Traffic Characterization

1
 Traffic Loading
Primary input to any design procedure
Issues:
Vehicle characteristics
Weight
Wheel and axle configuration
Frequency of occurrence
Traffic volume
Current
Future (traffic growth)
Other
Lateral wander
Often not well-defined in practice 2
 Traffic Loads Characterization

Pavement Thickness Design Are Developed

To Account For The Entire
Spectrum Of Traffic Loads

Cars Pickups Buses Trucks Trailers

3
 Critical Response Values

et et
ec ec
et at surface + bottom of all bound layers (cracking)
ec at midthickness of all layers + top of subgrade (rutting)
Traffic Composition

6
 Axle Configuration

Single Axle Single Axle Tandem Axle Tridem Axle

Single Tires Dual Tires Dual Tires Dual Tires

7
Axle
Configuration

8
 Axle Configuration Parameters
Wheel Base

Tire Axle
Pressure Spacing

Dual Tire
Spacing
Axle Width
 FHWA Vehicle Classes

1 2 3 4

6 7 8
5

9 10 11

12 13
Normalized Truck Distribution by Truck Class
 Sources of Traffic Data
Weigh-in-motion (WIM)
Automatic vehicle classification
(AVC)
Traffic counts
 Fixed Vehicle
Thickness design governed by number
of traffic repetitions
Vehicle type/load is not a variable
18 kip (80 kN) single axle load (SAL)
Standard aircraft
Multiple axles converted to equivalent
single axle load (ESAL)
Most common current design procedure
16
 Important Definitions
Standard Axle Load (SAL): A single
axle with dual tires that has a weight
of 18,000 lb (80 KN).

ESAL: The number of repetitions of

an 18,000 lb single axle load

17
 Equivalent Single Axle Load
(ESAL)
Most common standard load
Developed at the AASHO Road Test

1 ESAL = damage caused by one 18,000 lb single axle load

Load equivalency factors (LEFs)

The number of ESALs needed to cause the
same damage as the load in question

18
Load Equivalency Factors (LEF)

LEFs Can Be Based On:

Equivalent Stress or Strain at a
Given Location (Mechanistic)
Equivalent Deflection at a Given
Location (Mechanistic)
Equivalent Serviceability Loss
(AASHTO)
 LEF = EALF
Ratio of damage caused by a certain
axle to that caused by the standard
one.
Based on Fatigue,
LEF {Wi / Ws}4,
where W = weight of axle
Based on AASHTO Equation:
For Flexible Pavements
For Rigid Pavements
 AASHTO 1993 Equation for LEF for Flexible
Pavement
W G G
log tx 4.79log(18 1) 4.79log(L x L 2 ) 4.33log(L 2 ) t t
Wt18 x 18
4.2 p t 0.08(L x L 2 ) 3.23 Wt18
G t log x 0.40 LEF
4.2 1.5 SN 1 5.19
L2
3.23
Wtx
Where:

Wtx = number of applications of given axle

Wt18 = number of standard axle passes (18-kips single axle)
Lx = load of axle group being evaluated, kips
L2 = axle code (1 for single, 2 for tandem, and 3 for tridem, 4 for quad)
b18 = value of bx when Lx = 18 and L2 = 1
pt = terminal serviceability index
SN = structural number ESALs
LEF = load equivalency factor

12,000 lbs 28,000 lbs 28,000 lbs

LEF = 0.189 LEF = 0.495 LEF = 0.495
(Huang, 2004)

23
 ESALF
Ratio of damage caused by a certain
axle to that caused by the standard
one.
Based on Fatigue,
ESALF {Wi / Ws}4,
where W = weight of axle
Based on AASHTO Eqn,
For Flexible Pavements, see book Eqn
6.20
For Rigid Pavements, see book Eqn 6.25
 REGULAR MIXED
TRAFFIC

Equivalent Number of 18k Single Axle

Loads
 Truck Factors

ESALs

12,000 lbs 28,000 lbs 28,000 lbs

LEF = 0.189 LEF = 0.495 LEF = 0.495

Truck Factor (TF) = sum of all LEFs for each truck

Truck Factor = S (Number of axles * LEF)/number of vehicles

Truck Factor = S LEF = 0.189 + 0.495*2 = 1.368
26
 Truck Factors Urban
Other Minor
Vehicle Type Interstate Freeways Principal Arterials Collectors
Single-unit trucks
2-axle, 4-tire 0.002 0.015 0.002 0.006 -
2-axle, 6-tire 0.17 0.13 0.24 0.23 0.13
3-axle or more 0.61 0.74 1.02 0.76 0.72
All single units 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.04 0.16
Tractor semi-
trailers
4-axle or less 0.98 0.48 0.71 0.46 0.40
5-axle 1.07 1.17 0.97 0.77 0.63
6-axle or more 1.05 1.19 0.90 0.64 -
All multiple units 1.05 0.96 0.91 0.67 0.53
ALL TRUCKS 0.39 0.23 0.21 0.07 0.24
27
From MS-1, Table IV-5
 Truck Factors Rural
Other Minor Major Minor
Vehicle Type Interstate Principal Arterials Collector Collector
Single-unit trucks
2-axle, 4-tire 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.017 0.003
2-axle, 6-tire 0.21 0.25 0.28 0.41 0.19
3-axle or more 0.61 0.86 1.06 1.25 0.45
All single units 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.12 0.03
Tractor semi-trailers

4-axle or less 0.62 0.92 0.62 0.37 0.91

5-axle 1.09 1.25 1.05 1.67 1.11
6-axle or more 1.23 1.54 1.04 2.21 1.35
All multiple units 1.04 1.21 0.97 1.52 1.08
ALL TRUCKS 0.52 0.38 0.21 0.30 0.12
28
From MS-1, Table IV-5
 Truck Distribution - Rural
Other Minor Major Minor
Vehicle Type Interstate Principal Arterials Collector Collector
Single-unit trucks
2-axle, 4-tire 43 60 71 73 80
2-axle, 6-tire 8 10 11 10 10
3-axle or more 2 3 4 4 2
All single units 53 73 86 87 92
Tractor semi-trailers

4-axle or less 5 3 3 2 2
5-axle 41 23 11 10 6
6-axle or more 1 1 <1 1 <1
All multiple units 47 27 14 13 8
ALL TRUCKS 100 100 100 100 100
29
From MS-1, Table IV-1
 Truck Distribution Urban
Other Minor Major Minor
Vehicle Type Interstate Principal Arterials Collector Collector
Single-unit trucks
2-axle, 4-tire 52 68 67 84 86
2-axle, 6-tire 12 12 15 9 11
3-axle or more 2 4 3 2 <1
All single units 66 82 85 95 97
Tractor semi-trailers
4-axle or less 5 5 3 2 1
5-axle 28 13 12 3 2
6-axle or more 1 <1 <1 <1 <1
All multiple units 34 18 15 5 3
ALL TRUCKS 100 100 100 100 100

30
From MS-1, Table IV-1
 Traffic Analysis
ESAL = 365(fd)(df)(Gjt)S(AADTi)(Ni)(FEi) using LEF

ESAL = 365(fd)(df)(Gjt)S(AADTi)(Ti) using Truck Factor

ESAL = Equivalent 18,000 lb single axle load

AADTi = First year annual average daily traffic for axle i in both directions
Gjt = growth factor for growth rate j and design period t
fd = lane distribution factor
df = directional distribution factor
Ni = Number of axles
FEi = Load equivalency factor for axle i
Ti = Truck Factor 31
Directional Distribution

Percentage of trucks traffic traveling

in one direction

47%

53%
 Lane Distribution
ADT 20,000 ADT 60,000

25% trucks 8% trucks

75% trucks 39% trucks

53% trucks

Design for
worst case!!
 Growth Factor (G)
Based on standard compound growth equations.

G
1 r 1 n

r
r = growth rate
n = Design period, years

For annual growth rate (r=0), G = n

(Huang, 1993)
35
 Example of Single Axle Growth

400000
Projected number of

300000
single axles

200000

100000

0
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040
Year
 Example 1 - Calculation of ESALS
Axle Load, kips # of Axles per
1000 trucks
Axle Load, kips # of Axles per Tandem Axles
1000 trucks 14 1
Single Axles 16 5
2 753 18 15
4 299 20 20
6 105 22 36
8 34 24 42
10 42 26 84
12 30 28 92
14 41 30 50
16 93 32 12
18 110 34 8
20 80 36 4
22 50 38 2
24 11 40 1
42 1
 Example 1 Solution
Single Axles Tandem Axles
Axle Load, # of Axles ESALF ESALs per Axle Load, # of Axles ESALF ESALs per
kips per 1000 (Table 6.4) 1000 Trucks kips per 1000 (Table 6.4) 1000 Trucks
trucks trucks
2 753 0.00018 0.13554 14 1 0.027 0.027
4 299 0.00209 0.62491 16 5 0.0472 0.236
6 105 0.01043 1.09515 18 15 0.0773 1.1595
8 34 0.0343 1.1662 20 20 0.1206 2.412
10 42 0.0877 3.6834 22 36 0.18 6.48
12 30 0.189 5.67 24 42 0.26 10.92
14 41 0.360 14.76 26 84 0.364 30.576
16 93 0.623 57.939 28 92 0.495 45.54
18 110 1 110 30 50 0.658 32.9
20 80 1.51 120.8 32 12 0.857 10.284
22 50 2.18 109 34 8 1.095 8.76
24 11 3.03 33.33 36 4 1.38 5.52
38 2 1.7 3.4
40 1 2.08 2.08
42 1 2.51 2.51
ESALs /1000 Trucks (single axles) 458.2 ESALs /1000 Trucks (Tandem axles) 162.8

Total ESALs / 1000 Trucks 621.0

 Axle Load Spectra

000169-South, VC 9, Tandem Axles

18%
January
16% February
March
14%
April
12% May
Percent Axles

June
10%
July
8% August
September
6% October
4% November
December
2%
0%
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000
Axle Load, lb