Science Class Notes

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Science Class 10 Notes for Our Environment

Introduction
The environment includes our physical surroundings like air (or atmosphere), water bodies, soil
(land) and all the organisms such as plants, animals, human beings and micro organisms like
bacteria and fungi (called decomposers).
The waste materials produced by the various activities of man and animals are poisonous
to some extent and can be divided into two main groups :
1. Biodegradable wastes, and

2. Non-biodegradable wastes.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a self-contained unit of living things (plants, animals and decomposers),

and their non-living environment (soil, air and water). e.g. a forest, a pond, a lake, a
greenland etc.
There are two components of an ecosystem : biotic component and abiotic
component.
Biotic component : It includes three types of organisms:
Producer
Consumer
Decomposer/saprophyte
Abiotic component
Consumers can be further divided into three groups : herbivores, carnivores and
omnivores.
Planktons are very minute or microscopic organisms freely floating on the surface
of water in a pond, lake, river or ocean. Planktons are of two types : Phytoplanktons
and Zooplanktons.
The microscopic aquatic plants freely floating on the surface of water are
called phytoplanktons.
The microscopic aquatic animals freely floating on water are called zooplanktons. The
freely floating protozoa are an example of zooplankton.
The micro-organisms which break down the complex organic compounds present in
dead organisms like dead plants and animals and their products like faeces, urine, etc.
into simpler substances are called decomposers.
Food Chains and Webs
The sequence of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes another
organism to transfer food energy, is called a food chain.
A food chain is unidirection where transfer of energy takes place in only one direction.
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In aquatic ecosystem of the biosphere, like fresh water ponds, lakes or sea, the food chain starts
with microscopic free floating plants (phytoplankton)
The various steps in a food chain at which the transfer of food (or energy) takes place are called
trophic levels.
The inter-connected food chains operating in an ecosystem which establish a network

of relationships between various species, is called a food web.
How do our activities affect the environment Global Warming
The addition of certain pollutants like the carbon dioxide gases increases the temperature of the
earth.
The reduction in the forest cover also contributes to the heating of earth. This is called global
warming.
Ozone Layer formation and importance Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of
oxygen. Ozone, is a deadly poison. It shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the Sun. This radiation is highly damaging to organisms.
Ozone at the higher levels ofthe atmosphere is a product of UV radiation acting on oxygen (O2)
molecule. The higher energy UV radiations split apart some molecular oxygen (O2) into free
oxygen (O) atoms.
The deplation of ozone layer is due to CFC (chloro fluorocarbons).
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS
Flow of materials in an ecosystem is cyclic but flow of energy is unidirectional.
There is a continuous transfer of energy from one trophic level of organisms to the next in
a food chain.
Ten percent law states that only 10 percent of the energy entering a particular trophic level of
organisms is available for transfer to the next higher trophic level.
The increase in concentration of harmful chemical substances like pesticides in the body of
living organisms at each trophic level of a food chain is called biological magnification.
The disposal of waste should be done in a scientific way. There are different methods of waste
disposal. The method to be used depends on the nature of the waste. Some of the important
modes of waste disposal are :
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(i) Recycling
(ii) Preparation of compost
(iii) Incineration
(iv) Landfill
(v) Sewage treatment
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Science Class 10 Notes for Carbon and its Compounds

1. Bonding in Carbon
Carbon form covalent bonds.
Formation of covalent bond : Covalent bond formation involves sharing of electrons

between bonding atoms which may be either same or different.
Covalency : The number of electrons contributed by an atom for sharing is known as its
covalency.
Characteristics of covalent compounds :
(i) These compounds are molecular in nature (i.e. they exist as single molecules)
(ii) These are insoluble in water and soluble in benzene, kerosene and petrol etc.
(iii) These compounds are poor conductor of electricity.
2. Allotropy in Carbon
The property due to which an element exists in two or more forms, which differ in their
physical and some ofthe chemical properties is known as Allotropy and the various forms are
called Allotropes.
Carbon exists in two allotropic form (i) crystalline (ii) amorphous. The crystalline forms
are diamond and graphite whereas the amorphous forms are coal, charcoal, lamp black
etc.
Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes. The first one to be identified was C-
60, which has carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a football.
3. Unique Nature of Carbon
Catenation : The property of elements to form long chains or rings by self linking of their
own atoms- through covalent bonds is called catenation. The extent of catenation depends upon
the strength of the bonds between the atoms involved in catenation.
4. Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds
In saturated compounds the valencies of all the carbon atoms are satisfied by single
bonds between them.
While in the unsaturated compounds, the valencies of all the carbon atoms are not satisfied by
single bonds, thus in order to satisfy their valencies, they form double or triple bond between
the carbon atoms.
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5. Straight chain compounds : The compounds which contain straight chain of carbon
atoms e.g. normal butane (C4H10), normal pentane (5H12) etc.
6. Branched chain compounds : Those compounds which are branched.
e.g. iso-butane (C4H10), isopentane (C5H12), neopentane (C5H12) etc.
7. Closed chain compounds or Ring compounds :
Cyclic compounds are called closed chain or ring compounds e.g. cyclohexane
(C6H12), cyclopentane (C5H10), cyclobutane (C4H8), cyclopropane (C3H6) etc.
8. Hydrocarbons
All those compounds which contain just carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
9. Functional Group
The atom or group of atoms which determine the properties of a compound is known
as functional group. e.g. OH (alcohol), CHO (aldehyde), > C = C < (alkene), CC
(alkyne) etc.
10. Homologous Series
A series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes hydrogen in a carbon
chain is called a homologous series.
e.g. CH3C1 and C2H5C1 differ by a CH2 unit.
11. Nomenclature
Chemists developed a set of rules, for naming organic compounds based on their
structures which is known as IUPAC rules.
The IUPAC name of an organic compounds consists of three parts.
Prefix word root Suffix
Word Root : A word root indicates the nature of basic carbon skeleton.
In case a functional group is present, it is indicated in the name of the compound with either as
a prefix or as a suffix.
While adding the suffix to the word root the terminal e of carbon chain is removed If the
carbon chain is unsaturated then the final `ane in the name of the carbon chain is substituted
by en& or yne respectively for double and triple bonds.
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12. Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds :
(i) Combustion : Carbon compound undergo combustion reaction to produce CO2 and H20
with the evolution of heat and light.
CH4 +O2 > CO2 + 2O + heat and light
(ii) Oxidation :
The substance which are used for oxidation are known as oxidising agent.
e.g alkaline KMnO4, acidified K2Cr2O7.
(iii) Addition reaction :
Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes undergo addition reaction in presence of

catalysts e.g.
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(iv) Substitution reaction : Saturated hydrocarbons give substitution reaction e.g. methane in
presence of sunlight undergo chlorination.
13. Some Important Carbon Compounds
Alcohols : Compounds containing -OH group attached to a carbon atom are known as alcohols.
Example : Ethanol (C2H5OH) : commonly known as alcohol.
Properties of ethanol :
1. Reaction with sodium : Due to its weakly acidic nature, ethanol reacts with sodium to
librate H2 gas.
2. Reaction with conc : H2SO4 :
Alcohol as a fuel : Alcohol (ethanol) is added to petrol upto 20% and the mixture is called
gasol.
Harmful Effects of Drinking Alcohol :
If the alcohol used for drinking purposes contains some methyl alcohol (CH3OH) as impurity
then it may cause serious poisoning and loss of eye sight.
It is habit forming and damages liver if taken regularly in large quantities.
Ethanoic Acid (Acetic Acid) CH3COOH:
Ethanoic acid, commercially known as acetic acid belongs to a group of acids called carboxylic
acid.
Chemical properties :
(i) Reaction with a base :
2CH3COOH + 2NaOH 2CH3COONaH2O
(ii) Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates :
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
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CH3COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
(iii) Reaction with alcohol : (Esterification)
Esters react is the presence of an acid or a. base to give back the alcohol and carboxylic acid-
this reaction is known as saponification.
14. Soaps and Detergents :
Soaps : Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain acid carboxylic acids.
Detergent : They are ammonium or sulphurate salts of long chain carboxylic acids.
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Science Class 10 Notes for Diversity in living Organisms

1. The production of new organisms from the existing organisms ofthe same species is
known as reproduction.
2. Asexual Reproduction : Modes of sexual reproduction used are binary fission,

multiple fission, Budding, spore formation, regeneration, vegetative propagation, tissue
culture, fragmentation
3. Sexual Reproduction : In sexual reproduction, a male gamete (germ cells) fuses with a
female gamete to form a new cell called zygote. This zygote then grows and develop into a
new organism in due course of time.
When male gamete and female gamete fuse, they form a zygote and the process is known as
fertilization.
Fertilization is of two types :- External fertilization and Internal fertilization.
4. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants :
Flower is meant essentially for sexual reproduction.
Pollination is the process in which pollen grains are transferred from the anther to stigma
of the carpel. It is of two types self pollination and cross-pollination.
In the fertilization process primary endospermic nucleus is formed.
After the fertilization process, ovary developes into the fruit whereas ovules into the
seed.
5. Reproduction in Human Being : The sex organ in males are testes and ova in females.
Male reproductive organ consist of a pair of testes, vasdeferens, a pair of epididymis, a

pair of ejaculatory duct, urethra, pairs of accessory gland.
Female reproductive part consist of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tube,
uterus, vagina, external genitalia, mammary glands and accessory glands. Ovary
produces the female gametes (eggs or ova) and female sex hormone (estrogen).
If sperms are present, fertilization of ovum takes place in the upper end of the
fallopian tube.
Bleeding accompanied by discharge of soft tissue lining the reproductive tract
is menstrual flow. It last for 3-5 days.
Secretory phase lasts for 12-14 days.
Fertilization process occurs in fallopian tube. In this process zygote is formed. In this
process umbilical cord is produced which is attached to foetus. During this
process two hormones are produced which are estrogen and progesterone.
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Progesterone stops mensturation and prevents ovulation. The placenta protects the body
against diseases. Due to contraction of uterine muscles young one is expelled and the
phenomenon is called parturition.
If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about one day. Since the ovary releases one
egg every month, the uterus also prepares it self every month to recieve a fertilized egg.
After the age of 45-50 years menses stop and process is called menopause.
Fertility control can be done chemically, mechanically or surgically.
6. Reproductive Health Barrier methods
(i) Mechanical barrier method:- They prevent contraception by preventing either sperms from
entering uterus or preventing implantation if fertilization has occurred.
The instruments are condom, cercival cap, diaphragm & ICDU method.
(ii) Hormonal method: They are used by women for suppressing the production of ovum. i.e. ,
oral pills, Implants morning after pills.
(iii) Chemical contraception: They are creams, jellies and foaming tables which are placed in
vagina for killing the sperms at the time of coitus.
(iv) Surgical techniques:
(a) Vasectomy: The two vasa deferential of the male are blocked by cutting a small piece of
tying the rest. This prevents the passage of sperms from testes to semen.
(b) Tubectomy: A portion of both the fallopian tubes is excised to ligated to block the
passage of ovum
7. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
It is a group of infections caused by different types of pathogens that are transmitted by sexual
contact between a healthy person and an infected person. The sexually transmitted diseases are
also called venereal diseases (VDs). Some 30 different types of STDs are known. Fol example :
Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Trichomonas, Genital warts, AIDS.
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Science Class 10 Notes for Heredity and Evolution

1. The transmission of characters from parent to their off springs is known as heredity.
The study of heredity and variations is known as genetics.

Clones are those organisms which are the carbon copies of one another.
Variation in sexually reproducing organisms are caused due to the following factors like
environment, crossing over and recombination of genes and mutation.
The first study of inheritance was done by Gregor Mendel on garden pea.
Paired condition of chromosomes is known as diploid.
Unpaired condition of chromosomes is known as haploid.
DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid), RNA (Ribo Nucleic Acid) is the genetic material in
all organisms.
2. Mendels laws of inheritance are
(i) Law of Dominance

(ii) Law of Segregation (Law of purjty of gametes)
(iii) Law of Independent Assortment
3. Genotype is the composition of genes present in an organism and the characteristic which
is visible in an organism is called its phenotype.
4. When two parents cross (or breed) to produce progeny (or offsprings), then their progeny
is called F1-generation (First Filial Generation) and when the first generation progeny
cross among themselves to produce second progeny, then this progeny is called F2-generation
or second Filial Generation.
Mendel conducted his famous experiments on garden pea (Pisum sativum).

He used a number of contrasting characters like round / wrinkled seeds, tall/ short
plants, white/ violet flowers and so on.
5. During Monohybrid Cross
When tall pea plants are crossed with short pea plants then in Fi generation only tall
plants were obtained.
F2 progeny ofFi tall plants are not all tall but one quarter of them are short indicating
that both tallness and shortness traits were inherited in F1 but only tallness trait was
expressed due to dominance.
In dihybrid cross two pairs of contrasting characters were considered. Tall plant with
round seeds were crossed with short plant with wrinkled seeds. In Fi tall plants with
round seeds were obtained. On selfing these F, plants with F2 produced tall plants with
round seeds, short plant with wrinkled seeds and some new combinations (tall plant
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with wrinkled seeds and short plant with rounds seeds) were also obtained. The
tall/short trait and round wrinkled traits are independently inherited.
The expression of a particular trait is controlled by gene.
6. DNA is the source of making protein in a cell.
The section of DNA that provides information for one protein is called gene.
7. Physical and Chemical Basis of Heredity
Mendel (1866) said that heredity was controlled by particles, called germinal units, or factors.
8 Sex determination is the process by which the sex of a person is determined.
All human chromosomes are not paired. 22 pairs are called autosomes. Women have a perfect
pair of sex chromosomes XX. But men have a mismatched pair XY.
9. Evolution
It is the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the primitive organisms over
millions of years in which new species are produced.
A. The evidences of evolution are :
i. Homologous organs,
ii. Analogous organs, and
Fossils
B. Theories of Evolution
Jean Baptiste Lamarck gave the first theory of evolution.
Darwins Theory of Evolution
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) explained the evolutionary principle in his famous book
The origin of species. The theory proposed by him is popularly known as theory of natural
selection or Darwinsim.
The main features of the theory of natural selection are as follows:
(i) Over production

(ii) Limited food and space
(iii) Struggle for Existence
(iv) Variations
(v) Natural Selection or Survival of the Fittest
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10. Speciation : The process by which new species develop from the existing species is known
as speciation.
The factors which leads to speciation are :
Geographical isolation
Genetic drift and
Variations
11. Classification
Evolutions are of three types :-
(i) Convergent Evolution

(ii) Divergent Evolution, and
(iii) Parallel Evolution.
12. Fossils : The remains of dead plants or animals that lived in the remote past are known as
fossils.
Various kinds of fossils are : Ammonite, Trilobite and Dinosaur.
13. Evolution by Stages : Evolution of complex organs have taken place bit-by-bit
over generations.
For example eye, feathers of birds have evolved because of survival advantage of intermediate
stages.
Thus changes in DNA during reproduction are the main cause of evolution.
14. Human Evolution : All have beings belong to single speceis Homo sapiens, although
there were many races of humans.
They have originated in Africa, some ancestors left Africa and migrated to West Asia,
Central Asia, Eurasia South Asia, East Asia, Indonesia, Australia, America, while others stayed
there.
Excavating, time-dating, studying fossils, determining DNA Sequences have been used for
studying human evolution.
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Science Class 10 Notes for Periodic Classification of Elements

1. Classification means identifying similar species and grouping them together.
2. Lavoisier divided elements into two main types known as metals and non-metals.
3. Doberiners Law of Triads:
According to this law, in certain triads (grout) of three elements) the atomic mass of the
central element was the arithmetic mean of the atomic masses of the other two elements. But
in some triads all the threc elements possessed nearly the same atomic masses, therefore the
law was rejected.
e.g., atomic masses of Li, Na and K are respectively 7, 23 and 39, thus the mean of
atomic masses of I St and 3rd element is
Limitations of Doberiners Triads: He could identify only a few such triads and so the
law could not gain importance. In the triad ofFe, Co, Ni, all the three elements have a nearly
equal atomic mass and thus does not follow the above law
4. Newlands Law of Octaves:
According to this law the elements are arranged in such a way that the eighth element starting
from a given one has properties which are a repetition of those of the first if arranged in order
of increasing atomic weight like the. eight note of musical scale.
Drawback of Newlands law of Octaves:
(i) According to Newland only 56 elements exists in nature and no more elements would be
discovered in the future. But later on several new element were discovered
whose properties did not fit into law of octaves.
(ii) In order to fit new elements into his table Newland adjust two elements in the same column,
but put some unlike elements under the same column.
Thus, Newlands classification was not accepted.
Mendeleevs Periodic Table :
Mendeleev arranged 63 elements known at that time in the periodic table. According
to Mendeleev the properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses.
The table consists of eight vertical column called groups and horizontal rows called periods.
Merits of Mendeleevs Periodic Table:
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(i) At some places the order of atomic weight was changed in order to justify the chemical and
physical nature.
(ii) Mendeleev left some gap for new elements which were not discovered at that time.
(iii) One of the strengths of Mendeleevs periodic table was that, when inert gases were
discovered they could be placed in a new group without disturbing the existing
order.
Characteristics of the periodic table : Its main characteristics are :
(i) In the periodic table, the elements are arranged in vertical rows called groups and
horizontal rows called periods.
(ii) There are eight groups indicated by Roman Numerals I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII. The
elements belonging to first seven groups have been divided into sub-groups designated as A
and B on the basis of similarities. The elements that are present on the left hand side in each
group constitute sub-group A while those on the right hand side form sub-group B. Group VIII
consists of nine elements arranged in three triads.
(iii) There are six periods (numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). In order to accomodate more
elements, the periods 4, 5, 6 are divided into two halves. The first half ofthe elements are
placed in the upper left corners and the second half occupy lower right corners in each box.
Achievements of mendeleevs periodic table
(i) The arrangement of elements in groups and periods made the study of elements
quite systematic in the sense that if properties of one element in a particular group are known,
those of the others can be easily predicted.
(ii) Prediction of new elements and their properties : Many gaps were left in this table
for undiscovered elements. However, properties of these elements could be predicted in
advance from their expected position. This helped in the discovery of these elements. The
elements silicon, gallium and germanium were discovered in this manner.
(iii) Correction of doubtful atomic masses :
Mendeleev corrected the atomic masses of certain elements with the help of their
expected positions and properties.
Limitations of mendeleevs classification :
(i) He could not assign a correct position of hydrogen in his periodic table, as the properties of
hydrogen resembles both with alkali metals as well as with halogens.
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(ii) The isotopes of the same element will be given different position if atomic number is taken
as basis, which will disturb the symmetry of the periodic table.
(iii) The atomic masses do not increases in a regular manner in going from one elements to the
next.
So it was not possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between
two elements.
6. Modern Periodic Law : This law was given by Henry Moseley in 1913. it states,
Properties of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic numbers.
Cause of periodicity : Periodicity may be defined as the repetition of the similar properties of
the elements placed in a group and separated by certain definite gap of atomic numbers.
The cause of periodicity is the resemblance in properties of the elements is the repetition of the
same valence shell electronic configuration.
7. Modern Periodic Table
Moseley proposed this modern periodic table and according to which the physical
and chemical properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic number and not
the horizontal rows called periods. The groups have been numbered 1, 2, 3 . 18 from left to
right.
(ii) The elements belonging to a particular group make a family and usually named after the
first member. In a group all the elements contain the same number of valence electrons.
(iii) In a period all the elements contain the same number of shells, but as we move from left to
right the number of valence shell electrons increases by one unit.
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell can be calculated by
the formula 2n2 where n is the number of the given shell from the nucleus.
8. Trends in Modern Periodic Table : The trends observed in some important properties of
the elements in moving down the group (from top to bottom of the table) and across a period
(from left to right in a period) are discussed below :
(i) Valency : Valency may be defined as the combining capacity of the atom of an
element with atoms of other elements in order to acquire the stable configuration (i.e. 8
electron in valence shell. In some special cases it is 2 electrons).
(ii) Atomic size : It refers to the distance between the centre of nucleus of an isolated atom to
its outermost shell containing electrons.
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The atomic radius decreases on moving from left to right along a period. This is due to
an increase in nuclear charge which tends to pull the electrons closer to the nucleus and
reduces the size of the atom.
In a group atomic size decreases from top to bottom due to increase in number of shells.
(iii) Metallic and non-metallic properties : In a period from left to right metallic nature
decreases while non-metallic character increases.
In a group metallic character increases from top to bottom while non-metallic character
decrease.
(iv) Electronegativity : The relative tendency of an atom to attract the shared electron pair
of electrons towards itself is called electronegativity.
In a period from left to right, the value of electronegativity increases while in a group from top
to bottom the value of electronegativity decreases.
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Science Class 10 Notes for Light (Reflection and Refraction)

1. Ray of Light : A line drawn in the direction of propagation of light is called a ray of light.
2. Beam of Light : A group of rays of light emitted by a source of light is called a beam of
light. A light beam is of three types.
(i) Parallel beam : A group of light rays parallel to each other is known as parallel beam of
light. 7.
(ii) Divergent beam : A group of light rays spreading out from a source of light is called
divergent beam of light.
(iii) Convergent beam : A group of light rays meeting at a point is called convergent beam 8.
of light.
3. Reflection of Light : There are some surfaces which have ability to send the light back in
the same medium when light strikes it. This 9. phenomena of sending the light back in the same
medium by a surface is called reflection of light.
(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in a same
plane.
(ii) The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection, i = r.
4. Image : When light rays meet or appear to meet after reflection from a mirror,then it is
called an image.
1. Real Image : It is a kind of image which is formed by actual intersection of light rays after
reflection.
2. Virtual Image : It is a kind of image which is formed by producing the reflected rays
backward after reflection.
5. Plane Mirror : Plane mirror is a piece of glass whose one side is polished by using silver
paint, which is covered by a coating of red paint to protect the silver layer.
6. Spherical Mirrors : It is part of hollow glass sphere whose one surface is polished.
There are two types of spherical mirror.
(i) Concave Mirror : It is a spherical mirror whose outer surface is polished and inner or
concave side is reflecting surface.
(ii) Convex Mirror : It is a spherical mirror whose inner is polished and outer side or convex
side is the reflecting surface.
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Principal Focus :
A point on the principal axis of a spherical mirror where the rays of light parallel to the
principal axis meet or appear to meet after reflection from the mirror.
Focal Length :
The distance between the pole (P) and principal focus(F) of a spherical mirror is called the
focal length of the mirror. It is denoted by f.
Uses of Concave Mirror :
(i) It is used as a shaving mirror because when it is placed close to the face, it forms a large
image.
(ii) It is used in solar heating devices like solar cooker, because it converges Suns rays over a
small area to produce high temperature.
(iii) It is used for security checking purposes.
10. Uses of Convex Mirror :
(i) It is used as rear view mirror in automobiles because it gives erect image as well as
diminished due to which Pt has wider field of view.
(ii) It is also used in street lights.
11. Mirror Formula :
It is a relation between distance of object, distance ofimage from the pole ofthe mirror and its
focal length, i.e., relation between u, v and It is given by
12. Magnification : It is defined as the ratio of height of image to the height of the object. It is
denoted by letter m.
13. Refraction of Light : The bending of ray of light when it passes from one medium to
another is called refraction of light.
Laws of Refraction :
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(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.
(ii) When a ray of light undergoes refraction then the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to
the sine of angle of refraction is constant.
14. The Refractive Index : The refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium is given
by the ratio of the speed of light in medium 1 and the speed of light in medium 2. This is
usually represented by the symbol n21. This can be expressed in an equation form as
15. Refraction by spherical lenses : Lens is a transparent medium which is formed by

joining two pieces of spherical glass. There are two types of lenses.
(i) Convex Lens : It is a lens which is thicker at the centre and thinner at the edges.
(ii) Concave Lens : It is a lens which is thinner at the centre and thicker at the edges.
16. Terms related to a lens
Optical Centre of Lens : It is the centre of the lens through which light can pass without
any deviation.
Principal Axis : It is the line passing through optical centre and is perpendicular to the
line joining its edges.
Principal Focus : It is a point on the principal axis where all light rays which are parallel
to principal axis either converge or appear to diverge from, after refraction.
17. Lens formula :
18. Magnification : Magnification, m = h2/h1
Ratio of height of image to the height of object.
It is also given by v/u i.e., Ratio of distance of image to the distance of object.
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19. Power of a lens : A beam of light parallel to principal axis either gets converged or
diverged after refraction by a lens. Some lenses converge the beam of light to a small extent
and some lenses converge it to a large extent. This ability of lens to converge or diverge a beam
of light is known as the power of lens.
Si unit of power of lens is dioptre : One dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1
m.
Power of a combination of two or more lenses :
If two or more lenses are placed together to form a combined lens then the power of this
combined lens is equal to the sum of the powers of individual lenses.
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +
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Science Class 10 Notes for The Human Eye and the Colourful
World
1. The Human Eye It is a natural optical instrument which is used to see the objects by
human beings. It is like a camera which has lens and screen system.
(i) Retina : It is a light sensitive screen inside the eye on which image is formed. It
contains rods and cones.
(ii) Cornea : It is a thin membrane which covers the eye ball. It acts like a lens which refracts
the light entering the eye.
(iii) Aqueous humour : It is fluid which fills the space between cornea and eye lens.
(iv) Eye lens : It is a Convex lens made of transparent and flexible jelly like material.
Its curvature can be adjusted with the help of ciliary muscles.
(v) Pupil : It is a hole in the middle of iris through which light enters the eye. It appears black
because light falling on it goes into the eye and does not come back.
(vi) Ciliary muscles : These are the muscles which are attached to eye lens and can modify the
shape of eye lens which leads to the variation in focal lengths.
(vii) Iris : It controls the amount of light entering the eye by changing the size of pupil.
(viii) Optical nerve : These are the nerves which take the image to the brain in the form of
electrical signals.
2. Accomodation power : The ability of eye to change the focal length of eye lens with
the help of ciliary muscles to get the clear view of nearby objects (about 25 cm) and far
distant objects (at infinity).
3. Colour blindness : Some people do not possess some cone cells that respond to certain
specific colours due to genetic disorder.
4. Myopia (Short sightedness) : It is a kind of defect in human eye due to which a person
can see near objects clearly but he can not see the distant objects clearly. Myopia is due to
(i) excessive curvature of cornea.

(ii) elongation of eye ball.
5. Hypermetropia (Long sightedness) : It is a kind of defect in human eye due to which a

person can see distant objects properly but cannot see the nearby objects clearly. It happens due
to
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(i) decrease in power of eye lens i.e., increase in focal length of eye lens.
(ii) shortening of eye ball.
6. Presbyopia : It is a kind of defect in human eye which occurs due to ageing. It happens due
to
(i) decrease in flexibility of eye lens.

(ii) gradual weakening of cilliary muscles.
7. Astigmatism : It is a kind of defect in human eye due to which a person cannot see
(focus) simultaneously horizontal and vertical lines both.
8. Cataract : Due to the membrane growth over eye lens, the eye lens becomes hazy or
even opaque. This leads to decrease or loss of vision.
The problem is called cataract. It can be corrected only by surgery.
9. Dispersion of white light by a glass prism : The phenomenon of splitting of white light
into its seven constituent colours when it passes through a glass prism is called dispersion
of white light. The various colours seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and
Red. The sequence of colours remember asVIBGYOR. The
band of seven colours is called spectrum.
10. Composition of white light : White light consists of seven colours i.e., violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange and red.
11. Monochromatic light: Light consisting of single colour or wavelength is called

monochromatic light, e.g., sodium light
12. Polychromatic light : Light consisting of more than two colours or wavelengths is
called polychromatic light, e.g. white light.
13. Recombination of white light : Newton found that when an inverted prism be placed in
the path of dispersed light then after passing through prism, they recombine to form white light.
14. Formation of rainbow : The water droplets act like small prisms. They refract and
disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally refract it again when it
comes out of the raindrop. Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different
colours reach the observers eye.
15. Atmospheric Refraction : The refraction of light caused by the earths atmosphere (having
air layers of varying optical densities) is called atmospheric refraction.
16. Why, the duration of day becomes approximately 4 minutes shorter if there is no
atmosphere on earth : Actual sun rise happens when it is below
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the horizon in the morning. The rays of light from the sun below the horizon reach our
eyes because of refraction of light. Similarly, the sun can be seen about few minutes after the
actual sun set. Thus the duration of, day time will increase by 4 minutes.
17. Scattering of light : According to Rayleighs law of scattering the amount of scattered
light /(wavelength )4
So that the wavelength of violet, blue and indigo is small as compared to the rest of the colours.
So sky appears blue in colour.
18. Colour of the Sun at sunrise and sunset : At noon, the light of sun travels relatively
shorter distance through earths atmosphere thus appears white as only a little of blue and
violet colours are scattered. Near the horizon, most of the blue light and shorter wavelengths
are scattered and sun appears red.
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Science Class 10 Notes for Management of Natural Resources

1. Anything in the environment which can be used is called a natural resource.
Controlling system for the use of natural resources in such a way as to avoid their wastage and
to use them in the most effective way is called management of natural resources.
Ganga Action Plan (GAP) was formulated to reduce pollution load of river Ganga by
more than 75%. The water quality has been tested from time to time by checking coliform
(group of harmless bacteria in human intestine) number/ 100 ml.
2. Forest and wild life :
Forests are vast areas, located far away from human inhabitation where wild plants of
various kinds grow and animals of different varieties live without the intervention of
humans.
Forests are biodiversity hot spots.
A person with an interest or concern in something is called a stakeholder.
(A) To consider the conservation of forests, we need to look at the stakeholders who are :-
(i) The people who live in or around forests, are dependent on forest products for various
aspects of their life.
(ii) The Forest Department of the Government which owns the land and controls the resources
from forests.
(iii) The industrialists from those who use `tendu leaves to make bidis to the ones with
paper mills who use various forest produce.
(iv) The wild life and nature enthusiasts who want to conserve nature in its pristine form.
A major programme called silviculture has been started to replenish the forests
by growing more trees and plants.
Steps for conservation of energy resources are :
(i) Save electricity, water etc by not using useless.
(ii) Use energy efficient electrical appliances to save electricity.
(iii) Use pressure cooker for cooking food.
(iv) Use solar cookers.
(v) Encourage the use of biogas as domestic fuel.
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(vi) Fuel efficient motor vehicle should be designed to reduce consumption of petrol and diesel.
3. Pollution
(A) When coal and petroleum based fuels (like petrol and diesel) are burnt, the products
of combustion are : Carbon dioxide, Water, Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxides and if
combustion take place in an insufficient supply of air (or oxygen), then some carbon monoxide
is also produced. Out of all the products of combustion
of these fuels, only water is harmless and does not affect the environment. All other
products are harmful and hence pollute the environment.
(B) The harnessing of water resources by building dams has social, economic
and environmental implications. Alternatives to large dams exist. These are locale-specific and
may be developed so as to give local people control over their local resources.
The fossil fuels, coal and petroleum, will ultimately be exhausted. Because of this
and because their combustion pollutes our environment, we need to use these
resources judiciously.
The destruction of forests affects not just the availability of forest products but also the
quality of soil and the sources of water.
Large scale killing of snakes disrupts the food chains in which snakes occur and creates
and imbalance in nature.
The various sources of water which are available to us are: Rains, Rivers, Lakes, Ponds,
Wells, Oceans and Glaciers (Snow mountains). Rain is a very important source of water.
The pollution of river water is caused by the dumping of untreated sewage and
industrial wastes into it.
The contamination of river water can be usually found from two factors :
(i) the presence of coliform bacteria in river water, and
(ii) measurement of pH of river water.
(a) Rain water harvesting is an age-old practice in India. Water-harvesting techniques

used depend on the location where it is to be used.
Various advantages of water stored in the ground are :-
(i) The water stored in ground does not evaporate.
(ii) The water stored in ground spreads out to recharge wells and provides moisture for crops
over a wide area.
(iii) The water stored in ground does not promote breeding of mosquitoes (unlike stagnant
water collected in ponds or artificial lakes).
(iv) The water stored in ground is protected from contamination by human and animal
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(b) Traditional Water Harvesting Systems

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Science Class 10 Notes for Our Environment

1. Biodegradable wastes, and

An ecosystem is a self-contained unit of living things (plants, animals and decomposers),

Food Chains and Webs

The inter-connected food chains operating in an ecosystem which establish a network

How do our activities affect the environment Global Warming

The deplation of ozone layer is due to CFC (chloro fluorocarbons).

SOME IMPORTANT POINTS

Flow of materials in an ecosystem is cyclic but flow of energy is unidirectional.

Science Class 10 Notes for Carbon and its Compounds

Carbon form covalent bonds.

Formation of covalent bond : Covalent bond formation involves sharing of electrons

Characteristics of covalent compounds :

(iii) These compounds are poor conductor of electricity.

3. Unique Nature of Carbon

4. Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

6. Branched chain compounds : Those compounds which are branched.

e.g. iso-butane (C4H10), isopentane (C5H12), neopentane (C5H12) etc.

7. Closed chain compounds or Ring compounds :

10. Homologous Series

e.g. CH3C1 and C2H5C1 differ by a CH2 unit.

The IUPAC name of an organic compounds consists of three parts.

Prefix word root Suffix

12. Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds :

CH4 +O2 > CO2 + 2O + heat and light

e.g alkaline KMnO4, acidified K2Cr2O7.

(iii) Addition reaction :

Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes undergo addition reaction in presence of

13. Some Important Carbon Compounds

Example : Ethanol (C2H5OH) : commonly known as alcohol.

2. Reaction with conc : H2SO4 :

Harmful Effects of Drinking Alcohol :

It is habit forming and damages liver if taken regularly in large quantities.

Ethanoic Acid (Acetic Acid) CH3COOH:

(i) Reaction with a base :

2CH3COOH + 2NaOH 2CH3COONaH2O

(ii) Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates :

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O

CH3COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

(iii) Reaction with alcohol : (Esterification)

14. Soaps and Detergents :

Science Class 10 Notes for Diversity in living Organisms

2. Asexual Reproduction : Modes of sexual reproduction used are binary fission,

Fertilization is of two types :- External fertilization and Internal fertilization.

4. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants :

Flower is meant essentially for sexual reproduction.

Male reproductive organ consist of a pair of testes, vasdeferens, a pair of epididymis, a

6. Reproductive Health Barrier methods

(iv) Surgical techniques:

7. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

Science Class 10 Notes for Heredity and Evolution

The study of heredity and variations is known as genetics.

2. Mendels laws of inheritance are

(i) Law of Dominance

Mendel conducted his famous experiments on garden pea (Pisum sativum).

5. During Monohybrid Cross

6. DNA is the source of making protein in a cell.

7. Physical and Chemical Basis of Heredity

8 Sex determination is the process by which the sex of a person is determined.

A. The evidences of evolution are :

Jean Baptiste Lamarck gave the first theory of evolution.

Darwins Theory of Evolution

The main features of the theory of natural selection are as follows: