Abdul Basit
Pakistan Centre for Advanced Studies in Energy (PCAS-E)
University of Engineering & Technology (UET), Peshawar
USPCAS-E 1
Power system operation - Objectives
System must be able to meet the continually changing load
demand for active and reactive power.
Unlike other types of energy, electricity cannot be conveniently stored
in sufficient quantities
Adequate spinning reserve of P and Q should be maintained at all
times
The system should supply energy at minimum cost, low loss,
and with minimum environmental impact
The quality of power supply must meet certain minimum
standards for:
Constancy of frequency (f)
Constancy of voltage (V)
Level of reliability
USPCAS-E 2
Effects of frequency variation
USPCAS-E 3
An example of frequency range and control
action
USPCAS-E 4
Voltage problems
USPCAS-E 5
Source: P. Kundur, Power System
Stability and Control
USPCAS-E 6
Power system operating states
Preventive
action
Restoration
Emergency Normal
actions
control operation
Restorative Alert
Emergency
control
In Extremis Emergency
USPCAS-E 7
Power system operating states
Normal
all system variables within normal range, no equipment
overloaded
system operates in secure manner and is able to withstand
a contingency without violating any of the constraints
Alert
security level falls below a certain limit of adequacy, or
possibility of a disturbance is high.
all system variables are still within acceptable range and all
constraints are satisfied
system has been weakened to a level where a contingency
may cause overloading of equipment >> Emergency state
USPCAS-E 8
Power system operating states
Alert (Cont.)
If disturbance is very severe >> In Extremis state
Preventive action (increase reserve) can restore the system
to Normal state
Emergency
caused by disturbance when system in Alert state
low voltages and/or equipment over loadings exceed short
term emergency ratings
system still intact and may be restored to the alert state by
initiating of emergency control actions: fault clearing,
excitation control, generation tripping, load curtailment,
etc.
USPCAS-E 9
Power System Operating States
In Extremis
above measures are not applied or ineffective, the
system is In Extremis: cascading outages and possibly
a shut-down of a major portion of the system
load shedding and system separation to save as much
of the system as possible
Restorative:
control action is being taken to reconnect all the
facilities and to restore system load
can transit from this state to either Alert or Normal
state
USPCAS-E 10
Basic Objectives in Operation
USPCAS-E 11
Operation and planning
USPCAS-E 12
Short term and Real time Operation
planning
1-week to Day-ahead planning
Load forecasting
Hydro scheduling
Unit commitment
USPCAS-E 13
Economic load dispatch
USPCAS-E 14
Optimization
Maximize or minimize a function with several
variables
Easy in Calculus
Set of values when first derivative is put to zero
Second derivative determines the solution to be maximum,
minimum or saddle point
Real life problems
Minimize or maximize the function (objective function) with
several constraints
Constraints are the limits on the variables defining the
feasible region
Optimum solution is binding if within the feasible region,
else non binding
USPCAS-E 15
Example: elliptical objection function
2 2
Minimize: 1 2 1 2
Subject to constraint: 1 2
where: 1 2 1 2
USPCAS-E 16
Minimum value of objective function while meeting the
constraint function
Optimum point exactly tangent to the function
USPCAS-E 17
At point calculate the gradient of vector , i.e.
perpendicular to , but not to
Same results for the point
non zero component along reveal that that a small movement will
increase the objective function
USPCAS-E 18
Optimization
To minimize the objective function, move along in the opposite
direction
At optimum point, the gradient of objective function is normal to
the gradient of and therefore there will be no improvement in
objective function
Gradients of objective function and must be linearly dependent
vectors, and they must line up with each other in same or opposite
direction, mathematically:
f+ =0
Thus, the two gradient can be added together that they cancel each
other as long as one of them is scaled. The scaling variable is
called Langrang multiplier
USPCAS-E 19
Langrang equation
At optimum For elliptical equation,
x1 = 4, x2 = 1, = 2
USPCAS-E 20
Langrang equation
USPCAS-E 21
Kuhn Tucker condition
Optimization problem involves both equality and inequality constraints
1 2
1 2,
The optimal solution to such problems will not necessary require that
all inequality constraints to be binding, the binding will result in
1 2, at the optimum
USPCAS-E 22
Kuhn Tucker condition
USPCAS-E 24
Example
USPCAS-E 25
USPCAS-E 26
Example
USPCAS-E 27
USPCAS-E 28
Optimization
USPCAS-E 29
Generation Cost
USPCAS-E 30
Optimizing Cost function
USPCAS-E 31
Kuhn-Tuchker conditions
USPCAS-E 32
ELD no losses
Subject to:
USPCAS-E 33
ELD no losses
USPCAS-E 34
ELD fundamental concept
From the first Kuhn-Tucker condition
USPCAS-E 35
ELD fundamental concept
Case 1: Operating point within limits
USPCAS-E 36
ELD fundamental concept
Case 3: P1 = P1min, all other generators within limits
Summarizing
USPCAS-E 37
Example 1
USPCAS-E 38
Example 2
USPCAS-E 39