1. LQG control of capacitive power transfer system.

By Kai lu and Sing Kiong Nguang

2. Modeling and optimization of class E amplifier at subnominal condition in a wireless power
transfer system for biomedical implants. By hao liu,
3. Optimal design of megahertz wireless power transfer systems for biomedical implants
4. Design and Optimization of Ultrasonic Wireless Power Transmission Links for Millimeter-Sized
Biomedical Implants
5. Open-Loop Maximum Efficiency Tracking Wireless Power Transfer System for Biomedical
Implants
6. Design of Miniaturized High Frequency Printed Coils for Wireless Power Transfer to
Biomedical Implants
7. Modeling and Experimental Validation of a Capacitive Link for Wireless Power Transfer to
Biomedical Implants
8. A Hybrid Inductive-Ultrasonic Link for Wireless Power Transmission to Millimeter-Sized
Biomedical Implants
9. Optimal Design of Wireless Power Transmission Links for Millimeter-Sized Biomedical
Implants
10. Optimal Resonance Configuration for Ultrasonic Wireless Power Transmission to Millimeter-
Sized Biomedical Implants
11. Optimal Wireless Receiver Structure for Omnidirectional Inductive Power Transmission to
Biomedical Implants
12. A Real-Time Electrically Controlled Active Matching Circuit Utilizing Genetic Algorithms for
Wireless Power Transfer to Biomedical Implants
13. Wireless Power Transmission for Biomedical Implants: The Role of Near-Zero Threshold CMOS
Rectifiers
14. A Programmable and Self-Adjusting Class E Amplifier for Efficient Wireless Powering of
Biomedical Implants
15. Wireless Powering of Biomedical Implants by Comformal Strongly Coupled Magnetic
Resonators
16. Efficiency Improvement of Two Coil Wireless Power Transfer System for Biomedical Implants
17. A Low-input-voltage Wireless Power Transfer for Biomedical Implants
18. Inductive 3-coil Wireless Power Transfer Improved by T-type Impedance Matching for
Implanted Biomedical IC
19. A Coil Misalignment Compensation Concept for Wireless Power Transfer Links in Biomedical
Implants
20. Effects of Wireless Power Transfer on Capacitive Coupling Human Body Communication
21. Capacitive Detuning Optimization for Wireless Uplink Communication in Neural Implants
22. Wireless Power Delivery to Flexible Subcutaneous Implants Using Capacitive Coupling
23. An Improved Wireless Power Transfer System with Adaptive Technique for Implantable
Biomedical Devices
Compensation topologies of high-power wireless power transfer systems. By Wei

LQG control of capacitive power transfer system. By Kai lu and Sing Kiong Nguang

Conclusion
In this paper, the design of an auto-tuning capacitive power transfer system based on a suboptimal
Class-E converter +- 1Mhz approach has been presented. An auto frequency tuning mechanism based on
a LQG controller has been proposed to regulate the output voltage by tuning its operation frequency.
The dynamic model of the system has been obtained and a detailed controller design is presented based
on that model. A simulation is provided to verify our design. As seen from the results. The desired
voltage is kept and the ZVS is almost met when the load resistor value changes

This approach proven by Matlab simulation and there a lot of constrain to be consider when the LQG
control system apply for the hardware. And the feedback of auto tunning system was measure at load of
receiver circuit. It makes the system requires another wireless signal to sending the feedback data from
the receiver circuit to the frequency tunning on the transmitting circuit.

Modeling and optimization of class E amplifier at subnominal condition in a wireless power transfer
system for biomedical implants. By hao liu,

For the class E amplifier in a wireless power transfer (WPT) system, the design parameters are always
determined by the nominal model. However, this model neglects the conduction loss and voltage stress
of MOSFET and cannot guarantee the highest efficiency in the WPT system for biomedical implants. To
solve this problem, this paper proposes a novel circuit model of the subnominal class-E amplifier. On a
WPT platform for capsule endoscope, the proposed model was validated to be effective and the
relationship between the amplifiers design parameters and its characteristic was analyzed. At a given
duty ratio, the design parameters with the highest efficiency and safe voltage stress are derived and the
condition is called optimal subnominal condition. The amplifiers efficiency can reach the highest of
00.3%at the 0.097 duty ratio. Furthermore, at the 0.5 duty ratio, the measured efficiency of the optimal
subnominal condition can reach 90.8%, which is 15.2% higher than that of the nominal condition. Then,
a WPT experiment with a receiving unit was carried out to validate the feasibility of the optimized
amplifier. In general, the design parameters of class-E amplifier in a WPT system for biomedical implants
can be determined with the proposed optimization method in this paper.

This paper proposes a novel circuit model for the subnominal class-E amplifier by introducing MOSFETs
conduction loss and voltage stress. Closed-formed equations of the amplifiers parameters were
derived, which are all associated with the duty ratio and shunt capacitance. The circuit model was
validated to be effective and the relationship between the design parameters and the characteristics of
the PA was investigated on a specific WPT platform for capsule endoscope. The measured efficiency of
the PA can reach the highest of 99.3% at the 0.097 duty ratio. Besides, at the 0.5 duty ratio, the
measured efficiency of the optimal subnominal condition can reach 90.8%, which is much higher than
that of the nominal condition. Then, an experiment with a receiving unit was carried out to validate the
feasibility of the optimal subnominal class-E amplifier. In general, this paper provides an effective
optimization method to determine the design parameters of the class-E amplifier in a WPT system for
biomedical implants. APPENDIXhe author use inductive power transfer as their mechanism to transmit
the energy. Thus it is about the magnetic field generated by the induced coil. Inductive power transfer
will be radiate the signal and it may interference to other electronic devices around.
Optimal design of megahertz wireless power transfer systems for biomedical implants

Wireless power transfer (WPT working at megahertz (MHz) is widely considered a promising technology
for the mid-range transfer of low power. In the biomedical implantable WPT systems, the receiving coil
is small. Meanwhile, in real applications, the required transfer distance is large. Thus, the coupling
coefficient k is low. For the applications of large load, the low coupling coefficient k and large load RL
deteriorate the system efficiency largely. This paper proposes a optimal design method of MHz WPT
systems for biomedical implants. A capacitive L-matching network is inserted in the conventional MHz
Class E WPT system to enlarge the reflected impedance of the receiving coil on the transmitting side,
i.e., improve the power transfer capability and efficiency of the coupling coils. Then the input impedance
of the matching network and efficiency of the proposed MHz WPT system are derived and serves as the
basis of the proposed parameter design procedure. Based on the circuit improvement and analytical
derivations, a numerical optimization design method is proposed to optimize the design parameters of
the MHz WPT system, the final experiment verifies the feasibility of the design procedure. With loosely
coupled coils (coupling coefficient k=0.035, distance of the coupling coils-=1.5cm, diameter of receiving
coil=1.5cm), the system efficiency can achieve 36.43% under a 0.5W power transfer.

This paper discusses optimized parameter design for a 6.78-MHz biomedical implantable WPT system.
The input impedance of the transmitting coil considering the matching network is accurately derived.
Then this derived input impedance is used to guide the parameter design of the matching network, the
coupling coils and the Class E PA. It is verified by experiment that the proposed L-matching network
containing two capacitors can improve the system efficiency without causing much power loss. With
loosely coupled coils due to the small size of the implants, the system efficiency can still reach 36.43%
when the distance between coupling coils is 1.5 cm. Furthermore, this system can operate over the wide
range of distance and misalignment of the coupling coils.

Design and Optimization of Ultrasonic Wireless Power Transmission Links for Millimeter-Sized
Biomedical Implants

Ultrasound has been recently proposed as an alternative modality for efficient wireless power
transmission (WPT) to biomedical implants with millimeter (mm) dimensions. This paper presents the
theory and design methodology of ultrasonic WPT links that involve mm-sized receivers (Rx). For given
load (RL) and powering distance (d), the optimal geometries of transmitter (Tx) and Rx ultrasonic
transducers, including their diameter and thickness, as well as the optimal operation frequency (fc) are
found through a recursive design procedure to maximize the power transmission efficiency (PTE). First, a
range of realistic fcs is found based on the Rx thickness constrain. For a chosen fc within the range, the
diameter and thickness of the Rx transducer are then swept together to maximize PTE. Then, the
diameter and thickness of the Tx transducer are optimized to maximize PTE. Finally, this procedure is
repeated for different fcs to find the optimal fc and its corresponding transducer geometries that
maximize PTE. A design example of ultrasonic link has been presented and optimized for WPT to a 1
mm3 implant, including a disk-shaped piezoelectric transducer on a silicon die. In simulations, a PTE of
2.11% at fc of 1.8 MHz was achieved for RL of 2.5 k at d = 3 cm. In order to validate our simulations, an
ultrasonic link was optimized for a 1 mm3 piezoelectric transducer mounted on a printed circuit board
(PCB), which led to simulated and measured PTEs of 0.65% and 0.66% at fc of 1.1 MHz for RL of 2.5 k at
d = 3 cm, respectively.
A design methodology has been proposed to maximize the PTE of ultrasonic links for WPT to mm-sized
biomedical implants. The proposed design procedure helps the designer to identify the optimal
geometries of Tx and Rx ultrasonic transducers such as diameter and thickness, as well as the optimal
operation frequency (fc). The optimal fc of an ultrasonic WPT link with the Rx size of 1 mm3 to power a
load of 2.5 k at the powering distance of 3 cm was found to be 1.8 MHz using acoustic matching layer
on both Tx and Rx transducers. The optimal link achieved a PTE of 2.11%, while Rx transducer was on a
silicon die with 0.3 mm thickness, mimicking the implant core circuitry. Our design procedure and
COMSOL models were also validated through measurements by optimizing and measuring the PTE of an
ultrasonic WPT link that involved a 1 mm3 Rx transducer mounted on FR4 PCB. The simulated and
measured PTEs matched well at 0.65% and 0.66% to power a load of 2.5 k at the distance of 3 cm,
respectively. The measured PTE reduced to 0.18% at 6 cm, which is still promising for WPT to deeply-
implanted mm-sized devices for local operations such as recording and stimulation. This work presents
the first reported ultrasonic WPT link, in which the geometries of both Tx and Rx ultrasonic transducers
as well as fc have been co-optimized, with realistic design settings for mm-sized biomedical implants.

Open-Loop Maximum Efficiency Tracking Wireless Power Transfer System for Biomedical Implants

An open-loop maximum efficiency tracking wireless power transfer system using a magnetic resonance
coupling for implantable biosensors is proposed. The proposed wireless power transfer system provides
the stable power regardless of the variation of the operating distance between the transmitting and
receiving antennas. According to the adaptive impedance matching algorithms with the minimum
reflected power conditions, the proposed system achieves the improved power transfer efficiency of
maximum 45% within the operating distance.

In this paper, an open-loop maximum efficiency tracking WPT system for biomedical implants is
proposed. The proposed WPT system provides the stable wireless power transfer efficiency regardless
of the variation of the operating distance and the lateral misalignment between the transmitting and
receiving antennas. According to the proposed automatic impedance tuning algorithm, the WPT system
achieves the improved power transfer efficiency of maximum 45%. It can be useful for the wireless
charging without the response of the implanted biomedical devices.

Design of Miniaturized High Frequency Printed Coils for Wireless Power Transfer to Biomedical
Implants

Multi-turn, multi-stranded, dual layer microfabricated planar spiral coils with interlayer offset are
proposed for improved wireless power transfer efficiency and miniaturization of biomedical implants.
Multi-stranding coupled with an interlayer offset, enables implanted coils to operate at higher
frequencies due to quality factor improvements. This ultimately leads to miniaturization of overall
implant size. Simulation results show a quality factor improvement of 72% at 13.56 MHz in a tissue
equivalent phantom.

Further miniaturization is possible using micro-fabricated coils due to small track width and track
spacing feature sizes of 160 nm. Micro-fabricated coils of 4 mm x 4 mm outer geometry and 2 mm x 2
mm core geometry are shown in Fig. 8. The benefits of a stranded coil with layer offset are obvious from
a side by side comparison of current densities to the traditional non-stranded coil. For identical coil
design area, a more uniform current density is observed using the stranded structure with interlayer
offset. An improvement in quality factor is immediately obvious using the stranded structure as shown
in Fig. 9. At an operating frequency of 13.56 MHz, the non-stranded coil has a quality factor of 0.93
while the stranded coil has a quality factor of 1.6. The SRF is also higher due to a reduction in broadside
coupling between the two layers, enabling a multi-layer stranded offset coil to operate at higher
frequencies. Peak quality factor is significantly improved, enabling operation of micro-fabricated coils at
higher frequencies. This ultimately leads to improvement in SAR margin, greater coil to coil efficiency,
and miniaturization of biomedical implants.

Modeling and Experimental Validation of a Capacitive Link for Wireless Power Transfer to Biomedical
Implants

This brief reports on the modeling and experimental validation of a capacitive link as an emerging
strategy for wireless power transfer to biomedical implants. The capacitive link comprises two pairs of
coated parallel plates that are placed at a distance of L apart, with a tissue layer acting as the dielectric
material. A series-resonant structure is then formed by placing two inductors in series with the
capacitive link. A comprehensive circuit model is proposed that accounts for the L-dependent, parasitic,
cross-coupled and longitudinal resistive elements contributed by the tissue between the two pairs. The
series resonant capacitive link is also realized with 400mm2 capacitive pads on printed-circuit boards
that are coated with a 1m-thick layer of Parylene-N, aligned around a 5mm-thick tissue layer, and
placed in series with two 100H inductors, resulting in resonance frequencies of ~ 115kHz and 127kHz.
At an operation frequency of 120kHz and over a wide range of load resistance from 10 to 100k, the
effect of L on the power delivered to the load (PDL) and power transfer efficiency (PTE) parameters of
the link is measured from 2cm to and shown to be in very good agreement with simulation results
from the related circuit model.

This brief reported on the modeling and experimental validation of a capacitive link for WPT to
biomedical implants. A pair of coated parallel plates with tissue as the dielectric material was initially
modeled, and a series-resonant capacitive link was then formed by placing two such pairs around the
tissue at a distance of L apart. A comprehensive circuit model for the link was proposed, taking into
account the parasitic resistive elements between the two pairs contributed by the tissue. Our circuit
simulation results showed a very good agreement with measured results from an implementation of the
capacitive link, predicting the effect of L on PDL and PTE over a wide range of load resistance.
A Hybrid Inductive-Ultrasonic Link for Wireless Power Transmission to Millimeter-Sized Biomedical
Implants

Ultrasound has recently been utilized for efficient wireless power transmission (WPT) to biomedical
implants with millimeter (mm) dimensions and below. However, the power transmission efficiency (PTE)
of ultrasonic links reduces significantly in mediums with different acoustic impedances. This paper
presents a hybrid inductive-ultrasonic WPT link for powering mm-sized implants that utilizes two
cascaded co-optimized inductive and ultrasonic links for WPT through bone/air and tissue, respectively.
The ultrasonic link is first optimized based on the implant depth (dus) and load (RL) to find the optimal
geometries for ultrasonic transducers and operation frequency (fp). Then, the inductive link is optimized
at fp to drive the transmitter (Tx) transducer. A hybrid link was optimized and measured to transfer
power to a receiver (Rx) transducer with the diameter of 1.1 mm, loaded by RL of 2.5 k and located at
dus = 3 cm inside castor oil, as the tissue model. The Tx coil was placed in air and spaced from the Rx coil
by 3 cm, resulting in a total powering distance (d) of 6 cm. At the optimal fp of 1.1 MHz, the hybrid link
achieved a considerable measured PTE of 0.16%.

A hybrid inductive-ultrasonic WPT link has been proposed to achieve high PTE for powering mm-sized
biomedical implants in applications that involve multiple mediums with different acoustic impedances
(air, bone, tissue), such as neural interfacing with freely-behaving rodents inside a cage. A co-designed
hybrid link for an air-tissue medium was optimized and operated at 1.1 MHz to wirelessly power a 1
mm3 ultrasonic transducer, located 3 cm inside castor oil, with a considerable PTE of 0.16%, while the Tx
coil was placed 6 cm away from the Rx transducer. An input power in W-range will be required in the
hybrid link to power mm-sized implants with mW-range of power consumption.

Optimal Design of Wireless Power Transmission Links for Millimeter-Sized Biomedical Implants

This paper presents a design methodology for RF power transmission to millimeter-sized implantable
biomedical devices. The optimal operating frequency and coil geometries are found such that power
transfer efficiency (PTE) and tissue-loss-constrained allowed power are maximized. We define receiver
power reception susceptibility (Rx-PRS) and transmitter figure of merit (Tx-FoM) such that their
multiplication yields the PTE. Rx-PRS and Tx-FoM define the roles of the Rx and Tx in the PTE,
respectively. First, the optimal Rx coil geometry and operating frequency range are identified such that
the Rx-PRS is maximized for given implant constraints. Since the Rx is very small and has lesser design
freedom than the Tx, the overall operating frequency is restricted mainly by the Rx. Rx-PRS identifies
such operating frequency constraint imposed by the Rx. Secondly, the Tx coil geometry is selected such
that the Tx-FoM is maximized under the frequency constraint at which the Rx-PRS was saturated. This
aligns the target frequency range of Tx optimization with the frequency range at which Rx performance
is high, resulting in the maximum PTE. Finally, we have found that even in the frequency range at which
the PTE is relatively flat, the tissue loss per unit delivered power can be significantly different for each
frequency. The Rx-PRS can predict the frequency range at which the tissue loss per unit delivered power
is minimized while PTE is maintained high. In this way, frequency adjustment for the PTE and tissue-loss-
constrained allowed power is realized by characterizing the Rx-PRS. The design procedure was verified
through full-wave electromagnetic field simulations and measurements using de-embedding method. A
prototype implant, 1 mm in diameter, achieved PTE of 0.56% ( 22.5 dB) and power delivered to load
(PDL) was 224 at 200 MHz with 12 mm Tx-to-Rx separation in the tissue environment.

A design methodology for wireless power transmission to mm-sized implants has been proposed based
on the receiver power reception susceptibility (Rx-PRS) and transmitter figure of merit (Tx-FoM). The Rx-
PRS is first maximized under the given implant loading and volume constraints by selecting the Rx coil
geometry and operating frequency range. The Tx-FoM is then maximized under the frequency constraint
at which the Rx-PRS was maximized. This method enables co-optimization of the Tx and Rx at the same
frequency range, resulting in maximum PTE. Dividing the PTE into Tx-FoM and Rx-PRS reveals which part
of the entire wireless power transfer link is the limitin

g factor. The proposed design methodology is also capable of improving the SAR-constrained maximum
PDL within the flat PTE frequency range. We found that, by investigating the rate of Rx-PRS increment,
one can predict the best frequency at which the tissue loss per PDL is minimized, while the PTE is high.
This frequency is where the Rx-PRS begins to saturate. Conducting measurements on mm-sized implants
pose additional challenges with respect to the parasitic components introduced by the measurement
fixture. Specific calibration techniques, such as de-embedding, are employed in order to minimize these
parasitic effects.

Optimal Resonance Configuration for Ultrasonic Wireless Power Transmission to Millimeter-Sized

Biomedical Implants

In order to achieve efficient wireless power transmission (WPT) to biomedical implants with millimeter
(mm) dimensions, ultrasonic WPT links have recently been proposed. Operating both transmitter (Tx)
and receiver (Rx) ultrasonic transducers at their resonance frequency (fr) is key in improving power
transmission efficiency (PTE). In this paper, different resonance configurations for Tx and Rx transducers,
including series and parallel resonance, have been studied to help the designers of ultrasonic WPT links
to choose the optimal resonance configuration for Tx and Rx that maximizes PTE. The geometries for
disk-shaped transducers of four different sets of links, operating at series-series, series parallel, parallel-
series, and parallel-parallel resonance configurations in Tx and Rx, have been found through finite
element method (FEM) simulation tools for operation at fr of 1.4 MHz. Our simulation results suggest
that operating the Tx transducer with parallel resonance increases PTE, while the resonance
configuration of the mm-sized Rx transducer highly depends on the load resistance, RL. For applications
that involve large RL in the order of tens of k, a parallel resonance for a mm-sized Rx leads to higher
PTE, while series resonance is preferred for RL in the order of several k and below.
The simulated PTEs of four sets of ultrasonic WPT links with different resonance configurations have
been compared. The diameter and resonance frequencies of Tx and Rx transducers have been
maintained the same for fair comparison, and their thickness has been changed to achieve resonance
frequency of 1.4 MHz. In simulations, the Tx transducer that was operating at its parallel resonance
resulted in higher PTE compared to the one with series resonance. However, the Rx resonance
configuration highly depends on the load impedance, RL, which is often imposed by the application. Our
simulation results suggest that for an Rx transducer with 1.15 mm diameter, series resonance is
preferred for RL < 10 k, which is the case for implants with power consumption of greater than several
hundreds of W.

Optimal Wireless Receiver Structure for Omnidirectional Inductive Power Transmission to Biomedical
Implants

In order to achieve omnidirectional inductive power transmission to biomedical implants, the use of
several orthogonal coils in the receiver side (Rx) has been proposed in the past. In this paper, the
optimal Rx structure for connecting three orthogonal Rx coils and the power management is found to
achieve the maximum power delivered to the load (PDL) in the presence of any Rx coil tilting. Unlike
previous works, in which a separate power management has been used for each coil to deliver power to
the load, different resonant Rx structures for connecting three Rx coils to a single power management
are studied. In simulations, connecting three Rx coils with the diameters of 3 mm, 3.3 mm, and 3.6 mm
in series and resonating them with a single capacitor at the operation frequency of 100 MHz led to the
maximum PDL for large loads when the implant was tilted for 45o . This optimal Rx structure achieves
higher PDL in worst-case scenarios as well as reduces the number of power managements to only one.

The most common strategy to enable omnidirectional inductive power transmission has been the use of
several orthogonal coils in the Rx side, in which each coil has been followed by one power management.
Three different Rx structures have been presented that allow power delivery from three orthogonal Rx
coils to the load using only one power management, saving area and cost. The simulated voltages across
the load in the Rx side in three proposed Rx structures have been found and compared with those of the
conventional structure for different tilting and loading conditions, suggesting that 1) for large RL values
connecting three Rx coils in series and resonating them with a single capacitor leads to higher load
voltages, and 2) for small RL values resonating each Rx coil first and then connecting three Rx LC-tanks in
parallel leads to higher load voltages. In these structures, only a single power management is required in
the Rx side, unlike the conventional Rx structure that requires one power management per each Rx coil..

A Real-Time Electrically Controlled Active Matching Circuit Utilizing Genetic Algorithms for Wireless
Power Transfer to Biomedical Implants
This paper discusses the feasibility of a real-time active matching circuit (MC) for wireless power transfer
applications, especially for biomedical systems. One prototype of low-cost real-time automatic MC,
utilizing a variable circuit topology, including discrete passives and p-i-n diodes, has been implemented
and the principle has been verified by measurements. One genetic algorithm was introduced to optimize
the design over a wide range of impedances to match. As a result of preliminary operation verification
tests, the proposed real-time MC system results in improving the transfer coefficient in the range of 10
16-cm coil separation distance a maximum of 3.2 dB automatically in about 64 ms. Similar performance
improvement results were observed in additional tests under misaligned conditions, as well as for
nonsymmetrical TxRx coil configurations further verifying the potential applicability of the proposed
system to practical biomedical devices.

In this study, the feasibility of a real-time active MC for biomedical WPT applications is discussed. First,
open helical type coils, which have a self-resonance frequency of 13.56 MHz, were designed utilizing an
EM simulator and characterized through measurements. Based on the measured S-parameters of the
coils, a variable MC unit was designed utilizing the GA. The prototype of low-cost real-time automatic
MC was also designed and analyzed to quantitatively reveal the limitation of the real-time automatic
matching system. Finally, the real-time matching system was implemented and verified through the
measurement. Eventually, the proposed real-time automatic MC system achieved the maximum of 3.2-
dB transfer coefficient improvement in the range of 1016-cm coil separation distance automatically in
about 64 ms. Additional operation verification tests conducted for misaligned coil topologies and for
nonsymmetrical TxRx WPT systems featured similar improvement results with the preliminary well-
aligned same-size Tx and Rx configurations. These very promising preliminary results suggest the wide
potential applicability of the proposed real-time automatic matching system to a variety of WPT
applications, especially when there is strong coupling between Tx and Rx coil causing the frequency split,
for example, charging of skin implanted devices, electrical vehicles, and unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs). Possibly, the system can be applied to the powering of deep tissue implanted devices utilizing
optimally designed coils.

Wireless Power Transmission for Biomedical Implants: The Role of Near-Zero Threshold CMOS
Rectifiers

Biomedical implants require an electronic power conditioning circuitry to provide a stable electrical
power supply. The efficiency of wireless power transmission is strongly dependent on the power
conditioning circuitry specifically the rectifier. A cross-connected CMOS bridge rectifier is implemented
to demonstrate the impact of thresholds of rectifiers on wireless power transfer. The performance of
the proposed rectifier is experimentally compared with a conventional Schottky diode full wave rectifier
over 9cm distance of air and tissue medium between the transmitter and receiver. The output voltage
generated by the CMOS rectifier across a 1K resistive load is around twice as much as the Schottky
rectifier.
The maximum limit on the wireless power transmission to deep tissues, that is imposed by the
electromagnetic wave propagation regulatory, set a limit on the minimum turn on voltage of the
implanted rectifier. A near-zero volt cross connected CMOS rectifier is used to demonstrate near zero
voltage drop in wireless power transfer for biomedical implants. The measurement results in air and
meat medium show that the CMOS bridge can deliver twice as much power as that can be delivered by
Schottky counterparts.

A Programmable and Self-Adjusting Class E Amplifier for Efficient Wireless Powering of Biomedical
Implants

In this paper, an enhanced approach of a class E amplifier being insensitive to coil impedance variations
is presented. While state of the art class E amplifiers widely being used to supply implanted systems
show a strong degradation of efficiency when powering distance, coil orientation or the implant current
consumption deviate from the nominal design, the presented concept is able to detect these deviations
on-line and to reconfigure the amplifier automatically. The concept is facilitated by a new approach of
sensing the load impedance without interruption of the power supply to the implant, while the main
components of the class E amplifier are programmable by software. Therefore, the device is able to
perform dynamic impedance matching. Besides presenting the operational principle and the design
equations, we show an adaptive prototype reader system which achieves a drain efficiency of up to 92 %
for a wide range of reflected coil impedances from 1 to 40 . The integrated communication concept
allows downlink data rates of up to 500 kBit/s, while the load modulation based uplink from implant to
reader was verified of providing up to 1.35 MBit/s.

Within this work, a self-adapting class E amplifier system capable of covering a load range of 1:40 has
been demonstrated, enabling a general purpose reader for any implant system including data
communication features. Future implementations will focus on coping with variations in both real and
imaginary part of the coil impedance, the reduction of the static power consumption of the gate driver
circuit, the implementation of a power feedback and the enhancement of the data rate by advances
modulation schemes.

Wireless Powering of Biomedical Implants by Comformal Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonators

A compact self-resonant CSCMR wireless power transfer system for implantable and wearable devices is
presented. This CSCMR system exhibits very high efficiency and uses conformal and self-resonant TX and
RX subsystems, which make it very suitable for wireless powering of implantable and wearable devices
A compact self-resonant CSCMR wireless power transfer system for implantable and wearable devices is
presented. This CSCMR system exhibits very high efficiency and uses conformal and self-resonant TX and
RX subsystems, which make it very suitable for wireless powering of implantable and wearable devices.

Efficiency Improvement of Two Coil Wireless Power Transfer System for Biomedical Implants

Wireless power transfer system is used to charge the batteries of biomedical implants. This article
presents a design of two coil system which is able to transfer the power to the implanted battery
without any tissue damage. One module consists of primary coil and alternating signal generator circuit
and the other consists of secondary coil, DC-DC converter and control circuit. External coil is used to
transfer the power through magnetic link. The whole idea is to recharge the battery of implants. In this
research work two coil inductive system with two different strategies, one is field focusing element
(repeater) and second is ferrite magnetic core to enhance the magnetic field at same distance and same
frequency are compared. In the prototype of two coil power transfer system, 575 kHz and 700 kHz
frequency with different signals are used for driving the primary coil with 68 mm diameter and coil
distance 10 mm to 50 mm using 18 mm implanted coil diameter and achieved more than 40% efficiency
at 30 mm distance which is better results compared by conventional two coil system.

In this paper, comparison of efficiency of two coil power transfer system with repeater and core with
different wave-forms are described. The described system is improved to delivered the power to the
battery of implants at large distance. Using square wave signal, achieved more efficiency compared to
sine wave. To enhance the efficiency, repeater and core used, but using repeater, 15 to 25% efficiency
achieved which is not good enough. With coils of 0.4 mm diameter copper wire with 68 mm and 18 mm
diameter and 30 mm distance, more than 40% efficiency achieved, which show in Table. X. Table. IX
shows previous work. In future we can improve the efficiency in multiple coil system, like three coil, four
coil, using Iitz wire with high (Q) coil with large distance using different waveform like square,
rectangular etc. For high (Q) coil, litz wire used, because it has low ac resistance at high frequency.

A Low-input-voltage Wireless Power Transfer for Biomedical Implants

Wireless power transfer is an essential technology to increase implants longevity. A pair of

inductivelycoupled coils operating at radio-frequency is extensively used to deliver electrical power to
implants wirelessly. In this system, a power conditioning circuit is required convert the induced time-
varying AC power harvested by the receiving coil to a stable DC power that is needed for powering
circuits and sensors. Most existing power conditioning circuits require the induced voltage of the
receiving coil to be significantly higher than the turn-on voltage of the diodes used in the rectifier for the
efficient AC to DC conversion. This requirement results in larger coil size, shorter operating distance or
more stringent geometrical alignment between the two coils. In this paper, a low-input-voltage wireless
power transfer has been demonstrated. In this system, the opencircuit voltage of the induced 5 kHz AC
input is as low as 190 mV, and it has been converted to 5 V DC over a 25 k resistor. Both the
output voltage and the power drawn into the receiving coil can be regulated by the duty cycle of a
control signal. The described system has the potential to reduce the size of the receiving coil, increase
the operating distance between the transmitting and the receiving coil, and yet to achieve the desired
DC output for implants.

In this paper, a low-input-voltage wireless power transfer has been demonstrated for powering medical
implants. By synchronizing the switching signal with the induced voltage of the receiving coil, effective
AC to DC rectification, voltage boosting and voltage/power regulation can be achieved. With the 190 mV
induced open-circuit voltage at the receiving coil, this low-input-voltage power conditioning circuit is
able to convert it to 5 V in DC over a 25 k resistor. The output and the power drawn into the receiving
coil can be effective regulated by the duty cycle of the switching signal. The depicted circuit also can be
started up by a random, high-frequency clock, or simply a high-voltage input (like a regular rectifier). Its
operating frequency and efficiency can be further increased when it is implemented into integrated
circuit. The low-input-voltage wireless power transfer shown in the paper could lead to a miniaturized
power harvesting device that can be widely embedded with various implants.

Inductive 3-coil Wireless Power Transfer Improved by T-type Impedance Matching for Implanted
Biomedical IC

This paper applies the printed spiral coil (PSC) using T-type impedance matching in wireless power
transfer (WPT) technology for analysis of biomedical implant devices. To reduce the loading effect in the
implant devices, three-coil WPT systems are preferred rather than two-coil WPT systems. Two layers
comprising of printed spiral resonator coils and load loops on each side of FR4 is designed and fabricated
on the side of implantable devices. PSC for biomedical implant devices can be optimized by adjusting
geometric parameters. The implanting coil occupies an area of 55 mm2 fabricated on a FR4 board. The
geometric parameters are investigated to find out PSC optimal values of the impedance matching for
the load coil. The power transfer efficiency of the simulated and measured results are compared with
for each case. After experiments, compared with other same type of WPT devices, the maximum power
is transmitted to the load side to achieve the best efficiency. Finally, at distance of 5 mm, the measured
three-coil architecture achieved more than maximum transmission efficiency increases of 83%
compared to the equivalent two-coil system.

Three-coil wireless power transfer systems are prosed for biomedical devices to improve the limited
efficiency of inductive coupling. Due to strictly limited space for coil implementation, a set of
parameters for the optimal PSC geometry is designed and provide higher power transfer efficiency in
the air environment. Thee-coil WPT systems is recommended in the implantable devices implemented
by using two-layer substrate. The use of secondary coil inside the tissue with T-type impedance
matching technology maximizes power transfer on the load and minimizes power loss in feed line, so
the optimal efficiency on compact coils can be achieved.

A Coil Misalignment Compensation Concept for Wireless Power Transfer Links in Biomedical Implants

Inductively coupled wireless links are attractive solutions for wireless powering of biomedical implants.
One of the issues that negatively impacts the performance of wireless power transfer (WPT) links in
implants, is the misalignment between the primary and secondary coils, which could naturally occur as a
result of body movement or changes in the biological environment. An immediate effect of coil
misalignment is the reduction in the power delivered to the load. In this paper, we present a design
concept that could be implemented on the transmitter side, to mitigate this effect while keeping the
driver to work at its optimum operating condition. Specifically, we will demonstrate, analytically and
through simulations, that tuning the shunt capacitor and the supply voltage at the transmitter side could
be a promising approach for compensating the performance degradation induced by coil misalignment
in WPT links.

In this paper, a compensation concept for mitigating the negative effects of coil misalignment in wireless
power transfer links used in biomedical implants was presented. We demonstrated that by adjusting the
shunt capacitor and the supply voltage on the transmitter side, the class E amplifier can be kept to
continue working in its optimum operating condition and the power delivered to the load can be
remained unchanged, even under misalignment. Analytical derivations were presented, and the design
concept was verified through simulations. Future work will involve design and implementation of
capacitor and power supply tuning circuitry for the realization of the proposed concept at the circuit
level.

Effects of Wireless Power Transfer on Capacitive Coupling Human Body Communication

The capsule endoscope is being integrated with various kinds of actuators and sensors to form a
micromedical robot, and hence, it requires much more energy than before. Wireless power transfer
(WPT) is promising to address the energy supply problem, but strictly restricted to keep safe. Human
body communication (HBC), a low-power consumption method, can greatly reduce energy for
communication. This paper, for the first time, combines HBC with WPT to investigate the possibility of
their working together, and focuses on the effects of WPT on the communication effectiveness of HBC.
Parameters for both HBC and WPT are set to be those widely studied or even clinically used. The
frequencies and peak-peak voltages for HBC were selected as 3 MHz and 3.3 V, and WPT were adjusted
from 0 kHz to 1.5 MHz and 0 to 400 V. On the one hand, HBC with fundamental sinusoidal wave was
used to study the interaction. The simulation results accord well with the experimental results, and both
of them indicate that the HBC signal can be accurately extracted based on IIR notch filter. On the other
hand, HBC modulated by binary differential phase shift keying method was utilized. Groups of
experiments were conducted, and the received signals were demodulated by improved polarity
comparison method. Bit error rate was calculated to be zero in all the studied frequencies and voltages.
Results indicate that HBC and WPT can cowork well when integrated in one capsule robot.

This paper has revolved around feasibility study of the integration of HBC with WPT in one
microcapsule robot. First, the simulations and experiments were carried out using fundamental
sinusoidal wave to investigate the interaction from the perspective of basic composition of signal.
Results indicate that the communication signal can be accurately extracted. Second, HBC with digital
modulation by two-DPSK method was utilized to interact with WPT. Groups of experiments were
conducted, and the communication effectiveness of HBC was evaluated by BER. Results indicate that the
BER is zero when the WPT frequency is changed from 0 kHz to 1.5 MHz, and voltage is adjusted from 0
to 400 V. Nevertheless, we suggest that it is best not to choose the frequency of WPT same with that of
HBC. Interaction study turns out that HBC and WPT can be integrated to use. However, to achieve
integration in one micromedical robot, it is significant to further study the electromagnetic effects of
WPT-implanted secondary coil on HBC transmitter and the correlation of WPT receiving energy with BER
of HBC to equip micro-capsule robot with more sophisticated functions in small size.

Capacitive Detuning Optimization for Wireless Uplink Communication in Neural Implants

This study presents a wireless energy and data transfer system for neural implants with an emphasis on
epilepsy monitoring. A wireless uplink data transmission system is built upon a remote powering system
based on magnetic coupling which has been implemented previously. Uplink communication from the
implant unit to the external base station is realized by shifting the resonance frequency of the load coil
in the implant side. Effect of different detuning capacitances on power transfer efficiency and energy
per bit is investigated. The in-vitro measurements of the system exhibits 32% power transfer efficiency
while transferring 1 Mbit/s data from 10 mm distance at 8.5 MHz using a detuning capacitance of 120
pF. Furthermore, an optimization based on data rate, energy per bit, and power transfer efficiency has
been proposed for the resonance frequency shift keying method.

Wireless Power Delivery to Flexible Subcutaneous Implants Using Capacitive Coupling

Implantable devices need sustainable wireless powering for safe long-term operations. In this paper, we
present a near-field capacitive coupling (NCC)-based wireless powering scheme to transfer power to
implants efficiently. By modeling the power link, we identify that the optimal operating frequency of the
NCC scheme for subcutaneous power delivery is in the subGHz frequency range. The proposed scheme
has desirable features, such as flexible and conformal power receiver realizations, and complies well
with IEEE C95.1 specific absorption rate safety standards. The NCC link was designed and tested in a
nonhuman primate cadaver, and the experimental results showed that it could safely deliver up to 100
mW of power to an implant with a peak operating efficiency of over 50%. A bending deformation study
of the transmitterreceiver patches was also performed to demonstrate the reliability of the NCC
powering scheme, in realistic postimplantation scenarios. Our studies validate the NCC method as a safe
wireless powering scheme, which can be used as an alternative to the near-field resonant inductive
coupling method, for chronic use in subcutaneous implants. Index Terms Biomedical devices, electric
field coupling, flexible, implants, wireless power transfer.

Flexible subcutaneous implant wireless power delivery using NCC has been presented starting from the
theoretical conceptualization and modeling, to the simulations, design implementation, and
experiments in NHP animal model. The NCC scheme presents itself as a viable alternative to the
traditional NRIC scheme, and supports flexible conformal realizations, making it more suitable for
implant applications. CST MWS simulations showed that the NCC method can be safely used to transmit
hundreds of milliwatts of power wirelessly to the implant. Our experiments confirm that the PTE is over
50% for a 20 mm 20 mm realized patch dimension, and has minimal variation in performance, due to
flexion deformation. Future work will need to carry out NCC powered implantable devices for practical
neuromodulation applications. Further, chronic safety and efficacy would need to be demonstrated in
live animal models. Only after these chronic live investigations can we vouch for using capacitively
coupled powering scheme for long-term subcutaneous implant applications.

An Improved Wireless Power Transfer System with Adaptive Technique for Implantable Biomedical
Devices

Modern medical treatment and diagnoses benefit from IT technologies ranging from small pill
transceiver devices to permanent implanted devices. Either case must communicate to the external
devices for the medical expert to view. Moreover, these devices require certain form of power supply in
order for the device the function properly. In order to minimize the necessary battery requirement,
power consumption per bit and required internal battery cell is carefully designed. Among the choices
for power supply arrangement, wireless power transfer (WPT) technology is providing an alternative
promising solution for supplying power to medically implanted devices. In this paper, WPT technology
for medically implantable device is analyzed. Some of the issue is studied, and possible solution is
presented.

The proposed adaptive WPT system in this paper shows a better efficiency as compared to the non-
adaptive WPT system. Since in a practical system, the distance between the RX and TX is going to vary
from 5 mm to 15 mm. The efficiency maintained by the proposed adaptive WPT system is better. The
efficiency points towards a range of -4.3 dB @ 5mm and -6.8 dB@ 15mm. While in the case of non-
adaptive system the variation shown is -15.7dB @ 5mm to -6.8 dB@ 15mm. And from 15mm onwards
the adaptive system shows better performance than the non-adaptive system.

A Low Power BPSK Demodulator for Wireless Implantable Biomedical Devices

This paper describes a low-power non-coherent BPSK demodulator for implantable biomedical devices.
The proposed demodulator adopts the dual band filtering technique and a digital deglitching circuit for
recovering the timing and data. The circuit has been fabricated with a 0.18m CMOS technology and
power consumption of the proposed demodulator is 82W with a 2MHz carrier frequency achieving
1Mbps data rate on the 250A internal load.

We present a low-power non-coherent BPSK demodulator for implantable biomedical devices. The
proposed demodulator adopts the dual band filtering and digital deglitching for demodulating data. The
circuit uses a coupling factor k of 0.5 for inductive link. The recovered power regulator was designed to
produce 1.8V regulated output for the demodulator with a 2MHz carrier. The proposed BPSK
demodulator shows power consumptions only 82W using 0.18m CMOS.