CHEMISTRY 2012 HJH ROSSITA RADZAK

CHAPTER 2: MATTER

1. To determine melting point

Heating Cooling

Water bath to ensure uniform heating

Plot graph y axis (Start at 50 o C).

2. The kinetic theory of matter (solid, solid liquid, liquid, liquid-gas, gas)
Matter is made up of tiny and discrete particles (atoms, ions or molecules), there is space between these
particles.
a) Arrangement of particles-pack closely together, orderly arrangement, far apart from each other
b) Movement of particles-vibrates, rotate, slowly, rapidly, vigorously, randomly.
c) Kinetic energy content-
d) Change in energy content-
e) Force of attraction-strong, weak, weaker
Temperature,oC

Boiling point

Time, s
to t1 t2 t3
Example:
Graph shows the heating curve of element X.
Describe the graph in terms of states of matter, particle arrangements and changes in energy.

Sample answer:

Stage State of matter Particles arrangement Changes in energy

to t1 Liquid The particles are close to each other. The kinetic energy increases
The particles arrangement is not orderly.
t1 - t 2 Liquid Some of particles are close to each other The kinetic energy is constant
gaseous and some far apart.
The particles arrangement is not orderly.
t2 t3 Gaseous The particles are far away from each other. The kinetic energy increases
The particles arrangement is not orderly.

3. Diffusion the movement of particles (atom/ions/molecule) of substance in between the particles of

another substance / from highly concentrated area to less concentrated area. Gas > liquid > solid
4. Isotope are atoms of the same element (same number of proton) with different number of
neutrons/nucleon number.

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Example: Compare atom 12X and atom 14Y

6 6

Atom 6p X Y
Proton number 6n 6 6
No. of electron X 6 6
Valence electron 4 4
Number of neutron / nucleon number 6/ 12 8 /14
Chemical properties 6p similar
Y
Physical properties 8n different
No. of occupied shell similar

CHAPTER 3: CHEMICAL FORMULA

1. Empirical formula: chemical formula that shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each
element in a compound, CH2
2. Molecular formula: a chemical formula that shows the actual number of atoms of each element that is
present in a molecule of the compound, C2H4

a) Unreactive metal reaction oxide metal with Reactive metal ( Mg, Zn burn in excess oxygen /
hydrogen gas, (CuO, PbO ,SnO ) air ) more reactive than H2
b) Diagram Hydrogen

c) Procedure - Weigh and record a crucible with its lid

- Weigh and record the mass of combustion tube
with porcelain dish
- Add a spatula of copper (II) oxide on the porcelain
dish. Weigh the tube again.
- Allow hydrogen gas flow into the tube for 5 10
minutes.
- Burn the excess hydrogen.
- Heat copper (II) oxide strongly.
- Turn off the flame when black solid turns brown
completely.
- Continue the flow of hydrogen until the set of
apparatus cool down to room temperature.
- Weigh the combustion tube with its content.
- Repeat the process heating, cooling and weighing
until a constant mass is obtained and record.
- Clean Mg ribbon with sand paper then coil the
Mg ribbon and place into the crucible. Weigh and
record.
- Heat strongly
- When Mg ribbon start to burn, cover the crucible
with lid.
- Lift / raise the lid at intervals.
- When the burning is complete, remove the lid and
heat strongly.
-Allow the crucible to cool down.
-Weigh and record the crucible with content and
lid.
-Repeat the process heating, cooling and weighing
until a constant mass is obtained and record.
- Observation : White fume / solid formed
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Result :
- Combustion tube with porcelain dish = a g
- Combustion tube with porcelain dish + copper (II)
oxide = b g
- Combustion tube with porcelain dish + copper = c g
- Mass of copper = (c- a) g, Mass of oxygen = (b- c) g
Result :
- Mass of crucible + lid = a g
- Mass of crucible + lid + Mg = b g
- Mass of crucible + lid + magnesium oxide = c g
- Mass of Mg = (b a) g
- Mass of oxygen = (c b) g

Calculation:
Element / atom Cu O Element / atom Mg O
Mass (g) x y Mass (g) x y
Number of mole x / 64 y / 16 Number of mole x / 24 y / 16
Simplest ratio of mole Simplest ratio of mole
Precaution : Precaution :
1. The flow of H2 must be continuous during 1. Clean Mg ribbon with sand paper to remove the
cooling to prevent hot copper metal from layer of oxide on its surface.
oxidized. 2. Lift / raise the lid at intervals to allow air in
2. Allow hydrogen gas flow into the tube for 5 3. When Mg ribbon start to burn, cover the crucible
10 minutes to unsure air totally removed. The with lid to avoid the white fume produced from
mixture H2 and air may cause an explosion. being escape to the air.
3. To determine all air totally removed, collect the 4. Repeat the process heating, cooling and
air and place lighted splinter, the gas burn quietly. weighing to make sure all magnesium is
[To prepare H2] completely reacted with oxygen.
4. Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2 5. 2Mg + O2 2MgO
5. Anhydrous calcium chloride to dry the H2 gas.
6. CuO + H2 Cu + H2O

3. Based on the two formulae Na2O, CuI.

(a) State the oxidation number for sodium, and copper.
(b) Name both the compound based on IUPAC nomenclature system.
(c) Explain the difference between the names of the two compounds based on IUPAC nomenclature
system.
(d) Sample answer:

Na2O CuI
Oxidation number for +1 +1
sodium and copper
IUPAC Nomenclature Sodium oxide Copper (I) iodide
Reason Does not have roman number Has roman number because
because sodium has only one copper has more than one
oxidation number oxidation number

CHAPTER 4: PERIODIC TABLE

1. Explain the following statements, referring to the electron arrangement of the elements.
(a) The elements of Group 18 are unreative and exist as monoatomic particles (3 marks)

The points are:

(Duplet /octet) electron arrangement.
No tendency to donate, accept, share electrons
Remain as individual particles

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(b) The reactivity of Group I elements increases down the group, whereas the reactivity of
Group 17 elements decreases down the group. (12 marks)

The points are:

Explanation Group I Group 17

1 Change in proton number Increases Increases
2 Change in number of electrons and electron filled shells Increases Increases
3 Change in atomic size/radius/diameter Increases Increases
4 Strength of electrostatic attraction between nucleus and Decreases /weaker Decreases /weaker
valence electron
5 Tendency to Releases electron Attract t/ accept
increases electron decreases
6 To become Positive ion Negative ion
7 Reactivity Increases Decreases

(2) Explain how the melting point of Group 1 elements change down the group (4 marks)
decreases gradually
Reason
atomic size increases
metallic bonding between the atoms become weaker
Less energy is required / needed to overcome this metallic bonding.

(3) Chemical properties of element in group 17

I Reaction with water Cl2 + H2O HCl + HOCl

II Reaction with sodium hydroxide Cl2 + 2NaOH NaCl + NaOCl + H2O
III Reaction with iron 3Cl2 + 2Fe 2FeCl3 (brown solid)
Chlorine gas

To Soda lime
produce Hot iron wool Sodium hydroxide solution
Cl2 HCl (cons) +
III II
KMnO4(s)
Example: Compare the reactivity of reactions between chlorine and bromine with iron. [Diagram III]

Reaction Reactants Observation

A Iron + chlorine gas The hot iron wool ignites rapidly with a bright flame.
A brown solid is formed.
B Iron + bromine gas The hot iron wool glows moderately with fast.
A brown solid is formed.
Sample answer:
a) Chemical equation: 3Cl2 + 2Fe 2FeCl3
b) The reactivity of reaction A is higher than reaction B.
c) The atomic size of chlorine is smaller than bromine.
d) The forces of attraction of the nucleus toward the electrons are stronger.
e) It is easier for chlorine atom to attract/receive electron.

(4) Across period 3, atomic radius (atomic size) decreases / electronegativity increases. Explain.
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a) Proton number increases by one unit.

b) The number of valence electrons in each atom increases.
c) Positive charge of the nucleus increases, thus
d) Nuclei attraction on valence electron increases.
e) Atomic radius (atomic size) decreases
f) Tendency to receive electron increases (to form negative ion) thus electronegativity increases.

(5) Chemical properties of the oxide of element across Period 3 changes from basic oxide to amphoteric
oxide to acidic oxide.
Basic oxide Sodium oxide (Na2O)
Amphoteric oxide Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Acidic oxide Sulphur dioxide, SO2

CHEPTER 5: CHEMICAL BOND

(a) Group 1 elements react with Group 17 elements to produce compounds that have high melting points.
(4 marks)
The points are:
Ionic compound produced
Because involve transfer of electrons between metal atom and non metal atom.
Metal atom donates valence electron to form positive ion, non metal atom accepts electron to
negative ion.
The oppositely charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic force.
More heat energy is needed to overcome the strong force of attraction.

Formation of ionic compound (metal [Group 1, 2 & 13] and non-metal [Group 14, 15, 16 & 17])

Sample answer:
1. Electron arrangement of atoms ( Na , 28.1 ; Cl 2.8.7 ) // valence electrons
2. To achieve stable / octet electron arrangement
3. Atom ( Na) releases one / valence electron to form sodium ion, Na+
4. Half equation ( Na Na+ + e)
5. Atom (Cl) gain / accept electron to form chloride ion, Cl-
6. Half equation ( Cl + e Cl- )
7. Oppositely charged ion, Na+ & Cl- are attracted to one another by strong electrostatic force of
attraction to form ionic compound, NaCl
8. Diagram

Formation of covalent compound (nonmetal)

1. electron arrangement of the atom /valence electrons
2. to achieve duplet /octet electron arrangement
3. Atom (Carbon) contributes 4 electrons while (H) atom contributes 1 electron (for sharing).
4. one ( Carbon ) atom share 4 pairs of electrons with 4 (H) atoms to form covalent compound , CH4 /
ratio
5. diagram

Compare the physical properties of covalent and ionic compound

Properties Covalent compound ( naphthalene) Ionic compound ( sodium chloride)

Melting and - low - High
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boiling - consist of molecules - Consist of oppositely charged ions
- weak inter molecular forces - The ions are held together by strong
between molecules electrostatic forces.
- less energy needed to overcome the - More heat energy needed to overcome the
weak forces strong forces
Electrical - consist of molecules - Consist of oppositely charged ions
conductivity - does not conduct electricity in any - Conduct electricity in molten or aqueous
state (molten or aqueous). solution.
- In molten or aqueous solution, ions can move
freely.

CHAPTER 6: ELECTROCHEMISTRY

1. Factor that affect the electrolysis of an aqueous solution

(a) position of ions in the electrochemical series (cathode)
(b) concentration of ions in the electrolyte - halide ( Chloride, bromide and iodide)
(c) type of electrodes used in the electrolysis ( anode metal )

Application

(i) Electroplating
Anode electroplating metal (less electropositive metal / Cu, Ag, Ni)
Cathode metal /object to be electroplated
Electrolyte - solution that contains the metal ions of electroplating metal

(ii) Purification
Anode impure metal (Cu Cu2+ + 2e)
Cathode pure metal (Cu2+ + 2e Cu)
Electrolyte - solution that contains the metal ions (Cu2+)

(iii) Extraction of metal (reactive metal, sodium, aluminium)

Down`s Process extraction of sodium from molten sodium chloride.
Extraction of aluminium from molten aluminium oxide ( bauxite)

2. To construct the electrochemistry based on tendency to release electron /potential differences - voltaic
cell/ Electrochemical cell.

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3. To construct the electrochemistry based on ability / tendency of metal

to displace another metal from it salts solution.
Displacement reaction: a metal which is higher in the electrochemical
series is able to displace a metal below it in a series from its salt solution.

Example: Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu // Zn Zn2+ + 2e / Cu2+ + 2e Cu

Copper Lead

Copper(II) sulphate
solution

Cell P Cell Q
4. Compare and contrast cell P and Q. Include in your answer the observation and half equation for the
reaction of the electrodes in both cells.

Cell P Characteristics Cell Q

Electrical chemical Energy change Chemical electrical
+ve / anode: copper (OXIDATION) Electrode +ve/cathode: copper
-ve / cathode: copper -ve/ anode: lead (OXIDATION)
Cu2+ , H+ Ions present in Cu2+ , H+
OH- , SO42- the electrolyte OH- , SO42-
Anode :Cu Cu2+ + 2e Anode: Pb Pb2+ + 2e
(type of electrode)
Half equation
Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e Cu ( ECS) Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e Cu (ECS)

Anode: copper electrode become thinner Anode: becomes thinner

Cathode: brown solid formed/ becomes Cathode: becomes thicker / brown solid
thicker. Observation formed
Electrolyte: intensity blue solution / Electrolyte: intensity blue solution
concentration of Cu2+ solution remain. decrease / blue becomes paler
Rate of ionized of copper atom to form
copper (II) ion at the anode same as rate of
discharged copper (II) ion at the cathode.

CHAPTER 7: ACID AND BASE

An acid is chemical substance which ionizes in water to produce hydrogen ion, H+

A base is a chemical substance which ionizes in water to produce hydroxide ions, OH-
Alkali is a soluble base.
Basicity is the number of ionisable hydrogen atoms per molecule of an acid.

The pH value of 1.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid is 1

The pH value of 1.0 mol dm-3 methanoic acid is 4

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1. Explain why these two solutions have different pH values

identify strong acid , weak acid

definition strong acid

definition weak acid

concentration of H+

relationship between pH value and concentration of hydrogen ions, H+

Sample answer:
1. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid while methanoic acid is a weak acid.
2. Hydrochloric acid completely ionizes in water to form higher concentration of hydrogen ions.
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl- // HCl H+ + Cl- , H3O+ , hydroxonium ion
3. Methanoic acid ionizes partially in water to form lower concentration hydrogen ions
CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
4. The higher the concentration of hydrogen ions the lower the pH value.

2. Aim: To determine the end point during the neutralization of potassium hydroxide
and hydrochloric acid

Apparatus: 25 cm3 pipette, burette, 250 cm3 conical flask, retort stand, white tile
Material: potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid 0.1 mol dm-3, phenolphathalein.

Procedure:
1. Rinse a burette with a small amount hydrochloric acid 0.1 mol dm-3.
2. Clamp the burette on retort stand.
3. Fill the burette with hydrochloric acid 0.1 mol dm-3. Adjust the meniscus level of acid to a reading at 0.
4. Record the initial burette reading.
5. Pipette 25.0 cm3 of potassium hydroxide 0.1 mol dm-3 into conical flask.
6. Add two drop of phenolphathalein.
7. Add hydrochloric acid 0.1 mol dm-3 carefully. Swirl the conical flask during the process.
8. When the colour of the mixture turn paler, add hydrochloric acid drop by drop.
9. Stop adding the hydrochloric acid as soon as the solution turns colourless.
10. Record the final burette reading.
11. Repeat steps 1-10 twice. Tabulate your reading.

MAVA = a

MBVB b

Result:

Titration 1 2 3
Final burette reading, cm3
Initial burette reading, cm3
Volume of hydrochloric acid 0.1 mol dm-3 , cm3

3. Preparation Standard solution (0.1 mol dm-3 NaOH, 100 cm3)

1. Calculate the mass of solute ( mole = 0.1 x 100/1000 , 0.01 = mass/ 40)
2. Weigh 0.4g of NaOH in weighing bottle using digital balance / electronic balance
3. Pour into a beaker, rinse the bottle with distilled water.
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4. Dissolve NaOH with a little (10 20 cm3) distilled water.
5. Transfer the mixture into volumetric flask 100 cm3 rinse the beaker with distilled water.
6. Pour the washings into volumetric flask 100 cm3
7. Add distilled water, shake well
8. Add distilled water drop by drop to finally bring the volume of solution to the 100 cm3 mark /
calibration mark.

Preparation of a standard solution by dilution method

M1V1 = M2V2
M1 initial molarity
V1 - initial volume
M2 final molarity
V2 final volume

NOTE: CONCENTRATION 1. MOLARITY - mol dm-3

2. g dm-3

Neutralization in our daily lives

Agriculture Powdered lime (CaO) , limestone (CaCO3), ashes of burnt wood

Used to treat acidic soil.

Industries 1. Powdered lime (CaO)

Used to treat acidic effluent from factories, acidic gas SO2 emitted by power station and
industries.
2. Ammonia prevent the coagulation of latex by neutralizing the acid produced by
bacteria in the latex.

Health 1. Anti-acids contain bases such as aluminium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide to
neutralize the excess acid in the stomach.
2. Vinegar (citric acid) is used to cure wasp stings that are alkaline in nature.
3. Baking powder (NaHCO3) is used to cure bee stings and ant bites that are acidic in
nature.
4. Toothpaste contains bases that neutralize the acid produces by bacteria in our mouth

CHAPTER 8 SALT

A salt is a compound formed when the hydrogen ion, H+ from an acid is replaced by a metal ion or an
ammonium ion, NH4+

Preparation of soluble salt

acid + reactive metal(Zn / Mg) salt + H2 / 2H+ + Mg Mg2+ + H2
acid + base ( metal oxide) salt + water
acid + alkali salt + water / H+ + OH- H2O ( NaOH, KOH, NH4OH)
acid + carbonate metal salt + CO2 + H2O / 2H+ + CO32+ CO2 + H2O
Procedure:
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1. Pour ( 25 100cm3) acid ( 0.5 2.0 mol dm-3) into a beaker
2. Heat slowly
3. Add solid (metal / base/ carbonate ) a little until excess / no more dissolve
4. Stir
5. Filter the mixture into evaporating dish
6. Heat (slowly) the filtrate until 1/3 from original volume / saturated solution formed
7. Cool down the saturated solution (until crystallized )
8. Filter (to separate the crystals)
9. Dry / transfer onto filter paper / dry between sheets of filter paper

Observation
Chemical equation

Preparation of insoluble salt precipitation reaction / double decomposition reaction

Pb2+ + SO42- PbSO4

Example: Preparation of lead (II) sulphate.

Procedure
1. Pour ( 25 50cm3) of soluble salt Pb(NO3)2 into a beaker
2. Add ( 25 50cm3) of soluble salt (Na2SO4)
3. Stir
4. Filter the mixture
5. Rinse residue / solid / precipitate
6. Dry between sheets of filter paper
Observation
Chemical equation
Ionic equation

Action of heat on salt

Carbonate oxide metal (base) + CO2 except Na, K and NH4+

Example: CuCO3 CuO + CO2

Nitrate oxide metal + nitrogen oxide + oxygen except Na, K, (2NaNO3 2NaNO2 + O2)
Example: 2Mg(NO3)2 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
(Brown gas)

Ammonium chloride ammonia gas + hydrogen chloride gas, (NH4Cl NH3 + HCl )
Confirmatory test for cation and anion
1. State the material / chemical / reagent
2. procedure
3. observation
4. conclusion

Example: You are given a bottle of ammonium chloride solution. Describe chemical test to
verify the cation and anion.
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(a) test for cation (NH4+)

1. Pour 2 cm3 the solutions into a test tube
2. Add 1 cm3 copper (II) sulphate solution
3. Blue precipitate soluble in excess to form dark blue solution.
OR
4. Add 2 to 3 drops of Nessler reagent into the test tube
5. Brown precipitate.
6. Ammonium ions (NH4+) present.

(b) test for anion (Cl-)

1. Pour 2 cm3 the solution into a test tube
2. Add 1 cm3 of dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate solution.
3. White precipitate formed
4. Confirm the presence of chloride ions

Example: You are given lead (II) nitrate and aluminium nitrate solution. Describe chemical test to
verify the cation and anion.

(c) test for cation

1. Pour 2 cm3 the solutions into different test tubes
2. Add 1 cm3 potassium iodide solution into the test tubes
3. Yellow precipitate formed
4. Lead (II) ion present

(d) test for anion

1. Pour 2 cm3 of lead (II) nitrate solution into a test tube
2. Add 1 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid
3. Add 1 cm3 of iron (II) sulphate solution
4. Shake the mixture
5. Tilt the test tube, add concentrated sulphuric acid carefully // drop by drop down the side
of the test tube
6. The brown ring formed
7. Nitrate ion, NO3- present.

Aim: To construct the ionic equation for the formation of lead (II) chromate (VI)
[Continuous variation method]

Apparatus : Test tubes of the same size, test tube rack, burette, retort stand with
clamp, ruler, glass rod, dropper.

Material : 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium chromate (VI) solution, 0.5 mol dm-3 lead (II)
nitrate solution.
Procedure :
1. Seven test tubes of the same size were labelled from number 1 to 7. They were placed in a test tube
rack.
2. A burette was filled 0.5 mol dm-3 lead (II) nitrate solution, 5.00 cm3 of the lead (II) nitrate
solution was run into each the seven tubes.
3. Another burette was filled with 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium chromate (VI) solution.
4. Potassium chromate (VI) solution from the burette was added into each of the seven test tubes
according to the volumes specified in the table.
5. The mixture in each test tube was stirred with a clean glass rod.
6. The test tubes were left aside for about an hour.

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7. The height of the precipitate in each test tube was measured. The colour of the solution above the
precipitate in each test tube was observed and recorded.

Results:
Test tube 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Volume of 0.5 mol 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
dm-3
Pb(NO3)2 /cm3
Volume of 0.5 mol 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
dm-3
K2Cr O4 /cm3
Height of precipitate 0.60 1.20 1.80 2.40 3.00 3.00 3.00
(cm)
Colour of solution colourless colourless colourless colourless colourless yellow yellow
above the precipitate

Paper 2

Discussion
The volume of 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium chromate (VI), solution required to exactly react with 5.00 cm3 of 0.5
mol dm-3 lead (II) nitrate solution is 5.00 cm3.

Calculation:
Number of moles lead (II) ions = MV
= 0.5 x 5.00/1000 = 0.0025 mol.

Number of moles chromate (VI) ions = MV

= 0.5 x 5.00/1000 = 0.0025 mol.
Simplest mole ratio of lead (II) ions : chromate (VI) ions
0.0025 : 0.0025
1 : 1
Discussions:
1. A yellow precipitate of lead (II) chromate (VI) is formed in each of the seven test tubes.
2. The height of the precipitate increases gradually from test tubes 1 to 5 because more and more lead (II)
chromate (VI) is formed due to the increasing amount of potassium chromate (VI) added to the test tubes.
3. The colour of solution above the precipitate in test tubes 1 to 4 are colourless due to the excess lead (II)
nitrate.

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4. The colour of solution above the precipitate in test tubes 6 to 7 is yellow due to the excess potassium
chromate (VI).
5. Ionic equation: Pb2+ + Cr2O72- PbCr2O7

Conclusion:
As / when the volume of potassium chromate (VI) solution used increases, the height of the precipitate
increases until it achieves a maximum height.

CHAPTER 9: MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY

1. Contact process: manufactured sulphuric acid

Stage Equation Explanation

1 S + O2 SO2
2 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
3 SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7
4 H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4
Sulphur is burned in the excess of oxygen gas to produce sulphur
dioxide gas.
SO2 is then heated in excess oxygen gas, catalyst Vanadium (V)
oxide, 1 atm and 450 550 o C, to produce sulphur trioxide gas.
Gas sulfur trioxide dissolve in sulphuric acid to produce oleum
Oleum is added to water to produce sulfuric acid

Gas SO3 is not dissolve in water to produce H2SO4 straight away because the reaction will produce a
lot of heat which is dangerous (cause the forming of acid fumes)

Usage of sulphuric acid:

To manufacture fertilizer, soap and detergent

To make explosive material, paint / pigment, polymer
As metal cleaner and electrolyte in car battery.

2. Haber Process

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

Condition: Catalyst: iron, temperature: 450 550 oC, Pressure 200 500 atm

Usage: to manufacture fertilizer

2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4 )2 SO4
3NH3 + H3PO4 (NH4 )3 PO4
NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3

3. High percentage of nitrogen is a good fertilser for plants. How to calculate %N in fertiliser?
urea CO(NH2)2 and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), which one is a better fertiliser?
[ RAM : N,14; C,12 ;O,16; H,1]

Sample answer:

% N in Urea = mass of nitrogen / RMM urea x 100

= 2x14 / 60 x 100 = 46.67%

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% N in NH4NO3 = 2x14 / 80 x 100 = 35.00 %

Urea is a good fertilizer than ammonium nitrate, because the percentage of nitrogen in urea higher than
ammonium nitrate.

4. Describe how toxic waste product from factory affects the quality of the environment. Your description
should include the following aspects. Source, process and effect.

Sample answer:
a) [Source] sulphur dioxide gas produced by factory or burning of fossil fuels
b) [process ] sulphur dioxide gas dissolves in rain water / water to form acid rain,
2SO2 +O2 + 2H2O 2H2SO4]
c) [effect] toxic waste / acid flows to into lakes and rivers, acid rain lowers the pH value of water, soil
and air.
d) Fish and other aquatic organisms die.
e) acid rain corrodes concrete buildings and metal structures
f) acid destroys trees in forest
g) Acid rain reacts with minerals in soil to produces salt which are leached out the top soil.
h) Plants die of malnutrition and diseases.
i) Soil becomes acidic, unsuitable for growth of plants and destroys the roots of plants.
j) sulphur dioxide causes respiratory problems in humans.

POLIMER: - large molecules made up of identical repeating sub-units of monomers which are joined
together by covalent bonds.

Synthetic polymer Monomer Uses

Polythene Ethene Plastic bags, plastic container
Polypropene Propene Piping, car batteries
Polyvinyl chloride, PVC Chloroethene Artificial leather, water pipe
Perspex Methylmethacrylate Safety glass, reflectors

monomer ( ethene) polymer (polyethene)

ALLOY
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which the major
component is a metal.

1. The composition , properties and uses of some alloy

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Alloy Composition Properties Uses
Bronze Cu -Hard and strong -in building of statue or monuments.
Tin -does not corrode easily -in making of medals
-has shiny surface -swords and artistic material
Brass Cu -harder than copper -in making of musical instruments and
Zinc kitchenware
Steel Iron Hard and strong -in construction of buildings and bridges
Carbon -in building of the body of cars and railway
tracks
Stainless Iron -shiny -in making of cutlery
steel Carbon -strong -in making of surgical
Chromium -does not rust instrument
Duralumin Aluminium -light -in building of the body of aeroplane and
Copper -strong bullet trains
Magnesium
manganese
Pewter Tin, Copper -lustre, shiny In making of souvenirs
antimony -strong

Bronze is harder than pure copper. Explain.

Reason:
1. The presence of atoms of other metals / tin that are different sizes
2. Disrupt the orderly arrangement of copper atoms
3. Tin atoms reduce the layers of copper atoms from sliding
4. Alloy is stronger and harder than pure metal

2. You have learnt the steel is an alloy of iron. Steel is harder than pure iron. Both iron and steel can rust
when exposed to air and water. Do they rust at the same rate?

Aim: To compare the rate of rusting between iron, steel and stainless steel

Problem Statement
How does the rate of rusting between iron, steel and stainless steel differ?

Hypothesis
Iron rust faster than steel and steel rust faster than stainless steel.

Variables
Manipulated : Iron, steel and stainless steel.
Responding : intensity / amount of dark blue colour / rate of rusting
Fixed : size of nail, concentration of solution, duration of rusting

Procedure:

1. Clean the nails with sand paper (to removed the rust from all the nails)
2. Place the iron nail, steel nail and stainless steel nail into the test tube A, B and C respectively.

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CHEMISTRY 2012 HJH ROSSITA RADZAK
3. Prepare a 5 % jelly solution by adding 5 g jelly to 100 cm3 of boiling water. Add a few drop of potassium
hexacyanoferrate (III) solution.
4. Pour the hot jelly into the test tubes until all the nails are fully immersed.
5. Leave the nails for 3 days.
6. Observe and record the intensity of the dark blue colour.

Tabulation of data
Test tube The intensity of the dark blue colour //
rate of rusting
A
B
C
Paper 2
Conclusion
1. The concentration of Fe2+ ions in the test tube A is higher than in test tube B. No Fe2+ ions are present in
test tube C.
2. The rate of rusting in test tube A is higher than that in test tube B. No rusting takes place in test tube C.
Alloy slow down the rate of rusting.

Properties, composition and uses different type of glass

Type Properties Chemical Uses

composition
Fused glass -Very high softening point SiO2 Lenses, telescope
-Highly heat resistant mirrors, optical fibres,
-Does not crack when temperature changes Laboratory glassware.
-very resistant to chemical reactions
-difficult to be shaped
Soda lime -low softening point SiO2 Flat glass, light bulb,
glass -does not withstand heating CaCO3 / mirrors, glass
-break easily Na2CO3 containers.
-less resistant to chemical reactions
-easy to be shaped
- cracks easily with sudden change in temperature
Borosilicate -lower thermal coefficient SiO2 Laboratory glassware,
-heat resistant B2O3 cooking utensils.
- Does not crack when temperature changes Na2O Automobile
-very resistant to chemical reactions headlights.
-does not break easily
Lead glass -low softening point SiO2 Decorative items,
-high density PbO crystal glass ware,
-High refractive index CaO lens, prism, chandelier

Composite Materials is a structural material that is formed by combining two or more different substances
such as metal, alloys, glass, ceramics and polymers.

Composite Component Properties of Properties of Uses of

material component composite components

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CHEMISTRY 2012 HJH ROSSITA RADZAK
Reinforced Concrete Hard but brittle, low Stronger, high tensile Construction of
concrete tensile strength strength does not framework for
corrode easily, can highway, bridges
Steel Hard with high tensile withstand higher and high-rise
strength but expensive applied forces and building
and can corrode. loads, cheaper.

Super- Copper(II)oxide, Insulators of electricity Conducts electricity Generators,

conductor barium oxide transformers,
electric cable,
amplifiers,
computer parts
MRI
Fibre optics Glass of low Transparent, does reflect reflect light rays and Transmit data in the
refractive index light rays. allow light rays to form of light in
travel along the fiber telecommunications
Glass of high
refractive index
Fibre glass Glass Heavy, strong but brittle Light, strong, tough, Water storage
and non-flexible resilient and flexible tanks, small boat,
wit high tensile helmet
Polyester plastic Light, flexible, elastic strength not
but weak and inflammable, low
inflammable density, easily
coloured, shaped and
moulded.

Photo- Glass Transparent, does reflect Sensitive to light: Photochromic

chromic light rays. darkens when light optical lens, camera
glass intensity is high, lens, car
Silver chloride Sensitive to light becomes clear when windshields, optical
or silver light intensity is low. switches, light
bromide intensity meters.

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