BIOREMEDIATION

Various toxic chemicals find their way into natural waterbodies when effluents from industries are
discharged into them. This chemical contamination of an ecosystem usually results in the death of
majority of the living organisms. The condition goes worse, if the chemically contaminated in the
waterbody is used as a source of drinking water for human beings. However, certain microorganisms are
able to survive in that environment because of their metabolic diversity. These microorganisms have
developed resistant mechanisms to detoxify these chemicals. The process, in which the microorganisms
convert the toxic or ecologically harmful materials into harmless molecules, is known as bioremediation.
Thus the microorganisms are capable of combating the pollutants.
Actually in bioremediation, the toxic organic compounds are used as an energy and carbon source by the
microorganisms. However, inorganic compounds are not used by the microorganisms involved in
bioremediation. Microorganisms either transform these inorganic substances into insoluble compounds or
accumulate them intracellularly. Thus they are removed by the microorganisms. Sometimes, the
microorganisms may require stimulation for the successful bioremediation for example, addition of
limiting nutrients, particularly phosphates and nitrates, may initiate bioremediation process.

HOW DOES BIOREMEDIATION WORKS

In order for microbes to clean up harmful chemicals, the right temperature, food sources, and nutrients
(substances or elements that are essential to the growth of the microbe) must be present in the soil and
groundwater. These conditions allow the microbes to grow and multiply - and “eat” more chemicals.
When conditions are not right, microbes grow too slowly or die. One way to get the right food sources
and nutrients to microbes is to pump air or nutrients underground. Different kinds of added substances
may be used depending on the circumstances. For example, molasses is one substance that has been
added to help the microbes grow underground. With the right temperature and amount of oxygen and
nutrients, microbes can do their work to “bioremediate” harmful chemicals. In bioremediation, bacteria
facilitate chemical reactions that would not occur without the bacteria and their special enzymes or
organic catalysts. These chemical reactions result in changes or transformations of chemicals; for
example, bacteria can transform sugars into carbon dioxide. Bioremediation can create a mix of chemicals
that is less hazardous than the mix before transformation. Transformation occurs when there is a shift of
the number of electrons in each chemical in a reaction. The number of electrons before and after a
transformation must be the same; in other words, electrons are "transferred" as they move from chemicals
that are electron donors to chemicals that are electron acceptors. The bacteria in bioremediation simply
help the electron transfer to take place.
Chemicals that easily give up electrons are called electron donors; they serve as the "food" in
bioremediation. Electron donors are the source of energy for organisms like bacteria. Many different
organic chemicals, such as sugars, amino acids, and hydrocarbons, and some inorganic chemicals such as
ammonia or hydrogen, can function as electron donors.
Chemicals that easily accept electrons are called electron acceptors; in bioremediation, they are associated
with respiration. For example, bacteria can use oxygen from air as an electron acceptor. Other common
electron acceptors are nitrate, sulfate, and carbon dioxide.
In bioremediation, hazardous chemical(s) may act in one of three ways when it comes to these chemical
transformations. One, the chemical of concern may act as an electron donor.
Gasoline cleanup is one example. In order to clean up gasoline with bioremediation, an electron acceptor
such as oxygen needs to be added to complete the transformation of gasoline into carbon dioxide. Two,
the chemical of concern may act as an electron acceptor. For example, when using bioremediation to
clean up tricholoroethylene or TCE, an electron donor or “food” such as molasses is used to transform the
TCE into dichloroethylene or DCE. In the third case, the chemical of concern may be transformed
through cometabolism. In this case, a chemical reaction occurs between an electron donor and an electron
acceptor, neither of which are the chemical of concern. However, the bacteria that grow while such a
reaction is occurring can transform the chemical of concern as a"side reaction." For example, TCE is
transformed by cometabolism through bacteria that use butane as an electron donor or food, with oxygen
as an electron acceptor or respiring chemical. The right conditions for bioremediation cannot always be
achieved underground. In these situations, soil might be dug up and cleaned above ground where extra
heat or soil mixing may help improve conditions. After the soil is dug up, nutrients important for the
growth of the microbes often are added. Oxygen also may be added by stirring the mixture or by pumping
air through it, resulting in aerobic (“with air”) treatments. Some microbes work better without oxygen.
Anaerobic treatment takes place when organisms use chemicals such as nitrate, sulfate, or carbon dioxide
instead of air for respiration. Sometimes mixing soil can cause harmful chemicals to evaporate before the
microbes can “eat” them. To prevent these chemicals from polluting the air, soils are mixed inside a
special tank or building and chemicals that evaporate are collected and treated. Microbes can help clean
polluted groundwater as well as soil. To do this, wells are drilled and some of the groundwater is pumped
into tanks. Often, the water is mixed with nutrients and air before it is pumped back into the ground. The
added nutrients and air help the microbes bioremediate the groundwater. Nutrients, food, and air also can
be mixed with water in the ground through carefully-placed wells. Once harmful chemicals are cleaned
up and microbes have “eaten” their available “food,” the microbes die and naturally decompose. Whether
or not bioremediation occurs, and how much time it takes to bioremediate a site depends on several
factors:
• Types and amounts of harmful chemicals present
• Whether the right balance of food, nutrients, and other substances can be maintained where the
harmful chemicals are located
• Size and depth of the polluted area
• Whether cleanup occurs above ground or underground
• Whether the right microbes are present at the site
• Whether food sources, nutrients, or additional bacteria can be easily added to the site.

MICROBIAL POPULATIONS FOR BIOREMEDIATION PROCESSES

Microorganisms can be isolated from almost any environmental conditions. Microbes will adapt and grow
at subzero temperatures, as well as extreme heat, desert conditions, in water, with an excess of oxygen,
and in anaerobic conditions, with the presence of hazardous compounds or on any waste stream. The
main requirements are an energy source and a carbon source. Because of the adaptability of microbes
and other biological systems, these can be used to degrade or remediate environmental
hazards.
We can subdivide these microorganisms into the following groups:
• Aerobic. In the presence of oxygen. Examples of aerobic bacteria recognized for their
degradative abilities are Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Sphingomonas, Rhodococcus, and
Mycobacterium. These microbes have often been reported to degrade pesticides and
hydrocarbons, both alkanes and polyaromatic compounds. Many of these bacteria use the
contaminant as the sole source of carbon and energy.
• Anaerobic. In the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria are not as frequently used as aerobic
bacteria. There is an increasing interest in anaerobic bacteria used for bioremediation of
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in river sediments, dechlorination of the solvent
trichloroethylene (TCE), and chloroform.
• Ligninolytic fungi. Fungi such as the white rot fungus Phanaerochaete chrysosporium have the
ability to degrade an extremely diverse range of persistent or toxic environmental pollutants.
Common substrates used include straw, saw dust, or corn cobs.
• Methylotrophs. Aerobic bacteria that grow utilizing methane for carbon and energy. The initial
enzyme in the pathway for aerobic degradation, methane monooxygenase, has a broad substrate
 range and is active against a wide range of compounds, including the chlorinated aliphatics
trichloroethylene and 1,2-dichloroethane.

BIOREMEDIATION STRATEGIES
Different techniques are employed depending on the degree of saturation and aeration of an area. In situ
techniques are defined as those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site with minimal
disturbance. Ex situ techniques are those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site which has
been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water).

Summary of bioremediation strategies.

Advantages of bioremediation
• Bioremediation is a natural process and is therefore perceived by the public as an acceptable
waste treatment process for contaminated material such as soil. Microbes able to degrade the
contaminant increase in numbers when the contaminant is present; when the contaminant is
degraded, the biodegradative population declines. The residues for the treatment are usually
harmless products and include carbon dioxide, water, and cell biomass.
• Theoretically, bioremediation is useful for the complete destruction of a wide variety of
contaminants. Many compounds that are legally considered to be hazardous can be transformed
to harmless products. This eliminates the chance of future liability associated with treatment and
disposal of contaminated material.
• Instead of transferring contaminants from one environmental medium to another, for example,
from land to water or air, the complete destruction of target pollutants is possible.
• Bioremediation can often be carried out on site, often without causing a major disruption of
normal activities. This also eliminates the need to transport quantities of waste off site and the
potential threats to human health and the environment that can arise during transportation.
 • Bioremediation can prove less expensive than other technologies that are used for clean-up of
hazardous waste.

Disadvantages of bioremediation
• Bioremediation is limited to those compounds that are biodegradable. Not all compounds are
susceptible to rapid and complete degradation.
• There are some concerns that the products of biodegradation may be more persistent or toxic than
the parent compound.
• Biological processes are often highly specific. Important site factors required for success include
the presence of metabolically capable microbial populations, suitable environmental growth
conditions, and appropriate levels of nutrients and contaminants.
• It is difficult to extrapolate from bench and pilot-scale studies to full-scale field operations.
• Research is needed to develop and engineer bioremediation technologies that are appropriate for
sites with complex mixtures of contaminants that are not evenly dispersed in the environment.
Contaminants may be present as solids, liquids, and gases.
• Bioremediation often takes longer than other treatment options, such as excavation and removal
of soil or incineration.
• Regulatory uncertainty remains regarding acceptable performance criteria for bioremediation.
There is no accepted definition of “clean”, evaluating performance of bioremediation is difficult,
and there are no acceptable endpoints for bioremediation treatments.

REFERENCES
http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/2001/pdf/7307x1163.pdf
http://tosc.oregonstate.edu/nabir/about_bioremediation.pdf
http://www.systems.wsu.edu/bin/libdocs/subject/Bioremediation.pdf