A
absolute magnitude
The absolute magnitude of a star is the apparent magnitude it would have if it were observed from
a distance of 10 pc.
[Option E]
absorbed dose
Absorbed dose is the energy absorbed per unit mass of tissue:
E
D=
m
D is the absorbed dose in Gy,
E is the total energy absorbed by the tissue in J,
m is the mass of tissue in kg.
[Option I]
accommodation
Accommodation is the name given to the process by which the eye can focus on different objects.
The lens changes shape as a result of changes in tension in the ciliary muscles and the
suspensory ligaments.
[Option A]
acoustic impedance
Acoustic impedance is the product of the density and the speed of sound. Very strong reflections
take place from the boundary between two substances with very different acoustic impedances:
z = pc
z is the acoustic impedance in kg m2 s1
p is the density in kg m3
c is the speed of sound in m s1.
[Option I]
aerial
An aerial is a device that picks up the electromagnetic signals broadcast in a modulated carrier
wave. It can be as simple as a straight piece of wire or a coil of wire.
[Option F]
analogue vs digital
An analogue signal encodes the information using a range of possible values. A digital signal
encodes the information using only two possible values (1 or 0).
The digital transmission of information as compared to the analogue transmission of information is
not as susceptible to the effects of noise, thus increasing the quality of broadcast information.
[Option F]
angular magnification
Angular magnification is the ratio of the angle subtended by the object for the unaided eye to the
angle subtended by the object with the use of lenses. The angle subtended by the object for the
unaided eye is often assumed to be its maximum possible value, i.e. when the object is placed at
the near point:
M = i
o
M is the angular magnification (no units)
i is the angle subtended by the image in
o is the angle subtended by the object in .
[Option G]
antiparticle
Every particle has its own antiparticle. This has the same mass as its particle but all the quantum
numbers are opposite. Some particles, for example the photon, are their own antiparticle.
[Option J]
Oxford University Press 2010
IB Physics Course Companion Glossary of terms from option chapters
apparent brightness
The apparent brightness of a star is the power per unit area received by an observer on the Earth
in W m2. The link between brightness and luminosity is:
L
b=
4d 2
b is the apparent brightness in W m-2
L is the luminosity in W
d is the distance between the star and Earth in m
[Option E]
A-scan
An ultrasonic A-scan is an amplitude-modulated scan where the information is presented as a
graph of signal strength against time.
[Option I]
asteroid belt
The asteroid belt in the Solar System is between Mars and Jupiter. It contains many asteroids
small rocky bodies orbiting the Sun.
[Option E]
astronomical telescope
An astronomical telescope consists of two lenses. The first lens (the objective lens) forms a real,
diminished image of the object being viewed. The second lens (the eyepiece lens) uses this
intermediate image as its object and forms a virtual magnified image. In normal adjustment this
final image is located at infinity.
[Option G]
asymptotic freedom
Asymptotic freedom is a description of how individual quarks and gluons behave while confined
within hadrons effectively they are free particles within the bounds of their confinement.
[Option J]
attenuation
Attenuation is the reduction of intensity of a signal as a result of some of the signal energy being
scattered, or absorbed, as it travels along a fibre optic. The defining equation is:
I
attenuation = 10 log 1
I2
attenuation is measured in decibels (dB),
log is the logarithm to the base 10,
I1 is the intensity of the output power in W,
I2 is the intensity of the input power in W.
The attenuation of an optic fibre cable is often expressed in terms of the attenuation per unit length
measured in dB m1.
[Option F]
B
balanced risk
The medical use of radioisotopes exposes a patient to ionizing radiation and therefore involves an
extra risk. There will also be a risk to the patient if radioisotopes are not used and the condition is
either undiagnosed or untreated. Balanced risk is the concept that these two factors need to be
considered when deciding upon what procedures to use.
[Option I]
bandwidth
The bandwidth is the range of frequencies occupied by modulated carrier wave.
[Option F]
baryons
Baryons are hadrons containing three quarks. Protons and neutrons are baryons.
[Option J]
baryon number
All baryons have a baryon number of +1. All antibaryons have a baryon number of 1. All other
particles have a baryon number of 0. Baryon number is conserved in all reactions.
[Option J]
Big Bang
The Big Bang is the creation of the Universe mass, space, and time. Approximately 15 billion
years ago, all of the observable matter of the universe was crushed together at a very high density
and temperature. Since then, the universe has been expanding, and thus the temperature and the
density have both been decreasing.
[Option E]
binary stars
Often what appears to be a single star is, in fact, a binary star two stars in orbit around their
common centre of mass.[Option E]
biological half-life
The biological half-life of a chemical is the time taken for the number of molecules of a chemical in
the body to halve, as a result of biological processes.
[Option I]
bit-rate
A greater number of bits used for each sample allows for a greater quality of transmitted signal.
Thus an increase in bit-rate (the speed at which bits need to be transmitted) will improve the quality
of the reproduction of a transmitted signal.
[Option F]
black holes
Black holes are regions of space-time with extreme curvatures due to the presence of a mass. A
large-mass star ends its red giant phase in a supernova. The remnant in the centre could be a
black hole if its mass is large enough.
[Options E & H]
blooming
Blooming is a thin coating that is added to lenses, solar panels, or solar cells to increase the
amount of light entering the device. The width of the coating is such that, for typical wavelengths,
destructive interference takes place between rays that are reflected from the top and bottom
surfaces of the blooming. This maximizes the amount of light energy that is transmitted.
[Option G]
blueshift
Light from distant stars and galaxies that are coming towards the Earth will show a Doppler shift
towards the shorter wavelengths. This is known as blueshift.
[Option E]
B-scan
An ultrasonic B-scan is a brightness-modulated scan where the information is presented as the
brightness of a dot of light on a screen.
[Option I]
bubble chamber
A bubble chamber is a particle detector that arranges for liquid hydrogen to be superheated as a
result of a sudden expansion. Bubbles of hydrogen are formed within the body of the liquid. Any
ionizing particle passing through the chamber will cause a trail of bubbles, as the bubbles will
preferentially form on the ions. A photograph thus reveals the particles path as a track of bubbles.
[Option J]
C
carrier wave
Carrier wave is the name given to the electromagnetic wave that is being modified to transmit a
signal from source to receiver, for example a particular radio frequency.
[Option F]
cellular exchange
The cellular exchange is connected to all of the base stations in a given area. It selects and
monitors the base stations and arranges the allocations of frequency channels to individual base
stations and mobile phones.
[Option F]
Cepheids
Cepheid variable stars are a particular type of unstable star that have an observed regular variation
in brightness, as a result of a periodic expansion and contraction in their outer layers. There is a
mathematical link between the period of brightness variation and their average luminosity: the
greater the period of the variation, the greater the luminosity. This relationship allows astronomers
to calculate the distance to some galaxies that contain Cepheid variable stars.
[Option E]
Chandrasekhar limit
The Chandrasekhar limit is the maximum size for a white dwarf star to be able to exist
(approximately 1.4 solar masses). Below this mass, electron degeneracy pressure allows the white
dwarf to be stable. Above this mass, further gravitational collapse must take place.
[Option E]
channels of communication
A channel of communication is another phrase for method of transferring information. These
include wire pairs, coaxial cables, optic fibres, radio waves, and satellite communication.
[Option F]
chromatic aberration
Chromatic aberration is the term used to describe the fact that rays of different colours will be
brought to a slightly different focus point by the same lens. In general a white point object will focus
into a blurred image of different colours.
[Option G]
clock
A clock pulse (a square-wave signal generated by an oscillator) is used to control and coordinate
all the different processes in digital system.
[Option F]
closed universe
A closed universe is one whose expansion is brought to a stop as a result of the force of gravity.
The universe will then collapse back on itself. This would happen if the density of the universe
were high.
[Option E]
coagulator
A coagulator ensures that blood in a small region will clot, thus potentially stopping bleeding. A
defocused laser acts as a coagulator.
[Option I]
coaxial cables
A coaxial cable is formed from two wires arranged in such a way as to reduce electrical
interference. A central wire is surrounded by the second wire in the form of an outer cylindrical
copper tube or mesh. An insulator separates the two wires.
[Option F]
coherent
Two sources of light are said to be coherent if there is a constant phase relationship between the
sources. Laser light is coherent because each photon is in phase with all the other photons that are
emitted.
[Option G]
comets
Comets are mixtures of rock and ice in very elliptical orbits around the Sun.
[Option E]
comparator
The output of a comparator circuit depends on how the input to the circuit compares with a fixed
known value.
[Option F]
compound microscope
A compound microscope consists of two lenses. The first lens (the objective lens) forms a real,
magnified image of the object being viewed. The second lens (the eyepiece lens) uses this
intermediate image as its object and forms a virtual magnified image. In normal adjustment this
final image is located at the near point of the eye.
[Option G]
cones
Cones are light-sensitive cells responsible for photopic vision (the colour vision that takes place at
normal light levels). There are three different types of cones are mainly located in the centre of the
retina.
[Option A]
constellation
A constellation is a group of stars that, to an observer on the Earth, are in close angular proximity
to one another for a region of the sky with a specific pattern of stars.
[Option E]
critical angle
When a ray crosses the boundary between two media, for example from a more optically dense
medium into a less optically dense medium, it is refracted away from the normal. The critical angle
is the angle of incidence in the denser medium (i.e. between the ray and the normal) that produces
a refracted ray that has grazing emergence along the boundary (i.e. has a refracted angle of 90).
[Option F]
critical density
The critical density is the density of the universe that would create a flat universe. It is
approximately 5 1026 kg m3.
[Option E]
cyclotron
A cyclotron accelerates charged particles as they travel in an outward spiral inside two hollow
electrodes in a vacuum. Circular motion is achieved with a fixed magnetic field, and acceleration is
achieved as the charged particles cross the gap between two hollow electrodes. An alternating p.d.
between the electrodes ensures that the particles always accelerate in the gap.
[Option J]
Oxford University Press 2010
IB Physics Course Companion Glossary of terms from option chapters
D
dark matter
Dark matter makes up the majority of the mass in the universe and its nature is unknown. It is
called dark matter because it does not emit light. The mathematics of orbital motion allow us to
calculate how much matter must be contained within a galaxy in order for the outer stars to remain
in orbit. The stars and their associated planes account for a maximum of 10% of the matter that
must be there. The unexplained 90% is dark matter.
[Option E]
de Broglie relationship
De Broglie hypothesized that all moving particles have a matter wave associated with them. de
Broglie equation is:
h
p=
p is the momentum in kg m s-1
h is Plancks constant (6.63 1034J s)
is the wavelength in m.
The same equation can be used to calculate the momentum associated with photons.
[Option J]
demodulator
A demodulator is a circuit that reconstructs the signal wave from a modulated carrier wave.
[Option F]
depth of vision
The depth of vision is the range of distances that are in focus at any given instant. Normal vision
has the eye focused on infinity (when the eye is relaxed) and this results in the greatest depth of
vision.
[Option A]
diagnostic applications
Diagnostic applications are medical procedures designed to find out what is wrong with a patient.
[Option I]
diffraction grating
A diffraction grating is a series of parallel slits with a regular separation. Increasing the total
number of slits does not affect the separation of the bright fringes but it does make them sharper
and brighter.
[Option G]
dioptre
The dioptre (dpt) is the unit for the power of a lens:
1 dpt = 1 m1
[Option G]
dispersion
Dispersion is the phenomenon by which white light entering a prism is split into its component
colours, as a result of the different refraction indexes for different wavelengths.
[Option G]
double-slit experiment
The double-slit experiment for light involves two coherent sources of monochromatic light which
are often narrow slits in an otherwise dark obstacle. The light from these two sources interferes
and produces light and dark fringes.
[Option G]
down-link frequency
Different frequencies are used for sending information to and from a satellite. The down-link
frequency is the frequency used for receiving information from a satellite.
[Option F]
E
ear, human, basic structure of
Longitudinal sound vibrations enter the outer ear and arrive at the ear drum (tympanic membrane).
In the middle ear, three small bones (the malleus, incus, and stapes), which are collectively known
as the ossicles, pass the oscillations into the fluid in the inner ear via the oval window. Oscillations
in the fluid are converted in the cochlea into electrical signals that are sent along the auditory nerve
to the brain. Another part of the inner ear not involved in hearing sounds is the semicircular canals,
which are involved in detecting movement and keeping the body balanced.
[Option H]
ear, response of
There is a logarithmic response of the ear to intensity.
[Option I]
effective half-life
The effective half-life of a radioactive isotope in the body is the time taken for the number of atoms
of the radioactive isotope in the body to halve, as a result of both biological processes and
radioactive decay.
[Option I]
endoscopes
An endoscope consists of a tube containing a collection of optical fibres. This tube can be inserted
inside the body without the need for surgery, and illumination from an outside source can be
directed onto a region under investigation. Reflected light is collected and further optical fibres are
used to allow an image to be viewed.
[Option I]
Ea is the energy available for the formation of particles as a result of a collision in MeV (centre-of-
mass frame),
M is the rest mass of the target particle in MeV c2,
c is the speed of light (substituted as symbol),
E is the total energy of the incoming particle in the laboratory frame (i.e. rest energy + kinetic
energy) in MeV,
m is the rest mass of the incoming particle in MeV c2.
[Option J]
equilibrium of a star
A stars size is stable because it is in equilibrium between radiation pressure (the tendency of the
hot central mass to expand outwards into the surrounding vacuum of space) and gravitational
pressure, the inward pull of gravity.
[Option E]
exchange particles
Exchange particles mediate the known interactions in nature. They are:
EM photons
weak W+, W, Z0
strong 8 gluons
gravity gravitons
[Option J]
exposure
The exposure is the total amount of ionization produced as a result of ionizing radiation. It is
defined as:
Q
X=
m
X is the exposure in C kg1,
Q is the total charge of one sign produced as the radiation passes through air in C,
m is the mass of air in kg.
[Option I]
eyepiece lens
The second lens in an optical instrument involving two lenses. Light from the object being viewed
leaves the instrument and enters the observers eye via the eyepiece lens.
[Option G]
F
far point
The far point is the furthest point that can be focused upon without straining or optical aids. In
normal vision, the distance to the near point is taken as infinite.
[Options A & G]
Feynman diagram
Feynman diagrams are space-time diagrams used to represent possible particle interactions and
calculate the overall probability of an interaction taking place.
[Option J]
film badge
A film badge is a piece of photographic film held within a plastic container and not exposed to light.
It is used to monitor the exposure received by those who work with radiation. Different filters are
placed either side of the film so as to be able to determine the nature of the ionizing radiation that
has affected the film.
[Option I]
flat universe
A flat universe is one that continues to expand forever. The force of gravity will continually slow
down the rate of recession of the galaxies. The density of the universe is an exact amount so that it
takes an infinite amount of time to bring the expansion to a halt. This happens if the density of the
universe were equal to the critical density.
[Option E]
focal length
The focal length is the distance between the centre of the lens and the focal point.
[Option G]
focal point
The focal point of a lens is the point on the principal axis, to which rays that were parallel to the
principal axis are brought to focus after passing through the lens.
[Option G]
Oxford University Press 2010
IB Physics Course Companion Glossary of terms from option chapters
frame of reference
Any observer that makes observations of events with respect to where they are with rulers and
clocks that are at rest with respect to the observer is known as a frame of reference.
[Option H]
fundamental interactions
The four fundamental interactions of nature are electromagnetic, strong, weak, and gravity. The
electromagnetic and the weak interactions are two aspects of the same interaction, the
electroweak interaction.
[Option J]
fusion
Fusion is main energy source in stars.
[Option E]
G
gain
The gain of an amplifier is defined by:
V
G = OUT
VIN
G is the gain (and has no units: it is a ratio),
VOUT is the output voltage in V,
VIN is the input voltage in V.
[Option F]
galactic cluster
A galactic cluster is a number of galaxies (e.g. 103) that are located relatively close to one another.
[Option E]
galactic supercluster
A galactic supercluster is a large number of galactic clusters that are located relatively close to one
another. Typically the galaxies are arranged together in bands.
[Option E]
Galilean transformation
A Galilean transformation is a set of equations that allows for measurements in one frame of
reference to be deduced from another frame of reference by applying classical mechanics (i.e.
without taking the theory of relativity into consideration).
Suppose that, according to an observer in a frame S, the frame of reference S is moving past S
with a constant velocity v in the x direction. The frames are on top of one another when t = t = 0.
Then:
y = y
z = z
t = t
and
x = x vt
u= u v
In frame S:
x, y, and z are measurements of distance in m,
t is the measurement of time in s,
u and v are measurements of velocity in m s-1,
The corresponding measurements in frame S are:
x, y and z the measurements of distance in m,
t' the measurement of time in s,
u the measurement of velocity in m s-1.
[Option H]
geostationary satellite
A geostationary satellite maintains the same position relative to a point on the Earths surface. The
orbit is above the equator with time period of exactly 24-hours.
[Option F]
gravitational lensing
Gravitational lensing is the bending of light around massive galaxies giving the same results as
light is bent by a convex lens.
[Option H]
gravitational mass
Gravitational mass is the property of an object that determines how much gravitational force it feels
when near another object.
gravitatio nal force m(g )
gravitational force is measured in N,
m(g) is the gravitational mass in kg.
[Option H]
H
hadrons
All particles (apart from exchange particles) can be classified as either hadrons (heavy) or leptons
(light). Hadrons can be further classified as either baryons or mesons. All hadrons are composed
of quarks. Protons and neutrons are hadrons.
[Option J]
HafeleKeating experiment
In the HafeleKeating experiment, atomic clocks were put into aircraft and flown, both eastwards
and westwards, around the world. Before and after the flights the times on the clocks were
compared with clocks that remained fixed in the same location on the surface of the Earth. The
results of the experiment agreed with the predictions of special relativity within the uncertainties of
the experimental procedure.
[Option H]
half-lives
Different half-lives are linked with the following formula:
1 1 1
= +
TE TP TB
TE is the effective half-life of a radioactive isotope in the body measured in s,
TP is the physical half-life of a radioactive isotope measured in s,
TB is the biological half-life of a radioactive isotope in the body measured in s.
[Option I]
half-value thickness
The half-value thickness is the thickness of a material that results in the intensity of X-rays being
reduced to a half of their original value. It is related to the attenuation coefficient as follows:
x 1 = ln 2
2
is the attenuation coefficient in m-1,
x 21 is the half-value thickness of the material in m,
ln is the natural logarithm (logarithms to the base e).
[Option I]
hardness of X-rays
The hardness of an X-ray beam measures its penetration power. High frequencies are harder.
[Option G]
Higgs particle
The Higgs particle is a hypothesized elementary particle necessary to explain the process by which
particles can acquire mass.
[Option J]
Hubbles law
The recession velocity of a galaxy is proportional to the distance of the galaxy from Earth:
v = H 0d
v is the recession speed of the galaxy in km s1,
d is the distance of the galaxy from Earth in Mpc,
H0 is the Hubble constant in km s1 Mpc1.
[Option E]
I
ideal operational amplifier (op-amp)
An ideal operational amplifier (op-amp) has infinite gain and draws zero current on its inputs.
[Option F]
inertial mass
Inertial mass is the property of an object that determines how it responds to a given force:
F
Inertial mass m(i) =
a
m(i) is the inertial mass in kg.
[Option H]
intensity
The intensity of a sound wave is the power per unit area that is received by the observer:
p
I=
A
I is the intensity in W m2,
p is the power received in W,
A is the area at right angles to the wave that receives the power.
[Option I]
K
kinetic energy of a particle
The kinetic energy of a particle moving at relativistic speeds is given by:
E K = ( 1)m0 c 2
EK is the kinetic energy of the moving particle in J,
is the Lorentz factor for the moving object (and has no units: it is a number 1),
m0 is the rest mass of the particle in kg,
c is the velocity of light in m s1 (3 108 m s1).
[Option H]
L
laser light
Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Electrons are promoted
to higher energy levels. If a significant population inversion exists, the electrons can be stimulated
by a photon of the correct frequency to fall down and emit further identical photons. This emission
can produce significant light amplification.
[Option G]
length contraction
The length of an object as measured by a moving frame of reference will be less than the length of
the object as measured in the objects own frame of reference. This effect is known as length
contraction. The length contraction formula is:
L
L= 0
L is the length of an object in m as measured in the frame in which the object is moving,
L0 is the proper length for the object in m,
is the Lorentz factor for the moving frame (and has no units: it is a number 1).
[Option H]
leptons
Leptons are elementary particles. There are six different types of lepton: electron, electron-
neutrino, muon, muon-neutrino, tau, tau-neutrino.
[Option J]
lepton number
The total number of leptons in each family is conserved in any reaction.
[Option J]
light clock
A light clock is an imaginary device in which a beam of light bounces between two mirrors. The line
taken by the light between bounces is the basic time interval measured by the clock.
[Option H]
light-year
A unit of distance to measure the distance travelled by light in a vacuum during one year. It is
equal to 9.46 1015 m.
[Option E]
linear accelerator
In a linear accelerator, charged particles are accelerated along a horizontal evacuated tube. A
radio-frequency alternating p.d. is connected along a series of hollow electrodes. The charged
particles are accelerated by the electric field between the electrodes.
[Option J]
linear magnification
Linear magnification is the ratio between the size of the image and the size of the object:
h v
m= i =
h0 u
m is the linear magnification (no units),
hi is the height of the image in m,
ho is the height of the object in m,
v is the image distance in m,
u is the object distance in m.
[Option G]
Lorentz factor
The Lorentz factor is:
1
=
v2
1 2
c
is the Lorentz factor (and has no units: it is a number 1),
v is the velocity of the moving object in m s-1,
c is the velocity of the light in m s1 (3 108 m s1).
[Option H]
loudspeaker
A loudspeaker converts electrical oscillations into sound waves at the same frequency.
[Option F]
luminosity
The luminosity of a star is the total power radiated in W.
[Option E]
M
MACHOs
Massive astronomical compact halo objects (MACHOs) are one possible theoretical explanation for
dark particles.
[Option E]
malignant
Malignant cells are cancerous cells.
[Option I]
mass of star, effect on the end product of nuclear fusion and changes in nucleosynthesis
Stars on the main sequence are fusing hydrogen nuclei to create helium nuclei. A stars mass
affects the end product of nuclear fusion. Small-mass stars go through a red giant phase in which
helium is fused, creating carbon and oxygen. This process ends in a planetary nebula with the
remnant being a white dwarf. Larger-mass stars end up as a red supergiant in which the elements
up to iron can be fused. This process ends in a supernova with the remnant being a neutron star or
a black hole.
[Option E]
massluminosity relationship
The luminosity of a star on the main sequence is related to its mass by:
L mn , where 3 < n < 4
L is the luminosity in W,
m is the mass in kg,
n is a number between 3 and 4.
[Option E]
material dispersion
Material dispersion is a process by which a pulse that starts out as a square wave will tend to
spread out as it travels along an optical fibre, as a result of the different frequencies that make up
the pulse having slightly different speeds along the fibre.
[Option F]
mesons
Mesons are hadrons containing a quark/antiquark pair.
[Option J]
MichelsonMorley interferometer
The MichelsonMorley interferometer involves two beams of light that have paths that are at right
angles to one another. Having travelled the different paths, the light was brought together where it
interfered, producing constructive and destructive interference patterns. It was expected that a
rotation of the apparatus would cause the interference pattern to move, and the speed of the Earth
through the aether could be calculated. The rotation did not produce any observable change in the
interference pattern, which implies that the aether does not exist. The result is consistent with the
postulate of the constancy of the speed of light.
[Option H]
modal dispersion
Modal dispersion is a process by which a pulse that starts out as a square wave will tend to spread
out as it travels along an optical fibre, as a result of the different paths possible down an optical
fibre that has a significant core diameter.
[Option F]
Oxford University Press 2010
IB Physics Course Companion Glossary of terms from option chapters
modulation
Modulation is the general term for the way in which a carrier wave is modified in order to transmit a
signal from source to receiver. Two important types are amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency
modulation (FM).
[Option F]
monochromatic
Monochromatic means of a single colour or frequency.
[Option G]
N
near point
The near point is the closest point that can be brought into focus by the unaided eye. For normal
vision, the near point is taken to be 25 cm away from the observer.
[Options A and G]
neutral current
Weak interactions involving the neutral Z0 boson are called neutral currents.
[Option J]
neutron star
A large-mass star ends its red giant phase in a supernova. The remnant in the centre could be
visible as a neutron star if its mass is small enough.
[Option E]
noise
Noise, in any signal, is the term used to describe unwanted additions that degrade the quality of
the signal. Dispersions and scatterings that take place within an optical fibre will mean that the
output signal is not identical to the input signal, but also includes some noise.
[Option F]
normal hearing
The range of audible frequencies experienced by a person with normal hearing is from 20 Hz to 20
kHz.
[Option I]
nucleosynthesis
Nucleosynthesis is the process by which nuclei of different elements are formed.
[Option J]
O
objective lens
The first lens in an optical instrument involving two lenses. Light from the object being viewed
enters the instrument via the objective lens.
[Option G]
observed loudness
A change in observed loudness is the response of the ear to a change in intensity of sound.
[Option I]
Olbers paradox
Olbers paradox is that the night sky is dark, but if one accepts Newtons model of the universe,
then the night sky should be bright. In simple terms, whatever direction you look in, you should
eventually come across a star.
A more mathematical analysis shows that more distant stars will appear dimmer, but this effect is
cancelled out by the increased likelihood of observing stars at larger distances.
[Option E]
open universe
An open universe is one that continues to expand forever. The force of gravity will slow down the
rate of recession of the galaxies, but it is not strong enough to bring the expansion to a halt. This
would happen if the density of the universe were low.
[Option E]
OppenheimerVolkoff limit
The OppenheimerVolkoff limit is the maximum size for a neutron star to be able to exist (between
2 and 3 solar masses). Below this mass, neutron degeneracy pressure allows the neutron star to
be stable. Above this mass, further gravitational collapse must take place into a black hole.
[Option E]
optical flats
An optical flat is a region that is designed to be completely smooth.
[Option G]
P
pair annihilation
Pair annihilation is the name given to the process in which a matter particle and an antimatter
particle interact, and both particles cease to exist.
[Option J]
parallel-to-serial converter
A parallel-to-serial converter converts a parallel digital signal inputted on several digital input lines
into a serial (one-bit-at-a-time) output on a single output digital line.
[Option F]
parsec
The parsec is an astronomical measurement of distance equal to 3.26 light-years. It is the distance
to a star that has a parallax angle of one second of arc, or
o
1
3600
[Option E]
particle production
The total energy required to created a moving particle is given by:
E = mc 2 + E K
E is the total energy in MeV
m is the rest mass of the particle in MeV c2
c is the speed of light (substituted as a symbol)
EK is the kinetic energy in MeV.
[Option J]
photomultiplier
Some particles cause a photon to be emitted from certain materials. A photomultiplier allows
individual photons (and thus individual particles) to be detected by using the photon to cause the
photoelectric emission of an electron from a cathode. This single electron is accelerated and
causes further electrons to be emitted in an avalanche of collisions which results in a pulse of
current.
[Option J]
physical half-life
The physical half-life of an isotope is the time taken for the number of nuclei concerned to halve, as
a result of radioactive decay.
[Option I]
piezoelectric crystals
Piezoelectric crystals are quartz crystals that change shape when an electric current flows. They
also generate p.d.s when receiving sound pressure waves, and thus one crystal can be used for
the generation and detection of ultrasound.
[Option I]
Oxford University Press 2010
IB Physics Course Companion Glossary of terms from option chapters
planetary nebula
A low-mass star ends its red giant phase by ejecting the other layers of the star. The remains of
the outer layers are visible as a planetary nebula. The remnant in the centre is a white dwarf star.
[Option E]
polar-orbiting satellites
Polar-orbiting satellites are ones that are in a low-altitude orbit that passes over the poles. They
can be used for monitoring the weather, remote sensing, or military surveillance.
[Option F]
population inversion
Normally, electrons will always occupy the lowest available energy levels in an atom. A population
inversion is said to exist when a large number of electrons are at higher energy levels than would
be normally expected. They can be easily stimulated to fall down to the lower energy level.
[Option G]
PoundRebka experiment
The PoundRebka experiment was able to measure the decrease in frequency of a gamma-ray
photon as it changed height in a gravitational field.
[Option H]
power of a lens
The power of a lens is the reciprocal of the focal length:
1
P=
f
P is the power of the lens in dpt,
f is the focal length of the lens in m.
[Option G]
primary colours
The primary colours are red, green, and blue. By adding combinations of these three frequencies
at different intensities, the other colours of the rainbow can be perceived (red and green light
together appears as yellow light).
[Option A]
proper length
The proper length of an object is the length as measured in a frame of reference where the two
measurement events take place at the same time. It is the length of an object recorded in the
objects frame of reference.
[Option H]
pulsars
Pulsars are cosmic sources of very weak radio wave energy that pulsate at a very rapid and
precise frequency. They have been theoretically linked to rotating neutron stars.
[Option E]
pulse oximetry
Pulse oximetry involves shining red and infrared laser light through a thin part of a patients
anatomy. The changing relative amount between two wavelengths can be used to determine the
ratio of blood cells with oxygen to those without oxygen.
[Option I]
Q
quantum numbers
All particles (elementary, as well as composite) are specified in terms of their mass and various
quantum numbers that define the particle concerned. Quantum numbers include electric charge,
spin, strangeness, colour, lepton number, and baryon number.
[Option J]
quark confinement
The term quark confinement means that isolated quarks cannot be observed. If sufficient energy
is supplied to a hadron in order to attempt to isolate a quark, then more hadrons (or mesons) will
be produced rather than isolated quarks
[Option J]
quarks
Quarks are the elementary particles that make up all hadrons (baryons and mesons). There are six
different types of quark: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom.
[Option J]
R
radio-frequency (RF) amplifier
A radio-frequency (RF) amplifier is an amplifier capable of increasing the amplitude of a signals
that are oscillating at radio frequencies (104 Hz and above).
[Option F]
range of interactions
The formula for estimating for the range of interactions is:
h
R
4mc
R is the approximate range of the interaction in m,
h is Plancks constant (6.63 1034J s),
m is the rest mass of the exchange particle in kg,
c is the speed of light (3 108 m s1).
[Option J]
real image
A real image is one in which the rays of light pass through the image. It can be projected onto a
screen.
[Option G]
real-is-positive convention
The real-is-positive convention for the thin-lens formula is that the distances are always measured
out from the lens, so positive values of u and v correspond to the object and image being on
different sides of the lens, i.e. a real image.
A virtual image is represented by a negative value of v in other words it will be on the same side
of the lens as the object.
[Option G]
redshift
Light from distance stars and galaxies that are receding will show a Doppler shift towards longer
wavelengths. This is known as redshift.
[Option E]
refractive index
The refractive index of a medium is the ratio between the speed of the wave in a vacuum and the
speed of the wave in the medium.
[Option F]
relativistic momentum
The relativistic momentum of a moving particle is given by:
p = m0u
p is the momentum of the moving particle in kg m s1,
is the Lorentz factor for the moving object (and has no units: it is a number 1),
m0 is the rest mass of the particle in kg,
u is the velocity of the particle in m s-1.
Alternative units for relativistic momentum are MeV c1. If this is the case, the rest mass will be
measured in MeV c2 and the velocity of the particle will be measured relative to c (the speed of
light).
[Option H]
rest mass
The rest mass of an object is the mass of the object as measured in its own frame of reference. It
is an invariant quantity and can be measured in kg. Alternative units for rest mass are MeV c2. An
object that has a rest mass of x MeV c2, has an associated rest energy of x MeV.
[Option H]
rods
Rods are light-sensitive cells responsible for scotopic vision (the black-and-white vision that takes
place in dim light). Rods are mainly located away from the centre of the retina. The density of the
rods on the retina peaks approximately 20 away from the centre.
[Option A]
S
sample-and-hold
The analogue output of a sample-and-hold system follows the analogue input. On receiving a
control signal, the output stops varying and retains the same fixed value. The input signal is said to
have been sampled.
[Option F]
satellite communication
Satellite communication is relaying information from source to receiver via an artificial satellite in
orbit around the Earth. Communications are in the high-frequency radio part of the EM spectrum
[Option F]
Schmitt trigger
The output of a Schmitt trigger has two possible values. The voltage on the input, which triggers
the change between these two values, has a different value for a rising signal when compared with
a falling signal. It can be used to reshape digital pulses that have been subjected to noise or
dispersion.
[Option F]
Schwarzschild radius
The Schwarzschild radius is the distance from the centre of a black hole at which the escape
velocity is equal to the speed of light. It can be calculated from:
2GM
RS =
c2
RS is the Schwarzschild radius in m,
G is the gravitational constant (6.67 1011 N m2 kg2),
M is the mass of the black hole in kg,
c is the velocity of light in m s1 (3 108 m s1)
[Option H]
secondary colours
The secondary colours are yellow, magenta, and cyan. They result from mixing together two
primary colours (magenta = red + blue; cyan = blue + green; yellow = red + green).
[Option A]
serial-to-parallel converter
A serial-to-parallel converter converts a single input serial digital line into a parallel digital signal
outputted on several digital lines.
[Option F]
Shapiro experiment
The Shapiro experiment measures the time taken for a pulse of EM radiation to travel to a nearby
planet. The gravitational field of the Sun affects the time taken, and measurements confirm the
predictions of general relativity.
[Option H]
sideband frequencies
The power spectrum of an AM signal will show peak amplitude at the frequency of the carrier
waves. In addition, there will be frequencies above and below the carrier wave frequency for each
frequency that is represented in the signal wave. The collection of frequencies above and below
the carrier wave frequency are collectively known as the sideband frequencies.
[Option F]
signal wave
The signal wave is the information that is being sent from source to receiver, for example the
sound signal that is being broadcast using radio waves.
[Option F]
simultaneity
If two events happen together at the same time we say they are simultaneous. Events that take
place at the same point in space are simultaneous to all observers. Events that take place at
different points in space can be simultaneous to one observer, but not simultaneous to another.
[Option H]
Snells law
When a wave is refracted between two media, the ratio of the angle of incidence to the angle of
refraction is a fixed constant that depends on the speeds of wave in each media:
n1 sin 2 v 2
= =
n2 sin1 v 1
n1 is the refractive index of medium 1 (no units),
n2 is the refractive index of medium 2 (no units),
2 is the angle of refraction (the angle between the refracted ray and the normal) in medium 2
measured in or rad,
1 is the angle of incidence (the angle between the incident ray and the normal) in medium 1
measured in or rad,
v2 is the speed of the wave in medium 2 in m s-1,
v1 is the speed of the wave in medium 1 in m s-1.
[Option F]
space-time
Space-time is a four-dimensional coordinate system which has the three conventional dimensions
of space (x, y, and z) and a fourth dimension of time (t). An event can be specified by all four
dimensions. All observers agree on the space-time separation between events. Moving objects
always follow the shortest possible path between two points in space-time.
The space-time separation between events is given by:
s 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 c 2t 2
s is the space-time separation between events in m,
x, y, and z are the distances between the events in the three axis directions in m,
c is the velocity of light in m s1 (3 108 m s1),
t is the time between the events in s.
[Option H]
spectral class
Stars are classified into different categories depending on their different spectra of light emitted.
The seven main spectral classes (in descending temperature) are O, B, A , F, G, K and M.
[Option E]
spectroscopic parallax
It is possible to estimate a stars luminosity from the relative intensities of different frequencies in
its spectrum. The luminosity and the apparent brightness can be used to estimate the stellar
distance. This process is known as spectroscopic parallax.
The method of spectroscopic parallax is limited to measuring stellar distances less than about
10Mpc.
[Option E]
spherical aberration
Spherical aberration is the term used to describe the fact that rays striking the outer regions of a
spherical lens will be brought to a slightly different focus point from those striking the inner regions
of the same lens. In general, a point object will focus into a small circle of light rather than a point
image.
[Option G]
spin
(
Particles with non-integer spin 1
2
3
2
) are called fermions. All leptons and baryons are fermions.
This includes all the everyday particles of matter, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Particles with integer spin (0, 1, 2) are called bosons. All mesons are bosons, as are photons,
and the other exchange particles, for example gluons.
[Option J]
standard candles
Standard candle is a term used to describe a source of known luminosity used to make
comparisons and estimate other sources of luminosity that are at equivalent distances; for
example, if the luminosity of one star in a galaxy is known, then the luminosities of all the other
stars in that galaxy can be estimated.
[Option E]
StefanBoltzmann law
The equation for the total power radiated in black-body radiation is:
P = AT 4
P is the total power radiated by the black body in W,
is the StefanBoltzmann constant (5.67 108 W m2 K4),
A is the surface area in m2,
T is the absolute temperature of the black body in K.
[Option E]
stellar cluster
A stellar cluster is a group of stars that are in close relative proximity to one another.
[Option E]
stellar parallax
Stellar parallax is the apparent movement (when compared to the fixed background of stars) of
nearby stars over the course of a year. It is a result of the movement of the Earth during the year.
The measured amplitude of the angle variation is called the parallax angle for the star and can be
used to calculate its distance:
1
d=
p
d is the distance from the Earth to the star in pc,
p is the parallax angle of the star in seconds of arc, (3600 )
1 o.
[Option E]
strangeness
Strangeness is a property carried by the strange quark. Strange quarks have a strangeness of 1,
whereas antistrange quarks have a strangeness of +1. Strangeness will be conserved in
electromagnetic and strong interactions.
[Option J]
string theory
String theories regard elementary particles not as points but as strings. The different quantum
properties correspond to different modes of vibration of the string. These models are formulated in
more dimensions than the four dimensions of the standard model typically 10. The extra
dimensions cannot be perceived as they are curved into a very compact space whose typical linear
size is unobservable small.
[Option J]
supernova
A supernova is the catastrophic final end of a red giant star most of the mass of the star is
ejected in a violent explosion.
[Option E]
synchrotron
In a synchrotron, charged particles move in an approximately circular path of large radius inside an
evacuated pipe. Magnets and p.d.s are used to accelerate the particles.
[Option J]
T
temperature change of the universe since the Big Bang
The temperature of the universe was 1032 K at 1043 s after the Big Bang and is 2.7 K at present.
[Option J]
therapeutic applications
Therapeutic applications are medical procedures designed to cure or relieve the suffering of a
patient.
[Option I]
time-division multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing is a technique that allows several signals to be sent along the same
channel of communication at the same time. It uses the time between the samples of one message
to send samples from other messages.
[Option F]
tuning circuit
A tuning circuit is one that responds to preferentially amplified signals at a given frequency.
Typically, a capacitor and an inductor are used to create a circuit with its own natural frequency of
oscillation. If this circuit is stimulated at its natural frequency, then resonance occurs and the
oscillations are greatly increased in amplitude.
[Option F]
twin paradox
One of two twins undertakes a journey in a space ship that involves travelling at a high speed away
from the Earth and then back to the Earth. The other twin stays on the Earth. According to the twin
on Earth, the twin in the space ship is moving, so time must run slowly for the twin on the space
ship and they must age less. According to the twin on the spaceship, the twin on Earth is moving
so it would seem that the time must run slowly for the twin on the Earth and they must age less.
The paradox is that they both cannot be right. Since the twin in the spacecraft makes an outward
and return journey, this is no longer a symmetrical situation for the twins the twin in the
spacecraft will age less.
[Option H]
U
ultrasound
Ultrasound is sound waves at a frequency above that of human hearing.
[Option I]
uncertainty principle
The uncertainty principle, in terms of time and energy, allows for the creation of a particle with
energy E to exist no longer than a time t as given by:
h
Et
4
E is the uncertainty in energy in J,
t is the uncertainty in time in s,
h is Plancks constant (6.63 1034J s).
[Option J]
up-link frequency
Different frequencies are used for sending information to and from a satellite. The up-link
frequency is the frequency used for sending information to a satellite.
[Option F]
V
virtual image
A virtual image is one in which the rays of light do not pass through the image. It cannot be
projected onto a screen.
[Option G]
virtual particles
A virtual particle is one that only exists for a short enough time for the uncertainty relationship to
allow for their existence. They are involved in Feynman diagrams but cannot be physically
detected.
[Option J]
W
wedge films
The conditions for interference in wedge films are:
Constructive interference:
2nt = m
Destructive interference:
1
2nt = m +
2
n is the refractive index of the medium in the wedge (no units),
t is the thickness of the wedge at the point being considered in m,
m is an integer (1, 2, 3, etc.),
is the wavelength of light in m.
[Option G]
white dwarfs
White dwarf stars are small in size and comparatively hot so white in colour. They are one of the
final possible stages for a star being a hot remnant that is cooling down without any fusion
reactions taking place.
[Option E]
WIMPs
Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) are one possible theoretical explanation for dark
particles.
[Option E]
wire chamber
A wire chamber is a particle detector involving very many fine wires held a few millimetres apart
from one another with large p.d.s between them. The ionizations, caused by particles travelling
through the detector, trigger small pulses of current which can be recorded and analysed to identify
the path taken by the particle.
[Option J]
wire pairs
Wire pairs are two wires used directly to connect the sender and receiver of information.
[Option F]
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