Workshop Practice Series 08 - Sheet Metal Work

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Newnes "Complete Engineer" Series-Volume 7
SHEET-METAL
WORK
Prepared by a Staff of Experts

under the direction of
E. MOLLOY
WITH 95 PHOTOGRAPHS AND DIAGRAMS
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SHEET-METAL WORK
The subject of sheet-metal work has

In recent years become of fint-dus
IMportance owing to the advent of all-
metal aircraft. In addition to the use of
aluminium and aluminium alloys for
wing coverings and fuselage skin, they
are used on practically all types of air-
craft for engine cowlings, fairings and
petrol tanks.
The use of sheet metal In automobile

construction has been standard practice
for many years. In addition to these
two very Important applications, sheet
metal work plays a vital part In heating
and ventilating engineering and a wide
variety of engineering and allied trades.
This book presents an up-to-date

survey of the processes and operations
Involved In the cutting and shaping of
all types of sheet metal. Much needed
Information Is given on every aspect.
7/6
NaT
THE "COMPLETE ENGINEER'' SERIES VOLUME 7
SHEET-METAL
WORK
INCLUDING METAL SPINNING
DEALING WITH THE METHODS OF WORKING

SHEET METAL 11\:TO VARIOUS FORMS> USING HAND TOOLS
AND SIMPLE MACHINES
Prepared by a Siaff of Technical

Experts under the direction of
E. MOLLOY
WITH NINETY,PIVE PHOTOGRAPHS AND DIAGRAMS
GEORGE NEWNES LIMITED

TOWER HOUSE, SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND
LONDON. W.C.2
PREFACE
HR subjct~t of sheel.-metal work has in recent years be<.,ome of firsl.-
T l'lll>f;!'l impoit-<~nee,
ow.ing to the advent of all-mot,al aircraft..
In addition to it.s use for wing CO\-'erings and fu~ehLge skin,
aluminium nnd aluminium rdloys arc used on pn.tt1tically all t.ypci:i of air-
craft, for engine eowlings, fairings, a.nd petrol tankr::.
The use of sheet-metal in a utomobile r.onstruction has been standard
practic{~ for rua.ny yea:rs. ln a ddit.ion t o t.hc.so two ve.ry important.
a.ppli c.a.tiou~ . sheet.-InetR-1 work p lays a, vital pm:t in he.a .ting and ventilat-
ing engincnrin g a nd a ~ide va-riety of engineering a.nd allied t rades.
This book presents ~tn up-to-date survey of t.hc proeesses and opcratiom;
involved in the cutting and shaping of all t:n>cs of sheet metal.
The fir!:lt chapter deHr.rihol:! the met..als in general use, and their
ekwaeteristi(~S, and should prove n. useful guide t-o the seJectjon of t he
most. Rnitahle metal for any given job.
Beforo <t st.arL ean he made on any but tho most elementary artici<'..s
in sheet mt:>ta.l, .it iR ncc.cssary t o form a pntt(Jrn. 'f his ensures that
the various p ieces of sheet, m aking 11p t.he art icle, are cut to i,h e oorrecl
shape, and so will fit; together after the bending, foldillg, a.nd for01i:ng
opeeations. ln CJ13.ptcr II, full details arc given as to this necessary
process, so that anyone with no knowledge of geometry, when caJled
upon to make up somet;hiug, for the shop or. joh, r.a.n do so without wading
through figures and formul~ in a.n endeavour to carry out. the work in
hand.
Chapter 111 deals wit.h the a.ctual cuWng 1.md fa nning 'vork, usi11g
hand tool!l ; while Chapters IV a.nd V deal with t,he machines that can
be used for formiug sheet metal and describe how they arc operated to
get the best, result~ ..
Chapter VI, which desctibes the various methodR of joining sheet
metal, com].>letes this section of t he work.
The final chapter clea.ls with the method of shaping sheet metal
known a.~ metal ::~pinning; it is believed t hat. ibis chapter will RUppiy
much-needed inf ornmtion concerning a !:lhoot-ruetal pr&.Rh"lR on ''hich
vory lit.t.Je info rmation of a practical nature har:: hitbert.o been publi~;hcd.
E. :YI.
COl\TENTS
rAfJE
SIIEET-fdETAL WORK
PnEFAUE 3
<.'lr.'\t"r~1t
I. SH.tt;J:11 ~:f.ETALS lN GENERAl~ l~St; !)

I3hwk Iron- -Cold-rolled Close-aruwu.Jcd Iron Silve lfiniBh-Bluc-planished
1'-tccl-Ti:uplate.- ~!'erne Plate Galvu.niscd lron -Aluminium--Dumlumin-
ChaplN' I
Copper-Bl'll~~ and Xickd Silver-Zino-Stainless Stecl-Ekktron--Air
Minist.ry Rpet,ifioation~.
SHEET METALS IN GENERAL USE
JT. How TO .FORM. PAT'fKI{KS FOR SHt:~:'l'-.l-TETAL ARTICLES 11
I'attcm for .-\ngle l:lhow- Pipe TeeB-Dnut'h Pipes OlfsE!t l'ipes-Pipe HEET-METAL work is generally regarded as t.he working of metal,
Hend:'!-Dovduprnent of Cone;;- Conical Elbow on "P~.ra,llf.!l Pipc--C:onicaJ
Hopper on 8lu1t J>ipe--Rquarc UJd ltoundod Hood"' Wiring ~dge:'! of ::;heet
mt'tal Articlc~-1\f<,to.l ClipB =<1 Bnnds-Squm-o Tap<,rcd Box with Lrnequal
Sides .ltectaJl{,'ttlar Flue--Biuckswith's )-I nod and Flue.
S from 16 gauge down to 30 gauge, with hand tools and simple
ma.ebines into various forms by cutting, forming into shape, and
joining. A brief survey of the metals in general use, together with their
characteristics, will prove a useful guide for selecting the most suitable
111. Cr.rTI~C AND FoRMING SJ-n:~<:'I' METAL 39
Cutti11g '.l'ools-Uuillotines--Snips- ..lf.and-lever and Rotary Shcars- metal for any given job.
Nihhkr;,; t:?.-ing Chisol for Cutting-Hollow Punch-Punch u.Ju.l Dic-Fonniug
Tools-Type of Hamme'! 111nd 'l'hdr "'Cses ..-.1\'lallets-Bcnch Tools-Mnndrcl Black Iron
-Anvils and Stakfls-Pu.uel Heads.
The cheapest sheet metal is black iron, which is sheet iron rolled to the
IV. BE~l>L~G A~D .FOLJH~G DY ~1AGHJ:>;(~ 49 desired thickness, annealed by plaeing in a furnace until red hot, and then
Anglo Bender Ol' Cramp Folder ...Folding Machinca--Hight-angle .~ender Ol' set aside to cool gradually. This is known as open annealing, and the
Dt~nding I'rc~s-~enrling l:tollcrs-Use of a Bonding Jig. resultant sheet is covered with scale, owing to the form:ttion of oxide
on its stll'face, due to being heated in air. 'l'o prevent this scale from
V. WHEELI~G, READI~G, A!\D SWAGINC. 57
Wheeling Mu.chines-Hints on Using-l'rorluction of u.n Automobile Dome- forming, a ptocess known as "close annealing" is employed, whe1e the
Wheeling Flat PanelF.--Wheeling Varying Contoun;-CorrectiJJg l\1i~takes sheets are packed in a box a.nd sealed from t.hc atmo11phere and products
Otheo 11~es for \\'lot,eling \fa.nhincs-Swaging with a 'Wheeling :Machine--Vente of combustion during the annealing process.
m1.er 1\'JRd:linc,_ Swaging J\!lacbinoa ... Setting up and uBc of Swagil'lg 1\-fachine-
r:scs f'or Swaging-Ar.rowhoad Moulding-Swaging Cu.r Do<.lie~<---Compo>'!lil.e
Swaging-Swaging Tuhe and PipcR--l'ormi>>g a Moulding in u. Cramp J:'oldeJ' Cold-rolled Close-annealed Sheet Iron
- -GuttE'ring-Dra-wn Sections. To still furt.her improve the surface of the sheet it is rWl through
VT. ,JOI:Sl~G SHEET-METAL WORK. 71 polished cold rolls after annealing, and is then known as C.R.C.A. (cold
Grooved J oifii.--St,rip-~cam .Toint-Jlox-col'nllr ,Toint-l{nocked-up J oillt.-- rolled close annealed).
ltiveted ,J oints-Riveting-U~ing Dolly .. Rivet Squeezo-Flw;h I'inish-Solder Common black iron is used whore cost is the prime consideration, and
und Solclering-Soldel'ing FtuxcB-Mal~it>g a Soldered .Toint-Sweu.ted Joint.. when used for outside work it must be protected from the weather by
-Float-ing and Drillgi11g-Silvor Soluering--Bra.zing-Wclding.
painting or coating \~ith boiled linseed oil.
v11. :Yh:'I'AL SPINNING 81 C.R.C.A. may be used fot' all purposes where a sheet which is flat and
Spinui.11g J.athes-Chucks Simple Spiuning --Offset Spinning-Spinning possessing a good surface is required. It is an excellent base for paint
from tho ll1side-Fonning Xock;; ... ~('rimming ami Doading, and 1\'Jarking-
Automs.tic Trimming l.athe-Spitmel"'s Ha.nd Tools.
or enamel, and is used for steel furniture, electric cookers, fires and
refrigerators, air-duct and ventilating systems, bins, eovers, hoods, and
LJs~:~Tl. TABLES 92 chutes, etc.
GaugeR, 'l'll.ieknE'SS, ~-nrl \Vcight of Ula.cl' ShP.ct Iron ami Stccl-hnperial
Stu..nda:r.d Wire Gauge 'l'inplate S.i.zC\.s, Gauge~, and Marks-Copper Sheet. Silver Finish
INDEX 94 A sheet of super-quaJity, descaled and cold rolled, known as "Silver
Vinish," has been developed, mainly for the motor trade, and is used
5
SHEET-METAL WORK SHEET llETALS IK GENER.AL USE 7
ext-ensively for motor-body panels and wings. This is Ja.irly malleable Terne Plate or Lead-
and ductile, easy to weld, and. the smooth, scale-free surface is an excel- coated Iron
lent ground for the high finish associated with motor-body work. "Silvet Lead would be
Finish " is the best grade of sheet iron manufA.Ctut'ed, and can be used an cxccUent metal
for the highest class of sheet-iron work, but its bright surface needs pro- with which to face
tecting with paint;, enameJ, or plating. iron sheets for pro-
tection, except for
Blue-planished Steel the fnct that lead
Blue-planished steel was formally known as Russian iron. IL has a has little or no
polished, gun-barrel-blue, oxidised smface, and is used where further affinity for iron, a,nd
surface treatment is undesirable, e.g. oven interiors. Great care i:> an addition of tin
necessary in handling tllis metal, as, due to the fa.ct that it is supplied must he made to
covered with grease or oil to prevent damage in transit and storage by get it to "take."
rust or scratching, the sheets are liable to slip through the hands and In most cases the
cause mjury. t,in content is low,
hut for soldered
work a terne plate
Tinplate mny be used, which
Tjnplate is sheet iron coated with tin to protect it o,gainst rust. This is virtuallv a solder-
is used for nearly all soldered work, as it is the eat>iest metal to join by coated sh~et. This
soldering and, due to tin being the main constituent of tinma.n's solder, is much used for
the solder alloys with the tin coating and makes a neat sound joint. outside work which
Tin is a safe metal to use for culinary purposes, as food is not contaminated is to be joined by
by contact. Common tin plate~ are rolled to the required thickness, soldering, such as )b.TERI.I.T. :RJ<l't'(; SHAt'ED II\' LAROE BE~DJ~(I lL'lCHl!\1
annealed, immersed in an acid bath to romovo the scale, dipped in flux. electric box signs.
and then into a bath of molten tin which adheres to the surface. This (By court.esy of Ter.alemit, Ltd.)
first tinning leaves tiny pin holes and, while thiR is not detrimental for Galvanised Iron
::~ome classes of work, the hettct qualities receive a second dip in another Zinc is a metal whieh withsta.nds contact wit.h water and exposure
bath of tin, at a lower temperature, which "floats over " t.he pin holes to weather, but the poor mechanico,l properties render it unsuitable for
left in the first coating. The highest-quality sheets used for culinary and many jobs requiring the characteristic8 of ziuc combined with the ~igh
hotel work receive a third dipping in a tin bath, thus ensuring a heavy mecha.nical properties of iron .. Zinc-coated iron i;; known as" galvamsed
coating of pure tin on the surface of the iron. Great care is taken to .Uon," but the coating is not electrically deposited, as its name would
preserve the surface of these sheets, and they arc packed in boxeH suggest; but the sheet is dipped in molten zinc after being pickled,
interleaved with tissue paper to prevent scmtching in transit. The scoured, a.nd fluxed wit,h sal-ammoni}tc, the process being the same aH
qualities of tinplates arfl know:n a.s Common, Best, and Best Best used in the manufacture of tinplate. Galvaniscd tanks and other jobbing
rcspecti vely. work is usually made in C.R.C.A. and galvanised after completion. Thus
The sizes and thickness of tinplates are denoted by special marks, the zinc seals the joints and coats the edges, which if made of g~tlvaniscd
not by gauge numbers, and can be very confusing to the uninitiatcrl. sheet would be bare iron and Hable to rusting.
Jt will be noticed that tinplate is only obtainable in fairly small sheets
of light gauge. If larger or heavier sheets of tinned iron are required, Aluminium
the material used is known as Manchester plate or " tinned steel," and Due to the development of the aircraft and motor industries, alumin-
this may be obtained in all sizes and gaugeH in which sheet iron is ium has become the most important and widely used of the non-fetTous
obtainable. )1anchester plate is a heavily coated sheet of the highest metals. Its lightness (specific gravity 256) makes it especially useful
quality, and is much used for dairy utensils, hotel work, and petrol for aircraft parts liable Lo very little mechanical !'!train, the tensile atl'ength
tanks. being only about 9 tons per square inch. This is very malleable and
SHEET-METAL WORK SHEET METAT,S IN GEXRRAL USE 9
capable of being worked into wost shapes without annealing. The metal makes the metal especially suitable for hotel and culinary work, but as
"work hardens," and if the job has to undergo much stretching, it is copper is dangerous when in contact w:l.th food, the sutface which is liable
advisable to anneal when tho material becomes hard, to prevent the t,o cont-act is coated with pure tin. Articles which are to be plated are
development of splits and cracks. Aluminium is used 011 aircraft mainly frequently made from copper, as this takes a high finish, and is an
for engine cowling, fairings, and pctl'Ol tanks. excellent base for the deposition of plated metals (nickel, chromium,
The pa.nels on high-clat~s motor bodies, are made from aluminium for silver, etc.).
several reasons. Firstly, to lighten the body in order to give the high Copper can be joined by welding, but a special type of de-oxidised
"power to weight " ratio necessary for good performance. Secondly, metal must be used.
for ease of working and good surfaco finish; and thirdly, because, when
scoured wit.h a wire brush, a good base is formed for the heavy cellulose Brass and Nickel Silver
coating which is able to hold tenaciously to the scoured surface. As Brass is an aHoy of copper and zinc, possessing good working charac-
aluminium is rustles!! it is also dmable, and the stripping of paintwork,
teristics, and is used as a base for plated goods. Nickel silver, or German
owing to rust forming underneath, is obviated.
silver, is an alloy of copper (2 parts), zinc (l part), nickel (1 part), making
Almninium cannot be soldered by ordinary methods, as the film of
a white metal of excellent working characteristics. This is sometimes
oxide which forms on the metal is tough and tenacious and cannot be used in the na(..ural state, as a white metal; but is more generally used for
broken do't\<"IJ. with soldering fluxes at ordinary temperatures. Weld-
the highest class of silver-plated :work.
ing and riveting are the methods u..~ed to join together aluminium
parts.
Zinc
Duralumin This metal withstands the weather very well, and is 11sed extensively
for outside work, such as roof work, gutters, spouts, etc. Care must be
This metal is used almost exclusively for aircraft work, for the fabrica- exercised when working zinc, as it is short grained {i.e. more granular
tion of engine cowlings, fairing, fuselage skin, and tanks, and iR a light, than fibrous). Zinc is malleable at a temperature just hot enough to
a.lloy of high tensile strength {about 18 tons per square inch), and some- be comfortably handled, but is decidedly brittle at low temperatures.
what hard and brittle. }'or this reason, Dural should be annealed before Owing to tho poor working characteristics, this metal is more generally
bending or shaping is undertaken, and, as the metal "age hardens" used as a coating for iron, in the form of galvaniscd iron.
rapidly, annealing should be carried out at least every two hours, and
more frequently if the work entails hammering and stretching, otherwise
cracks and splits will appear and the work will be ruined. Stainless Steel
Dural mmnot be joined by oxy-acetylene welding, and for this reason This is an alloy of steel with nickel, chromium, and traces of other
riveting if': the most g(mcrally used metl10d for joining parts. It is now metals. In t.he original form (Staybrite) a fairly high percentage of
possible to join Dural by spot welding with a specially designed electric carbon was present, which made it hard and difficult to ":Ork, but at the
spot welder capable of producing the heavy current flow combined with present time about fifteen grades of stainless steel are manufactured, with
tho great mechanical pressure which is necessary. characteristics varying between high cn.rbon content (suitable for cutlery
T,he surface of Dural is very liable to corrosion, and tJO after the parts and other tools) and a form which is virtually a stainless iron and which
a.re made ami normalised, they are subjected to anodic treatment in order is as malleable as mild steel. Some stainless steels are unsuitable for
to preserve the metal. Dural sheets are sometimes faced with aluminium, welding, whilst others can be satisfactmily joined by this method.
thus rendering anodic treatment. unneces~;ary. Aluminium-coated Dural
is known as "Al.clad" sheet, and the method of working is the same as Elektron
for Dwal. This is a light alloy with a high magnesium content, which is coming
into prominence for aircraft work. Great care must be exercised in its
Copper working and handling, as when in small quantities (filings, turnings,
The characteristics of copper are its high conductivity of both heat cuttings, etc.) it ignites. very easily and burns with a brilliant white
and electricity, its red colour, which is ca-pable of taking a high finish, flame which can only be extinguished by damping with cast-iron dust,
n.nd its remarkable ductility and malleability. 'This high conductivity sand, or special extinguishers.
10 SHEET-METAL WORK
Air Ministry Specifications
All metal used for aircraft work must conform to an _.\ir M.inistry
Specification and be tested and inspected before being issued tor aircran,
work. To make identification eaRicr the RhcdR arc "Colom Marked,"
according to the speciGcation, by dabs of paint in the corner of the sheet
canyjng the inspection stamps. Chapter II
SPECIFICATIOJ:\ AXD COLOUR :\'lARKING OF SHI~ET
1\mTAT,S USED FOR AIIWRAF'f wOgK
HOW TO FORM PATTERNS FOR SHEET-
Sp~Xijication Meta~ Cowur lland
METAL ARTICLES
2.lU6 -~rEISs ~hevt,
hnlf tuml, f~~tan.lrs 1 Re~
3 .L.3 .
2.1~.4 .
2.L.l6
D.T.D.lll 1
Dural she<lt
Aluminiwn sheet, hard
A.luminiwn sheet, half hard
1 Alclad aheot
Yellow
Green
I Blne
Yellow and hhte
B EFORE st;arting on any project in sheet metal, a pa.ttern 11hould be
developed to ensul'e the accuracy of tbe finished article. When a
ho:x; cone, pipe, or other shape is being made up, ono of the illustrn.-
2.8.3 . Mild st-eel sheet . G-reen tions given in t.his chapter will setve as a guido to proc-edure. In order
3.8.20 . Tinnod st-eAl for tanl>R 1 BlQ,c:k a.nd gl-een to make the worked-out sketches as free from eJo..-t.ranoous lines as possible,
D.T.D.l7J.A.! StainleRs steel for welding : l~ed and bla.cl
a.llowance for joints is not given. For repetition work, u. pattern is
developed and cut out from metal ; the metal pattern i~ then mmd as a
template from wbieh the a.ct..ual job is marked off.
Ninety-degtee Angle Elbow (Fig. 1)

Nearly all pa.tterns are mailo up fi:om the development of a 90 angle
elbow hy full-sb:e drav.-ings of either an elevation or plan sketch. Having
mu.de the sketch with accuracy, it is necessary to draw a. base line across
the sketch as in Pig. I. 'fhe line need not be in the position shown in
this example, but immediately under the lower point of the elbow, if so
wished. When this is done, make sure the developed pattern will be
cove.red by the spac-e allotted, otherwise it will be necessary to start the
pattern drawing all over again. The allowance of margin therefore not
only assists in time-saving, but acts in such a manner a~:; to prove to the
operator if his parallel lines are correct or not.
With the point of the dividers on tho junction of the base line and the
centre line, draw a semicircle on the base line equal in diameter to the
sketch of the pipe. The semicircle is then divided into 1:1ix parts without
altering thtl dividers by using points 0, 3, and 6 as centlcs. :i\"Iark the
sections off as sho\\-n in Fig. l. It will be seen that this semicircle
tepresenti'l half the circumference of the actual pipo when finished.
As both views of the pipe are the same it is not necessary to
portray tho side of the pipe not seen in out illustration, nor is it necessary
to outline the oth~r pipn, as the pattern will he exactly the same. The
figured points 0 to 6 wiH represent six equal spaces around half the cir-
cumference of the finished pipe, there being no necessity to draw the
other half, a.s the outline is the same. On the other hand, it will be neces-
11
J2 SHEE'l'-MJi"".:T.A L WORK FORMING r A'l'TERNS 13
No allowance has been made for jointing, therefore the difference will
have to be drawn in before tho sheet is cut. In the case of welding thc1e
will be no necessity to add anything to the pattern in any way.
It is assumed that both pipes will have the scams on the short sido ;
therefore the patterns will be the same. This is not absolutely necessary
and the practised operator can c:b:aw both layouts on the same sheet, but
in thiH in!!tance the patterns are shown separately to enable the reader to
clearly understand the method.
Another Method
There is another simple method for marking out a 90 elbow, but it
applies only to a r-ight-angled elbow. The first method has been given to
sl10w the priuci}lle on which a.H cylindrical sheets are marked out, whereas
the inset in Fig. 1 pertains to no other layout. A circle equal in diameter
to the pipe is divided into twelve equal parts, the girth line 6-6 being
_j_ i 'I divided up in a like manner. The point,s to form the curve ar.e obtained
0 I 2 0 4. 5 . $ 5 ,f J 2 f. 0 : 8AS.l"Yi : IJ
GtRTrl/..tN
by running the construction lines up and across as shown in the inset.
TJ .'4
sary to mark out the l.l.lU;een side of the pipe ; therefore, as one side of the
pipe is the same as the other, the figures can be repeated. On the sketch
of the pipe elevation, then, draw lines from the sewicirclo sections to the
joint line at the elhow, and where these lines meet the joint, they will
mark the places on the developed pattern where the sheet of metal will
have to be cut to shape. As the sections on the semicircle equal twelve
Rpaccs around the actual pipe, it wm be necessary to draw twelve parallel
lines on the pattern, the distance between them being equal to any one
of the sections on the semicircle, and not tke base line. In this instance
the base line is there to enable the operator to measure distances from
the base line itself to the joint line. In our illustration two patterns
have been given showing the difference in the patterns when the seam
nf the pipe is on different sides. At right angles to tho parallel lines
the base line is drawn and numbered as shown. Set the dividers to
the distance 0 to 0' (base line to top of joint line) and with one point
of the dividers on the mark 0 on tho girth line of the pattem scribe !JAS LINE GiRTH L7NE
the ]ength 0' on the J)attcrn itself. Scribe out lengths with the other
0 1 2 3210!232 1 ()
numbers.
The illu~:;tration shows the scribings that will be made on the sheet,
and now it will only be necessary to freely conqect up the marked points
to form the correct shape of the joint ..
14 SHEE'l'-J\IETAL WORK FOR~UNG PATTERNS 15

Ninety-degree Tee with both Pipes the Same Diameter (Fig. 2 )
This is a fa.irly straightforward job, but alt hough it looks a little more
complicated (l!l .g. 2) it is carried out by t he use of only half t-he number of
figur~,s on t he ~midrcle as.the pr~n,.ious layout. The reason is that only(\
quarter of our circle is needod to produ c~ tho correct profile of t he joint
on tho down pipe. One-quarter of the qirclo iR divided into three equal
parts wit hout alt-ering the legs of the dividers which were set to t he
radius of t.he pipe. In this imrtance 0 starts from t-he centre Hno, as t his
is t.he most ::mitrt.ble line for t ho seam, and twC!lve space>! marked off equal .
to 0- 1, or 1-..2, or 2- 3, all being equal in dimensions . Lines at righ1;
angles arc run u p from the t welve places, and along them ar e measured
the distanecs froJU the l>ase line to the outline of the pipe fw m w hich our
pipe branches . It will be noted that R.ll lines from the bA.se lin.e heA.dng
the same number are the same length.
Forming the Hole
On the Bat sheet that will eventua.lly form the joining pipe dra\V' a
L
line 3- 3. This linl:l is the gitth line on the pipe, and not a r-fm fll'l'. line. BASELINE
Along this line space out. 0:-1, 1-2, and 2-3, all equal and obtained from l
the cfu;tance .apart of t hese numbers on the circle. Set the dividers t o
{}-6 on the elevati()n ttnd mark off 0-6 on both sides of a line drawn at
right anglef:l t hrough 0 on the girth line. Similar li'nes having been drawn
fi:om 1 and 2 respectively, t hey a..L<>o are marked off 1-5 and 2- 4 each side Fi(J. 3,..:_PAT.l:ER~ FOR T.BEl'IECE WlTR l'll'ES OF DDrF.F;R.F;NT DIAMETERS
of t,hc g.iit h I.ine, thus giving tho corrc<:t sha.pe of the hole that will havo
to be cut in the sheet before it is rolled into a pipo. The hole has been de.note the various points, canying the names or figures and letters of
set. above t he hta.nch pipe pattern so t hat t he reader ca.n, graphically, the point.-; .ii1 his memory. In any description it is necessary to use some
obt ain some idea. a.s to how t he aetual hole shape is formed. form of figures and lett-ering as an explanation of the method of procedure.
'l'hc marking out of the down pipe is on t he !:lame principle as t he
Ninety-degree Tee running into Larger Pipe (Fig. 3) preceding cxa.mplcs and i& L to ll on lines D , /{to G on lines 0, J to F
The pattem s in this inst-an ce (Ji'ig. 3) arc different from tl1e previous on lines .B , and A to Eon lines A. In the example shown t ho seam is
tee piece, in th at the larger diameter of tho main pipe fia.U.ons out t ho at A , but it (:an be arranged a.t ]), if t hought necessary, by fixing .A a t
dovoloped curYe on the smaller branch pipe. The spacing on 1.he girth tlw point now allotted t<J D and sketching out t he pattern accordingly.
line of t he larger pi}~e is abo produced in a different manner, owing to
the sections marked off on tho scmicitclc imposed upon tho base line of Thirty-degree Branch Pipe, both Pipes the Same Size (Fig. 4)
the smaller pipe being sma.Uer than similar sections would produ ce if The pdnciple of marking out the patterns romains the same, although
the larger pipe was similarly treated. In this instance the !!p acing on there is a. slight variation (F ig. 4). On both patterns all figures have been
the girth line EF GHG FP: is set out ~ith Il in tbe centre n.nd spaced left out on the cutting lines, but dotted lines showing how the various
H to G, G t o F, and F to Eon either side of J[ on the circle denoting points are produced have beon drtnvn in. It will be noted, however, that
the larger pip e. T he lengths of these lines will be marked from t ho bnse only a quarter segment of t he semicircle formed on the base line of the
line to tho periphery of the base circle of the smaller pipe, viz. D to L vert..kal pipe hn,s been used to obtain the points for cutting out the hole,
on H, 0 to K ( Hl G, B to J on F, and the point E will be on tho same although the semicil'clc itscJf ha.a boon figured to show the circumference
spot a.s A on tho gitth line. of tl1e pipe and the position of the hole. 'l'he joint between the two pipes
!,etters have llcen ttE~cd to denote the various spots, a.s figures rising has been drawn in, although tho position was not known until the
above the value of 10 would be somcwlu~t confusing, but it must b~ parallel lines drawn on each JliJlEI met and denoted where the joint should
remembered that the prt\ctised mechanic seldom U::)CS <J,ny cha-racterB t,o be. On the branch pipe it will be not ed that line 1 on the pipe elevati011
16 SHEET-M.ETAL WORK li'ORl\UNG l")ATTERNS 17
Fiy. u.-PaTTER~ FOR RIOII'I'ANOL~D Sli.ALJ:. <Wii'SET 'l.'Elt
Forty-five Degree Small to Larger Offset Pipe (Fig. 6)

This layout (Fig. 6) is a li.ttle rume complicated than those already
explained. In this instance the small pipe has the usual base line and
its imposed semicircle, but it has been found necessal'Y to number both
J!'ig. 4.-P.ATTERK FOR 30' ~;a,u.;crc rll'E, noTII PlPF.S l&I!:INC TIIE SaME SIZE
sides of the semieircle, as the obverse side of the branch pipe takes up
another shape to that shown on tbe front. It has also been necessary
intersects line l on the pattern of the same pipe ; exactly the same takes to produce a similar base on the top of the large pipe. In perspective
place \vi.th other figures of the same denomination. this semicircle would be at right a.ngles to the lower semicircle and has
Regarding the figuring on the other })attorn, it will be noted that hcen dra\'\-ll to locate t.hc positi.on of the joint on the large pipe. From
0 intersects 0 on the pat.tem, 1 intersects l, 2 intersects 2, 3 intersects :i, the point of view of the lines drawn along the small pipe, the position of
4 intersects line 2 on the pattern again, 5 again intersects 1, and 6 again the lines remain constant, but those on the other slde are of different
intersects 0, thus producing the correct shaped hole in the vertical pipe. lengths. Observation of the sketeh wi.ll show that the lines drawn through
0, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, and G meet the same numbered lines drawn from the base
Right-angled Small Offset Tee (Fig. 5) at t.he top of the large pipe. Where these lines intersect will be the joint
The pattern of the small pipe (.Fig. 5) is lu.id out by dividing into twelve line on the seen side of the pipe, but where lines 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 intersect
equal parts measured on the semicircle built upon the base line of the the similarly numbered lines (dotted for co.se in viewing) on tho large pipe
smaller pipe. Marked off at lengths 0-0, 1-A, 2-B, 3-0, 4-D, 5-E, will be formed the joint on the w1secn side. The unseen joint line is also
and 6-F fiom the RmaU-pipc base line and not f1'0'tn the sedions on the dotted. The circle equal in diameter to the large pipe haR been drawn to
.swrrticircle, the small-pipe pattern shape, where it meets the large pipe, is locate the small base pipe lines i.u their correct poHition. 'l'he pattern
illustrated with its peculiar form specially on the line 6. This is owing of the small pipe is numbered from 0 to ll and again 0 (0 being the same
to the smaller pipe being just a little larger than half the diameter of the spot as the 0 on the other side of tho dro.wn pattern). Lines drawn at
larue pipe. 'l'he fi!rure has been specially produced to give a.n idea of the right angles to the side of the small pipe will intersect the vertico.l (and
sh~tc, although not likely in actual practice. The girth line of the large parallel) lines dr<-..wn upwards from the small pipe base and spaced equal
pipe is laid out, and at distances along it are t:;cribed off measurements to the sections of the semicircle. Numbct 0, wbcre tho two pipes meet,
o...:.A, A-B, B-C, D-H, and E-F, obtained from the cirde denoting tho will intersect linea 0-0 on the pattern, also where lines 3 intersect on
Larger Jlipe. J"ines at right angles are ~awn thr?ugh these po~nts and the elevation is the point front which a line will he drawn to line 3 on the
their len!lth
0
determined from the small p1pe base lwc to l, base lme to 2, small pipe pattern, and so on from all the other intersections.
base Jine to 3. and so on. As J is the other end of A, the dividers' point The shape of the hole is obtained by constructing the line A-B from
is placed at A on the girth line and the point l marked off on either side. the point A at right angles to the large pipe. At right angles to the line
The cutting line of the hole is freely drawn in. A-B draw the line 0: J.\:Ieasme off 0-l on the large pipe circle and space
vn-2
18 SHEET-METAL WORK JfORMING PATTERNS
0-l on the line A-B. Then 1-2 and 2-3. On the other side of line 0
mark off 0-11, ll-10, and J0-9, not forgetting tha.t these measurements
arc obtained from the large circle where the extended lines from the base
semicircle aro imposed on it.
There is nothing mysteriou~ in the short straight lines from tho top
~ (
base line to the Jleriphcry of the large drcle. The position selected for
this base line is the most suitable, and the straight lines simply convey the
true value of the measurements set out on the semicircle. The same
anangement is met with from time to time in such worlt.
The other measurements pertainillg to the hole should need no explana-
1.1.1
.... tion, excepting that the markings are parallel continuations of the various
~
tr,)
intersecting points on the elevation.
fil
e l!l
I'< Forty-five Degree Small to Large Pipe on Centre Line (Fig. 7)
.,~ In view of the fact that a more difficult branch has been described
in the last section, it is not necessary to go into many details with this
"'""0
P: fol."m of joint (Fig. 7). The base line on the branch is numbered a.s usual
[11
and the semicitcle sections spaced along the girth line of the pipe itself.
~0
From the quarter cit'cle imposed on the large pipe, numbered on both
sides, show that both the sides seen and unseen on the elevation are alike,
f:o<
therefore there is no necessity to increase the number of points. The
~ actual joint line has been left out for a better view of the intersection!'!
CJl
and the conveyance of the cross-Hnes to the layout for the hole in the
...
0
~":>
PI
other pipe.
0 Mention of the fact that the pipe circumference is the diameter
"'~ x 31416 should wa.rn the operator that patterns should be checked
101 against a rule before any cutting is ct\rried out. 'l'he slightest ecror on
e sectioning the semicircles will be multiplied by twelve in the layout of
~

the pattem.' The difference itt method of laying out the 90 ba::Je line
to that shown in Fig. 6 has been done purp()scly to show the ~tltcmative
.~ when it suits the case. A little study of tho situation will prove there is
~ no difference whatever as to the result.
Pipe Bends (Fig. 8)
It is impossible to draw the actual pipe bend nntil one has laid out
certain meastuements of both the length and the offset of the hcnd itself.
:Fig. 8 shows the bend, but it has been produced from the layout of the
inset in the left- hand corner.
Let the parallel lines A ai1d B form the beginning and the finish of
the dosired bend, and the linea G and D, both at right angJes to A and B,
form the centre lines of the straight pipes, therefore the offset of the beud.
The lines A, B, G, and D form a rectangle; therefore from the corners
in the same direction as the bend draw the line G. The line G is then
divided into four equal parts as shown in inset. It is easily carded out
with the dividers by creating the point G first. From point G and the
20 SHEET-lVIE'fAL WORK FOR:\'llNG PATTERNS 21
corner in direct line the dividers t>ltould be set to a little over the half-way
mark and so P,rovide a guide to lay out the lines X-E and X-P, which are
~ at right angles to the line G. By m;ing the dividers as stated there is
"l..._ no necessity to use a set-square. Carry on the lines X-E and X-F until
~~ they intersect respectively the lines Band A.
~
o..;~
.........
The points E and F will be found to form tho truo centres of the bend.
~~ 'l'ho bend should now be formed into }1n equal number of sections (eight
<:.~
v,;;; ~
.. in this instance). A centre line should be drawn through one of the equal
~01: sections and upon this should be built up the usual semi-circle showing
::;~ ~
c:;
half the circumference of the section. The semicircle is divided into six
lgCS ~
i::).. >4 equal parts and numbered 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, fi, and fl. Vertical lines from the
..... ~ ... centre line are dra~"Tl to meet the numbered points on the semicircle.
~~
ll With one point of the dividers on point F they are set to the verticals
~
1-'1 on the centre line and radii produced to meet the joint line of the section.
.; -1~ ~
H
~
0 and .6 remain constant, but the radial lines are numbered 1', 2', 3', 4',
and 5' respectively. The patterns are laid out in the ordinary manner
0 in twelve parts equally spaced from the sections on the circumference of
1>1
I I
0 the semicircle and not the centre line which lw,s formed the base tine. From
..0"'
I I
I
/ ;11 the point of uniformity the seam should remain on the same side,
I I
I
I I
I therefore two patterns are shown needing sections of four each to be
I
I I
I
I I
,
E made up.
I \
.~
I
\, li: From this same layont. it must not be thought t.hat. a right-angled
I ' ' ' r.:l bend can be produced owing to the lines A-Band 0-D not being equidis-
g"' tant. A right-angled bend is shown in the inset of Fig. 8. The bend
I 0 can have any numhor of sections, providing they are all equal in size ;
I
I I I
"'
..l therefore there is no necessity for the joint line of a section to come on
'I
I
: I
I ..
>'I
!]
<
the 45 line of the layout. In the inset the number of sections happens
to be six, hut the number could be five or seven, according to material and
I 0
si:t.e of the pipe, and _this applies to all bends.
' ~ 10
~
:t 1>1
~ 0 Cones (Fig. 9)
" "'1>1 Plain cones, if small, are easily developed hy sketching out a half-
~ 0::
it "' elevation and graphically working out the pattern, but this is not always
~
.... possiblo; therefore the formula is herewith given and illustrated in
~
oq: }'ig. 9. Invariably the diameter of the base and the height are known,
" ...: but if any two sides arc at hand, the length of the third side can be obtained
~ .~ hy arithmetic. The formula is based on the solution of right-angled
~ "" triangles, and, as half tho elevation of a cone is bound to form a right-
"~ angled triangle, the formula given in Fig. 9 is of service. This formula
~ does not apply to triangles w.ithout one of the angles being 90. In our
C:\
illustration the "slant lcngt.h" is side A, the height of the cone side B,
and half the base line forms side C. Our cone has a height of 10 in. (B)
and half the base diameter is 15 in. ( 0) ; therefore the sum resolves itself
into yHP + lfi 2 and equals yiOO + 225 and results in the slant length
being 180278 in.
22 SHEET-lVffiTAL WORK FORMING PATTBH.N!:'. 23
In arriving at the amount. of

the gap to be cut. out of the p11.ttern
---1-+--1---+--+---t- <o it is sometimes advisable to calcu-
late the sum oft he gap itselfinstead
of the length of arc. If that is so,
the following is tho formula :
. (Slant length X 2) - (Half
the haae diamckr X 2) X 31416.
This equals-
(180278 X 2) - (15 X 2) X
31416 = (360556-30) X 31416
"-" 1902427
(approximately IH:r\: in.) t..o be dis-
carded from the Jluttcrn.
Another method in degrees :
360" X half base length
----sia::ui, length ---~
- 360 X ~5- 2!)<>.1':C
-+----.,.---t-<o - 180278 -- ,, ,)
length of arc, or 605" the length
of gap to be cut. from the arc.
Gmphically t.he length of radius of
the arc is obtained by placing one
point 011 the centre line where the
slant length touches anrl opening
the dividers to the length of slant
and constructing a. circle. On the
complete base Jine of 30 in. H Pi!J. 9.-P&TTER:Q" ANU ~'OH.~11JL.!E FOil. COl'E
semicircle is drn.wn and a ha.)f of
this again divided into tluee. 'fwelve of the sections arc t.hen
spaced off around the circle on the pattern and should produce
the point from where a line is drawn to the cenke of the circle
of the pattern and form the scetion to be cut away from (.he
pattern.
All measurements should be checked with a steel ta.pe ot piece of wire.
1--;----1--- .. -_:----~"
Conical Elbow on Parallel Pipe (Fig. 10)

In this example of.sheet-metal work (Fig. 10) we have added another
rule to those in the preceding pa.ges. The new procedure is to draw the
elevation of the vert,ical pipe a.nd construct, at the end u. circle of the same
diameter a.s the pipe. This is a.bsolutely necessary, as the lines forming
the side of the cono must touch the circle in the same manner a.s the
pa.rallct lines of the pipe. Unless thi~ is a.rrangcd, t.hc cone, where cut to
24 SH EET -:XlETAL \YORK FORMING PA'l''l'ERNS 25
taken for granted as a right anglo, although very n ear it.. I t should
also be observed tha.t., owillg to the cone, the joint line docs not pass
t lrrough the centre of t he dotted circle, which it would do ho.d tho elbow
been one of po.rollel pipes of equal diameters.
It is wise in all ~heet-ll'leta.l work to take nothin_g for granted, and this
is a.n excellent example. The pn.ra.Ucl pipe has a base line of ita own nnd
the lines dravr'll o.long the pipe are another proof that t he lines differ for
each pipe. T he pat.t.crn of the parallel pipe is not shown, as examples of
the development of tho patter.u ba.Ye already been given.
Cone, angled Top and Bottom (Fig. 11)
Fig. 11 looks somewhat complicated, but is really straightforward,
whatever t he angle of either cono or angles at t he ends. The bottom of
the cone elevation is extended until a base line ttt right angles to the cent re
line can be drawn and scctionocl on the scmioirde, H,::; in other inf.'tanccs.
From the base line I , 2, 3, 4, 5, and the outside, lines are conveyed to the
apex of the cone. On 1
the edges the lines x ,.-----------r----~--...,.
are diverted to the
outside of the cone
so that their true
value can be con
veyed by radia.l li.ues
to the Jlattern. T he
radiating lines of the
Ji'ig. 10.-,.l'ATTEllN FOR COJ:nCAL ELilOW ON l'.llBLLI".L l'n>!: pattern, drawn from
the cone apex, arc
form t he joint, will be a different dimensioned ellipse to the ollip.so formecl equally spaced as the
on t he p arallel pipe where it is cut to form the joint. sections ou the semi-
An inset to Fig. 10 shows an incorrect layout where the dotted circle circle a.nd n-ot the ba.se
only touches one pipe instead of both . It will be noticed t hat tho cono line. The spaces a.rc
pipe is produced right through t.o the outer edge of the vertical pipe, not marked out on tho
only to provo that it touches the circle as already explained, but to show radial line 0 , other
the t rue valuo of the cone base. Upon this base is produced the usual wise t heir value will
sectioned semicircle with its lines drawn at right angles to the cone base. be incorrect. At the
From t his line it will be noticed that the lines are then drawn to moot at small-angled end of
the apex of tho cone, but where they reach the joint line (the positio.u of the cone lines are
which we knew when t he elevation wa::; drawn) they are t hen dcf\eotcd again drawn paraJlel
parallel to t he base line until they reach tho surface of the cone. From to the base line until
these point.s lines are cb:awn with the apex of the cone as a centre, whilst they reach the side ot 0 ..._...,....
the interse<.lting lines are, as usual, spaced from the sections on the cone the cone elevation,
base semicircle. and from there, us }j'ig, ll.-P.A'~Tl!:JIY FOR CONF.,
Be sure this spacing is marked off on the line 0, otherwise the dimen ing the cone apex as AKGLF.O TOP .ANn BOTTOM
sions of t ho divisions will not be the correct size. It will be seen that tbe a centre (X) , they
angle is marked (1). This has been done so that the angle should not be mark off the radiating
26 SHEET-METAL WORK FORML~O PATTERNS 27
lines at poiuts of the same number, exactly as the. ones at the other end
of the cone. The larger end of the cone has been chosen on which to form
tho base line, on account of its larger size and the lesser possibility of
error in consequence ; otherwise it makes no difference as to which end
tho base line is formed.
136"
Large Cone with Two Others imposed at 'Different Angles (Fig. 12) \ J .
Fig. 12 is an example of cone joints specially set out to explain the ~110'
system, although not likely to happen in actuu.l practice; Howe\'er, it j
may be the lot of the ~perator to be C'.a.llod upon to make up something
based upon t he method of maldng su ch patterns, especially as t he prin-
ciples explained are used in everyday practice. , .
\
It will be not{-A that in laying out the design the dotted circle has had !
to be used before tho imposed cones can be drawn in, also the joint lines \
I
are not known until the detailed sketch has been produced. Those parts I
of the cones not actually in the finished article have been dotted in so
that it will be known where tho joints will be located.
Having drawn in t.ho tlrroe cones, run a pencil line ft'om A to 0, then
another line from B to D, and from t.he point where these two lines inter-
soot rWl a line to E. Thus will be formed the joints of the throe cones.
The unwanted part.a of the lines A-0 and B-D should be mbbed out.
to save confusion, as they may be mistaken for wanted lines.
The usual semicircle has been drawn on the base of th o vertical cone
but with the two other cones tho semicircles have been drawn on th~
smaller ends. This has been done so that the layout can be clearly seen.
It may be thought that ib is a change of principle to pla.co the cone base
semicircle on the other side of the cone base, but the inset shows that the
result is the same. The right -angled lines drawn from the sections of the
whole circle meet on the base line from whichever side thev be drawn.
Fig. 12.-I'.A.'rTBRN FOR T.ARGE CO::<I:F: WlTS: 'l'WO 01'.1:1llll!S lllll'OSED AT DIFFERF.~T A"N"~LltS
For explanatory reasons the same apex points have been u~od for both
t.ho olevati?n and the respective !Jattorns, although the radial connecting
lmcs have been left out on account of the inability of sorting out the many
lines in such a small space. points can be clearly seen on the pattern in t.hcir correct positions. I t
The reader should test out tho elevations and their relationship with has been found ne<:esso.ry to use these speeiallines in all three cones.
tho pattcma with dividers, ' vhen the layout will become clear. It is good exercise for ,the mechanic to la.y out such formations , not
It will be seen that on two of the elevations and p<.Ltterns there are forgetting to base the de-signs on the use of the dotted circle, not,vith-
linea marked X. The reaSOJl these are in evidence is that neither of the standing the fact that the centre of the circle is frequently well away from
lines 0 to 5 meet some of the essential points on the joint. On the vertical the joint common centre.
cone line 3 docs not touch tho highest point of the joint, and it is imiJcra-
tive th.at this point should Le known ; therefore the extra line from this Conical Hopper imposed on Slant Pipe (Fig. 13)
point to the base line is shown by laying a 1\traightedge from point X' to ]!'ig. 13 shows that we have arrived at a futthcr stage in the develop-
t?e specially required point on the joint line, drawing in the necessary ment of both pattem and shape of the hole to be cut in the slant pipe.
lme to the cone base line. From here it runs at right angles to t.he peri The usual semicircle showing half the circumference of the top of the
ph~ry of the semicircle, t.hus giving its true position on the pattern. hopper is drawn on the elevation and section, and then numbered. A base
U L9 there spaced off from 3 towards 4 and marked wi~h an X. The line semicircle is drawn at a suitable position on tho slant pipe (it does
not matter exactly where), but not sectioned otf. The base line, which is,
28 SHERT-!\lRT.AL WORK FORIVIIXG PATTERNS 29
of course, at right angles to the slant pipe, is extended and man~ed A-B
for reference. Lines arc extended from the base line of the hopper, all
joining at the apex of the hopper r.one. Dotted lines are then drawn
parallel to the slant pipe and pass right through the line A-B. The
len~:,rth of the dotted lines on the oul.er side of the line A-B are deter-
mined by measuring the distance along the lines reaching from the peri-
phery of the semicircle to the base .line on the hopper. Thus the line 1-1,
2-2, 3-3, 4-4, and 5-5 are transferred to the dotted I-I, 2-2, and so on.
We now draw the line 0-D through the apex point E. This line is
parallel to the slant_ pipe and passes through the line A-B at right
angles. Where A-Band 0-D intersect, mark the point F. From the
point F draw dotted lines to the extended dotted lines and join them 0
where they ha.vc already been distanced off from the line A-B. The
lines radiating from the point F will then pass through the semicircle
drawn on the slant-pipe base line. At the points where they intersect
the semicircle draw lines parallel to the slant pipe until they reach the
lines drawn on the hopper of similar numbers. The points of intersection /
/
will fonn the joint between hopper and slant pipe. /

Draw in the joint line, and then, parallel to the hopper base line, draw
in ftom the intersections the lines leading to the extended edge of the
hopper elevation. The usual twelvo lines radiating from E will represent
the circumference of the hopper, the spacing being equal to the sectioM on
the hoppe1 8P>micircle, and spaced out on radius 0, which willJorm the top
edge of the hopper itself. The actual lines drawn by using E as a centre
have been left out owing to the number of lines already in use. The I
I
line X-X will be noticed drawn at right angles to the slant pipe and start- I
ing from the centre line (3) where it meets the slant pipe. It is on this I
line the details of the hole will be laid out. G I
From this line the dotted lines I and 2 ho.ve bccomo full lines for the \
purpose of denoting on which side of the line X-X they are. Note \
that I and 2, are on one side of X-X and 3 in the centre, whilst 4, 5, \
\
and 6 are on the other side. \
On the metal sheet tl1at "\\'ill form the slant pipe dtaw the girth line \
X-X, and across this line, but at right angles to it, draw line 0-G. At
the point of intersection place the figure 0 on one side and 6 on the other.
With the dividers space off (from line A-B) the distance between 0 and 1
on the slant-pipe semicircle. Convey this distance to the line X-X and
mark off the ~pace 0-1 on either side of 0. Convey the distance between 0
land 2 on the same semicircle and then 2 and 3. Remember that 6 and 0 Fig. l3.-PA'1'T'ItRN FO:R. OOKWAii llOrrlliR. lM!'OSED 0~ SJ-A.'IT PII'E
are both on the same Rpot, both on the semicircle and on the line X-X;
therefore repeat the process by spacing off 6 to 5 from the semicircle On the hopper elevation, space off from the centre line X-X the length
and transferring the distance to 6-5 on line X-X, the same with 5-4 0 and mark off the line 0 the same distance on lino G-G from 0, then
and 4-3. mark the distance from X-X to 1 on the hopper elevation and transfer
If you have made your drawing correctly, the repeated 3's should to line I. no the same with 2.
cover exactly the same spots on both ends of line X-X. Give your attention to the other side of X-X on both hopper and
30 SHEET-METAL WORK FORMING PATl.ERNS 31
girth line o.nd mark off X-X to 6 along G-G from the point 6. Do the
same with X-X to 5, X-X to 4. All the distances from X-X are to the
joint line and not the e.xten8-wn..s to the edges of the hopper. A free line
through the marked-off lines wiH give the shape of the hole in tb.e slant
pipe. The line 3a shown on the elevation of the hopper has boon dr~wn,
as explained in the previous chapter, t.o show t he extl'eme length of the
hopper joint line.
Tt bas not been found necessary to extend this lino to that portion
dea.ling with the> hole in the slant pipe, as the existing lines are quite
adequate.
.Fig. 14.-DBVELOli'l\fll:NT Ol!' OO~:S: BY" LONG MEASURE" SYSTtcl-!
Development of Cone by " Long Method " (Fig. 14)
Some cones arc of such very slight taper that, if any size at all, would :brom the intersecting point 1. radius off J-H again, likewise from B.
take the wl10le floor of the workshop to lay out if the pattern were to be From point 1 mark off the length oqual to 0-1 and on t.hc intersection
developed from tho n-p ox of the cone. For such work there is another place the figure 2. From B mark oft' a distance equal to A-Band mark
method based upon triangulation. lf three sides of a triangle are knowr;, off 0, and so on until all the twelvo sections have been marked out, not
tlte triangle itself takes up a particular shape and one shape only. It 1s forgetting to locate the point positions with the aid of the diagonal line
on this rule that tho " long-measure " system iz; carried out. J- H in overy instance.
In om example (l!''ig. 14) we have htitt out the usual semicircles on the In actual practice it is not found necessary to draw lines, but only to
large bo.sc , u.nd running up the dotted line J-G ,..,-e have been enabled, mark off the various points, exoopt in the case when the method is being
to draw tho semicircle of the smaller end of the cone on the same line. used for the fust time.
There is no roason 1vhy tho second semicircle ahould not be built up on
tho bottom of the ele....-ation, excepting that it is more convenient to place Square and Rounded Hoods (Fig. 15) .
it on the top along with the other semicircle. 'fhe square hood shown in the top of Fig. 15 presents little difficulty
The semicircles are divjdcd into sjx equa.l parts, numbered and and is arithmetically worked out as mentioned in a previous paragra11h ;
lettered as sho\m. With one leg of t he dividers on tJ1e point G and the but the average mechanic, especially when it comE-s to "square roots," is
other on t he point 5, describe an nrc finishing at H on t h e extended base. not particularly happy. The side measurement-s of t he hood layout are
line. The dista.nco ,J- H will give us the diagonal line with which to form generally known because tho hood has to cover a certain stove or hearth ;
our triangle and thus locate the corroct positions of our points on the therefore width and depth have first to be determined. It is t he slope of
developed pattern. . tho front that is mostly the unkno"''r'll quantity. Without figures the
The first thing to do in sketching out the pattern is to draw the line 42 by 30 t riangled side can be Ja.id out to form one side of t he pattem,
0- A, which line will be t ho same length as 0- A on the elevation. From and the part that will form the front portion is built uprm it without in
the point 0 develop the arc 0-l, and. from A develop the arc A - B any way troubling about mea~:~urcments at all. 1'he line W-W can then
obtained from their r0spcetivo semicirclef:>. Set the dividers to the be drawn parallel to the bottom erlge of the hood and, passing through
length J - H on the elevation and with one leg on the pattern at 0 scnoe the corner of the frrst side, so determine where the 90 angled corner
o.n arc mcoting the radiuR of the distance B from .A. Transfer the leg comes in the third side.
of the dividers to A and at the length J-H describe another arc crossing The lower sketch elevation and the resulting pattern is that of a
the smaller one at 1, ~xactly as shown in :F'ig. 14. similar hood, but with large rounded outer corners. In the exa.mple given
If the operator has more than one set of dividers, it i.s as well to set it has been assumed that from H to 0 is straight. At right angles to
one pair at the le11gth J -.Jl and fasten them so that with the ft>equent the sloping front draw a line passing through the back co.rner. On the
mea.surings during the laying out of the pattern they cannot be altered. bottom line of the hood, produce the quarter circle and divide into three
It is this long diagonal measurement that is so important in tho correct equal parts. As the por.tion from H to 0 is straight, the radius of this
development of the pattern. The same applies if you can set artother quarter-circle will be E - H with the centre at H. Draw lines from the
pair of dividers to 0-l, and another pair to A-B on the periphery of _periphery of the quarter-cirole to meet the edge of the hood as shown.
the semicircles and lock them in position. Prolong the lines parallel to the sloping front and measure off 3'-F,
3;2 SHE:I!:'f-ME'l'AL WORK IfORM1NG l>A'fTERNS 33
Above the baRe line (now the girth line) ~:~pace off 4-A, tho lengt.h of
~
.;} .
which will he on the lino 4- A from above base line to tho top edge of
the hood. The others, rOSJ)Octively, will be 3-B, 2-G, and -ID repeated
on. both sides of lino A-4-E. }1:ecly drawn-in lines from 0 to 0 above
and below the girth line will give the true shape of the hood.
Allowance for Wiring Edges of Sheet-metal Articles (Fig. 16)
Tho formula shown in the Fig. 16 should be guide enough for all
practical purposes, but an example ma.y be of use: Assume a metal tray
made from 20-gauge sheet steel has to be edged with iir-in. ~iro. This
resolves itself into (0625 X 2) + (0392 X 4) = 125 + 1468 = 2li8,
or between ! I- in. and i'. in. Whatever the diameter of wire or thickness
of material, the same rule applicR, and thiR is tho extra length tha.t mu.st
rOI?MVLA be added. Care must be taken to make very accurat0 measurements,
.J4zs,Dt.2+30"Sll>e 2=V42 2+302 = otherwise the wire will not have sufficient material to hold it in plar,e,
or the ultimate measuromcnt of the box will be incorrect.
V/764 .. 900= ,Jiii.i::: 51f{. fN(JTH OF
FRONT
Rule for Making Metal Clips and Bands (Fig. 17)
The average mechanic is often C\t sea when it comes to making a simple
eli p or band for a pipe, but if the following rule is observed the clip should
be a perfect fit. In the example (Fig. 17) we have a 2-in. bar with a
clip !-in. thick. 'rhe calculation is based upon the fact that the only
portion of the band that can be relied upon for correct measwement is
the centre lino of tho band itself. Under the rule in :Fig. 17 is a piece of
straight metal with two lines through it at right angles. If the metal is
bent, the imaginary lines will then be as the second sketch of the exam pie,
wherein the distance has remained constant on the contre line, contracted
on the underside and expanded on the upper side. It will be seen that
the centre Hne only i,o;; the place where all calcu-
lations must start. With a !-in. thick clip on
a 2-in. bar the actual diameter becomes 2! in.
2'-G, and 1'-H on the bottom line quart.er-cirolc and transfer them so Square-tapered Box with Unequal Sides (Fig. 18)
as to form dotted apparent quarter-circle above the base line. Firstly draw the plan of the desired box (Fig.
It may be thought that it is unnecessary to draw the lower quarter- 18) and ~ee that all the side edges A-E, B-F,
circle, but if the reader""ill measure along tho base line from 4 to H-1 a,
Q ... and D- H meet at a common c~ntre 0,
it will be seen that the distance is much shorter iihan 4:'-H along the otherwise it will not be possible to construct the
bottom line of the hood. box. Having made sure of the correctness of FoRMUI..A:
The pattern is produced by first clr!>wing the base line a..ml. at right tho design, then draw the elevation and extend (WtRE /)IA.x2)+(SHET-
angles drawing the line A-4-E. Spaee off along the base line (now the . the two sides to the point 0'. Extend the hase METAL x4) s AU.CWA/1/CG
girth line) eight spaces equal to sections on the lower quarter-circle linesothattheedgcs 0-E-A, 0-F-B, 0-G-C, T() BE Aol:!ED ro NET
MeASUREMENr-s
periphery and not the lower edge of the hoOtl. On the lower side of the and 0-JI-D can be spaced along it as shown
girth line measlll'e off 4-E, 3-.J!', 2-G, and I-ll, on one side of the line at B, A, 0, and D. On another base line
Fig. 111.-ALLOW.~..CI':
A-4-E, and on the other side repeat the proeess. These measlll'ements extended along the top of the box space of Ji"OR
wmnrG Jl:DO:RS Oll' SH:RET
will he obtained from the dotted base line to the lower etlge of the hood. 0-E, 0-F, 0-G, and O-Il. With 0' as the ME"J'AT. AR.'i'IOLF.S
vn-:~
34 SHEET-l.VIETAL WORK FORIVUl\G PAT'l'~RNS 35
centre, draw circles equal to the
J)laces whero the letters B, A,
C, D intersect the Lase line. Then
carry out t,he same process with
the same centre, but using F, E,
G, H on the top base line. At
<tny convenient position draw the
line A-E radiating from 0' und
starting on radius A and finishing
on the smaller radius line E.
fr------718
. , p _ _ _ _ __, This, of course, will be the edge of
the box at A-E. With one leg. ''
0 !it;
0 of the dividers at the corner A
on the plan measure off A-B.
Then set one leg on A on the end
'. ' '
--- - . . . - -- /71,'
',
-'-'1--o':
~,' .,.~---"
/
Rua . of the line drawn on the radius A /"/ i\

(DtA. oF RouNo 8AR+ T111CKNSs (JF 8ANb)xJl4f6 to E and measme off the point B / /.
/, / t \
ExAMPLE on the radius B. Measure off the ,' ,'' ; \
(2''+0250)xJ!4Jo = 7()686"(A80Ui 7J/) distance B-C on the plan and / i

space 0 on the radius line 0. The
same with D on radius line C and
I
l A on the radius line A. If lines
arc drawn from these points to the
centre 0' and the points F, G,
and H marked off on the same
lettered radius lines, the edges of
the box can be drawn in. On con-
necting ui the points E-F, F-G,
G-H, and H-K and forming the
top edges of tho box opening, they
Fig. 17.-Rn.E FOR MAKI!W METAL cr.rPA will all be found to be the same
..1:= :BAKDs length, or should be so, if the
measuring has been accurate and
the correct radius lines have been selec:ted ; that is E-F, or F-G, or
G-H, and II-E.
Rectangular Flue (Fig. 19) Pl.. A If
Fig. 19 has been specially constructed to give some idea of rcquhe-
ments in buildings where air conditioning is installed. This drawing is
based on a required change in shape, but retaining the same internal area. l!'i.[J. 18.-PATTm~~ FOR SQUA:!<.I'!TAPJ>ll.l::D :OOX WlTlf UNJ::Ql:AL S.mES
The bottom flue iH 9 in. square, whilst the top part is 12f in. by 6! in.
The pattem has. been so arranged that it can be cut out of one piece of to the sides immediately ll.gaiust them. By so doing it brings the edges
plate and with as few joints as possible. The pattern layout is quite back to square, otherwi~e the layout is quite Rimple, although a very good
simple, especially with the back and one of the sides. The caution in this example of t.he dass of sl1eet-mctal work the general engineers' shop is
instance is not to forget to construct side A and front F at right angles called UJ)On to carry out from time to time.
36 SHHBT-1\fETAJ, WORK
T<'OR)UNG PATTERNS 3i
Blacksmith's Hood and Flue (Fig. 20)
The example in Fig. 20 is a further step in laying out patterns that are
curved and have to snugly meet the flue that ~vill be fixed. There is no
difficulty in producing such a. pattern if the instructions and rules arc
fully adhered to.
In the first instance, draw an accurate .sketch of half of the hood plan.
Draw a line at 0 , thus quartering the actual ftuo hole. Once again section
off at D. 'l'he extreme ends of tho rounded corner are then denoted by
tho dotted lines, the intersection producing a centre from which the :
dividers can be used to space off the edges of the hood as 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Lines are t.hen drawu through the flue centre from point I> and the point 0
f1om 2. These lines will meet at the point X , and it is from here that aline
parallel to 0-6 is drawn and on which is built the elevation as shown.
In other instances it has not been essential for tho elevation to be
defirutely pla.c:ed, but here the relative position of both plan and elevation
Lave a marked effcot on the correctness of the pattern.
Having drawn the elevation in its correct position, nontinue the line
A '-6 until it interse<.-ts another line drawn from X. This line is pa.r.allcl
to 0'-0' and will intersect A'-6 at X'. Using X as a centre, r un radius
lines from 2, 3, 4, a.nd 5 to the base of the e]eyation at 2', 3' , 4' , and 5' .
Line 6-0 is not curved, as it aheady shows the true position of 6 on the
half-eleYation. From the points just mentioned run up lines to X'.
..............
.......
.............. ............
I ~ -. .................... ............,
---------------------
24'
F
~ "-...............
I -.., ..............
1
..J,_ ,
------------==~~----~
.. .~-------------=~=---
-9~- 9'-
8ACI(
~
Fig. 19.-PJ..TT.ERN FOJl.ll.ltCT.6.'NGULA:R J'LUE
38 SHEET-METAL WORK
From the half-plan mark off the distance 0-1 from 0' on the elevation to
0' along the base, the same with 1-D and 1-0, and mark them D' and 0'
respectively. Draw three lines from A' to 0', 0', and D' respectively:
Chapter III
Forming the Pattern
In commencing the pattern, first draw .a line equal in length to A'-6 on
the elevation, and at right angles to this line on the point 6 draw a.nother. CUTTING AND FORMING SHEET METAL
Mark off on either side the distance 6-5, taken from the half-plan. Mark
the points 5'. From the two points 5' run down lines through the point A'
and then open out the dividers and measure off from 5' on the elevation
the distance 5'-X', and transfer this value to the extended 5'-A' on the
T HE tools used for working sheet metal may be divided into two
distinct sections, i.e. c.utting tools and forming tools, and it is
proposed to give a description of each type and their use.
. ' .. ,! '
pattern. As there are two of each figure (one on either side of 6) we shall
also have two points marked X' on the pattern. Set the dividers to 5-4 CUTTING TOOLS
on the quarter-circle on the plan and mark off 4' as done with 5'. Take Guillotines
the distance 5'-X' on the half-elevation and from X' on the pattern Guillotines, 'usually treadle-operated machines, are fitt ed with a long
intersect the radius drawn from 5' and produce the definite point 4'. straight blade, used for making straight cuts up to approximately 4ft.
Carry out the same with 3' and 2'. in length, on metal not exceeding 18-gauge thickness.
We shall now have four lines radiating from each centre X'. Mark
off the size of the hole in the pattern by distancing X' to line 0'-A' on
the top of the elevation where the respective lines pass through the eleva-
tion of the flue.
It will be seen that the line X'-2' on the elevation passes some distance
away from the others through 0'-A'. Very carefully mark the distance
F i g. 1.- Cu T-
at 0 on both lines on the pattern, as these points now become centres TING SHEET
of the remaining vital measurements. At the points 2/2' on the pattern M E TAL (1)
set one leg of the dividers and radius a distance equal to 1-2 on the half- Marking out
plan (be sure the measurement is taken from the half-plan). Having the hole to be
scribed the part circles, measure off A' to C' from the elevation. With one cut.
leg of the dividers on the point 0 on the pattern intersect the part circle
and draw a straight line from 1/ A' to 2/2'. The same on the other side
of the pattern. On reflection, it will be recognised that these straight
lines will form the sides of the hood marked on the half-plan as 1-2.
Completing the Hood Pattern
At the points 1/ A' on the pattern scribe off the distances A' to D'
from the half-elevation. Set the dividers to the distance 0-D on the
semicircle representing the flue on the half-plan and intersect the line 1fA' Pig. 2.- CuT-
to D at Don the pattern. From 1/ A' again measure off a point equal TING S HEET
MET AL (2)
to A'-0' from the half-elevation, then space from D on the pattern the
distance D-0 from the half-plan, after which mark both spots 0' . From Making hole
to st art pneu-
the points 0' on the pattern radius off the lengths 0' to 0' from the eleva~ matic hand cut-
tion. Returning to 1/ A' on the pattern, intersect the last lines with the ter (see Fig. 31.
distance 0 to 1 from the half plan.
Connect up the points of intersection and the result will be the com-
plete hood with back plate that will only need joining down the centre.
40 SHRRT-:YlETAL WOR.K CUTTlN<J A~D .FOB.l\li:\G
Snips
Several types of
snips or shears arc to he
encountered in "sheet-
metal work, each being
intended for use on a
different class of work.
St.ra.ight snips are used
to make stmight cut.s
and also for cutting
outside curves. Bent
snips aro spooia:lly
intended for cutting F'i(J: 5.-" E?m;'F!F.lr.R '' Slf.li:ET-MET..U. SCISSOR.!:'
internal cmves, and Cupuei~y top lo 16 guuge. (Huck & Hickrrum, Ud.}
l:niversal snips, as the
name implies, are intended for universal use, the blades being thin and
" backed off" to allow an easy passage over them for the metal. These
are used for cutting any curve or sha})e in fiat work, and may be
obtained to cut either dght hand or left hand.
Fig. 3.-Ct.:~J:'l'U\G S.I!!:Jo:'1' ;)f.l:::'!'AL (3} }'rcnch snips consist of straight snips with off-set blades and " swept "
Cutting hole in ra-in. sheet-metal pia~ with pneumatic power shears. cutting edges, and are intended for cutting shaped pane)s, being manu-
(By cn-urte/1'/j nf T~rQ.le,mit, Ltd.)
factured in both right- and left~hand styles, so that panels can be cut
in situ. The correct hand to usc for any job is that which will crul the
waste metal in the opposite dircct.ion. to the curve of the panel.
,Jewellers' hcnt snips arc light bent snips which are extremely m;cful
fot "cutt.ing in" aircraft cowling, and for cutting holes in light-gauge
metal and similar light work.
Hand-lever and Rotary Shears
Hand-lever shears are light toggle-jointed bench shearing machines
for cutting metal up to 10-gauge thickness (k in.), this gauge being too
heavy to be conveniently cut with snips.
Rotary shears are entkely different from any t.ype previously men-
tioned, as they consist essentially of two hardened steel wheels attached
to geared shafts, arranged so t.hat the cutt.ing edges slight.ly overlap,
thus producing a shearing action. A clean cut of any desired length can
be obtained, but the width of the work is limited by the distance from
the wheels to the frame, this space being known as the" throat." These
machines are used for cutting ribbons, square internal holes, etc.
Throatless Rotary Shears
To overcome the limitations imposed by. the frame of the slitting
shears, a. throatless shearing machine has been built witlt a frame so
l!'ig. 4.-. t::VT'1NG lllltl'AL SHJtET 'T.O SJZE ON 'rKl~ADLI~ ()"t"nLOTINll: SlWAnS designed that the metal passes on either side, in the same way that it
(Ry crrnttesy of 2'ecaJwtit, Ltd.) passes over the back of the blades of nnivcrsal snips. The bottom wheel
44 SHEET-::METAT. WORK CL"TTING A~D FOR.l\U.KG 45
them on a piece of shaped metal, known as a "head." The weight

ranges from 8 oz. to 16 oz. fot use with sheet metal, and up to 3 Jb. for
plate setting. The faces of the hammer are round and, in comparison
with the weight, fairly large. For sheet-metal work the mmal diameter
is between l in. and q in., one face being perfectly fiat for planishing
convex surfaces, whilst the other is cl.llved slightly outwards to enable its
being used for working from the inside of shaped panels or on fl.nt surfaces
whetc it would be ditli.cult to strike a trulv flat blow with tho flat face
of the hammer. In order to impart a good surface finish to the mets.l,
the hllmmor faces should be always polished and smooth, this usua.)Jy
being done by occasionally rubbing the faces on a hand buff, consisting
of a piece of soft loat.her tacked on to a woorlen backing or mandrel.
p;;(f. \1.-. J l'oJ,l'.CJ\V l'l':>:CR FOJ1 1-'-ig. JO. -- SR.OWI}lG Crocus powder or other suitable polishing powder is sprinkled on the
enr,-rt-:(~ OUT ROT:"""'in "R'OT.R~ n;HJ~ A:><ll cm-
::'l:F.c~r.oN" ~OL DERED
leather. A polished hammer will impatt its polish to t.he work with
Showing distortion <f sheet
protluec<l by thi,; nwthotl.. T:-l PI:!'NCKED IIOLE every blow, and, r,onversely, e-very blemish on the [R.ce wiH be imprinted
on the work.
formed to J:>hn.pe. Thet:>e latter are known as stakes, and are usually named The faces of a stretching hammer arc rounded in one diredion and
after t.he pa.rticnla.r use to which t.hey arc put, or after objects which they 1'-traight in the other, tho action being to displace metal in the form of a
resemble. The stakes arc provided with ta.pered square shanks, to fix shaJlow trough, the mcta.l so displaced extending the surface in one
into square holes cut in the bench, or sometimes thev are made to fit iu direction only. Principally, this hammer is used for st;retching flanges,
i.hc end of :1 mandrel. v
but it is useful for all inside shapes requiring stretching in only one
direction. In certain cases, where tho hammer shaft prevents the use of
Hammets the standard stretching hammer, a special "two-way" ty-pe is used with
one face across and one face in line with the shaft.
Of the hammers, the most useful shape is t.ho "square-faced " type, Blocking hammers are a group of hammers used for shaping sheet
weighing 12 oz. to 16 oz:, having two fiat faces, one circular and the other metal (particularly tinplate) on a wooden block, consisting usually of'"
square. This is used for wiring, planishing, and all purposes where the section of a tree trunk with depressions of various depths in the end, the
mot.al is most suitably worked with a flat-faced hammer. metal being beaten to shape in one of the depres;;ions with a suitable
A planishing hammer i1:1 used for " finishing " panels by hammering hammer. Usually the weight of the hamme1s is between I lb. and 5lb.,
.and the two faces are convex, with rounded edges.
Hollowing hammers are used in a similar mtmner, but are provided
with large hemispherical faces on a long head, in order to provide the
necessary clearance when shaping deep articles.
Studding hammers are light and long-headed, being used to form local
depressions in a larger job.
Paning hammers arc specially designed for paning down the edges of
joints situated in confined positions (e.g. closo to the wall of a cylindrical
article) and also for tucking metal behind a ~rirc so that a neater finish
can be obtained on larger wiring jobs.
Mallets
/<'?:{/ 11.-f't;X(:H Al\lll IH.t~ l'OH t;f;to: IN FLY. P:RF-SS Roxwood mallct.s arc used for opera.tions where it is desired to avoid
On right-- t;>nk hll.ffi~ with pilot, hol~s drilled to allow each hole to be quicldy located stretching or contracting (known as tuoking) and o.1so for wiring. Bossing
tHtl punehed in f~cwent, pn~it,ton. mallets a1e egg-shaped, and are used for shaping soft metals (such a~
46 SHEET-!VJETAL WORK CUTTINO AND FORMING 47
aluminium) on a sandbag and al~:;o for ~:>tretching over rounded edges in
Fig. 1.2 (l~jt). -
concave curves (e.g. turning in the light.s for motor bodies).
FO:Rl\!INO PLA.N(lE
0~ COP.PER :l'l:l'l<:
-~fR8T ST~GJ:
BENCH TOOLS
URing hardwood Mandrel
mallet on rounded The most useful of the bench tools is the cu.st-iroh mandrel, consisting
portcirm of hick
iron until suffi- of a bar approximately 4ft. in length, one end having a rounded top face
cient metal i!'! for shaping rounded jobs and the other a flat top face, with slightly tapered
stret-chcu out- sides and end, this end being used for shaping squate work. A square
\<"ul'd$.
hole in this latter end is provided to hold small interchangeable head~; or
blocks of shaped metal.
Bench Anvil
The bench anvil is a heavy bench tool having a flat face of " D"
l!'ig. 13 (right).-:b'ol<nt shape, and is used for general hammered work on flat surfaces.
lNG rL.A~GE-SECOXP
01'l!:ItATlON" ..---....Y'Zif'
Stakes
The pipe is then
[>laced on the square The anvil stake is a lighter form of the bench anv.il and is used fot
edge of the bick iron similar work.
and gtadoally worked ~;;ffl~""'
back flat, using the Bick irons, sometime3 known as beak irons, resemble a blacksmith's
wodgc-shapod mc.Jiet. anvil in appearance, but are lighter, longer, and more slender.
The square end is usod for forming channels, narrow boxes, etc., while
the " beak " is used for forming rormd tapered work.
Side stakell, known also aH pipe stakcR, consist of a round bar attached
at right angles to an upright support. These are used for small roun~
OJ> J.kA1'lON
forms, whilst the end, which is cut off at an angle, is used for turning the
A I>Mling hnmmer hf)ing usod to ""ork edg0s of discs and similar articles in preparation for wiring and jointing.
down the neck of the flange against tho pipe
nnd to emove (l.ny ir.regulsuitio~. Frmnel stakes, as the name implies, are used for forming funnel-shaped
articles, and consist of a half-conical section of steel attached to an upright
support. .
The extinguisher stake is a smaller edition of the hick iron, and was
originally used to form the cones used for candle extinguishers, but is
now employed for forming small funnel-shaped and conical sections, and
has, in addition, a useful naiTOW fht face.
Crease irons aro provided \\'ith a rectangular face, semicircular grooves
of various radii being cut across one half, while the remainder is left flat.
The corners of pans and trays can be conveniently creased, and wired
edges, etc., set on the grooved end,. while box sections may be formed
f.'iy. 16 (right).-Sllllr!'IKING A ~PIGO!t Olt on the plain end. . .
SLil'lN END 0~ I'lPE
Hatchet stakes consist of sharp-edged stakes, used for forming edges
The pipe is helrla.t -'l.n anglo to tho ma.:ndril
and, w;ing a mallet, the pi])~ ond i;~ workod on work with straight sides or with inside curve!'! which are sharper than
over in ripples to form a taper. The 1ipple~ a. right angle. This tool is useful for work whose shape or position pre-
are than gradually worked out. vents the u..'!c of a folding machine, such as sharpening up rounded bends
;md forming the sides of boxes, trays, ct.c.
48 SIIEKl'-MBTAL WORK
Half-moon sta.kcR are
curved, sha.rp-edged stakes used
to f(nm the edges on outside
(convex) curvet>, discs, etc. Chapter IV
The drippi.ng-pan st.akc and
round-bottoming stakes arc flat
'squa.re-faced a.nd fiat rolmd- !lENDING AND FOLDING BY 1\'IACHii\E
. faced staket> respect.ively. They
T
ill~ essential factor jn producing a clean bend on sheet metal is
have many uses apart from .
those for which they wc1c that the edge or blade over which the metal is bent should be
originally designed, including straight, smooth, and fairly sharp (a small radius is necessary to
edge forming and seaming produce the bend}, and that the pressure applied to bend the metal over
square .::tnd rouml articles, as thiF.: edge should be equal throughout the length of the bend.
well as general use where a .flat-
faced tool with plenty of
clearance is required.
Panel Heads
Panel heads a.ro convex
blocks of steel ot cast iron fitted
with square shanks to engage in
a square hole in a wooden
mandrel or horse. They are
Fiy. 11\.-U;m. Ol!" THE E!.o\.TCHE'l' S'l'Am;: made in various si<r.es, shapes,
Showing how the edgo of o. small ghect of and contours for forming and
metul is turned in eadinns.s ful" a welted or pla.nishing tho varied shapes
!,11'oovcd sE>am by u~ing 11. hatchet sto.ke.
inlo which sheet metal can be
beaten, and are not sti.Llu.ia.rdised to the sa.me extent aR the bench tools.
Panel heads are named from their shape or use, such as a raising head
(usfld for shaping panels by planishing wilh a hammer), oval head, long
head (from the shape), wing head (from its uses), etc. l!'or tucking the
edges of a panel when forming the shape, a head should Le used which is
iiattcr than the shape of the finished pa.nel, and when planishing, a head
which uonforms to the Rhape of the job'as nearly as possible (but slightly
more convex) will give the smoothest finish.
The machines used in sheet-metal work include folding and bending
machines, wheeling nmf:hines, beading. and swa.ging machines, etc., and. F-iy. J.-flMALL RF.N'JH'lG J\IAC'>li.t-1!: 1.1'U>< >;)'TALL P,U\TS
these me dealt with in the following chapters.
Angle Bender or Cramp Folder
The mo?t gone:ally used machine for bending sheet mct.al up t:o
16-gauge tluckne~s Is. t.he angle bender or cramp folder (Fig. 2), consisting
of a clamp to whiCh IS attached the bladc"a.round which the metal is bent
This io; operated by a hand lever fastened to an eccentric, to apply th~
necessary pressure t.o clamp the work to the bed of the machine in order
VJI-4 .i!J
50 SHEET-l\JRTAL WORK BENDIXG AND FOLDING BY MACHINE ui
t.o prevent movement while but a,ro often made with open ends, so that bends longer than the bed
bending is in progress. The can bo mado by moving the work a.nd making the bend in two or more
actual bending i.<; done by operations. Power-driven machines are built to deal with i-in. plates
swinging up the front part of up to lO ft. in width.
the bed on a hinge centre, in Adjustment is provided for bends of various radii and thicknesses of
line \vith the bend. metals by raising or lowering the swing bed with two thumbscrews. Por
In practice it is only neces sharp bends on thin metal the bed is brought up level with the blade,
sary to clamp the metal in the whilst for thicker sheets or larger radii the bed is lowered so that it
machine so that the edge of tho describes a .small a.rc around the edge of the blade when it is swung up.
blade coincides with the line on For occasional radiused bends it is general workshop practice to ~Tap a
which the bend is to he made, piece ofshoot metal around the blade, to " round off" the edge over which
and then to swing tho bed up the metal is bent. Por repetition work on radius bends the standard
to the required anglo, which blade should be replaced by a Rpecial blade machined ~ith the conect
may he anything from a" set," radius. It is not essential for this blade to extend the whole width of
i.e. a very small angle, to 20. the machine, so long as it extends a short distance over both sides of
This is the first stage in the the work.
production of a "double-edge Larger anglo-bending machines have provision for bending radii by
F'i(f. 2.-At>:CLl': :lll:!<l.>illl. OR Cn..UII' FOJ,n:J,;~ finish " and an edge used for inserting roller~ in the front edge of the clamp, which is operated by a
Kot.e the Couf Riot~ in the bending beam to wiring. . handwhccl and vertical sercws, in order to give the greater pressure
cku:u tho frOlJL hook gnidfl~ alHl alw the back Provision is made for repeti- required for longer bends.
guide, cti.nnuntled, on the Hoor.
(F. J. JJ:dwards, Ltd.) tjon work by the fitt,ing of a
guide at the back of t.he machine Power-driven Angular Bending Machines
for bends of more than 4 in., and hook guides, running in slots, in the One type of power-driven a.ngle bender utilises a top cramp blade of
front of the machine for small bends occurring near t.he blade. These narrow vee sec1,ion, with bending heams on each side, giving a range of
front guides arc let into dovetail slots, where they slide for a.djustment, angles between 180 and 35. Swing ends aro fitted to enable work which
this being made independently on ea.ch hook by meana of a knurled has been folded to closed ot intricat-e shapes to be withdra~'ll from the end
handsmew situated at. the rear of the bed. In usc, the hooks (usually of the machine, to eliminate the distortion caused by taking it out from
only two are required, one at each end of the work) are Aet to stop t.hc front or relkr. This type of machine is made to deal with plate up
the edge of the sheet at a predetermined distance from tho bend line. to ;~2 in. thick by 4ft. wide, whilst the largest machines will bend i-in.
The work is fed in from the rear until it engages tho hooks, and is then plates up to 12ft. in width.
cramped and folded. . Another type of machine is the universal swing beam folding and
1'he back guide, used for bends occurring too far from t.he edge to be bending machine (l!'ig. 3), which is a heavy-duty hand machine with a
dealt with by the front guide, consists of two anns with a '1' slot running countcrbalanecd swing beam. The capacity is 4ft. by 14 gauge, 'and it
throughout their length. Across theseis bolted tho guide, which may is supplied with a series of cramp blades giving square and radiused bends,
consist of a cast-iron bar fitted with extension lugs to bring the guide- a stepped blade which gives clearance at the hack for folding na.rrow
face close up to the back of the machine, or it may simply be a length channels and moulding sections. An interesting roller attachment is
of angle iron bolted to the T slots. 'l'he sole function of this guide is to . , supplied, around which metal may he formed into a large radius bend, or
stop the edge of the sheet at a definite distance from the blade when the by moving the meta.l around the roller dming the opc1ation a complP.te
. bend is made. An adjustable stop is also fitted, so that the bed (',an he tube can be obtained in three operations.
set to swing to the ~;;ame predetermined anglo each time. This " angle In using bending machines for compound bends, skill and care are
stop " consists of a collar and bolt, sliding in a '1' slot shaped in the form necessary if a true shape is to be obtained. The hends aro worked in such
of an arc, the slot being fitted on to the end of the machine. A Jug on order that one bend does not prevent another f1om being made, and the
the swinging bed engages with this collar and is thus prevented from tltickness oft.he metal must, be taken into consideration in order to obtain
further angular movement. a true section. Because of their versatility cramp folders arc the most
Hand-operated cramp folders are usually from 3ft,. to 4ft. in length, useful of bending machines for general work.
52 SHEE'l'-l\f.ETAL \YORK .B.ENDING AND FOLDl.t\G BY ::.VIAGHISR 53
, ,
.'
.,:;
i.:~. .' .
...
:: . .' .... .:::.:.
... ..;;: ..:
F'iy. -lo.-RO.U.lil\ DED FOLJ>C~O MACllll);l!
Alippcd into a slot between tho bod and blade of t he machine, mado by
separating them with pa.cking pieces. The back of tho slot is formed by
t,he adjustable guide, which extends past the p!~.cking pieces, as a series
of fingers. The guide is a djustable and slides back-wa:rds and forwar~
on a wide 1eg isl.er to keep t.ltc end parallel with t he blade. It is adjusted
with a thumbscrew at. t.h<=! hack of t he blade and can be locked, with u.
f<'iy. 3 ... -l7.r''IVERSAJ, ~WJ !'\(} BEAll: :F'<JLl>I~G A.~JJ Dll: ~'OIKO :>1.\C IIT:":~:
setscr.cw, in any position.
Xot.e the ~crow-operated. crurnpin_g beum, counterbal;1.nced. bending hcum blndF:B for The whole of the back pal't of the machine hinges on large pins set in
"quare hciJ<.b and bends of lill!O.ll :radiuB, uml \.he roller alta.chmonl for bolldB of hng~ line with the edge of the blade over wl1ich tho metal is folded. To use
radius md tube!\. t.J~e machine a line is marked on the edge for th~ fold, and the edge is
sl1pped under the blade until it rests against the guide, which is then
Folding Machines adjust.ed until t he blade edge coincides "ith tho bend line. The o-uide is
:Folding machines are used for folding edges of s heet metal, up l<> 20 t hen locked in this }lOsition and the handle attached to the back of the
gauge, so that they are doubled back. These rnad1i.oes am made i.n blade is pulled over, this having t he action of pulling the edge over,
vu.rious widths frorn 12 in. to 36 in ., a nd are constrnotod so that they can while the rol.lel' rolls the body of the work over the edgo which is held
be bolted on to the bench. 1\vo different types aro made with either tlat in tho Riot.
or roller beds, the former, which Oxlly has <~djust.rncnt for the si:t.e of the As the blade is returned to it.s original position the work is taken with
fold, being mainly used for tinwork. it, <Lnd may' now be removed from t he slot with a perfectly parallel folded
In addition to this, the latt-er type (Fig. 4) has an adjustment. on the e~ge. It is th~ most rapi~ method of folding edges up to approximately
roller which can be made to act a.s a stop for benda not great-er than a. I 1n. (the ma.:u mum ca.pa.etty), for work su ch a8 folded edges, finish folds
right angle and for the radius of bend or thickness of met-al for edge~; for grooved joint-s, and small wiring (10 gauge or less).
foide d right over. For sharp folds on thin metal the roller is brought up
to the blade and set with just ~;;ufticicnt clearance to allow the metal to : Right-angle Bender or Bending Press
pass bet.wcen t.he roller and blade. For thicker material~:; or rounder . As the name jmplies,..this ma.chinc il:l used only f(>r bending right angles,
. bends the roller is moved back from t he blade, t.hus ghring more clearance and consist.s of a heavy frame mounted on either a stand or bench , with a
for the heavier (i.e. t.hicker.) materials, and, by ma.king cont.11ct with the top arm which slides up and down between guides sit.uu.ted at each side.
metal fa.rt.hcr from the bla.de, gives a. rounded bend. The arm is opera. ted with an eccent ric cam and hand lever (see Fig. 5).
U nlike the cramp folder, the work is not grippetl, but. the edgA is 'l"he bed consists of a series of blocks, varying in length, so t hat t.hey
54 SIIEET-M:ETAJ, WORK BENDING AND FOLDJNG DY MACIDNE 5i)
can be b uilt ~p as required to ma.ke a block of any desired length, to fit ra.dius. The feed rollers (i.e.
between rcvcrRe bends. These aro located on the bed ~ith dowels and the pair ge~tred together) are
havo a vee-shaped groove running through them, in which the metal is adjustable, and should bo set so
bent. The top blade has a vee-shaped edge to fit the groove in the blocks, that the metal can bo just
over which it is set absolutely central. The action of pulling the lever slipped between them when
is to press the vee of the top blade into th~ vee of the blocks, thus forcing they arc stationary, so avoiding
the metal between them t o A.saume a right angle. . stretching the edges and dis-
When the machine is used for boxwork, the two long sides are first torting the work, a fault which
bent into a channel sha.pe and a top tool that will just fit between the occurs when tho rollers grip too
aides is used in place of the fu U-lcngth blade, as it is nece.ssar_Y for tl~e sides tightly. The rear roller is ad-
to have clclmmcc on bot h sides of the top tool. A gmde 1s proVlded at justed with two hand-screws
the rear of the machine for setting the dist.a.n ce bytween the edge of tho which raise or lower it to give
metal and the centre line of the bend, for use on repetition work. \Yhen the desired curve to the meta.]
only one article is required, a line can Le marked to show the posWon of when it is rolled through.
the bend, although a small centre-punch mark at each end of the line To avoid forming a "flat "
will help to ensuro greater accuracy as the line is obscured when the top on the edge of the sheet remain-
tool is lowered. ing between the feed and
bending roller, the sheet should
Power~driven Machines be fed in Until the edgo Fi,q. G.-Hll:<DI~O ROLL>:.I!.S, SllOWING .SLrP
reaches the rear roller and t~en J.<.OLLER oPE~
Power-driven machines of this type, having onc-Ilicce blades and the direction of rotation should {F. J. Ed-u'GD"dB, Ltd.)
block.'3 are made to deal with sheets up to 12 ft. long by fyr; io. t hick, t he be reversed, pressure being .
method of operation resembling tho )JOWer press, to. w~ch it is .closely applied at t he sa.mo time with the ha.n d to the top of the sheet.. .Th1s
related. Rendina 0
in t he press is donn with tools of snrula.r form, I.e. the "sets " the end of the sheet to follow around the roar roller, so av01dmg a
bottom tool is a block with a. vee of the required angle and railius hreak in the curve. A slip roller is fitted to some machines to facilitate
machine in it, and the top tool is a blade of the same shape as the voo in the removal of closed cylinders by sliding them off the end of the roller
tho bottom block, but slightly (Fig. 6). . .
smaller to allo\V for the thick- Panels which require to be set to a radius after wheelmg ma~ be
ness of metal to Le bent. rolled without distortion by widely separating tho front rollers, provtded
t.hat there is not too much "shape" (i.o. fullness) in the panels. Panels
Bending Rollers with a lot of shape must not be rolled, or the edges will be sketched and
the shape lost.
Bending rollers a.re used for
bending shoot metal t<> curves Bending Jig
of any desirod radius, and A bending jig is used when the shape in the panel is too full to safely
for bending cyHndrica.l work. permit rolling ; this is usually
Hand-operated rollers arc made made from sheet metal, long
in sizes from 12 in. wide (for enough to extend past the ends
20-gauge metal) to 4ft. (for 16- of tho panel, and shaped as in
gauge metal), their construction :b' ig. 7. The edge of the panel
and operation being as follows. is slipped into the slot formed
Two rollers, -geared together, by bonding up the bottom edge
feed the metal past a third of the jig and setting is done by
roller fixed behind them, so pulling over t.he shaped portion
deflecting it to the required Fig. 7.-BENOt NO .TIO FOR SliAI'JilD J'.Al'fELS by hand.
56 SHRET-J:IETAT. WORK .
Another method of producing radiused bends is by the u~;e of u
length of suitable round pipe atta.ched to the bench by clips. The metal
is pulled round the pipe by hand, using a piece of fla.t bonrd behind it
to keep an even pressure along the bend, thus producing a perfect bend Chapkr V
of tJ1e same diamotcr aR t.he pipe.
WHEELING, BEADE\G, AND SWAGING
HEELING machines arc one of the most useful tools to he found
W in t.he shcet-meta.l trade, and a.rc indh;pensablc where met.al has
t.o be beaten und shaped under commercial conditions. Wheeling
is the smoothing of sheet-metal pa.ncls with steel wheels after the panels
have been roughly beaten to slw.pe. These ma.chines arc manufa.cturcd
in a vn.riety of sizes, and oft.en vn.ry in de~ign for special classes of work,
but the majority conform with t.he standard type illustrated iu Fig. 1.
Standard Wheeling Machines

The framework i~ made from cast iron, and consists of two parts :
A, the main ftnmc, and B, the base or trestle. Between the frame is a
steel shaft 0, running in roller or bronze hearings D, to which is attached
o. flanged roller E, the whole of whk:h is kept in position by a collar and
grub screw F. Usually this roller has a flat working face, but some panel
beaters prefer it 1:o he Blightly convex. Immediately under roller E is
fixed a, perpendicular pillar a, carrying a detachable roller, of which three
different sha.pes are usually supplied with the machine (Fig. 1). The
l'Ollcrs are made of st.eel, the centres being bored out and the ends recessed
to hold ball races, and through the centre is fixed a steel ~:~pindle which,
}Jrojccting from either side, is used to suspend the detachable roller in
the carrier H, parallel to the fixed roller E.
'When the machine is in operation it is necessary to adjust the distance
be(,wecn the rollers tO SUit varying thicknesses of sheets, thiR being done
by raising the pillar G. In the caso of steel panels conside1able pressure
s required, so the screwed shaft I, fitted with a flanged wheel J, is pto-
vided, enabling the whole component to be raised or lowered during
operation .by turning the wheel with the foot.
On the shaft 0 is a hamlle J(, whieh, while quite free from the rota-
tion of the shaft, can, when necessary, be tightened and used to rotate the
wheel E, this being required when wheeling work of small dimensions.
:C.1odern Types
Modern types of wheeling machines have in some cases t-a.ken a.n
ent.irely different form, although the principle is unchanged. Some
machines are made in pairs, arranged back to back on a. common bed,
67
58 SHEET-METAL WORK WHEELING, BEADING, AND SWA01XG 51:1
...............
.. .... ......
,., , ,,
............ ,.,,
4 ..... ~ < : < ' ' ' "
,.,,,
thus saving consider- Increased Employment of Shaped
' . . . . . . . . . 1:; $ >
able floor space. Again, .Metal Sheet
<. n~ fn
,: '."~}HH~ >'" ~ < < : :
in some works the Automobiles, railway engines,
machines are made ships, and aircraft are all now stream-
"< ..... " \ . < ~ \
~::~!;HH !~ ~: from angle iron and

_: n~i~tlHlJ ~
.: ~~~!" ........ bolted to the upright
lined, and as this necessitates the
shaping of metal into cwves to con-
girders which form form to aerodynamic standa.rds and
part of the construc- formulm, very few straight or flat
tion of most work- picqcs of metal are now to be en-
8hops. countered in modern practice.
l\Jany wheeling In motor construction the pieces of
machines are now fitted shaped metal are lmown as pa!lel~ and
with quick-release are welded together to form larger
screws, making it un- sections. These are known in the
ncccsRary to unscrew air01aft industry as cowlings, but
part J when a roller is owing to rigid inspection at regular
to be changed. It has intervals the sections a.re kept fairly
also been found that small, so that they can be ea.sily
when certain article~, detached.
such as motor-car rear
mudguards and aero- Production of an Automobile Dome
engine cowlings, arc to The top part of a car is known as
be wheeled there is not a Jome, a1id to get this into the correct
tmfficient clearance un- shape from flat pieces of metal it is
derneath the machine. necessary to beat the shape into the
This has led to the panels with a mallet until the correct
introduction of a contouF is roughly obtained. After
slightly different model this stage the panel is made smoother .t'ig. 2 .-.StEci.u. wJfr:P:u!'la ;I<AcmNE
(Fig. 2) f(Jr use with by boating it between a mallet and wtTII ExTr.A cr.>e.Al{AN\:"'
Fig. 1.-f'l"!"~l>A.IW ~Y>'I O.lf W.li.J<t::Ll..M; 1\fACllll<l< this special class of shaped block of steel lmown aa a
(F. J. EdwardR, Lt4.) work. "panel head." The next operation consists of finally finishing the panel
Hints on Using on a wheeling machine by placing it between the top and. bottom rollers
and pushing and pulling it backwards and forwards unttl all dents or
lVIany months of continual practice are necessary to become proficient hollow places aro smoothed a~ay. . . . .
iii the uso of wheeling machines, as so much depends on acquiring the When wheeling, pressure JS apphed as requ1red by ratsmg the lower
" feel " of the work as it passes to and fro between the rollers. The roller. If the contour of the panel requires raising, the bottom roller it>
work is first beaten Wltil it is approximately the required shape, R.nd is raised, forcing the work against f..he top roller, and after a few passes
then slipped between the two rollers, being pulled bad::wa.rds and for- through the wheel the necessa.ry raising will be accomplished. . The .panel
wards untiJ all the mallet marks are removed. should not be gripped too tightly and the hands should allow tt to follow
The main difficulty experienced by the apprentice is the inability to its own shape around the wheel.
keep the work in it.s original shape, and, unle~s the correct technique is From time to time it will be necessary to change the bottom roller to
used the article ve1y soon becomes distorted. 'l'his continual losR of accommodate whatever shape is being formed, ~J.Bing the straightest wheel
shape can be COWltcractcd by the skilled operator by varying his move- possible wit..hout rubbing the panel or causing flat phtces. It is very
ments, which bccomo more or le~s automatic after practice, and work can important that each backward and forward movement should be acco~
be carried out with a speed and surface finish only excelled by press work. panied by alteration of direction, so that the rollers make contact Wlth
f.iO SHEET-1IE'l'AL \YORK. WlmKLING, BEADING, A~D SWAGTNG Gl
~---------------
the panel in o. ili.fft:lrent place at each movement (Fig. 3), at the same timo t..aken to avoid rough-
making certain of covering the entire surfa.cc with the narrow track of ness when pulling or
SECTION Of' A PANEL WlrH A CLEAN CONTOI/R
the bottom wbe_el. pushing, as {..his will A
ca.use corruga.Lion and
Wheeling Flat Panels unevenness of sh.ape.
Flat panels. or pieces of meta.l with litt\e shape require t h e vcJ.:y w.ini- The rule t.o remember
mutn of pres:;ure and ::should be urought to the required sha.pe a.s gently when two operator::; 8 SE CTION OF A PANH WIT/'f CORP~AriONS
as possible, avoiding all undue pushing and pulli ng, otherwise '" fuult arc working on one Fi(J. -1,.- D S I(OWS 1'.\.Nl!:L Wfl'l{ 1'~\!L'f KJS'OW)>I AS
known as " corruga-ting" will be produced. This fault it: not. easily panel is tlmt. each rna.n O<JRltC(.:,..\.~~t
:'\ (;.
corrected by wheeling, as this h~s a. tendency to mt~.ke m<ttters worse, ;:;hould do his own
and usually the only remedy is to reset the panel, by a.gain using the pulling, but on n o account
hammer and " panel head." In some uases the corrugations cun bo should he push t.hc panel us
removed by wheeling the }Janel diagonally <~cross the wheel tracks it passes from him.
responsible for the fault (l!'ig. 5). When wheeling panels of
a. very full shape the pasaagc
Varying Contours of t,he wheel over the worl'
The contour of automobile door panels, and also certain aircraft should bo controlled so that
cowlings, vary from one point to another, with tho result t.hat the cwve the sta,rting and llnishing Ji'-i!f 5.--Connr.uH<'G coRin:(;A'1'JD wonR:
is gre<~tcr in ccrti.Lin places. In order to obtain this variation it is neces- t f } t k d t J.'nlllincs denot~ path of ooiginal whod tta(;k,
pom 0 cac l 8 ro c oos no l)nd dotted lines donoto iliugonnl path of concct-
sary to nul tho wheel over t..he full p~1t-ts more often than the sur.:r.ounding occur in the same 1.iosition, iug whMI truck.
places. As can be seen from t he diagram in Fig. fi the wheel is started in the panel being moved r:;o that
the spot where the fullness occurs, and after traversing to the bottom of the ra,ising of shape is dono ov~mly a.nc] not by a. series of lumps.
the panel, tho ret.urn is ma.de over the same area already c:overed. 'l'he
movement is conLi.nU:ed to the top end, u.nd in doing so the full phwc is Other Uses for Wheeling Machines
wheeled Lwi<:e t..he amount of the other portions, and t.o gi.ve a good swfacc Wheeling machines Cf.m bo useJ for other 1mrposes. t.}Hm that of
finish it, is cnstotnary t.o wheel light.ly across t.he panel in a diu.gonal smoothing sheet met~l, and in workshops where automob1le mudguards
direction as shown in Fig. fl. are made by h an d (i.e. inst.ea.d of prossin g) it v,.jll be found that t he wheel
It will be found that pil.nels with plenty of contour. or cur ves can be is used as a rot.n.rv press. Hand-mu.do wings (or nmdguards) are com-
subject-ed to considerably greater wheeling pressure without danger of posed of sections ~velded together, the sections consisting of t he v~loncc
corrugating the surfn.oe. forming the sicks, and tho mo.in body <:onsisting of tho top and , m the
. case of front wings, an
Correcting Mistakes apron acting as an
START
Somct,imes too much shape is wheeled int.o a panel, providing a fault y inside shiclcL
general allpea.rance when joined to other sections. This unnecoAA!l-1'3' - ~ FINISh
All the parts are
shape can be removed by turning the panel upside down a.nd wheeling ) :; -? ~ {<'A beaten t.o the1r required
the outside edges, or in v:f:~F shape and after being
the case of door panels PANEL wheeled smooth aro
(~
ARROWS AT THE
this reverse '\vheeling CORNERS ~NOT!: welded together. Dur-
can be carried through ' THE MOVEMENT
OF THE PANEL ro ing this li.Ltter proccsR
the entire putiCl. ALTER DIRECTION
OF WHEEL TRACK
01ACONAI. OIREC TION WHEN the metalhusatendency
FINALLY FINISHING
, When wheeling large AT END OF EACH to warp I.Lnd con:ugatc
.STROKE
work an assistant mav fot a distance of
be required to hold one I approximately 2 in. on
side of the panel, and in PA.SS.AtiE OF WHEEL SeC riON OF PANEL
either side of the weld,
this cMc co.re should be P.i(f. t\.-.. '\-Vr<F.l':LIN\J A :PAJS'EJ, WlTFr. A VAiiYIKC CO:JS'TOt:R owing to the uneven
62 SHEET-METAL WORK WHEE.LT:'{G, BEADING, AND SWAGIN'G 63
heating and contraction. To remove these corrugations. by hand-beating moulding or heading on the su1face of sheet metal used for motor-car
is a long and tedious job, so to obtain quicker production the two wheels bodies and similar wotk. Tbjs operation consists of fo~1ing the pro-
of a wheeling machine are ma.(ie to a standard shape (Fig . I) and are jections from the actual panel to be used on the body, etc., and is
known as Van-dor-Plru:; wh<'.ds. distinct from 11opplied moulcling where the form is made in solid metal,
The handle inside the frame is removed and fastened to the portion which is afterwards fastened on to the panels. Various methods are
of t he shaft protruding outside the rear of the frame; s.o t hat by t.uruing used to obtain t hese mouldings, but t he most general method is to use a.
the ho.ndle t he top wheel can be rotate4. Thus if t ho wing is pla.~d swaging machine fitted with suita.blc wheels.
between t he wheels and t ho lower wheel is tightened, it ca.n be. passed 'l'he swaging machine (Fig. 8) consists essentially of a pair of shafts
between the rollers by turning the handle, two or three passes usually geared together and mounted in a suiLable frame. Attached tD one end
being sufficient to again Jlroduce a smooth and regular surfar:e. of the shaft.s an~ rollers, male and female, shaped to produce a swage of
the desired form. The top section of the frame, carrying the upper wheel
Swaging with a Wheeling Machine and shafb, is hinged at the back and kept in upward tension by a flat
It mo.y be noticed on modern cars that orno.montal mouldings or spring. Vertical adjustment is provided to bring the wheels into mesh,
swaging is used to improve the external appearance, and where ca.rs are and is operated wit.h a small handserow bearing on to the top arm. A
produced by hand this work is often done with the aid of o. wheeling smaH lever situated nea:r the spur gears provides, through a face cam,
machine. Large panels cannot be swaged by ordinary swaging machines, for lateral adjustment, so that the wheels can he set to match up exactly
owing to the la.ck of sufficient clearance between the back of the machine when ~:~eparated by the thickness of the panel.
and the swage 'vheels, but by fitting wheels, shaped to the required form, An adjustable guide is provided to ensure that the swaged impression
into a wheeling ma.chine, panels can be swaged to any design. will be true and pa~;allel with the edge of the panel ; that the impression
Denterazer Machines will be symmet.rica.l; and, thirdly, to ensure that for repetition work all
the mouldings, etc., will be uniform.
A machine kno'\\'ll as a Denterazcr is to be found in manv motor-body
repair shops for smoothing out dents and hollows in bodies. In prin oipl"e
this machine is very similar to a 'rheeling ma.chino, but is considerably Setting Up and Use of Swaging Machines
smaller, and, instead of pushing tho metal through the rollers, the machine Swaging machines are usually supplied with a considerable number
itself is pushed and pulled over the work (Fig. 7). of wheels, suitable for forming beads of various widths and mouldings of
The value of this can bo a.pprecia.Led for repair work, where, instc<M"l various sections. Some machines a.ro also supplied with wheels for
of having to dismantle t he damaged portion the dcnterazer can be run slitting (t<> convert t-he ~achine to slitting shears) and wiring. To set up
over t he surface wit-h a considerable saving of time and expense. To t he ma.clllne for operation it is necessary to select a suitable pair of w.heels
obtain good result,., it is necessary to roughly beat out, the dents wit h a. t.o give the required section, and fit t he male wheel on the tDp shaft and
mallet and to remove all dirt from both inside and oi1t.sidc the dam<~gcd the female on the other, locating them with the keyg fitted in the shafts
panel or wing, afterwards using the machine to provide a final smooth a.nd locking them jn position with the. recessed nuts, which are screwed
surface. with right- and left-ha.n d threads so that t.hcy will tend to tighten during
Sometimes the Dentera.zer is used af3 an ordinary sf.a.ndard wheeling use, instead of working loose.
mael1ine for sma.U work, Having fi tted the wheels, they are" lined up" by slackening the lock-
soas ro ALTeR by gr:i pping one arm ing screw and adjusting t.he sma.Illevcr at the rear of the frame unt.il the
----CARRieR TO ANY
POSITION in a vico and passing wheels engage centrally with each other. It is important to bear in m~nd
the metal through the 'when selecting the wheels that there 'vill be a thickness ofmctalscparatmg
PRESSURE wheels , in the usun.} them when in usc, and sufficient clearance must be allowed, otherwise the
SCREw manner. wheels will mark the side of tho moulding and be prevented from engaging
SPRING CI./P TO
KEI:.P ROLLERS to their full depth.
IN PLACE BEADING AND . Next set the stop to the dietanco required between the centre of the
SWAGING moulding and the edge of the shoot. Adjust the top screw until the wheel
0
Swaging is the oper- forms a depression in t.he meta.l and then run it through the wheels ; give
Fig . 7.- Tlll:l D!!t''J:ERAZRR 1\fACJITN'R ation used to raise up another half-tunl on the handscrew and repeat the operation until the
KHJ~J~~T-.LVIETA L WORK \o\'HEBLTNC, BEADTKG, AND SWAGH\G . 65
turns the handle. Where such an accessory is available it is only neces-

sary t.o hold the sheet lightly on the table with the palm of the hand while
the sheet slips under the hand, thus creating sufficient friction to keep
the edge beflring on the back of the guide.
Us~s for Swaging

Swages a.rc used for a variety of purposes in sheet-metal work, such as
decoration, stiffening section and forming stops, shoulders, and rebates.
Large flat panels, which are apt to be "floppy," nrc sometimeA sWfen ed
by running a. half-round swage around t he edges, this particular shape of
section giving considerable extra lateral strength. Loose panels (i.e.
panels whic:ll have been distotte~ by stretching in rollers or some other
operation) can be tightened by swaging as the looseness is taken up in
t he extra met.a.l required in the swo.go, and the neat half-round section
adds to, rat her tha.n detracts from , the general appearan ce.
Largo flat areas on some pa.rts of motor-cars and coaches {e.g. the bot-
tom of the foot well and running boards, floor and seat walls) are fre-
quently swaged to give additional strength and to prevent "drumming"
when tho completed oar is nmning on the road. .Examples of the com-
bination of strength with decoration by swaging is to be found in the
design of cirr.ular articles, such as drums, dustbins, baths, etc. Swages
are frequently used for location purposes on tanks, and on some aircraft
t.anks are used to form a channel to locate the holding-down stra.ps; two
swages, a.n exact distance apart, being used in this instance (Fig. 10).
f.'i(j. 8.-T~'J!CAL llWAGT:::<G M~OW!i.!l: A swage, run arotmd tho top of a box or canister, is frequently used to act
as a stop for the lid and to strengthen the top rim (Fig. 10).
wheel "bottoms ," at which stage the sw-age will Le f~Jly form ed. The Where the swage or bead is required to be on the extreme edge (as on
objeut of forming the swage in gradual sliH,ge:; (usually three to four a number plato, etc.), the metal should be Rwaged a short dist-ance in
passes t.hrough the wheel aro de&-irablP.) is to draw t he metal up gradually, from the side and t he s urplus trimmed off on the guillo'tino to form a clean
thus avoiding strain, which may result in splitt.ing or distorting the panel. edge (F.ig. 11). The side panels of a motor coach usually have a double
Care must be ta.ken, especially on the first:. nm, to sec that the edge is swage running tlnough them ; the metal between the swages being
bearing on tho guide and, due to the fad. that the met.<~! is drawn in from painted in a contra.sting colour to give the effect of a separate panel,
~he sides during the SWil.gi.ng operation, the back edge only will make con - which is often used as a background for Lettering (proprietor's name, bus
tact ' vith the gt1ide in su bsequent runs, but this will b(} sufficient t<> keep destinations, etc.}. The profile giving the positions of t.hese swages is
tho job true with the wheels. shown on a board and the whole set of panels is l'Wl through the wheels
Wbcte heavy work hal:! to be handled it i::; advantageous to have a at the samo setting to ensure unifonnity.
mctal-covcrcrl table alongside the machine, with the surfar.e at the sarne
height as the wheel cent res, to take up the weight of t he job. The Decoration for Cars
operat.or can then feed the sheet through tho wheels while a.n assistant . Tho swage is a very important part of the decoration of a car, and
great attention is usually given to its use. Starting at the bonnet or dash,
the swage is carried through the doors o.nd arotmd the back in: one con -
tiiiuous sweep, thus forming the waistline of t he car. It may take many
forms, but a gener11.l design for saloon cars is a moulding of the form shown
/!'ig. 9 . -EXAMJ'Lt;.S OF SWAGI:::<G WORK DO~E ON 'l'IT H: in lfig. 13, A.
~rACKt:-<lo1 8HOWK IN' Fw. 8
vn- 5
66 SHEET-ME"fATJ WORK
WHEELING, BEADI~G, AND SWAGJN'6- 67
c
SWAGE Arrowhead Moulding
J LID On som~ ooup6 and
sports models the moulding
_WAG is made to Reparatc at the
For t.nnk::ond locat ion. roM ; ono part pa8sing A
around the wa.is t rail and
the othor foJlowing on to
CANISTER the tail. Another style
of moulding in vogue is
the arrowhead type, which B
For locating holding-
down st.raps. Swugo round top of eu.a i~:~tl:'r. sta.rts at the dash as a
narrow moulding about .t'ig. 13..- l'YPlCA.L CAR'ROnY SW.AGJI!S
Jfig. 10.-U~xS lfOB SW.oi.Gll<O
~ in. wide, widening as it.
follows an easy sweep to un8ighlly, it fs undesirable, as the panel is prevented
the back , and then terminating in a spen.:rpoint (Fig,. 13, n). . from "seating " properly , thus ca.using it to fit in-
The moulding on a car is first " set " by t he bodymaker, who makes correctly to the other panels. To avoid this the panel
a wood~n moulding of the required shape and fixes it in the correct pot:.i- Fig. 12.-SwAraw is stretched by beating it between a sandbag and
tion. The panel heater ma.kes his pane] a11d aft.er smoothing in the !!imR PAt<JO:J:. or"
COA(l'Ff.
studding hammct to crive
o- the n ecessar"
.J
increase m
wheeli ng machllle, temporarily fixes it int.o position wit h pa.n el-pins or area between the swage lines, and the wheels are t.hen
cramps, and " marks off" the position of the moulding with a. long bent able to form up the moulding without disturbing the met-al on either sido
scriber, the end of which rests on the wooden moulding which forms a of it (Fig. .17).
guide whilo t he scriher point marks out the exact shape and posit ion on If the moulding is "swept," i.e. curved, but at the same time is
the panel as it is drawn along the moulding. parallel and the edge of the P<\nel Rt raight (as in the case of door panels),
If the moulding is parallel, the mnrking may be dispensed with n.t\d the s\vage guide may be used if a piece of scrap material cut out to the
the guide on t.he swaging machine used in its pJa.ce, but curved a.nd tapered desired shape is fastened on with screws or rivets to act as a template.
mouldings must be formed freehand, by guiding the panel through t.he 'l'hus by pushing tho panel so t hat t.hc template is ahvays in cont-act with
~wage wheels on the line marked off hy the previously described method. the guide, a considerably cleaner contour is obtained than if the \VOrl{
For this work !lingle-sided wheels are used (Fig. 15) so that the swA.gc wa.s done freehand. When a swaged panol is mounted on the car the
may be formed up, one side at a t ime (Fig. 14) ; or se\'Cral wheels ma.y he wooden moulding should fit inside the swa-ge and , \vhcn all the swaged
" ganged " toget.her wit h suit.n.ble thidmess pa.cldng wa:;her.a between panels arc. assembled, should appear as a continuous moulding. Any
them to form a fio.t.-topped moulding of any desired width (Fig. l6). breaks wh10h may then be apparent are trued up by the use of hand
chasers.
Swaging round Back Corners of Car Bodies Composite Swaging
"When swaging round the back corners of car bodies, the moulding h R.s Where a. moulding is required of extra width or of more artistic shape
to stand out from t he panel and therefore make a bigger sweep , which than those formed bv standard
means that the out.side of the moulding will be longer than the metal B wheels, it may be built up by
from which it was formed, and must. therefore be 8Lret.ched duril:Jg opera- FIRST OPERATION \ A using two or more pairs of
. tion. This stret~hing can oo_doiJe with t.be wheels, but t.his is an undesir- . wheels separately, some typical
able method, as the wheels examples being illusbated in
also pull t he pu.nel inwards AFTER ,WASTE METAL Fig. J 8. Care must be exercised
at the points immediately TRIMMI~~T OFF SECOND A '
when making theso swages to
below tho swage. OPERATION form t hem in such order that
Although the resulting the wheels for one part of the
effect is not very l!'ig. 1 l._:A sw "-<'l l!ll> EDGE Fig. 14.-FOD.MDTG OlJJ\VRn .A~D T AP.T.RF.n swage do not foul the p arts
MOULDINGS already formed,
fi8 SH:8E1'-METAL WORK WHEELING, BEA DL~G, AND SWAGL~C 69
Swaging Tubes and Pipes projecting ontside the frame (see section
Tubes and pipes that are dealing with " Wheeling :Machines ").
to be joined by means of A guide ca1mot be used for this A
rubber . hose a11d clips arc method, and the S\vage must be made
, swaged at their ends to make freehand by working to a line, two
. a water-tight joint and to operators being necessary to turn the B
prevent the hose from pulling handle and guide the work through the
off. These pipes are usua.Jiy wheels. Due to the fact that the bottom
too small to be swaged in the wheel is supported on a pillar, there is
standard ma-chine (as the
c
almost unlimited clearance on either side,
Jl i (l. 15.-8l~CLU- J!ig. 16.- S l :<O.t:8ll1En \Y"JreltLS wheel would have t<> fit inside and despite the fact tba.t only the top
ii(lD 11.1> WHJU:LS (;A..'WED T O l'Olllo! A WH>Jo; the pipe), so it is necessary t.o wheel is driven, a very satisfactory swage
FOR l>ORMJl'(} P .AIULI.ET. ~(0 11LDl -"O
use a tool known as a hand r.an be obtained. D
Ct'.k'Vl! l> A :'<D
'I.1.1'E.ll.}; D swage. This consists of a
:I(OTILUJl'QS solid mandrel (with the shape Guttering, etc.
I'i(J. 18.-COJI-rl'OSITE flWA(ll:'<fl
of the swage turned on to the Guttering is made on u gutlering
outside surfac.c), and a top tool, similar to a grooving punch with a female press which is a.n adaptation of the
impression, mounted over it in a. slide or on a pivoted arm; the whole be- right-angle bendi.ng machine, fitted with a top and bottom tool to give
ing :mounted in a suita.blc frame (Fig. 19). The pipe is slipped over the tho required section when the tools come together, in a similar mtmncr
mandrel, up to the stop, and the 1mnch is tapped with a hammer whilst to <m ordinary pre~s. }ioulding and guttering tools are frequently made
at the same time the pi11e is rotated by hand, the whole device being to be interchangeable with the tools used for right-angle bending, to
usually held in a vice. The pipe is held vertically with the left hand enable t.heir use on this standard machine.
while the punch is slruck with a hammer, the pipe being rotated slowly
until the swage has been completely formed. Drawn Sections
:!\fouldi.ng, in long lengths as used for shop fronts, etc., and the stiftEm-
ing sections (Z shape) used for "stringers" and "stiffeners" in aircraft
Forming Moulding in a Cramp Folder work, aro produced on a draw-bench, which usua.lly takes the form of
It may be required to form a wide moulding for which wheels are not two cl1annc~ or girder sections mounted parallel to each other, so that a
available. Such mouldings may be formed, one bend at a time, by slot is formed between them. A head is fixcu n.t. one end to hold the dies
working from ~ither side on a cramp folder, of which some typical ex- or swage wheels, and a travelling cramp or vir.e, operated through a
amples are shown in Fig. 20. These sections are used for strength rather geared handwhcel and endless chain, travels along the whole lengt.h
t.han appearance, a.nd are often made separately and riveted to fl.a.t sheets of the bed.
to act as stiffeners or runner. The raw material
Sometimes it is necessary to swage very large work, or work whose consists of a. st.ri p or
difficult shape prevents the uso of standard machines, owing to the limited ribbon ofmeta.1 which il'l
clearance between t.he shafts. Such work METAL STRAP TO GUIDE PUNCH t hreaded through the
includes motor wings of helmet section (Fig. 21 ), POR TION
STRETCHED riNISHED two halves of t.he
\Vhich requires a considerable .amount of clear.- PRIOR TO '!?w_AG\ forming die, a.nd locked
a.nce on either side as it passes through the SWAGING -
in the travelling cramp,
rollers. This difficulty can be overcome by which then draws the
replacing the normal wheels on a wheeling metal through the
machine with swaging wheels (which usually die, thus forming it to
have to be made specially) and rotating the shape. The two halves
shaft by means of the.handle, which, for this Fig. 17.- Sw..H>JxG :&opm of the die are adjustable
purpOSe, lS fixed tO the end Of the Shafting HAOK CODN'BRS OF CAR UODIES Fig. lfJ. -HA:<ll SWAGE FOR PrPRS and slightly tapered tO
70 SHEET-MFJTAL WORK
~
C . D Chapter VI
Fig. 20. -l;;XAlfl'T.RS 011' MOUJ.DTNG PROO timm T~ _.. miAJofl' 'NlLDltR.
give a " lead " to the metal by roughly forming it to shape. It may be JOI1\1NG SHEET-METAL woRK
necessary to p ass the material several times through the dies, starting
OINTS and sea.ms uRed in sheet-metal work may be clas~ified as
with them slightly separated
and t hen closing t hem a. littlo
for each successive run until
they foxrn the full shape. A
J either mechanical joint.s (where the edges of the metal are bent to a
self.1oeking form), riveted, or metallic joints (soldering, brazing, and
welding).
heavy lubricant., such a.s bees-
wax or soa.p, is necessary when Mechanical joints
using t.hi::s type of die in ordel The most generally U.."Eld form of mechanical joint is the grooved joint,
to reduce f1iction and prevent which is made by folding the edges to be joined in opposite directions so
dama.ge to the surface of the that they hook together, then with a grooving punch (or "groover ") the
work. metal is set down to form the joint (Fjg. 1). The groover has a half-
A better method of pro- round groove cut in its face , and when in use one side is held in contact
ducing moulding on a draw- with t.ho opeD side of the se.am , which acts a.s a guide, while the other
bench, if the quantity is large side is act with light taps on the groover, a.t the ::same time as it is moved
~nough to warrant the expense, slowly along the soum. This should be repeated two or three times until
IS t o use a series of swage the joint is flush on the inside. 'l'his joint is used extensively for tin
wheels mounted as a. battery, work of all kinds, petrol tanlrs, cylinders, etc. When the joint is required
each successive pair of wheels to be flush on t he outside, a sunk grooved joint is USf>.d, which is made
forming deeper than thoso by sinking the joint into a slot, such as a keyway in a shaft, or other
preceding until, finally, the full suitable tool {Fig. 2).
Fi(J. 21.-. SW!I.GT~(l TN' A W'REET.T:SG ::.UCHT~E . b Where the met,a-1 is too thin or thick or otherwise unsuit.u.ble for groov-
. sectwn lS o taincd. By this
.. . " , ~ethod sections nwy be oh- ing (e.g. perforat<>.d gauze), a strip scam may be employed (Fig. 3),
tamed m on;- draw,. alt.houg~, of course, a single pair of whecl.s may where the edges are folded and .t.be st-rip introduced from the end.
he used, as m a swagmg machme, by taking tho metal through them :For box cornerf::, bottoms, or ends, the sea.m shown in Fig. 4 makes
several times, adjusting the wheels closer after each "draw" until the a neat and strong joint. 'l'hls is made by turning a square edge on the
full depth is obtained. end of one side and a fol~ on t he other ; these are cnga.ged and then
Sections formed on a paned down and folded over, with a malkt or hammer, on a sharp-edged
dra w -bench hav-e a tool (o.g. the flat end of a mandrel).
tendencv to distort and METAL EDGES
twist, o'~ing to the edges
~
TAPERED ON
becoming stretched in the ON E S IDE TO 151 5TAGr
forming process. These GIVE LEAD
~
~ .:" ... .:-.. ./ ... , -
ma.y be straightened by
F'INtSHE:D JOINT
fastening each end and _ _ _\______
I ~
exer ting a pull 'vhich will
I I F'ig. 1. -~i..Uri~O OROOVBD JOl~T
tend t.o stretch the cent-re Fig. 2.-8'17:1<1< GMOVl!:l) JOD!T
and so take up the slack Righ~showing how juiJ.t, is A.Cr..om - Rar with keyway for making
l"i[J. 22.-Dlll FOR FOn.Mn>G .<I.IDCIMF'l' CH.<I.NN!!!L modntoc.l in the groovca. grooved joints inside is a;hown at
material in the edges. $ECTIO:l<S OK A DRAW DE-S Ol! the top.
71
72 SHEE'l'-.\'IETAI~ WORK .JOINIXG SHEET-:.VIETAL WORK 73
Fig. 5 shows a similar joint employed for seaming bottoms, and is
known a~ a "knocked-up join~." This is made by turning a flange out
square w1th the body and turnmg an edge up square with t.he bottom so
that it is an easy fit over the flange. This edge is then O'ently pa;1ed
down on to the flange and the whole edge knocked up, over/: sharp-edged I. I
w
IJ
FINISHE:D
JOINT
round tool (e.g. the ronnd end of the mandrel).

In. workshops where th.is type of joint is extensively used, simple Fig. 6.-K~OCXJJ:DITl' DOT'1'0~1 ,JQLN'l'
m11.chmes arc employed wh1ch turn the flanges (a Jenny is used for this
operation) and form tho joint with specially designed wheels on machines rivetR this may be any flat block of steel or steel bar held endways against
known as "paning-down machines" and " bottom-closing (or knockinO'- the rivet head, but for snap-head rivets a hemispherical depression must
up) machines " respectively. e be made to accommodate the head and preserve the shape. This may
he ma.dc by fi1st drilling a " countersink " in the end of a suitable
Riveted Joints bar, heating to redness, and then using a punch and steel ball of the
For riveted seams a lap of at ]east throe times tho dia.meter of the 1ivets correct size, to complete the cup. ]for work entailing the usc of a
is required. The seam is made by drilling a hole through the pieces just "dolly," two operators work together, often out of sight of each other.
large enoug.h to clear the rivet, which ~s inserted from the inside and !'dipped The man on the inside of the job putt> the rivet into the hole and holds
on to a smtable tool. A draw set IS then used to "draw" the rivet the dolly against the head and then signa.ls his partner that he is ready ;
throt~gh the !~ole: A fe~ taps with a ~~amrner will "spread " the top of the rivet is then cut and snapped up in the usual way wit-h a rivet set
the rivet, wh1ch IS then snapped up by positioning the button set or or pneumatic riveting gw1, if the latter is ava.ilable.
snap over the rivet and givihg one or two blows with a hammer. If the
rivets arc too long they should be cut down to about one and a half times Rivet Squeeze
the diameter of the rivet, which length should provide sufficient mat.erial
to fom1 a good snap head. A very useful tool for riveting aluminium and dural fittings is the rivet
squeeze, a tool rcRcmbling a bear punch, but with rivet cups fitted in
with snap-head rivets, a "dolly " is used under the rivet head this
place of the punch and die. This makes a neat and quick job when
being simply a suitable bar with a cup formed in it to fit the rivet i1ead.
closing soft -rivets, but its capacity is limited to the depth of the throat,
Rivets are made with different-shaped heads and in variou.'l sizes (both
which is usually 3 in. to 4 in.
length and diameter), and of metals to suit the material to be joined.
Iron, copper, aluminjum, Dural, brass, and stai.nless-st.cel rivets are made
for usc, and rivets of the same metal as those to be joined should be used. Flush Finish
Where two dis~hnilar metalc; atc to be jollied a compromise must be made ; Riveted work on which a flush finish is required is obtained by using
tz3
thus copper nvcts are frequently used for both iron and brass and countersunk-head rivets, if the metal is thick enough to take the counter-
aluminium rivets f(>r jobs where a very soft rivet h; required. Tubular sink, or on thin metal with flat-head rivets, using a recessed dt'aw punch,
rivets ~re sometimes .used for ~ight structures on aircraft and are set by the metal being drmvn into a cup to accommodate the head without
SJ)readmg the ends with a belling punch or other suit- weakening it: Wbere fittings are to be flush riveted to sheet metal the
able tool. .,. . . , best method is to countersink the fitting only,
Where a joint is under shear strain and the rivet . ' . i and use countersunk rivets. When drawn up
pitch re~uire~ would be too close, a double staggered . [" - .. .J'~: : in the usual way the head will.pull the sheet
row of rivets IS USed. .. n, ::. up into the countersink in the form of a
lsi STAGE: conical c.up, thus preserving its strength.
Riveting-Using Dolly Tinned-steel tanks are usually riveted
When riveting is to be carried out in 8itu, as for fiNISHED with tinned-copper rivets and the joints and
JOINT fittings sealed by "sweating " after riveting.
aircraft construction, tanks, etc., it is necel'lsarv to tlse
a " dolly " behind th~ rivet, Dural, of course, cannot be soldered, but is
(> against which it is hammered up. sealed by inserting jointing material b~tween
Fig. 4. Hox-
Fig. 3.-STRrr JomT For flat-head and couitter-snnk con~E~ JtHK'i' the Lap.s before riveting. Fig. 6.-l~Jvsno sEA:us
SHEET-MBTAL WORK JOINIXC SHEET-~lETAL WORK 75
metal, is required.
SOLDER AND SOLDERING The joint is then
'l'he process of solderi11g is an amalgamat,ion between two metals, the fluxed and solder ap- ~""'~--_.~~-
solder and the work and iL naturaJlv follows that the surface of the work plied with a hot, well-
should be elE>-an, as the solder will <tdbere only to meta), and not to a film tinned copper bit, with
of dirt, grease, or rust which may cover the metal. Soft solders ate its edge in contact
alloys of lead and tin in approximately t.he following proportions : with the work.
AR the copJler bit
SOFT SOLDEHS is only a convenient
~ reservoir of heat, it
1.
I Le(td Tin JJiamuth should be left in con-
Plumb6r ~~lder .- . --~'--:l tact long enough to
wann the work up to
Pig. 8.--:ltn"F;T sQ~EE?:E
'finrmm's (general purpose) , tho melting temperature of .the solder, which '\\'ill. then be seen to spread
Timnun's {fine) . 2
I'owtoror's soldet . 1 2 over the surface of the metal. The bit should then be drawn along the
joint., using the edge of the top lap as a guide, and fed with solder on
the top face, from where it will run down into the joint. The solder
Bismuth solder, whidl is mmd for pewter and other alloys having low will follow the copper bit, so it must not be allowed to wander off the
melting temperatures, has a melting-point of only 203c F., less than the joint or an unaight.ly smudge will ho prodnr.cd. The solde1~ is fed on i.o
boiling-point of w<~teL the iron by dabbing the face from time to time with the stick of solder.
When the edge of the solder on the joint fotms up into a ridge it is an
Soldering Fluxes indication that the bit is becoming too cool tor further work and should
When soldering, a flux is used to break down and floa.t off oxide and be re-heated.
other smface impmities and to prevent the formation of oxide by the If, after heating, the bit "smokes," it is too hot for use and should
heat. The most. generally used flux is "killed spirits," made by dissolv- be allowed to cool slightly, so that when dipped into flux the tinned faces
ing as much zinc as possible in muriatic acid or spirits of salta (i.e. o. remain b1ight. When a copper bit has been. overheated so that the faces
saturated solution). This should be done in a wide-necked earthenwa.te are bnrnt black, it must be clE>.aned up with a :file, preferably while hot.,
jar, in the open air. 'l'he jar should not be more than half-full, as the and re-tinned by dipping into flux, applying solder, and rubbing on a
violent; chemica.l action causes it, t,o " boil up." When " killed " there piece of tinned metal.
should be some undissolved zinc still left at the bottom, and the liquid As solder has very little mechanical strength, a soldered butt joint is
should be dear and cololll'let:>s. This is used as a flux for copper, brass, unsatisfactory, due to the fact that the solder would have only the thick-
iron, and tinplate. ness of the metal to which to adhere. If a flush joint is required, a strip
Raw spirits of salts is used as a flux for zinc and galvanised iron. of metal should be " sweated " on from the back, this being known as a
Sal ammoniac is used when tinning 'iron, copper, brass, a.nd caf!t iron, strap joint.
this being a very powerful flux, but i~ highly corrosive and must be
thoroughly washed off afte1 use. Sweated Joints
Tallow is used as a flux for lead and plumbers' "';pcd joints, and resin A "sweated " joint is <t joint which is soldered through the whole
is used as a flux for lead and electrical work where an acid flux must be surface. of the two pieces in contu.ct. Sheet-metal joints a.rc usually
avoided. 1\:lixcd together, taUow and resin make a useful paste flux. " sweated " by applying the copper bit fiat, on top of the joint, so that
it is heated completely through, and solder will be Rccn to "1'\wcat ~ out
.!\'laking a Soldered Joint from tho other sido, thus indicating that the solder has penetrated right
For an ordinary through the joint, soldering together the whole of the two slU'titces in
soldered joint, u. lap joint contact. Tank rivets may be neatly " !'wcatcd " from the outside by
F'LAT
HEAD
THI~ <.:C>Ge:D
FLAT HEAD
COUNTER-
SUNK
SNAP
HEAD
MUSHROOM
Hf:AC> of ! in. to i in., according .holding one face of the bit in. contact with the rivet head only, and
.i''ig. 7,-RIVETS to the thickness of the allowing the solder to flow down and around it, giving a pedect seal
76 SHEET-1\'IETAJJ WORK JOINING SHEET-1\fETATJ WORK 77
a.nd confining the solder to the vicinity of the rivet head, in a small
neat ring.
In cases where the heat stored in a copper bit is inadequate, the sur-
faces which are to be sweated together are first" tinned" by coating with
solder, then, after positioning the two pieces, heat is applied with a blow-
pipe until the surplus solder is seen to exude from the sides of the joint
when pressed together. This joint, if not otherwise held in position,
should bo kept tightly pressed together until the solder sets.
Floating and Bridging

Floating and bridging are two methods of soldering which are very use-
ful on cert<tin classes of repair wor;k, but it must be emphasised that these
methods <tre not used for any aircraft work as they come more in the
category of" faking" than of jointing. A hole which is to be filled with
solder may be " floated " by la}ing t.he bit over the hole with its whole
face in contact, and at the same time drawing it sideways, with both
sides of tl1e hole in contact with the face of the bit. The solder will sptead
Fig. !I.-A :l101H:H.t>: Sll:EET-MET.U. I'KODUCT in the form of a film across the hole und join up with the other side.
Fixing rua u.il' fan to its ~hootmel.al cll.fl. Small holes may be filled by inserting the point of the bit into the hole,
twist.ing it, aronnd and withdrawing vertically. "Bridging" a gap with
solder is done by building up with solder from both sides, using a cool bit,
unW it joins. This can ra.rely be done neatly, and it is usuaJJy filed or
scraped afterwards.
Silversolder ing
Silver solder is an alloy of copper, :r.inc, and silver, used mainly for
joining brass and copper, borax being used as a flux, and the process pro-
duces a neat, strong joint. As the solder is fairly strong in itself, material
of a suitable thickness may be butt joined, but in most cases sheet-metal
joints are scarfed and lapped to give a. Ja.rger area. of contact. A scarfed
joint is made by thinning the metal on one side to produce an acute angle,
so that when the two scarfed edges are lapped, the total thickness is that
of the single sheet. When two pieces a.re to be joined a.t an a.ngle they
mn.y be propped into position and silver-soldered, the solder forming a
fillet which will be of ample strength for most jobs.
To silver-solder a joint it is necessary to first la.y the parts in position,
a.nd if required, fasten the parts with fine binding wire, clamps, or weights.
The flux, which is made by mi::i::ing borax a.nd water to the thickness of
cream, is next painted sparingly on to the work (this should be con-
fmed to the joint, as surplus flux is difficult to remove after it has been
fused) and _the joint heated with a blowpipe, or other convenient source
of heat, lmtil the ftux fuses and runs into the joint. Next warm up the
Fig. 10.-A MODERN SHEETMETAL PRODUCT end of the silver solder and dip inLo flux. Cont..inue heating the joint,
Lining up position for air fan. (By cou'fte8y oj Tecalemit, Ltd.) stroking it from time t.o tim.e wit.h the end of the silver solder until it is
78 SHEET-l\ffiTAL WORK JOINI:NG SHEET-lVIETAL WORK 79
PLAIN SCARf' JOINT

hot enough to melt off a little from
the ond, which will follow the flux and
run into the joint.
Silver solder should be used Rpar-
ingly both in the interests of neatness
and e~onomy, as it is fairly expensive.
If necessary, more flux may be added
tmd f!he flow assisted by using a
CAAMOSO~~
S<:ARF"ED EDGE: -...
spatula made by ftatt~ning the end of ;
* .: . . .
a piece of wire with a hammer. After
cooling, the flux (which is now like
F'ig. 11.. CnAMPt~D JOINT Fon
glass) must be removed by chipping
or filing and the joint cleaned up.
Silver solder is mmally supplied in the form of ribbon, which is then
cut into thin strips and mounted in a suitable holder to eliminate
waste.
Brazing
The process of brazing is similar to silver-soldering, except that bra.zing
wire is used for joining material and a rather higher t-empnrature is re-
quired. This is used for joining copper and steel. Brazing spelter is
sometimes used in pln.ce of brazing wire, this being a mixlw'e of granulated (Bri~i<h Ox!fgm_Co., Ltd.)
F'iy. 12.-\VELDD:W fllll'.l~"!' Ar.t"l1:lr<rl;;:\1.
brass and borax, which is sprinkled on the joint, and then heated Showing uloglc of rod and blowpipe at corrunencement of welrl.
unt.il the spelter fuses. Where an extra strong joint is required, tho edges
to be joined are scarfed and a series of cuts made in one edge, dovetail
fashion. These cramps are t.hen bent alternately up a.nd down, tho plain
scarfed edge inserted, and the whole joint hammered up tight. 'l'hia
is then loosened a little by tapping lhe end of the joint edgewise with a
hammer, so that the brass may flow between the cramps and the scarfed
edge.
WELDING
Welding, both oxy-acetylene and electric spot welding, is playing an
.increasingly important part in the fabrication of sheet-met,al work.
Oxy-acetylene Welding
Fusion welding with a.n oxy-acetylene flame is a process by which the
edges of the pieces to be joined are melted and nm together, fresh metal
being added, to make up losses and gaps, by means of a filler rod ofthe
same composition as the metal to be welded.
Iron and Mild Steel

Iron and mild steel are lhe easiest welding metals. Flux is not
required, but care and experience are necessary to produce a good neat
Jliy. l3.-\VELDJYG SHEET .U.UMJ:lllt:M
joint. The most gcnern.l method is to "tack " the edges together by Showing nngl$ of rod and blowpipe towaJ'<ls ond of wold.
so SHEE1'-METAL WORK
melting them together at intervals of a;J?proxiniately . ~ in. The joir~t is
then hammered on a suitable tool to brmg the edges mto perfect ahgn-
mont. The flame is then directed along the weld, from right to left, at an
angle of about 80 degrees and set so that the cone is a~out ! ~n. from t~e Chapter VII
joint; then, with a small circular mot~<m of the blow~I)e, a lit-tle poo~ lS
melted and run together. 1'he left s1de of the pool1s constantly betng METAL SPThMNG
melted down as welding c.ontinues a.J:ld. the metal runs behind the ilame
and cools, giving the familiar herring-bone pattern. Care must be taken E'l'AL spinning consists of pressing sheet metal into hollow fonns
to keep the flame moving or the roetal will be melted and_ collapse throug~
the back, leaving a hole which wiJl ho.ve to be filled up w1th filler-rod , and
producing an unsightly lump.
M in a lathe, by means of various kinds of tools and rollers. The
metal receives support on a chuck of suitable contour to mould
the desired shape, and before treatment will be either flat or drawn
into a shell.
Oxy.acetylene Welding of Aluminium Many a.rticles are only burnished without any formative treatment,
Welding is probably the most satisf~tory method of j o~ning a~urui.n while in other cases a drawn object merely has the consequent wrinkles
ium but this metal is somewhat more d1fficult to wold, mvmg to 1ts lo;w spun down smooth. l\:1ore than one operation mo.y be necessary in spin-
melting-point (which occurs at a te~perature belm~ that o~ visible red ning the more difficult example~:> because annealing has to be performed
heat) and the rapid formation of ox1de on the surfaco;whiCh ;must be after a certain amount of work, to prevent craclting. Materials dealt with
broken up by probing or stroking wit.h a filler-rod coated wit-h flux. comprise steel, copper and ils alloys, aluminium, zinc, Britannia metal,
Welding aluminium requires considerable pra-ctice, as it is more a matter and silver. ComplAmenta:ry operations are effected on numerous sorts of
of judgment and feel than of sight. . . spun pie008, including trimming, wiring, and beading, a.s :will be explained.
Light-green goggles should be worn when weldmg t-ha ~eta.l, .Foo thu.t.
the joint can be clearly seen, and the flame should be qmckl;y lifted as SPINNING LATHES
soon as the surface appears t-o collapse (due to the formation of an under- These aro in some respects simply constructed, but must be able to
bead of metal on the underside), at the same time probing with the filler- wit.hstand the groat stresses produced in spinning.
rod, to feed on the flux and add a little metal to the joint. The Hand Rest
Hand tools are manipulated from a sjmple T rest, drilled with holes
Spot Welding on the top, into any of which a steel pin is inserted to act as a. fulcrum
Spot. welding is an electric p1occss where a heavylow~voltage_current for exerting the pressure.
is applied to two elect-l'odes, which are brought together w1t-h OOilSidera.ble
mechanical pressure. The metal offers a higher resistance to the c~ucnt Slide Rest
tha..n tho electrodes and rapidly becomes hot enough to be pJa.stw, ut A compound slide rest cont rols various tools, und there aru rests of
which moment the mechanical pre!lsnr.e completes the weld on the spot special form fitted with rollers and other tools constantly performing
between the electrodes. Nach spot .takes only a second or so to ma.ke the same class of operation.
and tho effect is that of a rivet . Resistance welding is most effective on Driving the Lathe
sheet iron and steel, but machines are now built- to ~old aluminium and Belt dri\Te alone Is sufficient for a. good many lathes, heavy ones
other non-ferrous metals. Special types have been developed for butt ,require bac.k gear .
and seam welding for use on motor panels, tanks, etc. . . .
In operation, it is only necessary to hold the two parts m positiOn and Tailstock
feed them between the electrodes, closing them by ptessure on a foot The poppets or tailstocks are either simple, with plain or ball-bearing
pedal. Due to the fact that the heat is very l(lcalised ,:t-l1ere is an ahscJ?ce point ceuLre ~ or of special type,' to manipulate the pads which keep the
of dll!tort.ion, and the work can be comfortably held m the ha.nd dunng work against the chuck.
the process. Lathes in Action
Fig. l represents a. lathe by the E. W. Bliss Company, having head-
st-ock spindles running in roller and ball bearings. The tailstocks possess
vn-6 81
82 SHEE' -1\ffiTAL WORK METAL SPINNl NG 83
,'"',".:.'""'
.
.........,:
'
..
. . ..:;i Z{Xfi;~
.:,;..
. . :;, ../,'
.
'
.. : .
.....
. . ...
F ig. 2 .-SPit\.:dbi Cl LA'~'HFc. A))Al'1$D FOR TRIJ'ti)lDlG ~.1.) B l::4.l>I N O Wl'l'll LEV.lR. OPERA'.TED
f<.I,J DE (Chal'tt'8 'l'aylor (J;imin1Jham) L td .)
lever-act.ua.ted spin dles and lock for rapid a.pJ..Ilie;at ion . The operations
in progress are with sliding resta, tho first lathe spinning only, the
second trimming edges and beading t hem over.
Specimens of spun articles may be seen in F ig. 3, these being among
the more difficult subjects, involving the use of special devices.
The lathe in Fig. 2, by Charles Taylor (Bi.rmingham) Ltd., takes
stampings and trims off tho uneven edges, then curling them over.
The lever-operated rest ca.rries front and rear tool.s, and the tailstock
has spin dle qu.iokly slid and locked by the lever.
Simple Chucks CHUCKS

For ordinary uses, hardwood is suitable for chucks, and brass or iron
for Iong-coHtinued service.
Fitting Wood Chucks to Lathe
Large wood chucks go direct on the threaded spindle n ose, amu.llor
Fig. 1.- 0 PB.R.!'l'l :'IG 'l'Rn.nnNG A~D lU.:.AJJ{t<G TOOLS 0 1( .ALUldl~II.JJC S.A.UOEPAN
sizes on a. taper screw chuck (Fig . 4) of coan;e pitch, which fits either on
::\:lETAL SPI~NING 85
84 SHEET-METAL WORK
o r inside th e
spindle nose (see
A and B). 0 is a
simple chuck, and
the work spwl
upon it.
Oval Chuck
For spinning
eJliptical worl{, as
t r ays, p ans,
bo wls , bru sh
backs, lrn.obs,and
so on, what is
called an oval
Fig. 3. . ME1'Atrlr~>t~...-,:-.(} wo~<K . c h u c k h as a
Specimens of llrtick,;; spun to sh.,.pe from Rtrrught shellR. threaded nose on
which t he work -holding chuck has to be screwed .. 'l'l~o nose ?eing made in
one with a slide, this is caused to move in an elhpt.H..al orbit through the
a.ction of a former ring a.tta.ched. to t.he front of t~e heads~ck. . ~t~~l Fig. 5.- T ..I."LOR ov..u. Ol'H7Cll::
adJ'ustment to the ring varies the throw. The dte on which spmmng lS H y mco.ns of th:it~ chnc.k elliptical Rhapes ru-e Rpnn.
done can also be t.mncd up by
means of t he oval chuck, a-nd a Insert dowels 3.
slide rest with tool set exactly to T ake up a.ny :play between t he former ring and t he gunmetal ru bbera E
cent re height. by means of rods F .
Remove the four dowels 2, turn all four screws 0 through the same
Working with the Taylor Oval number of divisions marked on t heir heads, t hus adjusting the cross-bars
Chuck D pa-rallel and a working fi t on t he gunmeta.I rubbers.
Fig. 5 illustrates the Charles . T ighten up screws B.
Taylor chuck. There must be Adjust the front slide G by means of tho gibs and screws.
no backlash in the various parts, Remove dowels 3.
or a series of flats will be found H.emove dowel 1, and a.djust the former ring across to produr.e the
around tho periphery of t he work. ellipse required. Frequent oiling of the parts is essentiaL
For accurate and ready adjust-
ment dowel holes and dowels are Loose Poppet for Holding Work in Oval Chuck
provided, as lctwred on the In order to hold work in an ovat chuck, the style of loose poppet
drawing. T he sequence goe:. as out.lined in F ig. 6 is employed ; it has lever and link to put on t he pressure
follows: and the contact pad seen close t.o t he faceplate goes on a spring-fitted rod
Set the back plate carrying the having ball joints giving freedQm of movement.
c former ring A central with lat.he
F'i(l. 4 .- CRU CK$ ll'Ol< l:IETAL Sl'I=I~G
spindle, and insert dowel peg 1. SPINNING OPERATIONS
A nnu B, taper aarew chucks ~or T aylor
Release t he four screws B, ease Simple Spinning .
spinnin~-1 la the. A i.'< fittecl on Rpmdlo nose ba.ck the adjusting screws 0, and Ordinary spinning may be seen in Fig. 7, with spinning and burnishing
and smaller chuck H i.;o fitt~;d inR1do spin~Jc. insert dowels 2. Tighten screws
a, wood chuck with example of '1\ork which roll manoouvred by slide rest, the shell being held up by the tailstock pad.
is spw1 011 it.
0 until they touch cross-bars D .
86 SHEET-METAL WORK METAL SPINNING 87
The shape of the spinning

roll may be modified to suit
requirements. The amount
that the piece can be changed
in one operation is limit,ed by
the degree that the metnl
"'ill stretch "'ithout u.nncal-
ing.
~
Offset Spinning
}fore difficult handling
occurs in Fig. 8, where the
o-------- .
c
problem of the cont-rar.ted

neck i~:~ mel; by ut,ili.;;ing an
~
]j'ig. 9.---:filJJ,Cit-OC. l"l!OM Tll.l: IKSIOE
offset tailstock 8pindle with Roller works on inBide while out~ide of shell is
formed roll, against which :suppoted against a fonno<l. 1oll which controls
the contour is spun with tho contour of shell.
slide-restrollerasshown. The
tailstock has a cross-sliding adjust,mcnt to set the roll out, and retire it
after completion of the nccki.J:,g. The bulging of the lower pn.rt of the
sh>11 has been done at a previous operation.
Spinning from Inside
A method of bulging with a roller pressing from the interior i.<~ evident
in Fig. 9, the dotted Ji;e showing the shape before this has been accom-
pli'lhed. A is t)Je t,a.ilstoek pressw-e arm holding the work into the
chuck, B the spinning roll carried on an extension arm from the regular
compound rest, by means of which it is manipulated. Formod roll 0,
against which the spinning roller shapes the metal, is mounted on a
separato post on the bed of the lu.thc. This roll is necessary to obt.rloin
good results in steel ; but for aluminium, a cam on the heel which can be
followed hy a roll or indicator on the cross slide, may be used. Figs.
i, 8, 9 are from practice of the E. W. Bliss Co.
Attachment for Forming Necks
Taylor & Challcn, Ltd., Birmingham, have a special equipment for
their spinning lathes (Fig. .I 0), errfl!lloycd to spin necks or close in
stampings after lcu.ving dr;twing presses. 'l'he stamping is slipped on the
roller A, revolving on an eccentric bush B with which adjustment ca.n
be made for pressure of rolling. Clip U fixes B on its spindle, while the
latter goes in a holder secured t,o the loose head spindle. After slipping
the st,amping on the ro.ller, the spindle is driven forward by ha.nd or foot
a.ct.ion, thns gripping the piece into the revolving chuck by the pallet plate
D. Next the spinning roll FJ is operated by the compound t-est, until
the shape has been ~:~pun, the tailstock spindle withdra"-,, and pier..e
88 SHEET-METAL WORK ):[ETAJ, SPI1iiNI~G 89
removed, aU without stopping the lathe.

Roller A must be shaped according to
how much the metal will stand per
oporation, two rollers being requited for
the example illustrated.
Trimming and Beading
l<ig. )0.-COMRlNRJ> Pltl~S
~URI~ l'llLET AND l'OlDflNG These processes are sometimes per-
:ROLU:R. )L.I. ~I J:'UJ.>. Tl': P
lrlWM LOOSE READ.
formed on the same lathe as the spinning,
or one operator may spin, and pass the
article on to another worker, a single long
bed often taking two sets of heads and
rests.
Combined outfit (Taylor & Challen, .t'ig. 13.-TnDU.:!IJS'G AND l:IARKI~Cl
A COVER I~ ~ SPECIAL LATH!.!:
Ltd.), (Fig. 11) mounts tho spinning
Detail on right shows subject
roller on slide rest to the right, and the I.Je(i>l'lJ u.JHJ (I rt.ertt:tll.trneut.
trimming cutte1s, and beading (also
termed curling
and wiring) rol1-
ing on a cross
slide fed to and
fro by the lever
at the left. Stop
screws at each
end of the cross
slide determine
the limit of
stroke.
Trimming Only
Systems of
trimming by tho
Fig. 14.-ii.CTIO~ OF AUTOM~T!C L.I.Tl!l.!: FOil. Tllil1Mlt\G C.lltTillDGE
same firm may CASES DY ClRCUL.llt CUTTER
be noted in Fig. Case is pu>illod on to muml.tel A, ~heu1otl to length, thon sttippcd
12, A dealing off by l'etum stroke of B.
A
with cylinders
Fiy. 12.-?th::rHoDs oF 'l'H.tMm~G
and cups up to
16 I.W.G., after
'----~------------------~~'-~-
..~
A, levor uctuat.-ed re~t trimming a cup shapo
ur:tef leaving the rlt>&wing pre:-s:>. B, trimming
by meR.n!\ of bevelled cutters whilh are moved
coming from the
drawing press;
~ 5-- -~
to or tiom each otho the top portion ~(~:H~
l!'i[J.
A~P
I I . -SPI~NING, 'l'RlMlUNG.
R'f:ADtNO 0!{ O!'iE J,ATHlt
of the compound
slide rost is
C L<tt}
Spinning roller i>1 on Blide re.;;t. shown, and tho Ft''), 15.-'fTJn.NlNO OVJ::& OR WrRrNn TOOL
Trimming cuttori'J and beading levot effects the
rollarB.M on cross slide. With this tool, odgc.!l c= bo finished with a neat curl.
90 SHEET-METAL WORK :.'\fR'l'AL SPINNING 91
____-=rw~~---=~=t-
(~:1~-~-t.~
together, and another one feeds the marking roller. Toggle mechanism
:::--.___-_._:5=::::::...,__ actuated by pedal grips the s~amping.
c! ; b Automatic Trimming Lathe

Fig. 14 gives a plan of the mode of action of an <LUtomatic Taylor &.
t:: :C: ..
---------r.-;-
._C ~+;__,-3------t
l.----f-1----Li-;::) .
0
Challen lathe, which takes cartridge casCI:l or liko objects from a chute by
means of a slide, threads them on to a revolving mandrel A, ready for
the advance of the circular cutter sho~'ll. The return movement of the
slide causes extractor B to strip the trimmed case off the mandrel.
-->====-----~-3f
Spinner's Hand Tools
_c Rathe1 curious tools are used with the hand rest and fulcrum pin
previously mentioned. Fig. 16 shows a set furnished by Charles Taylor
(Birmingham) Ltd., the first two drawings being of tools with burnished
ends, applied variously at the discretion of the operator to spin and
c..__~:_.....::>::::-___ _ _ _ _ ___.0_ U burnish straight portions, external and internal curves, bends, comers, etc.
These tools arc a foot long over all, and go in ordinary wooden handles
15 in. long. Fig. -15 is the roller tool for turning over or wiring, holding
a roller of appropriate radius to suit all requirements.
r-L______~;>~------------~~~~--\)
L---~>:----~------~
Fig. 16.-S.eT or UIN~l'IG 'l'OOLS (Chalea Tuylnr (llirmingh<tm) Ltd.)
These are fitted in wooden handle~< and manipula.ted on a T rost in ordor to apia and
burnish various contours.
operat.ion. The other schome, B, comprises a rest with lever mechanism

to move the bevelled cutters simultaneously to or from each other.
Trimming and Marking

Covers for saucepans, oil drums, etc., are trimmed and marked,
preparatory to the flanging process, by the set-up in Fi. 13.' also on a
lathe of the. foregoing makers. A lever moves the trnnmmg cutters
USEFUL TABLES 93
TINPLATE SIZES, GAUGES (R.W.G.), AND MARKS
Nearest Gauge Tlvicl..m,ss

USEFUL TABLES MQ!rk on SMet
(B. W.O.) in incite~~ Siz,e ojBheets
, __ -
GAUGl:S, THICKNESS ANU WJ:l(;H'r OF BLACK SHEET IRON ANU Si'El:L
c
(Gaugo mco.sueti in Birmingham Who Gauge) 1
!X
30 B.W.G.
28 B.W.C.
0012
0014 ;l
I l~ei~hl pe~ I XX 27 B.W.G. OIH6 20 in. by 14 in.
No.
'l'l . k. fJC1' : W e.ighl ! We.iyht p~ W eigl.t 1>er l XXX. 211B.W.G. OOJ8 and
Uutt(/6 1'? ness Sheet ! Bheet Blteet Square 1 xxxx 25 B.W.G.
.H.W.G. 0020 28 in. by 20 in.
n tnches 72 in. f.ty N in.! i2 in. by 30 in. 72 in. by 36 in. 1/oot 1 xxxxx 24 H.W.G. 0022
I ---- 1 XXX.,'<:XX.
))C
22 H.W.G. slack 0027 IJ
10 012i'i 2 qr. H lb. 3 qr. 4 I h. 3 qr. 21 IIJ. : 5~ lb. 0 oz. 28l!.W.G., full 0015
II 0 1 II 2" 4 ,,2 , II)
3 " 6 5
4! :;
0
"
l>X
l>XX
26 B.W.G. 0018
2G
i 2- "" ""
12 009!1 1 12 ~
2ii () 25 B.W.G. 0020 17 in. by 12~ in.
13 0088 1 20 " 4 2 " 16 ., 4 0 DXXX. :HH.W.G. 0022 25 in. by 17 in.
" 0 "
14
In
Hi
0078
0(16!)
0062
1
1
1
"
13 "
8 "
2
" !
1
1 "
J "
2:)
17
10
"
" 2"
1
l
5
26
17
" 3~ "
3
"
2t "
0 "
0
nxxxx
DXXXXX
DXXXXXX.
2l!B.W.G.
21 B.W.C.
20 B.W.G.
1Ht28
0032
0035
I} 26 in. by 34 in.
l "
" "
17 0055 " 27 () 1 13 2t " 0
24 " 1 " 1 " 0 "
() " SDC
lR
11}
20
0049
0044
0039
0"
0 "
0,
21
18 "
0 ".,
0,
2
2()
2S
l
0"
"
"
8
8
27
..
" 2
lf ::
l! "
0
()
"
"
SDX
SDXX.
28 B.W.G., full
26 B.W.G.
25 D.W.G.
0015
0018
0020
l lG in. by 11 in.
i
21
22
23
0034
0031
0027
0"
0"
0,
16
15 "
14 "
"
0"
0"
0 "
21
HI
17 "
0"
0 "
{) "
25
28
20
"
"
"
I J!
li "
It ,
"
0
0
0 "
0 "
"
SDXXX
SDXXXX
SDXXXXX.
24 B.W.C.
2i B.W.G., foil
23 B.W.G.
0022
0023
0025 I und
15 in. IJy 22 in.
24 0024 12 13 18
i 0l SDXXXXXX 22 13.W.G., full 0029
IJ
- - ___
0 " 0 " 0 " "
25 0022 11 " 13
"
16
" 1-i "
26 0()1!)
0"
" 10
0 "
12
0"
14 0 ,,
1''
,
27 0{)17
()
0" 8
7 "
0 "
0.,
0.,
10
"
0"
0" 12
"
10~ ..
0
0 " lOt:: COPPRH. SHEET (4ft. by 2ft.)
28 0015 () '' I) () ''
" ll! "
29 (HH:~ 6 7~ " u" 9}, 0 H! ,,
0" 0 "
.," (C-opper she?~~ su:e Ul~uully manufactured in ot~e si~<:o only, 1. ft. by 2 ft., the thickness
H
30 0012 () " uL," 0 ., ()~ , 0" SL. 0 i! ,,

not bemg clo.ss1tied In gauge number~. but by the woight of t,he sheet (in lb.). Thus a
------- sheet or
COIJP()r which i~ 20 B.W.G. thick is lrnown us " 14 lb. copper, this be.ing the
woight of a full sheet of this thi<~kuess.) '
HfPEHIAL S'l'ANDARD WIRE GAU<.m I ----- . , _____! !.
~tocl, iruu, \.iupln.~e, and r.opper)
(l:sed for \VU'O and most metsls except Lb. pe'l' ' Neared Lb. per Nt:.anat [,b. p~:.r Newtest
--- Sheet B. W.G. Sheet IJ. W.G. Sltee.t H.W.G.
Standall Equivalent St.andard Equivalent l]t(mdard Equit:al('nt
Wire in Wi->'e in Wire in --4-l-b-.- --3-0-B-.\~.G. "---~~-lb-.- _2_1_13-.\-V-.G-.-r ;;~r 15 B~\-V-.G-.-
Gauge Iru:hes Gauge !r~che~> OtW(JP. Inches
5 28 B.W.G. 14 20 B.W.C. S2 . l4 RW.G.
--- -- f) 27 B.W.G. 16 19 B. W.O. 36 13 13.W.G.
J3 0092 25 0 020 7 , 25 B.W.G. 18 18 B.W.G. 40 12 13.W.G.
0300 8 24 B.W.G. 22 17 B.W.G. 44 11 13.W.G.
2 0276 14 0080 )l(} 0018
15 0072 ~7 001 64 !) 23 B.W.G., slack 24 16 B.W.C. 50 10 13.W.G.
3 02ti2 10 ,. 22 H.W.G., slack
4 0232 16 0064 28 00148
5 0212 17 0056 29 0(1131)
fi IH92 18 0048 30 (10124
7 0176 19 0040 31 (10116
8 0160 zo 0(}36 32 0010!!
9 0144 21 0032 33 00100
I() 11-128 22 (HI28 34 000!)2
II 0116 23 0024 35 0008-!
12 0104 24 0022 36 00076
----
92
INDEX 95
_ ()
0
Ca.!vnniRf!rl ir-on , 7 o,-u} h P.ad, 48
(~a.l!gca, blac k sheet-iron arou :steel, 92
Uermun llilvet, 9 I'
INDEX Grooved jt)inl.s, 70 P o.nol:
Guillotines, 39 hco.ting, ;,9
Guttering, 69 hou.W<, 18, 5!1
A C<:>nical sections, forming, 47 Paucls:
Contracting, 46 }{
Air 1\iini..ohy Specificatiom;, 10 tin:ishi ng, 44
Aircraft cowling, outtin~ in, 41 Copper,~ Hu.lf-moon s ~tlkca 41! removing dent!!- in, 62
Allowa.noo for wiring, 33 sheet.~, 93 Humrne -~ and th;ir n8e:-s, 44 shaperl, cutting, 42
Aluminium, 8 Cramp folder, 1\0 Hand-Ievor shear~. 41 P aning, 45, 4(), 71
welding, 80 m oulding in, 68 Hate hAt stake!!, 4 7 Pans, forming, 47
Angle bentkr, uO C..R.C.A . ircon, 1'1 Hca.d.~, J)Arld, 48, fi9 Patter ns for :
An vil: Crease irona, 4 7 H ole p unchin g, 13 Angle elbows, 11
benoh, 47 Crocus powder, 45 Hood ~.nd fluo; hlacksm..ith's, aG boxco;, 3:1
stake, 47 Cwves, uut.ting, 41 Hood~, pattorn;;; for, 31 lmwch pipes, ll>
Aut-omobile dome, production of, '1.19 Cutting: Hoppel', couicaJ, 27 c::one~. 21
circlos, 4~
no>nic:ll.l elbow Oll parallel pip~. 23
B CUIVC>i, 4} I huoc.l~, 31
Bands, malcing, 33 in,41 Imperi..J SW..ud.Hrd W ire Gauge;92 o118et-pipos, 16
Bonding, 63 shaped po.nels, 42 Iron: pipe bentls, 19
Beating, panel, 59 shed metal, 99 black,!) pipes, ll
Bench: Flqunro intom11-l hole-~, 41 C.R.C.A., 5 re~~o.nguln-r flue, 34
anvil, 47 toola, 39 gll.lva.n ised, 7 teP.s in pipoe, 12 .
tool~, 47 with c'hisel, !3 Jt,oo-coate<l, 7 P~ttem.o;, fonna.tion of, II
Bender : " Silver lt'iuhlh," II PlpA:
angle, 50 welding, 78 bends, 19
J)
right apgle, 1\3 I r'Of.l>l, creaae, 4 7 p~ttems, 11
Bonding: Denterazer wheeling 1nachino, 62 J E:'~akes, 47
by l!l.nc hine, 4 9 Dovolopment of: JewellorA' ~n ips; 4'1 Pip-F<, ~WUgUlg, liS
oylindrical work, 54 cones, 21 Jig, bending_, 55 P la.nishi11g, 44, 48
rollors, 54 cylinders, 11 ;1 o!ning Rheet- met-al wofk, 4 7, 70 P oliRhing hammeN, 4o
sheet metal to curves, 54 po.t terns, 11 Jo1nts: PrAAt., oot.u.ry, wheeling m3-Chi.ue u~ liS, 61
with o. pipe, ii6 pipes, 11 cramped, 78 Punc n:
with jig, 55 Domo, automobile, production of, 59 mccha.nic)O.], 70 anrt die, 4:l
Bent snips, 41 Draw bench, 09 l'lV8tAd jc;oi11t-~, 72 ht) llow, 43
Dick iron, 46, 4'7 D rawn section$, 69 soldered, 74 t,ype u ihhlP.I", 42
Birmingham Wire Gauge, 92 Dripping-pan atakc, 48 I>WMted, 71) Pnnohiug holes, 43
Black iron, 5 Duralumin, 8
I<
Black sheet-iron and stool gauges, thickness
and weight, 92 Knocke-d-\lp joint, 71 Raising }u;ad, 48
Blaobmith's hood a.nd flue, 36 E R-ight-u.ngle l:ot:~Jl<ll'r, o:J
Blocking hammers, 45 Edges, forming, 47, 48 Rivetod joints, 72
Blue-planished steel, 6 Elektron, 10 Lcnd-r,oa.ted iron, 7 H.iveting, 72
EXtinguisher stake, 4 7
I30tll>ing mallets, "II Long head, 48 RoUel'll, bending, ~4
Box- ool'Il.Cr joint, 71 :.\:[ Rotary Rhears, 41
Box patteml'l, 33 1<' MalletR, u~c of, 45 Ro:ou ml.botton.ing Rtakos 48
Boxes, forming, 47 Finishing panels, 44 1\'IandrAl, 46, 47 Hus~iu.n iron, 6 '
Boxwood :ma.llcts, 45 lflangcs,forming, 45, 46, 71 1\lccha-n ica.l joints, 70
Brass, 9 Floating, 77 }leta] ~pinning, 81
Seaming, 47, 48
s
Brazing, 78 l'Jue and h ood, blacksmith's, 36 Mouldi ng, 69
Bridging, 77 Flue, l'ecta.ngular, 34 in a <h-w.np folder, 68 Sho.ping Rheet m etal, 43
Flu~h rivet-ing, '13 on a dro.w bench, 69 Shears:
0 Flux:es, soldori.ng, H. 1.\-Indguard~, making, IH hn.nd-lever, 41
Channels, fonning, 47 Foldor, cramp, moulding in n, 68 roto..ry, 41
ChiAAl, cutting with, 43 Foldiog by mll.l,lune, 52 Sheet metals, 5
Circlo cutting, 42 F orming t.ool&, 43 Kibbler: 8hrinlring, ~ 0
Clips, making, 3:l Fronch snipll, 41 Side stuke~, 4.7
punch type, 42 Silver:
Cones, p atterns for, 21 Funnel shapAa, forming, 47 ~;hear type, 42
Conical elbow on parallel pipe, 23 FunnoJ stakes, 47 fini~h she-et iron, 6
Nickel silver, 9
soldoring, 77
94
96 IXDEX
Smoothi11g lJ.}' \V hfloiing, 57 Truy:s, fooming; 47
Snips, w;<:> ol~ 4l Tuhl;:;, swo.ging, 68
Sold ered joio t a, 74 'l'ue.k iug, <+:i, 4.8
Sold ering :
fluxes, 74
Kil ver, 77 u
soft., 74 \; uivcrsal w ip;;, 41
Solricn;, w rt, 74
S pirU1i11g, met.ul, &l
Spot weld ing, 80 v
8tnin1Cil.'l ~tefll, I) Vnndcr-Plu.;; w heels, 62
Stake~. 47, 48
Stan d un l Wire (fu.tq.,'t<. 9<!
st~ci ,
bluc-pln.ni~hed, 6
w
welding, 7S \'\' olding :
Straigh t ~>nip~, ~J alumin i llm, 8()
Strflt.chuog, 4!'i, ~ 7 iron, 78
Strotdutlg h ammcn;, 45 oxy-~~tylcJc, 78
Strip-~oUJl'l join t, 71 Rpot, 80
Studding 1\,,. .,me aR, 45 R\.cd, 78
Swaging, 63 Wh'clizg, 55, 67 62
C>lr bodies, 116, 67 conccting mi~tu.ker; in, 60
r11a~hincs, 63 domed wok, 59
tube& u ml pipA~, 68 flat pUJtch;, no
vseF- fer , 65 wa.ehinc, l>entoruze.r, H2
wil,h a w hleling machine, (i\1, ll8 mtv:hittf!, SJN~ging wiih, 62, 68
Sweater! j oint~, 7~ ll1l\\chinc t~ed as rotal'J prc~s. 6 1
1nac hinc~, 57
ma~hines, other use~ for, 61
r va.rying contttm>, 60
Wi11g head, 48
T apc l'e rl work, t'(rming, 4 7 Wing:;:
.r ernc plat.e, 7 muk ing, Ill
Tinplute, U remo ving tlcnt<t< in , 62
!lize>;, gll>nge.;, u.ud markR, 93 Wirin g , 44, 46, 47
.r ools : l'<lgc.., a:J
ben ch, 4 7
ben ditg mtu:hi1v, 41)
cutting, au 7.
folding mach in e, ~2
forn1~11g, 4 :~ l.ine, 9

. ..
.
Complete Engineer Series
General Editor E. MOLLOY
Volume I. INTRODUCTION TO WORKS

PRACTICE
Volume 2. AIRCRAFT PRODUCTION
Volume 3. DIESEL ENGINE OPERATION
Volume 4. TEST ENGINEERS' HANDBOOK
Volume 5. PUMPS AND PUMPING
Volume 6. STEAM FOR INDUSTRIAL PRO-
CESSING AND POWER
Volume 7. SHEET-METAL WORK
Volume 8. DRILLING AND GRINDING
Volume 9. MILLING PRACTICE
Volume 10. PIPES AND VALVES
Volume II. FITTING PRACTICE
Volume 12. MECHANICAL POWER TRANS-
MISSION .
Volume 13. STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS
Volume 14. LATHEWORK
Volume 1~. PATTERNMAKING AND FOUNDRY
WORK
Volume 16. HYDRAULIC MACHINERY

Workshop Practice Series 08 - Sheet Metal Work

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Newnes "Complete Engineer" Series-Volume 7

Prepared by a Staff of Experts

WITH 95 PHOTOGRAPHS AND DIAGRAMS

The subject of sheet-metal work has

The use of sheet metal In automobile

This book presents an up-to-date

THE "COMPLETE ENGINEER'' SERIES VOLUME 7

DEALING WITH THE METHODS OF WORKING

Prepared by a Siaff of Technical

WITH NINETY,PIVE PHOTOGRAPHS AND DIAGRAMS

GEORGE NEWNES LIMITED

I. SH.tt;J:11 ~:f.ETALS lN GENERAl~ l~St; !)

SHEET-METAL WORK SHEET llETALS IK GENER.AL USE 7

SHEET-METAL WORK SHEET METAT,S IN GEXRRAL USE 9

Ninety-degtee Angle Elbow (Fig. 1)

J2 SHEE'l'-MJi"".:T.A L WORK FORMING r A'l'TERNS 13

14 SHEE'l'-J\IETAL WORK FOR~UNG PATTERNS 15

Fiy. u.-PaTTER~ FOR RIOII'I'ANOL~D Sli.ALJ:. <Wii'SET 'l.'Elt

Forty-five Degree Small to Larger Offset Pipe (Fig. 6)

In arriving at the amount. of

Conical Elbow on Parallel Pipe (Fig. 10)

will fonn the joint between hopper and slant pipe. /

Rua . of the line drawn on the radius A /"/ i\

(2''+0250)xJ!4Jo = 7()686"(A80Ui 7J/) distance B-C on the plan and / i

Fig. 19.-PJ..TT.ERN FOJl.ll.ltCT.6.'NGULA:R J'LUE

them on a piece of shaped metal, known as a "head." The weight

F'iy. -lo.-RO.U.lil\ DED FOLJ>C~O MACllll);l!

Standard Wheeling Machines

~::~!;HH !~ ~: from angle iron and

turns the handle. Where such an accessory is available it is only neces-

Us~s for Swaging

round tool (e.g. the ronnd end of the mandrel).

Floating and Bridging

PLAIN SCARf' JOINT

Iron and Mild Steel

Simple Chucks CHUCKS

The shape of the spinning

problem of the cont-rar.ted

removed, aU without stopping the lathe.

c! ; b Automatic Trimming Lathe

operat.ion. The other schome, B, comprises a rest with lever mechanism

Trimming and Marking

Nearest Gauge Tlvicl..m,ss

30 0012 () " uL," 0 ., ()~ , 0" SL. 0 i! ,,

Volume I. INTRODUCTION TO WORKS

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