Test blocks containing drilled holes are widely used for longitudinal wave, straight-beam

inspection. The hole in the block can be positioned so that ultrasonic energy from the search unit
is reflected either from the side of the hole or from the bottom of the hole. The flat-bottom hole
is used most because the flat bottom of the hole offers an optimum reflecting surface that is
reproducible. A conical-bottom hole, such as is obtained with conventional drills, is undesirable,
because a large portion of the reflected energy may never reach the search unit. Differences of
50% or more can easily be encountered between the energy reflected back to the search unit from
flat-bottom holes and from conical-bottom holes of the same diameter. The difference is a
function of both transducer frequency and distance from search unit to hole bottom.
Although a flat-bottom hole in a reference block has been chosen because it offers an optimum
reflecting surface and is reproducible, natural flaws can be of diverse shape and offer non
uniform reflecting surfaces. The origin of a flaw and the amount and type of working that the
product has received will influence the shape of the flaw. For example, a pore in an ingot might
be spherical and therefore scatter most of the sound away from the search unit, reflecting back
only a small amount to produce a flaw echo. However, when worked by forging or rolling, a pore
usually becomes elongated and flat and therefore reflects more sound back to the search unit.
On the screen, the height of the echo indication from a hole varies with the distance of the hole
from the front (entry) surface in a predictable manner based on near-field and far-field effects,
depending on the test frequency and search-unit size, as long as the grain size of the material is
not large. Where grain size is large, this normal variation can be altered.
Figure 44 shows the differences in ultrasonic transmissibility that can be encountered in
reference blocks of a material with two different grain sizes. It can be seen in Fig. 44 that for the
austenitic stainless steel inspected, increasing the grain size affected the curve of indication
height versus distance from the entry surface so that the normal increase in height with distance
in the near field did not occur. This was caused by rapid attenuation of ultrasound in the large-
grain stainless steel. In some cases where the grain size is quite large, it may not even be possible
to obtain a back reflection at normal test frequencies.
In the inspection of aluminum, a single set of reference blocks can be used for most parts
regardless of alloy or wrought mill product. This is considered acceptable practice because
ultrasonic transmissibility is about the same for all aluminum alloy compositions. For ferrous
alloys, however, ultrasonic transmissibility can vary considerably with composition.
Consequently, a single set of reference blocks cannot be used when inspecting various products
made of carbon steels, stainless steels, tool steels, low-alloy steels, and high-temperature alloys.
For example, if a reference block prepared from fine-grain steel were used to set the level of test
sensitivity and the material being inspected were coarse grained, flaws could be quite large
before they would yield an indication equal to that obtained from the bottom of the hole in the
reference block. Conversely, if a reference block prepared from coarse-grain steel were used
when inspecting fine-grain steel, the instrument could be so sensitive that minor discontinuities
would appear to be major flaws. Thermal treatment can also have an appreciable effect on the
ultrasonic transmissibility of steel. For this reason, the stage in the fabrication process at which
the ultrasonic inspection is performed may be important. In some cases, it may determine
whether or not a satisfactory ultrasonic inspection can be performed.
The size of a flaw that produces a rejectable indication will depend on grain size, depth of the
flaw below the entry surface, and test frequency. When acceptance or rejection is based on
indications that equal or exceed a specified percentage of the back reflection, rejectable
indications may be caused by smaller flaws in coarse-grain steel than in finegrain steel. This
effect becomes less pronounced, or is reversed, as the transducer frequency and corresponding
sensitivity necessary to obtain a predetermined height of back reflection are lowered. Flaw
evaluation may be difficult when the testpiece grain size is large or mixed.
Generally, metallurgical structure such as grain size has an effect on ultrasonic transmissibility
for all metals. The significantly large effect shown in Fig. 44 for type 304 stainless steel is also
encountered in other materials. The magnitude of the effect is frequency dependent, that is, the
higher the test frequency, the greater the attenuation of ultrasound. In any event, when the grain
size approaches ASTM No. 1, the effect is significant regardless of alloy composition or test
frequency.