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LECTURE MODULE 3: Attitude Dynamics (Lectures 1-7)

As we have discussed earlier, subject of satellite technology revolves around maintaining a
satellites orientation or attitude with respect to an object of interest for various mission
specific purposes. This requires constant determination of attitude with respect to an inertial
frame of reference (which can be treated fixed, usually a distant star) and control if a
deviation in attitude is noticed and needs correction or a desired change in attitude needs to
be initiated. A rigid body in space can have complex rotations under influence of small
(external disturbances) or large inputs (deliberate ones to change the orientation). For active
control, constant prediction of satellite attitude thus becomes important.

This module deals with development of mathematical models (equations of motion)

for prediction of a satellites attitude. Some analyses for specific cases are carried out to
investigate attitude dynamics. An analysis based on mathematical models also give useful
insights into design of satellite, as we will see in the following lectures. As a passing
reference, one may visualize similarity between attitude motions of a satellite with that of a
top.

Derivation of Rigid Satellite Attitude Equations of Motion

Equations of Attitude Dynamics

z
Z 3 2

OB y

1
x
I
O Y

Figure 3.1: A rigid body.

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For development of equations of attitude dynamic of a satellite, we assume satellite to be a

rigid body as shown in Fig. 3.1. Two axes systems, x-y-z and 1-2-3 are fixed with the body at
the origin OB, which is the center-of-mass of the body. Axis system x-y-z is an arbitrary one,
while 1-2-3 is the principal axis system. X-Y-Z is an inertial frame of reference with origin
fixed at OI. The body is rotating with angular velocity with components along x-y-z given

as, [ x y z ]' and along 1-2-3 as [1 2 3 ]' .

Referring to the above Figure, angular momentum of the elemental mass m is given as,

h r C mV r C m (V C r C )

V C is the translational velocity of the center of mass of the body. Summing over the whole

body of the body:

h h r C mV r C m (V C r C )

(3.1)
r C m V C m{r C ( r C )}
(1) (2)

Term 1 is zero for the reason that we are measuring all the distance from the center of mass
of the body so that, r C
m 0 , as before. Expanding term 2 results in components of

angular momentum vector about body fixed axes as:

h x I xx I xy I xz x

h h y I yx I yy I yz y I . (3.2)

h z I zx I zy I zz z

I xx ( y 2 z 2 )m ( y 2 z 2 ) dm, I yy ( x 2 z 2 ) dm, I zz ( x 2 y 2 ) dm;

Where .
I xy I yx xydm , I xz I zx xzdm , I yz I zy yzdm

Now using the relation,

dh dh
M h (3.3)
dt I dt B

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Equations for rotational motion of the satellite can be arrived at as

M x hx 0 z y hx

M M y h y z 0 x h y (3.4)

M z hz y x 0 h z

If the body fixed x-y-z axes are aligned with the principle axes 1-2-3 of the body of the
satellite, then product of inertia terms disappear (verify!) and angular momentum vector can
be expressed as

h1 I 1 0 0 1
h 0 I2 0 2 (3.5)
2
h3 0 0 I 3 3

And

M1 h1 0 3 2 h1 I 1 1 0 3 2 I 11
M
h2 3 0 1 h2 I 2 2 3 0 1 I 2 2
2
M 3 h3 2 1 0 h3 I 3 3 2 1 0 I 3 3

I2 I3 M
1 23 1
I1 I1
I 3 I1 M
2 1 3 2 (3.6)
I2 I2
I1 I 2 M
3 21 3
I3 I3

The above equations are equations of attitude dynamics, which, when analysed, tells us about
how the angular velocities about the three principal axes change in time either under
influence of a large torque or under influence of small perturbation (for eg. an impulse)
torque. What these equations cannot still tells us is how the orientation of a satellite is
changing with respect to any fixed frame of reference of our choice. In order to know that, we
need to simultaneously solve the equations of attitude dynamics together with the equations
of attitude kinematics, which we develop in the following lectures.

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Analysis of Torque free motion of a satellite

Equations for torque free motion are obtained by setting M 1 M 2 M 3 0 in the above
equations, resulting in

I 11 ( I 3 I 2 ) 2 3 0
I 2 2 ( I 1 I 3 )1 3 0 (3.7)
I 3 3 ( I 2 I 1 ) 21 0

The above equations of motion must be analysed to describe satellites motion. Different
aspects of motion that one would be interested in are:

Stability of spacecraft in a steady operating condition is related to study of motion

around a fixed or equilibrium condition under external small disturbances. This is
done to check whether a satellite in an operating condition will return to its operating
condition if disturbed from this operating condition. If it does, then the operating
condition is stable else it is not and satellite will deviate from its operating condition
once disturbed. In the absence of any damping (energy dissipating) mechanism,
however, the resulting motion deviating from the equilibrium condition is an orbit
described by nutational and librational motion.
General torque free motion motion that a satellite can possible go under in this
condition.
Controlled motion or attitude maneuver motion when large control inputs are
applied to change the orientation of a satellite.

Methods of analysis of equations of motion can be analytic, geometric, or numeric. We will

first carry out analysis of satellites motion for simple cases.

Stability Analysis

We consider here a rigid spacecraft/satellite. Let us assume that satellite is in a

steady/equilibrium spin motion about one of its principal axes, lets say, axis 1 described by
uniform angular velocity 1 p 0 while rotational velocity about other two principal axes

2 and 3 are zero, i.e. 2 q 0; 3 r 0 [HomeWork: The equilibrium angular rates

satisfy the Eq. (7), verify!]. I 1 , I 2 , and I 3 are principal moments of inertia about axes 1, 2
and 3, respectively, assumed not equal. Now, let us consider a small change in the angular

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velocities from this equilibrium (steady) spin condition due to a small external torque acting
on the satellite, 1 p 1 ; 2 0 2 2 ; 3 0 3 3 . The terms are
assumed small and product of two small terms negligible in this exercise.

Substituting these disturbed states in the equations of (torque free) motion we obtain

I 1 ( 1 p ) ( I 2 I 3 ) 2 3

OR (3.8)

I 11 ( I 2 I 3 ) 2 3

Because the terms 2 and 3 are small, their product 3 2 is negligibly small, can be

assumed zero without loss of generality. Thus, Eq. (3.8), results in I 1 1 0 meaning

1 const . (3.9)

Other two equations can be written in terms of perturbed variables as

I 2 2 ( I 3 I 1 )( 1 p ) 3 ( I 3 I 1 ) p3

OR

I I
2 3 1 p3 (3.10)
I2

Similarly,

I 3 3 ( I 1 I 2 )( 1 p ) 2 ( I 1 I 2 ) p2

OR
I I
3 1 2 p2 (3.11)
I3

Now differentiating Eq. (3.10) and Eq. (3.11) once and using the relations in Eqs. (3.10) and
(3.11) one can arrive at

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I I I I
2 3 1 1 2 p 2 2
I 2 I 3
(3.12)
I I I I
2 1 3 1 2 p 2 2 0
I 2 I 3

And

I I I I
3 3 1 1 2 p 2 3
I 2 I 3
(3.13)
I I I I
3 1 3 1 2 p 2 3 0
I 2 I 3

General for of solutions of Eqs. (3.12) and (3.13) can be written as

i (t ) Ai e 1t Bi e 2t i 2,3 (3.14)

( I 1 I 3 )( I 1 I 2 ) ( I 1 I 3 )( I 1 I 2 )
Where 1, 2 p jp j 1
I2I3 I2I3

The motion is stable when 1 and 2 are imaginary because, in this case, j s will be

conserved (no growth or decay) and eventually settle down to oscillatory steady states due to
internal damping in the system. Of course, this analysis is too simplified for making any
comments on stability; for stability of satellite in this spinning motion (operating condition),
all j must decay and become zero in time and that is possible only when there is a

damping mechanism in place, which we will learn about later in this course. Nonetheless, the
following observations can be made from the above analysis:

( I 1 I 2 )( I 1 I 3 ) 0 implying I 1 I 2 , I 1 I 3 , which means when the satellite is

spinning about the major principal axis (axis about which the moment of inertia is
largest), the motion is stable.
( I 1 I 2 )( I 1 I 3 ) 0 implying I 1 I 2 , I 1 I 3 , which means when the satellite is

spinning about the minor principal axis (axis about which the moment of inertia is
smallest), the motion is stable.
Spin motion about an intermediate principal axis is unstable (HomeWork Exercise:
Analyze this!).

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Attitude kinematic Equations

To help yourself understand better, consider the satellite to be a cylindrical body with a
longitudinal axis very much similar to a top, for which, the axis of rotation is along the axis
about which it spins under pure spin. A schematic figure is drawn below for clarity.

Figure 3.2: A top in pure spin about its 3-axis.

Figure 3.2 shows a top under pure spin about its longitudinal axis (marked 3). The 3-axis of
the top with the origin at the center of mass of the top is parallel to the Z axis fixed at the
origin of an inertial axis system (X-Y-Z) with origin at O.

Further to the equations of attitude dynamics Eq. (3.6), attitude kinematic equations are
required to be developed to determine orientation of a satellite at any instant in time. Rotation
of a satellite about its own axes will result into time evolution of its orientation with respect
to the inertial frame of reference. A set of three angles ( ) , popularly known as Euler
angles, are used to determine orientation of a satellite. These are three successive angular
displacements which can carry out the transformation from one cartesian axes system to
another. Let us start by assuming that both body fixed frame 1-2-3 and XYZ (an inertial
frame of reference) coincide to start with. For a body of revolution such as the top, angles
are angles associated with rotations about Z and 3 axes respectively and these are
interchangeable (many books define them differently!). Another rotation that is associated

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with inclination of the 3 axis from Z axis is defined by the angle, , also known as nutation
angle in classical mechanics. Following schematic (Fig. 3.3) summarizes the statements
above.

Z
3

O Y

1, 1

Figure 3.3: (3-1-3) axis rotations of the satellite.

Corresponding to Fig. 3.3, first rotation about Z-axis with rate by angle brings the body
fixed 1-2-3 axes (initially aligned along XYZ inertial axes respectively) to coincide with new
axes 1-2-3(3). Second rotation about 1 by angle with rate brings 1-2-3 to coincide
with 1(1)-2-3. Remember that sign of rotations are preserved and follow right handed
rule for the orthogonal axes system that we are using here. A third rotation is about the 3 in

the new plane of rotation by angle with rate . Thus one arrives at current orientation
(attitude) of the body with respect to the inertial frame of reference X-Y-Z. The 3 axis of the
body now inclined at angle from the Z-axis by an angle is known as nutation angle. is

referred to as precession rate. is the rate at which the body is rotating about the tilted 3
axis. Axis O1 is known as nodal axis. Interesting observations emerge when one analyses the
equations of motion. Let us first write the attitude kinematic equations:

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1 sin sin cos 0

sin cos sin 0 (3.15)
2
3 cos 0 1

sin cos 0 1
1 sin cos sin sin 0 2 (3.16)
sin
sin cos cos cos sin 3

HomeWork Exercise 1: Look for inversion of Eq. (3.15), so that we can re-write Eq. (3.15)
as set of first order Ordinary Differential Equations as give in the form Eq. (3.16) [Ref. 2] for
the angular velocities. Work out the transformation matrices for the rotations involved above.

Analysis of Torque Free Motion of Axisymmetric Bodies

Let us assume our satellite to by an axisymmetric body with axes 1 and 2 lying in the planes
of symmetry and axis 3 running through the center of mass of the body (origin of axis
system) and orthogonal to the plane 1-2. So that we have same moments of inertia about axes
1 and 2: Lets say, I 1 I 2 I . Also, the assumption of the torque free motion sets the
condition M 1 M 2 M 3 0 . The equation of attitude dynamics (Eq. (3.6)) thus reduces to

I1 ( I 3 I )23 0 ( 3.17 )
I 2 ( I 3 I )13 0 (3.18)
I 3 3 0 (3.19)

From Eq. (3.19), immediately follows that 3 const . n . Eqs. (3.17) and (3.18) thus
reduce to

(I3 I )
1 2 n 0 ( 3.20)
I
(I I )
2 3 1n 0 ( 3.21)
I

Multiplying Eq. (3.20) by 1 , Eq. (3.21) by 2 and adding the resulting equations we obtain,

d (12 22 )
11 2 2 0 0 12 22 const k (3.22)
dt

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Further, differentiating Eq. (3.20) with time and using expression for 2 from Eq. (3.21)
results in the equation

2
(I I )
1 3 n 1 0 (3.23)
I

and similarly

2
(I I )
2 3 n 2 0 (3.24)
I

(I3 I )
Solution of above Eqns. (3.23, 3.24) are (calling n ),
I

1 ( 0) 2 ( 0)
1 ( t ) 1 ( 0) cos t sin t ; 2 ( t ) 2 ( 0) cos t sin t . (3.25)

Further, it turns out from Eqs. (3.19, 3.22) that

2 12 22 32 k n 2 const. (3.26)

Which means that in a torque free motion of an axisymmetric body, the magnitude of angular
velocity is constant, which consists of a constant resulting angular velocity vector in the 1-2
plane and a constant angular velocity about the 3-axis.

Also, since M i 0, i 1,2,3 , angular momentum h const . . As h1 I 11 , h2 I 2 2 , and

h3 I 3 3 I 3 n const . Resultant of angular momentum vector in 1-2 plane

h12 h1e1 h2 e2 I (1e1 2 e2 ) I12 const

and, thus h h1e1 h2 e2 h3 e3 I12 I 3 ne3

Where e1 , e2 , and e3 are unit vectors along principal axes 1, 2 and 3, respectively.

A constant magnitude of the angular momentum vector in 1-2 plane and along 3-axis thus
results in a constant magnitude of angular momentum vector in the plane of 3-axis and
resultant of angular velocity (angular momentum) vector in 1-2 plane as shown in the Figure
above.

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3
e3

e2
2

e1
h12
12 1

Figure 3.4: An axisymmetric body with principal axes co-ordinates.

It is apparent from above analysis that for a torque free motion of an axisymmetric body,
following properties of motion are preserved:

a. , h , 12 , 3 , and are constant.

b. , h , and e3 are coplanar

Note that,

h12 I 112
tan const , tan 12 const
h3 I 3n n

both angles are constant, and are related by

I1
tan tan
I3

If one fixes the inertial Z-axis along angular momentum vector h which is a fictitious axis
constant in space (for torque free case) passing through the body unaffected by the dynamics
of the body, the attitude motion of the body can be studied with respect to this axis. The angle
is the inclination of body 3-axis with respect to the inertial Z-axis, and is known as
nutation angle. is the angle that the resultant angular velocity vector makes with the
body 3-axis. The actual dynamics of the body is much like that of a top. When one sits on the
3-axis of the body, the resultant angular velocity vector appears to be making a cone about

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the 3-axis, this cone is known as the body cone. When one sits on the fixed angular
momentum vector h axis, the resultant angular velocity vector appears to be making a cone
about the h axis which is known as the space cone.

h
e3

Figure 3.5 (a): Body (blue) and space (red) cones for a disc like body.

In both the case, body cone rolls over the space cone without slip.

3 h

Figure 3.5 (b): Body (blue) and space (red) cones for a cylinder like body.

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Two important conclusions can be drawn now:

When I 1 I 3 (disc like body), , the space cone is inside the body cone with
resultant angular velocity vector as the tangential line common to both the cones,
as shown in the Fig. 3.5(a).
When I 1 I 3 (slender rod like body), , the space cone is outside the body
cone with resultant angular velocity vector as the tangential line common to both
the cones, as shown in the Fig. 3.5(b).

Torque free motions of axisymmetric bodies

Using both equations of attitude dynamics and kinematics together.

Let the inertial Z-axis be parallel to resultant angular momentum vector h . Note that 0
from the conclusion drawn in previous lecture. Equations (3.15) can be written as

1 sin sin
2 sin cos (3.27)
3 cos

Using the equations (3.27) and noting that the resultant angular velocity is constant as proved
earlier, one can arrive at following equality relation (Homework Exercise, Hints:
Differentiating Eq. (3.27) with respect to time and set time derivative of angular velocity to
zero):

sin 2 0

The nutation angle is generally not zero, and therefore,

0 and const . (3.28)

is known as precession rate, that is the rate of rotation of the nodal axis in inertial space.
Further, upon manipulation of the equations (3.27-3.28) and knowing that precession rate is
constant, the equality relation

I 3
(3.29)
( I 1 I 3 ) cos

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can be arrived at (HomeWork Exercise!). Following interesting observations can be made

from Eq. (3.29):

1. When I 3 I 1 (disc), signs of and are opposite, and this is known as retrograde
precession, and

2. When I 3 I 1 (rod), signs of and are same, and direct precession results.

Retrograde precession can be demonstrated and observed on a large lab gyro, however only

and n can be seen from an inertial frame where n cos . Since , for small

values of , and n have the same sign. Hence, observing retrograde precession may not be
easy!

Torque free motion of a general arbitrarily shaped body

It must be intuitively clear that when the shape of the body is arbitrary (read as unsymmetric
and so), it becomes really difficulty to analyse and visualize the attitude motion. Poinsot
developed an analytic and geometric approach to gain insights into attitude motion of a
general body with I 1 I 2 I 3 .

Since 1e1 2 e2 3 e3 ,

h I 11e1 I 2 2 e2 I 3 3 e3

and therefore,

.h I 112 I 222 I 332 2Trot const (3.30)

Trot is the rotational kinetic energy of the body. Intersection of two ellipsoids, ellipsoid of

kinetic energy also known as Poinsot ellipsoid and ellipsoid of angular momentum define the
locus of angular velocity vector for torque free motion of an arbitrary body. The locus of
angular velocity vector is known as Polhode curve.

The Poinsot ellipsoid comes from the constant rotational kinetic energy equation (3.30) given
by

2 2 2
1 (3.31)
2Trot / I 1 2Trot / I 2 2Trot / I 3

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and angular momentum ellipsoid come from

h.h h 2 I 1212 I 2222 I 3232 const which gives equation of ellipsoid

2 2 2
1 (3.32)
h / I 1 2 h / I 2 2 h / I 3 2

where the axes are defined respectively along 1-2-3 body axes on which the
projections of angular velocity vector are defined as 1 2 3 . Note that, origin of these
axes system and center of the ellipsoids is same and that is the center of mass of the body.
Equation of the Polhode curves can be obtained by equating Eqns. (3.31) and (3.32). Thus
one obtains

h2 2 h2 2 h2
I 1 I 1 I 2 I 2 I 3 I 3 2
0 (3.33)
2Trot 2Trot 2Trot

An easy representation of the Polhode curve would be taking its projections on different
planes and joining them together. Without any loss of generality, let us assume that
I 1 I 2 I 3 . To get the real values of the coordinates ( 1 2 3 ), the relation

h2
I1 I 3 must be satisfied (HomeWork Exercise: Verify the statement!).
2Trot

Eliminating first (by using Eq. (3.31) and (3.32)), projection of Polhode curve on
plane results in (HomeWork Exercise!):

h2
I 1 I 1 I 3 2 I 2 I 2 I 3 2 2Trot I 3 (3.34)
2Trot

Since the right hand is positive in Eq. (3.34), the projection onto a plane normal to 3( )-axis
is an ellipse.

Similarly, eliminating results in projection of Polhode curve on plane normal to 1(

)-axis given by the equation:

h2
I 2 I 1 I 2 2 I 3 I 1 I 3 2
2Trot I 1 (3.35)
2Trot

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which is also an equation of ellipse.

Finally, eliminating results in projection of Polhode curve on plane normal to 2( )-

axis given by the equation:

h2
I 1 I 1 I 2 2 I 3 I 2 I 3 2
2Trot I 2 (3.36)
2Trot

which is NOT an ellipse but a hyperbola! In Eq. (), right hand side can be positive or negative
which dictates the direction of the curve.

A sketch of Polhode curve (trace of the angular velocity vector on Poinsot ellipsoid) is shown
in Fig. 3.6 below. The value of h 2 / 2Trot determines which curve is followed. For example, if

one sets ( h 2 / 2Trot ) I 3 in Eq. (3.34), solution of Eq. (3.34) turns out to be 0 , and
Polhode curve is a point, which represent a simple spin about 3-axis. Similarly, when
( h 2 / 2Trot ) I 1 , solution of Eq. (3.35) turns out to be 0 and motion is simple spin

about 1-axis. If ( h 2 / 2Trot ) I 2 , Eq. (3.36) results in Polhode curve in plane normal to 2-axis,
which is given by

I (I I2 )
1 1 (3.37)
I3(I2 I3)

The curves given by Eq. (3.37) are two separatrices onto 1-3 plane intersecting each other on
axis 2. This is an important observation concluding that motion takes place about the two
separatrices described by the ellipses. These motions are spin about minor or major axis. The
separatrices act as dividers which separate motion about major axis from motion about the
minor axis. Separatrices correspond to the case in which ( h 2 / 2Trot ) I 2 , the intermediate
inertia.

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Figure 3.6: Polhode curves on Poinsot ellipsoid.

From Fig. 3.6, it is clear that motion about axes 3 and 1 are stable. Motion about intermediate
axis 2 is unstable.

h
Invariant plane

Herpolhode curve

1
O Polhode curve

Figure 3.7: Herpolhode trajectory on invariant plane at a distance d from O.

Component of along h is given by

h 2Trot
. const d
h h

Constructing a plane at height d perpendicular to h axis is a constant plane. Projection of

Polhode curve on this invariable plane is known as Herpolhode curve (shown in Fig. 3.7),
proposed by Poinsot capturing attitude motion of a rigid body.

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