to $1,400 per work station. Individual controls can be considered.
Occupancy-controlled ventilation system: The use of infrared detectors to
steer ventilation is a possible approach for optimizing the ventilation as
a function of the occupancy in these ventilated spaces. Other methods
like people counting or carbon dioxide measurements can be appropriate
as well. Demonstration of this system showed that the infrared function
of the ventilation terminal work satisfactorily. The flow measurements
have highlighted the tremendous importance of the duct airtightness.
The original airtightness was so poor in the investigated building
system, that the IR control had little impact on the total air flow rate
and, as a consequence, on the energy bill. The cost of IR sensing devices
and terminal unit varies from $800 to $4,000 depending on the size and
associated duct work.
High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 39

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High-efficiency Air Distribution

Systems for Office Buildings

A follow on study on Intelligent Building Options and costs is to be completed by October

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems ii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................v

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems iii

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems iv

As a result of the energy conservation upgrades implemented in the periods of 1970s

In recent years, federal government is going through a significant level of work

RETROFIT GUIDELINES FOR AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems v

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems vii

High Efficiency Air Distribution

The purpose of a ventilation system is to provide an acceptable indoor-climate in the

As a result of the energy-efficiency measures implemented in the periods of 1970s to

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems INTRODUCTION 1

Pollutants Source Load (olf units/m2

2 H.B. Awabi, Ventilation of Buildings, LCC # TH7653.A92, 1991.

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems INTRODUCTION 2

Table 2: Recommended minimum ventilation rates for office buildings.

The overall thermal efficiency of mechanical systems is improving significantly with

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems INTRODUCTION 3

PWGSC office buildings are undergoing work-space adjustments which in many

1.1 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE

The following tasks were undertaken:

1.2 REPORT ORGANIZATION

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems INTRODUCTION 4

The quality of indoor environment in office buildings is a key parameter for

Energy consumption in the buildings is either beneficial or parasitic. Beneficial uses

The distribution of air in a building is a primary task of air distribution systems.

Air Quality Ventilation

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTEMS 5

Needs Energy Cost Reliability

Ventilation Low Energy Low Operating, Tolerant to

Ventilation Distribution Unintrusive

Figure 3 shows the relationship of ventilation needs in the building to control

2.1 PERSONAL CONTROL AND PRODUCTIVITY

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTEMS 6

Figure 3: Ventilation needs in the building to control pollutants.

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTEMS 7

Office workers salary $130.00 84.9%

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTEMS 8

Table 5: Theoretical Efficiency of Chiller Equipment with New Refrigerants.

Conventional Refrigerant Replacement Refrigerant

Table 6: Typical fan efficiencies.

Fans Type Efficiency

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTE]S 9

Units of peak power demand

Use the following approaches to reduce cooling loads:

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTEMS 10

4. Measuring fan power and continuous monitoring of the system is critical

2.3 INTERACTION WITH OPERABLE WINDOWS

2.4 ENERGY USE IN THE AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTEMS 11

Lights Cooling Lights Cooling

Fans Other Fans

In existing buildings, improvements to the air distribution system offer savings of

According to ASHRAE Handbook of HVAC Applications, a survey of 30 buildings

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTEMS 12

2.5 THE EFFECTS OF INTRODUCING 100% OUTDOOR-AIR

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTE]S 13

supplied and returned through conventional lighting system diffusers and

High-Efficiency Air Distribution Systems VENTILATION SYSTEMS 14