Criminology- Field Notebook

Samantha Wilkinson

SOC 354. 500

Spring 2017

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 Table of Contents

Entry One: The Study of Crime

Entry Two: How Much Crime

Entry Three: Victims of Crime

Entry Four: Rational Choice Theory

Entry Five: Abnormal Trait Theory

Entry Six: Social Structure Theory

Entry Seven: Social Processes Theory

Entry Eight: Conflict Theory

Entry Nine: Developmental Processes

Entry Ten: Violent Crime

Entry Eleven: Political Crime and Terrorism

Entry Twelve: Economic Crime

Entry Thirteen: Public Order Crimes

Entry Fourteen: Cyber Crimes

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 Entry One: The Study of Crime

Preface

Criminology is the study of crime. Criminology utilizes theories, statistics, and cases to examine
the causes of crime and understand why people choose to commit crimes. Criminologists
measure, understand, and look to control crime and deviance. Criminal law plays a role in the
life of a criminologist because criminal behavior is tied to criminology. Criminology and
criminal justice are not the same thing, and looking through the material in module one of this
course has taught me the difference between the two.
Material

PORTLAND STATE ONLINE > NEWS & RESOURCES > ARTICLES > THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE

The Differences Between Criminology and

Criminal Justice

If youve ever watched an episode of the hit TV show Law & Order, you
know each episode is based on a two-part formula: one half examines what
led to the crime, and the other focuses on what happens to the criminal in
court. When it comes to the study of criminal activity, Law & Order, like any
dramatization, has its inaccuracies, and we certainly wouldnt recommend it
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as serious study material. However, its formula does help to illustrate the
difference between criminology and criminal justice, two pillars of
knowledge necessary for a greater understanding of crime and effective
responses to it.

Occasionally, criminology and criminal justice incorrectly treated

interchangeably in public forums. Despite certain shared characteristics,
the two areas of study differ in several ways. Criminology is by definition
the study of crime. Its a social science that shares characteristics with
sociology. Criminologists are question askers and information seekers,
always searching for the reason behind why crimes are committed and how
they can be prevented in the future. Criminology involves extensive
research and analysis, and ideally that research and analysis helps create
more appropriate and effective social responses to crime.

Criminal justice, on the other hand, is more closely focused on how the law
is made and enforcement and how punishment is carried out. It examines
the workings of the justice system at all stages, from the moment a crime is
detected, to police, to the courts, and all the way through corrections. More
simply, criminal justice studies center on what happens after a crime is
committed and how the legal system functions in legislating, enforcing
laws, punishing offenders, responding to victims, and ultimately impacts
crime.

Both areas of study require a comprehensive understanding of the legal

system as a whole and how crime impacts our society. Criminology and
criminal justice are not mutually exclusive areas of study. Ideally, they
should be used in tandem to create a knowledge base that provides unique
insight into the social determinants of crime and how the justice system
better address it. However, certain professions draw more on one area of
study than the other. Criminology might prove more suitable for those
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interested in a career in education and research about crime, or those who
are interested in working in high levels of criminal justice agencies. For
those gravitating toward more skill-based roles in forensic science and
crime scene investigation, or law enforcement roles in security, customs, or
police work, criminal justice would be more suitable.

Criminology and criminal justice are distinct yet complementary areas of

study that, when paired together, provide great career flexibility in criminal
justice professions. Knowledge from both areas can be applied in a variety
of settings, and separately they can be used to home in on specialized
careers. Knowing the difference can help you choose the focus will suit you
best.

This article has been featured on American Jail

Association. For more information, click here. The use of this logo is
approved by AJA.

Conclusion

I am a criminal justice major, and through this course I have learned the difference between
criminal justice and criminology. I have previously taken a criminal deviance course, which I
feel helped me have a better understanding of criminology and how it relates to criminal justice.
As the first chapter in our course textbook pointed out, television shows are not always an
accurate representation of criminology. The above article was well written and something I feel
captures what I learned in this course while relating to my major and other aspects of my
personal life.

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 Entry Two: How Much Crime

Preface

Criminologists must utilize crime data, and the main sources are the Uniform Crime Report and
the National Crime Victimization Survey, and the National Incident-Based Reporting System.
Using this information, criminologists are able to see the trends in crime rates and conduct
research from there. There are many factors that influence crime rates including age composition
of a population, the number of immigrants, number of guns, drug use, availability of emergency
medical services, the state of the economy, and criminal opportunities. These factors have an
impact on the crime rates that are reported in crime data. Criminologists can only go by what the
data presents for research, but the numbers are not always an accurate representation of what is
truly going on. There is a hidden figure with all crime statistics. The Dark Figure of Crime
occurs from individuals not reporting crimes, different definitions of crime, and willingness of
law enforcement agencies to report crimes.
Material

I researched more about the Dark Figure of Crime and came upon the article entitled On
Exploring the Dark Figure of Crime by Albert D. Biderman and Albert J. Reiss, Jr.
Conclusion

It is very well known to criminologists that the crime data that is reported is not an exhaustive
list of the crimes that are occurring. When conducting research and forming conclusions based
on crime reports is important to understand that the data is fully objective, it is subjective based
on how the information was collected and reported. Criminologists must conduct their research
with an understanding that crime data should only be part of the information they utilize.
The concept of the Dark Figure of Crime is one that is taught in the introduction course of
criminal justice, and a recurring topic throughout criminal justice courses. I think it is important
for this information to be presented in both criminal justice and sociology courses to expose
students and professionals to the details of information that is gathered and utilized in crime
reports.

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 Entry Three: Victims of Crime

Preface

In the third module of this course, I learned about victims of crime and the victimology. The
costs to victims of crimes is very high and varied depending on the crime. There are sometimes
high financial costs and pain and suffering costs. Victims may experience stress when the crime
occurs, and most of the time, stress related to the crime long after the crime has been committed.
There are many theories as to why an individual may become a victim. Understanding the costs
endured by a victim and why that individual became a victim will help criminologists and policy
makers find ways to help victims.
Material

Last summer I spent seven weeks in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania studying at Carnegie Mellon
University. I was selected to have this experience through a program called Public Policy and
International Affairs. The programs mission is To promote the inclusion and full participation
of underrepresented groups in public service and to advance their leadership roles throughout our
civic institutions serving domestic and international affairs. The other students selected to
attend Carnegie Mellon University were from various backgrounds, ethnicities, gender,
socioeconomic backgrounds, and geographic locations.
About one-third of my cohort members were lesbian or gay. Getting to live and study with them
provided me time to get to learn more about the struggles they have and continue to endure based
on their sexual presence. My roommate, Cindy, was from New York and worked in an
organization that helps students in middle and high school who are a part of the LGBTQ
community. Cindy explained to me some of the issues that people in her community face
including hate crimes based on their lifestyle. She mentioned how some of the greatest costs
faced by her and other victims was the emotional cost of having to be in constant fear of what
others may choose to do to them at any given moment. During our time in Pittsburgh, one of the
days was Pride Day, a celebration Cindy takes part in New York each year. She had be rainbow
colored bandana that she had been wearing around our room. When we left to go out for the day,
she removed her bandana. I asked her why she would do that on the celebratory day, and her
response made me sad. She said she did not know the area we were in well enough to know if it
would be okay for her to wear her bandana. This immediately made me put myself in her place
and try to understand the constant fear that she has to live in because of experiences se has been
through and helped others through.
Conclusion

The third module of our course dealt with victims and victimology, and allowed me to apply
personal experiences with the information that was provided and outside research I did. I think
that providing victim service programs such as victim compensation, victim advocates, public
education, crisis intervention, victim-offender reconciliation programs, victim notification, and

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legal protection for victims is necessary to help victims attempt to recover from the crimes that
have occurred. Victims will live with the costs, physical and mental, of the crime they were a
victim of forever, but through resources provided, some of the long-term effects could be
reduced.

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 Entry Four: Rational Choice Theory

Preface

One theory of crime is the rational choice theory. This theory states that crime is a function of
decision-making, where the offender weighs the benefits with the consequences possible. Most
individuals understand the criminal acts are wrong, but many individuals still choose to commit
crimes because they feel the benefits of committing the act outweigh the consequences. The
fourth module of this course discussed the rationality of violence. Violence can be used to prove
a point or satisfy a personal desire. In the following material, violence was used by a criminal
who was upset by the recent police shootings, and wanted justice by killing white people,
especially white cops.
Material

Dallas sniper attack: 5 officers killed, suspect identified

By Faith Karimi, Catherine E. Shoichet and Ralph Ellis, CNN
Story highlights
Dallas mayor says Johnson was the lone shooter
Bomb-making materials found in his home, police say

(CNN)The ambush started with gunshots that killed five officers and sent screaming crowds
scrambling for cover. It ended when a Dallas police bomb squad robot killed a gunman after
negotiations failed.
Investigators identified the dead attacker as Micah Xavier Johnson, 25, of Mesquite, Texas, a
military veteran who'd served in Afghanistan.
Police searched his home Friday and found bomb-making materials, ballistic vests, rifles,
ammunition and a personal journal of combat tactics. They are analyzing information in the
journal, police said in a statement.
Investigators determined Johnson was "the lone shooter in this incident," Dallas Mayor Mike
Rawlings said, confirming what federal officials had told CNN.
"This was a mobile shooter who had written manifestos on how to shoot and move, shoot and
move, and that's what he did," Rawlings said at a news conference.
"As we've started to unravel this fishing knot, we've come to realize this shooting came from one
building at different levels."

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Rawlings said investigators' initial confusion about the number of shooters was partly because
about 20 protesters wearing protective vests and carrying rifles scattered when the shooting
started.
Authorities said three suspects were in custody earlier Friday, but later told CNN they had been
questioned and released.

'Well-planned' attack
Dallas police Chief David Brown provided more details during a prayer rally Friday.
"Through our investigation of some of the suspects, it's revealed to us that this was a well-
planned, well-thought-out, evil tragedy," he said.
Nobody has been charged, Gov. Greg Abbott said, but police want to make sure every lead is
investigated.
The deadly gunfire erupted in Dallas after videos showing two African-American men shot by
police in Louisiana and Minnesota spurred protests and debate over police use of force across the
country.
Photos: Officers shot during Dallas protest
Five police officers were killed and seven others wounded in the ambush. It was the deadliest
single incident for U.S. law enforcement since September 11, 2001. Two civilians were also hurt,
the Dallas mayor's office said.
Conclusion

The above excerpt of a CNN article about the shooting of Dallas police officers, explains how
the shooter thought and planned out the attack. The planning process was extensive and showed
that rational choice was utilized in this case. Some forms of punishment and deterrence are not
even enough to stop people from committing violent acts. In this case, the fear of death was not
enough to stop the shooter from going forward with his planned attack.

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 Entry Five: Abnormal Trait Theory

Preface

Trait theory is the view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological or physiological
traits. There are multiple biochemical conditions that can impact an individual who commits
crimes including genetics. Behavior theory states that people are not born with the tendency to
act violently, instead they learn this behavior. One example of how people learn to act violently
includes media.
Material

SundayReview

Does Media Violence Lead to the Real

Thing?
Gray Matter

By VASILIS K. POZIOS, PRAVEEN R. KAMBAM and H. ERIC BENDER AUG. 23, 2013

EARLIER this summer the actor Jim Carrey, a star of the new superhero movie Kick-Ass 2,
tweeted that he was distancing himself from the film because, in the wake of the Sandy Hook
massacre, in all good conscience I cannot support the movies extensive and graphically
violent scenes.

Mark Millar, a creator of the Kick-Ass comic book series and one of the movies executive
producers, responded that he has never quite bought the notion that violence in fiction leads to
violence in real life any more than Harry Potter casting a spell creates more boy wizards in real
life.

While Mr. Carreys point of view has its adherents, most people reflexively agree with Mr.
Millar. After all, the logic goes, millions of Americans see violent imagery in films and on TV
every day, but vanishingly few become killers.

But a growing body of research indicates that this reasoning may be off base. Exposure to violent
imagery does not preordain violence, but it is a risk factor. We would never say: Ive smoked
cigarettes for a long time, and I dont have lung cancer. Therefore theres no link between
smoking cigarettes and lung cancer. So why use such flawed reasoning when it comes to media
violence?

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There is now consensus that exposure to media violence is linked to actual violent behavior a
link found by many scholars to be on par with the correlation of exposure to secondhand smoke
and the risk of lung cancer. In a meta-analysis of 217 studies published between 1957 and 1990,
the psychologists George Comstock and Haejung Paik found that the short-term effect of
exposure to media violence on actual physical violence against a person was moderate to large in
strength.

Mr. Comstock and Ms. Paik also conducted a meta-analysis of studies that looked at the
correlation between habitual viewing of violent media and aggressive behavior at a point in time.
They found 200 studies showing a moderate, positive relationship between watching television
violence and physical aggression against another person.

Other studies have followed consumption of violent media and its behavioral effects throughout
a persons lifetime. In a meta-analysis of 42 studies involving nearly 5,000 participants, the
psychologists Craig A. Anderson and Brad J. Bushman found a statistically significant small-to-
moderate-strength relationship between watching violent media and acts of aggression or
violence later in life.

In a study published in the journal Pediatrics this year, the researchers Lindsay A. Robertson,
Helena M. McAnally and Robert J. Hancox showed that watching excessive amounts of TV as a
child or adolescent in which most of the content contains violence was causally associated
with antisocial behavior in early adulthood. (An excessive amount here means more than two
hours per weekday.)

The question of causation, however, remains contested. Whats missing are studies on whether
watching violent media directly leads to committing extreme violence. Because of the relative
rarity of acts like school shootings and because of the ethical prohibitions on developing studies
that definitively prove causation of such events, this is no surprise.

Of course, the absence of evidence of a causative link is not evidence of its absence. Indeed, in
2005, The Lancet published a comprehensive review of the literature on media violence to date.
The bottom line: The weight of the studies supports the position that exposure to media violence
leads to aggression, desensitization toward violence and lack of sympathy for victims of
violence, particularly in children.

In fact the surgeon general, the National Institute of Mental Health and multiple professional
organizations including the American Medical Association, the American Psychiatric
Association and the American Psychological Association all consider media violence
exposure a risk factor for actual violence.

To be fair, some question whether the correlations are significant enough to justify considering
media violence a substantial public health issue. And violent behavior is a complex issue with a
host of other risk factors.

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But although exposure to violent media isnt the only or even the strongest risk factor for
violence, its more easily modified than other risk factors (like being male or having a low
socioeconomic status or low I.Q.).

Certainly, many questions remain and more research needs to be done to determine what specific
factors drive a person to commit acts of violence and what role media violence might play.

But first we have to consider how best to address those questions. To prevent and treat public
health issues like AIDS, cancer and heart disease, we focus on modifying factors correlated with
an increased risk of a bad outcome. Similarly, we should strive to identify risk factors for
violence and determine how they interact, who may be particularly affected by such factors and
what can be done to reduce modifiable risk factors.

Naturally, debate over media violence stirs up strong emotions because it raises concerns about
the balance between public safety and freedom of speech.

Even if violent media are conclusively found to cause real-life violence, we as a society may still
decide that we are not willing to regulate violent content. Thats our right. But before we make
that decision, we should rely on evidence, not instinct.

Vasilis K. Pozios, Praveen R. Kambam and H. Eric Bender are

forensic psychiatrists and the founders of the consulting group
Broadcast Thought.
Conclusion

Research is still ongoing about the effects of violent media on an individuals decision to reenact
the violence in real life. There have been situations where criminals have cited television shows
or video games as reasons for their violence, but there is still the multitude of people who view
violent media and do not choose to commit violent acts. Violent media is a controllable part of
life, and I believe limiting the viewing of violent content, especially for younger children, will
help reduce some violent crimes that are committed.

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 Entry Six: Social Structure Theory

Preface

Social structure has a major influence on crime. The American Dream has become one that puts
an emphasis on material possessions and monetary wealth as signs of success. The concept of
strain is used to describe the emotions and feelings of those who are not able to obtain the wealth
and material possessions that our culture has defined as needed for self-worth.
Material

When people are unable to obtain the wealth and material goods they desire, they will feel anger,
frustration, and resentment. These feelings can lead to an individual choosing to commit crimes
to achieve the goals they have.
An acquaintance I had before suffered from experiencing strain. He felt that everyone was out to
get him and that no matter what he did he would never achieve the possessions he desired. I did
what was in my power to help relieve some of the strain he felt. I helped him obtain jobs to have
an income, apply for a program that would help him receive his high school diploma, and I
helped financially with getting him a vehicle. All these things along with emotional support for
events that negatively impacted his entire life were not enough to overcome the strain he felt. He
ended up turning to unconventional methods to satisfy his desire for his definition of self-worth.
Selling illicit drugs and burglarizing homes led to the negative consequence of jail time and a
permanent record.
Trying to help someone who is experiencing strain and other feeling explained throughout the
sixth module was frustrating, but something that helped me understand the feelings individuals
suffer when they are not in a position to achieve the goals society deems necessary for success
and the material possessions society and media have made seem necessary.
Conclusion

The example of my acquaintance who suffered strain is not unique. There are many people all
over the world who do not have what they need to survive. Not only are there people struggling
to obtain the necessary resources to live, society is placing a high value on wealth and material
goods to determine self-worth. The disadvantages that people in lower socioeconomic classes
has a major impact on what decisions they make. Compared to other socioeconomic classes, they
do not have the items and opportunities that others have. When people experience strain, they
will take whatever means necessary to obtain what they need.
I think having more resources available to people in need will help with the problem of strain.
Financial resources are a major component to helping those in need, but also providing
emotional support will be crucial in helping people. Some people end up in troubled
neighborhoods because of traumatizing experiences they has from a young age. Looking at
multiple ways to provide support will be a good start in helping those suffering strain.

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 Entry Seven: Social Processes Theory

Preface

Social process theory is the view that criminality is a function of peoples interactions with
various organizations, institutions, and processes in society. Factors such as family relations,
educational experience, peer relations, and religion and belief all play a role in what a person
decides to do. One type of social process theory is social reaction or labeling theory. Placing a
label on someone, whether formal or informal will have major consequences on that individual.
Material

Last semester in my criminal deviance course, we spent a good amount of time focusing on the
effects of social reaction theory. There are informal and formal labels that people can receive.
One of the worst formal labels an individual can receive is that of a convict. When someone is
labeled as a convict they lose many rights and freedoms including the right to vote and carry a
firearm. They also limit the possible jobs they can obtain. The label also brings a negative stigma
by society of the person being untrustworthy and someone who does not deserve a second
chance to do better.
Formal labels lead to people committing more criminal and deviant acts that puts them in a
vicious cycle of a life filled with crime. Our criminal justice system has an emphasis on
incarceration, and this leads to overcrowded jails and prisons and little help for criminals to be a
productive member of society again. In my opinion, it would be more beneficial for society to
put an emphasis on rehabilitation for some offenders. Helping to rehabilitate people who have
made poor choices will allow for them to reenter society after jail or prison time and be
productive in society. Issues with moving to this mindset would be financial constraints and
changing the public attitude against criminal offenders. Effective planning and work towards a
shift will allow for the highest chances of success with this task.
Conclusion

The seventh module of this course detailed social process theory and the causes and impacts of
the theory. One of the types of this theory is the social reaction theory. This theory has a lot of
implications on society because it can have informal and formal forms. Currently, the United
States has one of the highest incarcerations rates and this is due to our societys lack of desire to
help those who have committed crimes. There are many reasons that may lead an individual to
choose crime as an option, and help can be given to those who want to make a change.

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 Entry Eight: Conflict Theory

Preface

Social conflict is the struggle for power in society. Human behavior in social contexts results
from conflicts between competing groups. Some reasons for social conflict and unrest include
racial and ethnic discrimination.
Material

Beyond the Chokehold:

The Path to Eric
Garners Death
After the fatal confrontation with the police on Staten Island was captured
on video, the focus on an officers chokehold left many questions unexplored.

By AL BAKER, J. DAVID GOODMAN and BENJAMIN MUELLERJUNE 13, 2015

Eric Garner was lumbering along a sidewalk on Staten Island on a July day when an unmarked
police car pulled up.

The plainclothes officers inside knew Mr. Garner well, mostly for selling untaxed cigarettes not
far from the nearby Staten Island Ferry Terminal.

Mr. Garner who at 6 feet 2 inches tall and 395 pounds was hard to miss recognized them,
too. Everyone did, at least among those who hawked cigarettes and cheap goods on that stretch
of Bay Street along Tompkinsville Park. For years, they played a cat-and-mouse game with the
New York City officers who came to arrest them.

As the officers approached, Mr. Garner, 43, shouted at them to back off, according to two
witnesses. He flailed his arms. He refused to be detained or frisked. He had been arrested twice
already that year near the same spot, in March and May, charged both times with circumventing
state tax law.

But on that sweltering day in July, the officers left him with a warning.

It was the first time I ever saw them let him go, said John McCrae, who watched the encounter
near the park. Mr. Garner took that experience to heart, Mr. McCrae said.

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 You figure if it stops them the first time, he said, it might get them to stop the second time.

Photographs of Eric Garner, from left, with his younger brother Emery, for his high school graduation
and with his wife, Esaw, during a family vacation in 2011.

The next time came later that month: July 17, a Thursday.

One of the officers, Justin Damico, returned, accompanied by a different partner, Daniel
Pantaleo. As they moved in, a cellphone camera held by a friend of Mr. Garner recorded the
struggle that would soon be seen by millions.

The chokehold. The swarm of officers. The 11 pleas for breath.

Mr. Garners final words I cant breathe became a rallying cry for a protest movement.
On screens large and small, his last struggle replayed on a loop. Official scrutiny and public
outcry narrowed to focus on the actions of a single officer.

But interviews and previously undisclosed documents obtained by The New York Times provide
new details and a fresh understanding of how the seemingly routine police encounter began, how
it hurtled toward its deadly conclusion and how the police and emergency medical workers
responded.

This was not a chance meeting on the street. It was a product of a police strategy to crack down
on the sort of disorder that, to the police, Mr. Garner represented. Handcuffed and motionless on
the ground, he did not receive immediate aid, and the apparent lapses in protocol prompted a
state inquiry. The first official police report on his death failed to note the key detail that vaulted
the fatal arrest into the national consciousness: that a police officer had wrapped his arm around
Mr. Garners neck.
By

The actions of emergency medical technicians, from arriving at Eric Garners motionless body to
wheeling him away on a stretcher, were captured in a cellphone video.

Mr. Garners death was the start of a succession of police killings that captured national attention
and ignited debate over race and law enforcement. From Michael Brown in Ferguson, Mo., to
Walter Scott in North Charleston, S.C., to Freddie Gray in Baltimore, the deaths of black men at

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the hands of the police have faced a level of scrutiny that would have been unlikely just a year
ago, before Mr. Garner died and before a grand jury in December declined to bring charges in his
death.

Of the unarmed black men killed by the police, most were shot. Mr. Gray died after being
handcuffed without a seatbelt in a Baltimore police van. Mr. Garner, who was unarmed, died at
the bare hands of officers.

Nearly a year after the fatal encounter on Staten Island, the actions of the officers, their
commanders and the emergency medical workers remain the subject of official investigations.

Even as those investigations have yet to yield any public conclusions about the case, the
intervening months have allowed the events that led to Mr. Garners death to come into clearer
focus.

Cellphone video gave the world an unobstructed view of the chokehold, which was found to be a
cause of Mr. Garners death, along with the compression of his chest by officers who helped to
handcuff him. For all the clarity the video seemed to provide, the focus on the chokehold left
largely unexplored crucial events before, during and after the fatal confrontation.

Tensions had been building well before July 17. That day, a lieutenant from the 120th Precinct,
on his way to a meeting, saw a group of men on Bay Street and recognized them as a chronic
source of problems in the area, said Lou Turco, the head of the lieutenants union. The lieutenant
called the precinct. Officers Damico and Pantaleo were sent to address it.

At the scene, the two plainclothes officers moved in, and the supervisors who arrived moments
later never gained control. Two witnesses said they heard a sergeant tell the officers to ease up as
they held Mr. Garner down on the sidewalk. Let up, a beauty store manager, Rodney Lee,
recalled hearing the sergeant say that day. You got him already.

For minutes as Mr. Garner lay on the ground, he was not given oxygen by the responding
emergency medical personnel, who were from Richmond University Medical Center.

Conclusion

The above section of an article about the death of Eric Garner helps illustrate some of the racial
tension that is being experienced in the United States. In the past few years there have been
multiple police shootings involving African Americans being killed by white officers. There are
many details behind each case, but what the majority of people are focusing on is the races of the
involved parties and the social injustice. Conflict theory comes into play here because of the toll
that is being taken on society because of this case and those similar in nature.

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 Entry Nine: Developmental Processes

Preface

Developmental theories are the view that criminality is a dynamic process, influenced by social
experiences, as well as individual characteristics. There are three developmental theories: life
course theory, propensity theory/latent trait theory, and trajectory theory. There are many public
policy implications of developmental theory. There are prevention programs in place to improve
developmental skills, one of them being the Boys and Girls Club.

Material

Our Mission & Story

For more than a century, Boys & Girls Clubs have helped put young people on
the path to great futures.

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Mission

To enable all young people, especially those who need us most, to reach their full
potential as productive, caring, responsible citizens.

Vision

Provide a world-class Club Experience that assures success is within reach of every
young person who enters our doors, with all members on track to graduate from high
school with a plan for the future, demonstrating good character and citizenship, and
living a healthy lifestyle.

History

Boys & Girls Clubs of America had its beginnings in 1860 with three women in Hartford,
Connecticut - Mary Goodwin, Alice Goodwin and Elizabeth Hammersley. Believing that
boys who roamed the streets should have a positive alternative, they organized the first
Club. With character development as the cornerstone of the experience, the Club
focused on capturing boys interests, improving their behavior and increasing their
personal expectations and goals. A cause was born.

History Highlights

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In 1906, several Boys Clubs decided to affiliate. The Federated Boys Clubs in Boston
was formed with 53 member organizations this marked the start of a nationwide
Movement and our national organization.

In 1931, the Boys Club Federation of America became Boys Clubs of America.

In 1956, Boys Clubs of America celebrated its 50th anniversary and received a U.S.
Congressional Charter.

To recognize the fact that girls are a part of our cause, the national organization's name
was changed to Boys & Girls Clubs of America in 1990. Accordingly, Congress
amended and renewed our charter.

2006 marked the Centennial year of Boys & Girls Clubs of America, as we celebrated
100 years of providing hope and opportunity to young people across the country.

Conclusion

The Boys and Girls Club is designed to provide a space for youth who otherwise may not have a
place to go after school. By providing this space for young children to have positive influences
and activities provided, they are more likely to make smart choices in the future and not end up
choosing a life of deviance.
From personal experience, I think these types of organizations are very beneficial for youth. I
have had the opportunity to put on presentations at the local Boys and Girls Club here in
Nacogdoches, and it was a positive experience for me and the children there. Having activities
and structure for children will help them find positive friend groups that will help them through
the tough times of primary and secondary school where many negative influences are present.

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 Entry Ten: Violent Crime

Preface

Violence has many causes including personal traits, human instinct, exposure to violence, child
abuse and neglect, substance abuse, firearm availability, cultural values, and national values.
Violent crimes include rape, murder and homicide, assault and battery, and robbery. More
contemporary forms of interpersonal violence include hate crimes, workplace violence, and
stalking. Stalking is a course of conduct that is directed at a specific person and involves
repeated physical or visual proximity, nonconsensual communication, or verbal, written, or
implied threats sufficient to cause fear in a reasonable person.
Material

Erin Andrews stalker case: 7 things to know

NASHVILLE, TN - MARCH 04: (L-R) Sportscaster Erin Andrews and attorney Bruce Broillet
return to the courtroom for final remarks on March 4, 2016 in Nashville, Tennessee. Andrews is
taking legal action against the operator of the Nashville Marriott at Vanderbilt University, where
she was staying while covering a football game for ESPN, for invasion of privacy in a USD 75
million dollar suit after a man at the hotel took a nude video of her through her hotel room door
peep hole in 2008. (Photo by Erika Goldring/Getty Images)
NASHVILLE, Tenn.

22
Sportscaster Erin Andrews was awarded $55 million in her lawsuit against former insurance
company executive Michael David Barrett and the owner and former operator of the Nashville
Marriott in a case that led to a nude video of Andrews surfacing on the Internet.

Here are seven things to know about the case:

Barrett requested to be in a room near Andrews

In 2008, Andrews was staying at a Nashville, Tennessee, Marriott when Barrett used a peephole
in the door of the hotel room Andrews was in to record video of the former ESPN sportscaster
who now works for Fox Sports. According to Andrews' testimony, Barrett requested to be near
Andrews' hotel room and hotel staff honored that request. "No one ever called me or told me
when I checked in that he asked to be put next to me."

Barrett followed Andrews to multiple hotels

Barrett was not present in the courtroom during the trial, but in videotaped testimony, he
admitted to altering hotel peepholes to record video of Andrews. He admitted to doing so in
hotels in Columbus, Ohio, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in addition to one in Nashville. Barrett
served 20 months after pleading guilty to stalking Andrews in 2009.

Barrett offered the videos to TMZ for payment

When the celebrity gossip site refused the offer, Barrett posted the video online. He said he only
chose Andrews because he saw her trending on Yahoo and she was popular. He recorded the
video for financial gain.

Barrett videotaped other women

Other than Andrews, Barrett admitted on videotaped testimony that he recorded 10 women other
than Andrews.

The video still haunts Andrews

During testimony, Andrews said she continues to have anxiety and suffers from depression
because of the video. "I think about it every day," she said. "One of the worst thoughts I have is
when I walk around a stadium ... there's always that thought, as I walk right by the stands, and I
think, 'My God, everyone in this stadium has seen that video.'"

Andrews said ESPN required her to do an interview before going back to work

Andrews testified that after the video surfaced in 2009, her bosses at ESPN told her she had to do
a sit-down interview to prove she did not purposely leak the video. "That was the only way I was
going to be allowed back," she said. "I didnt want to do it, I didnt want to be a part of it But
this was the only way I was going to be put back on air, so we went to the Oprah show."

23
The jury decided the companies and the stalker should share blame

Jurors said Barrett was responsible for 51 percent of the verdict and the owner and former
operator of the Nashville Marriott at Vanderbilt is responsible for 49 percent.

Conclusion

The threat of stalking is a major issue for many people, and there is usually little done by the
criminal justice system when a case is reported. The Erin Andrews case is an example of when
something more substantial is done by the criminal justice system to punish the offender. This
may have been the case because of the position of Erin Andrews. Stalking is just one case of a
violent crime, and it brings to light some of the issues around violent crimes.

24
 Entry Eleven: Political Crime and Terrorism

Preface

Political crime are the illegal acts that are designed to undermine an existing government and
threaten its survival. Political crimes can include both violent and nonviolent acts and range in
seriousness from dissent, treason, and espionage to violent acts such as terrorism or
assassination. Terrorism has many impacts on a nation. There are the costs of the damage, both
financial and mental, and there are the consequences of steps taken to prevent terrorism.
Material

Did the Patriot Act Change US Attitudes on

Surveillance?
BY SAFIA SAMEE ALI AND HALIMAH ABDULLAH
In the emotional wake of 9/11, a shocked and grieving nation demanded answers and
justice. Lawmakers pledged to provide both with the Patriot Act.

Fifteen years later, the law dramatically expanded the government's ability to gather
surveillance, broadened the definition of terrorism and sought to strengthen border
security. It led to roving wiretaps and the much-criticized collection and storage of U.S.
citizens' phone and internet metadata while requiring communications companies to
hand over that data.

The law, and subsequent revelations about government surveillance of Americans, also
helped push a GOP-dominated Congress to move to narrow the scope. The law also
ultimately helped force into the public sphere a debate over the conflict between the
government's desire to protect its citizens and its citizens' civil liberties.

25
Protesters hold up signs outside of Federal Hall during a demonstration against United
States Attorney General John Ashcroft September 9, 2003 in New York City. The
Attorney General was in New York City as part of a sixteen-city tour speaking tour in
which he spoke about the progress America has made on the war on terrorism through
law enforcement and implementation of the USA Patriot Act. Spencer Platt / Getty
Images file
"The Patriot Act went far beyond technological updating and I think it was passed in the
heat of the moment and went too far," said Peter Swire, a professor of law and ethics at
the Georgia Institute of Technology who served as part of President Obama's Review
Group on Intelligence and Communications Technology. The review group was formed
after whistleblower Edward Snowden's revelations about the government's domestic
surveillance programs.

"In many ways, we've been trying to correct its excesses ever since," Swire said.

Rapid Response

It was less than a month after the deadly attacks on Sept. 11, 2001, and the nation was
in mourning.

So too were lawmakers who worked to craft legislation they hoped would help prevent
anything like it from ever happening again on U.S. soil.

Nathan Sales was fresh off a judicial clerkship and working at the Office of Legal Policy
at the Department of Justice when he found himself part of the effort to help draft the
USA PATRIOT Act, or the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate
Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001. The task was a
daunting one: Promote information sharing between law enforcement and the
intelligence community in an effort to ward off future attacks.

Flames and smoke pour from a building at the Pentagon on Sept. 11, 2001. WILL
MORRIS / AP
"The laws were so that it was harder to investigate terrorists than Tony Soprano," Sales
told NBC News. "The right hand needs to know what the left hand is doing. Cops and
spies, everyone needs to be talking."

26
Sales, who is now a professor at Syracuse University School of Law, said the law did
just that as well as offered the intelligence community some of the same intelligence
gathering tools used by law enforcement, such as wiretapping.

But while Sales, his co-authors and the measure's sponsors lauded the legislation, Sen.
Russ Feingold, D-Wisconsin, was troubled.

"My goal has always been to combat terrorism and keep Americans safe while
upholding the Constitution," Feingold told NBC News in a statement. "Instead of
prioritizing global terror threats, I knew that the PATRIOT Act was hastily written to
infringe upon the privacy and civil liberties of the very citizens it should protect. The
facts have borne that out over the years."

Forty-five days after the Sept. 11 attacks, and after very little debate on the Senate
floor, Congress passed the Patriot Act. The anti-terrorism law would eventually become
one of the nation's most hotly-debated pieces of legislation.

Feingold was the sole senator to vote against the measure's passage.

As the Smoke Cleared

The law has evolved through the years as the Patriot Act and its subsequent re-
authorizations gave the government power to conduct and collect broad surveillance for
the sake of fighting terrorism on U.S. soil.

But the law also faced sharp criticism by civil liberties groups.

"The law essentially gave the government the ability to get a lot of information and
lowered the standard for them to be able to get it," said Neema Singh Guliani, legislative
counsel for the American Civil Liberties Union.

Public outrage and the debate over privacy boiled over in 2013 when Snowden, a
former CIA employee and government contractor, leaked information on National
Security Agency surveillance revealing the broad extent of government data collection.

Among Snowden's revelations were the NSA's bulk collections of phone and internet
metadata from U.S. users as well as the personal communications of foreign leaders,
including U.S. allies all sanctioned under the Patriot Act.

News about the NSA's domestic surveillance changed the online behavior of many
Americans. Twenty-five percent say they have "changed the way they use technology at
least somewhat after the Snowden revelations," according to a Pew Research study in
2015.

27
A man protests the Patriot Act during an anarchist rally on the final day of the
Democratic National Convention at Copley Plaza July 29, 2004 in Boston. Michael
Springer / Getty Images file
Section 215 of the law became its most controversial aspect, sparking outrage and
protest among civil liberties advocates due to the nature of the law's scope. Section 215
authorized the NSA's bulk collection of telephone metadata, including who called whom
when, but not what was said during conversations.

Section 215 also gave the government power to collect "tangible things," including
"books, records, papers, documents, and other items" on any "relevant" matters to
counter terrorism.

"It became much easier for the government to collect information with very little
transparency, which is the perfect storm for government abuse," Singh Guliani said.
"The law was interpreted quite expansively."

REUTERS/Dado Ruvic
Bulk amounts of metadata, like phone records and internet search history, were
included as relevant information under the act's broad interpretation.

28
"There should be privacy and sanctity in our homes and in our papers, and individuals
should be able to live without feeling like the government is spying on them," Singh
Guliani said.

While the questions about privacy and civil liberties is entirely legitimate and even
necessary, the "concerns are misplaced," Sales said. For example, the government
must prove to a judge that a court order for a wiretap is necessary to pursue a criminal
matter.

"The costs and the impact is low. The NSA doesn't care about the email to your child's
preschool teacher," he said. "The benefit of the law is that it gives government
counterterrorism capabilities it would not otherwise have had. It's easier for cops, spies
and soldiers to find the bad guys."

In recent years, Congress has moved to re-evaluate and improve the law with bipartisan
changes that have helped dial back the law's reach, Swire said.

"One big change was the USA Freedom Act in 2015. A Republican Congress and
President Obama agreed to substantial improvements in privacy protections, which
closely paralleled our review group's recommendations," Swire said. "Congress also
closed down the Section 215 database (the telephone metadata database) and the USA
Freedom Act helped put new limits on bulk collection on communications data."

Play
Ultimately, one of the most tangible impacts of the Patriot Act is a heightened
awareness of the need to balance civil liberties and checks on government, Swire said.

"Since the birth of the republic, we've been split between having our civil liberties and
having stronger government powers. And these cycles continue. Look at during World
War II we were willing to intern Japanese-Americans in camps because of what we

29
believed was in our safest interest. But the 2015 law has helped rebalance our feelings
about civil liberties and stronger government," Swire said. "It's a sign that the
emergency of 2001 is over and we can have a different national conversation about
what makes sense for us as a country. After all, we didn't abolish the NSA and the FBI,
but we created stronger safeguards on government surveillance."

Conclusion

The attacks of September 11, 2001 were devastating to the United States. The aftermath included
the creation of the USA Patriot Act, legislation giving United States law enforcement agencies a
freer hand to investigating and apprehending. The effects of this act are seen in our daily lives
and impact how civil rights are given. There are many social consequences on a nation after a
terrorist attack, and the United States is still dealing with many of them today.

30
 Entry Twelve: Economic Crime

Preface

Economic crimes are acts committed in violation of the criminal law for the purpose of monetary
gain and financial benefits. Economic crimes can include crimes where the offender does not
seem to be an immediate threat to society. Even when that is the case, there is punishments for
those who violate the law. In the following article, the case of Martha Stewart is explained.
Material

Business Day | PROSECUTING MARTHA STEWART: THE OVERVIEW

PROSECUTING MARTHA STEWART: THE

OVERVIEW; Martha Stewart Indicted by
U.S. On Obstruction
By CONSTANCE L. HAYSJUNE 5, 2003

Martha Stewart was indicted yesterday on charges of conspiracy, obstruction of justice and
securities fraud, all linked to a personal stock trade she made in 2001.

She pleaded not guilty and pledged to fight the charges. Hours after her arraignment in federal
district court in Manhattan, the media and merchandising company she founded, Martha Stewart
Living Omnimedia, announced that she was stepping down as chairwoman and chief executive.
She will continue as a director and is expected to remain a force as the company's ''chief creative
officer.'' [Page C1.]

The indictment depicted Ms. Stewart as going out of her way to conceal the circumstances of the
sale of nearly 4,000 shares of ImClone Systems, a transaction that investigators say she made
after learning that her friend, Samuel D. Waksal, the company's founder, and his daughter were
selling their own stock. Indeed, the charges focused less on the trade than on an elaborate cover-
up that prosecutors say came afterward.

According to the indictment, Ms. Stewart lied to investigators by telling them that she and her
stockbroker had previously agreed to sell the shares if their market value fell below a certain
price, and altered a phone message from the broker in her assistant's computer ''immediately
following a lengthy conversation with her attorney.''

31
At a news conference announcing the charges against Ms. Stewart, James B. Comey, the United
States attorney for the Southern District of New York, said, ''This criminal case is about lying --
lying to the F.B.I., lying to the S.E.C., lying to investors.'' Addressing a question that has long
hovered over the investigation, he added, ''Martha Stewart is being prosecuted not for who she is,
but because of what she did.''

A separate civil complaint from the Securities and Exchange Commission accused her of insider
trading, based on information she is said to have received from Douglas Faneuil, assistant to the
stockbroker, Peter Bacanovic. ''That was illegal insider trading,'' the regional director of the
S.E.C., Wayne Carlin, said.

Mr. Bacanovic, no longer Ms. Stewart's broker, was also indicted yesterday on criminal charges,
including perjury, and is named in the S.E.C. complaint as well. He pleaded not guilty to the
criminal charges.

Ms. Stewart seemed composed as she entered a federal courtroom yesterday afternoon, flanked
by lawyers and wearing a beige pantsuit. The judge, Miriam G. Cedarbaum, released both her
and Mr. Bacanovic without bail, although Mr. Bacanovic was ordered to surrender his passport.

Mr. Bacanovic's lawyer, Richard M. Strassberg, said, ''We are confident he will be fully
vindicated at trial.''

If convicted on all the charges, Ms. Stewart could face several years in prison and the possibility
of a steep fine. A recent Justice Department directive discourages assigning white-collar
offenders to house arrest.

After her arraignment, she did not speak to reporters and photographers massed outside the
courthouse in the rain. But her lawyers issued a statement saying she was being made ''the
subject of a criminal test case designed to further expand the already unrecognizable boundaries
of the federal securities laws,'' and they predicted that she would be ''fully exonerated.''

Ms. Stewart has vigorously defended her sale of ImClone stock as ''entirely lawful'' and promised
to fight the charges. But she faces an uphill battle. In addition to the civil and criminal cases
against her, several groups of investors in Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia are suing her over
her conduct.

Mr. Comey said he used ''my discretion'' in deciding not to bring insider trading charges against
Ms. Stewart and her broker. He said case law would support such charges, but he called them
''unprecedented.''

The S.E.C. contended that Ms. Stewart should have known she was receiving illegal information
when Mr. Faneuil told her the Waksals were selling their ImClone shares. It is seeking to have
her barred from serving as a director of any public company, including her own, and to limit any
executive role in a company.

32
''From our perspective, this case involved insider trading,'' said Barry Rashkover, the S.E.C.'s
associate regional director. ''She is a tippee. We allege that she knew or recklessly disregarded
that, and traded on that information.''

Ms. Stewart can be prosecuted for obstruction of justice even if the government does not accuse
her of insider trading, said Michael Shepard, a partner in San Francisco at the law firm of Heller
Ehrman White & McAuliffe. ''The question is whether you were messing with something that
might be material in an investigation,'' he said.

The indictment, returned early yesterday by a Manhattan grand jury, describes a series of
meetings between Ms. Stewart and investigators from the S.E.C., the Justice Department and the
F.B.I. in February and April 2002. It lists various statements she made that prosecutors contend
were false, and details meetings and phone conversations she had with Mr. Bacanovic before
each of them was questioned.

''Stewart and Bacanovic agreed that rather than tell the truth about the communications with
Stewart on Dec. 27, 2001, and the reasons for Stewart's sale of ImClone stock on Dec. 27, 2001,
they would instead fabricate and attempt to deceive investigators with a fictitious explanation for
her sale,'' according to the indictment. That explanation was the ''pre-existing agreement to sell
the stock if and when the price dropped to $60 per share.''

A blue pen figured prominently in the case against Mr. Bacanovic. Prosecutors contend that
some time after January, when he learned about the S.E.C. inquiry, Mr. Bacanovic scribbled the
notation ''@60'' on a worksheet that listed Ms. Stewart's ImClone holdings and carried some
comments that were written in blue ink on Dec. 21, 2001. ''Peter Bacanovic altered the
worksheet, using ink that was blue ballpoint, but was scientifically distinguishable from the ink
used elsewhere on the worksheet,'' the indictment said.

In accusing Ms. Stewart of securities fraud, the indictment, referring to her company by its
initials, pointed to three statements she or her lawyer made proclaiming her innocence once her
ImClone sale became widely known, it said, ''in an effort to stop or at least slow the steady
erosion of MSLO's stock price caused by investor concerns.''

One of the statements was made to a reporter for The Wall Street Journal on June 6, 2002, and
published the next day. The statement said Ms. Stewart's ImClone trade was ''executed because
Ms. Stewart had a predetermined price at which she planned to sell the stock.''

''That determination,'' it added, ''made more than a month before the trade, was to sell if the stock
ever went less than $60.''

Another statement, issued on June 12, also said that an existing agreement led to the stock sale.

But the indictment asserted, ''Stewart falsely stated that she 'did not have any nonpublic
information' regarding ImClone when she sold her ImClone shares.'' The stock of her company
rebounded by 7 percent after the statement, according to the indictment.

33
A third statement on June 18, made after the stock market closed, also repeated her contention
that the $60-a-share price floor influenced her decision to part with her ImClone shares. ''On
June 18, 2002, MSLO stock closed at $14.40,'' the indictment said. ''On June 19, 2002, the first
day of trading after Stewart issued the June 18 statement, MSLO stock closed at $16.45,
representing an increase of approximately 14 percent.''

Since the investigation became widely known a year ago, the company's business has declined in
every division, from television to publishing and product sales.

Laura Richardson, an analyst with Adams, Harkness & Hill in Boston, said the removal of Ms.
Stewart indicated the beginning of a turnaround. ''It shows some seriousness about improving the
business fundamentals,'' she said.

Sharon L. Patrick, the president, will succeed Ms. Stewart as chief executive. Jeffrey Ubben,
whose Value Act Capital Partners invested in Ms. Stewart's company shortly before the news of
her ImClone trade emerged, will be chairman.

''If this is just a change in titles but not in roles, it won't be any different,'' Ms. Richardson said.
''If it is a true change in roles, it would be a step forward for them in coming out of this negative
period.''

Mr. Comey called the indictments ''a tragedy'' for the company and its 600 employees. ''It's a
tragedy that could have been prevented if those two people had only done what parents have
taught their children for eons,'' he said, ''that if you are in a tight spot, lying is not the way out.
Lying is an act with profound consequences.''

Conclusion

Martha Stewart committed an economic crime and she was punished for her actions. There are
many opinions on if she should have received the punishment she did. Methods such as
deterrence and compliance are used to combat white collar crimes. These methods both have
positive and negative aspects.

34
 Entry Thirteen: Public Order Crimes

Preface

Public order crimes include behavior that is outlawed because it threatens the general well-being
of society and challenges its accepted moral principles. These crimes may be perceived as
victimless, meaning there is not a directly identifiable victim, instead, society as a whole is hurt.
Prostitution is a public order crime, and it is the granting of nonmarital sexual access for
remuneration. While some people choose to do prostitution willingly, there are some who are
forced into sex trafficking. Below is a paper I wrote for my comparative criminal justice course
regarding sex trafficking.
Material

Comparative Criminal Justice: Sex Trafficking Around the World

Samantha Wilkinson

Stephen F. Austin State University

Transnational crimes are crimes that span national borders, violating the laws of several

countries (Reichel, 2013, p. 34). With transnational crimes spanning multiple borders, there is

an organization factor that is not always seen in other types of crime. Transnational crimes can

be difficult to control with many countries having different views on what is considered a crime

and what is decriminalized. Transnational crimes include: cybercrime, corruption, drug

trafficking, money laundering, trade in human body parts, trafficking in persons, and terrorism

(Reichel, 2013). Technology has been a tool that has increased every type of transnational crime,

either by creating crimes such as cybercrimes or allowing crimes such as trafficking or terrorism

to be more easily accomplished. With Schauer and Wheaton (2006) reporting that the CIA

estimates that 700,000 people are trafficked annually worldwide (p. 146), trafficking is a global

concern. Trafficking can include: drug, firearm, and human trafficking, often with lines being

blurred between what type is being carried out. Human trafficking can be for multiple reasons

including labor and sex.

35
 Specifically, a major transnational crime that has been studied more recently is sex

trafficking. Sex trafficking is essentially the trafficking of women for purposes of sexual

exploitation. Sex trafficking is most commonly seen as an issue of state security, an issue of

migration, or an issue of human rights (p. 2), meaning that research needs to be done to attempt

to combat the crime (Meshkovska, Siegel, Stutterheim, & Bos, 2015). Women and children are

the main victims of sex trafficking, which can occur in any country around the world.

Sex trafficking can closely be related to slavery because it includes fraud or extortion in

recruitment and coercion, restraint, gang rape, threat of physical harm, loss of liberty, and loss of

self-determination on arrival in the destination industry (Schauer & Wheaton, 2006, p. 146).

When a victim of sex trafficking enters the life of being under the control of someone else, there

is little distinction between that life and the life of a slave for servitude. An issue with sex

trafficking is it may begin as a voluntary action by the victim. Human smuggling is the illegal

entry of a person from one country to another, when the person who is being smuggled is

generally cooperating (Reichel, 2013 p. 41). Many countries have varying legislation regarding

sex trafficking, which require examination to understand how the various regions of the world

combat and/or view the transnational crime of sex trafficking. Regions that have varying views

of sex trafficking span from criminalization of prostitution such as countries like the United

States, and its legalization in places such as Italy.

America is the land of opportunity, but that does not mean that it is free of the evils of sex

trafficking. Even though prostitution is illegal in the United States, difficulty in reporting and

tracking victims has led to varying estimates, but on the lower end there are 18,000 persons

trafficked into the United States per year (Schauer & Wheaton, 2006 p. 146). Understanding

who is responsible for deceiving and misleading women, children, and even men is an evolving

36
field. While there is still a lot unknown about sex trafficking it is now believed that individual

entrepreneurs and small organized groups are the perpetrators of most of the trafficking into the

United States (Schauer & Wheaton, 2006 p. 154).There is always the possibility that United

States citizens will be forced into prostitution and the world of sex trafficking. Teens that run

away or who come from unstable homes that are unstable are prime targets to be brought under

the wing of someone who deceives them into believing they care about them.

The majority of sex trafficking in the United States comes from overseas. Asia, Mexico, and

the newly independent countries of the former Soviet Bloc are the main sources for women and

children who are trafficked into the United States for sexual purposes (Schauer & Wheaton,

2006). With unstable economies and/or false conceptions of a better life in the United States, are

reasons women could voluntarily choose to travel to the United States with sex trafficking

leaders. Sex trafficking can easily start out as voluntary, in which case it would be human

smuggling, but once the woman is forced to stay and meet the demands of the leader, smuggling

quickly turns into trafficking.

Individuals and organizations mainly use three ways to traffic women into the United States:

illegal use of legal documents, traffickers produce fake documents for their victims, and some

women are brought into the United States without inspection (Schauer & Wheaton, 2006, p.

154). These ways show some of the deeper issues of trafficking including corrupt officials. If a

woman is not inspected upon entering the United States, there could be corruption by border

agents, or in some cases the military, depending on the entry into the country.

There are many issues that must be addressed, including, the high availability of women and

children from vulnerable populations, the lack of means to identify and prosecute traffickers, and

to handle police corruption in this area if the United States want to get a handle on the issue of

37
sex trafficking. There are many negative effects of sex trafficking and known destination

countries, such as the United States, have an obligation to be forerunners in the research and

prevention of human trafficking (Schauer & Wheaton, 2006, p. 167). With the detrimental

effects to the emotional and physical state of those trafficked and the negative stigma attached to

communities with sex trafficking, the United States must put prevention of sex trafficking as a

top priority.

Even with the understanding of the harm of sex trafficking and the flurry of international

and domestic resolutions, the sex industry in Southeast Asia remains a hugely profitable and

deeply entrenched enterprise with women and children being the main victims (Kuo, 2000, p.

42). Sexual exploitation is such a major problem in Southeast Asia that is seen as a tourist

attraction. Kuo (2009), reported that approximately 60 percent of Thailands tourists visit solely

for sexual purposes (p. 42). During times of war and economic need, the sex trade will grow.

Other countries, such as the United States have played a role in increasing the sex trade, thus

increasing sex trafficking, in Southeast Asia during wars- for example, the Vietnam War. During

the Vietnam War, the sex industry grossed US$16 million for the Thai economy (Kuo, 2000 p.

42).

Asia not only has a problem with sex trafficking of women, but also of children. This

disturbing problem is amplified by the belief that younger prostitutes are less likely to be

infected with HIV (Kuo, 2000, p. 43). With young children being exploited, there has been an

increase in child susceptibility to getting infected with HIV because the tourists desire the

children.

Asian countries are known for their ambiguity when it comes to enforcing laws, and the

enforcement of laws prohibiting prostitution is no exception. There is the issue of police and

38
local officials corruption, bribery, and active participation as customers that hinder the

enforcement of legislation (Kuo, 2000, p. 42). Southeast Asia has not taken on the view of

legalizing prostitution, but it is not an area that can be considered actively against prostitution.

Asias problem between keeping prostitution illegal or decriminalizing it is a continuing

struggle. The struggle blurs the line between prostitution and trafficking and voluntary and

involuntary (Kuo, 2000, p. 44). There are many debates that attempt to protect women of the

sex sector in Asia. There is a human-rights approach that hope to protect womens rights in the

short term, while they work as prostitutes, until the women can find higher paying wages in

another job sector (Kuo, 2000, p. 45). An issue with providing more rights for women is the

economic issues that would occur if the sex sector was downsized. Kuo (2000), explains that

the profitability of sexual abuse and the controversy over legislation are explanations for the

ambiguity of the Asian government. Southeast Asia continues to search for the correct legislation

to provide rights for victims of sex trafficking.

In Western Europe, sex trafficking can be seen in many countries. Estimates of the number

of sex trafficking victims in Italy vary, but the purchase prices of these slaves are well

established (Kara & CIAO, 2009, p. 88). Depending on what country the victims are from there

is varying purchase prices and cost for sexual acts. In contrast to many places, street prostitution

is legal in Italy, msking Italy a country with various research on the issue of sex trafficking

(Kara & CIAO, 2009, p. 83).

Kara and CIAO (2009), reported that many street prostitutes are victims of sex trafficking,

but the majority of trafficking victims in Italy are also exploited in closed-door establishments

(p. 84). Closed-door establishments are more difficult to identify because of their secretive

nature. Sex traffickers are cautious to keep a close eye on their victims, creating a life of constant

39
servitude and repression for sex trafficking victims. An issue with prosecuting and stopping

those that purchase girls and women is that in some cases, police can be the main clients. There

are issues of corruption in every country concerning the issue of sex trafficking.

Women from East Europe are seduced by romantic illusions of a rich, fast-paced lifestyle in

Western Europe (Kara & CIAO, 2009, p. 85). A major source of women and children for

Western Europe is from the formerly communist countries of Eastern Europe because unstable

lifestyles. Western Europe has numerous countries all with various appeals to those who are

struggling in other areas but, because Italy is one of the closest West European countries to the

poorer countries of Central and Eastern Europe, and because it has an extensive coastline that

facilitates clandestine entry by sea, it is one of top destinations of sex trafficking victims in

Western Europe (Kara & CIAO, 2009, p. 87-88).

Not only is Eastern Europe a source for victims for Italy; African countries, specifically

Nigeria is a country where many sex trafficking victims originate. Not only is Nigeria one of

the poorest countries in the world but, a life of famine, war, and HIV result in trafficking of

Nigerian women to be a thriving business (Kara & CIAO, 2009, p. 90). Nigerian sex trafficking

victims suffer differently than those of other nationalities, including having to repay debts much

larger than those of other nationalities.

Kara and CIAO (2009), report that more than anywhere else in the world, the slave trading

industry throughout Eastern and Western Europe is operated by organized crime (p. 92). There

is an understanding in Italy that sex trafficking is an issue, but not enough has been done to

combat the issue. Despite the large number of sex slaves trafficked to Italy since the 1980s,

there was no law that specifically addressed victims of human trafficking until August 11, 2003

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leaving a huge gap of unprotection for victims (Kara & CIAO, 2009, p. 99). There are various

stances on sex trafficking, with different justifications.

The Netherlands legalizes all forms of prostitution which is in stark contrast to Sweden who,

similar to the United States, criminalizes prostitution. Kara and CIAO (2009), wrote that

prostitution was historically legal in Amsterdam, but the ban on brothels was only lifted on

October 1, 2000 (p. 103). The Netherlands hoped that the legalization would provide more

benefits to the women and would reduce illegal trafficking. Despite this thinking, observations

from local experts indicated that sex trafficking in Amsterdam increased, allowing for more

profit for traffickers and a continuance of suffering by victims (Kara & CIAO, 2009, p. 104).

Europe is home to a vast amount of countries all with varying views on performing sexual

acts for profit. Countries try various approaches to combat the crime of sex trafficking, but with

issues such as high profit from sex trafficking and corruption by officials, sex trafficking is an

issue that is ongoing. Countries have tried to legalize prostitution with justification for this stance

being that women will benefit from having benefits associated with having a legalized job.

Countries that take the opposite stance criminalize prostitution in the hope of deterring criminals

who desire to enter the sex trafficking business.

Transnational crime has come to a forefront issue in many countries around the world in the

twenty-first century. With the U.S. Congress reporting that the trafficking of women and

children was the third largest source of revenue for organized crime worldwide, following

closely behind drug and firearm trafficking in the year 2000, it is no surprise trafficking will

continue to be a problem in the future (Schauer & Wheaton, 2006, p. 153). The effects of sex

trafficking are not only limited to the victims physical and mental state, but also on the society

41
as a whole. There is a negative stigma associated with areas that have sex trafficking that can

cause problems for continual progression of the area.

There is also continued debate over how to handle the issue of sex trafficking. Deciding

whether to take the route of legalizing prostitution or not has been a debate between various

countries. In support of criminalizing prostitution, studies have been published showing that the

legalization of prostitution is tied to persistent or increased levels of female sex trafficking

(Meshkovska et al., 2015). Issues are associated with decriminalizing prostitution. For example,

Southeast Asian economies are, in some cases, dependent on the sex sector to continue economic

growth. Studying the span of view from countries such as the United States, with criminalization

of prostitution, to regions with uncertainty such as Southeast Asia, and finally to decriminalized

prostitution such as in Italy, allows for different perspective of how to handle the sex trafficking

issue.

Conclusion

Sex trafficking is a major issue in the United States and around the world. As the thirteenth
module explained, some public order crimes are not victimless. There are people being forced
into lives they do not want, and that also causes society as a whole to be harmed.

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 Entry Fourteen: Cyber Crimes

Preface

Cybercrime is the theft and/or destruction of information, resources, or funds via computers,
computer networks, or the internet. With the increase of use in technology in our society, there is
a multitude of new crimes that are creating a challenge for law enforcement. One new crime is
cyberbullying which is the willful and repeated harm inflicted through the medium of electronic
text.
Material

The Top Six Unforgettable

CyberBullying Cases Ever

What Is Cyberbullying?
Wikipedia defines cyberbullying as, Cyberbullying is the use of information technology to
repeatedly harm or harass other people in a deliberate manner. According to U.S. Legal
Definitions, Cyberbullying could be limited to posting rumors or gossips about a person on the
internet bringing about hatred in others minds; or it may go to the extent of personally
identifying victims and publishing materials severely defaming and humiliating them. There are

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10s of cyberbullying stories where the bullies go to these extremes, cyberbullying victims are left
to deal with the consequences.

The National Youth Violence Prevention Resource Center estimates that nearly 30 percent of
American youth are either a bully or a target of bullying. However, bullying is no longer a problem
that is isolated to the playgrounds, hallways and lunch rooms of schools. Instead, advances in
technology have now extended harassment to cell phones, social media websites and other online avenues
that are contributing to an alarming number of cyberbullying cases leading to tragic suicide stories.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), suicide is the third leading
cause of death among young people with approximately 4,400 deaths every year. The CDC
estimates that there are at least 100 suicide attempts for every suicide among young people.
More than 14 percent of high school students have considered suicide and nearly 7 percent h ave
attempted it, that is why you will, sadly, read about cyberbullying cases in the media now more
than ever.

Unfortunately, without cyberbullying examples its hard to understand exactly what cyberbullying
is and how a cyberbully acts. This why it is essential to share recent cyberbullying cases with the
world.

In the past decade, there have been multiple cyberbullying cases that ended with the cyberbullying
victims taking their own lives.

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Here are six stories of cyberbullying cases that garnered national, and in some cases, global
attention:

Cyber Bullying Stories: The Ryan Halligan

Case (1989 2003)
The Cyberbullying Story: the website operated by Ryans parents, John and Kelly Halligan, early
concerns about Ryans speech, language and motor skills development led to him receiving
special education services from pre-school through the fourth grade. Ryans academic and
physical struggles made him the regular target of a particular bully at school between the fifth
and seventh grade. In February 2003, a fight between Ryan and the bully not only ended the
harassment at school, but led to a supposed friendship.

However, after Ryan shared an embarrassing personal story, the newly found friend returned to
being a bully and used the information to start a rumour that Ryan was gay. The taunting
continued into the summer of 2003, although Ryan thought that he had struck a friendship with a
pretty, popular girl through AOL Instant Messenger (AIM). Instead, he later learned that the girl
and her friends thought it would be funny to make Ryan think the girl liked him and use it to have
him share more personally embarrassing materialwhich was copied and pasted into AIM
exchanges with her friends. On October 7, 2003, Ryan hanged himself in the family bathroom.
After his sons death, John discovered a folder filled with IM exchanges throughout that summer
that made him realize that technology was being utilized as weapons far more effective and
reaching [than] the simple ones we had as kids.

Aftermath
There were no criminal charges filed following Ryans death because no criminal law applied to the
circumstances or especially catered to protecting cyberbullying victims. Seven months after Ryans
death, Vermonts Bully Prevention Law (ACT 117) was signed into law by Governor Jim Douglas.
John Halligan also authored Vermonts Suicide Prevention Law (ACT 114), which passed unchanged
in April 2006.

More on cyberbullying cases related to

slander.
Cyber Bullying Stories: The Megan Meier
Case (1992 2006)

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The Cyberbullying Story: In December 2007, Tina Meier founded the nonprofit Megan Meier
Foundation. The non-profit was named in honour of Tinas 13-year-old daughter who hanged
herself in a bedroom closet in October 2006. Megan struggled with attention deficit disorder and
depression in addition to issues with her weight. About five weeks before her death, a 16 -year-old
boy named Josh Evans asked Megan to be friends on the social networking website MySpace. The
two began communicating online regularly, although they never met in person or spoke on the
phone. Megan had a lifelong struggle with weight and self-esteem, Tina said on the Foundation
website. And now she finally had a boy who she thought really thought she was pretty.

In mid-October, Josh began saying he didnt want to be friends anymore, and the messages
became more cruel on October 16, 2006, when Josh concluded by telling Megan, The world
would be a better place without you. The cyberbullying escalated when additional classmates and
friends on MySpace began writing disturbing messages and bulletins. Tina said on the Foundation
website that it was about 20 minutes after Megan went to her room after leaving the compute r
that the mother found her daughter had hanged herself in her bedroom closet. Megan died the
following day, three weeks before what would have been her 14th birthday. Many cyberbullying
articles were written on what was revealed to be another cruel prank tuned into one of the most
tragic suicide stories.

Aftermath
According to the Associated Press, it was later that fall when a neighbor informed Megans parents
that Josh was not a real person. Instead, the account was created by another neighbor, Lori Drew ,
her 18-year-old temporary employee Ashley Grills, and Drews teenage daughter, who used to be

46
friends with Megan. One year later, the case began receiving national attention. While the county
prosecutor declined to file any criminal charges in the case, federal prosecuted charged her with one
count of conspiracy and three violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act for accessing
protected computers without authorization. A federal grand jury indicted Drew on all four counts in
2008, but U.S. District Judge George Wu acquitted Drew in August 2009 and vacated the conviction.
In addition to the Megan Meier Foundation, Tina also worked closely to help Missouri legislature
pass Senate Bill 818, unofficially known as Megans Law in August 2008. In April 2009, U.S.
Representative Linda Snchez of California introduced theMegan Meier Cyber bullying Prevention
Act., which aimed to end the harassment of a cyberbully seriously but unfortunately it was not
enacted.
More on legislation related to Cyberbullying cases

Cyber Bullying Stories: The Cyberbullying

Cases of Jessica Logan (1990 2008) and
Hope Witsell (1996 2009)

The Cyberbullying Story: Jessica Logan was an 18-year-old Sycamore High School senior who
sent nude photo of herself to her boyfriend, but the Cincinnati Enquirer reported that the photo
was sent to hundreds of teenagers in at least seven Cincinnati-area high schools after the couple
broke up. According to the University of Alabamas cyberbullying website, the cyber bullying
continued through Facebook, MySpace and text messages. Jessica hanged herself after attending
the funeral of another boy who had committed suicide.

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A little more than one year later, 13-year-old Hope Sitwell hanged herself after a compromising
picture of hers that she sexted to her boyfriend was shared amongst students at six different
schools in area of Ruskin, Florida, friends and family told CNN. Hope never told her parents about
the Hope Hater Page that was started on MySpace that led to additional cyber bullying.

Aftermath
The Enquirer reported that Jessicas parents, Albert and Cynthia Logan, filed a lawsuit against
Sycamore High School and the Montgomery police for allegedly not doing enough to keep their
daughter from being bullied and harassed following the nude photos of her being widely shared. In
February 2012, Ohio Governor John Kasich signed House Bill 116, also known as the Jessica Logan
Act, into law. The legislation addresses cyber bullying and expands anti-harassment policies. Reuters
reported that Hopes parents filed a lawsuit in April 2011 against Hillsborough County school
officials for allegedly failing to take appropriate action after learning the teen had suicidal thoughts.
More on cyberbullying cases related to photographs and how to
prevent any more tragic suicide stories.

Cyber Bullying Stories:The Tyler Clementi

Case (1991 2010)
The Cyberbullying Story: It was during the summer after his high school graduation that 18-
year-old Tyler Clementi began sharing that he was gay. Clemenits room mate during his
freshman year at Rutgers University, Dharun Ravi, used a webcam in September 2010 to stream
footage of Clementi kissing another boy. According to the Tyler Clementi Foundation, the
teenager learned through his room mates Twitter feed that he had become a topic of ridicule in
his new social environment. On September 22, 2010, Clementi committed suicide by jumping off
the George Washington Bridge.

Aftermath
Less than a week after Clementis death, Ravi and Molly Wei, the hallmate whose computer Ravi
used to spy on Clementi, were charged with invasion of privacy. In May 2011, Reuters reported that
Wei entered a plea deal requiring that she testify against Ravi. A jury convicted Ravi on 15 criminal
charges, and he earned early release 20 days after beginning a 30-day jail sentence.
The Tyler Clementi Higher Education Anti-Harassment Act would require colleges and universities to
have anti-harassment policies and expanded bullying prevention programs. In February 2013, the
Star-Ledger reported that the bill was reintroduced in both the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of
Representatives.

Cyber Bullying Stories: The Amanda Todd

Case (1996 2012)

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The Cyberbullying Story: In October 2012, ABC News reported that the video Amanda Todd had
posted to YouTube had been viewed more than 17 million times. In the video entitled My story:
Struggling, bullying, suicide, self harm, the British Columbia teenager uses flash cards to tell
about her experiences of being blackmailed and bullied. A little over a month after posting the
video on September 7, 2012, Amanda hanged herself in her home on October 10, 2012.

Amanda began using video chat in the seventh grade to meet new people online, and one
stranger convinced the teenager to bare her breasts on camera. However, the stranger attempted
to use the photo to blackmail Amanda, and the picture began circulating on the internet,
including a Facebook profile that used the topless photograph as the profile image. The Internet
stalker she flashed kept stalking her, Amandas mother, Carol Todd, told the Vancouver Sun.
Every time she moved schools he would go undercover and become a Facebook friend. This is
one of the cyberbullying examples that emphasize the difference between on-ground bullying,
and cyberbullying stories, where the victim finds no escape because the Internet is everywhere.

Aftermath
Less than a week after Amandas death, Canadas CTV News reported that lawmakers would
consider a motion seeking to lay the groundwork for a national bullying prevention strategy. The
Amanda Todd Legacy, the official blog administered by the teenagers family, strives to serve as a
bulletin board for all special events and initiatives to support anti-bullying education, help young
people struggling with mental health issues and support educational programs that help people
with learning disabilities.

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Unfortunately, these are only some of the bullying stories that made it to the media and had
many cyberbullying articles written with their subject, but cyberbullying examples are occurring all
around us on a daily basis. These cyber bullying cases demonstrate that there are actions that
many members of the community can take to prevent additional harassment. Parents, educators
and other school officials need to recognize signs of cyberbullying, and we must all make a more
concerted effort to help cyberbullying victims.
The cyberbully victim is not going to declare I am a cyberbully victim, instead they are going to
assume no one can understand them and help them and resort to self harm or even suicide. It is
up to parents and educators to remind each cyberbully victim that help is available and
understanding is available if they feel victimized by a cyberbully. It is up to you to tell them that
the cyberbully doesnt control their lives and that there exist cyberbullying examples where the
cyberbully was punished, and life returned to normalcy. It is essential to teach the victims how to
react to make sure the nightmare ends before its too late.

It also feels appropriate and more than essential to mention the underlying danger of young
teenage porn viewers. When there is young teenage porn involved, a teens idea of violence, sex
and relationships changes drastically and influences his/her interactions with the community.
Many cyberbullying stories start with a very troubled teen whose idea of sexuality is violence,
dominance, and blackmail: concepts that the porn industry promote as hot, kinky and manly.
Perhaps an education on a healthy idea of sexuality and sexual connection would prevent the
abuse of sexting, or altogether eliminate the need to harass others using embarrassing material
to slut-shame a child (be it boy or girl) or our a member of the LGBT community before they are
ready to face the world.

Conclusion

Cyberbullying is something learned a lot about in high school, when social media and texting
were becoming very popular. Cyberbullying has taken the lives of many people, and it is difficult
to control. Criminologists have a lot to study when it comes to cyberbullying including the
causes and effects of why people choose to cyberbully and how victims overcome the effects of
being bullied.

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