Social Life - Evernote Web

1/9/2016 SocialLife|EvernoteWeb
Social Life
Harappa
SocialDivisions
1. The city was divided into a citadel area (to the west) where the essential institutions of civic life
would be located with important public places together with a larger residential area to the east.
This indicates social divisions. In the later ages even though the citadel feature was absent, the
tendency to concentrate people of different occupations in particular areas was prevalent.
2. The citadel area of the city generally had defence walls and bastions and sometimes the entire
cities were fortified. Some scholars have interpreted this to mean that Harappans were aliens to
the land. But this can be easily explained by the fact that cities were focus of wealth that was
different in quantity from that of the village. The system of authority was different from the
surrounding villages and hence had to be guarded.
3. Harappans don't display their wealth as much as other contemporary cities either in terms of
construction (massive temples, palaces etc.) or grave goods.
PreMauryanAge
Type of Villages
1. The first type was the typical village inhabited by various castes and communities, practicing
agriculture and headed by the bhojaka.
2. The second village was dominated by a particular craft, was located near the town and catered
to its needs.
3. The third village was located in the countryside and merged with the forests. People were mainly
hunter-gatherers.
4. There were also Brahman villages or brahmadeyas where brahmans held large tracts of land.
The Village Community

1. There was significant degree of community presence in the individual lives. Thevillage land was
divided into cultivable plots and allotted family wise. But the transfership rights remained with
the community. Similarly, field fencing and irrigation channels were done collectively.
2. The gahapatis, apart from being head of the households were also rich land owners. They were
associated with agriculture. There are references of brahman gahapatis living in brahman
villages. The gahapatis were quite influential.
The Social Order

The Brahmanical Order
1. The society was supposed to follow varnashrama lines in occupation as well as marriage. But
that this was not happening can be seen from the Dharmasutra accepting certain kinds of inter-
varna marriages and pursuing alternate occupations in times of emergency by various varnas.
2. Thebrahmans had emerged as the dominant class and the society had become rigid.
3. Gotra (clan affiliation) was an important factor - specially in marriage.
The Jati System and The Varna System

1. The caste system had emerged and although varna system still existed, the basis of social
identity - specially for vaishyas and shudras - was jati. Pali sources describe vaishyas and shudras
mainly by their occupation indicating jati had become the framework of social identity -
marriage, dining, social intercourse etc. Varna system was more applicable for upper
varnas. Another reason for the jati system to emerge could be an amalgamation of 'outside'
people into the varna society and hence the need to assign them separate groups. The brahmans
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also realized the significance of the jati system for now they could retain the highest position by
claiming the right to put different people into different jatis.
2. The reason varna and jati got intermingled was because jati members often claimed to be a part
of a particular varna.The hereditary nature of crafts and occupations, assimilation of tribals into
brahmanical fold, birth based social system and endogamy led to the birth of jatis.
The Elite Class

1. Gahapatis: They were rich land owners apart from being head of households. There are
references of brahman gahapatis as well indicating varna duties were not followed rigidly.
2. Setthis: They were rich people associated with trade and money lending.
3. Gahapati-Setthis: They were the rich land owners who also had large trading operations. Both
setthis and gahapati-setthis were an important class as indicated by them being clients of Jivaka,
the court physician of Bimbisara.
Status of Shudras
1. They were asked to serve the other 3 varnas and couldn't study.
Marriage & Family

1. Ties of kinship were very important given the fact that even Buddhism didn't try to completely
forbade kinship ties for monks and nuns, rather had to accommodate them to some extent. The
monks were not allowed to travel in rainy season but they were allowed to retain contact with
their family to some extent. The monks were allowed to visit a kinsman sick or dying.
2. In marriage, 8 forms of marriage emerged. Inter-varna marriages were happening and even
Dharmasutra accepts them to some extent. It allows hypergamous marriages (higher varna male
and lower varna female)but disapproves hypogamy (lower male, higher female). Worst form of
hypogamy was brahman female, shudra male.
3. Marriage happened as soon as puberty reached. Practice ofdowry present.
Education
1. Script emerged and compilation of Vedic knowledge began.
2. Taxila emerged as an important learning centre.
Slavery
1. Slavery continued from the Vedic age. Slaves were still used primarily for household work.
Untouchability
1. Though first direct literary reference to this practice comes in 1-3 cent AD, the sutra literature of
this age places serious disabilities on chandals quite akin to untouchability. It talks
aboutpollution associated with chandals when a person who gets in contact with a chandal must
perform a host of purifying tasks. They are given derogatory origins and are often equated to
dogs and crows.
Women
1. Marriage happened as soon as puberty was reached. Dowry was prevalent.Women had virtually
no or debatable inheritance rights in brahmanism. But they did have claim over stridhana.
Buddhist sources mention donations made by women which indicates a marked departure from
brahmanical religion where women didn't have property rights.
2. An ideal woman's role was confined to being a good wife and mother of good sons.
3. Even in Buddhism, women suffered from discriminating outlook. The nuns were subordinated to
the monks and Buddhism didn't do anything to change the outlook towards common women.
Women had to obtain permission from their fathers or husbands before joining sangha. But in
that context, definitely this was a progressive step. Nuns figure more prominently in Buddhist
works compared to women in Brahmanical works.
Mauryan Age
The Social Order
1. Brahmanical dominance, varnashrama system and rigidity of the society continued.
2. The artisans and craftsmen enjoyed higher status due to their economic significance.
The Caste System

1. Caste system strengthened and hereditary occupation and endogamy were its chief features.
Arthashastra goes on to classify various jatis into different varnas.
2. There were 7 occupationalgroups --> philosophers, peasants, shepherds, craftsmen, supervisors,
warriors and councillors. (Source: Megasthenes) But Megasthenes classification doesn't
correspond to the varnas or the jatis and could have been his own creation or borrowed from
Herodotus' classification of Egyptian society.
Status of Shudras
1. It was better than previous period as they were now allowed (by Arthasastra) to enlist in the
army (increasing military needs of the bigger state), to practice agricultural activities (increasing
economic needs of the bigger state and hence the need to bring more land under cultivation), to
engage in crafts production and also in trade and commerce and to own property.
2. Arthasastra also calls shudras as Aryans and distinguishes them from Mlecchas. It then goes on
to prohibit enslavement of shudras while allows the enslavement of Mlecchas.
Slavery
1. Slaves were now put to agricultural labor as well. But they were also allowed to own property
and Asokan Dhamma calls upon the slave owners to treat their slaves properly.
2. Arthasastra mentions 9 types of slaves. Megasthenes denies existence of slaves but probably he
was not able to distinguish slaves from shudras.
Family and Marriage

1. Family remained same. In marriage, there was one big change. Marriage was no longer
considered sacrosanct. Divorce was allowed in case of infidelity of wife, abandonment by
husband or contagious disease. (Source: Arthasastra)
Women
1. Greek sources tell us employment of women as CGM's bodyguards and accountants.
2. But at the same time, their general status deteriorated and the practice of their social seclusion
began given the use of terms like avarodhan, anishkaasini (not to come out of the house),
asuryapashya (not to see the sun), antapur (to live within the house).
3. Although Arthashastra, buddhist and jain literature gives no indication of the practice of sati, the
greek literature talks about the practice of sati in some military families of NW.
Education
1. The level of general education seems to be high given Asokan edicts.
Untouchability
1. The brahmanical stand on untouchability hardened. There were wells which could be used by
Chandals only and no one else. Chandals were to live at the margins of settlements now.
Post-Mauryan Age (North India)

The Social Order
Challenges to the Brahmanical Order
1. Rapid economic growth led to proliferation in occupations. There was a need to fit these new
castes and sub-castes into the brahmanical order.
2. The growth was led by secondary sector and this led to economic prosperity of artisans and
craftsmen, many of who were shudras.
3. There was influx of foreigners and new tribal groups which had to be fixed in the hierarchy.
4. The inter-varna marriages too added to the complexity.
Response of the Brahmanical Order

1. More rigidity as can be seen in the law books and they explicitly define legal and illegal things.
2. Various castes and sub castes were fitted into the brahmanical society. Each tried to claim
association with a particular varna and a higher status. They created the concept of
sankirnacaste to keep the social mobility in check. Inter-varna marriages were banned.
3. Brahmans couldn't have labeled their new political and economic masters as mlecchas or
outcastes. They had to incorporate them and they did so by calling their rulers 'fallen kshatriyas'.
A conversion sacrifice (vraityastoma) was devised. This ensured brahmans didn't loose royal
patronage. At the same time the rising sects like buddhism, jainism, vaishnavism, sivaism etc.
opened their gates for the new masters. However in some brahmanical literature we can see
instances of demonizing the yavanas indicating the hostility of brahmans. The new sect
bhagwatism embraced the yavanas (Heliodorus was a vaishnavite) and hence could become
popular in this period.
Status of Shudras
1. The status of artisans and craftsmen improved in this age. Many shudras were engaged in such
activities and naturally they became more assertive in their opposition to the brahmana
dominated varna system. The rule of the foreign kings who were not within this varna fold also
encouraged them to oppose the system. As a result we find that the treatment prescribed for
them in the law books of the age (like Manusmriti) is highly disabling and cruel. Thus the writings
of Manu reflect the fears and resulting rigidity in the society of the brahmans of that age. He
recommends strict punishment for shudras, calls the age the age of kali and calls for regularly
beating them.
Family & Marriage

1. Family same. Marriages took a turn for worse. Pre-puberty marriage came into being and inter-
varna marriages were banned.
Untouchability
1. It hardened. Now the chandals had to live outside the settlement and complete distance was
maintained with them. The contemporary books discuss touch and even sight pollution.
Women
1. Nosedived in brahmanical literature. Women were treated as property of menfolk. Their
inheritance rights were negligible. While a man should marry after completing education, a girl
should be married even before puberty. Every menstruation was a missed cycle for birth and
hence equivalent to embryo killing. Husbands could abandon wives for infidelity, harsh speech,
insubordination. Widows were encouraged not to have any man after their husband's death.
2. In Buddhist world, large amount of wealth was granted to the sangha by nuns. It can only be
guessed that this implies that women did have property rights - maybe over the stridhana or a
share in parental property as well (if there were no male heirs). Yet this shows things were not
exactly how they were prescribed in the brahmanical literature.
Education
1. Philosophical education was considered to be a perogative of brahmans, vocational education
that ofvaishyas.
2. Guilds played a vital role now and the economic prosperity led to general increase in educational
levels.
Post-Mauryan Age (Satvahnas)

The Social Order
1. The Satvahna society was a newly brahmanized society. So the penetration of brahmanical order
was only superficial.
2. On top of it, it had to face ruffles due to influx of foreigners (Sakas) and inter-marriages between
various social orders.
3. Buddhism too was a challenge for the brahmanical order as the tribals had been easily converted
to Buddhism.Itwasalsopopularamongthetradingclass.
4. The Satvahnas were looked down upon by orthodox north Indian brahmans as a mixed class.
5. Gautamiputra Satkarni claims to have put an end to the social anarchy, banned inter-varna
marriages and promoted brahmanisation of the society.
The Family Structure

1. Satvahna family structure was matrilineal because the name of the kings were after their
mothers' names. But the society was patriarchal because the son inherited the throne.
Nevertheless women enjoyed a higher status compared to N India.
Sangam States in Tamil Land

The Social Order
1. The brahmanisation had not percolated deep enough in the society and neither was the jati
system important. The social stratification was horizontal and not vertical like N India. The more
relevant basis for classification was kuti. Kutis were the clan based descendent groups from early
days which were divided into those living in hills, forests, deltas, sandy areas and coasts.
Hereditary occupation, worshipping same God and endogamy were features of kuti. People of
different kutis were cut-off from each other.
2. The Sangam age witnessed entry of brahmanisation into S India (references in literary texts in
form of Augstya and Parsuram). This had twin effects. First was the establishment of a
rudimentary varna order where the brahmans were at the top and all others were clubbed into
non-brahmans. The non-brahmans could be vaguely sub-divided into arasars (the ruling class),
nagarattas/vaishiyars (traders) and vellalas (rich farmers) and kadaisiyars (agriculture labor)
towards the end.
3. Second feature was the interaction and fusion of N and S culture. Several south gods like
Murugan began to make way into the Hindu gods and northern gods (Indra, Varuna, Vishnu),
practices (marriage, vegetarianism) and beliefs (subordination of women) found their way
intosouth.
Manram
1. The institution of manram was precursor to the institution of temples in later age. During the
Sangam age, manram was the focal point of social interaction. The villagers used to assemble
there. Fairs, ceremonies, festivals, judicial-administrative decisions were taken there.
Status of Women
1. Women took part in a large range of economic activities like agriculture, cloth making, beads
fishing etc. They used to participate in social and religious activities as well. However, some evils
like harsh treatment of widows and sati were practiced.
Untouchability
1. Only towards the end of Sangam age, the notion of untouchability emerged. Some works,
including a Tamil epic, talk about pollution - both touch and sight.
Education
1. Script was unknown so education was imparted orally mainly by brahmans as in north. It was
religious and philosophical in character.
Gupta Age
The Social Order
Challenges to the Brahmanical Order
1. The increasing talk of kaliyug in the brahmana literature indicates growing social tensions and
challenges to the brahmanical order.
2. Proliferation in the number of castes and sub-castes continued. One reason was influx of
foreigners into Indian society. Second was the inclusion of many tribals into the brahmanical fold
as a result of the widespread increase in land grants. A third was growing localization and
specialization of labor. For instance a new section emerged of mahattars who had to be
informed of all land transactions.
3. The decreasing economic prosperity led to growing importance of agriculture and diminishing
importance of trade and secondary activities. So the income of brahmans from traditional
activities was declining.

4. Due to proliferating land grants, a new caste kayastha emerged who were the cast of scribes
who kept the records of land grants. This was in direct challenge to brahmanical profession.
Response of Brahmanical Order

1. The foreigners were inducted as fallen kshatriyas. The tribal chiefs were given a more
respectable origin and the ordinary tribesmen were given a lower caste.
2. Due to lack of income sources, other professions were opened to brahmans. Shudras were also
allowed to conduct vedic sacrifices to enhance income for brahmans. Thus overall social
flexibility increased in the society.
3. Contemporary law books (Narad, Brihaspati, Katyayan) present kayasthas in very bad light.
4. That the smriti literature of this age reflects the underlying social tensions is evident from the
fact that many of the works emphasize the desirability of strong relations between the brahmans
and kshatriyas. This reflects the brahman fear of the growing dissent among the vaishyas and
shudras. That significant social upheavals were going on can be gauged from the fact that many
rulers of this age were wither vaishyas (like Guptas, Harsha) or even shudras (the rulers of
Saurashtra, Avanti, Malwa). The literature of the age also speaks in very high terms of the land
grants which should be made to the brahmans.
5. Still despite all that is said in the brahmanical literature, that social mobility was present in the
society can be seen from the Mandsor inscription where the guild of silk weavers migrated and
changed its occupation.
Status of Shudras
1. The position of shudras improved in this period due to growing importance of agriculture and
the fact that large number of shudras were
agriculturalists. They were also allowed to indulge in other economic activities (for instance
Yagvalkaya allows them to carry on trade, agriculture and industrial activities even though Manu
repeats that they should serve the other three varnas, Narsingh Puran speaks of agriculture to be
the occupation of shudras). Some shudras also enlisted in state and military services (source:
Mrichchakatika bySudrak)
2. The decline of secondary activities meant that brahmans who depended on merchants and
craftsmen for their income through rituals and sacrifices had to find new clients. These new
clients were shudraswhowerenowallowedtoconductvedicsacrifices.They were also allowed
to hear epics. Matsya Puran goes on to say that if a shudra lives an ideal life as set out in the
scriptures then he may even attain salvation. Yoga and samkhya schools of philosophy were
open for shudras as well.
3. Narad, Brihaspati and Katyayan uphold the varna based legal system and impose severe
disabilities on shudras and give liberal concessions to brahmans.
Untouchability
1. The position of untouchables and their number took a turn for worse. Basically the earlier
shudras who were not involved in agricultural activities were now denounced as untouchables.
Women
1. The position of women increased marginally as they were allowed to listen to religious works like
epics and puranas.
2. But other aspects worsened specially in the lives of higher varna women as they were made to
be more dependent on their menfolk for livelihood. They lacked any property rights generally
though according to Katayena, women enjoyed property rights in the immovable property of his
father as well. They lacked inheritance rights but had a right on their stridhana.
3. Girls were married off as soon as reaching puberty. The upanayna ceremony (leading to the
beginning of education) was formally banned in this period.
4. Polygamy increased, they weretreatedaspropertyand sati began.
5. Seclusion took even worse form as practice of veiling began among higher varna women.
6. The practice of devadasi also became prevalent in this period.
Slavery
1. There were 15 kind of slaves. They continued to employed in the dirty household work (as is
evident from Narad and Brihaspati) and in some instances in agricultural work. Slavery was
voluntary as well and some people became slaves to earn merit.
2. They could be from any varna though brahman slaves were rare and buying/selling of brahman
women was prohibited. Katyayan prescribes explicitly that a brahman couldn't be enslaved as
slavery was not meant for a brahman. In exceptional condition even if he became a slave he
could be employed only in "pure" jobs like vedic studies and nothing else.
3. Slaves could be freed if they saved the lives of their masters. Narad prescribes a ritual by which
slaves could be freed. On the balance there are evidences that slavery weakened during the
Gupta age. This could be because of - (a) weakening of entire varna order through growing
assertiveness of vaishyas and shudras, and (b) decimation of old kings etc. who used to
patronize slavery and their replacement by foreign rulers who were outside the varna system.
Education
1. SanskritlearningtookplaceinashramsandfocuswasonmemorizingtextslikepartsofVedas,contents
of Dharmashastras and subjects like grammar, rhetoric, prose and verse composition, logic,
metaphysics.Astronomy,mathematics,medicineandastrologyalsoformedapartofthecurriculum.In
medicine,veterinarysciencesalsobecameimportant(particularlyhorseandelephantduetoimportance
toarmy).
2. Professional knowledge was imparted separately by the guild. Study of mathematics would have
provided a bridge between the professional and the theoretical knowledge. Buddhist monasteries were
alsoimportant.
3. Aryabhatta calculated , length of solar year, earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis and its the
shadowofearthandviceversawhichcauseseclipses.Brahmaguptaobjectedtothisthesisoneclipses.
ThePallavas
SocialOrder
1. The process of brahmanisation continued from the Sangam age. The only change apart from
strengtheningofthoseprocesseswasthattheNIndianbrahmanscreatedaclassofSIndianbrahmans
who were basically early Tamil priests. The brahmans divided the society into brahmans and non
brahmans.Butamorerealbasisofsocialinteractionwasrulinggroups,vellalas,nagarattas,kadaisiyars
etc.
Temples
1. Theyplayedanimportantrole.
PostGuptaAge
TheSocialOrder
ContemporaryliteratureonNIndianSociety
1. On brahmans: Medhatithi frees brahmans from corporal punishment and fines but limits this to only
'learned' brahmans. Matsyapuran frees them from capital punishment but advocates their exile and
branding.Vishwarupsmritihoweversaysthereisnoharmingivingcapitalpunishmenttoanexploitative
brahman.Theliteratureofthisagebeginstomakedistinctionsevenamongbrahmansparticularlybased
ontheirregion.Theyholdbrahmansinsouth,OdishaandAPinlowlight.
2. Onkshatriyas:Laydowntheusualdutiesforkshatriyasandrajputs.
3. Onvaishyas:Laydowntheusualdutiesforvaishyas.
4. Onkayasthas:Ridiculethem.
5. Onshudras:ParasharandLaghuVyasasmritisforbidanytouchorfoodtouchedbyshudra.Medhatithi
advocates servitude of shudras but still allows them personal freedom. He says some shudras used to
studygrammar.Naradsmritievenadvocatesshudrastotakeuparmsinemergencyanddefend.Butall
theseareexceptionsonly.
6. On untouchables: Many new classes and tribes were added to untouchables and new disabilities
imposed.
7. On marriage: Medhatithi allows anulom (higher caste male and lower caste female) marriages as
exceptions and says the caste of the offspring will be that of mother in such a marriage. Narad smriti
bansintercastemarriages.Incestisprohibited.
8. On remarriage of women: Medhatithi completely prohibits remarriage of women while narad, parashar
smritisallowremarriageincaseofdeath,abandonment,missinghusband.Theyalsoallowniyoga.
ThePreDominanceofFeudalOutlook
1. People became tied to the local area. Their outlook became increasingly parochial (local centric). In
numerouslandgrants(bothtobrahmansandsecular)wefindthatnotonlythelandbutalsothelabor
and craftsmen living on the land were granted to the donee as well in perpetuity. This severely limited
mobility and gave a great boost to feudal society. This was also aided by the growing number of self
sufficientvillages.Thelocaloutlookalsogotreflectedinnotionssuchasseatravel,visittocoastalareas
anddakshinapathawouldleadtopollutionandhenceoutcasting.
2. Land became the source of social prestige as well and association with land became more important
than the varna. Landed persons were held in high esteem irrespective of their original varna and the
holders of vast tract of land used to assume titles like raja, ranak, rai
etc.Peopleindulgedinsecondaryactivitiesbegantobetreatedinlowesteem.Naturallythisloweredthe
statusofvaishyaswhowereprimarilyengagedinsecondaryactivitiesandtheybegantobetreatedlike
shudras(source:AlBerouni).Thuseventheywerenotallowedtolistentoorstudythevedas.
3. The number of castes and sub castes increased substantially to accommodate the needs of a feudal
societyasoldclassesdisappearedandnewonesemerged.
4. Animportantphenomenoninthisagewastheemergenceofrajputs(whoreplacedkshatriyas)whowere
basicallysomemartialcastesandinfluentialsamantas.Theseinfluentialsamantashadcarvedouttheir
own spheres of influence and further subdivided the territory among their kin. These in turn became
samantasandhadfulladministrativeauthorityovertheirfiefs.Thepostofvillageheadmanincreasedin
importance.
ChallengestotheBrahmanicalOrder
1. Emergenceoffeudaleconomyanddeclineoftradeandcommerce.Thiswasanewsituationandhence
needednewresponse.
2. There was increased social upheaval and we find a number of instances of revolts against the caste
order. There are instances where shudras became the rulers, entire castes moved up and down the
hierarchy.Naturallythiscreatedasenseofinsecurityeventhoughtheseremainedexceptionandnotthe
norm.
3. Thegrowinginfluenceofkayasthasduetoincreaseinlandgrants.
4. Growth of bhakti movement and temples led to changes in the religious practices of the laity and the
brahmanicalsacrificesdisappearedfrompopularreligion.
ResponseofBrahmanicalOrder
1. Rigidity increased. Land based activities meant that people were confined local lands. To prevent
migrationoflaborersetc.parochialoutlookandcasterulesweredevelopedwhichpreventedtravel.
2. Newcastesandsubcastesevolvedtoaccommodatethenewclassesofafeudalorder.
3. Status of land based classes increased and that of non landbased ones decreased. So status of
vaishyas declined, that of shudras improved. AlBerouni mentions vaishyas and shudras lived in same
quarters.Somesecondaryactivitiescametobeassociatedwithuntouchablesnow.
4. Thecontemporarybooksrefertokayasthasinverybadlight.
5. Brahmansmigratedintothenewlyformedstates,gotlandgrants,becameassociatedwiththetemples.
TheJatiSystem
1. It remained the main basis of social intercourse. Endogamy and hereditary occupational practices
continued.
2. AnewcastecalledRajputsemerged.
3. Thereweresocialupheavalsandthereareexamplesofcastemobilityafterrevolts.
StatusofShudras
1. It improved due to their association with land and naturally the number of shudra farmers increased.
Contemporarysourcesrefertothemasanashritsandannadatas.Theycontinuedtobeabletoperform
vedicsacrifices.
Untouchability
1. Untouchability increased in terms of worsening of treatment as well as increase in the number of
untouchables.
2. Duetodeclineintradeandgrowingfeudaloutlook,personsassociatedwithsecondaryactivitiesbegan
to be treated as untouchables. AlBerouni testifies that weavers were the low even among the
untouchableswhohadtoliveoutsidethevillagesandtowns.
Women
NIndia
1. Nosedived.Allknownevilsbecamecommon.Jauharcameintoexistence.
2. But some law books of this age talk about allowing remarriage in case of death, impotency or
renunciationoftheworldbythehusband.Sometimeswomenfromelitegroupsweregiveneducation@
home.
3. Theylackedpropertyandinheritancerightsbuthadaclaimontheirstridhana.
4. Womenwhoweresoldintoslaverylosttheircasteandfamilytiesandcouldbeforcedtodoanything.
SIndia
1. Theystillheldhighersocialstatusandwerealsoemployedinadministration.Therewasnopurdah
systembutsatiwaspracticed.Polygamywasprevalenttoo.Theyhadrighttostridhana.
2. Theliteratureoftheageportraysroyalwomenasretiring,romantic,unconcernedwiththemattersof
statebutweknowfromtheChalukyanandRashtrakutainscriptionsthatsomewomenalsotookactive
partinadministration.
Rashtrakutas
1. AccordingtoArabwriters,thepracticeofveilingamongeliteladieswasabsent.
Slavery
1. Thenumberofslavesincreasedimmenselyduetosocioeconomicupheavals.Eventhevarioustemples,
mathas etc. also used to keep a large number of slaves. The literature also tells us that slaves were
freely exported and imported. They were also given away in donations by the masters. Many people
wouldsellthemselvesintoslaverywhentheyfailedtopayoffadebt.
2. Theliteraturefurthertellsusthattheslaveswereusedmainlyfordirtyhouseholdworkonlythoughthe
(buddhist) literature also mentions their employment for agricultural work in some cases. The temples
andmathas,however,usedtoemploytheslavesinagricultureinabigway.
3. Theliteratureofthisagealsodoesn'tgiveusanyinformationaboutthepropertyrightsoftheslavesand
their freedom (not even by working very hard and pleasing the master) so it can be inferred that the
conditionofslaveshaddefinitelyworsenedfromthepreviousperiod.Themasterhadfullrightoverthe
lifeoftheslave,hecouldbeathim,treathiminanywayhepleasedandwasnotliableeveniftheslave
diedduetotortureandilltreatment.
4. Womenwhoweresoldintoslaverylosttheircasteandfamilyties.
Education
1. Generaleducationlevelnosedivedduetodeclineinsecondaryactivities.Therewasnoconceptofmass
educationinthesetimes.Reading/writingremainedaperogativeofBrahmansandsomeuppercastes.

2. Thoughphilosophicaleducationcontinuedtogrow,itgotdetachedfromscientificeducationandscience
suffered.
SIndia
1. IntheSIndia,agraharagrantsplayedavitalroleinthespreadofeducation.
2. The temples (along with agraharas, mathas and ghatikas) were also associated big time with learning.
Initiallyentrywasopentoanytwiceborncastebutgraduallytheycametoberestrictedtobrahmansand
became centers of advanced studies. They received extensive royal patronage. Kanchipuram became
themostfamouscenterforlearning.Sanskritwasthemediumoflearning.
BrahmanisationinSINdia
1. Theinscriptionsalsoshowthegrowingbrahmanisationofthesociety.Theearlierinscriptionswereallin
Tamil but by this age bilingual inscriptions came up with the main body in Tamil and only the more
formulaicsectionsinSanskrit.SimilarlyinotherregionsbilingualKannadaandSanskritinscriptionscame
up.
2. The growth of Tamil devotional movement is also seen as a reaction to Brahmanisation but its
incorporationofcertainbrahmanicalfeaturestellsusaboutthefusion.
TemplesofSIndia
EconomicImpact
1. Thetemplesreceivedtaxfreelandgrantsandrichdonations.Asaresult,theythemselvesbecamevery
richandoftenusedtoinvesttheirmoneyorlendit.Theirscaleofcreationandexpansionisasymbolof
theeconomicpoweroftherulersandtheelitesoftheage.Thebigtemplesarealsofoundusuallyinthe
capitals of the rulers or very important cities only. Thus they also reflect the economic fabric of the
societyinthattimeperiod.
2. They used to provide employment to a large number of people both in construction and after
construction.
3. Thetempleauthorities,increasinglywithtime,hadasayintheagricultureactivitieslikeirrigationetc.
4. Thetemplesusedtoleaseoutlandtothetenantsforcultivationinreturnforshareinproduce.
5. Thetemplesusedtoinvesttheirwealthintopropertyandbusiness.
SocialImpact
1. Thetemplesbecameafocalpointofallthesocialactivitiesofthesurroundingareas.
2. They along with mathas were centers of education both at elementary and higher levels. Thus the
AinnariuminscriptionofRajendraCholatellsusaboutaschoolcalledGangaikondacholaMandapwhich
wasrunbyatemple.Thesabhaofthevillagehaddonatedhundredsofacreoflandtothetempleand
hundreds of students studied and lived there. The allowances for students were in terms of food while
theallowancesandsalariesofteacherswereintheformoflandaswellasfood.
3. They helped in propagating the influence of brahmans in the society since the temples were run by
brahmans only. Yet at the same time their spread was a symbol of protest against the brahmanical
religion.
4. Theyhelpedincrystallizingthesocialdivisionsbrahmans>rulinggroups,vellalas,nagarattas>illangai,
wallangai>othersbygivingthemstandingaccordinglyinthetempleritualorder.
5. Thosecommissioningtempleswerenotonlymembersofroyaltybutalsorichmerchantswhichhighlights
theroleoftemplesasamediumofsocialexchange.
6. They also aided in exclusion of certain groups. No ritual / deity could now gain respectability until
incorporatedbythetempleandmanygroupsweremarginalized.
7. The temples also acted in some cases as a conduit of social mobility. Thus we have an instance of a
largeherdofcowsbeingdonatedtoacoastalAPtemplewhichwascaredforbythelocalBoyatribals.
Graduallybecauseoftheirlookingafterthetempleproperty,theyrosefromoutcastestoshudras.Many
templedonationsincludethosefromwomenanddevdasisaswell.
CulturalImpact
1. It led to the growth of music and dance as devdasis were employed in the temples. The temples also
becamethecentersformusicanddanceonfestiveoccasions.
2. Theyledtogrowthofsculpture,bothinreliefandindependentform.
3. The bhakti movements along with the temples led to change in the religious practices of the laity.
Brahmanicalsacrificesbecameathingfortherulingeliteonlyanddisappearedfromthepopularlevel.
PoliticalImpact
1. They used to perform the role of agents of the ruling authority into the village. The important
administrativeandjudicialdecisionsatthelocallevelusedtobetakenbythetempleauthoritiesonly.
2. Some temples were influential at the capital level too. Later, a new class of mathadipati emerged who
werechiefsofbigtemples.Theywereappointedasroyaladvisorsandheldconsiderablepoliticalsway.
3. Theyhelpedinlegitimizingtheruleofthekingasimagesofthekingandthequeenwereplacedinthe
templecomplex.
Cholas
TheSocialOrder
1. Social division was on the basis of broad occupational groups and typically indigenous in character. At
thetopwerebrahmansNIndianandSIndian.Thencametherulinggroups,vellalas,nagarattas.Then
Illangai(smallartisansandcraftsmen)andValangai(smallfarmers).Thencameothers.Varnawasnot
soimportantinSIndia.
2. The cultivating group of vellalas comprised of the land owning peasants as well as the landless labor.
Although, technically they were shudras, but in S Indian society, shudras didn't suffer from the typical
disabilitiesoftheNandvellalasenjoyedahighstatusthesourceofwhichwastheireconomicstatus.The
village residential area was divided into quarters of land owning farmers, artisans and agriculture
labor.Thisdivisionwaslegitimizedbygivingitaplaceinthetempleritualorderaswell.
3. The sculptors enjoyed high prestige in areas where their skills were in high demand but in other areas
like Malabar where not many temples were made they were treated as untouchables. Other artisans
nosedivedandweretreatedasuntouchables.Generallyanybodywhodidn'townlandsawafallintheir
social standing. So the agriculture labor organized themselves as Valangai and the sculptors, petty
tradersetc.organizedthemselvesasIlangaistopressforbetterstanding.
4. Since Valangais enjoyed close relations with the land owning class the vellalas used to support them.
MoreoverIlangaishadtopayhighertaxesaswell.AsaresulttheIlangaisgrewrestlessandwouldoften
revolt.Thevellalasandroyaltroopswouldalwayscrushtheirrevolts.
TheVijayanagarKingdom
SocialOrder
1. Thepolarizationinthesocietyincreasedandeventurnedbloody.Thenewsocialorderwasbrahmans@
top,followedbyrulingclassesfollowedbyIllangaiandValangai@samelevels.
2. Thisagewitnessedincreasingtradeandsecondaryactivities.HenceIlangaisincreasedininfluenceand
began to demand higher social status. This led to all the agriculture related groups rallying behind
ValangaisandfightingitoutwithIlangaisinthestreets.
3. MoreoverlargenumberofimmigrantsfromNIndiacameandestablishedtheirinfluenceovertradeand
commerceinthisage.Thisnaturallyincreasedsocialtensions.
4. Brahmans enjoyed a very high status in the Vijaynagar society. They were exempted from capital
punishment for whatever crime. They were considered trustworthy, received high offices (including
militaryoffices)andreceivedlargenumberoflandgrants.
Women
1. Women were employed in state service as accountants. Women of elite class received education at
homeincludingsanskritlearning.Butingeneraltheevilslikesati,childmarriage,devdasis,noeducation
forwomenheldground.Satiwasprevalentmostlyinthemilitaryclassandwasconsideredavirtuousact.
Butstateusedtoexemptwidowremarriagesfromthemarriagetax.
Slavery
1. SlaverywasprevalentinVijaynagarkingdomandslavesweretransactedfreely.Additionallyifsomeone
couldn'trepayaloanthenhecouldbeenslaved.
Education
1. Therewasnoactivestateinvolvementineducation.UnliketheCholasandPallavas,theVijaynagarkings
didn't establish schools and universities. But indirectly they encouraged it as the maths and temples
continuedtobeexemptedfromtaxes.Educationusedtobeimpartedintemples,mathandagraharasby
eminentbrahmans.
RoleofStateinSocialLife
1. Generally the caste community itself used to decide on social matters. But when there were issues
betweentwoormoredifferentcastesorwhichcouldnotberesolvedatthecommunityleveltherewasa
provision of interference by the state. Thus the nayaks and the gaurs (town administrators) could hear
such cases and decide on them. Then we have one instance when due to high rates of dowry some
brahmans went ahead and declared it illegal. The state interfered from their side and chose to give it
statesanction.Anybodywhowouldgiveortakeadowrywouldbeliableforpunishmentbytheking.State
couldalsointerfereintheaffairsofthesmallartisanorcraftsmencommunities.Thuswefindinscriptions
telling us about a royal order where the state asked the village residents not to ill treat the carpenters,
ironsmithsandgoldsmiths.
2. The state also used to interfere in matters of communal harmony. Thus we find inscription from
SravenbenagolawhereinadisputebetweentheJainsandVaisnavsthestateinterferedandprotected
theJaincommunity.
3. Similarlyifthecommunitydecidedtodepriveapersonofhislandthenithadtotakethepermissionof
thestate.Theninothercrimessuchassabotagingtempleproperty,incestetc.toothestatecouldpunish
aperson.

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1/9/2016 SocialLife|EvernoteWeb

The Village Community

The Social Order

The Jati System and The Varna System

The Elite Class

Marriage & Family

The Caste System

Family and Marriage

Post-Mauryan Age (North India)

Response of the Brahmanical Order

Family & Marriage

Post-Mauryan Age (Satvahnas)

marriages and promoted brahmanisation of the society.

The Family Structure

Sangam States in Tamil Land

activities was declining.

Response of Brahmanical Order

6. The practice of devadasi also became prevalent in this period.

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