Celtic Myths Influence in Britain and Ireland

By: Sean Seymour

Humanities and Arts Sequence:

Course Number Course Title Term

RE2721 Religion and Culture A05

PY1731 Intro to Philosophy and religion B05

RE2731 Introductory Ethics C06

RE3731 Problems in Ethics & Social Philosophy D06

RE3721 Topics in Religion A06

RE2722 The Problem of Evil B06

PY3711 Topics in Philosophy C07

RE2723 Religions of the West D07

HU3900 Inquiry Seminar: Philosophy and Religion B07

Presented to: Professor Smith

Department of Humanities and Arts

B Term, 2007

HU3900-B04

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of

The Humanities & Arts Requirement

Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Worcester, Massachusetts

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 With recent discussions concerning the validity of classical writings documenting early

Celtic society, the relationship between Celtic myths and the legends and folklore of societies

that followed have come into question. This paper will discuss how Celtic myth relates to the

history of the societies in the region of Britain and Ireland and the lasting influence of the Celtic

myths on the region.

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 History is an evolving concept. While it may be presented as the truth, Simon James

suggests that it is the writer interpreting what he or she considers to be significant evidence

(2005). These interpretations change over time; the histories of nations and peoples evolve,

creating a more acceptable statement about their history. As these histories change, aspects of

the cultures that were previously thought to be factual are questioned. In recent years the history

of the Celts in Britain and Ireland have been brought to question, focusing on the validity of the

accounts of the classical historians such as Caesar and Posidonius.

It is in these questions concerning the history of the Celts that one can look into the

influences of Celtic mythology on the societies that followed them. Influences of Celtic myth

can be seen throughout the merges of the various cultures that came after the Celts; it is present

within the legends and folklore that came from these cultures. However, it is not often shown

that while the characteristics of the history of a region may change, the influences of the myth

still exist past these interpretations of history.

In order to understand the importance of mythology with regards to the regional history it

was affected by, a working definition of myth must first be attained. For the purpose of this

paper, mythology will be defined as a combination of the definitions that Hutton and Eliade used

in their respective works. Hutton defined myth as a means of containing and transmitting

cultural messages which has either no basis in reality or else transforms reality (p. 1), while

Eliade said myth narrates sacred history; it relates an event that took place in Primordial Time,

the fabled time of the beginnings (p. 5).

Thus, myth can be seen as a record of the beginning of time that may or may not have a

basis in historical accounts of the people. By using this definition, it is possible to examine what

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Cohen describes as the theories of myth. Cohen explains that various theories of myth are

simply different viewpoints that one can use to understand statements about mythology.

One such theory of myth is that presented by Gotesky, following the ideas of Bidney, that

every society clearly distinguishes between myth, fact (or what is taken for fact), and fiction

(folk-tale). In this sense, then, no society is different from any other (Gotesky, p. 523).

However, there exists a dispute in this correlation between society and myth. Bidneys argument

relies on Comtes outline of the development of societies, though Bidney does not believe that it

is entirely accurate. Comte says that myth itself disappears when the society in question is one

based upon reason and scientific thinking. Gotesky, speaking of Bidneys argument says that

while one form of myth will cease to exist, a scientific society is no different from any other

society; it too, creates its own peculiar variety of myths- the secular (p. 524).

Gotesky then examines the contradictions that are inherent in Bidneys thesis. Gotesky

argues that a society, cannot possible determine between myth, and non myth, because a

characteristic of Bidneys myth is that it must be believed, and thus cannot be known as myth.

Bidney counters this by exclaiming that myth cannot be known by the society until later in its

history, or by a later society. Goteskys respond to this is that when it is known as myth, it is no

longer believed, for it is now known to be false. However, a belief known to be false, can not be

properly called myth since it is no long, Bidney insists, believed to be true (p. 524).

While Gotesky proposes that these contradictions invalidate Bidneys thesis, he later

points out himself that Bidneys case would be stronger if it werent for his ambiguous use of the

word myth. That is, with a sharper definition of the word myth, it is possible to examine the

myths of all societies as one concept, rather than separating them as different intellectual

concepts.

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 By continuing with Bidneys argument that a society is unable to know their own myth as

myth until late in the history of the society, it is possible to find a break in the argument

concerning Goteskys contradistinctions. Gotesky states that once a society recognizes its myth

to be myth, it ceases to be just that, because by understanding it to be false, it loses one of the

main characteristics of myth as Bidney argued, that myth remains to be believed as true.

At this point it is important to understand Goteskys belief that, while Bidneys criteria

are correct for one specific type of myth, it is possible to have varying theories of myth by which

to examine these principals. Cohen presents seven different theories of myth; however, for the

purpose of this argument it is only necessary to analyze two of these, focusing on the specific use

of myth in society. First Cohen speaks of myth as a sociological expression. Myth itself

contains a religious aspect that places into words the values of the society. Cohen describes

myths content like that of ritual, is symbolically significant: in the first place it represents

certain values which are embodied in social life; secondly, it reflects certain features of social

structure (p. 343). He also explains myth as a form of explanation. In this, he mentions the

works of Frazer and Tylor, who both take myth as explanations of different things. Frazer,

Cohen states, takes myth to be read literally, and explains certain events in society. Tylor takes

myth to be treated as discussing the personalization of the elements, as a way for primitive man

to conquer the elements.

Cohen believes that no one of these theories of myth are correct, instead he believes that

each can explain different parts of myth in certain situations. Using these two theories, in

addition to the definition of myth derived from Hutton and Eliade, one can move to a clearer

understanding of the history that follows the merger of various societies myths in England and

Ireland throughout various stages of history.

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 Britain and Ireland have been a melting pot for mythology since the middle Iron Age.

This is due in part to the constant merging of cultures through various campaigns, and religious

missions. The Celts arrived in Britain around the first century BCE, seeing the isles as an escape

from the conflict ridden continent. Arriving from Gaul, the Celts brought with them a stronger

background in cultivation, moving to a more civilized culture. In addition to a more civilized

culture, the Celts brought with them their own religious class, the Druids.

The Druidic religion in itself was a mystery to those who view it from the outside

(Pflugk-Harttung). The most accurate account of the religion comes from the Commentarii de

Bello Gallico. Caesar wrote of his campaign through the region of Gaul, and his encounters with

the Celts, specifically the Druids. In his account he began to detail the structure of the society

and how the Celtic people worshipped the deities. Caesar spoke of the druids as being split into

two distinct classes based on their purpose within the society. Those who were of the priest class

were called the Drui and were in charge of sacrifice and prayers. The Drui were considered to be

the scholars and studied in science and magic (Bieler 294). Those responsible for what Caesar

would introduce as soothsaying and philosophy were called Vates. This class consisted of the

poets and bards (Markale 9). These two groups functioned together, and on the same level

according to the reports of Caesar.

Standing critically to this idea is that of Jane Webster. Speaking about the argument that

Druidism was in decline before the roman invasion she stated That argument is largely founded

on the premise that Julius Caesars account of the nature and function of the druids at the time of

the Gallic War is an anachronism (p. 1). Her case against this belief is based around Caesar

expanding upon the truth of events, in order to add a political or personal spin on the records of

events. Websters argument lies in the contradictions that exist between the writings of Caesar

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and Posidonius, who wrote of the Celts before Caesars campaign. Balsdon writing, The

Veracity of Caesar, supports Websters argument with his discussion of the historian Asinius

Pollio who, after Caesars death

admitted what it did not take great courage to admit- that Caesars commentarii were

not flawless. They were written in too much of a hurry, and they were not entirely

reliable; sometimes deliberately, sometimes from forgetfulness, Caesar wrote what was

not true; sometimes (and this is a venial enough quality) he accepted too uncritically the

reports of his subordinate officers (Balsdon p. 20).

Balsdon suggests in The Veracity of Caesar that it is unknown how many specific aspects of

Caesars commentarii had been written unreliably. This was partially because these writings

were published in order to emphasis the importance and size of Caesars victories in Gaul. In

Caesars writings, Balsdon argues that many aspects of Caesars had been overstatements of the

reality of the situation, including the exaggerations of the campaigns outcomes, whether it was

understating losses, or making victories more dramatic.

While the information regarding the outcome of campaigns may have been inaccurate,

according to Nash there is not enough evidence that Caesars account of the social structure is

incorrect. And while Webster mentions an argument that speaks otherwise, Nash suggests that

discrepancies in Caesars account could come from the difference in location that Caesar and

Posidonius entered Gaul, and in the area in which they studied.

Simon James also argues that it is difficult to base ideas on Caesars writings because of

the modern view of Celtic society. James argues that the current conventional view of Celtic

society is comprised of most of Continental Europe and the British Isles. He presents an

alternate view of Celticity, stating that while similarities between much of continental Europe

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and the British Isles exist, It is the differences that are important. Evidence of the druids, for

example, exists in much of Gaul and the British Isles; however, it could, according to James,

have been unknown to the rest of the continent that was considered to be Celtic (James 2005).

This argument is analogous to that of Gotesky speaking of myth. James problem does

not lie in the information that exists. Instead, he is arguing that during the 18th and 19th century

the term Celtic began to transform into meaning something entirely different. According to

James, Celtic originally had referred only to the Ancient Gaels of France and related

Continental peoples (James, 2005). This stood from the time of the Roman Empire until around

1700 AD.

Maurice Ashley presents a brief overview of the history of Britain, including the

conquests and the various groups that inhabited the isles. In his overview, he states that the Celts

that inhabited the British Isles were from the region of France and Germany. Using what James

considers to be the original meaning of the word Celtic, it is can be seen that those who inhabited

the British Isles were of Celtic origin, and thus, it is possible to view them in the same sense as

the Celts encountered by Caesar in his campaigns through Gaul. Julius Von Pfluck-Harttung

reiterates this point when he states the Irish, British and Gallic Kelts constitute branches of the

same stock, which were evidently very nearly in culture, politically and socially, and can be

proved, also stood in fairly close intercommunication (p.56).

By moving forward with Caesars description of the Celts in Britain, and using Nashs

claim that not enough evidence exists to wholly invalidate Caesars writings, it is possible to

begin to examine the myths in terms of their merges with other religions and ideas over the

history of the region.

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 It is important to start with what a myth details, the time of the fabled beginnings. By

starting with the mythical origins of the people, it is possible to view the connections of the

societys earliest beliefs relative to their correlation with beliefs of the societies that followed.

The Battle of Mag Tured is concerned with the Tuatha de Danann, who, according to Irish

history, preceded the Gaels in Ireland. The Tuatha de Danann were in the Isles of the North of

the world, learning science, magic, druidism, sorcery, and wisdom, and they surpassed all the

sages in the pagan arts (Markale 51). While it is not known where the Celts specifically arrived

from, this myth does show that the Tuatha de Danann were the first to bring the idea of druidism

to Ireland. The Isle to the North of the World could historically mean several places. It has been

speculated that the Tuatha de Danann came from either the island of Britannia, or from what is

now Scotland and the small islands that surround it.

Though it is possible that the Isle to the North of the World was a real place, Markale

believes it is best to take the idea of the Tuatha de Danann as a more mythological approach to

the druids origins. The two books of The Battle of Mag Tured depict the battles fought over

Ireland by the different groups who tried to inhabit it. Some of these groups had historically

occupied the island, while others seemed to have been created to explain other features of the

myth. The Tuatha de Danann, according to the myth, could be viewed as the group brought by

the Gods in Druid society. This affiliation with the gods weakens the idea that the Tuatha de

Danann was an actual group to settle in Ireland. The pseudo historical people arrived carrying

items of legend, each of which was attributed to one of the Celtic Gods. In addition to the

mythical items the Tuatha de Danann brought with them, there is also the belief that the Tuatha

de Danann was lead into battle with the gods on their side, having had Ludh teach them in the

arts of war before the battle began.

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 Under Cohens foundation of theories of myth The Battle of Mag Tured can be seen as

both an explanation, and as a founding for the beliefs. As an explanation, the myth can be seen

to detail the origins of the society, whether from the historical standpoint of there being a true

isle to the north, or Markales view that this itself represents a mythical aspect of the history.

Following the second primary theory of myth, The battle of Mag Tured can be

representative of the importance the druids placed in knowledge, and spoken word. The Tuatha

de Danann represented one side of the Irish mythology, which is viewed as a duality in its

essence (Nutt). Irish mythology is most often representative of the battle between light and dark

(Nutt 1884), though neither side ever seems to come out victorious. In The Battle of Mag Tured

the Tuatha de Danann conquered the Firbolgs, who were representatives of death and night. In

Irish mythology death and night were symbols of ignorance, while light was a symbol for skill,

and intelligence. Thus, Irish mythology can represent the struggle between knowledge and

ignorance.

The foundation of Celtic myth lies in the historical or pseudo historical settlement of the

Celtic people. After this the Celts experienced their first key encounter with a society very

different from their own. The Romanization of Britain was the cause of one of the first major

merges of Celtic society with that of another society. The Roman Empire entered Britain in 55

BCE during Caesar campaigns through Gaul. Caesar invaded Britain with the goal of

conquering it because it was believed to contain riches, and was also considered a staging point

for rebellion against the Empire (Ashely). While Caesar did in fact succeed in conquering

Britain, he soon discovered that there were not enough men under his command to hold both the

British isles and Gaul (Ashley p.10). Abandoning his campaign and withdrawing from Britain,

Caesar left Britain, to be succeeded years later by a new Emperor, Claudius, in 50 BCE. With a

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larger number of men, Claudius moved through Gaul and Britain, conquering each tribe as they

came in contact.

Claudius however did not conquer simply to take power; he wanted to expand the Empire

in both size and cultural influence. As he moved through continental Europe and Britain

Claudius left parts of his army in given areas to build Roman towns. As these roman towns were

completed, the barbarian natives of Britain began to see the various aspects of roman towns as

part of civilization, where as the Romans considered them novelties.

It is interesting to note that while the religion of the druids was suppressed by the Roman

Empire, it was not because the gods were considered to be false. Instead, it was a strategic move

to make the whole of the population more amicable to the idea of Romanization. The Celts were

allowed to keep their religion, albeit in a new form. Present inside the Roman towns was a

religious center, that contained several temples to Pagan gods, and also, in the later periods of the

Roman occupation, a Christian Church.

With the invasion of the Roman Empire, the gods of the Celts in Britain were changed not in

power, but in name and association. Hull states that

it was part of the Roman system of colonization to treat with a kindly or cynical

tenderness the local cults of the conquered races, and to receive with wide-embracing

arms the native deities into a common pantheon But to make the local gods into

orthodox Roman deities they had to baptize them with familiar attributes (125).

It was this act in Britannia that began to remove the Druids from society. Instead of being the

main religious influence, it took a step back, and became influential in the development of

legends and myths of the people of Britannia.

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 Ireland however remained untouched at the time. Where the Celtic religion of Britain

was slowly being transformed into something more in line with the Roman Pantheon, the

religion of Ireland maintained its Celtic nature and mythology. The Irish, unlike the British, did

not at this time experience the direct involvement of the Romans, who had yet to inhabit Ireland.

In Ireland the religious system was similar to that which was presented by Caesar as a

representation of the Gaels and Britons. The druids remained in power until the coming of

Christianity with Saint Paladius and Saint Patrick. Their missions began in the early part of 500

AD.

Saint Patrick was sent to Ireland as the second attempt to provide a link to the Christian

church. He was the successor of Palladius, and it is believed that Patrick succeeded where

Paladius did not because of his knowledge of social system in Ireland due to a six year span as a

captive and slave.

In the case of Ireland, the Christian missionaries began their attempts to convert a region

by converting the chief or king of the area and then focusing on the general population. The

presence of Celtic influence remained throughout the conversion to Christianity, and is still

present today in the stories of the saints, and in folktales. The religious figures of Ireland not

only gained a title and power in Christianity, they also retained some of the powers associated

with the druids and magic users that existed before Christianity. In some cases this attributed

great power to the priests and saints in Irish folklore, but it other cases it has been attributed to

the alteration of myths.

With the conversion to Christianity in Ireland beginning with the upper classes in the

druid society, it was common for the Druids themselves to be some of the first to convert.

However, in this process the Druids often didnt lose their religious identity. Instead, the

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terminology change, and the druids function in society remained the same. In this context the

conversion to Christianity became a more familiar act. The druids became Christian priests,

incantations become hymns and psalms, and blessings and curses became facbala. Thus, in the

conversion to Christianity the druids were not losing any of their powers, instead they would be

accredited to something other than magic, in this case the powers of God.

This transition saw the end of Druidry as its own functioning religion; however, in order

to facilitate the conversion, much of the myth was incorporated into that of the Romans. From

the conversion of Ireland to Christianity links can be made between Celtic myth, and the legends

generated around early Christianity. Links in these legends are shown in the myth of the Tuatha

de Dananns arrival in Ireland (Markale). In this myth, they arrived with individual talismans,

each of which can be seen in various other legends and myths later to come out of the region.

These items included the spear of Lugh, the stone of Fal, and Dagdas inexhaustible cauldron.

Each of these items will be discussed as they appear in historical context, and as they appear in

other legends of the region of Britannia.

Lia Fil, the stone of destiny, was a mythical stone that, in legend would roar under the

seat of the person who had the best right to obtain the sovereignty of Ireland (Nitze, 1956,

260). This stone was said to originate with the Tuatha de Danann coming to Ireland. This stone,

also known as the stone of Fal, was brought by the Tuatha de Danann to determine the sovereign

of Ireland. The legend of the stone continues when it was carried to Brittan and placed under the

throne to aid in the coronation of the English Kings.

The Holy Grail, the objective of quests in Arthurian legend, has roots in this same legend

of the Tuatha de Danann. Though the idea of the Grail sets it as an item of importance in

Christianity, it is hypothesized that its origins are based in pre Christian myth (Loomis 1933).

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One of the main supporting arguments of this theory is in the legend in Cante de Graal of

Chrtien de Troyes. In this myth the grail is seen by Percival as a jeweled platter born around a

castle by a maiden. The Grail itself is not viewed as a religious object. In this legend the Grail

itself is not associated with Christianity. In the romantic versions of the grail quest this

connection exists, whether it is the Grail being located in a church, protected by priests or being

the chalice used at the last supper. However, in Cante de Graal this connection doesnt appear.

Instead, Percival is seen as participating in activities that would be viewed as un-Christian.

While the connection to the Christian Holy Grail can be seen in the Cante de Graal it is

more difficult to see the influence of Celtic myth on this specific legend. The Tuatha de Danann

brought Dagdas Inexhaustible cauldron with them when they arrived to Ireland. This theme of

an always full cauldron is seen in the Cante de Graal. The platter that the maiden carries around

the castle is mentioned as always being full of food. This theme of a self replenishing dish is

another piece of evidence that links the Christian Holy Grail with the Grail of early, pre

Christian, Arthurian legend, and thus forming a link with pre Christian Celtic myth. The Cante

de Graal was written in what Loomis believed was an afterthought toward the religious symbol

of the grail. Thus making the grail, in his opinion, more likely to be a pre-Christian ideas applied

to a Christian legend.

The Spear of Lugh is another mythical item that has origins rooted in pre Christian Celtic

society, yet reappears in legends and myths in both pre Christian legend, and in Christian based

legends too. Ettlinger speaks of weapons in Celtic mythology as having individual personas.

The weapons themselves can take on a sort of emotion that relates them to who they are crafted

after. Lugh was the god above gods in druid lore. Though he was not viewed as a primordial

god, or even the ruler of the gods, he was attributed to the master of the arts, specifically, with

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nobility and war (Markale 1985). The spear itself is characterized as anticipating battle. In The

Battle of Mag Tured Lughs spear is almost lusting after the battle, shown by its desire to draw

blood. This concept of the spear, battle, and blood links it to the spear to the spear that is spoken

of in the Cante de Graal. The spear of Lugh and the spear in Cante de Graal are linked by their

association with blood, and the way in which it is spoken about. The spear of Lugh was said to

be found standing in a cauldron filled with blood after the Battle of Moytura. In the same sense,

the Chretiens bleeding spear was said to have issued a stream of blood that connected the spear

to the Holy Grail.

This particular part of the legend shows the direct connection to Christian lore

that Celtic mythology has. The spear of Lugh, also known as the bleeding spear by Arthur

Brown, represented in Arthurian legend, is equated to the spear that the centurion thrust into

Christ, allowing his blood to flow into the Holy Grail, or, in the same vein, Dagdas Cauldron.

This argument, supported by Ettlinger, focuses on the parallels that exist between the legends of

the spear of Lugh, Percevals grail quest, and that of Christs crucifixion. However, Arthur

Brown supports the contradicting theory, that, despite the similarities, the bleeding spear cannot

be related to the centurions spear due to differences in the characteristics of the weapons.

Ettlingers analysis of the personas of Celtic magical weapons is at the root of Browns argument

against this connection. The Spear of Lugh, associated with war and bloodshed, is represented

by Wolfram von Eschenbach as both barbarian and poisonous; which Brown argues that this is

antagonistic, not only to any Christian explanation, but even to his [Wolfram] manifest desire to

ascribe to the object a healing force.

Each of these myths continues to show their presence in Arthurian Legend. Arthurian

Legend began with Geoffrey of Monmonths The History of the Kings of Brittian, in which he

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details the accounts of the various kings of Britain. In this account the passages of interest are

those that detail the story of Uther Pendragon and his son Arthur. In these writings Geoffrey

chronicles the birth and accent of King of Arthur through the activities of those before him,

including his father and the prior rulers of Britannia.

It is in these legends that the Celtic influences constantly reappear. Arthur, as a historical

figure cannot be attributed to a single person that the legends have been based upon. Instead

there are multiple accounts of individuals that the recollection of history show had similarities to

the life of the legendary King Arthur. In Arthurian legend specific characters appear as images

influenced by Celtic figures and gods. Morgan Le Fey first appeared as part of Arthurian legend

in another work of Geoffrey of Monmonth, Vita Merlini.

Morgan Le Fey name has become the most know connection to Celtic myth. In

Arthurian legend Morgan Le Fey is represented by both good and evil. The nature of

representing both good and evil also exists as a reference to the meaning of original Celtic

mythology, the dualistic nature of everything. In this case, Moran Le Fey is a parallel to the idea

set forth in The Battle of Mag Tured of the nature of light versus dark. In this case however, the

two opposing forces are represented in the same person to emphasis the duality of it. In Thomas

Malorys Le Morte dArthur Morgan is told to be Arthurs half sister who, in this legend plots to

have Arthur murdered so that she could take the throne and become queen. Morgan here

represents temptress and a trickster. By hiding behind he plans rather than acting on her own, it

appears she is taken out of the world, acting as an overall influence rather than a participant in

the plot. This view of the legend gives Morgan Le Fey almost God like power, which in turn

equates her to that of the Celtic Morrigan.

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 Morrigan, one name for the three faced goddess of the Irish Celts, is thought of as the

the great queen (Markale p. 108). Specifically, the name Morrigan was associated with the

idea of death and or war. The myths concerning Morrigan and the Arthurian legend of Morgan

Le Fey have a connection rooted in the creation of the characters present. Morrigan, as the great

queen, represents what Morgan Le Fey desires to become in Malorys retelling of the legend.

Morrigans association with deception and violence becomes present in Morgan Le Feys

method of attaining this power through tricking those close to her to kill Arthur.

However, Morgan Le Feys origins also appear to be present in the other attributes of the

three faced goddess of Celtic myth. Brigit, the name given to the whole of the three faced

goddess, represents both life and death. Though the names varied over time, Brigit and Morrigan

represented the same goddess. One face of the goddess was that of death, while another was

related to the healing practices, and the final one being that of the magical arts.

Morgan Le Fey First appeared as a healer and the principal sister of those who inhabited

the isle of Avalon in Geoffrey of Monmouths story. Chrtien de Troyes however spoke of

Morgan as a healer, and a wicked enchantress. With each addition to the character of Morgan Le

Fey of Arthurian legend continues to transform into a being that encompass all aspects of

Morrigan.

Pfluck-Harttung, along with Markale brings an interesting contribution concerning the

connection between kings and druids. Pfluck-Harrtung states that

We get more information about the province of Ulster from the Cuchulinn tradition. The

position occupied by the Druid Cathbad of Ulster was one of exceeding importance. He

lived at the kings court; his authority was pretty much the same as that of the king. (p.

60)

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He claims that the Kings of Britain and Ireland relied on the knowledge of the druids, and thus

kept them close by for their wisdom and the perceived ability of divination.

In Arthurian legend this is seen in the bond that is shared between King Arthur and

Merlin. Merlin, a druid, is represented as the one who not only brought Arthur to power, but

also guided him through his journeys in Monmouths Histories.

In more recent History this connection of Celtic myth can be seen in modern Irish folk

lore. James Travis writes of several Irish folktales that continue to be told to this day. Each of

these stories are based heavily on Christianity in Ireland, but each of them also consist of

features that are distinctly Celtic and are deeply rooted in the beliefs of pre Christian Celtic

society.

The Priests Curse focuses on the power of the priests in Irish Christian society. In the

folktale it is said that priests have great power, being close to God. They have the power to fix

punishment and absolve sin. And they have power over men, if they choose to use it (Travis, p.

201). This power over man sets the priest aside from priests in other regions of Christian

society. The magical powers believed to be held by the priest in Ireland would appear, under

Christian doctrine of the time, to be witchcraft. However, as Travis made note of, when

Christianity prevailed over Druidry the Christian priests were either converted druids who kept

most of their beliefs, or they adapted some of the druidic lore to their title to make the transition

to Christianity more likely to be successful.

The Fairy Birth is a modern Irish story that follows a woman who attends to births in a

town. She gets a call at night to come attend to a birth nearby, and is told while she is at this

place not to eat or drink anything that is there. Upon leaving, the man who spoke to her about

consuming the food explained to her that if she had, she would have been trapped in the world of

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Fay. One distinct feature of this story is the belief of other worlds and the creatures that inhabit

them. The world of Fay, inhabited by fairies is representative of this. Whereas the supernatural

in Christianity is limited to God and his things pertaining directly to him, The Irish were

influenced by a belief of the supernatural as an active force in the world. It is seen as something

that can not only affect peoples lives passively, but in the case of stories concerning the land of

Fay, it also has power over people, making the supernatural a strong presence in addition to that

of God in Irish culture.

As new evidence is brought to light and older evidence is discredited, the histories of a

society will change. These changes, caused by the interpretations of those writing on the topic,

will continuously evolve, allowing for the discussion of the validity of the classical sources to

continue. What will not change however, is the presence of these societies in later cultures,

appearing in both legend and folklore over the generations. These early influences of the Celts

were perpetuated by the ever progressing region of Britain and Ireland as new culture arrived and

merged with the existing society, either by adapting the Celts religion to ease the transition to a

new religion, or by including the Celtic faith within the existing structure of the dominant

empire. It is this link that can be seen within both recorded documents from classical writers and

in legend and folklore since the middle Iron Age. It is this connection with legend and folklore

that represents the lasting properties of a society because while the language may change and the

history of the world may vary, the ideas presented within myth and legend often remain

unchanged over time.

19
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