Chapter 5

Magnetic Materials and Properties

5.1.Introduction
There are various applications of magnetic Materials which influence our life. Various electronic devices
use magnetic materials such as Tape, ATM cards, speakers etc, even in the field of medicals and
defence. Magnetic materials are high used such as in Hospital MRI machines, Power Transmission etc.
direct or indirect way magnetic materials touches of life in field. so study of magnetic properties of
materials are also essential. This chapter deals with the about origin of magnetism in materials and
various magnetic behaviour of Materials.
5.2.Basic concept
How magnetism arise in materials? We know that Materials are composed of atoms and each
material (elements) have unique atomic and electronic configuration and Magnetic field is induced
whenever current flow in loop and the direction of magnetic field vector is perpendicular to current flow
(Thumb Rule). Similarly, in atom magnetic dipoles are generated due to the motion of electron, which
revolves around the nucleus, thus motion of electrons create magnetic field i.e. electrons are negatively
charged particles. Magnetic field is generated by two ways:
a) Orbital motion of electron around the nucleus of atom
b) Spin motion of electron about own axis.

Fig.5.1. Demonstration of the

magnetic moment associated
with (a) an orbiting electron
and (b) a spinning electron.

Magnetic Dipoles

Magnetic dipoles are generated due to motion of charged particle (electron) and have North Pole and
South poles. Magnetic dipoles are represented by arrows.

Magnetic field vectors

Also called as magnetic field intensity or magnetic field strength and denoted by (H). Its unit is
(turns.amp/m). Magnetic field is generated by means of cylindrical coil (N in rotation), having length (L),
and carrying current of magnitude (I). Magnetic field is generated around the coil.

= (1.1)

Magnetic Induction

Also called as magnetic flux density and denoted by (B). Its unit is Tesla ( 2 ). Magnetic flux density
is generated inside the material by the influence of external field intensity (H). Thus,
= (1.2)
Where, - permeability in material (it is a measures by which magnetism may be developed in
material)
When there is no material inside the coil i.e. in vacuum then,
= 0
Where, 0 - permeability in vacuum (4 107 . )
permeability of material
Relative permeability =
0 permeability in vacuum
With the influences of magnetization (M) occurs then magnetic flux (B), then B can be modified as
= 0 + 0
=
= 1
Where is Magnetic susceptibility

Magnetic properties of materials immensely depend on electronic configuration of electrons in atom.

The orbital and spin motion of electrons develops the magnetic behaviour in the materials. Fundamental
magnetic moment which is represented as Bohr Magneton ( ) value is9.27 1024 2 . Thus based on
electronic configuration of atom materials are classified as Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, Ferro-magnetic,
Anti-ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic materials.

Table 5.1.

5.3.Diamagnetism and Para magnetism

Diamagnetism and paramagnetism are weak form of magnetism and exhibits only is the presence of
external field.
Diamagnetism

In diamagnetic materials magnetic dipoles are absent; it is induced only when external field is
applied. It is temporary and magnetism disappears with removal of external field. Diamagnetism is induced
by orbital motion of electron. In diamagnetic material Relative permeability ( ) is less than unity,
Magnetic susceptibility ( ) is negative( 105 ), Magnetic flux density is less than in a vacuum.
Diamagnetism behaviour is found in all the materials, but observed only when all other magnetism is totally
absent. e.g. 2 3 , , .

Fig.5.2 The atomic dipole configuration for a

diamagnetic material with and without a
magnetic eld. In the absence of an external
eld, no dipoles exist; in the presence of a
eld, dipoles are induced that are aligned
opposite to the eld direction.

Para magnetism

In Para magnetic materials, permanent dipole moment exits randomly due to incomplete
cancellation of spin and orbital motion of electron. Dipoles are free to rotate. In the presence of external
field dipoles gets aliened in the direction of applied field. Relative permeability ( ) is less than unity,
Magnetic susceptibility ( ) is negative( 105 ), Relative permeability ( ) is greater than unity and
Magnetic susceptibility ( ) is positive(105 102 ). e.g. aluminium, chromium, Zinc. Both
diamagnetism and paramagnetism is considered as non-magnetic and exhibits magnetism in the presence of
external field.

Fig.5.3. Atomic dipole conguration

with and without an external magnetic
eld for a paramagnetic material.

5.4.Ferro magnetism, anti ferromagnetism and ferrimagnetisms

Ferro magnetism

In ferromagnetic materials, permanent magnetic moment exits in the absence of external field. Net
magnetic moment present due to un-cancelled spin motion, small contribution of orbital motion is there but
small as compared to spin motion of electron. It arises due to electronic structure of metal in which mutual
spin alignment exists over relatively large volume region of crystal called Domain. They can be
permanently magnetized, i.e. magnetic behaviour will be retained in the absence of external field. Magnetic
susceptibility ( ) is in the order of 106 . Ferro magnetic behaviour is shown by transition metal (iron,
cobalt, nickel etc) and few rare earth metals such as Gadolinium. Net magnetic moment per atom for Iron,
Cobalt and Nickel is 2.22, 1.72 and 0.60 bohr Magneton.

Fig.5.4 Mutual alignment of atomic dipoles for a

ferromagnetic material, which exists even in the
absence of an external field.

Fig.5.5 Schematic representation of

the flux density (B) verses Magnetic
field strength (H) for diamagnetic,
paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
materials

Note:

For diamagnetic material:

105

For Paramagnetic material:

105 102

For Ferromagnetic material:

106

Anti ferromagnetism

In Anti ferromagnetic materials, magnetic moments exist but they are aligned anti parallel. Spin
moment of neighbouring atoms or ions is exactly in opposite direction. Few ceramic materials show this
type of magnetism, e.g. MnO (ceramic material) in which 2+ ions are aligned oppositely with each other,
see fig. Thus, opposing magnetic moment cancels each other, so there is no net magnetic moment.
 Fig.5.6 Schematic representation of anti parallel
alignment of spin magnetic moments for anti
ferromagnetic manganese oxide

Ferri-magnetism

Oxides and some ceramics also exhibit permanent magnetization. Macroscopic magnetic
characteristic of ferromagnets and ferrimagnets are similar. In ferri magnetic materials ions are aligned in
opposites direction but in any one direction it is relatively more. Thus there is partial cancelation of
magnetic moment, so net magnetic moment exits. Intensity of net magnetic moment of ferrimagnetic
material is less than ferromagnetic materials. e.g. magnetite is composed of Fe2+
(Octahedral),Fe3+(Octahedral),Fe3+ (Tetrahedral)and O2- ions, Fe of octahedral structure is aligned in one
direction and of tetrahedral Fe is in opposite direction.

Fig.5.7. Schematic representation of ferri-

magnetic material show spin magnetic
moment configuration for
2+ 3+

5.5.Influences of temperature on magnetic behaviour

Increase in the temperature results in increase in the magnetite of thermal vibration in the atoms, this
increased thermal motion tends to randomize the direction of magnetic moments. Thus, there is a decrease in
magnetic behaviour with increasing temperature. This results in decrease in Saturation magnetization,
maximum saturation magnetization is at 0 K and it drop to zero at Curie temperature (temperature at which
material becomes non magnetic).
5.6.Domains and hysteresis

Domain can be defined as a small volume region of material in which there is a mutual alignment of
magnetic dipoles moment are in same direction. Normally domains are microscopic in size and for
polycrystalline material; each grain may a have multiple domains. Domains are separated by domains
boundaries or wall, across which the direction of magnetization changes. Thus at macroscopic level, there
will large numbers of domain and all may have different magnetization orientation. The magnitude of M
field for entire solid is the vector sum of magnetization of all the domains. For unmagnetized specimen,
vector sum of magnetization of all the domains is zero.
Fig.5.8 Schematic representation of domains in ferro
magnetic and ferromagnetic materials. Atomic
magnetic dipoles are represented by arrows. Within
the domain all dipoles are aligned in same direction,
whereas direction of alignment varies from one
domain to another

Flux density B and eld intensity H are not proportional for ferromagnets and ferromagnets. If the
material is initially unmagnetized, then B varies as a function of H as shown in Figure. The curve begins at
the origin, and as H is increased, the B eld begins to increase slowly, then more rapidly, finally levelling
off and becoming independent of H. This maximum value of B is the saturation ux density Bs, and the
corresponding magnetization is the saturation magnetization Ms. Since the permeability is the slope of the B-
versus-H curve, the permeability changes with and is dependent on H. The slope of the B-versus-H curve at
H= 0 is specied as a material property, which is termed the initial permeability ( ), as indicated in Figure .
`

Fig.5.9 Magnetic flux density (B) verses

Magnetic field strength (H) shows the
configurationally variations of domains at
varies stages for ferromagnetic and
ferromagnetic materials. When external
field is applied all the magnetic dipoles of
individual domains gets allied in single
direction with respect to external field.
This point is called as saturation
magnetization.

Initially, the moments of the constituent domains are randomly oriented such that there is no net B
(or M) eld. As an H eld is applied, the domains change shape and size by the movement of domain
boundaries. Schematic domain structures are represented at several points along the B-versus-H curve in
Figure.

The domains that is oriented in directions favourable to (or nearly aligned with) the applied eld grow at
the expense of those that are unfavourably oriented. This process continues with increasing eld strength
until the macroscopic specimen becomes a single domain, which is nearly aligned with the eld. Saturation
is achieved when this domain, by means of rotation, becomes oriented with the H eld.

From saturation, point S in Figure 18.14, as the H eld is reduced by reversal of eld direction, the
curve does not retrace its original path. A hysteresis effect is produced in which the B eld lags behind the
applied H eld, or decreases at a lower rate. At H= 0 eld (point R on the curve), there exists a residual B
eld that is called the remanence, or remanent ux density, Br; the material remains magnetized in the
absence of an external H eld.

Fig. 5.10

Now if the magnetic field H is applied in negative direction, point C is reached where magnetization
is zero and the magnetizing force become negative. The negative force which is applied to bring B to zero is
called as coercive force. A further increase in the negative magnetic field results in maximum induction at
point S, but in opposite direction. From this point S if again magnetic field is reversed then curve will trace
the path SEDS shown in fig., completing a cycle. The enclosed area is called a hysteresis loop and
represents the energy loss during cycle.

5.7.Soft magnetic material and hard magnetic materials

For the ferro magnetic and ferri magnetic materials, in general soft magnetic materials refers to the
materials which can be easily magnetized or demagnetized whereas hard magnetic materials requires large
amount of external magnetic field for magnetization and it retains magnetization even after the removal of
external field.

The size and shape of hysteresis loop is of great importance in distinguishing between soft and hard
magnetic material. See fig.
 Fig.5.11 Schematic magnetization curve
for soft and hard magnetic materials.

Table 5.2. Typical Properties for several Soft Magnetic Materials

Table 5.3. Typical Properties for several Hard Magnetic Materials

5.8.Magnetic storage

Magnetic materials are most widely used in storage of electronic information. An advantage of magnetic
storage is that it can store large amount of data in small piece of magnetic devices with reliable cost. Most of
the magnetic storage devices which are overwhelming used are ATM card, audio and video tapes, CD,
computer hard disk etc.

There are two principal types of magnetic mediaparticulate and thin film. Particulate media consist of
very small needle like or acicular particles, normally of 2 3 ferrite or 2 ; these are applied and
bonded to a polymeric film (for magnetic tapes) or to a metal or polymer disk. During manufacture, these
particles are aligned with their long axes in a direction that parallels the direction of motion past the head
(see Figures).
Each particle is a single domain that
may be magnetized only with its
magnetic moment lying along this axis.
Two magnetic states are possible,
corresponding to the saturation
magnetization in one axial direction,
and its opposite. These two states make
possible the storage of information in
digital form, as 1s and 0s. In one
system, a 1 is represented by a reversal
in the magnetic eld direction from one
small area of the storage medium to
another as the numerous acicular
particles of each such region pass by the
head.
A lack of reversal between adjacent Fig.5.12 schematic representation showing how
regions is indicated by a 0. information is stored and retrieved using a
magnetic storage medium.

The thin-film storage technology is relatively new and provides higher storage capacities at lower costs. It is
employed mainly on rigid disk drives and consists of a multilayered structure. A magnetic thin-film layer is
the actual storage component. This film is normally either a CoPtCr or CoCrTa alloy, with a thickness of
between 10 or 50 nm (100 and 500 A). A substrate layer below and upon which the thin film resides is pure
chromium or a chromium alloy. The thin film itself is polycrystalline, having an average grain size that is
typically between 10 and 30 nm (100 and 300 A ). Each grain within the thin lm is a single magnetic
domain, and it is highly desirable that grain shape and size be relatively uniform. For magnetic storage disks
that employ these thin lms, the crystallographic direction of easy magnetization for each grain is aligned in
the direction of disk motion (or the direction opposite). The mechanism of magnetic storage within each of
these single-domain grains is the same as for the needle-shaped particles, as described abovei.e., the two
magnetic states correspond to domain magnetization in one direction or its antiparallel equivalent.

The storage density of thin lms is greater than for particulate media because the packing efficiency of thin-
lm domains is greater than for the acicular particles; particles will always be separated with void space in
between.

5.9.Superconductivity

Superconductivity is the phenomenon of zero

electrical resistance occurring in certain materials
below a critical temperature, Tc. This means that an
electric current flowing in a loop of
superconducting wire can do so indefinitely with no
power source.

Fig.5.13 electrical resistivity Vs Temperature effect

on superconductivity

Superconductivity was first discovered in 1911 by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes. He was studying the low-
temperature resistance of solid mercury using the recently-discovered liquid helium, and he noticed that
the resistance suddenly disappeared at 4.2 K.

Over the next few years, other materials were found to be superconducting, including lead and niobium
nitride. These all had transition temperatures of less than about 20 K, which required the use of liquid
helium.

A new class of ceramic copper oxide-based superconductors was discovered in 1986, with transition
temperatures about twice as high as any that had previously been found. This sparked a huge amount of
research into finding superconductors with higher and higher transition temperatures. The highest
critical temperature for a superconductor is currently about 130 K, but high-temperature superconductors
are those that are superconducting at liquid nitrogen temperatures.
Temperature is, however, not the only parameter that determines whether or not a material is
superconducting. Even below the critical temperature, a material can cease to be superconducting if
a magnetic field larger than the critical magnetic field, Hc, or a current greater than the critical
current, IC, is applied. A material is therefore only superconducting within a critical space in a
temperature-magnetic field-current diagram, as shown below.
Temperature is, however, not the only
parameter that determines whether or not a
material is superconducting. Even below the
critical temperature, a material can cease to
be superconducting if a magnetic field larger
than the critical magnetic field, Hc, or a
current greater than the critical current, IC,
is applied. A material is therefore only
superconducting within a critical space in a
temperature-magnetic field-current diagram, see
figure.

The Meissner Effect

Another characteristic of
superconductors is the Meissner
Effect, which is the expulsion of
magnetic flux from their interior.
This occurs due to the generation
of electrical currents near their
surface, which produces a
reverse magnetic field and
prevents a magnetic field from
penetrating the sample. This
effect can be used for magnetic
levitation, since the superconductor
acquires north and south poles that Fig.5.14 Representation of Meissner effect. Magnetic
repel those of the magnet. field penetrates while material is conductive and it is
passes away from the material when material is in
superconductive state.

Applications
Hospital MRI machines: MRI uses electromagnets made with coils of superconducting wire (Usually
Nb3Sn). This allows the use of higher electrical currents and therefore higher magnetic fields are achieved
for the same weight of material. These powerful magnets are used to align the north and south poles of the
hydrogen atoms within water molecules in the body. A burst of radio waves is applied, which causes some
of the atoms to de align: when these realign, they emit radio waves which are detected by the scanner.
Maglev trains: Superconducting magnets are used to produce repulsive forces, which lift the train off the
tracks (note that this is not the Meissner effect).
Particle accelerators: These use superconductors to produce large magnetic fields to accelerate particles to
high speeds.
Power transmission: Currently, overhead power cables lose about 5% of their energy due to resistive
heating, so using superconductors for current-carrying wires seems like an obvious application.
However, their use is currently limited by the cost of producing the superconducting wire and the fact
that their mechanical properties are too poor.