The Design of Water-Jet Propulsion Systems

for Hydrofoil Craft

By Joseph Levy ~

This paper contains a brief description of the water-jet propulsion system as applied to
hydrofoil craft, and a discussion of the salient hydrodynamic aspects of the problem of
fitting the main propulsion system to the specified thrust-versus-speed requirements. The
factors that affect the overall propulsive efficiency and the weight of the system are dis-
cussed at some length; procedures for optimization of performance at the design cruising
speed are outlined; finally, the processes by which the performance at off-deslgn con-
ditions may be evaluated are discussed and illustrated with performance curves for one
specific design.

Advantages of Water-Jet Propulsion
WATER-JET propulsion offers distinct advantages over
other systems for application botch to hull-borne and
hydrofoil craft designed for operation at high speed. It.
is particularly suitable for application to hydrofoil craft,
owing not only to their higher design speeds, but also to
the elevation of their hulls (and prime movers) above the
ocean when operating in the flying mode.
Propulsion of hydrofoil kraft by means of propellers of
any kind requires the transmission of large amounts of
power over long shaft-and-gear systems. Normal
propellers (fully wetted) are limited, by their susc.eptibil-
ity to cavitation, to speeds no greater than about 45
knots. Supercavitating propellers, suitable fox' the higher
speeds, have certain inherent disadvantages, mainly as a
result of structaral strength problems. Both types of
propellers radiate noise underwater, which is objection-
able in most military applications. Direct propulsion by
gas-jet engines results in a simple arrangement, but it. is
highly inefficient owing to the high ratio of jet speed to
ship speed. Air propellers can produce the required
thrusts, but, to do that efficiently, they have to be im-
practically large.
Water-jet propulsion overcomes all of these difficulties.
This system can have good efficiency for cruising at high
speed, and it can provide the larger thrusts required for
acceleration and take-off. Also, it eliminates the need
fox" transmission of power from the hull to below the
water level, a~d it. is considerably less noisy than pro-
pellers.
General Arrangement
All aircraft and seacraft are, in the technical sense, jet-
propelled, since thrust is developed by accelerating a
more or less well-defined jet. of fluid towards the rear.
1 Head, Hydrodynamics I)epartment, Oceanic Products l)i-
vision, Aerojet-General Corporation, Azusa, Calif.
Presented at the May 14, 1964 Meeting of t.he SoUthern Cali-
fornia Section of THE SOCIETY OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS AND ~'IARINE
~NGINEERS.
The final element of the propulsion system, i.e., the pro-
pulsor, is, in most eases, immersed in the medium through
which the vehicle is moving. The distinguishing feature
of water-jet propulsion syst,ems is t h a t the propulsor is
not immersed in the medium. Water is scooped up out
of the ocean and ducted upward. Energy is added to thai.
water by means of a pumping elemenl, and the water is
discharged in the form of a driving jet, usually above the
waterline.
f'ig. i shows a very compact arrangement of a water-jet
system for a small hydrofoil boat. In general, such a
system consists of the following elements:
Scoops
The scoop is a forward-facing opening t h a t serves the
function of ingesting water. From the instant of inges-
tion, this water is isolated from the sea until it returns to
the sea, usually some distance aft, in the form of a jet or
jets. I n the ease of hull-borne craft the scoops m a y be
flush in the bottom of the hull, or they m a y protrude a
short distance below it. In the ease of hydrofoils, the
scoops must be located a considerable distance below the
hull to insure immersion during the flying mode of
operation.
Scoop intakes m a y be of either const.ant or variable
area. Variable-area intakes make it possible to use a
large area while the vehicle is moving at low speed, when
r a m pressure is low, and a large quantity of water is
needed to provide sufl:ieient thrust for acceleration. At
high speed, when ram pressure is available for driving the
water in, a smaller scoop area is desired. The size of the
intake area is varied automatically by means of one-way
valves which are installed over some of the openings and
are actuated according to the balance between internal
and external pressures.
Ducting
The water is guided from the scoop to the p m n p
through the intake ducting. I n hull-borne craft,, this

JANUARY 1965 15
 e n e r g y to t h e w a t e r , p r e f e r a b l y in t h e form of k i n e t i c
4
energy. D e p e n d i n g on t h e size of the craft a n d t h e design
speed, t h e p u m p s m a y be of t h e axial, mixed-flow~ or cen-
t r i f u g a l t y p e , a n d either single-stage or m u l t i s t a g e .
LEGEND

I- SCOOP INTAKE
A n i n d u c e r - p u m p stage, of t h e axial-flow t y p e , m a y be
2-DUCTING r e q u i r e d (for s u p p r e s s i o n of c a v i t a t i o n ) in those cases
3-PUMP
4 ~NOUCER where t h e m a i n p u m p is of t h e mixed-flow or radiM-flow
5-PRIME MOVER
G-NOZZLE
t y p e , Fig. 1.

Nozzles
T h e nozzles m a y be i n c o r p o r a t e d into t h e p u m p i n g
e l e m e n t itself, as shown in Fig. 1, or t h e y m a y be s e p a r a t e
from t h e p u m p . T h e i r f u n c t i o n is to c o n v e r t t h e p r e s s u r e
e n e r g y of t h e flowing w a t e r into kinetic e n e r g y efficiently
a n d to form clean jets d i s c h a r g i n g r e a r w a r d .

Auxiliary Power
In addition to the main propulsion system just de-
scribed, h y d r o f o i l craft are u s u a l l y p r o v i d e d w i t h a n
a u x i l i a r y p r o p u l s i o n s y s t e m for low-speed o p e r a t i o n in
the b o a t i n g mode. T h i s p o w e r p l a n t is of m u c h s m a l l e r
c a p a c i t y t h a n t h e m a i n p l a n t , i t p r o v i d e s for d o c k s i d e
m a n e u v e r i n g , reversing, a n d low-speed o p e r a t i o n in
Fig. 1 Water-jet propulsion system, basic features
harbors.

The Design Problem

d u c t i n g m a y be q u i t e short. I n t h e case of h y d r o f o i l
craft, where t h e d u c t i n g is longer, these d u c t s are u s u a l l y
i n c o r p o r a t e d into t h e s u p p o r t i n g s t r u t s , in o r d e r to re-
duce t h e n u m b e r of d r a g - p r o d u c i n g e l e m e n t s w h i c h m u s t
be t o w e d t h r o u g h t h e water. F r o m t h e t o p of t h e s t r u t
t h e w a t e r is d u c t e d to t h e p u m p i n t a k e . This p a r t of the
d u e t i n g m a y be either simple, or b r a n c h e d , d e p e n d i n g on
t h e n u m b e r of s t r u t - d u c t s a n d t h e n u m b e r of p u m p s used
in a p a r t i c u l a r installation.
D i s c h a r g e d u c t i n g is p r e s e n t in t h e case where n o r m a l
p u m p s are i n s t a l l e d in t h e hull, a n d its f u n c t i o n is to d u c t
t h e h i g h - e n e r g y w a t e r to t h e nozzles, which are u s u a l l y
m o u n t e d on t h e t r a n s o m .
Pumps
T h e p u m p , or p u m p s , m a y be m o u n t e d in t h e hull or
on the t r a n s o m . T h e i r f u n c t i o n is to a d d m e c h a n i c a l
Fig. 2 shows a t y p i c a l curve of t h r u s t required, as a
f u n c t i o n of speed, for b o t h t h e h u l l - b o r n e (or b o a t i n g )
m o d e a n d t h e foil-borne (or flying) m o d e of o p e r a t i o n of
a h y d r o f o i l ship. Take-off speed is r o u g h l y one half of
cruising speed, b u t t h e t h r u s t r e q u i r e d a t take-off is
u s u a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n cruising t h r u s t . T h e resistance
decreases a b r u p t l y a t take-off, as t h e hull a n d t h e
u p p e r p o r t i o n s of t h e s t r u t s are lifted o u t of t h e water.
T h e m a j o r p o r t i o n of t h e h o r s e p o w e r - h o u r s (and fuel)
c o n s u m e d d u r i n g t h e life of t h e craft will, as a rule, be
used a t some d e s i g n a t e d cruising speed in t h e flying
mode. Therefore, this cruising speed s h o u l d be t a k e n as
t h e design point, a n d t h e p r o p u l s i o n s y s t e m should b e
fitted carefully to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a t this point. T h e
m a j o r considerations here are p r o p u l s i v e efficiency, over-
all weight of p r o p u l s i o n s y s t e m plus fuel, a n d e n d u r a n c e .
T h e s y s t e m selected for p e r f o r m a n c e a t t h e design

,Nomenclature,
Aj = total cross-sectional area of jets, sq ft L = lift of foil system, lb
C = duct head-loss constant, defined by equation (13a), see2/ft 5 N = rotative speed of pump, rpm
D = drag of foil system, lb Ns = specific speed of pmnp, defined by equation (25)
Ey = ideal jet efficiency, dimensionless n = number of pmnping units, dimensionless
Ep = propulsive efficiency (THP/SHP), dimensionless Pi = power input, ft-lb/see
e = pump efficiency, diinensionless Pc = power output, ft-lb/sec
g = acceleration of gravity, ft/see 2 Q = flow rate, cfs
HD = head h)ss in ducting and nozzles, ft S = suction specific speed of pump, defined by equations (26)
Hu = equivalent head loss in pump, ft and (26a)
Hc = totalinternal head loss, ft T = horizontal component of jet thrust, lb
Hp = pumping head, ft Tv = vertical component of jet thrust, lb
H.~ = net positive suction head, ft V = speed of advance of ship, fps
KD duct-loss coefficient, defined by equation (10), dimension- Vy = jet velocity relative to ship, fps
=
AV = velocity increment, (Vj cos a -- V), fps
less W = displacement, lb
KL = total internal head loss, defined by equation (5), dimen- X = (1/AV) 2, see2/sq ft
sionless ~ = jet depression angle, deg
k = velocity ratio, A V / V , diinensionless p = mass density of water, slugs/cu ft

16 MARINE TECHNOLOGY
 I-

tI
c3
uJ

O
w

e:y
SPEED
Fig. 2 Typical thrust-speed relations

point nmst then be examined to insure that it is capable of
producing the thrust required at take-off, and that it will
endure safely the number of take-off cycles estirnated to
be required between overhauls. Between zero speed and
take-off speed the propulsion system must provide a
margin of thrust, above that required for steady opera-
tion at each speed, in order to enable the ship to ac-
celerate to take-off speed in an acceptably short time.
The important considerations here are the m a x h n u m
power rating of prime movers and the cavitation limits
of the entire hydraulic system.
Theoretical Aspects
The following sections deal with some of the theoretical
considerations that enter into the evaluation of propul-
sive efficiency, et~ciency optimizalion, and the several
types of energy losses which affect the efficiency.
Efficiency of an Ideal Jet System
The idealized case of' a jet-propulsion system is one in
which fluid friv'tion losses are negleeted, and the p u m p is
assumed to have an efficiency of 100 percent. If the jet.
axis is horizontal and its elevation above the water surface
is negligible, then the efficiency of the jet as a thrust-
producing device can be calculated simply, as will be
described.
A vessel moving with a velocity of advance, V, inducts
a volume of fluid, Q, pet' unit time and imparts to it a
velocity increment, AV. The mass density of ~he fluid is
p. The thrust developed is equal to the time rate of
change of mon~entum of the ,let fluid:
AV
where 1~: = velocity ratio = AV/V.
The work done per unit time by ~he thrust, or the
power output, is
Po = TV = ,QVaV = .qg~lc (z)
The power input, or the work done by the ideal p u m p
per unit time, is equal to the increase in kinetic energy of
the fluid, or
P, = ~0[(t7 + :,l,') ~ - v ~]
- pQU2[(1 -f-/c) 2 - 1] (3)
= }p(-2w(ic ~ + 2I~:)
The ideal jet efficiency is, therefore
Po 2
Ej- p~- 2 h (4)
The ideal jet efi%iency is thus seen to in,prove mono-
tonically as the velocity ratio, /c, is diminished. How-
ever, to produce a given thrust, the flow rate, Q, nmst in-
crease as /c decreases. These relationships, for an as-
sumed thrust of 300,000 lb al 80 knots, are shown in
Fig. 3.
Efficiency of a Real Jet System
The optimization of' an actual propulsion system, i.e.,
where il~ternal losses are not negligible, is treated in a
paper by C. A. Gongwer. 2 In this case, the propulsive
efficiency does not increase continuously with the decreas-
ing velocity ratio, Ic. The efficiency is a niaximum for
some value of Ic which depends on the magnitude of the
internal losses and drops off to either side of this value,
as shown ]n the following. The treatment followed here
is similar to that of Gongwer, although the notation and
terminology are somewhat different.
All internal losses (intake, duct, nozzle, and pun,p)
2C. A. Gongwer, "Tile Influence of Duct Losses on Jet Propul-
sion I)ew(e.~, Jet Prop~[sion, November-December, voL 24, /054.

JANUARY 1965 17
 1.8
,/
1.6------

i . . . . .

1.2

~ YJ
I

/
C
// I
~--------.__ FLO__.___~WRATE C F S x

I I
10 4

.2 4 6 .8 I.O 1.2 1.4 1.6 t.8 2.0

VELOCITY R A T I O b,V/v

Fig. 3 Total flow rate, ideal jet efficiency, and ideal p u m p i n g head for 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 lb
thrust at 80 knots

can be lumped into a single head-loss coefficient based on dE~

jet velocity, such that
V2 2[(1 q- ]c)2(1 q- Kz,) -- 1] -- 2k[2(1 q- 1c)(1 q- K L ) ]
HL = KL Vj2 -- KL (1 + /c) 2 (5)
2g 2g [(1 + z~)~(1 + K~) - IF-
The jet velocity, rather than the advance velocity, is =0
chosen because, with any fixed physicM arrangement of which yields, for the optimum velocity ratio,
pumps, ducting, and nozzle, the losses will depend
mainly, although no~ entirely, on the through-flow kop~ = ( i KL ~'/2
velocity, and not directly on speed of advance. -7 ~/ (s)
The thrust and the power output are the same as iu Since the loss coefficient, KL, is always a positive num-
the ideal case, as given in equations (1) and (2), respec- ber, it can be seen frorn equation (8) that. the opthnmn
tively. The power input, however, is increased by the efficiency must always occur at a velociw ratio smaller
amount of the internal losses, and can be expressed as than unity. Substitution of the value of /c.... into equa-
tion (7) results in
= ~-pQV~[(1 + k)~(1 + K~) - 1] (6)

The overall propulsive effciency is the ratio of thrust

horsepower to shaft horsepower, or power output to Propulsive efficiency is plotted versus velocity ratio for
power input a number of values of the loss coefficient, KL, in Fig. 4.
Pc 21c The straight line which forms the locus of optima is
G - p~ - (1 + k ) ~ ( 1 + KD - 1 (7) shown as a dashed line. An examination of Fig. 2
brings out the following points which are worthy of note:
To determine the velocity ratio at which the efficiency (a) The attainable efficiency drops off rather rapidly
is a maximum for any given loss coefficient, we dif- as the loss coefficient increases. Therefore, design of a
ferentiate equation (7), set the differential equal to zero, propulsion system must be aimed at minimizing all in-
and solve for k: ternal losses.

18 MARINE TECHNOLOGY
 - KL--.

>_~ .8 i'
02
,05 /
z .04 /
aJ _ .05 .

u_
u_
u3

uJ
>

O
CC .4-- ),2
[k

LO \
\
I i , \
I J ! ,
2 .3 .4 ,5 .6 .7 .8 .9 t.o
VELOCITY RATIO &V/ffv (=~4)

Fig. 4 Propulsive efficiency versus A V / V

0 ,2 4 .6 .8 1.0 1,2
CAPACITY RATIO

Fig. 5 Head relationships for a water-jet propulsion system

(b) For any value of K c which may occur in practice,
e.g., of the order of 0.10, the efi%iency curve is rather
flat to the right, of the line of optima. I t may, in m a n y y 2
eases, be advisable to design for velocity ratios greater H, = CQ 2 - (13)
than/c ..... in order to gala substantial weight reduction or
other practical advantage at the cost of a relatively small The coefficient C is independent of jet velocity. I t is
loss in propu]sive efficiency. constant for a given duet when combined with nozzles of
different areas, provided the nozzle loss coefficients are
Total Head and its Components the same. The relationship between C and KD, for the
In the calculation of pumping head required for a duet with a particular nozzle (or set of nozzles) is
particular propulsion application, the head loss in the
1 +KD
water ducts and nozzle, but not t h a t within the pump, C - (13a)
2gA j 2
nmst be included. For this purpose, a duct-loss co-
efiqcient, Ko, is used instead of the overall loss coefficient, Equation (13) m a y then be used to derive, for any
KL. The head loss in ducts and nozzles m a y be ex- particular speed, V, of the vessel, the corresponding sys-
pressed as tem H-Q characteristic. This is the curve of total head
plotted agMnst capacity, as shown in Fig. 5. Also shown
Vj 2 KD
H. = - (V + AV) (10) here is the head versus capacity characteristic for a typi-
2g 2g cal p u m p at a given speed of rotation. The intersection
The pumping head, Hp, is the sum of the useful head, of the two curves gives the operating point for the particu-
the jet-loss head, and the duct-loss head: lar coiubination of vessel speed and p u m p rpm selected.
The various component heads are labeled to show the
VA V AV2 V9
H, - + + KD - - - (11) basic relationships expressed by equations (11) and (12).
g 2g-
9 29 I t will be noted t h a t the total head on the system is the
By substituting V5 V in place of AV in equation
- - sum of pump head and the ram head due to velocity of
(11), an expression for pumping head in terms of V and advance. For V = 0, the vertex of the system charac-
Vj results : teristic parabola would be at the origin. For positive
values of V, the vertex is displaced below the origin by
1
H,, = 2~, [(1 + K . ) V ? -- 172] (12) the amount of the r a m head. The p u m p head is reduced
by the duct loss, KDVj2/2g, and the jet loss, AV~/2g,
Since, for a given configuration, Q is proportioaal to V5 leaving V A V / g as the useful output or propulsive head.

JANUARY 1965 19
 0.6
I

i i I I Ko
e- PUMP EFFICIENCY ! e-0.7 i .012
I KD" DUCT LOSS COEFFICIENT
0 . 5 - - m / ~ .OlO - -

/ ~ .os

I
/ / /
.... / / / / I .o.
0.4
-J .02

0
Z
la.J
5
Lt.
Ls.
0.3
0
u)
o')
o
KD
.012

0.2 .OiO _ _

,08
.06
.04
.02

I i
C
0 ,2 .4 .G .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 "1.'6
VELOCITY RATIO ~ = A V
V

Fig. 6 T o t a l l o s s coefficients a n d c o m p o n e n t s

The relative jet head, VjS/2g, is the head relative to the
vessel. It is equal, to the static head which would be re-
quired to produce a jet of velocity Vj, and is the same
regardless of motion of the vessel. The relative jet head
is reduced by the amount of the ram head and the jet-
loss head to obtain the net propulsive head, I/AV/g.
This loss, however, does depend on velocity ratio and on
pump efficiency. It is of interest, therefore, to examine
the relation behveen these two types of losses, and the
contribution of each to the total loss.
The head developed by the pump, as expressed in
equation (11), may also be written as

H~ = VJ2
2 g [l
_ q- KD (1 + 1 ]/~)~ (14)
To t a l I n t e r n a l Loss a n d its C o m p o n e n t s
The head)oss, HL, defined by equation (5), is the total The pump head loss may be expressed as a function of
internal hydraulic loss. It consists of the sum of losses ac- the pumping head and pump efficiency, e, as
COlnpanying the internal flow through scoops, ducts, el- 1-e V~[ 1 ll-e
bows, turning vanes, pumps and nozzles. All these losses, Ht,, = Hz) -- 1 @ KD
except those occurring within the pmnp, may be lumped e 2g (1 q- /:) 2 e
together and represented by a single coefficient, K . , as 05)
defined by equation (10). For a fixed configuration of these The total head loss is the stun of pump loss and duct
duct elements, Ko is independent of velocity ratio and lOSS, 01"
of pump efficiency. The losses occurring in the pump
HL = H~ q- Hz~ (16)
may be viewed as a head loss, H~., which may be repre-
sented by a coefficient, K~, as shown subsequently. Defining the pump-toss coefficient by

20 MARINE TECHNOLOGY

Hu = Ku V~2
2g
and utilizing the duct-loss coefficient, defined by equa-
tion (10) and the total loss coefficient of equation (5),
we get
[ 1 3 1 - - e-}-KJ)
Kc = 1 -}- Ks) (1 -~ /c)2 - e -
or
1 -I 1 - e K~
1Q = 1 J
(1 q- It) ~ e q- e
Fig. 6 shows the total loss coefficient, Kc plotted
against velocity ratio, /c (or zXV/V), for lwo values of
the pump efficiency, e, and for several values of the duct-
loss coefficient, KD.
Design-Point Considerations
General Considerations
The following sections deal, in a qualitative way, with
the technical considerations involved in the selection of
the operating eondRions of the propulsion system as well
as selection of the various components of the system for'
the best fit to the requirements of the design point, or
cruising speed in the flying mode.
The basic problem here is the design of a system which
will give the maxinmm possible efficiency with the mini-
nmm possible effective weight. The system weight in-
eludes that of the prime movers and associated auxiliaries,
gears, pumps, pump-inlet arid outlet, ducting, nozzles,
and entrained water above the mean water level; effee-
live weight is the total weight, of the system less any
vertical component of the jet thrust, (jet lift) which may
be utilized.
it, becomes immediately apparent that a conflict exists
between the requirement of maximum efficiency and that
of mhfimum weight. For example, maxhnum efficiency
requires minimum friction loss, which is assured by duct-
ing of large cross-sectional area so as to reduce flow
velocilies, but this increases the weight of both ducting
and entrained water. The approach to a compromise
solution may be found by expressing the basic problem
in a different way; that is, to find the minimm-n effective
weight of ~he total system which will produce the re-
quh'ed performance. Here the total system includes the
weight of fuel in addition to the various items just men-
lioned. The required performance includes the given
quantitative paramelers of speed, thrust, power and, in
addition, an assumed mission distance. The qualitative
parameters of reliabilily, maxhnum component life, and
so on, must also be considered,
The importance of mission distance among the re-
quired performance data is seen by examining the limit-
ing conditions. For a very long mission distance, the
weight of machinery will be small eompared with the
weight of fuel, so that the overall weight will be mini-
JANUARY 1965
mized when the propulsive efficiency is maximum. For
(17) a very short distance, the machinery weight will be large
compared wilh the weight of fuel, so that overall weight
is minimized by having a minimum weight of machinery.
Generally, the mission distance is intermediate, so that
here again a compromise must be sought, between mini-
(lea) mum weight and maximum efficiency.
It may be assumed that the following information is
available from the preliminary design of the ship:
(a) Hull configuralion.
(b) Foil and strut configuration.
(18b)
(c) Total allowable weight for propulsion system and
fuel.
(d) Thrust versus speed requirements.
(e) Design-point cruising speed.
(f) Design mission distance.
(g) Allowable time or distance to take-off from some
specified initial speed ii~.the boating mode.
The Optimum System
The optimum propulsion system may here be defined
as that system which will produce the specified lhrust at
design speed, and will enable the ship to travel the
specified desiga mission distance, wRh minimum *eta]
weight of the system and the necessary fuel. This deft-
hilton, based on a specified design point, is subject to the
qualifying provision thai. the system thus determined
give satisfactory performance at lower speeds, especially
in the take-off zone. If the design speed is less than
maximum speed, the system must be capable also of'
providing the thrust required at maximum speed.
Process of Optimization
The task of optimizing a water-jet propulsion system
is one of great complexity, because of the interde-
pendence of the large number of' variable factors which
must be considered. Among the more important vari-
ables are the following:
Velocity ratio, A V / V .
Size and number of prime movers.
Size and number of pumps.
Pump revolutions per minute.
Specific speeds of pump and inducer.
Suction specific speeds of pump and inducer.
Size of water ducts.
Size, shape, and drag characteristics of struIs.
Drag characteristics of foils.
Depression angle of jet nozzles,
Weight of pump and associated equipment.
Weight of fuel.
Weight of water entrained in ducts.
Theoretically, it should be possible to establish func-
tionM relationships and trade-off factors among all these
variables. A rational procedure for optimization of the
entire system would then tie possible, although it would
require a very complicated computer program. In the
absence of such a procedure, the optimization must be
21
carried out by an iteration process in which successive
approximations tend to converge toward the optimum.
Judicious selection of values for individual variables will
greatly reduce the amount of labor required.
Practical limitations imposed by the state of present-
day lec)mo[.~%ical developments may drastically restrict
the range of selections posstible with respect to some of
these variables. For instance, gas turbines are the only
prime movers available in large enough unils, and with
sufticiemly high power-to-weight ratios, for appliealimx
to high-speed hydrofoil ships. Furthermore, among all
the turbines being manufactured today, only a few have
beet~ qualified for service at. sea. Thus, the choice of
prime movers may be quickly reduced to one or two
available l urbines. This, in turn, may immediately
establish lhe number of turbines required to provide the
total power for the ship, and drastically reduce the free-
dora of choice with respect to number of pumps.
At the start of this optimization by successive ap-
proximations, several variables must be manipulated
simullaneously. By making rough approximations, and
by observing the trends as indicated by a few rapid cal-
culations, it is possible quickly to narrow down the region
within which more refined estimates and more extensive
calculations will have to be done.
Struts, Ducts and Scoops
When struts serve the dual purpose of supporting the
hull and inducting water, their design involves many fac-
tors, some Of which are not related to the requirements of
the propulsion system. The scoops, also, may serve as a
structural parb and an external fairing of the strut-foil
system, in addition to their function of ingesting water.
Even a partial treatment of the design of these elements
would be beyond the scope of this paper.
The inlernal hydraulic losses of' this system must be
kept to a minimum. Cavitation should be compldely
absent during any steady-state operating mode, and
should be avoided as much as possible even under short-
duralion, transil.ory conditions. Changes in flow velocity
in the intake dueling should be kept to a minimum.
Scoop inlets should be so formed as lo avoid flow separa-
tion and cavitation even when operating at small angles
of attack, such as during high-speed maneuvering.
Seoop-inld sizes should be such that inflow veloeity is
lower than the speed of advance at the design point, to
take advantage of external diffusion, which is nearly
free of energy loss.
The average through-flow velocity in the intake dueling
should also be appreciably lower than the design speed of
the ship. This low velocity reduces the internal losses
and aids in suppressing cavitation in the duets and at the
pump intakes.
As a first approximation, the internal flow veloeity
may be taken as one half the ship's design speed. A
rough estimate of internal losses may then be made,
and expressed iu terms of the loss coefficient C of equa-
tion (13), by the usual rnethods of hydraulics. This co-
efficient is the> used for estimating the total internal
22
losses and the overall propulsive efficiency, as indicated
in the following section. Duct configurations and flow
velocities may then be changed and calculations may be
refined, as successive approximations are made, until a
satisfactory syst.em is achieved.
Velocity Ratio
The selection of the velocity ralio, A V / V , to produce
lhe specified thrust at design speed, involves successive
approximations, some of whieh will require estimation of
duct size, duct loss, and pump efficiency.
As a first approximation, one may arbitrarily select a
total loss coefficient K c ; e.g., 0.10. Equation (8) or Fig.
4, may t.hen be used to find the optimmn velocity ratio
corresponding to the assumed value of K c ; e.g., ko~,~ =
0.302 fox' KL = 0.10. The total flow rate, Q, that will
produce the required thrust at design speed, is deler-
mined from equation (1). The total cross-sectional area
of intake duels may now be calculated by assuming a
duct-flow velocity, perhaps one half of the ship's design
speed. This cross-sectional area should now be com-
pared with the available area within the struts, as se-
lected in the preliminary design. If the cross-sectional
area determined from the foregoing assumptions is
larger than that available in the struts, then a value of
A V / V larger than /*:o~,,omust be assumed for the next
approximation, and the foregoing caleulalions must be
repeated. A few rapid tries will bring the duet sizes
down to reasonable proportions.
The next step, after achieving reasonably sized ducts,
would be to determine the propulsive efficiency that re-
sults from the latest assumed values of velocity ratio and
total loss coefficient, using either equation (7) or Fig. 4.
If this efficiency is acceptable, then the assumed value of
total loss coefficient, KL, may be checked by calculating
the duct-loss coefficient KD, and assuming or otherwise
determining a pump efficiency, e. With KD and e
known, KL may be calculated from equation (18), and
the calculated value compared with the assumed value.
Propulsion-system considerations may indicate that
the struts should be of larger size than that delermined
from other considerations. If that should be the case,
then the external drag of the larger struts should be
estimated, and a new curve of thrust required versus
speed should be established.
As acceptable values of velocity ratio and propulsive
efficiency for the design point are approached, and before
these calculations are carried to final refinement, it is ad-
visable to make estimates of total propulsion-system
weight and of system performance at off-design condi-
tions.
Nozzle-Depression Angle
B y directing the jet. discharge downward at, a small
angle with the horizontal, a significant lift augmentation
may be realized at the cost of a small reduction in for-
ward thrust,. This added lift reduces the lift, required
from tile foil, permitting the use of a foil of smaller size,
which has a proportionately lower drag.
MARINE TECHNOLOGY
 and, solving for
%
~o,,~ = c o t - ~ ( L / D ) (24)
V AV
T Pumps
The selection of' pumping machinery is an important
vs part of the design of a water-jet propulsion system, and it
requires a thorough knowledge of the general character-
isties of these machines. Even a sketchy discussion of
C(,~ A N G L E OF J E T [ N O Z Z L E DEPRESSION
this subject would be beyond the scope of this paper.
V = SPEED OK VESSEL Nevertheless, a few genera[ remarks on this topic may
V~ = V E L O C I T Y OF J E T D I S C H A R G E ~ R E L A T I V E be in order.
V.~v-VERTICAL COMPONENT OF J E T V E L O C I T Y
Only pumps of the general class called turbomachinery
~ o~. A B S O L U T E JET VELOCITY
need be considered here. These are subdivided into three
AV=HORIZONTA.L COMPONENT OF
AB5OLUTE JEt VE'OC,T'r types called (a) axiM-flow (or propeller), (b) mLxed-flow,
: JET THRUSt
=/~ov,~
aud (c) radial-flow (or centrifugM) pumps. These types
Tr = RAM THRUbT = /oQV
are suitable, in the order listed, for (a) low-head, (b)
Tn = N E T T H R U S T = / ~ Q V j ( I
T = HORIZONTAL 'PROPULSIVE THRUST =/Q,~V intermediate-head, and (c) high-head applications. These
Tv=VERTICAL THIRUST = /oQVi 51NO(. pmnps are also characterized by a type parameter, in the
form of a number called specific speed. Again, in the
foregoing order, the three types correspond to specific
Fig. 7 Velocity and thrust vectors for a water-jet p r o p u l s i o n speeds that have (a) large, (b) intermediate, and (c)
system
small numerical values. Each of the three types covers
a range of specific speeds, with some overlap at the
borders. Maximum et~ciency for each of the three types
The optimum angle of nozzle depression, for a hydro- is attMnable over a narrow spread of specific speeds
foil system having a given lift-to-drag ratio at cruising within its range, and the efbciency drops off toward both
speed, is that angle at which the required thrust will be ends of this range (see, for insiance, Daugheriy and
produced with a mininmm energy input to the jet,. IngersolP).
This angle, as shown subsequently, is the inverse co- Two numerical scales are in use for specific speed, one
tangent of the Eft-to-drag ratio. The relationships based on capacity in terms of cfs and the other on ca-
among the various velocity vectors and thrust: vectors pacity in gpm. Only the latter (and most commonly
are shown in Fig. 7. used) scale wilI be defined here.
The horizontM thrust 7' that is required when part~ of
the weight is balanced by the vertical component, T~, of Nq
the thrust is lv~ = H;~5 (25)

D The specific speed, N , for any pump at a given rotaiive

T = (I~- T~,)~ (19) speed, N (in rpm), is calculated by taking the capacity
in gpm and the head, H , (in feet), at the best-efficiency-
With the jet axis depressed by the angle a the hori- point (BEP) of that pmnp.
zontal and verticM components of the jet thrust are, Geometrically-similar pumps of any size, operating at
respectively any relative speed, are characterized by a nearly con-
T = ~O(Vj cos ~ - V) (20) stant value of N~ (the minor variations are due to effects
and of viscosity).
A consideration of the structure and meaning of equa-
Tv = oQVj sin a (21) tion (24) provides guidelines for a number of decisions
Substituting for T~ in equation (19) we get with respect to selection of pumping machinery for
water-jet propulsion. Some of these are:
D (a) The head required for a given applieatior, will
T = ( W -- pQVj sin a) )L (22)
usually determine the type of pump. High-speed ships
Equating the thrusts from equations (20) and (22), and require high-head pumps, i.e., of the centrifugal type, if
solving for Vj, yields they are to be sitigle stage.
(b) The specific speed of a pump of any one of the
Vj = (pQV + W D / L ) ( c o s c~ 4- D sin a/L) -~ (23) three types should be within the narrow spread where
Minimum energy input to the jet occurs when jet good e~ciency is obtainable with that type. Thus, with
velocity is a mininmm. Differentiating equation (23) q and H~, known, and N~ approximately known, the
and equating the derivative to zero, we get speed of rotation N is approximately determined.
dVj (pQV 4- W D / L ) ( - - s i n a 4- D cos a/L)
a It. L.' I)~mgher~y ~md A. C. Ingersoll, t,2~dd Mechanic,s, Mc-
d~ - (cos ~ + D sin c~/L) ~ = 0 Gr,'~w-Hill Book Company, Iac., New York, N. Y., 1954.

JANUARY 1965 23

1.8
1.6
1.4
i.2
I.O
0.8
o
c~ 0 . 6
<
2[
04
0.2
0 k'
04
06
I [
Fig. 8 Predicted o p e r a t i n g characteristics for H y d r o c k e t
p r o p u l s i o n system; A V / V ~ 0.850 at 80 k n o t s
(c) Where several pumps iu parallel are used, instead
of a single pmnp, the head developed by each p m n p is
the same as that required from a single pinup. There-
fore, these several pmnps would be of the same type as the
single pun@, and (for m a x i m m n efficiency) would have
the same specific speed. However, each of the ,>pumps
handles only part (q/r~) of the total through-flow.
Therefore, its speed of rotation would be higher than
that of a single pump. The several pumps can have a
lower total weight than the sitigle p u m p they replace,
but the complex dueling they require m a y nullify this
advantage.
(d) Several p u m p s in series, or a multistage pump,
m a y be considered as an alternative to one single-stage
pump. In this case, the capacity, q, of each p m n p (or
stage) is the same as l h a t of the single-stage pmnp; the
head across each stage is less than that across the single-
stage pump. It, can be said, by the same type of" reason-
ing as used in the foregoing, thai lhis assembly will
operate at lower rpm, and weigh more, than the single-
stage pump.
Another important aspect of p u m p selection is suscep-
tibility to cavitation. The immediate undesirable effects
24
of cavitation are decreased eft%ieney and a sharp rise m
noise output.. Prolonged operation with cavitation
(sometimes only hours) m a y result in destructive damage
to the pmnp. The cavitation tendency is related to
specific speed and to the pressure in the water arriving
at the suction flange of the pump. This relation is ex-
pressed in a cavitation parameter called "suction specific
speed," ~S, developed by Wislicenus, Watson, and
Karassik, 4 and written
Nq*/~
S - H,/% (26)
or
Hp ) V I (26a)
wtlere H,~, is the net positive suction tlead (NPSH)
measured in feet of water above vapor pressure. The
nun, erieal value of S associated with a given p u m p de-
termines the minimum N P S H required by that pump,
when operaling at N rpm and delivering q gpm of water,
if cavitation is to be avoided.
In most hydrofoil applications, the r a m pressure avail-
able at cruising speed will be suNeient to suppress
cavitation. However, to avoid cavitation during ac-
celeration and take-off, it m a y be necessary to add an
inducer p u m p ahead of the main pump. This is a low-
head propeller pump, which requires a lower N PSI{ than
the high-head main pump. The arrangement shown in
Fig. 1 includes an inducer stage.
The importance of the weight of pumps in hydrofoil
applications cannot be overemphasized. In nearly all
cases, it will be found that normal pumps are too heavy,
although the p u m p industry is producing some highly
efficient pmnps. The heaviness of norlnal pumps is due
to two legRimate objectives that guided the evolution of
pmnps until now. These are:
(a) Nearly all pumps are used in land-based, civil-
engineering applications, where weight is of little im-
portance, and where "ruggedness" is considered a virtue.
(b) The main function of pumps has always been to
add energy 1o the pmnped fluid in the form of pressure
energy, rather than kinetic energy.
As a result of the latter requirement, the major porlion
of the bulk and weight of pmnps is devoted to the con-
version of kinetic energy to pressure. In propulsion ap-
plications, however, the desired outpui is kinelie energy
(and not pressure), since water is taken from the surface
of the oceau at aimospheric pressure and returned at the
same pressure.
Therefore, all (excepi the crudest) applications to hy-
drofoil propulsion will require a redesign of pumps. As a
very mininuun, %is will involve structural design, and
selection of lighter materials. However, the basic con-
figuration of high-head pumps should be reconsidered in
* G. F. Wislicenus, R. M. Watson, and [. J. Karassik, "Cavita-
tion Charaeteristies of Centrifugal Pumps l)eseribed by Similarity
Conditions," Trar~s. 4 S M E , vol. 61, 1939, p. 17.
MARINE TECHNOLOGY
 SOD,ODD ]
0 } . ~
A/~o_
ooe,
I ~
~- ~ ~
- I
,oo,ooo
o
0 I0
Fig. 9 Thrust versus speed; predicted performance for Hydrocket propulsion system
view of the new requirements. The pump shown in Fig. 1
is one example of a move in that direction. I n this case,
the entire stationary easing and volute have been
diminated by incorporating the nozzles into the rotating
i :npeller.
System Performance
Calculations of system performance may be made when
the ship's thrust requirements are known, and when the
various components of the propulsion system have been
~elected. As an illustrative example, performance curves
~.re presented for a large hydrofoil ship having six propul-
sion units, each with a continuous rating of 20,000 shp
and a m a x i m u m rating (short-duration) of 29,000 shp.
Operating Characteristics
Fig. S is a plot of the operating ('.haracteristics calcu-
lated for the selected example, iu it are shown p u m p
characteristics (curves of head versus capacity, on a
"ratio" scale) for the selected pumping units at rotative
speeds of from 60 to 112 percent of rated rpm. Also
shown are the "system characteristics," curves of the
pumping head required for the selected combination of
duct and nozzle area at speeds of 0, 40, 60 and 80 knots.
The intersection of one of the p u m p characteristics with
one of the system characteristics gives the operating point
for the indicated combination of conditions. As an ex-
ample, the intersection of the 80 percent p u m p charac-
teristic with the 40-knot-system characteristic occurs at
a head ratio of 0.67 and a capacity ratio of 0.75. These
values may be converted to regular units by multiplying
by the design-point head and capacity, respectively,
yielding a pumping head of about 500 ft and a discharge
rate of 150 efs for each pump. The p u m p efficiency at:
this operating point is seen to be 85 percent.
JANUARY 1965
~~ FD
~
/>/
[ &~/ 1// ~ \ - ~-ZY" ~ t ~ I \19,700 HP
] REQUIREMENT IN
i I
~ #SSUMED THRUST I
/'[ __-- R E Q U I R E M E N T IN I
20 30 40 50 60 70 8}0
SPEED, KNOTS
Thrust Versus Speed
Curves of thrust versus speed m a y be derived from the
operating c'l~aracteristic curves of Fig. 8 by use of equa-
tion (1). As an example, the thrust curve for 80 percent
rated rpm can be derived by calculating the thrust at each
of several operating points. The jet velocity, Vj, is
directly proportional to capacity, and m a y be read from
the capacity scale. For example, at 17 = 0, both Q and
Vj are 0.70 of design-point values. This converts to
(~ = 0.70 X 1200 = 840 cfs; Vj = 0.70 X 1.85 )4 135 =
187 fps; and T = pCJAV = 214,000 lb total for six pump-
ing units. Similar calculations are made to find the
thrust for other speeds of advance at the same rpm, so
that a "thrust-produced" curve m a y be drawn, as shown
in Fig. 9. A separate thrust curve is developed in this
manner for each desired value of p u m p rpm. This
family of thrust curves, superimposed on the assumed
thrust-requirement curve, shows how much accelerating
thrusl is available at each possible operating condition
and shows, also, the steady-state operating speed. In
the example shown, the crossover poi~H, indicates a steady
speed of about 72 knots at rated rpm.
Cavitation Performance
A good index of cavitation performance is the suction
specific speed of the p u m p at the critical point of take-off.
For the present example, take-off is ~ssumed to ok:cur at
40 knots, and the suction specific speed is calculated by
use of equation (25) to be 16,000. This is considered a
conservative value for a pump equipped with an axial-
flow inducer stage. The value of 16,000 for suction
specific speed m a y be adopted as 1he operating criterion
(Continued on page/~1)
25