With suitable examples, discuss the importance of accurate
geolocation
Introduction/ Historical Background
The science of geolocation is concerned with the methods and
concepts used to locate objects and features on the Earths
surface, and in nearby space with respect to a terrestrial
coordinate system. Geolocation and its related science of
geodesy have evolved over historical time, from the verification
of the spherical Earth model by Erastothenes in 1000 B.C.
(Logsdon, 1995, p194), the introduction by Gerardus Mercator
of his conformal map in 1569, that allowed for the construction
of charts suitable for ‘rhumb line’ navigation (Kellaway, 1957,
pp38-39), to modern insights into the shape of the Geoid, and
navigation using the ‘Global Positioning System’ (GPS)
(Logsdon, 1995).
In the fourteenth century, and for several hundred years
afterwards, geolocation at sea was hampered by the problem that
only latitude could be determined quantitatively, by means of an
astrolabe or sextant; longitude being estimated by little more
than guess-work. This resulted in a number of maritime
disasters, culminating in the wrecking of the British fleet off the
Scilly Isles in 1707, under the command of Sir Cloudsley
Shovel. In response to this problem the British Board of
Longitude was established, and in 1714 offered a cash prize to
any person who could determine the east-west position of a ship
to within 30 nautical miles (Logsdon, 1995, p158). The
‘longitude problem’ was eventually solved in the 1760’s with the
invention of an accurate marine chronometer (accurate to one
second of loss per day, corresponding to a positional error of ten
nautical miles after six weeks at sea) to provide timed sextant
sightings of celestial objects; since the time of the equivalent
celestial sighting (a rising for instance) would be known at
Greenwich and the earth rotates at 15 degrees per hour, the
longitude could be determined (Logsdon, 1995, p160-161).
During the nineteenth century celestial navigation/survey
methods were also used on land in continental reconnaissance
surveys.
In 1687 Isaac Newton proposed that the shape of the earth is
controlled by hydrostatic considerations such that the
combination of gravitational and centripetal effects would result
in an oblate spheroid (ellipsoid) with a flattening of one in 230,
the modern value is one in 300 (Logsdon, 1995, p194-195). This
development is significant from a modern geolocation
perspective since ellipsoid models provide the underlying basis
of many mapping agencies coordinate systems. Since no
ellipsoid can perfectly match the true shape of the earth various
ellipsoids have been defined to model the whole earth (global
ellipsoids), or to model various geographic regions (regional
ellipsoids) (Ordnance Survey, 1999, p6).
Ellipsoid Datums
In order to define the position of a point on the earths surface
using an ellipsoid coordinate system, the latitude and longitude
on the stated ellipsoid must be given in addition to the distance
from the point to the ellipsoid surface along the normal vector to
the ellipsoid surface. This is the so-called ‘ellipsoid height’
(Ordnance Survey, 1999, p9). It is essential to know which
ellipsoid is being used, because if several points with the same
stated latitude/longitude, but defined in different but valid
ellipsoid coordinate systems are compared, these points can be
up to 500 metres apart on the ground (Ordnance Survey, 1999,
p4).
Most nations have a ‘geodetic network’ that defines the
relationship in space of a particular ellipsoid to fixed physical
points on the topography of that country. Before 1950 such
primary national geodetic networks were usually created by
visual triangulation between triangulation points (trig points),
forming a triangulated or ‘geodetic’ mesh over the territory of
interest. A few short sections of the network would be measured
along the ground to scale it, and these sections world have their
orientations measured astronomically to orientate the entire
network (Jones, 1999, p16). Root-mean-square (RMS) residual
techniques could then be employed to determine a best-fit
ellipsoid to that geodetic network, and to formally define the
spatial relationship between the network (real physical points in
space) and the ellipsoid (a mathematical object). Such a formal
definition is referred to as a Datum definition (Jones, 1999, p16).
Modern techniques such as GPS (using signals from Global
Positioning Satellites) are capable of sub-centimetric accuracy
when used differentially (DGPS) with survey grade equipment,
and are being used to replace visual triangulation in primary
geodetic networks (Jones, 1999, p16), (Ordnance Survey, 2000,
p1).
Comparison of traditional and DGPS derived primary geodetic
calculations for the UK indicate that on large scale mapping
(1:2500), global horizontal errors of up to 9 metres may have
been present in some areas, although local errors between
adjacent surveyed objects were within specification (Ordnance
Survey, 2000, p4). Such issues of absolute versus relative
positional error are very important if old and new map
coverages, of the same scale, are being overlaid in a
Geographical Information system (GIS), otherwise false
topological relationships may result (Ordnance Survey, 2000,
p1), (Mackaness, pers com), (Burrough, et al, 2000, p224).
If geolocation data needs to be translated from one datum
(ellipsoid coordinate system) to another, a seven parameter
mathematical transformation needs to be carried out (Jones,
1999, p16). Since the parameters have been determined by
observation this will introduce more positional error into the
data. In addition most datum’s change in position with respect to
each other over time due to tectonic movements within the
earths crust (Ordnance Survey, 1999, p5), hence corresponding
transformation parameters will also change.
Illustrative Examples
Geolocation data of differing positional accuracies can be
combined for interpretation purposes (Ganas, et al, 2001), but it
essential that the accuracies of the various datasets be taken into
account by the interpreter in order to avoid incorrect conclusions
and false topological inferences (Mackaness, pers com),
(Burrough, et al, 2000, p224).
Ganas et al (2001) carried out a combined analysis of Landsat
TM images, field observations and aftershock distribution
patterns in order to determine on which of two candidate fault
planes the 7th September 1999 Athens 5.9 Ms earthquake
occurred. The candidate fault planes were separated by only 3km
in the mesoseismic area. Seismological locations for the initial
epicentre and aftershocks were accurate to only +/- 1km in x,y
and z directions, insufficient to determine the active fault. A
Landsat TM image was taken a few days after the earthquake,
with a spatial resolution of 30 metres. This image was geo-
referenced to the EGSA datum by a second order polynomial
transformation, using ground control points (gcps) from 1:50000
scale maps; gcp rms-error being less than one pixel (30m). Field
mapping of ground surface breaks was done using a hand held
GPS with an accuracy of +/- 60 metres x,y . Theses GPS
locations were translated from WGS84 datum to EGSA datum
using a standard datum transformation. A 20 metre gridded
DEM was produced from contour elevations on the 1:50000
maps (20m contour interval), in order to created a shaded relief
image to use as a backdrop for other data layers. The geo-
referenced Landsat image was draped over the DEM to create
3D perspective views on which other data could be plotted.
These combined geo-referenced datasets were interpreted,
resulting in a positive identification of the active seismic fault.
Thus, the relatively low accuracy seismically derived
geolocations were supplemented with the higher accuracy
geolocations of other pertinent data sets in order to determine the
active fault.
Digital elevation models and topographic maps usually contain
‘orthometric elevations’ rather than ellipsoid heights.
Orthometric heights correspond to the perpendicular height
above the gravitational equipotential surface, or Geoid. The
Geoid is the global surface, which corresponds to the ‘common
sense’ notion of the ‘level-surface’ in that ‘plumb-line’ verticals
hang at right angles to it (Ordnance Survey, 1999, p7). Without
the effect of wind, currents and tide the Geoid would be close to
global sea level.
Hofton et al (2000) demonstrated that airborne laser altimetry
was able to determine orthometric heights over the Long Valley
caldera in California to between 3 and 10 cm. The aircraft used
was equipped with dual frequency DGPS receivers in order to
calculate trajectory relative to a fixed ground station. Aircraft
attitude was determined from an inertial navigation system
(INS). Positional data from these navigation systems were
combined with laser altimetry readings in order to obtain the
location and mean elevation of each measurement ‘footprint’ of
the system. The resulting ellipsoidal heights in the WGS84
datum were converted to orthometric heights using the
GEOID96 model. Over-flights of a lake in the test area indicated
that orthometric heights given by the system matched the
expected local geoid profile of the water surface to within 3cm.
Hofton et al (2000) state that such high accuracy geodetic
monitoring techniques represent a valuable tool for detecting
topographic uplift in resurgent calderas.
Conclusion
From the specific examples given it can be shown that accurate
geolocation is essential for safe navigation, the successful
solution of geoscientific problems, and the early identification of
natural geological hazards. In addition, accurate geolocation is
needed for any discipline that needs to known the absolute or
relative position of any object with respect to the earth. By
‘accurate’ we mean of a sufficient and stated accuracy for the
purpose required. Thus all geolocations should include a
statement of their precision and accuracy, as part of their meta-
data (Heywood, et al, 1999, p178).
References:
Burrough, P. A., and McDonnell, R. A., 2000, Principles of
Geographical Information Systems. Oxford University Press,
p333.
Ganas, A., Papadopoulos, G., and Pavlides, S. B., The 7
September 1999 Athens 5.9 Ms earthquake: remote sensing and
digital elevation model inputs towards identifying the seismic
fault. Int. J. Remote Sensing,2001, vol. 22, no. 1, pp191-196.
Heywood, I., Cornelius, S., and Carver, S., 1999, An
Introduction to Geographical Information Systems. Longman,
Harlow, p279.
Hofton, M. A., Blair, J. B., Minster, J. B., Ridgeway, J. R.,
Williams, N. P., Bufton, J. L., and Rabine D. L., An airborne
scanning laser altimetry survey of Long Valley, California. Int.
J. Remote Sensing,2000, vol. 21, no. 12, pp2413-2437.
Jones, A., 1999, Where in the World are We? (Version 1.7).
Department for Environment, Heritage and Aboriginal Affairs,
Adelaide, South Australia, p27.
Kellaway, G. P., 1957, Map Projections, Methuen & Co Ltd,
London, p
Logsdon, T., 1995, Understanding the Navstar GPS, GIS, and
IVHS (Second Edition).Van Nostrand Reinhold, p329.
Ordnance Survey, 2000, Information paper 1/2000, Coordinate
positioning, Ordnance Survey policy and strategy. Ordnance
Survey, p7.
Ordnance Survey, 1999, A guide to coordinate systems in Great
Britain. Ordnance Survey, p44.
PG STUDENT MATRIC. NO. 0197746
M.Sc. GIS, Geomatics Essay 1500
words