J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn.

114 (2013) 1217

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Wind Engineering

and Industrial Aerodynamics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jweia

Short Note

Enhancing vertical axis wind turbine by dynamic stall control using

synthetic jets
Joshua Yen n, Noor A. Ahmed
School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia

a r t i c l e in f o abstract
Article history: A novel application of modern active ow control on vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) dynamic stall is
Received 16 June 2012 explored in this paper. Operation of VAWT at low blade speed ratios offers numerous noise and safety
Received in revised form advantages over higher blade speed ratios but suffer from dynamic stall that degrades their
22 October 2012
performance. Consequently, an experimental investigation was carried out on VAWT operating at
Accepted 22 December 2012
low blade speed ratios that employed synthetic jets as a means of active ow control. Large angles of
Available online 28 January 2013
attack on VAWT rotor blades were simulated by sinusoidal oscillation of a thick NACA 0020 turbine
Keywords: blade about its quarter-chord. The pressure distribution and thrust hysteresis results showed synthetic
Wind energy jet actuation to be effective when dynamic stall effects were present, and clearly demonstrated that
Vertical axis wind turbine
they could be utilised to improve low blade speed ratio VAWT performance and thus enhance turbine
Synthetic jets
safety and noise. The ndings from this study have signicant practical implications for the design and
Dynamic stall
development of safe and efcient wind turbines, both small- and large-scale, and further the cause of
wind as a viable renewable energy source.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Vrel, composed of the freestream wind velocity, V W , and the

Fossil fuel use has powered modern technological revolutions
over the last century and resulted in detrimental emissions of
carbon and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. However,
depletion of this nite resource and the potentially disastrous
effects of climate change on the environment have led to the
development and global deployment of wind turbines as a means
of harnessing clean renewable energies over the past decade.
Although horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) are consid-
ered more efcient than their vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)
counterparts and are more commonly used as large turbines in
wind farms, the inherent axisymmetric design of VAWT precludes
the need for complex and expensive yaw control systems
required for HAWT, and allows gearboxes and generators to be
simply located on the ground. This arrangement, therefore, offers
the distinct advantages over HAWT by allowing easy access for
turbine maintenance and reducing structural loads on turbine
towers to reduce maintenance, material and installation costs.
VAWT at low rotational speeds produce lower turbine noise
and mechanical vibrations, and have decreased rotational kinetic
energy which can consequently increase their operational safety.
However, rotation of the turbine blades about the vertical shaft as
depicted in Fig. 1 induces a ow velocity relative to the blades,
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: 61 2 9385 1277; fax: 61 2 9663 1222.
E-mail addresses: josh.yen89@gmail.com, j.yen@unsw.edu.au (J. Yen).
rotational velocity of the blades, oR. For a given blade speed
ratio, l, the geometric angle of attack, a, at a particular azimuth
angle, y, equivalent to zero when the blade is parallel and faces
into the wind, is,
.
siny
a tan1 1
l cosy
This implies VAWT at low blade speed ratios between l 1 and
3 can experience large time-varying blade angles of attack up to
7501 that induce strong dynamic stall effects. This produces
periodic formation and shedding of vortices that impinge on
downstream blades causing degraded turbine performance, as
well as undesirable blade vibrations and damage. Therefore,
VAWT typically operate at high blade speed ratios between l 4
and 7 to minimise blade angles of attack and suppress the onset of
dynamic stall, despite the noise and safety benets offered at low
blade speed ratio operation.
Dynamic stall effects on VAWT aerodynamics and performance
at low blade speed ratios have been widely studied. Early
analytical methods, using doublemultiple stream tube
(Paraschivoiu, 1988) or vortex (Strickland et al., 1979;
Vandenberghe and Dick, 1987) models, were successful in pre-
dicting blade loads and turbine performance for low solidity
turbines operating at high blade speed ratios. However, these
models failed at low blade speed ratios, ostensibly due to dynamic
stall effects, and modications (Mandal and Burton, 1994;

0167-6105/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2012.12.015
 J. Yen, N.A. Ahmed / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 114 (2013) 1217
Fig. 1. Vector diagram of relative ow velocity composed of freestream and blade
rotational velocities.
Paraschivoiu and Delclaux, 1983) to correct their predictions were
necessary. Experimental observations of dynamic stall have since
been carried out on a Darrieus VAWT in a water tunnel by
Fujisawa and Shibuya (2001); capturing the formation and shed-
ding of two pairs of stall vortices using dye injection and particle
image velocimetry (PIV) techniques for blade speed ratios
between l 1 and 3. Ferreira et al. (2008, 2009) later quantied
the dynamic stall vortex formation and development using PIV
measurements at l 2. Additionally, Fiedler and Tullis (2009) and
Armstrong and Tullis (2011) studied the effects of blade pitch and
canted blades on the performance of a high solidity VAWT
operating at low blade speed ratios.
Several computational uid dynamics simulations have been
performed to capture and better understand VAWT ow elds and
the dynamic stall vortex evolution. In general, it was found that
two-dimensional simulations over-predicted experimental power
coefcients, and three-dimensional simulations were necessary to
better match the power coefcients (Howell et al., 2010; McLaren
et al., 2011; Qin et al., 2011) as blade tip losses and support shaft
effects signicantly affected the ow and degraded the turbine
performance. McLaren et al. (2011) found multiple dynamic stall
vortices to form during the upstream blade pass of a H-type VAWT
resulting in undulations in the instantaneous thrust curve as they
subsequently shed downstream alongside the blade. On the other
hand, helically twisted blades heavily reduced oscillations in the
power coefcient curve in high delity simulations by Schuerich
and Brown (2011) compared to simple straight blades.
Various passive and active dynamic stall ow control methods
have consequently been investigated in the past with the aim of
increasing lift whilst decreasing drag and pitching moment. Both
passive methods, such as vortex generators (Magill and McManus,
1998), slats (Carr and McAlister, 1983) and a nose droop-Gurney
ap combination (Joo et al., 2006), and active methods, blowing
(McCloud et al., 1960), suction (Karim and Acharya, 1994),
buzzing (Park et al., 2001) and moving surfaces (Gerontakos and
Lee, 2006; Lee and Gerontakos, 2009), have had varying degrees of
success in controlling dynamic stall.
Similar ow control methods have been investigated to
enhance wind turbine blade performance including vortex gen-
erators (Reuss et al., 1995), gurney aps (Yen Nakafuji et al., 2001)
and active steady blowing jets (Vronsky, 2000). The aerodynamic
research team at the University of New South Wales has also been
developing various modes of both passive and active ow control
methodologies in a variety of ow elds to improve applications
ranging from aircraft wing performance to ventilation within
enclosed spaces (Ahmed and Archer, 2001a, 2001b; Findanis
and Ahmed, 2006, 2008, 2011; Riazi and Ahmed, 2011a, 2011b;
13
Salmon and Ahmed, 2004; Shun and Ahmed, 2011, 2012; Simpson
et al., 2000, 2002; Wu and Ahmed, 2011; Yen and Ahmed, 2012;
Yen and Ahmed, in press).
Active ow control using synthetic jets has received much
attention in the last decade (Glezer and Amitay, 2002; Glezer,
2011) due to their efcacy in mitigating ow separation and
delaying stall on static aircraft wings. Synthetic jets are formed
entirely from the ambient uid by oscillating a piston or diaphragm
enclosed within a cavity exiting through an orice. Actuation
transfers momentum to energise the local ow, but zero-net mass
transfer obviates the need for external reservoirs and complex
plumbing traditionally required for steady blowing or suction.
Consequently, synthetic jets are environmentally clean as no extra
gas or combustion by-products are introduced into the atmosphere.
Furthermore, the recent development of smart materials with very
low power actuation requirements, allowing feasible implementa-
tion of synthetic jet actuators in aircraft wings, has made them an
attractive alternative active ow control method.
Unfortunately, most studies that have employed synthetic jets
to study turbine blade performance enhancement have been
restricted to static tests. For example, synthetic jet actuation on
static IAI Pr8-SE (Stalnov et al., 2010) and NACA 4415 (Maldonado
et al., 2010) airfoils was found to have a benecial effect on blade
aerodynamic performance by delaying airfoil stall, decreasing
drag and reducing blade structural vibrations. As far as the
authors are aware, though, no equivalent studies incorporating
turbine dynamic stall effects, which are signicant on VAWT
particularly at low blade speed ratios, have been conducted.
The objective of this paper, therefore, is to describe such a
study that was performed to investigate if synthetic jets could
improve low blade speed ratio VAWT performance when the
dynamic motion of turbine blades and dynamic stall effects are
included, and consequently enhance turbine operational safety.
2. Experimental setup
Experiments were carried out in a 0.76 m diameter open
section wind tunnel which has a maximum turbulence intensity
of 0.2% (Ahmed and Archer, 2001b). A thick turbine blade with
NACA 0020 prole was used and, with 207.5 mm chord and
300 mm span lengths, adequately enclosed a plenum chamber
to generate the synthetic jet. Endplates were installed to reduce
three-dimensional spanwise effects and a total of 25 pressure
tappings were installed at the leading-edge, and on the upper and
lower surfaces. Pressure tappings located above the plenum
chamber were installed by tting 0.9 mm inner diameter brass
tube into pre-drilled holes from the upper surface, through the
plenum chamber and into the blade with irregularities on the
upper surface carefully removed. The freestream wind velocity
was set to VW 10 ms 1 corresponding to a chord Reynolds
Number of Rec 1.25 ~ 105.
Although the angle of attack for the turbine blade is given by
Eq. (1), a simpler sinusoidal motion was applied in this prelimin-
ary investigation to incorporate the unsteady, dynamic effects.
Sinusoidal motion about the quarter-chord was achieved using a
motor and metal disk-conrod arrangement shown schematically
in Fig. 2. The conrod location on the metal disk determined the
oscillation amplitude which was xed at Da 401. Four low blade
speed ratios of l 2.9, 2.4, 2 and 1.6, which experience angles of
attack up to 7 201, 7 251, 7 301 and 7 401 respectively as given
by Eq. (1), were investigated by altering the mean angle of attack
to am 01, 51, 101 and 201 using an adjustable motor stand.
Synthetic jet actuation was achieved using a modied air
compressor connected to the internal plenum chamber that exited
through a w 1 mm wide spanwise slot located at x/c 0.028;
14 J. Yen, N.A. Ahmed / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 114 (2013) 1217
Fig. 2. Schematic of experimental rig.
oriented perpendicular to the blade chord. Actuation was calibrated
with a hot-wire with a frequency xed at f j 47:5 Hz, correspond-
ing to a non-dimensional forcing frequency of f j 1, and three
momentum coefcients of C m 4.3 ~ 104, 7.5 ~ 10 2 and
1.0 ~ 10 1 based on the maximum velocity during the blowing
phase.
Blade surface pressure data were recorded using a Turbulent
Flow DPM-1041 Dynamic Pressure Measurement System contain-
ing 32 channels; each with its own pressure transducer accurate to
within 0.3%. The frequency response of the 1.5 mm inner diameter
1800 mm long pressure tubing was found to be within 3 dB up to
135 Hz (Gatto et al., 2001), with amplitude and phase distortions
corrected using the theory of Bergh and Tijdeman (1965), and
applying Fourier and Inverse Fourier Transforms to linearise the
time-varying pressures. Data was sampled at 2 kHz to prevent
aliasing of high frequencies, and aerodynamic coefcients were
obtained after phase-averaging the data over 50 cycles.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Results
The four blade speed ratios were categorised into two groups
based on the experimental results. Pressure distributions and
thrust coefcient hysteresis loops for the rst group, l 2.9 and
2.4, are presented below and are subsequently followed by the
second group, l 2.0 and 1.6. Thrust coefcient was obtained by
integrating the pressure distribution around the blade, and all
actuated results presented are for the largest momentum coef-
cient of Cm 1.0 ~ 101 unless stated otherwise.
3.1.1. Blade speed ratios l 2.9 and 2.4
Suction steadily increased in the leading-edge region with
angle of attack for the blade speed ratio of l 2.4 up to a
maximum value of CP 4.47 at a 24.51 as shown in Fig. 3.
Instantaneous pressure distributions approximately 11, 21 and 31
after peak suction were achieved are also shown in the gure. A
rapid reduction in suction over the blade body between x/c 0.38
and x/c 1 indicated partial ow separation from the trailing-
edge, but suction was retained at the forward section of the blade.
When synthetic jet actuation was applied, peak suction was
increased by 10% to C P 4.94 and occurred earlier a 23.91. Suction
was retained over a larger portion of the blade upper surface,
preventing partial trailing-edge ow separation, after peak suction
was achieved. Overall, though, synthetic jet actuation had marginal
effect on the pressure distribution development, especially during the
initial accumulation of leading-edge suction when the ow was
already attached to the blade.
Similar instantaneous pressure distributions were obtained for
l 2.9. Actuation increased peak suction by 6% from CP 3.70 to
3.94 but no improvement in the partial trailing-edge ow
separation was observed.
The ineffectiveness of synthetic jet actuation to improve or
even alter the ow was reinforced from the thrust coefcient
hysteresis loops shown in Fig. 4. For both l 2.9 and 2.4, thrust
increased almost linearly after a 01 up to their corresponding
maximum angle of attack before rapidly decreasing as a result of
the partial trailing-edge ow separation and then gradually
decreasing with angle of attack. For l 2.9, synthetic jet actuation
appeared to have a detrimental effect by reducing the thrust
coefcient after the maximum angle of attack was obtained. This
may have been due to the synthetic jet obstructing the ow,
rather than improving it. In contrast, the effect of preventing the
trailing-edge ow separation for l 2.4 using synthetic jet actua-
tion was evident as an increased thrust coefcient after the
maximum angle of attack was obtained. Although small changes
to the baseline thrust coefcient hysteresis loops were observed
with synthetic jet actuation, baseline and actuated hysteresis
loops were almost identical.
3.1.2. Blade speed ratios l 2.0 and 1.6
Blade speed ratios of l 2.0 and 1.6 on the other hand displayed
key dynamic stall features and behaved markedly different from the
higher blade speed ratios of l 2.4 and 2.9. As with the higher blade
speed ratios, suction increased in the leading-edge region for l 2.0
up to a maximum value of C P 5.50 at a 28.41 as shown in
Fig. 5. Shortly after, however, this leading-edge suction suddenly
and abruptly collapsed at a 28.91, and was subsequently followed
by a suction wave, visible as the pressure disturbance at a 29.61,
suggesting the formation of a leading-edge vortex that convected to
the trailing-edge; characteristic of dynamic stall. Flow was then
separated from the blade surface until the minimum angle of attack
was obtained.
Synthetic jet actuation, unlike the higher blade speed ratios,
now had a pronounced effect on the pressure distribution devel-
opment. Peak suction was increased by 4% to C P 5.73 and was
delayed to a 29.11. Similar to l 2.4, leading-edge suction was
retained and ow remained attached to the blade upper surface.
Additionally, synthetic jet actuation suppressed the formation
and convection of the leading-edge vortex as the suction wave
was no longer visible in the pressure distribution.
For l 1.6, peak suction of C P 5.70 was achieved much earlier
in its cycle at a 31.41 instead of near its maximum angle of attack
of amax 401. This was then followed by a small suction wave, a
collapse in leading-edge suction and nally a large suction wave as
ow completely separated from the blade until the minimum angle
of attack. Synthetic jet actuation again increased peak suction by
12.5% to CP 6.50 and delayed its onset to a 33.91. Actuation,
however, failed to overcome the strong viscous forces and mitigate
the stronger dynamic stall effects. Although the rst, smaller suction
wave was suppressed, the second, larger suction wave persisted but
with reduced strength and severity. Consequently, ow remained
separated following the suction collapse and vortex shedding until
the minimum angle of attack was obtained.
Corresponding thrust coefcient hysteresis loops for l 2.0 and
1.6 at all three momentum coefcients are shown in Fig. 6. In the
absence of actuation, both thrust coefcient hysteresis loops were
similar in shape and were considerably larger than the hysteresis
loops for l 2.4 and 2.9 shown in Fig. 4. The suction waves
observed in the instantaneous pressure distributions were found
 J. Yen, N.A. Ahmed / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 114 (2013) 1217 15

Fig. 3. Instantaneous pressure distributions for l 2:4; (a) baseline and (b) actuation.

Fig. 4. Thrust hysteresis loops for (a) l 2:9 and (b) l 2:4.

Fig. 5. Instantaneous pressure distributions for l 2; (a) baseline and (b) actuation.

to correspond to surges in the lift coefcient and had no discernible attack, rapidly decreasing to approximately CF E 0.05 until the
effect on the thrust coefcient. Rather, thrust increased linearly minimum angle of attack as a result of the leading-edge suction
with angle of attack before, close to the peak suction angles of collapses and ensuing ow separation for both blade speed ratios.
16 J. Yen, N.A. Ahmed / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 114 (2013) 1217
Fig. 6. Thrust hysteresis loops for (a) l 2:0 and (b) l 1:6.
However, the changes observed in their pressure distribution
developments when the synthetic jet was actuated were reected
in the hysteresis loops and resulted in favourable improvements.
For l 2.0, the maximum thrust coefcient was increased by 8% at
Cm 1.0 ~ 101 and delayed to a higher angle of attack. This was
proceeded by another rapid drop but to a much higher value of
CF 0.2 after which the thrust coefcient gradually decreased with
angle of attack. This corresponded well to the leading-edge suction
being retained with synthetic jet actuation in the instantaneous
pressure distribution, and the reduced size of the actuated hyster-
esis loop was now more similar in shape to those in Fig. 4.
Synthetic jet actuation for l 1.6 at Cm 1.0 ~ 101 also
increased the maximum thrust coefcient by 15% and delayed
its onset but failed to reduce the hysteresis size. As with the
baseline curve, the thrust coefcient continued to rapidly
decrease to CF E 0.05 at the maximum angle of attack. However,
the thrust coefcient displayed signs of recovery from its dyna-
mically stalled state at a 251 before following the decreasing
angle of attack at a 151.
These changes to the baseline thrust coefcient hysteresis
loops for l 2.0 and 1.6 were almost identical for the lower
momentum coefcient of C m 7.5 ~ 10 2 . The lowest momentum
coefcient of C m 4.3 ~ 10 4 , however, showed little difference to
the baseline hysteresis loops and was incapable of overcoming
dynamic stall effects.
3.2. Discussion
The results suggested how synthetic jet actuation can enhance
the performance of VAWT that operate at low blade speed ratios
and suffer from detrimental dynamic stall effects. Firstly, actua-
tion increased the baseline maximum thrust coefcient which
would result in more energy extracted from the ow and
increased power generated by the turbine.
For moderate dynamic stall behaviour similar to l 2.0, syn-
thetic jet actuation prevented the leading-edge suction collapse and
maintained attached ow to the blade surface after the maximum
angle of attack was obtained. The consequent increased thrust
coefcient, reduced hysteresis size and suppression of leading-edge
vortices would therefore increase the RMS power and reduce the
magnitude of oscillations in power typically observed at low blade
speed ratios (McLaren et al., 2011). On the other hand, while
synthetic jet actuation could not prevent ow separation for
l 1.6, it was able to delay the formation and shedding of
leading-edge vortices to higher angles of attack and reduce their
strength. Therefore, careful timing of vortex shedding could pre-
vent, or at least improve, downstream blade pass performance for
strong dynamic stall ows by reducing vortex impingement on
downstream blades and reducing blade structural loads.
Secondly, synthetic jet actuation had negligible effect on
pressure distribution developments and thrust coefcient hyster-
esis loops for l 2.9 and 2.4 when dynamic stall effects were
minimal and ow remained attached to the blade. Synthetic jet
actuation could then be simply activated regardless of blade
speed ratio to avoid complex and potentially expensive state-
sensor and control systems. Conversely, actuation could be
activated only at very low blade speed ratios prior to dynamic
stall onset to reduce energy expenditure that would be wasted
with the former control strategy.
Lastly, there existed an optimum momentum coefcient
value between Cm 4.3 ~ 104 and 7.5 ~ 10 2 beyond which no
improvement or change in the thrust coefcient hysteresis loop
for l 2.0 was observed in Fig. 6. This is an important considera-
tion for an efcient and viable turbine-synthetic jet system in
which more energy must be extracted than is expended on
improving the ow. On the other hand, the maximum momentum
coefcient of Cm 1.0 ~ 101 was not able to overcome strong
dynamic stall effects for l 1.6 and so further investigation is
required in determining which blade speed ratios can benet
synthetic jet actuation and, when actuated, permissible actuation
strengths for viable turbine-synthetic jet systems.
4. Conclusion
VAWTs are cheaper and more easily maintained than HAWT
due to their inherent axisymmetric design. However, their ef-
ciency and performance have been found to suffer from degrading
dynamic stall effects when operated at low blade speed ratios
between l 1 and 3. Consequently, an experimental investigation
was conducted to determine if synthetic jets could improve low
blade speed ratio VAWT performance when the dynamic motion
of turbines was included by sinusoidally oscillating a NACA 0020
blade. Synthetic jet actuation resulted in positive improvements
in VAWT performance and the practical implications of the
experimental results are encouraging:
allowing more energy to be extracted from the ow and
increasing the power generated by the turbine;
increasing RMS power and reducing power oscillations for
moderately stalled turbines;
improving downstream blade pass performance and efciency
for strongly stalled turbines; and
implementing actuation using two control strategies that
either reduced cost or reduced its power consumption.
 J. Yen, N.A. Ahmed / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 114 (2013) 1217
The ndings from this study suggest that the novel application
of synthetic jets to VAWT will expand their operating conditions
to include lower blade speed ratios that enhance turbine safety,
and thus positively impact both small- and large-scale VAWT to
further promote the cause of renewable wind energy as an
alternative and viable source of energy.
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