Chapter 1: Flow in Soil

Table of Contents

1.1 Capillary in soil, soil shrinkage & soil expansion

(Text book 9.9 & 9.10)
1.2 Head and flow of one and two dimensional
(Text book 8.2 & 8.3)
1.3 Seepage analyses (Text book 8.4 8.10)

1.4 Filter design (Text book 8.11)

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1.1

Adapted from Dr. Lulies presentation slide

Adapted from Dr. Lulies presentation slide

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 1.1 Capillarity (continued)
Groundwater table (or phreatic surface) the level which
underground water will rise in an observation well, pit or
other open excavation in the earth
Soil beneath groundwater table filled with water
Soil moisture any water in soil located above the water
table
Capillary rise phenomenon which water rises above the
groundwater table against the pull of gravity but is in
contact with the water table as its source
Capillary moisture the water associated with capillary rise
Vadose zone the soil region directly above the water
table and wetted by capillary moisture

Water in Capillary Tubes

Basic principles of capillary rise in soils related to the
rise of water in glass capillary tubes

The rise attraction

between the water and
the glass and to a
surface tension, which
develops at the air-
air-water
interface at the top of
the water column in the
capillary tube

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 Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

Value of Ts for water varies according to

temperature
As temperature increases, the value of Ts
decreases, indicating a lessening height of capillary
rise under warm conditions
At room temperature, Ts for water = 0.064 N/m
At freezing, Ts for water = 0.067 N/m
In applying the development of capillary rise in
tubes to capillary rise in soils:
hc 31/d mm (McCarthy, D. F., 2002)
(*provided that d is in millimetres)
millimetres)

Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

Question:
Compute the height of capillary rise for water in a tube
having a diameter of 0.05 mm (in SI units)

Solution:

4Ts (4)(0.064 N / m )
hc = = = 0.52m
d w (5 x105 m )(9.81kN / m 3 )

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 Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

The height of capillary rise is not affected by a slope or

inclination in the direction of the capillary tube, or by
variations in the shape and size of the tube at level below
the meniscus

Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

Capillary rise is not limited to tube, or enclosed, shapes. If

two vertical glass plates are placed so that they touch along
one end and, form a V, a wedge of water will rise up in the
V because of the capillary phenomenon

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 Capillary rise in soil

Shapes of void spaces between solid particles are

unlike those in capillary tubes
Voids are of irregular and varying shape and size,
and interconnect in all directions, not only the
vertical
The features of capillary rise in tubes are
applicable to soils in so far as they facilitate an
understanding of factors affecting capillarity, and
help to establish an order of magnitude for
capillary rise in the different types of soils

Capillary rise in soil (continued.)

Question:
Limited laboratory studies indicate that for a certain silt soil, the
effective pore size for height of capillary rise is 1/5 of D10,
where D10 is the 10 percent particle size from the grain-
grain-size
distribution curve. If the D10 size for such a soil is 0.02mm,
estimate the height of capillary rise.

Solution:
d = effective capillary diameter = 1/5D10 = 1/5 (0.02 mm)
= 0.004 mm

hc 31/d 31/0.004 mm 7750 mm 7.75m

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 Capillary rise in soil (continued.)

Capillary
fringe

Capillary rise in soil (continued.)

Table : Representative heights of capillary rise:

water in soil

Soil Type Meter (m)

Small gravel 0.02-0.1
Coarse sand 0.15
Fine sand 0.3 to 1
Silt 1 to 10
Clay 10 to 30

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 Soil shrinkage & soil swelling

1.2 Head and flow of one and two

dimensional

One- dimensional flow the velocity at all

points has the same direction and (for an
incompressible fluid) the same magnitude

Two-dimensional flow all streamlines in

the flow are plane curves and are identical
in a series of parallel planes

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 Lecture 3 Notes Two Dimensional Flow
In the previous section the seepage problems discussed were all lab models consisting of
one-dimensional flow. In field construction, structures used for water barriers generally
involve two- or three-dimensional seepage flow, such as:

(1) Cofferdam cells (sheet pile wall) and Concrete dams are confined flow; all the
boundary conditions are well defined before the construction of flow nets.

(2) Earth dams and levees are unconfined flow; the top flow line is not defined in
advance of constructing the flow nets.

The purposes of studying the seepage conditions under or within these structures are:

1. to estimate the rate of flow (reservoirs for keeping water cut-off ability
2. seepage force ( wi) (uplift force) (erosion)
3. pore pressure distribution for effective stress analysis

In this section we will concentrate on studying two-dimensional steady flow through soil
media since most three-dimensional cases can be treated as twodimensional cases when
the size-dimension in one of the dimensions is much greater than the other two
dimensions.

The Laplace Equation, a second order partial differential equation, is the theory behind
the flow net. This equation is a common mathematical representation of the energy loss
through any resistive media (See textbook for its derivation and details). Methods
generally used for solving the Laplaces equation are:

1. Direct mathematical solution (different boundary condition for different answer)

2. Numerical solution (approximation, finite difference method)
3. Electrical analogy solution (build electric model)
4. Graphical solution (flow nets, a trial-and-error method)

Flow Net Construction

Flow net consists of Flow Lines (velocity line) and Equal Head Lines (equal potential or
equal total head). The characteristics or rules to construct a flow net for isotropic
permeability are listed below,

1. satisfy the boundary conditions

2. make flow lines intersect constant head lines at 90
3. draw curvilinear squares
Although Flow Net is a trial-and-error graphical method, an unique solution will always
be achieved when all these three construction requirements are met. A detailed
explanation of these three characteristics is shown below:

1. Boundary conditions for two dimensional flow

a. Soil water interface = constant head line

b. Impermeable boundary = flow line

2. flow lines are perpendicular to constant head lines for isotropic permeability (kx =
kz)

From Darcys law:

h
Vx = k x
x

h
Vz = k z
z

h 2 h
V = (k x ) + (k z )2
x z

For isotropic permeability, Kz = Kz = k, giving

h 2 h
V = ( ) + ( )2
x z

But

h h h
( )2 + ( )2 = = normal derivative or normal gradient
x z n
 The direction of the normal derivative is normal to the constant headlines. The
velocity, V is in the direction of this gradient and is therefore normal to the
constant headlines.

3. Consider the condition necessary to have Equal Quantities of Flow between

Flow Lines, when the head drops between constant headlines are equal.

If q1 = q2 = q; V1A1 = V2A2; ki1A1 = ki2A2;

k( h/a)(b)(1) = k ( h/c)(d)(1)
 Giving b/a = d/c = curvilinear rectangles with the same side ratios

Use b/a = d/c = 1 = curvilinear squares) easiest to draw)

Computation of quantity of flow through a net

Let nf = number of flow channels in the net

nh = number of equal head drops across the net

Then q = nf q, since q = k h (b/a) = k h; therefore q = nf k h

If H = total head from across the net

h = H/nh; q = nf k (H/nh)

q = kH (nf/nh)

nf/nh = Shape factor

Construction Procedure

1. Observe the general pattern of flow. Where does the water enter and exit the soil?
What general path does it follow?
2. Located the boundary flow lines (longest and shortest ) and constant head lines
(water entrance and exit)
3. Sketch two intermediate flow lines.
4. Begin at the constant head line where the water enters (or exits) the soil and
sketch as many constant head lines as required to reach the exit (or entrance)
constant head line by drawing curvilinear squares and 90 intersections with flow
lines.
5. Adjust these flow lines and constant headlines as necessary to produce curvilinear
squares and 90 intersections.
6. If desired, sketch additional flow lines and constant headlines to reduce the size of
the curvilinear squares.
1.2 Head and flow of one and two
dimensional (continued)

(1) (2)

1.3 Seepage analyses

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1.3 Analysis of flow nets and seepage
Many catastrophic failures in geotechnical
engineering result from instability of soil
masses due to ground water flow
Lives are lost, infrastructures are damaged
or destroyed, and major economic losses
occurred
In this subchapter, you will study the basic
principles of two-dimensional flow of
water through soils

1.3 Analysis of flow nets and seepage

(continued)
The topics that you will study would help
you to avoid pitfalls in the analyses and
design of geotechnical systems where flow
of ground water can lead to instability
The emphasis of this chapter is on gaining
an understanding of the forces that
provoke failures from flow of ground
water

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1.3 Analysis of flow nets and seepage
(continued)
Learning Objectives:
Understand the basic principles of two-
dimensional flow
Be able to calculate seepage stresses, pore-
water pressure distribution, uplift forces,
hydraulic gradients, critical hydraulic gradient,
flow under and within earth structures
Be able to determine the stability of geotechnical
systems subjected to two-dimensional flow of
water

1.3.1 Basic Concepts

The two-
two-dimensional flow of water through soils is
governed by Laplace
Laplaces equation. The popular form of
Laplace
Laplaces equation for two-
two-dimensional flow of water
through soils is
2H 2H
kx + kz =0
x 2
z 2

Where kx and kz are the coefficient of permeability in the

x and z directions and H is the head
The assumptions in Laplace
Laplaces equation are:
(i) Darcy
Darcys law is valid
(ii) The soil is homogeneous and saturated
(iii) The soil and water are incompressible
(iv) No volume change occurs

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1.3.1 Basic Concepts (continued)
If the soil were an isotropic material then kx = kz and
Laplace
Laplaces equation becomes:

2H 2H
+ 2 =0
x 2 z
The solution of Laplace
Laplaces equation requires knowledge of
the boundary conditions.
Common geotechnical problems have complex boundary
conditions from which it is difficult to obtain a closed
form solution.
Approximate methods such as graphical methods and
numerical methods are often employed.
In this subchapter, graphical method, called the flow net
technique or flow net sketching, that satisfies Laplace
Laplaces
equation is discussed.

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3.56 x 10-4

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No of equipotential
drops at point a

Elevation loss

hpw

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hpw

hpw

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Uplift forces

Static Liquefaction, Heaving, Boiling, & Piping

Static liquefaction the state which the effective stress becomes
zero, the soil loses its strength and behaves like a viscous fluid
fluid
Boiling, quicksand, piping and heaving are used to describe
specific events connected to the static liquefaction state
Boiling the upward seepage force exceeds the download force
of the soil
Piping the subsurface pipe-
pipe-shaped
shaped erosion that initiates near
the toe of dams and similar structures. High localized hydraulic
gradient statically liquefies the soil, which progresses to the
water surface in the form of a pipe, and water then rushes
beneath the structure through the pipe, leading to instability andand
failure
Quicksand existence of a mass of sand in a state of static
liquefaction
Liquefaction can be produced by dynamic events such as
earthquakes

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 Piping

Piping (continued)
The risk of piping can occur in several
circumstances, such as a cofferdam (a) or the
downstream end of a dam (b)
In order to increase the factor of safety against
piping in these cases two methods can be
adopted
(1) increase the depth of pile penetration in (a)
and inserting a sheet pile at the heel of the dam
in (b); in either case there is an increase in the
length of the flow path of the water with a
resulting drop in the excess pressure at the
critical section.

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 Piping (continued)
A similar effect is achieved by laying down
a blanket of impermeable material for
some length along the upstream ground
surface
(2) To place a surcharge or filter apron on
top of the downstream side, the weight of
which increases the downward forces

Example:-

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 Others phenomenon: Quick sand,
Frost heave in soils, liquefaction

Quicksand
Dreaded quicksand condition occurs where a
sand or cohesionless silt deposit is subjected to
the seepage force caused by upward flow of
groundwater
The upward gradient of the water is sufficient to
hold the soil particles in suspension, in effect
creating a material with the properties of a
heavy liquid
Elimination of seepage pressure will return the
soil to a normal condition capable of providing
support

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 Frost heave in soils
When freezing temperatures develop in a soil mass, most of the
pore water in the soil is also subject to freezing. As water
cystallizes,
cystallizes, its volume expands approximately 9 percent
In considering void ratios and the degree of saturation for soils,
soils,
expansion of a soil material as a result of freezing might be
expected to be on the order of 3 or 4 percent of the original
volume

Frost heave in soils (continued)

In the normal frost heave occurrence, the source of water is the
groundwater table
Upward movement from a water table to the freezing zone
relates to a potential for migration (capillary rise)
Height of capillary rise is quite limited in clean, coarse-
coarse-grained
soil

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Soil liquefaction

1.4 Filter design

Text book sec: 8.11

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End of Chapter 1

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