Water: Frequently Asked Questions

1. How Does Reverse Osmosis work

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of

lower concentration. Osmosis is a special case of diffusion in which the molecules are water
and the concentration gradient occurs across a semi-permeable membrane. The semi-
permeable membrane allows the passage of water, but not ions (e.g., Na+, Ca2+, Cl-) or
larger molecules (e.g., glucose, urea, bacteria). Diffusion and osmosis are
thermodynamically favorable and will continue until equilibrium is reached. Osmosis can be
slowed, stopped, or even reversed if sufficient pressure is applied to the membrane from the
concentrated side of the membrane. Reverse osmosis occurs when the water is moved
across the membrane against the concentration gradient, from lower concentration to higher
concentration. To illustrate, imagine a semi-permeable membrane with fresh water on one
side and a concentrated aqueous solution on the other side. If normal osmosis takes place,
the fresh water will cross the membrane to dilute the concentrated solution. In reverse
osmosis, pressure is exerted on the side with the concentrated solution to force the water
molecules across the membrane to the fresh waterside.

Semi-permeable refers to a membrane that selectively allows certain species to pass

through it while retaining others. In actuality, many species will pass through the membrane,
but at significantly different rates. In RO, the solvent (water) passes through the membrane
at a much faster rate than the dissolved solids (salts). The net effect is that a solute-solvent
separation occurs, with pure water being the product. (In some cases, dewatering is desired
to concentrate the salts).

2. How does Ion Exchange work

Ion exchange resins are polymers that are capable of exchanging particular ions within the
polymer with ions in a solution that is passed through them. The synthetic resins are used
primarily for purifying water, but also for various other applications including separating out
some elements. A standard dual bed ion exchange unit consists of a strong acid cation
resin that exchanges hydrogen for positively charged cations present. The second step is a
week or strong basic anion resin that exchanges hydroxide for negatively charged anions
present in the water stream. The hydrogen (H+) from the cation exchanger and hydroxide
(OH-) from the anion exchanger create the HOH or deionized water to be reused in the
process.
There are certain processes that generate an abundance of either a cation or an anion. If
this occurs, a more selective weak acid cation can be used to exchange the multi-divalent
heavy metals that are in abundance. This pre-treating of the heavy metals will assist in the
exchanging of the mono-valent cations. A weak basic anion before the strong basic anion
can be implemented to assist in pre-treating for hexavalent chrome.
The cation ion exchange resin are regenerated with an acid to exchange the hydrogen back
onto the cation resin beads. The anion is regenerated with sodium hydroxide to exchange
the hydroxide back onto the anion resin beads.

3. How does Microfiltration work

Cross-flow microfiltration (CFMF), is a process for separation of larger size solutes from
aqueous solutions by means of a semi-permeable membrane passed over the filtration
medium. Clear liquid permeates the filtration medium and is recovered as the permeate,
while the solids accumulate at the filtration barrier to form a fouling layer, or cake. The cake,
constituting an increase in hydraulic resistance, decreases the permeate flux. However, the
tangential suspension flow tends to limit the growth of the cake. Thus, after an initial rapid
increase in cake thickness, cake growth ceases, and the cake thickness becomes limited to
some steady-state value.

Correspondingly, after an initial rapid decrease, the permeate flux levels off and either
attains a steady-state, or exhibits a slow, long-term decline with time. Microfiltration is suited
to separate larger sizes, such as suspended solids, particulates, and microorganisms. This
is accomplished because microfiltration membranes are thought to act like a physical seive.
The membranes are highly porous and have discernible pores even when the surface skins
are asymetric. Therefore, the separation is based mainly on size. Membrane material is
usually made up of ceramics, teflon, polypropylene, or other plastics.

4. How does Ultrafiltration work

Ultrafiltration is a separation process using membranes with pore sizes in the range of 0.1 to
0.001 micron. Typically, ultrafiltration will remove high molecular-weight substances,
colloidal materials, and organic and inorganic polymeric molecules. Low molecular-weight
organics and ions such as sodium, calcium, magnesium chloride, and sulfate are not
removed. Because only high-molecular weight species are removed, the osmotic pressure
differential across the membrane surface is negligible. Low applied pressures are therefore
sufficient to achieve high flux rates from an ultrafiltration membrane. Flux of a membrane is
defined as the amount of permeate produced per unit area of membrane surface per unit
time.
Generally flux is expressed as gallons per square foot per day (GFD) or as cubic meters per
square meters per day. Ultrafiltration technology has a high removal cabability for bacteria
and most viruses, colloids and silt (SDI). The smaller the nominal pore size, the higher the
removal cabability. Most materials that are used in UF are polymeric and are naturally
hydrophobic. Common polymeric materials used in UF include: Polysulfone (PS),
Polyethersulfone (PES), Polypropylene (PP), or Polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF). Although
these materials can be blended with hydrophilic agents, they can reduce the membranes
ability to be cleaned with high strength disinfectants such as hypochlorite that impacts
removal of bacterial growth.

5. How Nanofiltration works

Nanofiltration Membranes are thin film composite membranes. They have the unique
characteristic of rejecting, or defractionation of divalent ions such as Nickel, Copper,
Chrome & Cobalt. Nanofiltration Membranes are used on lower system operating pressures
because they have very high membrane flux (permeate flow per unit of membrane area).

A unique characteristic of the Nanofiltration family of thin film composite membranes, is its
resistance to fouling. Particularly in acid streams, the membrane requires minimal down
time for cleaning. The low molecular weight cut off range of 200-300 makes nanofiltration
extremely effective in removing contaminants from Acids & Bases that enable reuse of the
commodity.

6. What is pH Neutralization?

The following section describes pH adjustment and the different methods to neutralize pH
ranges in solutions.
A brief review of the definition of pH, the pH scale, and some of the chemistry involved in pH
Adjustment systems is provided below. For some this may be trivial, yet for many others this
may be useful. The information provided below is typical of the background information we
provide in our training classes / seminars.

By definition, pH is the measure of free hydrogen activity in water and can be expressed as:
pH= -log[H+]
In more practical terms (although not technically correct in all cases) pH is the measure of
acidity or alkalinity of water. Measured on a scale of 0-14, solutions with a pH of less than
7.0 are acids while solutions with a pH of greater than 7.0 are bases. In very simple terms
bases are used to neutralize acids, while acids are used to neutralize caustics (the term
caustic and base, although not truly synonymous, are often used interchangeably). The by-
products are normally salts (which may or may not be soluble) and water.

7. What is ZLD (Zero Liquid Discharge)?

Zero Liquid Discharge is a term used to describe the elimination of wastewater discharge to
a sanitary sewer or for offsite disposal. A combination of treatment technologies such as
reverse osmosis, ion exchange and closed (to atmosphere) evaporators can be used to
recover nearly 100% of your wastewater for reuse as process waters, which helps save on
disposal costs. LT Technologies selected recycled technologies can also concentrate
hazardous solutions to as little as 5% of your original volume, which will further reduce
waste and/or chemical disposal costs.

8. What is (UV) Ultraviolet?

Ultraviolet (UV) light is invisible radiation within a range of the solar spectrum. UV is similar
to the wavelengths that are produced by visible light, but much shorter. UV radiation is
measured in millionths of a millimeter, i.e., Angstrom units (one Angstrom unit wave-length
equals one hundred-millionth of a centimeter), and like visible light, it primarily has a surface
effect.

Ultraviolet lamp radiation of 2537-Angstrom units (or 254 nanometers) wavelength must hit
the microorganism to inactivate it, and each microorganism must absorb a specific amount
of energy to be destroyed.

Proteins and nucleic acid, which all microorganisms contain as their main constituents,
absorb UV radiation energy. After absorption, the UV energy destroys or inactivates the
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), thus preventing the microorganisms from reproducing.

Sterilization of water implies that all life, i.e., bacteria, mold, virus, algae, and protozoa, are
destroyed. Table I gives the absolute amount of UV necessary to kill many of the common
types. Our systems can also supply an 1849A (185NM) ultraviolet lamp that produces
ozone (03) disinfection residuals, and in most cases this lamp interchanges with our
standard 2537A ultraviolet lamp.

Complete sterilization is not necessary for the production of potable water. However, the
water must conform to the drinking water standards of the EPA or those of the agency
governing your supply. Normally, the water must contain less than 2.2 coliforms per 100 ml
to be considered safe to drink. The coliform groups of microorganisms are generally
associated with fecal matter and indicate that pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms,
such as typhoid, may be present.

9. What is the sizing of Ultraviolet Liquid Purification Equipment?

The various factors that must be considered were discussed above. Assuming a proper
voltage source, the ultraviolet liquid purifier can be sized properly if the following are known:
(a) Peak flow rate required in gpm, gph or gpd.
(b) Transmission and physical make-up (absorption coefficient) of the liquid to be treated.
(c) Ultraviolet energy level required for microorganism destruction

10. What is the USP and USP Water?

The United States Pharmacopeia Convention is a private, not-for-profit organization that

sets standards for drugs, devices and diagnostics. It publishes two compendia (summary
documents). The US Pharmacopeia (USP) contains standards for drug products. The
National Formulary (NF) sets standards for drug excipients (inert substances used as
carriers or dilutants). The current editions of these standards are USP 23 and NF 18.
The USP monograph lists two waters that are prepared in bulk form: Purified Water (PW),
often called USP Purified Water to distinguish it from other purified waters, and Water for
Injection (WFI). Purified Water is described in the USP 23; Purified Water is water obtained
by distillation, ion-exchange treatment, reverse osmosis, or other suitable process. It is
prepared from water complying with the regulations of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) with respect to drinking water. It contains no added substances.
The method of preparation of the various grades of reagent water determines the limits of
impurities.
USP 23 Standards
CONDUCTIVITY: 1.3 uS/cm @ 25 C

11. What is A.S.T.M. ELECTRONICS GRADE WATER?

Type I grade of reagent water shall be prepared by distillation or other equal process,
followed by polishing with a mixed bed of ion exchange materials and a 0.2-micron
membrane
filter. Feedwater to the final polishing step must have a maximum conductivity of 20
microS/cm at 298K (25C).
Type II grade of reagent water shall be prepared by distillation using a still designed to
produce a distillate having a conductivity of less than 1.0 [mu]S/cm at 298 K (25C). Ion
exchange, distillation, or reverse osmosis and organic adsorption may be required prior to
distillation if the purity cannot be attained by single distillation.
Because distillation is a process commonly relied upon to produce high purity water, the
levels specified for Type II reagent water were selected to represent the minimum quality of
water that a distillation process should produce.
Type III grade of reagent water shall be prepared by distillation, ion exchange, reverse
osmosis, or a combination thereof, followed by polishing with a 0.45-micron membrane filter.

12. What are the grades of Laboratory (reagent) waters?

Grade 1 Essentially free from dissolved or colloidal ionic and organic contaminants. It is
suitable for the most stringent analytical requirements including those of high performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC). It should be produced by further treatment of grade 2 water
for example by reverse osmosis or ion exchange followed by filtration through a membrane
filter of pore size 0.2m to remove particle matter or re-distillation from a fused silica
apparatus.
Grade 2 Very low inorganic, organic or colloidal contaminants and suitable for sensitive
analytical purposes including atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and the determination
of constituents in trace quantities. Can be produced by multiple distillation, ion exchange or
reverse osmosis followed by distillation.

Grade 3 Suitable for most laboratory wet chemistry work and preparation of reagent
solutions. Can be produced by single distillation, by ion exchange, or by reverse osmosis.
Unless otherwise specified, it should be used for ordinary analytical work.

13. What is Ion Exchange?

Ion exchange resins are polymers that are capable of exchanging particular ions within the
polymer with ions in a solution that is passed through them. The synthetic resins are used
primarily for purifying water, but also for various other applications including separating out
some elements. A standard dual bed ion exchange unit consists of a strong acid cation
resin that exchanges hydrogen for positively charged cations present. The second step is a
week or strong basic anion resin that exchanges hydroxide for negatively charged anions
present in the water stream. The hydrogen (H+) from the cation exchanger and hydroxide
(OH-) from the anion exchanger create the HOH or deionized water to be reused in the
process.

There are certain processes that generate an abundance of either a cation or an anion. If
this occurs, a more selective weak acid cation can be used to exchange the multi-divalent
heavy metals that are in abundance. This pre-treating of the heavy metals will assist in the
exchanging of the mono-valent cations. A weak basic anion before the strong basic anion
can be implemented to assist in pre-treating for weakly basic anions.
The cation ion exchange resin are regenerated with an acid to exchange the hydrogen back
onto the cation resin beads. The anion is regenerated with sodium hydroxide to exchange
the hydroxide back onto the anion resin beads.
Process and Water also designs, sells and services innovative EDI (electro-deioniziation,
CDI) technologies for high purity water requirements.

14. What is pH?

By Definition pH is the measure of free hydrogen activity in water and can be expressed as:
pH= -log[H+]

In more practical terms (although not technically correct in all cases) pH is the measure of
acidity or alkalinity of water. Measured on a scale of 0-14, solutions with a pH of less than
7.0 are acids while solutions with a pH of greater than 7.0 are bases. In very simple terms
bases are used to neutralize acids, while acids are used to neutralize caustics (the term
caustic and base, although not truly synonymous, are often used interchangeably). The by-
products are normally salts (which may or may not be soluble) and water.
pH adjustment system is to adjust the pH of the process stream into the defined acceptable
discharge range. In the case of an acid neutralization, caustic (NaOH) is added to the
effluent stream to pH Neutralize the solution. This neutralization, or titration can be
expressed as follows:

HCl + NaOH ==> NaCl + H2O

Download datasheet (PDF)
 14. What Types of Purified Waters ARE there?

USP Purified Water: The United States Pharmacopeia Convention is a private, not-for-
profit organization that sets standards for drugs, devices and diagnostics. It publishes two
compendia (summary documents). The US Pharmacopeia (USP) contains standards for
drug products. The National Formulary (NF) sets standards for drug excipients (inert
substances used as carriers or dilutants). The current editions of these standards are USP
23 and NF 18.

The USP monograph lists two waters that are prepared in bulk form: Purified Water (PW),
often called USP Purified Water to distinguish it from other purified waters, and Water for
Injection (WFI). Purified Water is described in the USP 23; Purified Water is water obtained
by distillation, ion-exchange treatment, reverse osmosis, or other suitable process. It is
prepared from water complying with the regulations of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) with respect to drinking water.
It contains no added substances.

The method of preparation of the various grades of reagent water determines the limits of
impurities.

USP 23 Standards

TOC: 500 ppb Carbon

CONDUCTIVITY: 1.3 uS/cm @ 25 C
0.10 uS/cm @ 20 C
BACTERIA Pure Water: 100 CFU/ml
Water For Injection: 10 CFU/100 ml
BACTERIAL ENDOTOXINS Water For Injection: 0.25 USP EU/ml

A.S.T.M. ELECTRONICS GRADE WATER: Type I grade of reagent water shall be prepared
by distillation or other equal process, followed by polishing with a mixed bed of ion
exchange materials and a 0.2-micron membrane filter. Feedwater to the final polishing step
must have a maximum conductivity of 20 microS/cm at 298K (25C).

Type II grade of reagent water shall be prepared by distillation using a still designed to
produce a distillate having a conductivity of less than 1.0 [mu]S/cm at 298 K (25C). Ion
exchange, distillation, or reverse osmosis and organic adsorption may be required prior to
distillation if the purity cannot be attained by single distillation.

Because distillation is a process commonly relied upon to produce high purity water, the
levels specified for Type II reagent water were selected to represent the minimum quality of
water that a distillation process should produce.

Type III grade of reagent water shall be prepared by distillation, ion exchange, reverse
osmosis, or a combination thereof, followed by polishing with a 0.45-micron membrane filter.

Grades of Laboratory (reagent) waters:

Grade 1
Essentially free from dissolved or colloidal ionic and organic contaminants. It is suitable for
the most stringent analytical requirements including those of high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC). It should be produced by further treatment of grade 2 water for
example by reverse osmosis or ion exchange followed by filtration through a membrane
filter of pore size 0.2m to remove particle matter or re-distillation from a fused silica
apparatus.

Grade 2
Very low inorganic, organic or colloidal contaminants and suitable for sensitive analytical
purposes including atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and the determination of
constituents in trace quantities. Can be produced by multiple distillation, ion exchange or
reverse osmosis followed by distillation.

Grade 3
Suitable for most laboratory wet chemistry work and preparation of reagent solutions. Can
be produced by single distillation, by ion exchange, or by reverse osmosis. Unless
otherwise specified, it should be used for ordinary analytical work.

16. What Is Reverse Osmosis?

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of

lower concentration. Osmosis is a special case of diffusion in which the molecules are water
and the concentration gradient occurs across a semi-permeable membrane. The semi-
permeable membrane allows the passage of water, but not ions (e.g., Na+, Ca2+, Cl-) or
larger molecules (e.g., glucose, urea, bacteria). Diffusion and osmosis are
thermodynamically favorable and will continue until equilibrium is reached.
Osmosis can be slowed, stopped, or even reversed if sufficient pressure is applied to the
membrane from the concentrated side of the membrane. Reverse osmosis occurs when
the water is moved across the membrane against the concentration gradient, from lower
concentration to higher concentration. To illustrate, imagine a semi-permeable membrane
with fresh water on one side and a concentrated aqueous solution on the other side. If
normal osmosis takes place, the fresh water will cross the membrane to dilute the
concentrated solution. In reverse osmosis, pressure is exerted on the side with the
concentrated solution to force the water molecules across the membrane to the fresh water
side.

Semi-permeable refers to a membrane that selectively allows certain species to pass

through it while retaining others. In actuality, many species will pass through the membrane,
but at significantly different rates. In RO, the solvent (water) passes through the membrane
at a much faster rate than the dissolved solids (salts). The net effect is that a solute-solvent
separation occurs, with pure water being the product. (In some cases, dewatering is desired
to concentrate the salts).