ANCIENT AFRICA

Scientists believe that Africa was the birthplace of mankind. By 100,000 BC modern
humans lived by hunting and gathering with stone tools. From Africa they spread to
Europe.
By 5,000 farming had spread to North Africa. People herded cattle and they grew
crops. At that time the Sahara Desert was not a desert. It was a green and fertile
area. Gradually it grew drier and became a desert.
of Africa). Arab merchants brought luxury goods and salt. In return they purchased
gold and slaves from the Africans.
One of the earliest African kingdoms was Ghana (It included parts of Mali and
Mauritania as well as the modern country of Ghana). By the 9th century Ghana was
called the land of gold. However Ghana was destroyed in the 11th century by
Africans from further north.

Meanwhile about 3,200 BC writing was invented in Egypt. The Egyptians made tools By the 11th century the city of Ife in Southwest Nigeria was the capital of a great
and weapons of bronze. However by the time Egyptian civilization arose most of kingdom. From the 12th century craftsmen from Ife made terracotta sculptures and
Africa was cut off from Egypt and other early civilizations by the Sahara Desert. Sub- bronze heads. However by the 16th century Ife was declining.
Saharan Africa was also hampered by its lack of good harbors, which made
Another African state was Benin. (The medieval kingdom of Benin was bigger than
transport by sea difficult.
the modern country). From the 13th century Benin was rich and powerful.
Farmers in Africa continued to use stone tools and weapons however about 600 BC
Meanwhile the kingdom of Mali was founded in the 13th century. By the 14th
the use of iron spread in North Africa. It gradually spread south and by 500 AD iron
century Mali was rich and powerful. Its cities included Timbuktu, which was a busy
tools and weapons had reached what is now South Africa.
trading center where salt, horses, gold and slaves were sold. However the kingdom
About 480 BC the Phoenicians from what is now Lebanon founded the city of of Mali was destroyed by Songhai in the 16th century.
Carthage in Tunisia. Carthage later fought wars with Rome and in 202 BC the
Songhai was a kingdom situated east of Mali on the River Niger from the 14th
Romans defeated the Carthaginians at the battle of Zama. In 146 BC Rome
century to the 16th century. Songhai reached a peak about 1500 AD. However in
destroyed the city of Carthage and made its territory part of their empire.
1591 they were defeated by the Moroccans and their kingdom broke up.
Meanwhile Egyptian influence spread along the Nile and the kingdoms of Nubia and
Another great north African state was Kanem-Bornu, located near Lake Chad.
Kush arose in what is now Sudan. By 100 AD the kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia was
Kanem-Bornu rose to prominence in the 9th century and it remained independent
highly civilized. Axum traded with Rome, Arabia and India. Axum became Christian
till the 19th century.
in the 4th century AD.
Meanwhile the Arabs also sailed down the east coast of Africa. Some of them
Meanwhile the Roman Empire continued to expand. In 30 BC Egypt became a
settled there and they founded states such as Mogadishu. They also settled on
province of Rome. Morocco was absorbed in 42 AD. However the rest of Africa was
Zanzibar.
cut off from Rome by the Sahara Desert.
Inland some people in southern Africa formed organised kingdoms. About 1430
AFRICA IN THE MIDDLE AGES
impressive stone buildings were erected at Great Zimbabwe.
In 642 the Arabs conquered Egypt. In 698-700 they took Tunis and Carthage and
Meanwhile in the Middle Ages Ethiopia flourished. The famous church of St George
soon they controlled all of the coast of North Africa. The Arabs were Muslims, of
was built about 1200.
course, and soon the whole coast of North Africa converted to Islam. Ethiopia
remained Christian but it was cut off from Europe by the Muslims. Meanwhile the Portuguese were exploring the coast of Africa. In 1431 they reached
the Azores. Then in 1445 they reached the mouth of the River Congo. Finally in
After 800 AD organised kingdoms emerged in northern Africa. They traded with the
1488 the Portuguese sailed around the Cape of Good Hope.
Arabs further north. (Trade with the Arabs led to the spread of Islam to other parts
AFRICA 1500-1800 Namibia, Togo and Cameroon and in 1885 they took Tanzania. In 1885 Belgium took
over what is now Democratic Republic of Congo. The French took Madagascar in
In the 16th century Europeans began to transport African slaves across the Atlantic.
1896. They also expanded their empire in northern Africa. In 1912 they took
However slavery was nothing new in Africa. For centuries Africans had sold other
Morocco and Italy took Libya. In 1914 the British took control of Egypt. By then all
Africans to the Arabs as slaves. However the trans-Atlantic slave trade grew until it
of Africa was in European hands except Liberia and Ethiopia. (The Italians invaded
was huge.
Ethiopia in 1896 but they were defeated by the Ethiopians).
In the 18th century ships from Britain took manufactured goods to Africa. They took
Further south the British took Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Uganda and Kenya. The
slaves from there to the West Indies and took sugar back to Britain. This was called
British also took control of Egypt. Angola and Mozambique remained Portuguese.
the Triangular Trade. (Many other European countries were involved in the slave
trade). However in the early 20th century attitudes to imperialism began to change in
Europe. Furthermore in Africa churches provided schools and increasing numbers of
Some Africans were sold into slavery because they had committed a crime.
Africans became educated. They became impatient for independence. The
However many slaves were captured in raids by other Africans. Europeans were not
movement for African independence became unstoppable and in the late 1950s
allowed to travel inland to find slaves. Instead Africans brought slaves to the coast.
and 1960s most African countries became independent. In 1960 alone 17 countries
Any slaves who were not sold were either killed or used as slaves by other Africans.
gained their independence. However Mozambique and Angola did not become
The slave trade would have been impossible without the co-operation of Africans
independent until 1975.
many of whom grew rich on the slave trade.
In the early 21st century Africa began to boom. Today the economies of most
Meanwhile from the 16th to the 18th centuries Barbary pirates from the North
African countries are growing rapidly. Tourism in Africa is booming and investment
African coast robbed Spanish and Portuguese ships.
is pouring into the continent. Africa is developing rapidly and there is every reason
In the 16th century a people called the Turks conquered most of the North African to be optimistic.
coast. In 1517 they captured Egypt and by 1556 most of the coast was in their
The Early Philippines
hands.
The Philippines is named after King Philip II of Spain (1556-1598) and it was a
Further south Africans continued to build powerful kingdoms. The empire of
Spanish colony for over 300 years.
Kanem-Bornu expanded in the 16th century using guns bought from the Turks.
However in the 16th century Ethiopia declined in power and importance although it Today the Philippines is an archipelago of 7,000 islands. However it is believed that
survived. during the last ice age they were joined to mainland Asia by a land bridge, enabling
human beings to walk from there.
Meanwhile the Europeans founded their first colonies in Africa. In the 16th century
the Portuguese settled in Angola and Mozambique while in 1652 the Dutch founded The first people in the Philippines were hunter-gatherers. However between 3,000
a colony in South Africa. BC and 2,000 BC people learned to farm. They grew rice and domesticated animals.
From the 10th AD century Filipinos traded with China and by the 12th Century AD
MODERN AFRICA
Arab merchants reached the Philippines and they introduced Islam.
In the 19th century European states tried to stop the slave trade. Britain banned the
Then in 1521 Ferdinand Magellan sailed across the Pacific. He landed in the
slave trade in 1807. On the other hand in the late 19th century Europeans colonized
Philippines and claimed them for Spain. Magellan baptized a chief called Humabon
most of Africa!
and hoped to make him a puppet ruler on behalf of the Spanish crown. Magellan
In 1814 the British took the Dutch colony in South Africa. In 1830 the French demanded that other chiefs submit to Humabon but one chief named Lapu Lapu
invaded northern Algeria. However colonization only became serious in the late refused. Magellan led a force to crush him. However the Spanish soldiers were
19th century when Europeans 'carved up' Africa. In 1884 the Germans took scattered and Magellan was killed.
The Spaniards did not gain a foothold in the Philippines until 1565 when Miguel The Philippines in the 20th Century
Lopez de Legazpi led an expedition, which built a fort in Cebu. Later, in 1571 the
American rule in the Philippines was paternalistic. They called their policy
Spaniards landed in Luzon. Here they built the city of Intramuros (later called
'Benevolent Assimilation'. They wanted to 'Americanize' the Filipinos but they never
Manila), which became the capital of the Philippines. Spanish conquistadors
quite succeeded. However they did do some good. Many American teachers were
marched inland and conquered Luzon. They created a feudal system. Spaniards
sent to the Philippines in a ship called the Thomas and they did increase literacy.
owned vast estates worked by Filipinos.
In 1935 the Philippines were made a commonwealth and were semi-independent.
Along with conquistadors went friars who converted the Filipinos to Catholicism.
Manuel Quezon became president. The USA promised that the Philippines would
The friars also built schools and universities.
become completely independent in 1945.
The Spanish colony in the Philippines brought prosperity - for the upper class
However in December 1941 Japan attacked the US fleet at Pearl Harbor. On 10
anyway! Each year the Chinese exported goods such as silk, porcelain and lacquer
December 1941 Japanese troops invaded the Philippines. They captured Manila on
to the Philippines. From there they were re-exported to Mexico.
2 January 1941. By 6 May 1942 all of the Philippines were in Japanese hands.
The years passed uneventfully in the Philippines until in 1762 the British captured
However American troops returned to the Philippines in October 1944. They
Manila. They held it for two years but they handed it back in 1764 under the terms
recaptured Manila in February 1945.
of the Treaty of Paris, signed in 1763.
The Philippines became independent on 4 July 1946. Manuel Roxas was the first
The Philippines in the 19th Century
president of the newly independent nation.
In 1872 there was a rebellion in Cavite but it was quickly crushed. However
Ferdinand Marcos (1917-1989) was elected president in 1965. He was re-elected in
nationalist feeling continued to grow helped by a writer named Jose Rizal (1861-
1969. However the Philippines was dogged by poverty and inequality. In the 1960s
1896). He wrote two novels Noli Me Tangere (Touch me Not) and El Filibusterismo
a land reform program began. However many peasants were frustrated by its slow
(The Filibusterer) which stoked the fires of nationalism.
progress and a Communist insurgency began in the countryside.
In 1892 Jose Rizal founded a movement called Liga Filipina, which called for reform
On 21 September 1972 Marcos declared martial law. He imposed a curfew,
rather than revolution. As a result Rizal was arrested and exiled to Dapitan on
suspended Congress and arrested opposition leaders.
Mindanao.
The Marcos dictatorship was exceedingly corrupt and Marcos and his cronies
Meanwhile Andres Bonifacio formed a more extreme organisation called the
enriched themselves.
Katipunan. In August 1896 they began a revolution. Jose Rizal was accused of
supporting the revolution, although he did not and he was executed on 30 Then, in 1980 opposition leader Benigno Aquino went into exile in the USA. When
December 1896. Yet his execution merely inflamed Filipino opinion and the he returned on 21 August 1983 he was shot. Aquino became a martyr and Filipinos
revolution grew. were enraged by his murder.
Then in 1898 came war between the USA and Spain. On 30 April 1898 the In February 1986 Marcos called an election. The opposition united behind Cory
Americans defeated the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. Meanwhile Filipino Aquino the widow of Benigno. Marcos claimed victory (a clear case of electoral
revolutionaries had surrounded Manila. Their leader, Emilio Aguinaldo declared the fraud). Cory Aquino also claimed victory and ordinary people took to the streets to
Philippines independent on 12 June. However as part of the peace treaty Spain show their support for her. Marcos's cronies deserted him and he bowed to the
ceded the Philippines to the USA. The Americans planned to take over. inevitable and went into exile.
War between American forces in Manila and the Filipinos began on 4 February Things did not go smoothly for Corazan Aquino. (She survived 7 coup attempts).
1899. The Filipino-American War lasted until 1902 when Aguinaldo was captured. Furthermore the American bases in the Philippines (Subic Bay Naval Base and Clark
Air Base) were unpopular with many Filipinos who felt they should go. In 1992
Mount Pinatubo erupted and covered Clark in volcanic ash forcing the Americans to
leave. They left Subic Bay in 1993.
In 1992 Fidel Ramos became president. He improved the infrastructure in the
Philippines including the electricity supply. Industry was privatized and the
economy began to grow more rapidly.
However at the end of the 1990s the Philippine economy entered a crisis.
Meanwhile in 1998 Joseph Estrada, known as Erap became president. Estrada was
accused of corruption and he was impeached in November 2000. Estrada was not
convicted. Nevertheless people demonstrated against him and the military
withdrew its support. Estrada was forced to leave office and Vice-president Gloria
Macapagal-Arroyo replaced him. She was re-elected in 2004.
The Philippines in the 21st Century
Today the Philippines is still poor but things are changing. Since 2010 the Philippine
economy has grown at about 6% a year. Today there is reason to be optimistic for
the future.
Today the population of the Philippines is 102 million.
David Mandessi Diop is a Poet from Senegal.(1927-1960)
David Diop was one of the most promising French West African young poets, whose
short career, however, ended in an air-crash off Dakar in 1960. Diop lived an
uprooted life, moving frequently from his childhood onwards between France and
West Africa. In Paris Diop joinded the ngritude literary movement, which
championed and celebrated the uniqueness of black experience and heritage.
Diop's work reflects his hatred of colonial rulers and his hope for an independent
Africa.
David Diop was born in Bordeaux, France, July 9,1927 of a Senegalese father and a
Cameroonian mother. After his father died, he was raised by his mother. Diop had
his primary education in Senegal, and then he attended the Lyce Marcelin
Berthelot in Paris during World War II. At home Diop read the works of Aim
Csaire and debuted as a poet while still at school. Several of his poems were
published in Lopold Senghor's famous Anthologie de la nouvelle posie ngre et
malgache (1948), which became an important landmark of modern black writing in
French.
Most of his life Diop lived in France, and he often expressed his longing to Africa in
his poems: "Let these words of anguish keep time with your / restless step- / Oh I
am lonely so lonely here.." Due to his poor health-he was a semi-invalid for most of
his life after contracting tuberculosis-Diop changed his career plans from medicine
to the liberal arts. He obtained two baccalaurats and a licence-s-lettres. In 1950
he married Virginia Kamara, who was the center of many of his poems.
Despite his French upbringing and education, Diop empathized with the African
plight against French colonialism. In the 1950s Diop returned to Africa to take part
in the rebuilding of Senegal. He published several poems in Prsence Africaine, and
advocated independence struggle. His first book of poems, Coups de pillon (1956),
called for revolution and attacked the domination of European culture in Africa. In
his essay 'A Contribution to the debate on National Poetry' he argued, that poets
who use the language of the conquering nation are perfect examples of the
assimilationist policy, and submission to western literary fashions is another form of
bastardization.
Diop worked as a teacher in Dakar and a principal of a secondary school in Kindia,
Guinea. The country had gained independence in 1958 and as a result French
administration was rapidly withdrawn. The republic was left without civil servants
and a number of Africans volunteered to work for Ahmed Sekou Tour 's regime,
among them Diop. Toure governed from 1958 to 1984. Diop died on a journey over
the Atlantic with his wife on August 25, 1960; their plane crashed on returning to
France from Dakar. Most of his work was destroyed with him, among them the
manuscript of his second volume of poems. Only the 22 poems that were published
before his death still remain.
He has been connected with the Negritude school of writing, especially with his
themes of the harmful effects of inferiority complex. As a tool of protest, he
employed a colloquial style. Diop criticized Western values and colonialism,
encouraged for self-sacrifices for the collective good, and praised the strength of
African women. To gain the attention of his audience, Diop employed the
techniques of oral expression, rhythmic repetition, oratorical tone and assertion.
Often he ended the poem optimistically as in 'The Vultures': "In spite of your songs
and pride / In spite of the desolate villages of torn Africa / Hope was preserved in
us as in a fortress / And from the mines of Swaziland to the factories of Europe /
Spring will reborn under our bright steps."
Ngritude: The term was coined in the 1930s by Aim Csaire and L-S. Senghor, and
was much used after World War II by French-speaking intellectuals in Africa and the
Caribbean. It referred to the sense of a common Negro inheritance, revolt against
colonialist values, and nostalgia for the beauty and glory of the African heritage.
The advocates of ngritude movement-in particular Senghor, Csaire, and Leon-
Gontran Damas-were later criticized by their belief in intrinsic cultural blackness,
neglecting contemporary political realities, and failing to achieve its revolutionary
aims. However, the ideas of ngritude influenced also the black social and political
movement in the U.S. during the 1960s. The major early works expressing the spirit
of the movement are Damas Pigments (1937), Csaire's Cahier d'un retour au pays
natal (1939), and Senghor's Anthologie de la posie... Sartre's essay 'Orphe noir' in
the anthology is perhaps the most famous attempt to analyze the movement from
an Existentialist point of view
On January 28, 1861, Julin Felipe, music teacher, band leader and composer of
the Philippine national anthem, "Lupang Hinirang," was born in Cavite City, Cavite.
On June 5, 1898, Aguinaldo issued a decree setting aside June 12 as the day for the
proclamation of Philippine independence. At the same time, he commissioned
Julian Felipe, a composer from Cavite, to prepare a composition which would be
played during the independence ceremonies. On June 11, Felipe showed Aguinaldo
the draft of his musical composition, which was entitled Marcha Filipina
Magdalo. Aguinaldo and the other revolutionary leaders, upon hearing the
composition played on the piano, adopted it as the official march of the Philippines.
Aguinaldo then requested Felipe to teach the music to the members of the band of
San Francisco de Malabon so it could be played the next day. Felipe changed the
title of the march to Marcha Nacional Filipina(Philippine National March).

Inheriting his talent in music from his father, Felipe, who played the piano and
The following day(June 12, 1898), the music band of San Francisco de Malabon
organ at an early age, became organist in St. Peter's Parish Church where he was
played it for the first time during the unfurling of the Filipino flag at Kawit. The
given the chance to hone his gift as musician, and subsequently composer of songs.
beautiful melody of the anthem stirred the people's patriotic fervor.
Among his early popular compositions were Moteti el Santesisimo, Sintos y Floras
For more than a year, the anthem remained without words. Towards the end of
Rogodones, and Amorita Danza. He impressed many music enthusiasts with these
August 1899, a young poet-soldier named Jose Palma(younger brother of Dr. Rafael
pieces, and though still young, his works were already at par with the seasoned
Palma) wrote the poem entitled Filipinas. This poem expressed in elegant Spanish
musicians.
verses the ardent patriotism and fighting spirit of the Filipino people. It became the
Felipe received numerous awards in recognition of his remarkable contributions in words of the anthem. At last the national anthem was complete -- with music and
the field of music. words.

When the 1896 Revolution broke out, he joined his fellow Cavitenos in the fight
against the Spaniards. He was arrested and jailed at Fort San Felipe in Cavite.

When freed, he rejoined General Emilio Aguinaldo's troops. He was asked by

Aguinaldo to compose a nationalistic song to inspire his compatriots to continue
fighting against the Spaniards.

His composition titled Marcha Nacional Filipinas was played by the San Francisco
de Malabon as the Philippine flag was hoisted during the declaration of Philippine
Independence on June 12, 1898 in General Aguinaldo's house in Kawit, Cavite.

His composition was adopted as the Philippine national anthem on September 5,

1938.

Felipe died on October 2, 1944.

A bust of Felipe can be found in Cavite City, near San Sebastian College-Recoletos
de Cavite.