W E L D I N G P R O C E S S E S A N D O C U L A R HAZARDS A N D PROTECTION

A M R I K S. P A B L E Y , M . D . , AND A R T H U R H. KEENEY, M.D.

Louisville, Kentucky

There are approximately 60 different forms of welding, but only

six of these are commonly used. Shielded metal-arc or stick weld
ing, gas metal-arc welding, and oxyacetylene welding are the most
frequently used. All produce ultraviolet, visible, and infrared
radiation at damaging levels. Conventional glass welding shields
contain ultraviolet, visible, and infrared absorbers. Infrared ab
sorbers, however, cause heating and secondary re-radiation. New
polycarbonate lenses offer greater impact resistance, and have less
tendency to welding spatter. Early abrasion-resistant and reflective
coatings on plastics were ineffective. Thin layers of gold with
proprietary coatings provide cool reflection and surface resistance.
Thermal monitoring of welding indicated that these new shields
reduce temperature rises above the ambient by 150% to 175%
compared to green glass filter plates without interfering with the
welder's vision.

Welding is the most efficient and eco
nomical means of permanently joining
metals; it provides design flexibility and
lighter weight through better utilization
of materials. Welding can join all com
mercially used metals.
The U.S. Department of Labor 1970
census data reported that there are nearly
500,000 welders and flame cutters in the
United States, working primarily in main
tenance and repair. 1
There are nearly 60 different types of
welding (including forge welding, arc
welding, gas welding, resistance welding,
spot or seam welding, aluminothermic
welding, ultrasonic welding, plasma-arc
welding, and electron-beam welding) in
use. The most widely employed is arc
From the Department of Ophthalmology, Univer
sity of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville,
Kentucky.
Reprint requests to Arthur H. Keeney, M.D.,
Department of Ophthalmology, University of Louis
ville School of Medicine, 301 E. Muhammad Ali
Blvd., Louisville, KY 40202.
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF OPHTHALMOLOGY 92:77-84, 1981
welding and the most commonly welded
metal is mild steel; this accounts for near
ly 90% of all welding in the United States.
Arc welding is a method of fusing metals
with the heat of an electric arc (about
3,870 C). Currents vary from 25 to 1,000
amps, depending upon the thickness of
the metal. Filler metal, which is usually
added, melts and mixes with the molten
base metal to form weld metal.
Process shielding of some type is used
in most arc welding and is necessary to
produce high-strength welds. Shielding
protects the molten metal from contami
nation by atmospheric oxygen and nitro
gen. Gases, molten slag, or both are used
as shields.
Safety and medical problems in weld-
ingThe medical and safety problems
associated with welding include welder's
flash (actinic keratitis), skin burns, for
eign objects in the eye, fume inhalation,
electric shock, overheating, injuries re
sulting from explosion of fire, and death.
All conventional welding processes pro-
77
78 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF OPHTHALMOLOGY
duce radiation in the ultraviolet, visible,
and infrared spectra. In general, as am
perage is increased in arc welding, radia
tion increases and higher-density protec
tive filters are needed.
The 1978 Bureau of Labor Statistics on
welding and cutting injuries 2 identified
such accidents as 0.5% of the total Work
men's Compensation cases in the United
States. Of these, 67% involved ocular
injuries and 37% light damage, that is,
actinic keratitis. Of those who identified
the cause of their flash burns, 63% attrib
uted the injury to the equipment of an
other welder. Exposures lasted less than
one minute in 40% of the injuries and
between one and 30 minutes in 26%. Of
the injured welders, 66% were working
with arc equipment and 19% with gas
flame equipment. Ninety percent of the
injured workers indicated that the equip
ment was not defective. Only 49% were
wearing goggles or a helmet with filter
lenses at the time of injury; 10% were
wearing goggles with clear lenses. Of the
injured workers, 42% had at least five
years' experience in welding, 32% from
one to five years, and 16% less than six
months.
One of our major objectives was to
determine the temperatures attained by
green glass-welding filter plates and by
newer polycarbonate reflective plates
during various and actual welding pro
cesses. The green glass-welding plates
absorb light of various wavelengths,
whereas the more recent designs are re
flective. Because these two types of weld
ing shields differ fundamentally in their
mechanism of protection from radiation,
we correlated thermal ocular hazards
with the intensity of emitted re-radiation
from these plates as black-body radiators.
It was also necessary to assess the quality
of protection because thermal retinal
damage (differentiated from phototoxic
effects) can occur from near-infrared radi
ation. 3 To the best of our knowledge, no
JULY, 1981
data relating to temperatures attained by
welding shields have been published in
English.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This study was conducted in the weld
ing shop of a local school. An experienced
instructor, following normal procedures,
did the welding. He was allowed the
usual amount of time during a run to
change electrodes, clean slag, chip, or
cool off an overheated torch or excess
heat in the environment. The electrodes
were burned completely before welding
was stopped, except in the carbon-arc
process which does not lend itself to this
technique.
Testing was conducted with standard
2 X 4.25-inch filter plates in shades 5, 10,
and 12. Both glass and polycarbonate
plates had been certified by the manufac
turer to be in compliance with American
National Standards Institute Z87 stan
dards. The glass plates were 2.72 to
3.8 mm thick and the polycarbonate
plates were 2.38 to 2.4 mm thick.
Mild steel was used as the base metal
in all processes except gas tungsten-arc
welding which used aluminum as the
base metal. We studied the following
processes: (1) shielded metal-arc welding
(arc or stick welding) at 220 to 375 amp
and 40 V with Nos. 10 and 12 filters;
(2) gas metal-arc welding (or metallic
inert gas welding) at 150 to 190 amp and
20 to 24 V with a No. 12 filter; (3) gas tung
sten-arc welding (or tungsten inert gas or
heli-arc welding) at 50 to 150 amp and
40 V with a No. 12 filter; (4) carbon-arc
cutting and gouging at 250 amp and 30 V
with a No. 12 filter; and (5) oxyacetylene
(gas) welding at 250 amp and 40 V with a
No. 5 filter.
The individual welding runs lasted
from 23.2 to 37.8 minutes and were inter
rupted only for the regular work steps or
to fix new work pieces. Runs were termi
nated when a steady-state temperature
VOL. 92, NO. 1 OCULAR HAZARDS OF W E L D I N G 79

was attained or when the temperature
became too high for the welder to contin-
ue. Such conditions apply in actual work,
The protocol sheet used for each weld-
ing run is shown in the Figure.
MeasurementsWe mounted welding
filter plates on two new welding helmets.
A front cover plate and a back safety
plate, each of allyl resin (CR-39) 1.3 to
1.45 mm thick, were used in all cases
except when the temperature of the
welding plate itself was being monitored;
the back safety plate was omitted in that
instance.
Iron-constantan thermocouples were
attached to the back safety plate with a
small amount of Type 29 heat sink com-
pound designed to conduct heat but not
electricity. A 1-cm square of aluminum
tape, reflective side facing the plate, was
placed over the thermocouple junction to
minimize heat loss. Duct tape held the
thermocouple and aluminum tape to the
plate. A 10 X 10 X 3-mm piece of Styro-
foam was attached over the duct tape to
minimize environmental interference.
We connected thermocouple leads to a
strip recorder equipped with two pens to
record the temperature of the two plates
simultaneously and continuously. Verifi-
cation temperature readings were ob-
tained by test immersions alternately in
boiling water and in ice and water. We
used an additional iron-constantan ther-
mocouple to verify further the recorded
temperatures.
Each of two helmets was fixed to a
tripod, equidistant at the usual working

Measurement of temperatures with thermocouples securely mounted

on the welding filter plate on the inner side of the helmet.
Welding filter plates mounted in the helmets without a back
safety plate and a front plastic cover plate.

1. DATE: 6/12/79 TIME: 11:50 a.m.

2. TEMPERATURE: DRY BULB: 27.2C WET BULB: 21.1C
3. TYPE OF JOINT: Tee Joint
4. BASE METAL: Mild steel THICKNESS: 3/8"
5. PROCESS: Shielded Metal-Arc Welding (SMAW), also called Arc/Stick Welding
6. ELECTRODE: E7024
7. CURRENT: 375 Amperes VOLTAGE: 40AC volts
8. POLARITY: AC
9. SHIELDING GAS: None
10. ELECTRODE DIAMETER: 1/4"
11. ARC LENGTH: Approximately 1/4"
12. WELDING MACHINE MFR: Hobart Model TR-300
13. NAME OF WELDER: Joseph M. Craft (Welding Instructor)
14. MEASUREMENTS BY: Amrik S. Pabley
15. DISTANCE OF AIR TEMPERATURE PROBE & TEST FILTER PLATES FROM WORKPIECE:
10"
16. APPROXIMATE ANGLE OF INCLINATION OF FILTER PLATES: 55 from verticle
17. DISTANCE OF WELDER'S HELMET FROM WORKPIECE: 14"
18. HELMET TYPE: Fibre-metal model no. 706-3
19. WELDING FILTER PLATE SHADE NUMBER: 10
20. GREEN GLASS WELDING FILTER MFR: Gateway; Avg. Thickness 2.87mm
21. POLYCARBONATE REFLECTIVE WELDING FILTER MFR: Gentex; Avg. Thickness 2.4mm
22. AVERAGE THICKNESS OF FRONT PLASTIC COVER PLATES: N/A
23. AVERAGE THICKNESS OF BACK PLASTIC SAFETY PLATES: N/A
24. DURATION OF EXPERIMENT: 26.8 minutes

RESULTS

A. Maximum temperature attained by the glass filter plate - 86 C

B. Maximum temperature attained by polycarbonate reflective filterplate - 42C
C. Temperature difference between glass plate & polycarbonate plate * 44C
D. Percent Increase in temperature above ambient In glass filter plate - 216.2Z
E. Percent increase in temperature above ambient in polycarbonate reflective
filter plate - 54.4X
F. Percent reduction in rise of temperature by using polycarbonate filter
plate in place of glass filter plate * 161.8X

Figure (Pabley and Keeney). The protocol sheet used for the welding tests.
80 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF OPHTHALMOLOGY
distance from the welding site; filter
plates facing the welding were angulated
at approximately 55 degrees from the
vertical. This is an optimum viewing
angle and simulates a welder's position
during work.4,5
There is no single optimal working
distance for welders. We surveyed the
distances used in two different shops.
These varied from 6 to 20 inches depend
ing upon the process, vision, and age of
the welder. A welder who does not have
presbyopia tends to use a distance closer
than the conventional reading distance of
13 to 15 inches. Therefore, we fixed the
welding helmets at distances ranging
from 9 to 15 inches from the workpiece.
RESULTS
In each process studied, green glass-
welding filters attained higher tempera
tures than the polycarbonate-reflective
filters (Table). In shielded metal-arc or
stick welding (the most widely used proc
ess) without front or back safety plates,
gold reflective polycarbonate filter plate
produced a marked reduction in tempera
ture. In this process the plate tempera
ture rose 216% above the ambient with
the green glass plates and 54% with the
polycarbonate reflective filter plates. The
TABLE
R E D U C T I O N IN W E L D I N G F I L T E R PLATE TEMPERATURE RISE ABOVE AMBIENT W I T H POLYCARBONATE
R E F L E C T I V E PLATES COMPARED T O ABSORPTIVE GREEN GLASS
Without Safety
Welding Process Shade No. Plates
Shielded metal-arc 12 71.9
Shielded metal-arc 10 161.8
Gas metal-arc 12
Gas tungsten-arc 12
Carbon-arc cutting
and gouging 12
Oxyacetylene 5 21.5
*The safety plates were made of allyl resin.
JULY, 1981
polycarbonate filter plates thus reduced
the rise in plate temperature above the
ambient 162%.
After this experiment, the front of the
glass plates showed extensive pitting
caused by spatter but the gold reflective
polycarbonate filters showed no spatter
marks.
With both front and back safety plates
in place (the recommended practice
which, however, is not always followed),
the reduction in temperature with poly
carbonate reflective plates was less
marked and ranged from 10% for gas
metal-arc welding to 30% for carbon-arc
gouging.
DISCUSSION
Welding and radiationThe intensity
and spectrum of welding arcs depend on
the following factors: (1) the type of pro
cess, (2) the length of the arc, (3) the
atmosphere and shielding about the arc,
(4) the level of welding current, and
(5) climatic and other minor variables.
Smoke produced in some welding acts as
a filter, reducing luminous and ultraviolet
intensities. The unstable temperatures of
the arcs and the variations in the heating
of the metals pose major problems in the
quantitative study of welding radiations.
Reduction in Temperature Rise (%)
Without Back Safety
Plate; With Front With Safety
Safety Plate* Plates*
51.4
23.5
9.8
. 28.5
29.8
VOL. 92, NO. 1 OCULAR HAZARDS OF WELDING
Slight changes in arc are also caused by
the continuous melting of the electrodes,
making it difficult for the welders to keep
a constant arc length. Molten metal
breaking off from the electrode causes
fluctuation. Also, drafts or shifts in air
currents are frequent variables.
Zaborski 6 suggested that energy distri
bution in the arc spectrum does not re
semble the spectrum of a full radiator or
that of solar radiation with a slight shift of
the maximum toward long waves. Zabor
ski noted that:
The spectrum of a welding arc is complex, consist
ing of a temperature spectrum, plus overlapping
line and band spectra from the vapours of melted
metal, from the elements and compounds leaving
the covering of the electrode or the gaseous enve
lope and entering die arc.
Sutter and associates 7 published the
results of a German study on radiation
measurements in various arc processes.
Zaborski studied the visible spectrum of
the welding arc. One of the most exten
sive studies was done jointly by the
American Welding Society and the U.S.
Army. 5,8 Their data showed that the radia
tion intensity of the four processes in
creased from the lowest, plasma arc weld
ing, to gas tungsten-arc welding and
shielded metal-arc welding, and finally to
the highest, gas metal-arc welding.
Biologic effects of welding radiation
Different adverse biologic effects stem
from visible light, near- and far-infrared,
and the three (A, B, and C) divisions
of ultraviolet. Welder's flash keratitis
(photokeratitis) has been known since the
1880s.
The main ocular hazards from infra
red are thermal. Near-infrared (700 to
1,400 nm), to which the cornea is trans
parent, is absorbed by other anterior
structures, chiefly the lens. Only a small
fraction of incident near-infrared reaches
the retina where it is absorbed in the
retinal pigment epithelium. The amount
is small in comparison to visible light,
81
which is also absorbed primarily in the
retinal pigment epithelium. Energy ab
sorbed in the retinal pigment epithelium
can cause thermal coagulation injury or
destruction of retinal cells. Localized
lenticular opacities progressing to signifi
cant cataracts have been produced exper
imentally by several investigators using
large doses of filtered infrared. These are
associated with denaturation of lens pro
teins. Infrared above 1,400 nm is ab
sorbed by the cornea and aqueous; at
levels beyond 1,900 nm, the cornea ab
sorbs all of it. Long-term repeated expo
sures to near-infrared at levels far below
the threshold for acute injury, although
apparently not hazardous to the retina,
may damage the lens. Data on experi
mental laser injuries 5 have suggested that
a safe level for long-term infrared expo
sure is an average ocular irradiance of
approximately 0.01 W/cm 2 . Hubner, Sut
ter, and Wicke 9 measured infrared emis
sions as high as 0.34 W/cm 2 in some
welding processes.
Visible radiation (400 to 700 nm) is
focused by the optical system of the eye
and, depending upon the incident inten
sity, can cause retinal burns with perma
nent cell loss and impairment of vision.
None of the anterior structures of the eye
absorbs a significant amount of visible
radiation except the iris, 10 which is pig-
mented posteriorly and heavily vascular-
ized. The high level of blood circulation
enables it to absorb intense visible light
without suffering a significant increase in
temperature. The retina, however, has a
very low threshold for visible light dam
age. The type of retinal damage depends
upon wave length, energy level, duration
of exposure, and pigmentation character
istics. Ham and associates 11 have shown
that the retina is most susceptible to
photochemical damage from short-
wavelength visible light (400 to 580 nm),
even at energy levels too low to produce a
significant temperature rise. High energy
82 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF OPHTHALMOLOGY
levels increase temperatures in the reti
nal pigment epithelium and choroid, re
sulting in thermal denaturation of cells in
the retinal pigment epithelium and the
sensory retina. The photochemical lesion
is markedly wavelength-dependent. Reti
nal sensitivity increases sharply in the
blue-violet range.
The so-called blue-light hazard has
been studied carefully in recent years.
Standards for ocular protection in weld
ing may have to be reevaluated for this
component of visible light alone and for
its effect with near-infrared. Zaborski, 6
studying the visible spectrum of the
welding arc, noted that the maximum
energy level is usually within 420 to
430 nm. According to Ham and associ
ates, 11 the photochemical hazard predom
inates over the thermal one when the
spectrum contains significant amounts of
blue light. They found that producing a
minimal lesion with near-infrared radia
tion (1,064 nm) required energy at the
corneal level three orders of magnitude
greater than producing a minimal lesion
with blue light (441.6 nm) did. Radiation
at 1,064 nm also causes high tempera
tures and thermal damage in the retina,
but 441.6-nm light produces negligible
increments in retinal temperature at the
energy levels required to produce a reti
nal lesion. Extended exposures, even at
low levels of radiation, may create cumu
lative photochemical damage.
Protective eyewear in weldingThe
main functions of filter plates used in
welding are (1) the reduction of harmful
ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radia
tion, (2) the mechanical protection of the
welder's eye, particularly from weld spat
ter, and (3) the reduction of visible light
to a comfortable level to improve visibili
ty in the welding zone.
In the United States, filter lenses or
plates used in welding must meet re
quirements set by the American National
Standards Institute Standard Z87.1-1979,
JULY, 1981
"Practice for Occupational and Educa
tional Eye and Face Protection."
The light-absorbing properties of a fil
ter lens can be expressed in terms of a log
function, optical density. National Bu
reau of Standards shade numbers are de
rived from density.
Optical density =
1
/ transmitted \ / incident \
\ energy j [ energy J
Optical densities of nonreflective lenses
are linearly related to thickness when the
dye or absorptive compound is uniformly
distributed through the material. Trans-
mittance, the inverse of optical density,
equals 10~d where d is the optical density
of the filter.
Shade No. = ( | ) d + 1
Thus, transmission is less as optical den
sity or shade numbers increase; for ex
ample, shade 2, with an optical density
of 0.429, is useful for torch soldering
and shades 2 to 5 for spot welding, where
as shade 14, with an optical density of
5.571, is extremely dense and is used
for welding processes such as carbon-
arc welding that emit intense optical radi
ation.
From the 1880s until recent years, the
mainstays of protection from welding-arc
radiation were thick filter plates of glass.
In 1914, ferrous oxide (Sir William
Crookes' sage-green glass, No. 217) was
added as an infrared absorber. Although
allyl diglycol carbonate plastic lenses
were introduced in 1942, it was not until
1968 that polycarbonate filter plates were
introduced. This impact-resistant plastic
meets all applicable standards, although
its surface is considerably softer and its
index of refraction (1.58) slightly higher
than that of allyl resin. Initial attempts to
coat plastic lenses were unsuccessful. In
VOL. 92, NO. 1 OCULAR HAZARDS OF WELDING
recent years, vacuum-deposited, mirror-
front, coated polycarbonate filter plates
have been developed that reflect infrared
and reduce secondary radiation from in
frared absorption. This is a refinement of
the glass Pfund made in the early 1900s
by placing a thin layer of gold between a
layer of crown glass and a layer of
Crookes' A.
Glass filter platesThe color or tint of
conventional glass filter plates is uniform
ly distributed in the glass melt and is
derived from one or more metallic oxides
within the glass matrix. Ferric oxide, like
Crookes' A, absorbs ultraviolet, and fer
rous oxide absorbs infrared at high levels,
but it is difficult to get good absorption
in the intervening regions. Absorption
curves of glass filters are sometimes
lumpy and irregular. 12 As a function of
time and incident energy, absorptive fil
ters get hot and re-radiate infrared to the
welder's eyes.
Pits or scratches on the surface also
reduce the impact resistance of glass
plates. If no front cover is used, the
welding spatter melts into the front sur
face of a glass filter, reducing visibility
and impact strength.
Polycarbonate (plastic) filter plates
Polycarbonate used for welding filter
plates in this country has an average
luminous transmission of 89%, but this
can be increased to 92% with a coating or
reduced by incorporating dyes within the
basic plastic.
Many optical plastics can be tinted or
surface-colored by dipping them in a dye,
thus achieving uniform density, regard
less of variations in thickness. For darker
shades, the dipping is extended. Such a
process is not satisfactory with polycar
bonate lenses where dyes and ultraviolet
absorbers must be incorporated in the
basic plastic.
Although high ultraviolet absorption
levels are easily achieved, the intense
near-infrared radiation emitted in weld
83
ing is transmitted except for surface re
flection losses. Infrared-absorbing chem
icals are incorporated by some manufac
turers to provide this protection in
polycarbonate filter plates. An alternative
heat-reflecting mechanism is thin, almost
transparent layers of metal such as silver,
aluminum, or gold. Gold transmits light
in the visible spectrum and reflects light
in the infrared. A very thin layer of gold
reflects more than 98% of incident infra
red. 13 This prevents the plate from heat
ing and minimizes re-radiation of ab
sorbed infrared energy to the welder's
eye.
One of the important advantages of
polycarbonate filters is their light
weight (specific gravity of 1.20 g/cc com
pared to 2.54 g/cc for crown glass). A
polycarbonate filter weighs less than 50%
of a glass filter of the same thickness.
Polycarbonate lenses may be coated with
abrasion-resistant layers that protect the
reflective coating. In tests conducted by
Sherr, 1 4 abrasion-resistant coated poly
carbonate filters have proven superior to
glass in resisting impact, penetration,
pitting, and spatter from welding.
REFERENCES
1. Cary, H. B.: Modern Welding Technology. En-
glewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 1979, pp. 5 and 6.
2. Weymueller, C. R. : Uncle Sam surveys weld
ing safety. Welding Design Fabrication 53:138, 1980.
3. Calkins, J. L., and Hochheimer, B. F.: Retinal
light exposure from ophthalmoscopes, slit-lamps,
and overhead surgical lamps. An analysis of potential
hazards. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis.'Sei. 19:1009, 1980.
4. Hinrichs, J. F.: Radiation and arc welding.
New data to enhance safety. Welding Design and
Fabrication 51:102, 1978.
5. Marshall, S. M., Sliney, D. H., Lyon, T. L.,
Kral, N. P., and Del Valle, P. F. : Nonionizing Radia
tion Protection. Evaluation of the Potential Retinal
Hazards from Optical Radiation Generated by Elec
tric Welding and Cutting Arcs, December 1975 to
April 1977. U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene
Agency, Special Study No. 42-0312-77, 1977, p. 5.
6. Zaborski, L. : Studies of the visible spectrum of
the welding arc. Bull. Inst. Marit. Trop. Med.
Gdynia 27:267, 1976.
7. Sutter, E., Hubner, H. J., Krause, ,, and
Rge, J.: Radiation Measurements in Various Arch
84 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF OPHTHALMOLOGY JULY, 1981

Welding Methods. Optical Report 2/72. Braun
schweig, West Germany, Laboratory for Spectrosco-
py, 1972.
8. Hinrichs, J. F.: Safety and Health. Project
Committee on Radiation. Summary Report. Welding
J. 57:62, 1978.
9. Hubner, H. J., Sutter, E., and Wicke, K.:
Measurement of radiation power at welding proc
esses and consequences for eye protection against IR
radiation. Optik 31:462, 1970.
10. Wolbarsht, M. L. : The effects of optical radia
tion on the anterior structures of the eye. In Ten-
groth, B. (ed.): Current Concepts in Ergophthalmol-
ogy. Stockholm, Societas Ergophalmalogica Interna-
tionalis, 1978, pp. 29-49.
11. Ham, W. T., Mueller, H. A., Ruffolo, H. H.,
and Clarke, A. M.: Sensitivity of the retina to radia
tion damage as a function of wavelength. Photochem.
Photobiol. 29:735, 1979.
12. Kors, K., and Peters, H. B.: Absorption char
acteristics of selected commercially available oph
thalmic lenses. Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad.
Optom. 49:727, 1972.
13. Duke-Elder, S., and MacFaul, P. A.: Injuries.
Non-Mechanical Injuries. In Duke-Elder, S. (ed.):
System of Ophthalmology, vol. 14, pt. 2. St. Louis,
C. V. Mosby, 1972, p. 882.
14. Sherr, A. E.: Glasses, shields protect eyes
from shop hazards. Welding Design Fabrication,
53:140, 1980.

OPHTHALMIC MINIATURE

As Washington opened the note there was a murmur among his

officers. Washington took that as impatience. He cleared his throat
and attempted to read.
He could not. The script was too small. His eyes could not focus.
The dim letters blurred. Helplessly he fumbled in another pocket
for his spectacles. As he donned them the murmur increased. Again
he thought it impatience. He adjusted his spectacles, "Gentle
men," he said "you must pardon me. I have grown gray in your
service and now find myself growing blind."
It was enough . . . few heard as Washington haltingly read from
Jones' letter. No matter.
When he stopped, the officers crowded about him in reassurance
and contrition.
In American Heritage, April/May 1981
James W. Wensyel, "The Newburgh Conspiracy"