Pearls:

irritants, iridescence and industry

 Pearl Oysters vs. Edible Oysters

Most people know that precious

pearls are made by pearl oysters
(which, by the way, are different
from the common edible oyster-- Pearl oyster
more closely related to scallops
than to true oysters).

Edible oysters (true oysters) can

also produce pearls, but these
are not nacreous (edible oysters
do not secrete nacre--calcitic
shells produce lustreless
calcareous concretions). Edible oyster
 Which Critters Make Pearls ?

However, pearls can also be

made by many other bivalves
(e.g. mussels), as well as some
gastropods (e.g. conchs), and
even cephalopods (Nautilus).

Basically, any mollusc that Queen conch Abalone

(a gastropod) (a gastropod)
secretes a shell is capable of
producing a pearl, but high-
lustre (nacreous) pearls are
limited to molluscs with a
nacreous (aragonitic) layer.

The conchs and blue mussels

do not secrete nacre, so their Edible blue mussel Pen shell
pearls are not nacreous. (a bivalve) (a bivalve)
 Largest Pearl (from Philippines; collected 1934)
The largest known pearl comes
from the world’s largest Giant Clam
(Tridacna gigas).

It is known as the “Pearl of Allah” as

it was found by a Muslim diver and
though to resemble a turbaned face.

It is not nacreous.

Irregular, brain shaped, blister pearl

(hemispherical pearls attached to
shell).

The pearl measures 23 cm long and

weighs 6.35 kg (14 lbs).

The clam itself weighed 160 Ibs.

 How a Pearl Forms
It is no coincidence that the characteristics
of pearls, such as colour and lustre, match
the characteristics of the nacreous layer in
the molluscs that make them.

Nacreous pearls, like mother of pearl, are

composed of nacre and are built by the
epithelial (surface) cells of mantle tissue.

Any foreign body that irritates the mantle

tissue and cannot be expelled by the
mollusc can form the nucleus of a pearl
Cross section of natural
(the mollusc reduces irritation by pearl showing layers of
surrounding the irritating body with smooth aragonite (separated by
layers of nacre). layers of conchiolin).

Rarely do grains of sand form the nucleus Note that light penetrates
of a pearl (oysters are quite efficient at through the pearl, giving it a
expelling sediment particles) warm glow throughout.
 Blister Pearls

The most common type of

pearls in nature are blister
pearls (pearls adhering to the
nacreous layer of the shell).

Blister pearls form when an

irritant (often a parasite)
becomes trapped between the
shell and the mantle tissue or
tries to drill through the shell
from the outside.

The oyster (or other mollusc)

simply covers over the irritant
with nacre, forming a blister.
 Blister
Parasite/intruder pearl Blister Pearls
Nacreous layer (blue)

Mantle (grey)

Nacreous layer

In this remarkable specimen,

Prismatic layer
In this case, nacre was secreted
around a clam that managed to
bore into an abalone shell from
the outside of the shell.
a fish somehow got trapped
between the mantle and
nacreous surface of a pearl
oyster. The fish has been
covered with nacre, forming a
blister.
 Free pearls
Nacreous layer (blue)

Free pearl

Mantle (grey)

Free pearls are formed less readily

than blister pearls.
This is because the irritant must
be completely surrounded by
nacre-secreting epithelial cells of
the mantle and held away from the
nacreous layer of the shell.
 Free Pearls

In most cases, natural free pearls

form by the intrusion of a parasite.
Movement of a parasite stimulates
an invagination of the epithelium.

Epithelial tissue completely

surrounds the invader, forming a
pearl sac in deeper levels of the shell
mantle. (nacreous layer)
parasite
Nacre is secreted on all sides of the epithelial cells
invader, forming a free pearl. of mantle

Natural free pearls are formed deep

within mantle tissue or in the gonad
(if epithelial cells are moved there
by the invading parasite).
 Properties of Pearls
The same properties valued in mother of pearl
are valued in pearls: lustre, colour and orient.

As for mother of pearl, high reflectivity and

internal reflection determine the lustre of pearls.

The basic colour of a pearl (colour body) is

dependent on pigments in conchiolin (dark
pearls tend to have thick layers of dark-coloured
conchiolin, whereas white pearls have thin layers
of light-coloured conchiolin). Conchiolin colour
varies among various species of pearl oysters. Black pearls are produced
by oysters that have a black
As in mother of pearl, the orient (iridescence) in nacreous layer (the black
a pearl is caused by the breakup of white light colour results from high
into colours of the spectrum by surface relief and concentrations of black
the refractive/reflective properties of aragonite pigment in the conchiolin)
crystals.
 How rare are natural pearls ?
One out of about 10,000-15,000 pearl oysters will produce a natural
free pearl

Most of these lack the desired spherical shape, but large, irregular
pearls (called Baroque pearls) have commanded high prices
throughout history.

Note the term “Baroque” (originally

from the Portuguese term barroco,
meaning unpredictable or elaborate),
was used to describe pearls long
before it gained meaning in a art or
music.

Baroque pearl set in gold

 Fossil pearls
As the nacreous layer of shells can
sometimes be preserved in the fossil
record, so too can pearls (although
these are extremely rare).

These are fossil pearls of pen shells

from Eocene (50 million years old)
London Clay – they retain their nacreous
lustre due to exceptional conditions of
preservation (most importantly, lack of
dissolution)

Pearls in fossil pen shell

Modern pen shell with pearls
 Cultured Pearl Industry
The practise of perliculture has greatly increased the availability of
pearls to the general public.

Wild pearl oysters have been nearly driven to extinction in Hawaii

and Tahiti. Extensive pearl farming takes the pressure off these
natural sources.

Populations of wild pearl oysters are also threatened by pollution.

Some advantages of perliculture include:

1. Better pearl count to oyster ratio

2. Some control over pearl shape
3. Control over pearl size.

It is, however, a very labour-intensive industry

 The Cultured Pearl Industry : Oyster Surgery 101

Oysters, raised in cages or nets (mostly to prevent predation by

other animals), are anaesthetized so that the oysters relax their
adductor muscle and open their shell.

They are now ready for tissue implant.


Epithelial mantle tissue of
donor oysters are cut into
small strips.
In each recipient oyster, a
slice of mantle tissue, plus
a nucleation bead
(generally made from
nacre of freshwater
clams), is inserted into the
gonad (far removed from
nacreous layer of shell).
The latter ensures that the
pearl remains free
(separate from the shell
nacreous layer).
A technician cuts
epithelial mantle
tissue to be
implanted in a
cultured pearl
oyster.
Shells of freshwater
mussels are cut and
polished to make nucleation
beads for cultured pearls.
A nucleation
bead and a strip
of donor tissue
are inserted
in the gonad of
the pearl oyster
A pearl sac forms in the gonad.
The epithelial mantle tissue continues
to secrete nacre and, if all goes well,
covers the bead with nacre to form a
free pearl.

Natural pearls generally have a

large amount of nacre, relative to
the diameter of the nucleus.
Large nucleus
Cultured pearls only have a thin (nucleation bead)
rind of nacre surrounding a larger
nucleus (the thickness of the
nacreous rind must be at least
15 % of the total diameter of the Small nucleus
pearl to be worth selling).
Natural pearl Cultured pearl
 Success Rate of Perliculture
The ratio of pearls per number of oysters is higher in cultured oysters than
wild oysters, but the yield is still surprisingly low.

Under the best circumstances, out of every 1,000 oysters grown at a

Japanese pearl farm:

500 die during the culturing period

250 produce poor-quality pearls
200 produce saleable pearls of low to medium quality
50 produce top-grade, gem-quality pearls (so 1 out of 20 oysters).

We must assume that the surgery, presence of the nucleation bead and
close-quarters environment of the nets have a highly detrimental effect on
oyster viability. Of course those that produce high quality pearls are
generally also killed in the extraction process.

It takes about 2 years to produce a marketable pearl with a layer of nacre

about 0.4 millimetres thick (pearl size varies according to the size of the
nucleation bead inserted in the oyster). The average diameter of Japanese
pearls is about 7 millimetres.
Major Pearl-Culturing Centres
(not to be memorized- just for general interest):

Pearl Oysters (various species)

Japan
Australia
South Sea Nations (Papua New Guinea,
Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand)
French Polynesia (e.g. Tahiti)
Mexico

Freshwater Clams (various species)

China
Japan
Thailand
India
 Mabé Pearls
A fairly new type of cultured pearl, technically
a blister or cavity pearl, is called the Mabé
pearl.

To produce mabé pearls, hollow, flat-

bottomed, plastic domes are inserted in the
space between the mantle and nacreous layer
of the pearl oyster shell (adhered to the
nacreous layer). The oyster secretes nacre
on these domes.

In a year or less, the mabés are cut from the

oyster shell and the plastic domes removed.

The hollow interior of each pearl is filled with

wax (sometimes coloured to give the pearl a
slight colour tint) for support, and a disc of
mother of pearl is glued to the bottom.
Mabé pearls are typically used in pieces of jewellery that
do not necessitate a perfectly spherical shape (e.g.
earrings). Obviously, many different pearl shapes are
possible in this technique through use of variably shaped
plastic “nuclei”.
 Prototypes of Mabé Pearls

Although Mabé pearls are a

Blister pearl
relatively recent invention, it is Buddhas
interesting to note that the same (5th century)
basic method of blister pearling
bivalves was used by the Chinese
as early as the 5th century A.D.

Carved pieces of ivory, ceramic and

shell were inserted in freshwater
clams to “pearlize” the object.
Modern blister pearl
Elaborate blister pearls are still of Mao
being made in China today.
Thanks for you attention
 Nacre:
the natural beauty of mother of pearl
 Mother Of Pearl
Mother of pearl is a common
term for lustrous, iridescent
material forming the inner gastropods
surface of (molluscan)
seashells.
Turban shell Abalone
The material comprising
mother of pearl is called nacre.
bivalves
Nacre production is
widespread among molluscs,
the invertebrate group
(Phylum) that includes the Pearl oyster Freshwater clam
bivalves (clams, mussels and
oysters), the gastropods
(snails) and cephalopods cephalopod
(primarily Nautilus and extinct
ammonites)

Nautilus
 The Mantle: A Common Characteristic of Molluscs

All molluscs possess:

A fleshy foot, a radula (rasping organ-bivalves have lost this feature), a
digestive system, and gills (labelled “ctenidium” here)…
…but most importantly, for purposes of this lecture, a mantle (a fleshy
membrane of tissue that surrounds the visceral mass).

Generic mollusc
(showing features common to all molluscs)
 The Mantle: The Key to Shell Construction
The mantle not only serves to protect delicate internal tissues,
but is also responsible for shell secretion (in forms that have a
shell). Calcium in molluscan blood reacts with dissolved carbon
dioxide to result in the precipitation of solid calcium carbonate
used in the construction of the various layers of the shell.
 Function of the Mantle

Prismatic periostracum

At the leading edge of growth, layer

the mantle secretes prisms of Nacreous
calcium carbonate (aragonite layer (water-filled space)
or calcite).

The mantle then covers the

prismatic layer with tablets of Cross section of pearl oyster shell
aragonite nacre (this is the Prismatic
mother of pearl layer layer
observed on the shell
Nacreous
interior). layer

Note that when shell Flaps of

mantle
secretion is not taking place,
tissue
the mantle separates from the
shell.

Interior of pearl oyster shell

On top of the prismatic layer, an
organic material called the
periostracum is deposited (providing
protection from dissolution and
mechanical damage and, to some Shell exterior
extent, camouflage). (covered by periostracum)

The drab exterior of the pearl oyster

(and other molluscs) conceals the
beauty within. Don’t judge a book by
its cover !
 Internal Structure of Shell

Prismatic layer
(dull)

Nacreous layer
(pearly)

The prismatic and nacreous layers have different optical properties due to
differences in crystal habit. The prismatic layer (composed mostly of blocky
prisms of calcite or aragonite) tends to be weakly translucent to opaque.

The nacreous layer (composed mostly of plate-like tablets of aragonite), is

shiny, translucent and often very colourful.

The smooth fine laminar surface of the nacreous layer allows mantle tissue to
slide against the shell without being damaged.
 A Closer Look at Nacre
Nacre is largely, but not entirely, composed of aragonite crystals; films of
organic matter (specifically as the substance conchiolin) and water are
also present within the nacreous layer.

The general composition of mother of pearl (and pearls) is as follows:

Aragonite (82-86 %)
Tablets of aragonite form the framework of nacre

Conchiolin (10-14 %)
This is a complex organic substance (C32H48N2O11) made of
polysaccharides (complex sugars) and protein fibres.

Water (2-4 %)
Most of this water occurs in the conchiolin layers.
 Structure of Nacre: Cross sectional view
Sheets of aragonite tablets
held together by conchiolin
Thicker sheets of conchiolin
between sheets of aragonite
tablets
This is an edgewise (cross
sectional--shell cut across its
length or width) view of nacre as
observed under SEM (conchiolin
has been dissolved in this sample)
Tablets of aragonite are glued to
adjacent tablets with conchiolin.
Individual tablets can form thicker
sheets, with intervening sheets of
conchiolin.
Structure of Nacre: Plan view

This is an surface (plan) view of

nacre as observed under SEM.

In this image, the hexagonal

shape of the aragonite tablets can
be observed.

Note that the aragonite sheets do

not uniformly cover the surface;
they partially overlap one another,
forming a step-like pattern.
 Lustre
The quality of lustre in nacre is a
function of two major things:

1. Quality of surface reflection:

Aragonite tablets behave as Surface reflection
mirrors. The ability of the
surface layer to reflect light
determines the brilliance of the
lustre.
2. Quality and depth of internal
Internal reflection
reflection: Aragonite tablets also
behave like windows – they
transmit some of the incoming
light. Light can be reflected off
internal crystal surfaces, giving
nacre a warm internal glow.
Generally, the thicker the nacre
is, the more reflective (shiny) it
will tend to be as a result.
 Orient
The iridescent play of colours in nacre is called orient

The intensity of orient is dependent on similar factors as those that

produce lustre: the reflection of light off surfaces and the behaviour of light
within the nacre (internal reflection, diffraction, dispersion).

Details of these concepts are impossible to explain without the use of

mathematical equations, so we’ll just stick to the basic ideas!

At least you should know (remember) that

visible light and other EM radiation has
wave properties, and therefore, is subject to
refraction, diffraction, dispersion and
interference (constructive and destructive).
 Orient: Influence of Surface Relief

One contributor to orient is the splitting

of light waves into individual colours of
the spectrum due to the regular
arrangement of layered bands of
grooves and ridges on a surface.

At certain angles of viewing, waves of

certain colours (each reflected at a
specific angle) are reinforced, making
those colours more brilliant. This is grooves and ridges on nacre
called constructive interference.

The same principle applies to

iridescence of the surface of a compact
disc which is characterized by
alternating lines of pits and ridges
(lands). These produce what is known
as a diffraction grating.
Orient: Influence of Refraction and Reflection

Individual crystals of aragonite

can also act as tiny prisms,
refracting light and dispersing it
into the colours of the rainbow.

This effect is further enhanced

by the interaction of outgoing
light waves (refraction and
dispersion going in and out) that
have bounced off multiple
crystal surfaces within the
sheets of nacre (constructive
interference).
 Uses of Nacre

Nacre has many applications in raw

form.

A popular practice among some shell

collectors is to remove the outer
prismatic layer of a shell to reveal the
more attractive nacreous layer.

It is also a popular material for jewelry,

inlays in musical instruments, and
various other ornamental applications.

Nacre has also been widely used for

making buttons.
 Ammolite: Fossil Nacre
A gemstone that has only recently
entered the market is ammolite. modern
Nautilus
Ammolite, fossil ammonite nacre, is
rather rare because under normal
preservational circumstances,
aragonite either dissolves or is
recrystallized to the more stable form
of calcium carbonate, calcite.

As you will recall, ammonites are

extinct relatives of the Nautilus,
ammonite
squids, octopuses and cuttlefishes.

Like Nautilus, ammonites had a

chambered shell filled with gas and
liquid for buoyancy regulation.
 Orient in Ammolite

Ammonites with exceptionally well

preserved nacre occur in
the Late Cretaceous Bearpaw
Shale, south of Lethbridge Alberta
(about 70 million years old).

For reasons still unanswered, the

play of colours in ammonite nacre
from the Bearpaw Shale have been
greatly enhanced in intensity due to
constructive interference (this might
have to do with slight deformation
of aragonite crystals within the
nacreous layers) or the presence of
impurities.
 Orient in Ammolite
Ammolite is somewhat difficult to
work with because it readily splits
apart along planes between
aragonite sheets (low tenacity)

It is also quite soft and is prone to

scratching (low hardness).

The ammolite must therefore be

processed in a different way than
most gemstones.

Sheets of ammolite are ground

and polished, attached to a
backing (either pieces of the
original matrix or harder material),
and capped with a cabochon of
quartz or spinel (required to
protect it from scratching or
splitting).
Thanks For your attention