Citation: Ayoub, Phillip M. and David Paternotte. 2014 Introduction. In Phillip M. Ayoub and
David Paternotte (eds.) LGBT Activism and the Making of Europe: A Rainbow Europe?
Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 1-25.
Contents
Shared online by Palgrave: http://www.palgrave.com/resources/sample-
chapters/9781137391759_sample.pdf
Acknowledgments viii
Notes on Contributors x
1 Introduction 1
Phillip M. Ayoub and David Paternotte
vi Contents
11 Conclusion 233
Phillip M. Ayoub and David Paternotte
Index 241
1
Introduction
Phillip M. Ayoub and David Paternotte
Alexei Pushkovs remarks were made in the winter of 2013, in the context
of escalating tensions between Russia and the European Union (EU),
when thousands of Ukrainians lined the streets of Kiev to protest against
their governments intensifying relationship with Russia, which threat-
ened Ukraines deeper relations with the EU. As both Ukrainian society
and state authorities weighed the tradeoffs of orienting themselves to
the East or to the West, Pushkovs warning to Ukrainians reflects the
prominent role that lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans (LGBT) rights have
come to play in geopolitical struggles across the region. His cautionary
remarks harp on the idea that an alignment with Europe not only would
result in forgoing decisive Russian economic support for Ukraine, but
would also affect Ukrainian identity: national values and morals were at
stake in the face of a rainbow-tinged European threat.
Connecting LGBT rights to the idea of Europe has become a recur-
ring theme in international politics; such rights become a contentious
element of belonging to Europe and a rhetorical vehicle used by those
offering an alternative cultural paradigm to the EU. The global relevance
of this association by those who oppose LGBT rights, and the various
reactions provoked by its policies, only strengthens the bonds that
tie this association and reinforce its perceived reality. Indeed, current
debates in Russia and Ukraine, as well as worldwide reactions to the
anti-gay propaganda law of Vladimir Putins Russia, demonstrate that
We know that there are more and more people in the world who
support our position on defending traditional values that have made
up the spiritual and moral foundation of civilization in every nation
for thousands of years: the values of traditional families, real human
life, including religious life, not just material existence but also spir-
ituality, the values of humanism and global diversity. (Putin 2013)
Introduction 3
Introduction 5
The same values are put forward when talking about the European
contribution to LGBT rights. For instance, in March 2013, the Belgian,
French, and Italian ministers of equal opportunities, Jolle Milquet,
Najat Vallaud-Belkacem and Elsa Fornero respectively, published a state-
ment in leading European newspapers to announce a European LGBT
strategy. The ministers related Europe to specific values and claimed
that these values provide the moral grounding for EU action on LGBT
rights:
As the ministers statement and the former Belgian kings speech exem-
plify, Europes normative resonance is rooted in a set of values that LGBT
activism has latched onto. This is not to say that there is consensus
around these values (Hooghe and Marks 2009). There are multiple
ideas of Europe in Europe, but one of these core ideas in contempo-
rary European politics is that the European project is associated with the
same values that are at the foundation of LGBT rights. Both those who
attack and those who support LGBT rights as a value acknowledge that
the association exists, which is exemplified in the politics we chart in
this book.
Introduction 7
Introduction 9
for LGBT people and thought that European institutions (the EU and
CoE), along with the United Nations, could be used to gain rights by
increasing pressure on reluctant states.7 This European orientation
was further confirmed in 1996, when a specific European umbrella,
ILGA-Europe, was established as the regional branch of ILGA-World
(Beger 2004; Paternotte 2013). ILGA-Europe was the result of a region-
alization process related to the globalization of LGBT activism, and
a will to improve network structures in order to take advantage of
emerging European opportunities. This trend toward the increasing
Europeanization of LGBT activism has been confirmed in recent years,
as exemplified by a diversification of European umbrella organizations,
which include groups such as European Pride Organizers Association,
the Network European LGBT Families Associations, the European Forum
of LGBT Christian Groups or RainbowRose, the European network of
socialist parties LGBT caucuses.
ILGA and ILGA-Europe have been instrumental in organizing LGBT
groups on a European scale and in articulating a stronger voice across
the continent. However, as the authors of this volume demonstrate,
they were neither the first nor the only groups to be motivated by an
idea of Europe. Despite the fact that they do not always agree about
what they mean by Europe and its usefulness for LGBT rights, numerous
movements across the region were, and continue to be, inspired by
Europe, an inspiration they have tried to realize through activism.
Their activism, which so often posits Europe as an imagined commu-
nity, has also displaced regional borders, expanding Europe and rein-
forcing its definition as a set of values and a socio-political community
linked to universal human rights, as illustrated by our opening remarks
on Ukraine.
In brief, the history of European LGBT activism offers a rare oppor-
tunity to study the self-reflexivity of a social movement through time
and to understand how it is shaped by a complex relationship between
normative commitment, institutional support, and strategic aims.
Especially for research on social movements, which was traditionally
confined within the borders of nation states, LGBTQ activism in Europe
provides a rich source of information from which we can broaden our
understanding. Beyond a study of transnational and regional networks,
this volume looks at the process of building a movement both from
above and from below. It examines the various ways in which LGBTQ
activists engage with regional politics and does not confine the study to
the hallways of Brussels.
Introduction 11
Figure 1.1 Poster for ILGAs 14th European Conference, held in Brussels in 1992
Source: Grard Edsme, gerard.edsme.over-blog.com.
Introduction 13
into the legal framework of member states (Kollman 2007, 2009; Ayoub
2013b, 2015(forthcoming)) activists involved in the CEE developed
innovative and appealing frames to deliver a coherent message on LGBT
recognition. European frames offered an opportunity to link the issue
to modernity and the responsibilities associated with being European
(Kuhar 2011; Holzhacker 2012). For EU and Council of Europe members,
these frames legitimized the LGBT issue through the constitutive effect
of shared membership in a European community. European frames have
also been used as a rationale for the mobilization of other Europeans
in various domestic realms that are not their own. Foreign visitors are
common participants at LGBT marches across the region, and they
justify their involvement in such domestic affairs by highlighting that
Europeans were protesting for shared democratic values (Ayoub 2013a).
In doing so, they link their activism to shared values, solidarity and
responsibilities as Europeans, especially in the face of state repression
and societal resistance that so often cite national values as threatened by
movements which challenge social mores (Ayoub 2014, 2010; Langlois
and Wilkinson 2014). The idea of LGBT rights as European, and thus
indirectly also Polish, Latvian, Hungarian, Slovenian, Romanian, and so
on because they are members of this shared community is evident
(Ayoub 2013a).
Introduction 15
what is considered European, where Europe is, and who has been left
out in this process at three analytical levels: claims and modes of organ-
izing, peoples and states.
First, successes of movement seem to be closely linked to a reorgani-
zation of both claims and forms of activism. Scholars have debated
issues of normalization, both in LGBT peoples everyday lives and in
activism (e.g. Warner 1999; Duggan 2003; Hekma and Duyvendak
2011), a debate that we do not intend to reopen here. Yet, it is apparent
that, as LGBT rights made progress in the region, some issues and some
forms of organizing were deliberately left out, suggesting that an idea of
rainbow Europe excludes certain forms of activism. This is true of a set of
issues ones that had inspired LGBT activism in the past and continue
to do so in other parts of the world that are increasingly more absent.
HIV/AIDS and sexual and reproductive rights are rarely engaged, despite
the central role they play at the UN level. The formulation of claims
related to sexual expression has also changed. Sexual orientation has
been turned into an abstract, legal and sometimes naturalized category
(Waites 2005), as both movement claims and institutional discourses
become focused on the three Rs articulated by the 2007 European Year
for Equal opportunities: Recognition, Respect and Rights.
This process is closely intertwined with specific forms of activism,
through which movements often transformed into NGOs have
become more institutionalized and more professionalized (Lang 2013;
Paternotte 2013). This was a striking feature of the expansion of LGBT
activism to CEE, and of the process of selective endorsement of local
groups by Western NGOs. As we have highlighted elsewhere (Ayoub and
Paternotte 2014), beyond empowering LGBT groups and endowing them
with financial resources and new mobilization frames, this process often
creates hierarchies among LGBT organizations, namely between those
who can and are willing to work transnationally and those whose work
is locally focused. The transnationalization of the issue often privileges
young activists who have spent time abroad and have language skills,
particularly English, as well as those whose claims and repertoires reso-
nate more harmoniously with the frames of Western European LGBT
organizations and potential funders.
Second, through this process, a certain idea of who qualifies as
European has been constructed. Connecting to the values defended by
the former Belgian king and the three ministers discussed earlier, the
notion of Europeanness intersects with an idea of civilization, positing
some individuals and some peoples as less civilized than others. This
not only creates cultural borders at the edges of what is considered
Introduction 17
The volume addresses the themes of the idea of Europe and LGBT rights
by focusing on the status of Europe in various forms of LGBTQ mobili-
zation across time and space, covering the critical moments and types
of movements in various geographic subregions. The chapters investi-
gate European movements homophile, lesbian and gay, queer, and
trans dating back to the 1950s, and in their different forms of radical
and institutional activism. Geographically, we explore how movements
employ the idea of rainbow Europe in Western, Southern, Central and
Eastern Europe, as well as in the European neighborhood of Central Asia.
Reflecting the kaleidoscopic nature of Europe itself and the diversity of
its use in LGBT activism, we deliberately leave the definition of Europe
open. This allows for a more complete inventory of what Europe means
to LGBT activists and how they use it.
The book is divided into three parts, each tackling different themes.
Part I tries to understand questions of meaning-making by exploring how
LGBT activists have defined Europe in different forms of mobilization.
Part II examines how actors both use and practice the idea of Europe
in their work. Finally, Part III examines the various ways in which this
activism reinforces the European identity of LGBT movements in the
region. An intriguing aspect of European politics, explored in all the
chapters, is that most forms of contemporary LGBTQ activism have
deployed some notion of Europe, in some cases long before European
integration had a social mandate.
Introduction 19
Introduction 21
Notes
Some passages of the text in this chapter have appeared in our earlier publica-
tions (Ayoub and Paternotte 2012, 2014).
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Introduction 25
Index
advanced, 1213, 1312, 194, 217 Central Asia, 1718, 5072, 171,
advocacy, 5561, 78, 173, 1758, 2345
1824, 18990 Central Europe, 85, 215
age, 304, 39, 44, 58, 82, 122, 131, Certi Diritti, 80
2008 Christian(ism), 10, 58, 129
AIDS (also HIV/AIDS), 15, 568, 149 Christian-Democracy, 1048, 199
anarchism, 159, 208 citizenship, 120, 156, 194, 198, 215
anarchist, 4, 150, 158, 200, 2039 sexual, 12, 65, 199, see also sexual
Arcigay, 80 democracy
Austria, 79, 90, 98, 122, 123, 127, class, 58, 82, 1513, 198, 216
1746 coalition, 1012, 197209
Vienna, 31, 1746, 184, 2234 colonial(ism), 197, 213
neocolonialism, 217
backward(ness), 35, 80, 857, 91, 213, postcolonial, 74, 195
219, 235 cosmopolitan(ism), 30, 35, 402, 75,
Balkans, 66, 85, 212, 21719, 12930, 234
2234 Council of Europe (CoE), 10, 1214,
Belgium, 56, 8, 15, 32, 36, 43, 46, 43, 99, 111, 121, 12833, 136,
98, 124, 136, 193 1415, 1712, 1767, 17985,
Brussels, 5, 1011, 33, 36, 53, 176 239
binary Council for Security and Cooperation
East/West, 17, 194, 207, 217, 2379, in Europe (CSCE), 21, see also
see also divide OSCE
gender, 151, 178 Croatia, 20, 98, 190, 21232
bisexual(ity), 1, 44, 567, 97, 100, 127, Split, 21232
174, 200, 203, 205, 219 Zagreb, 21232
boomerang effect, 21, 138, 176 Cultuur- en Ontspanningscentrum,
border(s) (also cross-border), 34, now Federatie van Nederlandse
710, 1516, 1820, 29, 302, 35, Verenigingen tot Integratie van
42, 51, 67, 74, 77, 81, 857, 90, Homoseksualiteit COC Nederland
100, 114, 1456, 1512, 1568, (COC), 9, 301, 368, 43, 5760,
163, 193, 234, 2379, see also 107, 209
periphery
boundary/ies, 4, 7, 14, 16, 18, 20, democracy, 18, 50, 73, 129, 133, 186,
345, 74, 83, 87, 151, 21416 214
sexual democracy, 75, 8990, see
Campaign for Homosexual Equality also sexual citizenship
(CHE), 43, 111 democratization, 524, 1024, 194
Catholicism, 8, 194, 204, 212, 217, Denmark, 2935, 38, 43, 989, 1036,
220 190, 236
Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), Copenhagen, 31, 33, 40, 14569
9, 1317, 746, 165, 184, 1945, discrimination, 56, 105, 113, 127,
208, 21216 132, 137, 203, 216, 239
241
242 Index
Index 243
heternormativity, 154, 196, 208, 214, LSVD Lesben und Schwulen Verband
218, 226 Deutschland, 1047
heterosexual, 30, 34, 39, 79, 83, 194,
202, 206, 207, 212, 238 marginalization, 556, 58, 1734, 216
Hirschfeld, Magnus, 89, 2931, margin(s), 2, 4, 19, 86, 235, 2389, see
401 also periphery
Homintern, 36 marriage, 31, 135, 228
homophile, 2949, 109, 234 same-sex marriage (SSM), 12, 16, 62,
homophobia, 6, 16, 56, 58, 74, 76, 86, 7981, 97118, 120, 136, 138, 229
202, 212, 21617, 219, 227 transsexual marriage, 124
transphobia, 56, 58, 172, 182 Maruko, case, 1267, 1389, 142
meanings, of Europe, 45, 1721, 101,
idea, of Europe, 120, 29, 42, 501, 173, 177, 193, 201, 2378
678, 74, 7881, 868, 989, 101, Mediterranean, 8392, 106
106, 109, 114, 11920, 1289, methodological nationalism, 736, 87
133, 13840, 146, 186, 193, 212, modernization, 91, 194
216, 219, 225, 2339 Modinos, Alecos, 122
ILGA-Europe, 10, 66, 87, 121, Muslim, 16, 55, 65, 73, 217, see also
128, 139, 171, 17684, 190, 215, Islam
222
International Committee for Sexual nationalism, 58, 225, 238
Equality (ICSE), 9, 2949 homonationalism, 16, 19, 7395,
International Gay and Lesbian Youth 21232, 235, 238
Organization (IGLYO), 121, 127 sexual nationalism, 1617, 19,
International Homophile World 7395, 21232
Organization (IHWO), 423 Netherlands, 8, 19, 2932, 345, 423,
International Lesbian and Gay 756, 79, 989, 1013, 10715,
Association (now International 1234, 159, 161, 193, 208, 2345
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Amsterdam, 29, 33, 36, 102, 148,
Intersex (ILGA), 911, 13, 29, 1502, 15661, 215, 236
424, 127, 131, 1334 Dutch, 9, 304, 52, 57, 64, 75, 99,
Ireland, 12, 90, 98, 102, 113, 122, 134, 10715, 133, 135, 156, 159, 209,
190 235
Iskorak, 220, 222 normative power, 502, 667, 78
Islam, 85, see also Muslim norms, 5, 13, 17, 54, 626, 789, 88,
Islamophobia, 58, 73, 150 90, 97, 99, 1005, 114, 120, 130,
Italy, 9, 18, 29, 7395, 138, 149, 157, 1338, 2346, 239
190 Norris, David, 122
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Kontra, 220, 222 (NATO), 67, 72, 85, 161
Kyrgyzstan, 18, 5072, 190, 234
Open Society Institute (OSI), 57
Labrys, 5072 Organization for Security and
legal activism, 19, 120, 137 139 Cooperation in Europe (OSCE),
lesbian, 9, 33, 57, 104, 206, 220, 222 21, 57, 59, 66, 1717, 1856
litigation, 120, 1323, 13640 orientalism, 215, 21718
lobbying, 57, 120, 133, 139 othering, 16, 867
LORI Lesbian Organization Rijeka, 219 other, 4, 16, 867, 213
244 Index
periphery, 14, 18, 829, 210, see also European, 10, 756, 79, 8790, 162,
margins 1712, 182
Poland, 2, 20, 86, 1234, 138, 190, national, 77
193211, 212 Schalk and Kopf, case, 7981,
Krakow, 195213 123, 135
Poznan, 199210 Second World War (also World War
Warsaw, 160, 20013 II), 6, 107, 120, 132, 133, 157
political activism, 134, 140, 196 social democracy, 159, 199
practice, of Europe, 4, 1819, 21, socialism, 4
14569, 234, 236, 239 solidarity, 4, 6, 14, 20, 32, 589,
pride parades, 8, 10, 12, 809, 149, 129, 1457, 1512, 1567, 161,
158, 200, 21232 193211
professionalization, 13, 15, 20, sovereignty, 779, 81, 90, 113
17192, 234, 237 Spain, 9, 90, 98, 106, 1234, 154,
Puar, Jasbir K., 16, 768, 81, 90, 215 177
Putin, Vladimir, 12 Squarcialupi, Vera, 13
Stonewall, 86, 111, 131, 135, 137,
queer, 58, 737, 82, 86, 111, 132, 140
14569, 187, 209, 21318, 225, Sweden, 32, 35, 43, 98, 106, 109, 124,
227, 236 126, 135, 157
Switzerland, 8, 29, 98, 125, 127
race, 102, 198, 216
racialization, 737, 87 transgender, 44, 645, 100, 111,
racism, 73, 77, 89, 131, 1501, 17192, 200, 237
1967 Transgender Europe (TGEU), 127, 136,
Rete Lenford, 80 17192, 237
rights Transgender Initiative Group
civil, 57, 74, 78, 79, 81, 106, 200 (TIG), 58
gay, 73, 80, 128, 201, 216, 219, 221, transnationalism, 1467
225, 227 transnational activism, 9, 18, 29,
human, 3, 5, 10, 12, 19, 21, 32, 30, 42, 133, 18596, 2078, 237
40, 44, 505, 658, 97114, 119, transnationalization, 15, 1847
1279, 13240, 178, 1816, 198, transsexual, 43, 1246, 1348
200, 208, 217, 233 Treaty of Amsterdam, 13, 24, 102
LGBT, 120, 57, 104, 113, 115, 208,
219, 2339 Ukraine, 1, 3, 10, 17, 19, 66, 154, 190,
sexual, 74, 83, 87 214
Roth, Claudia, 13, 102 United Kingdom (UK), 8, 9, 12, 19, 98,
Russia, 12, 8, 16, 19, 21, 50, 634, 70, 110, 118, 132, 193, 208, 235
856, 190, 21215 England, 34, 35, 43, 110, 113, 161
Moscow, 31, 213 London, 31, 38
Scotland, 113
same-sex union (SSU), 19, 78, 80, United Nations (UN), 10, 29, 43, 44,
97118, 121, 235 171
civil partnership, 228 United Nations Educational, Scientific
civil union, 123 and Cultural Organization
registered partnership (RP), 98, 104 (UNESCO), 31
same-sex partnership, 12, 116, 215 United States (US/USA), 3, 16, 312,
scale, 78, 175, 179, 186, 190, 205 35, 3941, 434, 156, 190
Index 245
velvet triangle, 1201, 127, 139, 143 World Health Organization (WHO),
43, 171
West, 2, 35, 217, 229 World War II (also Second World
Western Europe, 16, 412, 132, 157, War), 6, 107, 120, 132, 133,
205, 21215, 224 157