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Oxygen: crystal structure

Chemical Bonding of Oxygen

Noting that the space between all components of iO would be orders of magnitude greater
than this page can show, Figure 4 shows schematically how two iO could bond. Assume
that for whatever reasons that electron iO2e2 has come well into the influence of iO1e1
and iO1e2 as shown. We say they are sharing their shells. Since electrons repel each other
electromagnetically atom iO1 and atom iO2 are now coupled together by the force
labeled FR. Additional bonding force (FA) is supplied by the displaced of iO1e1 and
iO1e2 being attracted to iO2s nucleus. This is much like linking your knuckles together
and attempting to pull your hands apart. But if electrons repel how could they get into
such a configuration to begin with? Either by pressure & heat, or catalytically, or
electromagnetically. If the pressure and heat is sufficient, the electron envelopes deform
allowing the outer shells to slip amongst one another. This is how the sun and deep earth
turn carbon to diamond. If a catalyst has the correct properties, it can pull the electron
envelopes apart creating a hole for another envelope to slip into, freeing the catalyst to
slip away for another reaction. This is how catalytic converters convert automobile
emissions to less toxic substances. Electromagnetically, electron envelopes may be pulled
apart creating a hole for coupling. This is how buckyballs are created in an electric
arc.
Oxygen rebreather.PNG
Tungsten runs guide fuel-cell research
Story posted July 11, 2006

Possible reaction pathway for the oxygen reduction reaction on a catalytic surface.

Splitting oxygen molecules into oxygen atoms and the subsequent formation of water are
currently the rate limiting step in getting energy from fuel cells, the reaction that restricts
overall power production. According to the University of Wisconsin at Madison's Manos
Mavrikakis, this oxygen reduction reaction, as it's known, is responsible for about 60
percent of common fuel cell designs' overall efficiency loss. Until this part of the process
becomes more efficient, low-temperature fuel cells will not be commercially viable.
Mavrikakis, his collaborators at Wisconsin, and a group of experimental chemists at
Brookhaven National Laboratory (led by Radoslav Adzic) are exploring the oxygen
reduction reaction and the catalyst that provokes it. Namely, they're looking to make the
reaction more efficient and to reduce the cost of expensive all-platinum catalysts.

In 2005, articles by the team in the Journal of the American Chemical Society and
Angewandte Chemie, International Edition showed the value of what are called platinum-
monolayer catalysts. The bulk of these catalysts are a cheaper material with a layer of
platinum that is a single atom thick covering them. The team compared a variety of
catalysts. Ultimately they found that palladium with the platinum monolayer, which is
markedly cheaper, offered the best overall performance characteristics. It improved the
overall efficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction by 33 percent.

The team uses NCSA Tungsten and computing resources at the Department of Energy.
Currently, the teams' calculations focus on other competitive reaction paths for the
oxygen reduction reaction. In the future, they hope to add already-formed water
molecules, develop the reactivity trends, and explore how those molecules might
influence the oxygen reduction reaction as well.