AdvancedPhotogrammetry

SE422

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Introduction
Photogrammetry dealswithderiving3dimensionalobjector
groundcoordinatesfromphotographicimageswithhighest
accuracyandwithouttouchingtheobject.
Theresultofphotogrammetric measurementsmaybe:
Numbers (coordinatesofobjectpointsin3Dcoordinatesystem)
Plots (mapsandplanswithplanimetric detailandcontourlines)
Images (mainlyorthopotos)
Someoftheadvantagesofphotogrammetry:
Noncontactpositioningmethod
Wecantakeimagesofalargenumberpointssimultaneously
Wealsocanarchivethephotographsfordocumentation.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Stereoscopicplottinginstruments
Stereoscopicplottinginstruments areinstruments
designedtoproviderigorouslyaccuratesolutionsfor
objectpointpositionsfromtheircorresponding
imagepositionsonoverlappingpairsofphotos.
ItcanproduceaccurateX,Y,andZobjectspace
coordinateswhenproperlyorientedandcalibrated.
Theprimaryusesofstereoplotters arecompiling
topographicmapsandgeneratingdigitalfilesof
topographicinformation.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Typesofstereoplotters
DirectOpticalprojectioninstruments:createa
truethreedimensionalstereomodel by
projectingtransparencyimagesthrough
projectorlenses.
Mechanicaloropticalmechanicalinstruments
cancreate3Dmodelthroughmechanical
means(spacerods)
Analyticalplotters:mostoftheworkdoneby
computer

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Oneofthemaintasksofallstereoplotters isto
establishtheprojectiverelationshipbetween
eachmodelpointanditscorrespondingimage
pointsonthestereopair ofphotographs.
Intheanalogplotterthisrelationshipisrealized
byanalogmeans,eitheroptically,or
mechanicallyoropticalmechanically.
Intheanalyticalplotters,theprojective
relationsareimplementedanalytically

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

DIRECTOPTICALPROJECTIONSTEREOPLOTTERS

1.Mainframe
2.Referencetable
3.Tracingtable
4.Platen
5.Guiderods
6.Projectors
7.Illuminationlamps
8.Diapositives
9.Levelingscrews
10.Projectorbar
11.Tracingpencil

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 MECHANICALPROJECTION
PLOTTER
Spacerodsusedtosimulatedirectoptical
projectionoflightrays
Preferredinstrumentoverdirectoptical
plotters
Moreversatile
Higheraccuracy
Betteroverallstability
Neednotbeoperatedindarkroom

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

MECHANICALPROJECTIONPLOTTER

Diapositives placedincarriersandilluminatedabove
Spacerodsarefreetorotateaboutgimbal jointsO
andO andcanslideupanddownthroughjoints
ModelairbasedefinedbyOO
Jointsfixedinpositionexcepttheirspacingcanbe
changed
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 ANALYTICALPLOTTERS
Developmentpossiblewithadvancesin
computers,digitalencodersandservosystems
Useexactmathematicalcalculationstodefine
stereomodel
Capabilities
Preciselymeasurexandyphotocoordinateson
bothphotosofastereopair
Accuratelymovetodefinedxandyphoto
locations

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

ANALYTICALPLOTTERS

Wild BC-1
Zeiss P3

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 History
Analyticalplo erswerefirstdevelopedin1956byHelava
(NRCCanada)
HetookhisideastoBendix andtheItaliancompanyOMI.
Theyproducedthefirstworkingplotter theAP1.
Thiswasmostlysimilartotoday'sdesignsexceptforthe
computerswhichwerebigandslowandhadlimitedstorage.
Theslowspeedofthecomputerswasamajorproblemuntila
breakthroughin1976when,attheISPRScongressinHelsinki
Zeiss announcedtheirPlanicomp andMatra,theirTraster
plotter.
Atthe1980congressinHamburganalyticalplo ersbecame
verypopularwiththeintroductionoftheKernDSR1,Wild
AC1andtheHeleva US1.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Maincomponents
1. Thestereocomparator wherethetwoplates
areinserted
2. Acontrollercomputer
3. TheCADcomputer
4. Theoperatorsconsole
5. Servomotors
6. Encoders

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Duringthetimeofanalogplotters,photogrammetrists
avoidcomputation.
Theytriedtosolvealltheirproblemsbymechanical
andopticalsolutions.
Duetotherapiddevelopmentofcomputers,
photogrammetric methodscouldbemorerigorously
expressedbymathematicalmodelswhichhadtobe
solvednumerically.Itiscalledanalytical
photogrammetry
Analyticalapproacheshavedemonstratedefficiencyin
termofcosts,accuracyandtime.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Analogphotogrammetry suffersfromthelimitationof
theopticalmechanicalinstruments.
Itonlydealswithcentralperspectiveprojection
PanoramicandstripphotographicsystemsandXrayradiographyare
someexamplesthatcannotbeaccommodatedbyanaloginstruments
Difficulttoeliminatesomeerrors
Eliminatingerrorsduetoinfluenceslikethoseoflensdistortion,
atmosphericrefractionandfilmdeformationaredifficultor
impossibletoincorporateinopticalmechanicaldevicesbutare
accomplishedeasilythroughmathematicalmodelswithacomputer.
Difficulttoincorporateauxiliaryinformation
AuxiliaryinformationdatasuchasGPSdataorinertialnavigation
systemsdatamaynotbedirectlyenforcedbutmaybeconsideredas
adequatelyweightedparameterstoreinforceratherthanoverride the
geometricstrengthofnormalphotogrammetric procedures.
Restrictedtorangeoffocallength
Analyticalphotogrammetry canaccommodatephotographyfromany
focallength(orusedtwodifferentfocallengthstoformamodel

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Analyticalstereoplotter canprovidemore
accurateresultthananalogplottersbecause

Opticalandmechanicalerrorsfromlightraysand
mechanicalspacerodsarenotintroduced
Theycancorrectformanycombinationofsystematic
errors(lensdistortion,shrinkage,refraction,earth
curvature)
Ineveryphaseoftheiroperation,theycantake
advantageofredundantobservationsand
incorporatethemethodofleastsquaresintothe
solutionoftheequations.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

TheoryofOrientation
Theobjectiveoforientationistotransform
centrallyprojectedimagesintoathree
dimensionalmodel,whichwecanuseto
plotanorthogonalmap.
StepsofOrientation
Interiororientation
Relativeorientation
Absoluteorientation

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Interiororientation
Recreatethegeometryoftheprojectedrays
toduplicateexactlythegeometryofthe
originalphotos.
Threesteps:
1.Centeringdiapositives ontheprojectors
2.Se ngotheproperprincipaldistance
3.Compensationforimagedistortions

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

ElementsofInteriorOrientation

ElementsofInteriorOrientation
1. Thecamerafocallengthf
2. Locationoftheprincipalpointwithrespectto
thefiducial marks(xo,yo)
3. Allthedistortionparameters
A. Correctionforfilmshrinkageandexpansion
B. Correctionforlensdistortion
dr =ko r+k1 r3 +k2 r5 +k3 r7 rc =r dr
whereristheradialdistancefromtheprincipalpoint
ko,k1,k2,k3 arecoefficientofthepolynomial

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 ElementsofInteriorOrientation
Allthedistortionparameters
C. Correctionforatmosphericrefraction
2410 H 2410 h h 6
K = 2 2 * 10
H 6 H + 250 h 6 h + 250 H
r
d = K tan tan =
f
rc = f tan( + d )
whereHistheflyingheightabovemeansealevelinkms
histheelevationoftheobjectpointinkms
Kinradian
D. Correctionforearthcurvature.
H 'r3 rc =r+dr
dr = whereH istheflyingheight
2 Rf 2
Ristheradiusoftheearth
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Radial lens distortion AtmosphericRefraction

Atmospheric Refraction
Radial lens distortion

Theoretical light ray

Actual light ray

Actual light ray
Theoretical light ray

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 RelativeOrientation
Recreatethesamerelativerelationship
betweendiapositives thatexistedatthetimeof
thephotography
Itcreates,inminiature,atrue3Dstereomodel
oftheoverlappingarea.
Afterthediapositives havebeenplacedinthe
projectorsandthelightsturnedon,
correspondinglightrayswillnotintersectto
formaclearmodel

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Themismatchisresolvedintotwo
components:
xparallax:afunctionofelevationandcanbe
eliminatedbyloweringorraisingtheprojection
plane
yparallax:itisadifferenceinphotocoordinates
inyaxes.
Itscausesare:
tiltinthephotographs
unequalflyingheights
improperorientation
yparallaxissystematicallyeliminatedby
rotatingandtranslatingoneorbothofthe
projectors.
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 PROJECTIONSYSTEMS
Torecreaterelativeangularrelationships
Projectorsmusthaverotationalandtranslational
movementcapabilities
6possibleforeachprojector
(omega) xrotationalsocalledroll
(phi) yrotationalsocalledpitch
(kappa) zrotationalsocalledyaw
Xtranslation
Ytranslation
Ztranslation

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 RELATIVEORIENTATION
6vonGruberpointsusedtoclear yparallax
5pointsusedtoclearthemodel
6thpointusedtocheckthemodel

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

MOVEMENTOFPROJECTORS
The selection of which
orientation elements to use in
order to eliminate y-parallax is
govern by:
For a given point, clear the y-
parallax by that orientation element
which cause a maximum y-
displacement at the point
At any subsequent point, use the
orientation element which will not
introduce y-parallax at a previously
cleared point.
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 INDEPENDENTMETHODOF
RELATIVEORIENTATION
1.Clearpy atpoint1with
2.Clearpy atpoint2with
3.Clearpy atpoint3with
4.Clearpy atpoint4with
5.Observepy atpoint5andovercorrectbyintroducing
150%correctiontothemeasuredparallaxwith
6.Repeatsteps15untilnopy existsatpoint5
7.Checkforpy atpoint6.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

IndependentRelativeOrientation

Determine l, l, r, r, r.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 DEPENDENTMETHODOF
RELATIVEORIENTATION
Rightprojectoronly:
1.Clearpy atpoint 2withbytranslation
2.Clearpy atpoint 1with
3.Clearpy atpoint 4withbztranslation
4.Clearpy atpoint3with
5.Observepy atpoint 6andovercorrectby
introducing150%correctiontothemeasured
parallaxwith
6.Repeatsteps15untilnopy existsat#point6
7.Checkforpy atpoint5.
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

DependentRelativeOrientation

Determine by, bz, r, r, r

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 AbsoluteOrientation
A errelativeorientation,atrue3Dmodelisformed
Purpose:
Tobringastereoscopicmodeltothedesiredmapscale
Placethemodelinitscorrectorientationwithrespecttoreference
system.
Absoluteorientationisachievedbya3Dconformal
coordinatestransformation(7parameter)
Threerotations,
Onescalefactor,
Threeshifts(translations).
Two horizontalcontrolpointsareneededtoscalethemodel.
Threeverticalcontrolpointsareneededtolevelthemodel.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

AbsoluteOrientation

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 AbsoluteOrientation

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

AbsoluteOrientation:
MathematicalModel

Acontrolpoint,withknowngroundandmodelcoordinates,
yieldsthreeequations.
Iffullcontrolpointsareused,aminimumofthreecontrol
pointsshouldbeavailabletosolveforthesevenparameters
oftheabsoluteorientation.
Thesepointsshouldnotbecollinear.
Therollangleacrossthelinedefinedbythecontrolpointscannotbe
determined.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 CoordinateSystems
PhotoCoordinateSystem
Thephotocoordinatesystemservesasthereferencefor
expressingspatialpositionsandrelationsoftheimage
space.
Itisa3DCartesiansystemwiththeoriginatthe
perspectivecenterm

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Fiducial Marks
Fiducial marksaresmalltargetsonthebodyof
metriccameras.
Theirpositionsrelativetothecamerabodyare
knownthroughacalibrationprocedure.
Theydefinetheimagecoordinatesystem.
Inthatsystem,thepositionoftheperspective
centreisknown.
FormanddistributionofFiducial marksdepend
onthecameramanufacturer.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 ImageCoordinateMeasurements
y

xx

yy

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

ImageCoordinateMeasurements
y

Y
xp p
Xp
yp

Yp
X
Comparator coordinates (x`,y`) Image coordinates (x,y)
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 ImageCoordinateMeasurements

y
Y
Xp
p
xp yp
x

Yp
X
Comparator coordinates (x`,y`) Image coordinates (x,y)
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

ImageCoordinateMeasurements
Wecannotdirectlymeasuretheimage
coordinatesoffeaturesofinterest.
Weusemachines(knownascomparators)to
measurethecoordinatesrelativetothe
machinecoordinatesystem.
Output:Machine/comparatorcoordinates.
Themachine/comparatorcoordinatesare
reducedtoimagecoordinates(i.e.,relativeto
theimagecoordinatesystem).

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Objectspacecoordinatesystems
Theserefertocoordinatesystemsusedto
definethepositionsofpointsintheobject
space.
Oneofthethreecoordinatesystemsmaybe
considered:
GeocentricUniversalSystem
GeodeticCoordinateSystem
LocalCoordinateSystem

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

GeocentricUniversalSystem
Thissystemisextensivelyutilizedforphototriangulation,
particularlywhenalargeportionoftheearthssurfaceisinvolved.
Thissystemisextensivelyutilizedforphototriangulation,
particularlywhenalargeportionoftheearthssurfaceisinvolved.
Itisanorthogonalsystemwhoseoriginisatthecenteroftheearth.
TheXYplanecontainstheequator.
TheXaxispassesthroughthezero(Greenwich)meridian,
TheZaxispassesthroughtheNorthPole.
TheYaxiscoincideswiththe90o eastlongitudeinrighthanded
system.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Dr. Fahd Abanmy

GeodeticCoordinateSystem
Thesystemusesarotationangels(Latitude,
LongitudeandHeightaboveaparticular
ellipsoid(,,h)
Thegeodeticsystemisnotusedinanalytical
photogrammetry directlyduetotheinherent
inconvenienceofhavingtoexpressthevalues
innonlinearunits.
Thesearegenerallyconvertedintooneofthe
rectangularsystems.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 LocalCoordinateSystem
ItisaCartesiancoordinatesystem,whichis
definedbyatangentialplaneontheellipsoidin
thecenterofthemappingarea.
Itisalsocalledatopocentric systemandis
definedbyEast(E=X),North(N=Y),andElevation
(h=Z)axes.
Theelevationoftheoriginisusuallyconsidered
negativeforthesakeofconvenience,suchthat
allpointsonthegroundandcamerastationswill
automaticallyhavepositivevalues
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

LocalCoordinateSystem
Thissystemhasthreeadvantages
1. Becauseitislocal,oneneednottocarrytoo
manydigits.
2. Thezaxisparallelsthelocalvertical,which
furthersimplifiestheworkpermittinga
separationofplanimetry fromelevation
values.
3. Thesystemisreadilyrelatedtothedirection
ofnorth,eastandgravityinlocalproject
area.
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 CoordinatesTransformation
Itsoftennecessarytoestablishthe
relationshipbetweentwocoordinatesystems
inordertotransferanumberofpointsfrom
onetotheother.
Theprocedurerequiresthatsomepointshave
theircoordinatesknowninbothcoordinate
systems.
Thesepointsarecalledcontrolpoints.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Theeffectoftransformationofabodycanbe
asimplechangeinlocationandattitude(without
anychangeinshapeandsize)
acomplexone(changeinbothshapeandsize)
Somethinginbetween(variationinsizewithno
changeinshapeorattitudeorlocation.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Y

Y
Y

X TX

TY
2Scales X
X
All

Y Y Y
TX

TY
Scale X X X
Rotation Translation

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

TwoDimensionalConformal
Transformation
2Dmeansthatthecoordinatesystemslieona
planesurface.
Aconformaltransformationisoneinwhichtrue
shapeispreservedaftertransformation
Itisnecessarythatcoordinatesofatleasttwo
pointsbeknowninbothcoordinatesystems.
Accuracyinthetransformationisimprovedby
choosingthetwopointsasfarapartaspossible.
Ifmorethan2controlpointsareavailable,use
theleastsquaresmethod.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Y
b
Scaling
xa =s xa
a

ya =s ya
X

xb =s xb Y

yb =s yb
b

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Rotation
y
Y a

yb sin
yb cos
x

xb sin
X
X cos
X =x cos y sin
Y =x sin +y cos
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 N
N b

Translation TE a

X=X +TX TN E

Y=Y +TY
E

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Combiningthesesteps
X=s x cos s ysin +TX
Y=s x sin +s ycos +TY
Or
wherea=scos
X=a x b y+c b=ssin
Y=b x +a y +d c=TX
d=TY

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Ifmorethantwocontrolpointsareavailable:
usealeastsquaressolution.
Residualsv areincludedintheequationsto
makethemconsistent,asfollows:
X=a x b y+c+vX
Y=b x +a y +d+vY

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Inmatrixform
2n A4 4 X 1 = 2 n L1 + 2 nV1

a
yi b v x
x 1 0 X
A= i X = L = i V = i
yi xi 0 1 c Yi v yi

d

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 General2DConformalTransformation,
Example

Fourfiducial marks(1 4)andtwoimagepoints(aandb)

weremeasuredonacomparator.Thecomparatorphoto
observationsandtheknownvaluesfromthecamera
calibrationreportaregiveninthefollowingspreadsheet.

Photo Coordinates Known Values

Point No. x y X Y
1 -111.734 -114.293 -113.007 -112.997
2 111.734 114.293 113.001 112.989
3 -114.289 111.699 -112.997 113.004
4 114.280 -111.749 112.985 -112.997

a 74.794 12.202
b -67.123 53.432
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

General2DConformalTransformation,
Example
4-Parameter Coordinate Transformation Program
______________________________________________________________________________________
Solution
Forming the B-matrix and f-matrix:

x1 y1 1 0 X1
y1 x1 0 1 Y1
x y2 1 0
X
2 2
y2 x2 0 1 Y2
B := f :=
x3 y3 1 0
X3
y3 x3 0 1 Y3

x4 y4 1 0 X4
y4 x4 0 1 Y4

Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 General2DConformalTransformation,Example

(
N := B B
T ) 1
The variance-covariance matrix is: QXX := N

9.787E-006 0E+000 22.02E-009 122.332E-009

22.02E-009
QXX =
0E+000 9.787E-006 122.332E-009
22.02E-009 122.332E-009 250E-003 0E+000
122.332E-009 22.02E-009 0E+000
250E-003

T
t := B f

102157.371
t=
1161.611
0.018
0.001
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

General2DConformalTransformation,Example

The solution vector is:

:= N t 0.99977

=
0.01137 The resisuals are V := B f
0.00211
0.01222
0.002
0.013

0.004
0.019
V=
0.002
0.020
0.004

Dr. Fahd Abanmy 0.013
 General2DConformalTransformation,Example

The reference variance for the adjustment is

T
V V
:= = ( 0.0003)
4

The Transformed coordinates become:

Xa := 1 xa + 2 y a + 3 Xa = 74.913

Ya := 2 xa + 1 y a + 4 Ya = 11.361

Xb := 1 xb + 2 y b + 3 Xb = 66.502

Yb := 2 xb + 1 y b + 4 Yb = 54.195
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

2DAnetransformation
Twomaindifferences:
Differentscalefactorsinxandy
Compensatefornonorthognality oftheaxissystem.
Theuseoftheaffinetransformationisappliedto:
Transformcomparatortophotocoordinates(film
distortion)
Stereomodelconnections
Modeltosurveycoordinatestransformation.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Consistsof4basicsteps:
Scalechangeinx andy
Correctionfor
nonorthognality
Rotation
Translation

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Scalechange
x'=sx x
y'=sy y
Correctionfornonorthognality y
y
x"=x
y' xtan
y" = x' tan p
cos
y'
cos y

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

x x x
 Rotation
X'=x"cos y"sin
Y'=x"sin +y"cos
Translation
X=X'+TX
Y=Y'+TY

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Combining these four steps:

X= X'+ TX X'=x"cos - y"sin
X= x"cos - y"sin + TX

x"= x
y'
y" = x' tan
cos

y'
X = x' cos x' tan sin + TX
cos
sy y
X = s x x cos s x x tan sin + T X
cos
sy y
Y = s x x sin + s x x tan cos + T y

cos Dr.
Fahd Abanmy
 Combiningthesefoursteps:
sy y
X = s x x cos s x x tan sin + T X
cos
sy y
Y = s x x sin + s x x tan cos + T y
cos

Simplifiing bytakingsx x asacommon

sin
X = s x x(cos + tan sin ) s y y + TX
cos
cos
Y = s x x(sin tan cos ) + s y y + +T y
cos

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Since tan =
sin
cos
cos cos + sin sin sin
X = TX + s x x sy y
cos cos
cos sin sin cos sin
Y = TX + s x x + sy y
cos cos

And from Trigonometric Formulas

cos( ) = cos cos + sin sin sin( ) = sin cos cos sin

substituting
a0 a1 a
cos( ) 2 sin
X = TX + s x x sy y
cos b cos
b0 b1 2
sin( ) sin
Y = TX s x x + sy y
cos cos
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 Thefollowingsubstitutionsaremade:
a0 = TX b0 = TY

cos( ) sin( )
a1 = s x b1 = s x
cos cos
sin cos
a2 = s y b2 = s y
cos cos
The final form of the affine transformation:

X = a0 + a1 x + a2 y
Y = b0 + b1 x + b2 y
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

To obtain the values of the original

six parameters for configuration

a2 b1
= tan 1 = tan 1
b2 a1

cos cos
s x = a1 s y = b2
cos( ) cos

TX = a0 TY = b0

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Inmatrixform

2n A6 6 X 1 = 2 n L1 + 2 nV1

a0
a
1
x yi 1 0 0 0 a X v X
A= i X = 2 L = i V = i
0 0 0 xi yi 1 b0 Xi vYi
b1

b2
3pointsgiveuniquesolution
Morethan3points useleastsquaressolution
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

General 2D Affine Transformation, Example

Fourfiducial marks(1 4)andtwoimagepoints(aandb)

weremeasuredonacomparator.Thecomparatorphoto
observationsandtheknownvaluesfromthecamera
calibrationreportaregiveninthefollowingspreadsheet.

Photo Coordinates Known Values

Point No. x y X Y
1 -111.734 -114.293 -113.007 -112.997
2 111.734 114.293 113.001 112.989
3 -114.289 111.699 -112.997 113.004
4 114.280 -111.749 112.985 -112.997

a 74.794 12.202

b -67.123Dr. Fahd Abanmy

53.432
 General Affine Transformation, Example

6-Parameter Coordinate Transformation Program

______________________________________________________________________________________

Input Values: Note that lower case values represent observed comparator coordinates while the upper
case represents the known camera calibration coordinates for the respective fiducial values

x1 := 111.734 y 1 := 114.293 X1 := 113.007 Y1 := 112.997

x2 := 111.734 y 2 := 114.293 X2 := 113.001 Y2 := 112.989
x3 := 114.289 y 3 := 111.699 X3 := 112.997 Y3 := 113.004
x4 := 114.280 y 4 := 111.749 X4 := 112.985 Y4 := 112.997

The measured points are:

xa := 74.794 y a := 12.202
xb := 67.123 y b := 53.432

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

General Affine Transformation, Example

Solution: forming the B matrix and f vector
x1 y1 1 0 0 0 X1
0 0 0 x1 y 1 1 Y1
x y2 1 0 0 0
X2

2
0 0 0 x2 y2 1 Y2
A
B := Lf :=
x3 y3 1 0 0 0
X3

0 0 0 x3 y3 1 Y3

x4 y4 1 0 0 0 X4
0
0 0 x4 y 4 1 Y4

(
ATTAB
N := B ) 1
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 General Affine Transformation, Example

The variance-covariance matrix is: QXX := N

19.573E-006 1.603E-009 44.019E-009 0E+000 0E+000 0E+000

1.603E-009 19.573E-006 244.661E-009 0E+000 0E+000 0E+000

QXX =
44.019E-009 244.661E-009 250E-003 0E+000 0E+000 0E+000
0E+000 0E+000 0E+000 19.573E-006 1.603E-009 44.019E-009
0E+000 0E+000 0E+000

1.603E-009 19.573E-006 244.661E-009

0E+000 0E+000 0E+000 44.019E-009 244.661E-009 250E-003

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

General Affine Transformation, Example

T
t := B
AT Lf

51079.018
583.52

0.018 The solution vector is: X := N t
t=
578.092
51078.353

0.001 0.99977
0.01134

0.00211
=
0.01140
0.99977

Dr. Fahd Abanmy
0.01222
 General Affine Transformation, Example
The resisuals are V := AB X f

0.001
0.016

0.001
0.016
V=
0.001
0.016
0.001

0.016
The reference variance for the adjustment is
T
V V
:= = ( 0.001)
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
2

General Affine Transformation, Example

The Transformed coordinates become:

Xa = a1 xa + a2 ya + a0 Xa=74.913
Y a = b1 x a + b2 y a + b0 Xa=11.359
Xb = a1 xb + a2 yb + a0 Xa=-66.504
Y b = b1 x b + b2 y b + b0 Xa=54.197

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 3Dconformalcoordinate
transformations
Itinvolvesconvertingcoordinatesfromone
threedimensionalsystemtoanother.
Thenecessarytransformationequationscan
beexpressedintermsof7independent
transformationfactors:
3rotationangles,omega(),phi(),kappa()
ascalefactor(s)
3translationfactors,Tx,Ty,andTz

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

xyzXYZ

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Itisusedforthefollowingproblems:
Toconvertfrom3Dmodelcoordinatesystemtoa
3Dobjectcoordinatesystem.
Toconvertfromtiltedphotographiccoordinate
systemtoanequivalentverticalphotographic
coordinatesystem.
Toformcontinuous3dstripmodelfrom
independentstereomodels.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Thethreedimensionaltransformationinvolvingno
changeinshapeissymbolizedby:
X = sM T X + T
Where
X =[XYZ]T coordinatesaftertransformation
X =[xyz]T coordinatesbeforetransformation
T=[Tx Ty Tz]T vectorofthreetranslation
factors
M=anorthogonalthreeangelrotationmatrix
s=scalefactor

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Thesetransformationequationsshallbedevelopedin
thefollowingtwobasicsteps:(1)rotationand(2)
scalingandtranslation
Step1 Rotation
Threerotations:omega()aroundx,phi()aroundyand
kappa()aroundzaxes.
Conventions:
1. Sequenceofrotation,,
2. Allcoordinatesystemsshallbedefinedasrighthanded
systems.
3. Rotationanglesaredefinedaspositiveiftheyare
counterclockwisewhenviewedfromthepositiveendof
theirrespectiveaxes.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Theprimaryrotation,theangle()aboutthe
x axisandxyz systemintox1y1z1system.The
coordinatesofanypointPinthisprimary
rotation: z sin
x1 = x' z1 a
z

z c
y1 = y ' cos + z ' sin y c o
s

os

z1 = y ' sin + z ' cos
y1

1 0 0

M = 0 cos sin
y
y sin

0 sin cos

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Thesecondaryrotation,theangle()about
they1axisandx1y1z1 systemintox2y2z2
system.ThecoordinatesofpointPinthis
twicerotatedsystem:
x2 = z1 sin + x1 cos z1
z2
y2 = y1
z 2 = z1 cos + x1 sin
cos 0 sin
M = 0 1 0 x1

sin 0 cos x2

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 TheTertiaryrotation,theangle()aboutthe
z2 axisandx2y2z2 systemintoxyzsystem.The
coordinatesofpointPinthisthreetimes
rotatedsystemare: y 2

x = x 2 cos + y 2 sin y

y = x 2 sin + y 2 cos
z = z2

cos sin 0 x
M = sin cos 0

0 0 1 x2

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Inviewofmathematicalprocedures,i.e.the
orderofmatrixmultiplication,itisbetter
writtenasfollows:
m11 m12 m13
M = M M M = m21 m22 m23
m31 m32 m33

cos cos sin sin cos + cos sin cos sin cos + sin sin
M = cos sin sin sin sin + cos cos cos sin sin + sin cos
sin sin cos cos cos

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 ThecoordinatesofpointPafterthethree
rotationsare:
x= m11x +m12y +m13z
y= m21x +m22y +m23z
z= m31x +m32y +m33z
z
z
y y

x
x

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

ThematrixMiscalledtherotationmatrix.
Eachelementofthematrixisthedirection
cosineswhichrelatesthetwoaxissystems,
andcanbeexpressedintermofdirection
cosinesas:
cos xx' cos xy ' cos xz '
M = cos yx' cos yy ' cos yz ' M= (i,j,k)
cos zx' cos zy ' cos zz '

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Therotationmatrixisanorthogonalmatrix
M1=MT or,MMT =MM1 =I
Conditionsfororthogonality
1. Thesumofthesquaresoftheelementsofany
roworcolumnoftheMmatrixisequalto1.
iTi =jTj =kTk =1
m112+m122+m132=1
m212+m222+m232=1
m312+m322+m332=1

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

2. Thesumoftheproductoftwodifferentrowsor
columnsoftheMmatrixisequalto0.
iTj =iTk =jTk =0
m11m21 +m12m22 +m13m23 =0
m11m31 +m12m32 +m13m33 =0
m21m31 +m22m32 +m23m33 =0

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Toexpressxyz coordinatesintermofxyz
coordinates:
x = m11x+m21y+m31z
y = m12x+m22y+m32z
z = m13x+m23y+m33z z
z
y y

x
x

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Step2 ScalingandTranslation
Itisnecessarytomultiplyeachequationbyascale
factorandaddthetranslationfactorsTx,Ty,Tz.
X=sx +Tx =s(m11x+m21y+m31z)+Tx
Y=sy +Ty =s(m12x+m22y+m32z)+Ty
Z=sx +Tx =s(m13x+m23y+m33z)+Tz
Inmatrixform =sMTX +T
Unknowns=,,,s,T X
x,Ty,andTz
Uniquesolution:2horizontalpoints+3vertical
pointsareknowninbothsystems
Theseequationsarenonlinearequationsinvolving7
unknowns.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Thesesevenparametersrepresentaspatialsimilarity
transformation.
Atleastsevenequationsarerequiredforacomputational
solutionofthesevenelements.
Afullcontrolpoint(XYZknown)givesthree equations
Aplanimetric controlpoint(XYknown)givestwo
equations
Aheightcontrolpoint(Zknown)givesoneequation

Aspatialsimilaritytransformationrequiresatleasttwo
planimetric pointsandthreeheightcontrolpoints,ortwo
fullcontrolpointsandaheightcontrolpointnotinthe
sameline.
Ifthereareredundantmeasurementsaleastsquares
solutionwillbenecessary.
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Tosolvetheseequations,theyarelinearized usingTaylors
theorem.
X=f(s,,,,Tx,Ty,Tz)
F F F F F F
dTx + dT y + F
X Fo +

ds +

d +
d + d + T T T dTz
s o o o o x o y o z o

X FXo + a11 ds + a12 d + a13 d + a14 d + a15 dTx + a16 dT y + a17 dTz
Y FYo + a 21 ds + a 22 d + a 23 d + a 24 d + a 25 dTx + a 26 dT y + a 27 dTz
Z FZo + a31 ds + a32 d + a33 d + a34 d + a35 dTx + a36 dT y + a37 dTz
Wherea11=m11 x+m21 y+m31 z
a12 =0
:
:
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
Fo evaluated at the initial approximations for the 7 unkowns
F
,etc.arepartialderivativeofthefunctionFwith
s o
respecttotheindicatedunknownsevaluatedatthe
initialapproximations.
ds,d,d,etc.areunknowncorrectionstobeapplied
totheinitialapproximations.
so + ds = s
o + d =
o + d =
:
Tzo + dTz = Tz

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

First approximations:
==0
xb xa X XA
= , = B , o =
yb y a YB YA
( X B X A )2 + (YB YA )2
so =
(xb xa )2 + ( yb ya )2
b
xa= so xa cos o so ya sin o
ya= so ya sin o + so xa cos o Y
za= so za y
Txo= XA xa a x
Tyo= YA ya
Tzo= ZA za X
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 Thecollinearity conditionequations

Collinearity is the
condition in which the
exposure station of any
photograph, an object
point, and its photo
image all lie on a straight
line.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Collinearity ConditionEquations
Let:
Coordinates of exposure station be XL, YL, ZL
Coordinates of object point A be XA, YA, ZA
Coordinates of image point a of object point
A be xa, ya, za wrt xy photo coordinate system
(of which the principal point o is the origin;
correction compensation for it is applied later)
Coordinates of image point a be xa, ya, za
in a rotated image plane xyz which is parallel
to the object coordinate system
Transformation of (xa, ya, za) to (xa, ya, za)
is accomplished using rotation equations,
which we derive next.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 RotationEquations
Omega rotation about x axis:
New coordinates (x1,y1,z1) of a point (x,y,z)
after rotation of the original coordinate z sin z
reference frame about the x axis by angle z 1 a
are given by:
s

z c
x1 = x y c o

so
y1 = y cos + z sin

z1 = -ysin + z cos y1
Similarly, we obtain equations for phi
rotation about y axis:
x2 = -z1sin + x1 cos y
y 2 = y1 y sin
z2 = z1 cos + x1 sin
And equations for kappa rotation about z
axis:
x = x2 cos + y2 sin

y = -x2 sin + y2 cos Dr. Fahd Abanmy
z = z2

FinalRotationEquations
We substitute the equations at each stage to get the following:
x = m11 x + m12 y + m13 z
y = m21 x + m22 y + m23 z
z = m31 x + m32 y + m33 z
In matrix form: X = M X
where
x m11 m12 m13 x'
X = y M = m21 m22 m23 X ' = y '
z m31 m32 m33 z '

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Collinearity Equations
Using property of similar triangles: xa ' ya ' za '
= =
X A X L YA YL Z L Z A
X XL Y YL Z ZL
x a ' = A
z a ' ; y a ' = A z a ' ; z a ' = A
z a '
Z A ZL ZA ZL Z A ZL
X XL ' Y Y Z ZL '
xa = m11 A z a + m12 A L z a' + m13 A z a
AZ Z L A
Z Z L Z A ZL
Substitute this into
rotation formula: X XL ' Y Y Z ZL '
y a = m21 A z a + m22 A L z a' + m23 A z a
Z A ZL ZA ZL Z A ZL
X XL ' Y Y Z ZL '
z a = m31 A z a + m32 A L z a' + m33 A z a
A
Z Z L A
Z Z L Z A ZL
za '
Now, factor out Z A ZL
, divide xa, ya by za
add corrections for offset of principal point (xo,yo) and equate za=-f, to get:

m ( X X L ) + m12 (YA YL ) + m13 ( Z A Z L )

xa = xo f 11 A
m31 ( X A X L ) + m32 (YA YL ) + m33 ( Z A Z L )
m ( X X L ) + m22 (YA YL ) + m23 ( Z A Z L )
ya = yo f 21 A
A X L ) + m32 (YA YL ) + m33 ( Z A Z L )

m31Dr.
( XFahd Abanmy

ReviewofCollinearity Equations
Collinearity equations:
Collinearity equations:
m ( X X L ) + m12 (YA YL ) + m13 ( Z A Z L )
xa = xo f 11 A are nonlinear and
m31 ( X A X L ) + m32 (YA YL ) + m33 ( Z A Z L )
involve 9 unknowns:
m ( X X L ) + m22 (YA YL ) + m23 ( Z A Z L )
ya = yo f 21 A
m31 ( X A X L ) + m32 (YA YL ) + m33 ( Z A Z L ) 1. omega, phi, kappa
Where, inherent in the ms
xa, ya are the photo coordinates of image point a 2. Object coordinates (XA,
XA, YA, ZA are object space coordinates of YA, ZA )
object/ground point A 3. Exposure station
XL, YL, ZL are object space coordinates of exposure coordinates (XL, YL, ZL )
station location
2 equations for every point in
f is the camera focal length every photo.
xo, yo are the offsets of the principal point coordinates
ms are functions of rotation angles omega, phi, kappa
(as
derived earlier) Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 LinearizationofCollinearity Equations
Rewriting the collinearity equations:
r where
F = xo f = xa
q q = m31 ( X A X L ) + m32 (YA YL ) + m33 ( Z A Z L )

s r = m11 ( X A X L ) + m12 (YA YL ) + m13 ( Z A Z L )

G = yo f = y a
q s = m21 ( X A X L ) + m22 (YA YL ) + m23 ( Z A Z L )

Applying Taylors theorem to these equations (using only upto

first order partial derivatives), we get

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Linearized
F
Collinearity
F F
EquationsTerms
F F

F0 + d + d + d + dX L + dY L
0 0 0 X L 0 YL 0
F F F F
+ dZ L + dX A + dY A + dZ A = x a
Z L 0 X A 0 Y A 0 Z A 0

G G G G G
G0 + d + d + d + dX L + dY L
0 0 0 X L 0 YL 0
G G G G
+ dZ L + dX A + dY A + dZ A = y a
Z L 0 X A 0 Y A 0 Z A 0
where
F0, G0: functions of F and G evaluated at the initial approximations for the 9
unknowns;
are partial derivatives of F and G wrt
F F G G
, ,
, , etc.,
the indicated unknowns evaluated at
0 0 0 0
the initial approximation
d , d , d , etc., are unknown corrections to be applied to the initial
approximations. (angles are in radians)
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 SimplifiedLinearized Collinearity Equations
Since photo coordinates xa and ya are measured values, if the equations
are to be used in a least squares solution, residual terms must be included
to make the equations consistent.
The following simplified forms of the linearized collinearity equations
include these residuals:
b11d + b12 d + b13d b14 dX L b15 dYL b16 dZ L + b14 dX A + b15 dYA + b16 dZ A = J + v x a

b21d + b22 d + b23 d b24 dX L b25 dYL b26 dZ L + b24 dX A + b25 dYA + b26 dZ A = K + v ya

where J = xa F0, K = ya - G0 and the bs are coefficients equal to the partial derivatives
In linearization using Taylors series, higher order terms are ignored,
hence these equations are approximations.
They are solved iteratively, until the magnitudes of corrections to initial
approximations become negligible.
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

The linearized collinearity equations may be expressed in matrix form as

2m An n X 1 = 2 m L1 + 2 mV1
m =numberofpointsineachphoto
n =numberofunknowns
A =thematrixofbs
X =thematrixofunknowncorrectionstotheinitial
approximations
L =matrixofconstanttermsJ andK
V =matrixofresidualerrorsinthemeasuredx andy photo
coordinates.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Application of collinearity

The collinearity equations are applicable to the analytical

solution of almost every photogrammetric problem.
Space resection
Space intersection
Analytical relative orientation
Bundle adjustment

Initial approximations are needed for all unknowns,

They are obtained by making certain assumptions.
The closer they are to the unknowns, the faster a satisfactory
solution will be reached.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

SpaceResectionbyCollineariy
Spaceresectionistheprocessinwhichthespatialposition
andorientationofaphotographisdeterminedbasedon
photographicmeasurementsoftheimagesofgroundcontrol
points.

Itinvolvesformulatingthecollinearity equationsforanumber
ofcontrolpointswhoseXP,YP,ZPgroundcoordinatesare
knownandwhoseimagesappearinthetiltedphotograph.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 The collinearity equations
xp = f (xp, yp, f, XL, YL, ZL, , , , XP, YP, ZP)
Unknowns are the exterior orientation of a photograph = 6 (XL, YL,
ZL, , , )
Known (xp, yp, f, XP, YP, ZP)
xp, yp are refined photographic coordinates of the control points.
f is the camera focal length of the photograph
XP, YP, ZP are the known control points coordinates in the object
spcae.

b11d + b12 d + b13 d b14 dX L b15 dYL b16 dZ L = J + v x p

b21d + b22 d + b23 d b24 dX L b25 dYL b26 dZ L = K + v y p

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

In matrix form:

2m A6 6 X 1 = 2 m L1 + 2 mV1
(b11 )1 (b12 )1 (b13 )1 ( b14 )1 ( b15 )1 ( b16 )1
(b ) (b 22 )1 (b 23 )1 ( b 24 )1 ( b 25 )1 ( b 26 )1
21 1
(b11 )2 (b12 )2 (b13 )2 ( b14 )2 ( b15 )2 ( b16 )2
A=
(b 21 )2 (b 22 )2 (b 23 )2 ( b 24 )2 ( b 25 )2 ( b 26 )2
(b11 )m (b12 )m (b13 )m ( b14 )m ( b15 )m ( b16 )m

(b 21 )m (b 22 )m (b 23 )m ( b 24 )m ( b 25 )m ( b 26 )m
d ( J )1 (v x )1
d (K ) (v )
1 y 1
d ( J )2 (v x )2
X = L= V =
(v y )2

dX L (K )2
dY L ( J )m (v x )m

dZ L ( J )m (v y )m
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 Eachcontrolpointgives2equations
Sincewehave6unknowns(d,d,d,dXL,
dYL,dZL),thenweneedatleast3control
points.
Thesecontrolpointsshouldnotbeonornear
straightline.
Morethan3points,solutioncanbeobtained
bythemethodofleastsquares.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Solutionbythecollinearity equations
1. Determineasetofinitialvaluesfortheunknown
quantities(XLo,YLo,ZLo,o,o,o)
2. DeterminethevaluesofJ,K,andallbs
3. Solvethelinearized equationsforthedifferential
corrections
4. Addthesecorrectionstotheinitial
approximationvalues.
5. Iteratethesolutionoftheseequations(step24)
untiltheysatisfythedesiredaccuracy.
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 Initialvalues:
ZLo : usealtimeterreadingorthescaleequation:
AB
H= f + h AB
ab
XLo andYLo :useaverageXandYcoordinatesofthe
groundcontrolpoints.(oruse2Dconformaltofindthem)
o,o :canbeassumedaszero(nearverticalphotograph)
o :maybeestimatedbymeasuringtheangle
fromgroundnorthtothepositiveyphotoaxis.
xb xa XB XA b
= , = , o =
yb y a YB YA Y
Acounterclockwiseangleis y
consideredpositive. x
a
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
X

HW4
Anearverticalaerialphotographtakenwitha152.916mmfocal
lengthcameracontainsimageofthreegroundcontrolpointsA
throughC.Refinedphotocoordinatesarelistedinthefollowing
table.
photo coordinates Ground coordinates
Point
x (mm) y (mm) X (m) Y (m) Elev.(m)
A -100.916 92.582 732.181 545.344 22.299

B -98.322 -89.161 1454.553 731.666 22.649

C 78.812 98.123 545.245 1268.232 22.336

Answerthefollowingquestions:
1. WhatistheinitialapproximationflyingheightZLo?
2. WhataretheinitialapproximationsgroundcoordinatesXLo andYLo of
theexposurestation?
3. Whataretheinitialapproximationsangles and ?
4. Whatistheinitialapproximation angle?
5. Computetheexteriororientationofthephotographbyresection
usingthecollinearity equations.
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 Spaceintersection
Thecorrespondingrays
tothesameobjectpoint
fromtwooverlapping
photosmustintersectat
thepoint.
ItisusedtodetermineX,
Y,andZground
coordinatesofnew
pointsappearinthe
overlaparea.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Knownarethesixelementofexterior
orientationofthetwooverlappingphotos
UnknowngroundcoordinatesofnewpointA
(XA,YA,ZA)
Thelinearized formsofthespaceintersection
equationsforpointAare

b14 dX A + b15 dYA + b16 dZ A = J + v x A

b24 dX A + b25 dYA + b26 dZ A = K + v y A

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Inmatrixform:

4 A3 3 X 1 = 4 L1 + 4V1
(b14 )1 (b15 )1 (b16 )1
(b ) (b 25 )1 (b 26 )1
A=
24 1

(b14 )2 (b15 )2 (b16 )2

(b 24 )2 (b 25 )2 (b 26 )2
( J )1 (v x )1
dX A (v )
X = dY L = (K )1 V =
y 1
A
( J )2 (v x )2
dZ A
(v y )2

(K )2

2equationscanbewri enforpointa1 ofthele photoand2

moreofpointa2 oftherightphoto.=4equations
ThevaluesdXA, dYA,anddZA canbecomputedinaleast
squaressolution.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Solutionbythecollinearity equations
1. Determineasetofinitialvaluesfortheunknownquantities
(XAo,YAo,ZAo)
2. DeterminethevaluesofJ,K,andallbs
3. Solvethelinearized equationsforthedifferentialcorrections
4. Addthesecorrectionstotheinitialapproximationvalues.
5. Iteratethesolutionoftheseequations(step24)untilthey
satisfythedesiredaccuracy.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Initialvalues:
Bf
ZAo: usetheparallaxequations: hA = H = ZA
o

pa
XAo andYAo:usetheparallax
equations:
x y
X A = X L + B a1 , YA = YL + B a1
o o

pa pa
where
hA istheelevationofpointAabovedatum
Histheflyingheightabovedatum
Bistheairbase(distancebetweenthe
exposurestations)
B = [ (XL2-XL1)2 + (YL2-YL1)2 ]1/2
fisthefocallengthofthecamera
pa istheparallaxofpointA(pa=xaxa)

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

HW5Spaceintersection
Orienation ofastereopair ofaerialphotographstakenwitha
153.819mmfocallengthcameraresultedintheexterior
orientationvalueslistedinthefollowingtable:
Left photo Right photo
XL (mm) 0.000 99.070
YL (mm) 0.000 -2.1785
ZL (mm) 152.819 154.325
Omega ( ) 0.0000 1.9153
Phi ( ) 0.0000 -3.265
Kappa ( ) 0.0000 -1.7248
Ifrefinedphotocoordinates foraparticularpointonphoto1are
x1 =68.671mmandy1 =17.768mmandthoseforthesame
pointonphoto2arex2 =30.699mmandy2 =14.565mm,
computetheobjectspacecoordinatesforthepointbyspace
intersection. Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 RelativeOrientationofStereopairs by
Collinearity
Itisanumericalduplicationoftheoneprojector
methodofstereoplotter relativeorientation.
Theleftphotoisfixedinposition,itsorientationis
alsofixed,andmodelscaleisinitiallysetbyassigning
anarbitrarymodelbase.
Therightphotoisthenadjustedbyapplying
rotationsandtranslationsuntilallyparallaxis
cleared.
1 =1 =1 =XL1 =YL1 =0

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

ZL1=actualflyingheightand
XL1 =actualairbase=>This
fixesthescaleofthe
mathematicalstereomodel
approximatelyequaltothe
truescale.
ORZL1=0andXL1=photo
base=>thisestablishes
modelscalewhichis
approximatelyequalto
photoscale.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Analyticalrelativeorientationisachievedbyenforcingthe
conditionthatcorrespondingraysintersectatapoint.
Enforcementisachievedbywritingthecollinearity equations
forbothphotosforatleastfiveobjectpoints.
Thesepointsaretiepointsandnotnecessarycontrolpoints.
Unknowns5forphoto2(2,2,2,YL2,andZL2)
+3(X,Y,Z)foreachpointusedinthesolution
Foreachpointusedinrelativeorientation,4equationscanbe
written
5+3n=4n =>n=5provideauniquesolution
Recallthatfivemodelpointswasalsotheminimumnumber
requiredforrelativeorientationwithastereoplotter.
Morethanfivepoints,eachadditionalpointaddsone
redundantequation.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Initialapproximations:
Assumeverticalphotograph,(2 =2=2=YL2=0)
ZL2 =ZL1
Objectspacecoordinatesmaybecalculatedusingparallax
equations.
Thesolutionisiterateduntilallcorrectionsbecomenegligible
insize.
Themodelcoordinatesystemobtainedisarbitrarywithits
axesparalleltotheleftphotoaxissystemanditsorigina
distanceZL1 verticallybeneaththeleftexposurestation.
Modelcoordinatesofanynewpointscanbeobtainedusing
thespaceintersectionmethod.
Theseadditionpointscouldalsohavebeenusedinrelative
orientation,therebyaddingredundancytothesolution.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 For Six point
24 A23 23 X 1 = 24 L1 + 24V1
d 2
d
2 ( J a )1
v xa ( )
v ( )
1
d 2 (K )
ya
a 1
( )
1
dYL 2
( J b )1 vxb
dZ L 2

( )
1

dX A (K b )1 v yb
( )
1
dY ( J c )1 vx
A c

( )
1

(K c )1
dZ A
dX v yc
24 L1 = 24V1 =
= 1
X
23 1
B M M
dYB

dZ B
M M M

M
M
(J f )1


dX F

(K f )

vx f ( )
1
dY
F 1 vy
f
( )
1
dZ F
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

MatrixForm
ForSixpoint 24 A23 23 X 1 = 24 L1 + 24V1

0 0 0 0 0 (ba14 )1 (ba15 )1 (ba16 )1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 (ba 24 )1 (ba 24 )1 (ba 24 )1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (bb14 )1 (bb15 )1 (bb16 )1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (bb 24 )1 (bb 25 )1 (bb 26 )1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (bc14 )1 (bc15 )1 (bc16 )1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (bc 24 )1 (bc 25 )1 (bc 26 )1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


M M M M M M M M


M M M M M M M M


M M M M M M M M
A=
(ba11 ) 2 (ba12 ) 2 (ba13 ) 2 (ba14 ) 2 ( ba16 ) 2 (ba14 ) 2 (ba15 ) 2 (ba16 ) 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(b ) (ba 22 ) 2 (ba 23 ) 2 ( ba 24 ) 2 ( ba 26 ) 2 (ba 24 ) 2 (ba 25 ) 2 (ba 26 ) 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
a 21 2
(bb11 ) 2 (bb12 ) 2 (bb13 ) 2 ( bb14 ) 2 ( bb16 ) 2 0 0 0 (bb14 ) 2 (bb15 ) 2 (bb16 ) 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(b ) (bb 22 ) 2 (bb 23 ) 2 ( bb 24 ) 2 (bb 26 ) 2 0 0 0 (bb 24 ) 2 (bb 25 ) 2 (bb 26 ) 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
b 21 2
(bc11 ) 2 (bc12 ) 2 (bc13 ) 2 ( bc14 ) 2 ( bc16 ) 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 (bc14 ) 2 (bb15 ) 2 (bc16 ) 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

(bc 21 ) 2 (bc 22 ) 2 (bc 23 ) 2 ( bc 24 ) 2 ( bc 26 ) 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 (bc 24 ) 2 (bb 25 ) 2 (bc 26 ) 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


M M M M M M M M


M M M M M M M M


Dr. Fahd Abanmy
M M M M M M M M
 Solutionbythecollinearity equations
1. Determineasetofinitialvaluesfortheunknown
quantities(YL2o,ZL2o,2o,2o,2o ,XAo,YAo ,ZAo ,XBo,YBo ,
ZBo ,...,XFo,YFo ,ZFo)
2. DeterminethevaluesofJ,K,andallbs
3. Solvethelinearized equationsforthedifferential
corrections
4. Addthesecorrectionstotheinitialapproximation
values.
5. Iteratethesolutionoftheseequations(step24)until
theysatisfythedesiredaccuracy.
Initialapproximationsfortheunknownsarecalculatedas
before.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

A errelativeorientationisdone,a3Dmodel
oftheobjectisformedwithanarbitrary
coordinatesystem.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 AbsoluteOrientation
A errelativeorientation,atrue3Dmodelisformed
Purpose:
Tobringastereoscopicmodeltothedesiredmapscale
Placethemodelinitscorrectorientationwithrespecttoreference
system.
Absoluteorientationisachievedbya3Dconformal
coordinatestransformation(7parameter)
Threerotations,
Onescalefactor,
Threeshifts.
Two horizontalcontrolpointsareneededtoscalethemodel.
Threeverticalcontrolpointsareneededtolevelthemodel.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

AbsoluteOrientation

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 AbsoluteOrientation:Mathematical
Model

Acontrolpoint,withknowngroundandmodel
coordinates,yieldsthreeequations.
Aminimumofthreecontrolpointsshouldbe
availabletosolveforthesevenparametersofthe
absoluteorientation.
Thesepointsshouldnotbecollinear.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 PointClassification
Pointscanbeclassifiedaccordingto:
Howdotheyappearintheimagery.
Naturaltargets.
Signalizedtargets.
Artificialpoints.
Theirroleintheadjustment.
Controlpoints.
Checkpoints.
Tiepoints.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Selectionofpointsforanalytical
photogrammetry
Controlpoints
pointswhosegroundcoordinatesareavailablefromgeodetic
measurements(e.g.,GPS).
Theyareusedtodefinethedatumduringthebundleadjustment.
Checkpoints areusedtodeterminetheaccuracyof
coordinatesderivedbyphotogrammetric adjustment.
Theirobjectcoordinatesareavailableandhavebeenindependently
measuredbygeodeticmethods,however,theyarenotincludedinthe
photogrammetric adjustment.
Theyareonlyusedforcomparison.
Tie(pass)points areappliedtotietogetheroverlapping
photographsofablock.
Theymustbeidentifiedindifferentimages.
Theirgroundcoordinatesaredeterminedbyaerialtriangulation.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Naturalpoints
Naturalpointsarepointsalreadyexistingonthe
objectwhichcanbeunambiguouslyidentifiedinthe
images.
Naturalpointsaretypicallyusedfortheabsolute
orientationofanaloge andanalyticalplottersandfor
photogrammetric mappingingeneral.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Insmallscalephotographs:(buildingcorner,single
trees,intersectionofroads)

Inlargescalephotographs:(smallstones,manholes)

Theyshouldbeselectedunderamirrorstereoscope
tomakesurethattheyarewelldefinedinall3
dimensionsandcanbemeasuredwell.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Naturalpoints
Avoidthefollowing:
Pointswithnonsharpedges.
Intersectionoflineswithsmallangles
Pointsinshadedareas
Blurredpointsattheedgesofthephotograph.
Pointsinsteepslope
Pointsonmovingobjects
Theyaremuchcheapertoestablishthansignalizedpoints,
howevertheyarelessaccurateandnotadequateforhighest
accuracypointpositioning.
Thepointsselectedareusuallymarkedincontactprintsand
assignedidentificationnumbers
Sketchofpointsandtheirsurroundingarealsooftenmade.
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Signalizedpoints(Panelpoints)
Thesearepointswhichweremarkedbysignalsontheground
beforethephotographsaretaken.
Thesepointscanbeusedascontrolpointsiftheir
geodeticcoordinatesaremeasuredorsimplyastiepoint
foraerialtriangulation.
Theyshouldbedesignedwithagoodcolorcontrastwith
itsbackground.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Signalizedpoints(Panelpoints)
Advantages:
Theyhelpinachievinghighestaccuracy
Providegoodcontrastinallphotographs.
Uniqueappearance(nomisidentification)
Disadvantages:
Extraworkandexpense
Maybemovedbetweenthetimeofsurveyandthetimeofphotography
Thetargetsmaynotappearinfavorablelocationsonthephotographs.
Thesizeofthetargetdependsontheimagescale
S
Diameterdofthesignal d [cm] = 300 to 600
I

Smallscale:aerialmapping(1:30,000) d=50to100cm
Largescale:cadastralphotogrammetry (1:4,000) d=7to13cm
Terrestrialapplication:(construction)1:250 d=4to8mm
Thesizeofthetargetshouldbelargerthanthemeasuringmark.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Artificialpoints
Thesepointsaremarkedintheemulsionofthefilmbypoint
transferdevices.
Itisnecessaryifmonocomparatorsareusedforimage
coordinatesmeasurement.
Usually,artificialpointscorrespondtowelldefinednatural
points.
Theaccuracyofmeasurementofartificialpointsisalmostthe
sameasthatobtainedwithsignalizedpoints.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 ControlforAerialPhotography
Photogrammetric controlconsistsofanypointswhose
positionsareknowninanobjectspacereferencesystemand
whoseimagescanbepositivelyidentifiedinthephotograph.
Theycanbeclassifiedas:
Horizontalcontrol:thepositionofthepointinobjectspaceis known
withrespecttoahorizontaldatum.
Verticalcontrol:theelevationofthepointisknownwithrespectto
verticaldatum.
Fullcontrol:3Dpositionofthepointinobjectspaceisknown
FieldSurveyingforphotogrammetric controlisgenerallya
twostepprocess:
Establishinganetworkofbasiccontrolintheprojectarea.(horizontal
controlmonumentsandbenchmarksofverticalcontrol)
Establishobjectspacepositionsofphotocontrolbymeanofsurvey
originatedfromthebasiccontrolnetwork.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Theaccuracyofbasiccontrolsurveysis
generallyhigherthanthatofsubsequent
photocontrolsurveys.
Theestablishmentofgoodgroundcontrolis
extremelyimportantaspectoftheoverall
photogrammetric mappingoperation.
Costofestablishinggroundcoordinatesfor
photogrammetric mappingcanbe20%of
totalmappingcost.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Numberandlocationofphotocontrol
Forassumedverticalphotograph:horizontallengthofaline
andelevationofitsendpointsareneeded.
Thelineshouldbeaslongaspossible
Spaceresection:aminimumof3verticaland2horizontal
controlpoints
Imagesoftheverticalcontrolpointsshouldformalargeequilateral
triangle
Horizontalcontrolpointsshouldbewidelyspace.
AbsoluteOrientation:aminimumof3fullcontrolpoints
Imagesofcontrolpointsshouldbewidelyspace.
Bridging(photogrammetric controlextension):
Thelesseramountofgroundcontrol,themoreeconomical
Themoredensethegroundcontrol,thebettertheresultingaccuracy.
Optimum:economic+satisfyaccuracystandards
Strip:2H+4Vappearinapproximatelyeveryfi hstereomodel along

thestrip Dr. Fahd Abanmy

RequiredAccuracyandResults
Decide:
therequiredaccuracyofthesurvey
theequipmentneeded
thefieled techniquestobeused
TheUnitedStatesNationalMapAccuracy
Standardsgovernaccuracyrequirementsof
maps.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 HorizontalAccuracy
90%ofthepointstestedshallplo edtowithin1/30inchof
theirtruepositionsformapscalesof1:20,000orlarger.
90%ofthepointstestedshallplo edtowithin1/50inchof
theirtruepositionsformapscalessmallerthan1:20,000.
Ifnationalmapaccuracystandardsaretobemet,horizontal
photocontrolmustbelocatedtobetteraccuracythanthe
allowablehorizontalmaperrors.
Photocontrolshouldcontainerrornogreaterthan the
horizontalmapaccuracytolerance.
Ofcoursebasiccontrolmustbemoreaccuratethanphoto
control.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Accuracyinplanimetry

X = (X ) i
2

, Y = (Y ) i
2

n n

whereXiandYiarethecoordinatediscrepancies
betweenacceptedandmappositionsat
eachtestedpoint.
n isthetotalnumberofpointsusedfor
checking.
Theplanimetric standarderror(p)isexpressedby:
p2=X2 +Y2

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Verticalaccuracy
90%ofallpointstestedforelevationshouldbecorrectto
withinhalfthecontourinterval.
Theelevationofverticalphotocontrolpointsshouldbe
correcttowithin 1/5thecontrolinterval
AccuracyinElevation
Forpointsoncontourlines
HC = H ' + p tan
whereHC isthestandarderrorintheelevationofapointonthe
contourline
H isthestandarderrorofthedeterminationofspotheightofapoint
p isthestandardplanimetric errorofapoint
isthelocalslopeoftheterrain.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Theaccuracyofthefinalmapdependson:
thescaleofandresolutionoftheaerial
photography
theflyingheightofthephotograph
thebase/heightratiooftheoverlapping
photograph
theaccuracyofthestereoplotting equipment
usedofthemeasurements.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Projectplanning
Include:
Planningoftheaerialphotography
Planningthegroundcontrol
Selectinginstrumentsandprocedures
necessarytoachievethedesiredresults
Estimatingcostsanddeliveryschedules

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Photographicendlapandsidelap
Endlap istheoverlappingof
successivephotosalongaflight
strip. GB
PE = x100
G

Sidelap istheoverlappingof
adjacentflightstrip
PSshouldabout30%

GW
PS = x100
G
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 LOSSOFSTEREOSCOPICCOVERAGE

use PE > 50% to prevent gaps from occurring in

the stereoscopic coverage due to tilt, flying height
variation and terrain variation.

Due to tile Due to unequal Due to terrain variations

flying heights
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Baseheightratio
B/H istheratiooftheairbaseofapairof
overlappingphotostoaverageflyingheight
aboveground.
ThelargertheB/H ratio,thegreaterthe
parallactic angles
LargeB/H ratiosdenots lowflyingheights
andlargexparallax:=>higheraccuracy

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 FlightPlanning
Example:Projectareais10milesby6.5miles.

6.5 miles Mean terrain elevation

= 790 ft above datum.

10 miles

Photo scale = 1:12,000; f = 152.4mm (6); Image format

= 9x9; endlap = 60%; sidelap = 30%; Ground speed =
120mph; Flight lines to be plotted on existing 1:24,000
scale map; Need total # of photos and intervalometer
setting (i.e., time interval between photos in a strip).
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

FlightPlanning
FlyEastWesttominimize#ofstrips.
FlyingHeightaboveDatum
f
PhotoScale = 1 / 12,000 = ; H = (12,000)(6inches / 12inches / ft ) + 790 ft = 6790 ft
H havg

Squaregroundcoverageperphoto(dimension)(G)

On the ground this is

9 G = 9x12,000 = 108,000 = 9000 ft.

9
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 FlightPlanning
Lateraladvanceperstrip(W).Thisisthe
distancebetweenflightlines.

Sidelap = 0.3G W = 0.7G = Strip centerlines

6,300 ft

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

FlightPlanning
Numberofflightlines.
Alignfirstandlastsothat0.3G(thesidelap amount)is
outsidenorthandsouthprojectboundaries.
Edge of coverage for first strip
0.3G 10 miles
0.2G = 1800 ft
Centerline of first strip
6.5 miles

Edge of Centerline of last strip

coverage for 0.2G = 1800 ft
last
strip 0.3G
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
 FlightPlanning
Numberofflightlines.
Numberofintervalsbetweenflightlines
6.5miles * 5280 ft / mile 2 * 1800 ft
# int ervals = = 4.9
6300 ft / int erval

Use 5 (be conservative to ensure coverage).

If there are 5 intervals, then there are 6 strips.
Compute adjusted spacing between strips:

6.5miles * 5280 ft / mile 2 * 1800 ft

Wadjusted = = 6144 ft / int erval
5 int ervals

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

FlightPlanning
Advanceperphoto(airbase=B).
0.6G (60% endlap)

0.4G = B = 3600 ft

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 FlightPlanning
#photosperstrip.
#photointervalsperstrip.
10miles * 5280 ft / mile
# int ervals = = 14.7
3600 ft / int erval
Use 15 to ensure coverage. In addition, add two
photos at each end of the strip to further ensure
coverage (operator might start camera too late or
stop it too early).
So, # photos per strip = 15 + 2 + 2 = 19

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

FlightPlanning
Total#photosinmission.
NT = (19 photos / strip)x(6 strips) = 114 photos
Spacingofflightlinesonexistingmap.
Mapscale=1:24,000or1 =2,000
6144 ft / int erval
S map = = 3.07inches / int erval
2000 ft / in

First and last lines are 0.9 inches (1800 ft) inside
the project boundaries.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 FlightPlanning
Intervalometer setting(timeintervalbetween
photosinastrip).
(120miles / hour ) * (5280 ft / mile)
Speed = = 176 ft / sec ond
3600 sec onds / hour
3600 ft / photo int erval
TimeInterval = = 20.45 sec onds / photo int erval
176 ft / sec
Use 20.4 seconds to be conservative.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Terrestrialandcloserange
photogrammetry
Itdealswithphotographstakenwithcameras
locatedonthesurfaceoftheearth.
Thecameramaybehandheld,mountedontripods,
orsuspendedfromtowers.
Terrestrialphotogrammetry canbefurtherclassified:
ascloserangephotogrammetry ifthecameraobject
distanceissomewherebetween1:10mto100m,
asmacrophotogrammetry ifthecameraobjectdistanceis
inthe0.10to0.01mrange,
asmicrophotogrammetry whenthephotosareexposed
throughamicroscope.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 TERRESTRIALPHOTOGRAMMETRY
Applications:
Architecture
Aircraftmanufacturing
Shipbuilding
Telecommunication
Robotics
Archaeology
Medicine
Criminologyandpolicedepartment

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Architectural&HistoricalPreservationapplicaitons

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 IndustrialMachineryapplications

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

PoliceDepartmentapplications

An incident scene diagram of a

crash scene near Salt Lake City, UT

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Roadinventoryapplications

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Medicalapplications
facial pattern recognition
back pattern recognition

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Medicalapplications

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Approachesofphotographicanobject
Singleimages
Averycommonproblem
isthatweknowthe
shapeandattitudeofan
object'ssurfaceinspace
(digitalsurfacemodel)
butweareinterestedin
thedetailsonthis
surface(patterns,
texture,additional
points,etc.).Inthiscase
asingleimage
restitutioncanbe
appropriate.

original photo
Dr. Fahd Abanmy
rectified orthophoto
 Stereographicprocessing
Thesameprincipleofaerial
photogrammetry
3Dmeasurementscanbeachieved
Resultsofstereographicrestitutioncan
be:
2Dplansofsinglefacades
3Dwireframeandsurfacemodels
listsofcoordinates
eventuallycomplementedbytheirtopology
(lines,surfaces,etc)

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Bundlerestitution
alargernumberofphotoswillbeusedtocoveran
objectasawhole.
Toachieveahomogenoussolutionfortheentire
buildingandalsotocontributeadditional
measurements,asimultaneoussolutionofall
photo'sorientationisnecessary

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Examplesofdifferentimages,differentcameras,differentlenses(from
projectOttoburg,Innsbruck)tocombinewithinabundlesolution

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Visual reality
 Economicbenefitsofphotogrammetric
approach
Measurement meontheobjectisreducedby%90 %95.
Savinginmanpower.
Themeasurementcanberepeatedmanytimesin
shortperiod.
Thedatacanbetransmittedthroughnetwork
immediately.
Highlyconcentrateddatacanbeobtained.
Therealtimetrackingofmeasurementispossible.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

CategoriesofTerrestrialCameras
MetricCameras
Nonmetric(Amateur)Cameras
Digitalcameras

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 MetricCameras
Theyhavestableandpreciselyknowninternalgeometries
andverylowlensdistortions.
Theyareveryexpensivedevices.
Theprincipaldistanceisconstant,whichmeans,thatthelens
cannotbesharpenedwhentakingphotographs.
Asaresult,metriccamerasareonlyusablewithinalimited
rangeofdistancestowardstheobject.
Theimagecoordinatesystemisdefinedby(mostly)four
fiducial marks,whicharemountedontheframeofthe
camera.
Terrestrialcamerascanbecombinedwithtripodsand
theodolites.
Aerialmetriccamerasarebuiltintoaeroplanes mostlylooking
straightdownwards.
Today,allofthemhaveanimageformatof23by23
centimeters.
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

MetricCameras
Stereometric Cameras Independent Metric Camera

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Nonmetric(Amateur)Cameras
fairlyhighqualityhandheldcamerasusedbyamateurand
professionalphotographerstotakegoodpictorialquality.
Theinternalgeometryisnotstableandunknown,asisthecase
withanynormal commerciallyavailablecamera.
However,alsothesecanbeveryexpensiveandtechnicallyhighly
developedprofessionalphotographicdevices.
Photographingatestfieldwithmanycontrolpointsandata
repeatably fixeddistancesetting(forexampleatinfinity),a
calibration ofthecameracanbecalculated.
Inthiscase,thefourcornersofthecameraframefunctionas
fiducials.
However,theprecisionwillneverreachthatofmetriccameras.
Theycanonlybeusedforpurposes,wherenohighaccuracyis
demanded.
Butinmanypracticalcasessuchphotographyisbetterthan
nothing,
Veryusefulincasesofemergency.
Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Digitalcameras
Photographycanbetakenwithavarietyof
cameras;however,theresultmustbedigital
imagefiles.
Digitalcamerasworkthebestforschedule
andefficiency,withnolossofaccuracy.
Theresolutionofthecamerasdefinesthe
fieldprocedurestobeused,notthefinal
accuracy.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Geometryofterrestrialphotos
Horizontalandobliquephotos
Horizontalterrestrialphotosareobtainedifthe
cameraaxisishorizontalwhentheexposureis
made.
Obliqueterrestrialphotosareobtainedifthe
cameraaxisisinclinedwitherupordownatthe
timeofexposure.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

The()istheanglefromthecameraaxisto
horizontal
Depressionangle()ifthecameraaxisisinclined
downward.
Elevationangle()iftheaxisupward
Theangleofinclination()isanimportantvariable
forcertainelementarymethodsofdetermining
objectspacepositionsofpointswhoseimages
appearonoverlappingterrestrialphotos.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Coordinatesystem
Basedontheprinciples
ofperspective
geometry:
Horizontalparallellines
intersectatavanishing
pointonthehorizon.
Verticalparallellines
intersectatthenadir.

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Coordinatesystem
Originatk
x axiscoincidewiththehorizon
yaxis passthroughoandn

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Determiningtheangleofinclination
With depression angle, the vertical
parallel will intersect at the nadir.
y on
= tan or
1 o
t = tan 1

f f
= t 90o
with elevation angle, the vertical
parallel will intersect at the zenith.
oz
= 90 tan 1
f

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Computinghorizontalandverticalangles

Onceangle hasbeendetermined,horizontal
andverticalanglescanbecomputedfor
pointsonthephoto
ha' 1 xa
= tan 1 = tan
Lk hk f sec y a sin

aa'
= tan 1
( Lk hk ) sec a
ya cos
= tan 1
( f sec y a sin ) sec a

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

 Locatingpointsbyintersectionfromtwoor
moreobliqueterrestrialphotos
Assume that , , B, elev L and elev L are measured

= a
' = ' 'a
" = 180 '
B sin ' B sin '
LA = L' A =
sin " sin "
X A = LA cos YA = LA sin
X A = B L' A cos ' YA = L' A sin '

Dr. Fahd Abanmy

Elev A = elev L + VA where VA = LAh tan a

check
Elev A = elev L'+VA' where VA' = L' Ah' tan a'

Dr. Fahd Abanmy